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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 8, Slice 10, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 8, Slice 10
+       "Echinoderma" to "Edward"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: January 17, 2011 [EBook #34992]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 8, SL 10 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
+      letters.
+
+(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE ECHTERNACH: "The origin of this festival is uncertain, but
+      it dates at least from the 13th century and was probably instituted
+      during an outbreak of cholera." 'an' amended from 'on'.
+
+    ARTICLE ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY: "Among the Coleoptera or beetles there
+      is a group of world-wide pests, the Elateridae or click beetles,
+      the adults of the various 'wireworms.'" 'beetles' amended from
+      'bettles'.
+
+    ARTICLE EDUCATION: "... laid down that the application of a
+      candidate might in no circumstances be rejected on any religious
+      ground, nor on the ground of social antecedents or the like." 'be'
+      amended from 'he'.
+
+    ARTICLE EDUCATION: "The public assistance afforded to secondary
+      education in Wales under the Intermediate Act is supplemented by
+      the grants of the Board of Education, and the Board's revised
+      Secondary School Regulations were applied to Wales in 1908."
+      'education' amended from 'educaton'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+            VOLUME VIII, SLICE X
+
+           Echinoderma to Edward
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  ECHINODERMA                     EDESSA (Macedonia)
+  ECHINUS                         EDESSA (Mesopotamia)
+  ECHIUROIDEA                     EDFU
+  ECHMIADZIN                      EDGAR (king of the English)
+  ECHO                            EDGAR (son of Edward)
+  ECHTERNACH                      EDGECUMBE
+  ECHUCA                          EDGE HILL
+  ÉCIJA                           EDGEWORTH, MARIA
+  ECK, JOHANN MAIER               EDGEWORTH, RICHARD LOVELL
+  ECKERMANN, JOHANN PETER         EDGEWORTH DE FIRMONT, HENRY ESSEX
+  ECKERNFÖRDE                     EDGREN-LEFFLER, ANNE CHARLOTTE
+  ECKERSBERG, KRISTOFFER          EDHEM PASHA
+  ECKHART, JOHANNES               EDICT
+  ECKHEL, JOSEPH HILARIUS         EDINBURGH
+  ECKMÜHL                         EDINBURGHSHIRE
+  ECLECTICISM                     EDISON, THOMAS ALVA
+  ECLIPSE                         EDMONTON (Alberta, Canada)
+  ECLIPTIC                        EDMONTON (England)
+  ECLOGITE                        EDMUND, SAINT
+  ECLOGUE                         EDMUND (king of East Anglia)
+  ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY             EDMUND I.
+  ECONOMICS                       EDMUND (Ironside)
+  ECONOMY (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.)  EDMUND (king of Sicily)
+  ECONOMY                         EDMUNDS, GEORGE FRANKLIN
+  ECSTASY                         EDOM
+  ECTOSPORA                       EDRED
+  ECUADOR                         EDRIC, STREONA
+  ECZEMA                          EDUCATION
+  EDAM                            EDWARD (The Elder)
+  EDDA                            EDWARD (The Martyr)
+  EDDIUS                          EDWARD (The Confessor)
+  EDELINCK, GERARD                EDWARD I.
+  EDELWEISS                       EDWARD II.
+  EDEN, SIR ASHLEY                EDWARD III.
+  EDEN                            EDWARD IV.
+  EDENBRIDGE                      EDWARD V.
+  EDEN HALL, LUCK OF              EDWARD VI.
+  EDENKOBEN                       EDWARD VII.
+  EDENTATA                        EDWARD (prince of Wales)
+  EDENTON
+
+
+
+ECHINODERMA.[1] The [Greek: echinoderma], or "urchin-skinned" animals,
+have long been a favourite subject of study with the collectors of
+sea-animals or of fossils, since the lime deposited in their skins forms
+hard tests or shells readily preserved in the cabinet. These were
+described during the 18th and first half of the 19th centuries by many
+eminent naturalists, such as J.T. Klein, J.H. Linck, C. Linnaeus, N.G.
+Leske, J.S. Miller, L. v. Buch, E. Desor and L. Agassiz; but it was the
+researches of Johannes Müller (1840-1850) that formed the groundwork of
+scientific conceptions of the group, proving it one of the great phyla
+of the animal kingdom. The anatomists and embryologists of the next
+quarter of a century confirmed rather than expanded the views of Müller.
+Thus, about 1875, the distinction of Echinoderms from such radiate
+animals as jelly-fish and corals (see COELENTERA), by their possession
+of a body-cavity ("coelom") distinct from the gut, was fully realized;
+while their severance from the worms (especially Gephyrea), with which
+some Echinoderrns were long confused, had been necessitated by the
+recognition in all of a radial symmetry, impressed on the original
+bilateral symmetry of the larva through the growth of a special division
+of the coelom, known as the "hydrocoel," and giving rise to a set of
+water-bearing canals--the water-vascular or ambulacral system. There was
+also sufficient comprehension of the differences between the main
+classes of Echinoderms--the sea-urchins or Echinoidea, the starfish or
+Asteroidea, the brittle-stars and their allies known as Ophiuroidea, the
+worm-like Holothurians, the feather-stars and sea-lilies called
+Crinoidea, with their extinct relatives the sac-like Cystidea, the
+bud-formed Blastoidea, and the flattened Edrioasteroidea--while within
+the larger of these classes, such as Echinoidea and Crinoidea, fair
+working classifications had been established. But the study that should
+elucidate the fundamental similarities or homologies between the several
+classes, and should suggest the relations of the Echinoderma to other
+phyla, had scarcely begun. Indeed, the time was not ripe for such
+discussions, still less for the tracing of lines of descent and their
+embodiment in a genealogical classification. Since then exploring
+expeditions have made known a host of new genera, often exhibiting
+unfamiliar types of structure.
+
+  Among these the abyssal starfish and holothurians described by W.P.
+  Sladen and H. Théel respectively, in the Report of the "Challenger"
+  Expedition, are most notable. The sea-urchins, ophiuroids and crinoids
+  also have yielded many important novelties to A. Agassiz
+  ("Challenger," "Blake," and "Albatross" Expeditions), T. Lyman
+  ("Challenger"), Sladen ("Astrophiura," _Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist._, 1879),
+  F.J. Bell (numerous papers in _Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist._ and in _Proc.
+  Zool. Soc._), E. Perrier ("Travailleur" and "Talisman," Cape Horn and
+  Monaco Expeditions), P.H. Carpenter "Challenger" Reports), and others.
+  The anatomical researches of these authors, as well as those of S.
+  Lovén ("On Pourtalesia" and "Echinologica," published by the Swedish
+  Academy of Science), H. Ludwig (_Morphologische Studien_, Leipzig,
+  1877-1882), O. Hamann (_Histologie der Echinodermen_, Jena,
+  1883-1889), L. Cuénot ("Études morphologiques," _Arch. Biol._, 1891,
+  and papers therein referred to), P.M. Duncan ("Revision of the
+  Echinoidea," _Journ. Linn. Soc._, 1890), H. Prouho ("Sur Dorocidaris,"
+  _Arch. Zool. Exper._, 1888), and many more, need only be mentioned to
+  recall the great advance that has been made. In physiology may be
+  instanced W.B. Carpenter's proof of the nervous nature of the
+  chambered organ and axial cords of crinoids (_Proc. Roy. Soc._, 1884),
+  the researches of H. Durham (_Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._, 1891) and
+  others into the wandering cells of the body-cavity, and the study of
+  the deposition of the skeletal substance ("stereom") by Théel (in
+  _Festskrift för Lilljeborg_, 1896). Knowledge of the development has
+  been enormously extended by numerous embryologists, e.g. Ludwig (_op.
+  cit._), E.W. MacBride ("Asterina gibbosa," _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._,
+  1896), H. Bury (_Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._, 1889, 1895), Seeliger (on
+  "Antedon," _Zool. Jahrb._, 1893), S. Goto ("Asterias pallida," _Journ.
+  Coll. Sci. Japan_, 1896), C. Grave ("Ophiura," _Mem. Johns Hopkins
+  Univ._, 1899), Théel ("Echinocyamus," _Nov. Act. Soc. Sci. Upsala_,
+  1892), R. Semon ("Synapta," _Jena. Zeitschr._, 1888), and Lovén (_opp.
+  citt._); and though the theories based thereon may have been fantastic
+  and contradictory, we are now near the time when the results can be
+  co-ordinated and some agreement reached. But the scattered details of
+  comparative anatomy are capable of manifold arrangement, while the
+  palimpsest of individual development is not merely fragmentary, but
+  often has the fragments misplaced. The morphologist may propose
+  classifications, and the embryologist may erect genealogical trees,
+  but all schemes which do not agree with the direct evidence of fossils
+  must be abandoned; and it is this evidence, above all, that gained
+  enormously in volume and in value during the last quarter of the 19th
+  century. The Silurian crinoids and cystids of Sweden have been
+  illustrated in N.P. Angelin's _Iconographia crinoideorum_ (1878); the
+  Palaeozoic crinoids and cystids of Bohemia are dealt with in J.
+  Barrande's _Système silurien_ (1887 and 1899); P.H. Carpenter
+  published important papers on fossil crinoids in the _Journal_ of the
+  Geological Society, on Cystidea in that of the Linnean Society, 1891,
+  and, together with R. Etheridge, jun., compiled the large _Catalogue
+  of Blastoidea in the British Museum_, 1886; O. Jaekel, in addition to
+  valuable studies on crinoids and cystids appearing in the
+  _Zeitschrift_ of the German Geological Society, has published the
+  first volume of _Die Stammesgeschichte der Pelmatozoen_ (Berlin,
+  1899), a richly suggestive work; the Mesozoic Echinoderms of France,
+  Switzerland and Portugal have been made known by P. de Loriol, G.H.
+  Cotteau, J. Lambert, V. Gauthier and others (see _Paléontologie
+  française_, _Mém. Soc. paléontol. de la Suisse_, _Trabalhos Comm.
+  Geol. Portugal_, &c.); a beautiful and interesting Devonian fauna from
+  Bundenbach has been described by O. Follmann, Jaekel, and especially
+  B. Stürtz (see _Verhandl. nat. Vereins preuss. Rheinlande, Paläont.
+  Abhandl._, and _Palaeontographica_); while the multitude of North
+  American palaeozoic crinoids has been attacked by C. Wachsmuth and F.
+  Springer in the _Proceedings_ (1879, 1881, 1885, 1886), of the
+  Philadelphia Academy and the _Memoirs_ (1897) of the Harvard Museum.
+
+The vast mass of material made known by these and many other
+distinguished writers has to be included in our classification, and that
+classification itself must be controlled by the story it reveals. Thus
+it is that a change, characteristic of modern systematic zoology, is
+affecting the subdivisions of the classes. It is not long since the main
+lines of division corresponded roughly to gaps in geological history:
+the orders were Palaeocrinoidea and Neocrinoidea, Palechinoidea and
+Euechinoidea, Palaeasteroidea and Euasteroidea, and so forth. Or
+divisions were based upon certain modifications of structure which, as
+we now see, affected assemblages of diverse affinity: thus both
+Blastoidea and Euechinoidea were divided into Regularia and Irregularia;
+the Holothuroidea into Pneumophora and Apneumona; and Crinoids were
+discussed under the heads "stalked" and "unstalked." The barriers
+between these groups may be regarded as horizontal planes cutting across
+the branches of the ascending tree of life at levels determined chiefly
+by our ignorance; as knowledge increases, and as the conception of a
+genealogical classification gains acceptance, they are being replaced by
+vertical partitions which separate branch from branch. The changes may
+be appreciated by comparing the systematic synopses at the end of this
+article with the classification adopted in 1877 in the 9th edition of
+the _Ency. Brit._ (vol. vii.), or in any zoological text-book
+contemporary therewith. In the present stage of our knowledge these
+minor divisions are the really important ones. For, whereas to one
+brilliant suggestion of far-reaching homology another can always be
+opposed, by the detailed comparison of individual growth-stages in
+carefully selected series of fossils, and by the minute application to
+these of the principle that individual history repeats race history, it
+actually is possible to unfold lines of descent that do not admit of
+doubt. The gradual linking up of these will manifest the true genealogy
+of each class, and reconstruct its ancestral forms by proof instead of
+conjecture. The problem of the interrelations of the classes will thus
+be reduced to its simplest terms, and even questions as to the nature of
+the primitive Echinoderm and its affinity to the ancestors of other
+phyla may become more than exercises for the ingenuity of youth. Work
+has been and is being done by the laborious methods here alluded to, and
+though the diversity of opinion as to the broader groupings of
+classification is still restricted only by the number of writers, we can
+point to an ever-increasing body of assured knowledge on which all are
+agreed. Unfortunately such allusion to these disconnected certainties as
+alone might be introduced here would be too brief for comprehension,
+and we are forced to select a few of the broader hypotheses for a
+treatment that may seem dogmatic and prejudiced.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Diagram of a simple form of Crinoid, with five
+arms, each forking once; the one nearest the observer is removed to
+expose the tegmen of five orals. This crinoid has only two circlets of
+plates in the cup, but the cup analysed in the adjoining diagram has in
+addition infrabasals and a centrale C.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--An early stage in the development of _Antedon_,
+showing the foot-plate or "dorso-central" _fp_ at the end of the stem
+_col._ Some of the thecal plates, infrabasals _I B_, basals B, and orals
+_O_ are forming around the body-cavities _r.pc_ and _l.pc_; _p_ is the
+water-pore. (After Seeliger.)]
+
+  _Calycinal Theory._--The theory which had most influence on the
+  conceptions of Echinoderms in the two concluding decades of the 19th
+  century was that of Lovén, elaborated by P.H. Carpenter, Sladen and
+  others. This, which may be called the _calycinal_ theory, will be
+  appreciated by comparing the structure of a simple crinoid with that
+  of some other types. A crinoid reduced to its simplest elements
+  consists of three principal portions--(i.) a theca or test enclosing
+  the viscera; (ii.) five arms stretching upwards or outwards from the
+  theca, sometimes single, sometimes branching; (iii.) a stem stretching
+  downwards from the theca and attaching it to the sea-floor (see fig.
+  1). That part of the theca below the origins of the free arms is
+  called the "dorsal cup"; the ventral part above the origins of the
+  arms, serving as cover to the cup, is known as the "tegmen." All these
+  parts are supported by plates or ossicles of crystalline carbonate of
+  lime. The cup, in its simplest form, consists of two circlets of five
+  plates. Each plate of the upper circlet supports an arm, and is called
+  a "radial"; the plates of the lower circlet, the "basals," rest on the
+  stem and alternate with those of the upper circlet, i.e. are
+  interradial in position. Some crinoids have yet another circlet below
+  these, the constituent plates of which are called "infrabasals," and
+  are situated radially. The tegmen in most primitive forms, as well as
+  in the embryonic stages of the living _Antedon_ (fig. 2), consists of
+  five large triangular plates, alternating with the radials, and called
+  "orals," because they roof over the mouth. In addition to these three
+  or four circlets of plates, two other elements were once supposed
+  essential to the ideal crinoid: the dorso-central and the oro-central.
+  The former term was applied to a flattened plate observed in the
+  embryonic stage of a single genus (_Antedon_) at that end of the stem
+  attached to the sea-floor, and comparable to the foot of a wine-glass
+  (fig. 2). In some crinoids which have no trace of a stem (e.g.
+  _Marsupites_) a pentagonal plate is found at the bottom of the cup,
+  where the stem would naturally have arisen ("centrale" in fig. 1); and
+  since it was believed that the stem always grew by addition of
+  ossicles immediately below the infrabasals, it was inferred that this
+  pentagonal plate was the centro-dorsal in its primitive position, as
+  though the wine-glass had been evolved from a tumbler by pulling the
+  bottom out to form the foot. The oro-central was, it must be admitted,
+  a theoretical conception due to a desire for symmetry, and was not
+  confirmed by anything better than some erroneous observations on
+  certain fossils, which were supposed to show a plate at the oral pole
+  between the five orals; but this plate, so far as it exists at all, is
+  now known to be nothing but an oral shifted in position. The theory
+  was that all the plates just described, and more particularly those of
+  the cup, which were termed "the calycinal system," could be traced,
+  not merely in all crinoids, but in all Echinoderms, whether fixed
+  forms such as cystids and blastoids, or free forms such as ophiuroids
+  and echinoids, even--with the eye of faith--in holothurians. It was
+  admitted that these elements might atrophy, or be displaced, or be
+  otherwise obscured; but their complete and symmetrical disposition was
+  regarded as typical and original. Thus the genera exhibiting it were
+  regarded as primitive, and those orders and classes in which it was
+  least obscured were supposed to approach most nearly the ancestral
+  Echinoderm. Every one knows that an "apical system," composed of two
+  circlets known as "genitals" or basals and "oculars" or radials,
+  occurs round the aboral pole of echinoids (fig. 3, A), and that a few
+  genera (e.g. _Salenia_, fig. 3, B) possess a sub-central plate (the
+  "suranal"), which might be identified with the centro-dorsal. It is
+  also the case that many asterids (fig. 3, D) and ophiurids (fig. 3, C)
+  have a similar arrangement of plates on the dorsal (i.e. aboral)
+  surface of the disk. Accepting the homology of these apical systems
+  with the calycinal system, the theory would regard the aboral pole of
+  a sea-urchin or starfish as corresponding in everything, except its
+  relations to the sea-floor, with the aboral pole of a fixed
+  echinoderm.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.-Supposed calycinal systems of free-moving
+  Echinoderms. A, regular sea-urchin (_Cidaris_); B, sea-urchin with a
+  suranal plate (_Salenia_); C, developing ophiurid (_Amphiura_); D,
+  young starfish (_Zoroaster_).]
+
+  The theory has been vigorously opposed, notably by Semon (_op. cit._),
+  who saw in the holothurians a nearer approach to the ancestral form
+  than was furnished by any calyculate echinoderm, and by the Sarasins,
+  who derived the echinoids from the holothurians through forms with
+  flexible tests (_Echinothuridae_, which, however, are now known to be
+  specialized in this respect). The support that appeared to be given to
+  the theory by the presence of supposed calycinal plates in the embryo
+  of echinoids and asteroids has been, in the opinion of many,
+  undermined by E.W. MacBride (_op. cit._), who has insisted that in the
+  fixed stage of the developing starfish, _Asterina_, the relations of
+  these plates to the stem are quite different from those which they
+  bear in the developing and adult crinoid. But, however correct the
+  observations and the homologies of MacBride may be, they do not, as
+  Bury (_op. cit._) has well pointed out, afford sufficient grounds for
+  his inference that the abactinal (i.e. aboral) poles of starfish and
+  crinoids are not comparable with one another, and that all conclusions
+  based on the supposed homology of the dorso-central of echinoids and
+  asteroids with that of crinoids are incorrect. Bury himself, however,
+  has inflicted a severe blow on the theory by his proof that the
+  so-called oculars of Echinoidea, which were supposed to represent the
+  radials, are homologous with the "terminals" (i.e. the plates at the
+  tips of the rays) in Asteroidea and Ophiuroidea, and therefore not
+  homologous with the radially disposed plates often seen around the
+  aboral pole of those animals. For, if these radial constituents of the
+  supposed apical system in an ophiurid have really some other origin,
+  why can we not say the same of the supposed basals? Indeed, Bury is
+  constrained to admit that the view of Semon and others may be correct,
+  and that these so-called calycinal systems may not be heirlooms from a
+  calyculate ancestor, but may have been independently developed in the
+  various classes owing to the action of similar causes. That this view
+  must be correct is urged by students of fossils. Palaeontology lends
+  no support to the idea that the dorso-central is a primitive element;
+  it exists in none of the early echinoids, and the suranal of
+  _Saleniidae_ arises from the minor plates around the anus. There is no
+  reason to suppose that the central apical plate of certain
+  free-swimming crinoids has any more to do with the distal foot-plate
+  of the larval _Antedon_ stem than has the so-called centro-dorsal of
+  _Antedon_ itself, which is nothing but the compressed proximal end of
+  the stem. As for the supposed basals of Echinoidea, Asteroidea and
+  Ophiuroidea, they are scarcely to be distinguished among the ten or
+  more small plates that surround the anus of _Bothriocidaris_, which is
+  the oldest and probably the most ancestral of fossil sea-urchins (fig.
+  5). A calycinal system may be quite apparent in the later Ophiuroidea
+  and in a few Asteroidea, but there is no trace of it in the older
+  Palaeozoic types, unless we are to transfer the appellation to the
+  terminals. Those plates are perhaps constant throughout sea-urchins
+  and starfish (though it would puzzle any one to detect them in certain
+  Silurian echinoids), and they may be traced in some of the fixed
+  echinoderms; but there is no proof that they represent the radials of
+  a simple crinoid, and there are certainly many cystids in which no
+  such plates existed. Lovén and M. Neumayr adduced the Triassic
+  sea-urchin _Tiarechinus_, in which the apical system forms half of the
+  test, as an argument for the origin of Echinoidea from an ancestor in
+  which the apical system was of great importance; but a genus appearing
+  so late in time, in an isolated sea, under conditions that dwarfed the
+  other echinoid dwellers therein, cannot seriously be thought to
+  elucidate the origin of pre-Silurian Echinoidea, and the recent
+  discovery of an intermediate form suggests that we have here nothing
+  but degenerate descendants of a well-known Palaeozoic family
+  (_Lepidocentridae_). But to pursue the tale of isolated instances
+  would be wearisome. The calycinal theory is not merely an assertion of
+  certain homologies, a few of which might be disputed without affecting
+  the rest: it governs our whole conception of the echinoderms, because
+  it implies their descent from a calyculate ancestor--not a
+  "crinoid-phantom," that bogey of the Sarasins, but a form with
+  definite plates subject to a quinqueradiate arrangement, with which
+  its internal organs must likewise have been correlated. To this
+  ingenious and plausible theory the revelations of the rocks are more
+  and more believed to be opposed.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.--The _Pentactula_ stage in the development of
+  _Synapta_.
+
+    T, The five interradial tentacles.
+    M, The water-pore, leading by the stone-canal stc to the water-ring,
+      from which hangs a Polian vesicle pb.
+    oc, Supposed otocysts.
+    m, Longitudinal muscles.
+    sk, Calcareous spicules.
+    st, Stomach.
+   (After Semon.)]
+
+  _Pentactaea Theory._--In opposition to the calycinal theory has been
+  the _Pentactaea_ theory of R. Semon. There have always been many
+  zoologists prepared to ascribe an ancestral character to the
+  holothurians. The absence of an apical system of plates; the fact that
+  radial symmetry has not affected the generative organs, as it has in
+  all other recent classes; the well-developed muscles of the body-wall,
+  supposed to be directly inherited from some worm-like ancestor; the
+  presence on the inner walls of the body in the family _Synaptidae_ of
+  ciliated funnels, which have been rashly compared to the excretory
+  organs (nephridia) of many worms; the outgrowth from the rectum in
+  other genera of caeca (Cuvierian organs and respiratory trees), which
+  recall the anal glands of the Gephyrean worms; the absence of podia
+  (tube-feet) in many genera, and even of the radial water-vessels in
+  _Synaptidae_; the absence of that peculiar structure known in other
+  echinoderms by the names "axial organ," "ovoid gland," &c.; the
+  simpler form of the larva--all these features have, for good reason or
+  bad, been regarded as primitive. Some of the more striking of these
+  features are confined to _Synaptidae_; in that family too the absence
+  of the radial water-vessels from the adult is correlated with
+  continuity of the circular muscle-layer, while the gut runs almost
+  straight from the anterior mouth to the posterior anus. Early in the
+  life-history of _Synapta_ occurs a stage with five tentacles around
+  the mouth, and into these pass canals from the water-ring, the radial
+  canals to the body-wall making a subsequent, and only temporary,
+  appearance (fig. 4). Semon called this stage the _Pentactula_, and
+  supposed that, in its early history, the class had passed through a
+  similar stage, which he called the _Pentactaea_, and regarded as the
+  ancestor of all Echinoderms. It has since been proved that the five
+  tentacles with their canals are interradial, so that one can scarcely
+  look on the _Pentactula_ as a primitive stage, while the apparent
+  simplicity of the _Synaptidae_, at least as compared with other
+  holothurians, is now believed to be the result of regressive changes.
+  The _Pentactaea_, at all events as it sprang from the brain of Semon,
+  must pass to the limbo of mythological ancestors.
+
+  _Pelmatozoic Theory._--The rejection of the calycinal and _Pentactaea_
+  theories need not scatter our conceptions of Echinoderm structure back
+  into the chaos from which they seemed to have emerged. The idea of a
+  calyculate ancestor, though by no means connoting fixation, turned
+  men's minds in the direction of the fixed forms, simply because in
+  them the calyx was best developed. The _Pentactaea_ again suggested a
+  search for some primitive type in which quinqueradiate symmetry was
+  exhibited in circumoral appendages, but had not affected the nervous,
+  water-vascular, muscular or skeletal systems to any great extent, and
+  the generative organs not at all. Study of the earliest larval stages
+  has always led to the conclusion that the Echinoderms must have
+  descended from some freely-moving form with a bilateral symmetry, and,
+  connecting this with the ideas just mentioned, we reach the conception
+  that this supposed bilateral ancestor (or _Dipleurula_) may have
+  become fixed, and may have gradually acquired a radial symmetry in
+  consequence of its sedentary mode of life. The different extent of
+  quinqueradiate symmetry in the different classes would thus depend on
+  the period at which they diverged from the sedentary stock. The
+  tracing of this history, and the explanation of the general characters
+  of Echinoderms and of the differentiating features of the classes in
+  accordance therewith, constitutes the _Pelmatozoic_ theory.
+
+  The word "Pelmatozoa" literally means "stalked animals," but the name
+  is now used to denote all Cystidea, Blastoidea, Crinoidea and
+  Edrioasteroidea, as opposed to the other classes, which may be called
+  Eleutherozoa. Many Pelmatozoa have, it is true, no stalk, while some
+  are freely-moving, but all agree in the possession of certain
+  characters obviously connected with a fixed mode of life. Thus, the
+  mouth is central and turned away from the sea-floor; the animal does
+  not seize its food by tentacles, limbs or jaws, neither does it move
+  in search of it, but a series of ciliated grooves which radiate from
+  the mouth sweep along currents of water, in the eddies of which minute
+  food-particles are caught up and carried down into the gullet; the
+  undigested food is driven out through an anus which is on the upper or
+  oral side of the theca, but as far distant as practicable from the
+  mouth and ciliated grooves. Such characters are found in any
+  primitive, sedentary group. More peculiarly Echinoderm features, in
+  which the Pelmatozoan nature is manifest, are the enclosing of the
+  viscera in a calcified and plated theca, for protection against those
+  enemies from which a fixed animal cannot flee; the development, at the
+  aboral pole of this theca, of a motor nerve-centre giving off branches
+  to the stroma connecting the various plates of the theca and of its
+  brachial, anal, and columnar extensions, and thus co-ordinating the
+  movements of the whole skeleton; the absence of suckers from the
+  podia, which, when present, are respiratory, not locomotor, in
+  function. There are other features of most, if not all, Pelmatozoa
+  that appear to be due to a fixed existence; but those are also found
+  in the Eleutherozoa. The Pelmatozoic theory thus regards the
+  Pelmatozoa as the more ancestral forms, and the Pelmatozoan stage as
+  one that must have been passed through by all Echinoderms during their
+  evolution from the _Dipleurula_. It might be possible to prove the
+  origin of all classes from Pelmatozoa, without thereby explaining the
+  origin of such fundamental features as radial symmetry, the
+  developmental metamorphosis, and the torsion that affects both gut and
+  body-cavities during that process; but the acceptance of a
+  _Dipleurula_ as the common ancestor necessitates an explanation of
+  these features. Such explanation is an integral part of the
+  Pelmatozoic theory, but is provided by no other.
+
+  The evidence for the Pelmatozoic theory is supplied by palaeontology,
+  embryology, the comparative anatomy of the classes, and a
+  consideration of other phyla. Palaeontology, so far as it goes, is a
+  sure guide, but some of the oldest fossiliferous rocks yield remains
+  of distinctly differentiated crinoids, asteroids and echinoids, so
+  that the problem is not solved merely by collecting fossils. Two lines
+  of argument appear fruitful. First, a comparison of the relative
+  numbers of the representatives of the various classes at different
+  epochs; according to this they may be placed in the following order,
+  with the oldest first: Cystidea, Crinoidea, Blastoidea, Asteroidea,
+  Ophiuroidea, Echinoidea. As for Holothuroidea, the fossil evidence
+  allows us to say no more than that the class existed in early
+  Carboniferous times, if not before. The second method is to work out
+  by slow and sure steps the lines of descent of the different families,
+  orders, and classes, and so either to arrive at the ancestral form of
+  each class, or to plot out the curve of evolution, which may then
+  legitimately be projected into "the dark backward and abysm of time."
+  In this way the many highly modified orders of Cystidea may be traced
+  back to a simple, many-plated ancestor with little or no radiate
+  symmetry (see below). All the complicated structures of Blastoidea are
+  evolved from a fairly simple type, which in its turn is linked on to
+  one of the cystid orders. That the crinoids are all deducible from
+  some such simple form as that above described under the head
+  "calycinal theory," is now generally admitted. Although, in the
+  extreme correlation of the radial food-grooves, nerves, water-vessels,
+  and so forth, with a radiate symmetry of the theca, such a type
+  differs from the Cystidea, while in the possession of jointed
+  processes from the radial plates, bearing the grooves and the various
+  body-systems outwards from the theca, it differs from all other
+  Echinoderms, nevertheless ancient forms are known which, if they are
+  not themselves the actual links, suggest how the crinoid type may have
+  been evolved from some of the more regular cystids. The fourth class
+  of Pelmatozoa--the Edrioasteroidea--differs from the others in the
+  structure of its ambulacra. As in all Pelmatozoa these seem to have
+  borne ciliated food-grooves protected by movable covering-plates (fig.
+  11). Beneath each food-groove was a radial water-vessel and probably a
+  nerve and blood-vessel, all which structures passed either between
+  certain regularly arranged thecal plates, or along a furrow floored by
+  those plates, which were then in two alternating series. The important
+  and distinctive feature is the presence of pores between the
+  flooring-plates, on either side of the groove; and these, we cannot
+  doubt, served for the passage of podia. Thus in a highly developed
+  edrioasteroid, such as _Edrioaster_ itself (fig. 11), there was a true
+  ambulacrum, apparently constructed like that of a starfish, but
+  differing in the possession of a ciliated food-groove protected by
+  covering-plates. The simpler forms of Edrioasteroidea, with their more
+  sac-like body and undifferentiated plates, may well have been derived
+  from early Cystidea of yet simpler structure, and there seems no
+  reason to follow Jaekel in regarding the class as itself the more
+  primitive. Turning to fossil Asteroidea, we find the earlier ophiurids
+  scarcely distinguishable from the asterids, while in the alternation
+  of the ambulacrals, which undoubtedly correspond to the
+  flooring-plates of _Edrioaster_, both groups approach the Pelmatozoan
+  type. These facts have been expressed by Sturtz in his names
+  Encrinasteriae and Ophio-encrinasteriae. There is no difficulty in
+  deducing the highly differentiated asterids and ophiurids of a later
+  day from these simpler types. The evolution of the modern Echinoidea
+  from their Palaeozoic ancestors is also well understood, but in this
+  case the ancestral form to which the palaeontologist is led does not
+  at first sight present many resemblances to the Pelmatozoa. It is,
+  however, characterized by simplicity of structure, and a short
+  description of it will serve to clear the problem from unnecessary
+  difficulties. _Bothriocidaris_ (fig. 5), a small echinoid from the
+  Ordovician rocks of Esthonia, is in essential structure just the form
+  demanded by comparative palaeontology to make a starting-point. It is
+  spheroidal, with the mouth and anus at opposite poles; there are five
+  ambulacra, and the ambulacral plates are large, simple and
+  alternating, each being pierced by two podial pores which lie in a
+  small oval depression; the ambulacrals next the mouth form a closed
+  ring of ten plates; the interambulacrals lie in single columns between
+  the ambulacra, and are separated from the mouth-area by the proximal
+  ambulacrals just mentioned, and sometimes by the second set of
+  ambulacrals also; the ambulacra end in the five oculars or terminals,
+  which meet in a ring around the anal area and have no podial pores,
+  but one of them serves as a madreporite; within this ring is a
+  star-shaped area filled with minute irregular plates, none of which
+  can safely be selected as the homologues of the so-called basals or
+  genitals of later forms; within the ring of ambulacrals around the
+  mouth are five somewhat pointed plates, which Jaekel regards as teeth,
+  but which can scarcely be homologous with the interradially placed
+  teeth of later echinoids, since they are radial in position; small
+  spines are present, especially around the podial pores. The position
+  of the pores near the centre of the ambulacrals in _Bothriocidaris_
+  need not be regarded as primitive, since other early Palaeozoic
+  genera, not to mention the young of living forms, show that the podia
+  originally passed out between the plates, and were only gradually
+  surrounded by their substance; thus the original structure of the
+  echinoid ambulacra differed from that of the early asteroid in the
+  position of the radial vessels and nerves, which here lie beneath the
+  plates instead of outside them. To this point we shall recur;
+  palaeontology, though it suggests a clue, does not furnish an actual
+  link either between Echinoidea and Asteroidea, or between those
+  classes and Pelmatozoa.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.--_Bothriocidaris globulus._ A, from the side;
+  B, the plates around the aboral pole. (After Jaekel.) The short spines
+  which were attached to the tubercles are not drawn.]
+
+  The argument from embryology leads further back. First, as already
+  mentioned, it outlines the general features of the _Dipleurula_;
+  secondly, it indicates the way in which this free-moving form became
+  fixed, and how its internal organs were modified in consequence; but
+  when we seek, thirdly, for light on the relations of the classes, we
+  find the features of the adult coming in so rapidly that such
+  intermediate stages as may have existed are either squeezed out or
+  profoundly modified. The difficulty of rearing the larvae in an
+  aquarium towards the close of the metamorphosis may account for the
+  slight information available concerning the stages that immediately
+  follow the embryonic. Another difficulty is due to the fact that the
+  types studied, and especially the crinoid _Antedon_, are highly
+  specialized, so that some of the embryonic features are not really
+  primitive as regards the class, but only as regards each particular
+  genus. Thus inferences from embryonic development need to be checked
+  by palaeontology, and supplemented by comparison of the anatomy of
+  other living genera.
+
+  Minute anatomical research has also aided to establish the Pelmatozoic
+  theory by the gradual recognition in other classes of features
+  formerly supposed to be confined to Pelmatozoa. Thus the elements of
+  the Pelmatozoan ventral groove are now detected in so different a
+  structure as the echinoid ambulacrum, while an aboral nervous system,
+  the diminished representative of that in crinoids, has been traced in
+  all Eleutherozoa except Holothurians. The broader theories of modern
+  zoology might seem to have little bearing on the Echinoderma, for it
+  is not long since the study of these animals was compared to a
+  landlocked sea undisturbed by such storms as rage around the origin of
+  the Vertebrata. This, however, is no more the case. The conception of
+  the _Dipleurula_ derives its chief weight from the fact that it is
+  comparable to the early larval forms of other primitive coelomate
+  animals, such as _Balanoglossus_, _Phoronis_, Chaetognatha,
+  Brachiopoda and Bryozoa. So too the explanation of radial symmetry and
+  torsion of organs as due to a Pelmatozoic mode of life finds
+  confirmation in many other phyla. Instead of discussing all these
+  questions separately, with the details necessary for an adequate
+  presentation of the argument, we shall now sketch the history of the
+  Echinoderms in accordance with the Pelmatozoic theory. Such a sketch
+  must pass lightly over debatable ground, and must consist largely of
+  suggestions still in need of confirmation; but if it serves as a frame
+  into which more precise and more detailed statements may be fitted as
+  they come to the ken of the reader, its object will be attained.
+
+_Evolution of the Echinoderms._--It is reasonable to suppose that the
+Coelomata--animals in which the body-cavity is divided into a gut
+passing from mouth to anus and a hollow (coelom) surrounding it--were
+derived from the simpler Coelentera, in which the primitive body-cavity
+(archenteron) is not so divided, and has only one aperture serving as
+both mouth and anus. We may, with Sedgwick, suppose the coelom to have
+originated by the enlargement and separation of pouches that pressed
+outwards from the archenteron into the thickened body-wall (such
+structures as the genital pouches of some Coelentera, not yet shut off
+from the rest of the cavity), and they would probably have been four in
+number and radially disposed about the central cavity. The evolution of
+this cavity into a gut is foreshadowed in some Coelentera by the
+elliptical shape of the aperture, and by the development at its ends of
+a ciliated channel along which food is swept; we have only to suppose
+the approximation of the sides of the ellipse and their eventual fusion,
+to complete the transformation of the radially symmetrical Coelenterate
+into a bilaterally symmetrical Coelomate with mouth and anus at opposite
+ends of the long axis. We further suppose that of the four coelomic
+pouches one was in front of the mouth, one behind the anus, and one on
+each side. Such an animal, if it ever existed, probably lived near the
+surface of the sea, and even here it may have changed its medusoid mode
+of locomotion for one in the direction of its mouth. Thus the bilateral
+symmetry would have been accentuated, and the organism shaped more
+definitely into three segments, namely (1) a preoral segment or lobe,
+containing the anterior coelomic cavity; (2) a middle segment,
+containing the gut, and the two middle coelomic cavities; (3) a
+posterior segment, containing the posterior coelomic cavity, which,
+however, owing to the backward prolongation of the anus, became divided
+into two--a right and left posterior coelom. Each of these cavities
+presumably excreted waste products to the exterior by a pore. There was
+probably a nervous area, with a tuft of cilia, at the anterior end;
+while, at all events in forms that remained pelagic, the ciliated
+nervous tracts of the rest of the body may be supposed to have become
+arranged in bands around the body-segments. Such a form as this is
+roughly represented to-day by the _Actinotrocha_ larva of _Phoronis_,
+the importance of which has been brought out by Masterman. But only
+slight modifications are required to produce the _Tornaria_ larva of the
+Enteropneusta and other larvae, including the special type that is
+inferred from the _Dipleurula_ larval stages of recent forms to have
+characterized the ancestor of the Echinoderms. We cannot enter here
+into all the details of comparison between these larval forms; amid much
+that is hypothetical a few homologies are widely accepted, and the
+preceding account will show the kind of relation that the Echinoderms
+bear to other animals, including what are now usually regarded as the
+ancestors of the Chordata (to which back-boned animals belong), as well
+as the nature of the evidence that their study has been, or may be, made
+to yield. How the hypothetical _Dipleurula_ became an Echinoderm, and
+how the primitive Echinoderms diverged in structure so as to form the
+various classes, are questions to which an answer is attempted in the
+following paragraphs:--
+
+  Confining our attention to that form of Dipleurula (fig. 6) which, it
+  is supposed, gave rise to the Echinoderma, we infer from embryological
+  data that its special features were as follow:--The anterior coelomic
+  cavity was wholly or partially divided, and from each half a duct led
+  to the exterior, opening at a pore near the middle line of the back.
+  The middle cavities were smaller, and the ducts from them came to
+  unite with those from the anterior cavities, and no longer opened
+  directly to the exterior; whether these cavities were already
+  specialized as water-sacs cannot be asserted, but they certainly had
+  become so at a slightly later stage. The posterior cavities were the
+  largest, but what had become of their original opening to the exterior
+  is uncertain. The genital products were derived from the lining of the
+  coelomic cavities, but it would not be safe to say that any particular
+  region was as yet specialized for generation. The epithelium of the
+  outer surface was probably ciliated, and a portion of it in the
+  preoral lobe differentiated as a sense-organ, with longer cilia and
+  underlying nerve-centre, from which two nerves ran back below the
+  ventral surface. Into the space between the walls of the coelom and
+  the outer body-wall, originally filled with jelly, definite cells now
+  wandered, chiefly derived from the coelomic walls. Some of these cells
+  produced muscles and connective tissue; others absorbed and removed
+  waste products, iron salts, calcium carbonate and the like, and so
+  were ready to be utilized for the deposition of pigment or of skeletal
+  substance. In some of these respects the _Dipleurula_ may have
+  diverged from the ancestor of Enteropneusta and of other animals, but
+  it could not as yet have been recognized as echinodermal by a
+  zoologist, for it presented none of the structural peculiarities of
+  the modern adult echinoderm.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Diagrammatic reconstruction of _Dipleurula_.
+  The creature is represented crawling on the sea-floor, but it may
+  equally well have been a floating animal. The ciliated bands are not
+  drawn.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Diagrammatic reconstruction of primitive
+  Pelmatozoön, seen from the side. The plates of the test are not drawn;
+  their probable appearance may be gathered from fig. 8.]
+
+  Now ensued the great event that originated the phylum--the discovery
+  of the sea-floor. This being apprehended by the sensory anterior end,
+  it was by that end that the _Dipleurula_ attached itself; not,
+  however, by the pole, since that would have interfered at once with
+  the sensory organ, but a little to one side, the right side being the
+  one chosen for a reason we cannot now fathom; it may be that fixation
+  was facilitated by the presence of the pore on that side, and by the
+  utilization of the excretion from it as a cement. The first result was
+  that which is always seen to follow in such cases--the passage of the
+  mouth towards the upper surface (fig. 7). As it passed up along the
+  left side, the gut caught hold of the left water-sac and pulled it
+  upwards, curving it in the process; this being attached to the left
+  duct from the anterior body-cavity, this structure with its water-pore
+  was also pulled up, and the pore came to lie between mouth and anus.
+  The forward portion of the anterior coelom shared in the constriction
+  and elongation of the preoral lobe; but its hinder portion was dragged
+  up along with the water-pore and formed a canal lying along the outer
+  wall (the parietal canal). As the gut coiled, it pressed inwards the
+  middle of the left posterior coelom of the _Dipleurula_, and drew the
+  whole towards the mouth, while the corresponding cavity on the right
+  was pressed down by the stomach towards the fixed end of the animal
+  and became involved in the elongation of that region. These changes,
+  which may still be traced in the development of _Antedon_, resulted in
+  the primitive Pelmatozoön (fig. 7), represented in the rocks by such a
+  genus as _Aritocystis_ (fig. 8). The pear-shaped body is encased in a
+  theca formed by a number of polygonal plates, and is attached by its
+  narrow end. On the broad upper surface are four openings, that nearest
+  the centre being the mouth, which is slit-like, and that nearest the
+  periphery being the anus. The two other openings are minute, and
+  placed between those two; one close to the mouth is almost certainly
+  the water-pore, while that nearer the anus is regarded as a genital
+  aperture. Which of the coelomic cavities this last is connected with
+  is uncertain, for there is considerable doubt as to the origin of the
+  genital glands in the embryonic development of recent echinoderms. It
+  seems clear, however, that there was but a single duct and a single
+  bunch of reproductive cells, as in the holothurians, though perhaps
+  bifurcate, as in some of those animals. The line between mouth and
+  anus, along which these openings are situate, corresponds with the
+  plane of union between the two horns of the curved left posterior
+  coelom, the united walls of which form the "dorsal mesentery." Since
+  this must have, on our theory, enclosed the parietal canal from the
+  anterior coelom, it is possible that the genital products were
+  developed from the lining cells of that cavity, and that the genital
+  pore was nothing but its original pore not yet united with that from
+  the water-sac. The concrescence of these pores can be traced in other
+  cystids; but as the genital organs became affected by radial symmetry
+  the original function of the duct was lost, and the reproductive
+  elements escaped to the exterior in another way. _Aristocystis_ may
+  have had ciliated food-grooves leading to its mouth, but these have
+  left no traces on the structure of the test. Traces, however, are
+  perceptible in genera believed to be descended from such a simple
+  type, and the majority may be grouped under two heads. One group
+  includes those in which the grooves wander outwards from the mouth
+  over the thecal plates, which gradually become arranged regularly on
+  either side of the grooves, while further extensions ascend from the
+  grooves on small jointed processes called "brachioles" (fig. 9). In
+  the other group the grooves do not tend so much to stretch over the
+  theca as to be raised away from it on relatively larger brachioles,
+  arising close around the mouth (fig. 10).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8.--_Aristocystis bohemicus_; side-view of the
+  theca. The internal structure may be gathered from fig. 7.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.--_Fungocystis rarissima_, one of the
+  Diploporita, in which the thecal plates bordering the food-grooves are
+  not yet regularly arranged. The brachioles are not drawn.]
+
+  These two types are, in the main, correlated with two gradual
+  differentiations in the minute structure of the thecal plates.
+  Originally the calcareous substance of the plates (stereom) was
+  pierced by irregular canals, more or less vertical, and containing
+  strands of the soft tissue (stroma) that deposited the stereom, as
+  well as spaces filled with fluid. In the former group (fig. 9) these
+  canals became connected in pairs (diplopores) still perpendicular to
+  the surface, and this structure, combined with that of the grooves,
+  characterizes the order--Diploporita. In the latter group (fig. 10)
+  the canals, that is to say, the stroma-strands, came to lie parallel
+  to the surface and to cross the sutures between the plates, which were
+  thus more flexibly and more strongly united: since the canals
+  crossing each suture naturally occupy a rhombic area, the order is
+  called Rhombifera. At first the grooves were three, one proceeding
+  from each end of the mouth-slit, and the third in a direction opposed
+  to the anus; with reference to the Pelmatozoan structure, the anal
+  side may be termed posterior, and this groove anterior. Eventually
+  each lateral groove forked, so that there were five grooves. These
+  gradually impressed themselves on the theca and influenced the
+  arrangement of the internal organs: it is fairly safe to assume that
+  nerves, blood-vessels and branches from the water-sac stretched out
+  along with these grooves, each system starting from a ring around the
+  gullet. At last a quinqueradiate symmetry influenced the plates of the
+  theca, partly through the development of a plate at the end of each
+  groove (terminal), partly through plates at the aboral pole of the
+  theca (basals and infrabasals) arising in response to mechanical
+  pressure, but soon intimately connected with the cords of an aboral
+  nervous system. Before the latter plates arose, the stem had developed
+  by the elongation and constriction of the fixed end of the theca, the
+  gradual regularization of the plates involved, and their coalescence
+  into rings. The crinoid type was differentiated by the extension of
+  the food-grooves and associated organs along radial outgrowths from
+  the theca itself. These constituted the arms (brachia), and five
+  definite radial plates of the theca were specialized for their
+  support. These radials may be homologous with the terminals already
+  mentioned, but this is neither necessary nor certain. In this
+  development of brachial extensions of the theca the genital organs
+  were involved, and their ripe products formed at the ends of the
+  brachia or in the branches therefrom. The remains of the original
+  genital gland within the theca became the "axial organ" surrounded by
+  the "axial sinus" derived from the anterior coelom, and this again by
+  structures derived from the right posterior coelom, which, as
+  explained above, had been depressed to the aboral pole. These last
+  structures formed a nervous sheath around the axial sinus with its
+  blood-vessels, and became divided into five lobes correlated with the
+  five basals (the "chambered organ") and forming the aboral
+  nerve-centre. Before these changes were complete the Holothurioidea
+  must have diverged, by the assumption of a crawling existence. Thus in
+  them the mouth and anus reverted to opposite poles, and only the
+  torsion of the gut and coelom, and the radial extensions of the
+  nervous, water-vascular and blood-vascular systems, testified to their
+  Pelmatozoan ancestry. The ciliated grooves, no longer needed for the
+  collection of food, closed over, and are still traceable as ciliated
+  canals overlying the radial nerves. At the same time the thecal plates
+  degenerated into spicules. The Edrioasteroidea followed a different
+  line from that of the cystids above mentioned and their descendants.
+  The theca became sessile, and in its later developments much flattened
+  (fig. 11). Mouth, water-pore and anus remained as in _Aristocystis_,
+  but the five ciliated grooves radiated from the mouth between the
+  thecal plates rather than over them, and were, as usual, protected by
+  covering-plates. The important feature was the extension of radial
+  canals from the water-sac along these grooves, with branches passing
+  between the flooring-plates of the grooves (fig. 12, A). The
+  resemblance of the flooring-plates to the ambulacral ossicles of a
+  starfish is so exact that one can explain it only by supposing similar
+  relations of the water-canals and their branches (podia). On the
+  thinly plated under surface of well-preserved specimens of
+  _Edrioaster_ are seen five interradial swellings (fig. 11, B). These
+  are likely to have been produced by the ripe genital glands, which may
+  have extruded their products directly through the membranous
+  integument of the under side. No other way out for them is apparent,
+  and it is clear that _Edrioaster_ was not permanently and solidly
+  fixed to the sea-floor.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10.--_Chirocrinus-alter_, one of the Rhombifera,
+  showing the reduced number and regular arrangement of the thecal
+  plates, and the concentration of the brachioles. (Adapted from
+  Jaekel.)]
+
+  Now comes a great change, unfortunately difficult to follow whether in
+  the fossils or in the modern embryos. We suppose some such form as
+  _Edrioaster_, which appears to have lived near the shore, to have been
+  repeatedly overturned by waves. Those that were able to accommodate
+  themselves to this topsy-turvy existence, by taking food in directly
+  through the mouth, survived, and their podia gradually specialized as
+  sucking feet. Such a form as this, when once its covering-plates had
+  atrophied, would be a starfish without more ado (fig. 12, B); but the
+  sea-urchins present a more difficult problem, on which
+  _Bothriocidaris_ sheds no light. An Upper Silurian echinoid, however,
+  _Palaeodiscus_, is believed by W.J. Sollas and W.K. Spencer to have
+  had in its ambulacra an inner as well as an outer series of plates. If
+  this be correct, the only change from _Edrioaster_, as regards the
+  ambulacra, was that in _Palaeodiscus_ the covering-plates could no
+  longer open, but closed permanently over the whole groove, while the
+  podia issued through slits between them. In more typical echinoids the
+  covering-plates alone remained to form the ordinary ambulacral plates,
+  while the flooring-plates disappeared, the canals and other organs
+  remaining as before. In any case we have to admit a closure of the
+  integument over the ciliated groove (fig. 12, D, e) just as in
+  holothurians, since this is necessitated by anatomical evidence. The
+  genital organs in both Asteroidea and Echinoidea would retain the
+  interradial position they first assumed in _Edrioaster_; and in
+  Echinoidea their primitive temporary openings to the exterior were
+  converted into definite pores, correlated with five interradially
+  placed plates at the aboral pole. The anus also naturally moved to
+  this superior and aboral position. In the Echinoidea the water-canals
+  and associated structures, ending in the terminal plates, stretched
+  right up to these genital plates; but in the Asteroidea they never
+  reached the aboral surface, so that the terminals have always been
+  separated from the aboral pole by a number of plates.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--_Edrioaster._ A, upper or oral surface of _E.
+Bigsbyi_, with the covering-plates on the anterior and left posterior
+food-grooves, but removed from the others, which show only the
+flooring-plates, between which are pores; B, under surface of _E.
+Buchianus_, with covering-plates on right posterior and right anterior
+food-grooves (left hand in the drawing). The * denotes the position of
+the anal interradius.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.-Diagrammatic sections across the ambulacra of A,
+C, PELMATOZOA, and B, D, ELEUTHEROZOA, placed in the same position for
+comparison. _S_, Blood-spaces, of which the homology is still
+uncertain.]
+
+_Analysis of Echinoderm Characters._--Regarding the Echinoderms as a
+whole in the light of the foregoing account, we may give the following
+analytic summary of the characters that distinguish them from other
+coelomate animals:--
+
+  They live in salt or brackish water; a primitive bilateral symmetry is
+  still manifest in the right and left divisions of the coelom; the
+  middle coelomic cavities are primitively transformed into two
+  hydrocoels communicating with the exterior indirectly through a duct
+  or ducts of the anterior coelom; stereom, composed of crystalline
+  carbonate of lime, is, with few exceptions, deposited by special
+  amoebocytes in the meshes of a mesodermal stroma, chiefly in the
+  integument; reproductive cells are derived from the endothelium,
+  apparently of the anterior coelom; total segmentation of the ovum
+  produces a coeloblastula and gastrula by invagination; mesenchyme is
+  formed in the segmentation cavity by migration of cells, chiefly from
+  the hypoblast. Known Echinoderms show the following features, imagined
+  to be due to an ancestral pelmatozoic stage:--Increase in the coelomic
+  cavities of the left side, and atrophy of those on the right; the
+  dextral coil of the gut, recognizable in all classes, though often
+  obscured; an incomplete secondary bilateralism about the plane
+  including the main axis and the water-pore or its successor, the
+  madreporite, often obscured by one or other of various tertiary
+  bilateralisms; the change of the hydrocoel into a circumoral, arcuate
+  or ring canal; development through a free-swimming, bilaterally
+  symmetrical, ciliated larva, of which in many cases only a portion is
+  transformed into the adult Echinoderm (where care of the brood has
+  secondarily arisen, this larva is not developed). All living, and most
+  extinct, Echinoderms show the following features, almost certainly due
+  to an ancestral pelmatozoic stage:--An incomplete radial symmetry, of
+  which five is usually the dominant number, is superimposed on the
+  secondary bilateralism, owing to the outgrowth from the mouth region
+  of one unpaired and two paired ciliated grooves; these have a floor of
+  nervous epithelium, and are accompanied by subjacent radial canals
+  from the water-ring, giving off lateral podia and thus forming
+  ambulacra, and by a perihaemal system of canals apparently growing out
+  from coelomic cavities. All living Echinoderms have a lacunar, haemal
+  system of diverse origin; this, the ambulacral system, and the
+  coelomic cavities, contain a fluid holding albumen in solution and
+  carrying numerous amoebocytes, which are developed in special
+  lymph-glands and are capable of wandering through all tissues. The
+  Echinoderms may be divided into seven classes, whose probable
+  relations are thus indicated:--
+
+                 / Cystidea------Edrioasteroidea
+                |      |          |\
+    PELMATOZOA <       |          | \ Holothurioidea \
+                |      |          |                  |
+                |  Blastoidea     |                   > ELEUTHEROZOA
+                 \ Crinoidea      |                  |
+                                 Stelliformia        |
+                                 Echinoidea          /
+
+  Brief systematic accounts of these classes follow:--
+
+  Grade A. PELMATOZOA.--Echinoderma with the viscera enclosed in a
+  calcified and plated theca, of which the oral surface is uppermost,
+  and which is usually attached, either temporarily or permanently, by
+  the aboral surface. Food brought to the mouth by a subvective system
+  of ciliated grooves, radiating from the mouth either between the
+  plates of the theca (endothecal), or over the theca (epithecal), or
+  along processes from the theca (exothecal: arms, pinnules, &c.), or,
+  in part, and as a secondary development, below the theca (hypothecal).
+  Anus usually in the upper or oral half of the theca, and never aboral.
+  An aborally-placed motor nerve-centre gives off branches to the stroma
+  connecting the various plates of the theca and of its brachial, anal
+  and columnar extensions, and thus co-ordinates the movements of the
+  whole skeleton. The circumoesophageal water-ring communicates
+  indirectly with the exterior; the podia, when present, are
+  respiratory, not locomotor, in function.
+
+  Class I. CYSTIDEA.--Pelmatozoa in which radial polymeric symmetry of
+  the theca is developed either not at all or not in complete
+  correlation with the radial symmetry of the ambulacra (such as obtains
+  in Blastoidea and Crinoidea); in which extensions of the food-grooves
+  are exothecal or epithecal or both combined, but neither endothecal
+  nor pierced by podia (as in some Edrioasteroidea) All Palaeozoic.
+
+  This class shows much greater diversity of organization than any
+  other, and the classifications proposed by recent writers, such as E.
+  Haeckel, O. Jaekel and F.A. Bather, start from such different points
+  of view that no discussion of them can be attempted here. Following
+  the narrative given above, we recognize a primitive
+  group--Amphoridea--represented by _Aristocystis_ (fig. 8). From this
+  are derived the orders Diploporita (fig. 9) and Rhombifera (fig. 10)
+  and the class Edrioasteroidea, all which have already been described
+  as steps in the evolution of the phylum. But there were also
+  side-branches leading nowhere, and therefore placed in separate
+  orders--Aporita and Carpoidea.
+
+  Order 1. _Amphoridea._--Radial symmetry has affected neither
+  food-grooves nor thecal plates; nor, probably, nerves, ambulacral
+  vessels, nor gonads. Canals or folds when present in the stereom are
+  irregular. Families: Aristocystidae (fig. 8); Eocystidae.
+
+  Order 2. _Carpoidea._--Theca compressed in the oro-anal plane and a
+  bilateral symmetry thus induced, affecting the food-grooves and,
+  usually, the thecal plates and stem. Food-grooves in part epithecal
+  and may be continued on one or two exothecal processes. No pores or
+  folds in the stereom. Families: Anomalocystidae, Dendrocystidae. These
+  correspond to Jaekel's Carpoidea Heterostelea; he also includes, as
+  Eustelea, our Comarocystidae and Malocystidae.
+
+  Order 3. _Rhombifera._--Radial symmetry affects the food-grooves and,
+  in the more advanced families, the thecal plates; probably also the
+  nerves and ambulacral vessels, but not the gonads. The food-grooves
+  are exothecal, i.e. are stretched out from the theca on jointed
+  skeletal processes (brachioles). These either are close to the mouth
+  or are removed from it upon a series of ambulacral or sub-ambulacral
+  plates not derived immediately from thecal plates, or are separated
+  from the oral centre by hypothecal passages passing beneath terminal
+  plates. The stereom and stroma become arranged in folds and strands at
+  right angles to the sutures of the thecal plates; in higher forms the
+  stereom-folds are in part specialized as pectini-rhombs. Families:
+  Echinosphaeridae; Comarocystidae; Macrocystellidae; Tiaracrinidae;
+  Malocystidae; Glyptocystidae, with sub-famm. Echinoencrininae,
+  Callocystinae, Glyptocystinae, of which examples are _Cheirocrinus_
+  (fig. 10) and _Cystoblastus_ from which Jaekel deduces the blastoids;
+  Caryocrinidae.
+
+  Order 4. _Aporita._--Pentamerous symmetry affects the food-grooves and
+  thecal plates; probably also the nerves and ambulacral vessels, but
+  not the gonads. Food-grooves exothecal and circumoral. The stereom
+  shows no trace of canals, folds, rhombs or diplopores. Family:
+  Cryptocrinidae.
+
+  Order 5. _Diploporita._--Radial symmetry affects the food-grooves, and
+  by degrees the thecal plates connected therewith, but not the
+  interradial thecal plates; probably also the nerves and ambulacral
+  vessels, but not the gonads. The food-grooves are epithecal, i.e. are
+  extended over the thecal plates themselves without intermediate
+  flooring; they are also prolonged on exothecal brachioles, which line
+  the epithecal grooves. The stereom of the thecal plates may be thrown
+  into folds, but the mesostroma does not so much tend to lie in strands
+  traversing the sutures, nor are pectini-rhombs or pore-rhombs
+  developed; diplopores are always present in the mesostereom, but often
+  restricted to definite tracts or plates, especially in higher forms.
+  Families: Sphaeronidae; Glyptosphaeridae, e.g. _Fungocystis_ (fig. 9);
+  Protocrinidae; Mesocystidae; Gomphocystidae.
+
+  The Protocrinidae lead up to _Proteroblastus_, in which the theca is
+  ovoid, sometimes prolonged into a stem, the plates differentiated into
+  (a) smooth, irregular, depressed interambulacrals, (b) transversely
+  elongate brachioliferous adambulacrals, to which the diplopores, which
+  lie at right angles to the main food-groove, are confined. This leads
+  almost without a break to the Protoblastoidea.
+
+  Class II. BLASTOIDEA.--Pelmatozoa in which five (by atrophy four)
+  epithecal ciliated grooves, lying on a lancet-shaped plate (? always),
+  radiate from a central peristome between five interradial deltoid
+  plates, and are edged by alternating side-plates bearing brachioles,
+  to which side-branches pass from the grooves. Grooves and peristome
+  protected by small plates, which can open over the grooves. The
+  generative organs and coelom probably did not send extensions along
+  the rays into the brachioles; but apparently nerves from the aboral
+  centre, after passing through the thecal plates, met in a circumoral
+  ring, from which branches passed into the plate under each main
+  food-groove, and thence supplied the brachioles. The thecal plates,
+  however irregular in some species, always show defined basals and a
+  distinct plate ("radial") at the end of each ambulacrum; they are in
+  all cases so far affected by pentamerous symmetry that their sutures
+  never cross the ambulacra. All Palaeozoic.
+
+  Division A. _Protoblastoidea._--Blastoidea without interambulacral
+  groups of hydrospire-folds hanging into the thecal cavity. Families:
+  Asteroblastidae, Blastoidocrinidae. The former might be placed with
+  Diploporita, were it not for a greater intimacy of correlation between
+  ambulacral and thecal structures than is found in Cystidea as here
+  defined. They form a link between the Protocrinidae and--
+
+  Division B. _Eublastoidea._--Blastoidea in which the thecal plates
+  have assumed a definite number and position in 3 circlets, as follows:
+  3 basals, 2 large and 1 small; 5 radials, often fork-shaped, forming a
+  closed circlet; 5 deltoids, interradial in position, supported on the
+  shoulders or processes of the radials, and often surrounding the
+  peristome with their oral ends. The stereom of the radials and
+  deltoids on each side of the ambulacra is thrown into folds, running
+  across the radio-deltoid suture, and hanging down into the thecal
+  cavity as respiratory organs (hydrospires).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 13.--A Eublastoid, _Pentremites_.]
+
+  These are the forms to which the name Blastoidea is usually
+  restricted. They have been divided into Regulares and Irregulares, but
+  it seems possible to group them according to three series or lines of
+  descent, thus:--
+
+  Series a. _Codonoblastida._--Families: Codasteridae, Pentremitidae
+  (fig. 13).
+
+  Series b. _Troostoblastida._--Families: Troostocrinidae,
+  Eleutherocrinidae.
+
+  Series c. _Granatoblastida._--Families: Nucleocrinidae,
+  Orbitremitidae, Pentephyllidae, Zygocrinidae.
+
+  Class III. CRINOIDEA.--Pelmatozoa in which epithecal extensions of the
+  food-grooves, ambulacrals, superficial oral nervous system,
+  blood-vascular and water-vascular systems, coelom and genital system
+  are continued exothecally upon jointed outgrowths of the abactinal
+  thecal plates (_brachia_), carrying with them extensions of the
+  abactinal nerve-system. The number of these processes is primitively
+  and normally five, but may become less by atrophy. The brachia rise
+  from a corresponding number of thecal plates, "radials (RR)." Below
+  these is always a circlet, or traces of a circlet, of plates
+  alternating with the radials, i.e. interradial, and called "basals
+  (BB)." Through all modifications, which are numerous and vastly
+  divergent, these elements persist. A circlet of radially situate
+  infrabasals (IBB) may also be present. Below BB or IBB there follows a
+  stem, which, however, may be atrophied or totally lost (see fig. 1).
+
+  The classification here adopted is that of F.A. Bather (1899), which
+  departs from that of Wachsmuth and Springer mainly in the separation
+  of forms with infrabasals or traces thereof from those in which basals
+  only are present. These two series also differ from each other in the
+  relations of the abactinal nerve-system. O. Jaekel (1894) has divided
+  the crinoids into the orders Cladocrinoidea and Pentacrinoidea, the
+  former being the Camerata of Wachsmuth and Springer (Monocyclica
+  Camerata, Adunata and Dicyclica Camerata of the present
+  classification), and the latter comprising all the rest, in which the
+  arms are either free or only loosely incorporated in the dorsal cup.
+  In minor points there is fair agreement between the American, German
+  and British authors. The families are extinct, except when the
+  contrary is stated.
+
+  Sub-class I. _Monocyclica._--Crinoidea in which the base consists of
+  BB only, the aboral prolongations of the chambered organ being
+  interradial; new columnals are introduced at the extreme proximal end
+  of the stem.
+
+  Order 1. _Monocyclica Inadunata._--Monocyclica in which the dorsal cup
+  is confined to the patina and occasional intercalated anals; such
+  ambulacrals or interambulacrals as enter the tegmen remain
+  supra-tegminal and not rigidly united. Families: Hybocrinidae,
+  Stephanocrinidae, Heterocrinidae, Calceocrinidae, Pisocrinidae,
+  Zophocrinidae, Haplocrinidae, Allagecrinidae, Symbathocrinidae,
+  Belemnocrinidae, Plicatocrinidae, Hyocrinidae (recent), Saccocomidae.
+
+  Order 2. _Adunata._--Monocyclica with dorsal cup primitively confined
+  to the patina and an occasional single anal; tegmen solid; portions of
+  the proximal brachials and their ambulacrals tend to be rigidly
+  incorporated in the theca. Arms fork once to thrice, and bear pinnules
+  on each or on every other brachial. BB fused to 3, 2 or 1.
+  (Eucladocrinus and Acrocrinidae offer peculiar exceptions to this
+  diagnosis.) Families: Platycrinidae, Hexacrinidae, Acrocrinidae.
+
+  Order 3. _Monocyclica Camerata._--Monocyclica in which the first, and
+  often the succeeding, orders of brachials are incorporated by
+  interbrachials in the dorsal cup, while the corresponding ambulacrals
+  are either incorporated in, or pressed below, the tegmen by
+  interambulacrals; all thecal plates united by suture, somewhat loose
+  in the earliest forms, but speedily becoming close, and producing a
+  rigid theca; mouth and tegminal food-grooves closed; arms pinnulate.
+
+    Sub-order i. _Melocrinoidea._--RR in contact all round; first
+    brachial usually quadrangular. Families: Glyptocrinidae,
+    Melocrinidae, Patelliocrinidae, Clonocrinidae, Eucalyptocrinidae,
+    Dolatocrinidae.
+
+    Sub-order ii. _Batocrinoidea._--RR separated by a heptagonal anal;
+    first brachial usually quadrangular. Families: Tanaocrinidae,
+    Xenocrinidae, Carpocrinidae, Barrandeocrinidae, Coelocrinidae,
+    Batocrinidae, Periechocrinidae.
+
+    Sub-order iii. _Actinocrinoidea._--RR separated by a hexagonal anal;
+    first brachial usually hexagonal. Families: Actinocrinidae,
+    Amphoracrinidae.
+
+  Sub-class II. _Dicyclica._--Crinoidea in which the base consists of BB
+  and IBB, the latter being liable to atrophy or fusion with the
+  proximale, but the aboral prolongations of the chambered organ are
+  always radial; new columnals may or may not be introduced at the
+  proximal end of the stem.
+
+  Order 1. _Dicyclica Inadunata._--Dicyclica in which the dorsal cup
+  primitively is confined to the patina and occasional intercalated
+  anals, and no other plates ever occur between RR (Grade: Distincta);
+  Br may be incorporated in the cup, with or without iBr, but never
+  rigidly, and their corresponding ambulacrals remain supra-tegminal
+  (Grade: Articulata); new columnals are introduced at the extreme
+  proximal end of the stem.
+
+    Sub-order i. _Cyathocrinoidea._--Tegmen stout with conspicuous
+    orals. Families: Carabocrinidae, Palaeocrinidae. Euspirocrinidae,
+    Sphaerocrinidae, Cyathocrinidae, Petalocrinidae, Crotalocrinidae,
+    Codiacrinidae, Cupressocrinidae, Gasterocomidae.
+
+    Sub-order ii. _Dendrocrinoidea._--Tegmen thin, flexible, with
+    inconspicuous orals. Families: Dendrocrinidae, Botryocrinidae,
+    Lophocrinidae, Scaphiocrinidae, Scytalecrinidae, Graphiocrinidae,
+    Cromyocrinidae, Encrinidae (preceding families are Distincta; the
+    rest Articulata), Pentacrinidae, including the recent _Isocrinus_
+    (fig. 14), Uintacrinidae, Marsupitidae, Bathycrinidae (recent).
+
+  Order 2. _Flexibilia._--Dicyclica in which proximal brachials are
+  incorporated in the dorsal cup, either by their own sides, or by
+  interbrachials, or by a finely plated skin, but never rigidly; plates
+  may occur between RR. Tegmen flexible, with distinct ambulacrals and
+  numerous small interambulacrals; mouth and food-grooves remain
+  supra-tegminal and open. Top columnal a persistent proximale, often
+  fusing with IBB, which are frequently atrophied in the adult.
+
+  All the Palaeozoic representatives have non-pinnulate arms, while the
+  Mesozoic and later forms have them pinnulate. There are other points
+  of difference, so that it is not certain whether the latter really
+  descended from the former. But assuming such a relationship we arrange
+  them in two grades.
+
+    Grade a. _Impinnata._--Families: Ichthyocrinidae, Sagenocrinidae,
+    and Taxocrinidae, perhaps capable of further division.
+
+    Grade b. _Pinnata._--Families: Apiocrinidae with the recent
+    _Calamocrinus_, Bourgueticrinidae with recent _Rhizocrinus_,
+    Antedonidae, Atelecrinidae, Actinometridae, Thaumatocrinidae (these
+    four recent families include free-moving forms with atrophied stem,
+    probably derived from different ancestors), Eugeniacrinidae,
+    Holopodidae (recent), Eudesicrinidae.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 14.--A living Pentacrinid, _Isocrinus asteria_;
+  the first specimen found, after Guettard's figure published in 1761.]
+
+  Order 3. _Dicyclica Camerata._--Dicyclica in which the first, and
+  usually the second, orders of brachials are incorporated in the dorsal
+  cup by interbrachials, at first loosely, but afterwards by close
+  suture. IBB always the primitive 5. An anal plate always rests on the
+  posterior basal; mouth and tegminal food-grooves closed; arms
+  pinnulate. Families: Reteocrinidae, Dimerocrinidae, Lampterocrinidae,
+  Rhodocrinidae, Cleiocrinidae.
+
+  Class IV. EDRIOASTEROIDEA.--Pelmatozoa in which the theca is composed
+  of an indefinite number of irregular plates, some of which are
+  variously differentiated in different genera; with no subvective
+  skeletal appendages, but with central mouth, from which there radiate
+  through the theca five unbranched ambulacra, composed of a double
+  series of alternating plates (covering-plates), sometimes supported by
+  an outer series of larger alternating plates (side-plates or
+  flooring-plates). In some forms at least, pores between (not through)
+  the ambulacral elements, or between them and the thecal plates, seem
+  to have permitted the passage of extensions from the perradial
+  water-vessels. Anus in posterior interradius, on oral surface, closed
+  by valvular pyramid. Hydropore (usually, if not always, present)
+  between mouth and anus. Families: Agelacrinidae, Cyathocystidae,
+  Edrioasteridae, Steganoblastidae. All Palaeozoic. The structure and
+  importance of _Edrioaster_ have been discussed above (figs. 11, 12).
+
+  Grade B. ELEUTHEROZOA--Echinoderma in which the theca, which may be
+  but slightly or not at all calcified, is not attached by any portion
+  of its surface, but is usually placed with the oral surface downwards
+  or in the direction of forward locomotion. Food is not conveyed by a
+  subvective system of ciliated grooves, but is taken in directly by the
+  mouth. The anus when present is typically aboral, and approaches the
+  mouth only in a few specialized forms. The aboral nervous system, if
+  indeed it be present at all, is very slightly developed. The
+  circumoesophageal water-ring may lose its connexion with the exterior
+  medium; the podia (absent only in some exceptional forms) may be
+  locomotor, respiratory or sensory in function, but usually are
+  locomotor tube-feet.
+
+  The classes of the Eleutherozoa probably arose independently from
+  different branches of the Pelmatozoan stem. The precise relation is
+  not clear, but the order in which they are here placed is believed to
+  be from the more primitive to the more specialized.
+
+  Class I. HOLOTHURIOIDEA.--Eleutherozoa normally elongate along the
+  oro-anal axis, which axis and the dorsal hydropore lie in the sagittal
+  plane of a secondary bilateral symmetry. The calcareous skeleton,
+  which may be entirely absent, is usually in the form of minute
+  spicules, sometimes of small irregular plates with no trace of a
+  calycinal or apical system; to these is added a ring of pieces
+  radiately arranged round the oesophagus. Ambulacral appendages take
+  the form of: (1) circumoral tentacles, (2) sucking-feet, (3) papillae;
+  of these (1) alone is always present. The gonads are not radiately
+  disposed.
+
+  The comparative anatomy of living forms, combined with the
+  evolutionary hypothesis sketched above, suggests that the early
+  holothurians possessed the following characters: subvective grooves
+  entirely closed; 5 radial canals, proceeding from the water-ring, gave
+  off branches furnished with ampullae to the podia on each side of
+  them, the 10 anterior podia being changed into cylindrical tentacles;
+  the transverse muscles of the body-wall formed a circular layer,
+  probably interrupted at the radii (though Ludwig believes the
+  contrary); longitudinal muscles as paired radial bands, without those
+  special retractors for withdrawing the anterior part of the body which
+  occur in many recent forms; a hydropore connected with the water-ring
+  by a canal in the dorsal mesentery; a gonopore behind the hydropore
+  connected by a single duct with a bunch of genital pouches on each
+  side of the mesentery; gut dextrally coiled, with a simple
+  blood-vascular system, and with an enlargement at the anus for
+  respiration, this eventually producing branched caeca called
+  "respiratory trees"; skeleton reduced to a ring of 5 radial and 5
+  interradial plates round the gullet, and small plates, with a
+  hexagonally meshed network, dispersed through the integument. Such a
+  form gave rise to descendants differing _inter se_ as regards the
+  suppression of the radial canals and of the podia, the form of the
+  tentacles, and the development of respiratory trees. These anatomical
+  facts are represented in the following classification by H. Ludwig:--
+
+  Order 1. _Actinopoda._--Radial canals supplying tentacles and podia.
+
+    A. With respiratory trees.
+                                    /Fam. 1, Holothuriidae.
+         (a) With podia            < Fam. 4, Cucumariidae.
+                                    \Fam. 5, Molpadiidae.
+         (b) Without podia
+
+    B. Without respiratory trees.
+         (a) With podia              Fam. 2, Elpidiidae.
+         (b) Without podia           Fam. 3, Pelagothuriidae.
+
+  Order 2. _Paractinopoda._--Neither radial canals nor podia. Tentacles
+  supplied from circular canal. Fam. Synaptidae.
+
+  It is admitted, however, that this scheme does not represent the
+  probable descent or relationship of the families. Consideration of the
+  views of Ludwig himself, of H. Östergren, and especially of R.
+  Perrier, suggests the following as a more natural if less obvious
+  arrangement.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 15.--An Aspidochirote Holothurian of the family
+  _Holothuriidae_, showing the mouth surrounded by tentacles, the anus
+  at the other end of the body, and three of the rows of podia.]
+
+  Order 1. _Aspidochirota._--Tentacles more or less peltate; calcareous
+  ring when present simple and radially symmetrical; no retractors;
+  stone-canal often opens to exterior; genital tubes sometimes
+  restricted to left side in consequence of altered position of gut
+  (Fig. 15.) Families: Elpidiidae (deep-sea forms, with sub-famm.
+  Synallactinae, Deimatinae, Elpidiinae, Psychropotinae), Holothuriidae
+  (shallow water), Pelagothuriidae (pelagic).
+
+  Order 2. _Dendrochirota._--Tentacles simple or branched, never
+  peltate; calcareous ring well developed, often bilaterally
+  symmetrical; retractor muscles usually present; stone-canal opens
+  internally; genital tubes in right and left tufts.
+
+    Sub-order i. _Apoda._--No tube-feet or papillae, but tentacular
+    ampullae more or less developed. Mostly burrowers. Families:
+    Synaptidae (sub-famm. Synaptinae, Chirodotinae, Myriotrochinae),
+    Molpadiidae.
+
+    Sub-order ii. _Eupoda._--Tube-feet present, but tentacular ampullae
+    rudimentary or absent. Families: Cucumariidae (climbers and
+    crawlers), Rhopalodinidae (burrowers).
+
+  Class II. STELLIFORMIA (= ASTEROIDEA _sensu lato_).--Eleutherozoa with
+  a depressed stellate body composed of a central disk, whence radiate
+  five or more rays; this radiate symmetry affects all the systems of
+  organs, including the genital. The radial water-vessels lie in grooves
+  on the ventral side of flooring-plates (usually called "ambulacrals");
+  they and their podia are limited to the oral surface of the body and
+  their extremities are separated from the apical plates by a stretch
+  of dorsal integument containing skeletal elements; the opening of the
+  water-vascular system (madreporite) is not connected with a definite
+  apical plate or system of plates.
+
+  The starfish, brittle-stars and their allies (see STARFISH) have for
+  the last fifty years usually been divided into two classes--Asteroidea
+  and Ophiuroidea, each equivalent to the Holothurioidea or Echinoidea.
+  Recently, however, some authors, e.g. Gregory, have attempted to show
+  that these classes cannot be distinguished. It is true that some
+  specialized forms, such as the _Brisingidae_ among starfish,
+  _Astrophiura_ and _Ophioteresis_ among ophiurans, contravene the usual
+  diagnoses; but this neither obscures their systematic position, nor
+  does it alter the fact that since early Palaeozoic times these two
+  great groups of stellate echinoderms have evolved along separate
+  lines. If then we place these groups in a single class, it is not on
+  account of a few anomalous genera, but because the characters set
+  forth above sharply distinguish them from all other echinoderms, and
+  because we have good reason to believe that the ophiurans did not
+  arise independently but have descended from primitive starfish. For
+  that class Bell's name Stelliformia is selected since it avoids both
+  confusion and barbarism.
+
+  Sub-class I. _Asterida._--Stelliformia in which the ambulacral groove
+  always remains open and the podia serve as tube-feet (fig. 12, B); the
+  rays as a rule pass gradually into the disk, and contain both genital
+  glands and caecal extensions of the digestive system; an anus usually
+  present; respiration is by tubular extensions from the body-cavity
+  (papulae); skeletal appendages, in addition to small spines, are
+  either small grasping organs (pedicellariae), or clumped spines
+  (paxillae), or branched spines bearing a membrane.
+
+  No existing classification of the Asterida is satisfactory even for
+  the recent forms, still less when the older fossils are considered. A
+  separation of the latter as Palasterida, because of their alternating
+  ambulacrals, from the recent Euasterida with opposite ambulacrals, is
+  now discarded and an attempt made to arrange the Palasterida in
+  divisions originally established for Euasterida. Those divisions fall
+  under three schemes. C. Viguier has divided the starfish into:
+  _Astéries ambulacraires_, with plates of ambulacral origin prominent
+  in the mouth-skeleton, pedicellariae stalked, and straight or crossed,
+  podial pores usually quadriserial; _Astéries adambulacraires_, with
+  adambulacrals prominent in the mouth-skeleton, pedicellariae sessile,
+  and forcipiform or valvular, podial pores usually biserial. Perrier,
+  at first laying greater stress on the nature of the pedicellariae and
+  afterwards on the form of the mouth-skeleton, has gradually perfected
+  a scheme of five orders: (1) _Forcipulata_, with pedicellariae
+  stalked, and straight or crossed; (2) _Spinulosa_, with pedicellariae
+  sessile and forcipiform; (3) _Velata_, with membraniferous spines; (4)
+  _Paxillosa_, pedicellariae represented by an ossicle of the test and
+  the spines covering it, the whole forming a paxilla; (5) _Valvata_ or
+  _Granulosa_, with pedicellariae sessile and valvular or salt-cellar
+  shaped. A more widely accepted scheme is that of W.P. Sladen, who
+  divided the Euasterida into two orders; (1) _Phanerozonia_, with
+  marginals large and highly developed, the supero-marginals and
+  infero-marginals contiguous, with papulae confined to the dorsal
+  surface, with ambulacrals well spaced and usually broad, adambulacrals
+  prominent in the mouth-skeleton, with pedicellariae sessile; (2)
+  _Cryptozonia_, with marginals inconspicuous and somewhat atrophied in
+  the adult, the supero-marginals separated from the infero-marginals by
+  intercalated plates, with papulae distributed over the whole body,
+  with ambulacrals crowded and narrow, either ambulacrals or
+  adambulacrals prominent in the mouth-skeleton, with pedicellariae
+  stalked or sessile.
+
+  We give here a list of the families separated into Sladen's orders and
+  grouped under Perrier's divisions, extinct families being marked [+].
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Section across the arm-skeleton of a
+  Phanerozonate Asterid, _Astropecten_.
+
+    a, Ambulacral plates.
+    b, Adambulacral plates.
+    c and d, Inferior and superior lateral plates.
+    e, Dorsal plates with paxillae. Certain supra-ambulacral plates,
+      which also exist, are not shown.]
+
+  1. _Phanerozonia._--_Unclassed Famm._, [+] Palaeasteridae, [+]
+  Palasterinidae, [+] Taeniasteridae, [+] Aspidosomatidae. _Paxillosa_,
+  Luidiidae, Astropectinidae (fig. 16), Archasteridae restr. Verrill,
+  Porcellanasteridae, Chaetasteridae. _Valvata_, Benthopectinidae,
+  Goniopectinidae, Plutonasteridae, Odontasteridae, Pentagonasteridae,
+  Antheneidae, Pentacerotidae, Gymnasteriidae. _Spinulosa_, Poraniidae,
+  Asterinidae.
+
+  2. _Cryptozonia._--_Unclassed Famm._, [+] Sturtzasteridae (=
+  Palaeocomidae Greg.), [+] Lepidasteridae, [+] Tropidasteridae.
+  _Valvata_, Linckiidae restr. Perr. _Spinulosa_, Echinasteridae,
+  Solasteridae (fig. 17), Korethrasteridae. _Velata_, [+]
+  Palasteriscidae, Pterasteridae, Pythonasteridae, Myxasteridae.
+  _Forcipulata_, Stichasteridae, Zoroasteridae (fig. 3, D),
+  Heliasteridae, Pedicellasteridae, Asteriidae, Brisingidae.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 17.--A Cryptozonate Asterid, _Solaster papposus_,
+  from the upper or dorsal surface.]
+
+  Sub-class II. _Ophiurida._--Stelliformia in which the ambulacral
+  groove, though open in the oldest forms, soon becomes closed, while
+  the podia cease to serve as tube-feet; the rays as a rule spring
+  abruptly from the disk and contain neither genital glands nor
+  digestive caeca; no anus; respiration may be through clefts at the
+  bases of the rays, but not by papulae; skeletal appendages confined to
+  spines, usually of simple structure.
+
+  There is as yet no satisfactory classification of the Ophiurida into
+  orders expressing lines of descent; even as regards families, leading
+  writers are at variance. The following scheme is based on the attempts
+  of E. Haeckel, F.J. Bell, J.W. Gregory, B. Stürtz, J.O.E. Perrier, and
+  A.E. Verrill. Extinct families marked [+].
+
+  Grade A. _Palophiurae._--Ambulacrals not yet forming complete
+  vertebrae; plates of disk not yet specialized into mouth, radial or
+  genital shields.
+
+    Stage a. _Allostichia_ (= Lysophiurae).--Ambulacrals alternating and
+    unfused, groove uncovered by ventral arm-plates. Families: [+]
+    Protasteridae, [+] Protophiuridae.
+
+    Stage b. _Zygostichia._--Ambulacrals opposite and, except in
+    Ophiurinidae, fused; ventral arm-plates developed in some. Families:
+    [+] Ophiurinidae, [+] Lapworthuridae, [+] Furcasteridae, [+]
+    Palastropectinidae, [+] Eoluididae, [+] Palaeophiomyxidae.
+
+  Grade B. _Colophiurae._--Ambulacral pairs fused to form vertebrae with
+  definite articular surfaces; mouth, radial and genital shields
+  developed, though not all need be present in any one form.
+
+  Order 1. _Streptophiurae._--Rays simple and capable of coiling, since
+  the vertebrae articulate by a ball-and-socket joint; arm-plates
+  incompletely developed. Families: [+] Onychasteridae, Ophiohelidae,
+  Ophioscolecidae, Ophiomyxidae, Hemieuryalidae, Astrophiuridae;
+  unclassified genera, e.g. _Ophioteresis_, _Ophiosciasma_,
+  _Ophiogeron_.
+
+  Order 2. _Zygophiurae._--Rays simple and prevented from coiling by
+  processes on the vertebral joints (fig. 18); dorsal, ventral and
+  lateral arm-plates present.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 18.--A vertebral arm-ossicle (fused ambulacrals)
+  of a Zygophiuran, _Ophiolepis_.
+
+    A, Proximal joint-face.
+    B, Distal joint-face.
+    c, Ventral groove, where lies the water-vessel, from which branches
+      pass through the ossicle, emerging as podia at e and e.]
+
+    Sub-order i. _Brachyophiurae._--Spines short, simple, pointing
+    towards the end of the arm. Families: Pectinuridae (=
+    Ophiodermatidae), Ophiolepididae.
+
+    Sub-order ii. _Nectophiurae._--Spines may be variously elaborated
+    and are set more at right angles to the arm-axis. Families:
+    Amphiuridae, Ophiacanthidae, Ophiocomidae, Ophiothrichidae.
+
+  Order 3. _Cladophiurae_ (= Euryalae). Rays simple or branched, capable
+  of coiling, since the vertebrae articulate by surfaces of hour-glass
+  shape; ventral arm-plates, and often the others, much reduced; spines
+  reduced or absent. Families: Euryalidae, Gorgonocephalidae,
+  Astrochelidae, Astroschemidae, Astronycidae.
+
+  The Silurian genera _Eucladia_ and _Euthemon_ have the rays greatly
+  reduced and merged in the disk, so that the ambulacrals are unseen.
+  There are a few large dorsal, lateral and ventral arm-plates, and at
+  the angles of the latter emerge huge podia with a granular or plated
+  skin. There are five prominent mouth-shields and a separate
+  madreporite on the ventral surface. These genera attained the
+  Colophiuran grade in respect of external plating, but it is unlikely
+  that they or their ancestors had acquired even the Streptophiuran
+  type of vertebra. Sollas has separated them as an order _Ophiocistia_.
+
+  Class III. ECHINOIDEA.--Eleutherozoa with a test of roughly circular,
+  subpentagonal or elliptical outline, spheroidal, domed or flattened,
+  of primary pentameric symmetry affecting all systems of organs except
+  the gut. The radial water-vessels lie within the test through which
+  their podia pass (fig. 12, D); the ambulacra thus formed are
+  continuous from the peristome to the apical system of plates; the
+  hydropore is connected with a definite plate of that system, and thus
+  marks a secondary bilateral symmetry. An anus is present either within
+  the apical system (endocyclic, fig. 3, A and B), or outside it in an
+  interradius (exocyclic, fig. 19, 7), thus initiating yet another
+  bilateral symmetry. Skeletal appendages are spines (radioles),
+  pedicellariae, and, in some forms, minute sense-organs called
+  sphaeridia.
+
+  The echinoids or sea-archins (see SEA-URCHIN) may be grouped under the
+  following orders, here named in the sequence of their appearance in
+  the rocks.
+
+  Order 1. _Bothriocidaroida._--Ambulacrals simple, each with two pores
+  vertically superposed, 2 columns to each ambulacrum; interambulacrals
+  multi-tuberculate, in 1 column, none passing on to or resorbed by the
+  peristome; mouth central, jaws unknown, no external gills or
+  sphaeridia; anus aboral, endocyclic. Sole genus _Bothriocidaris_ (fig.
+  5), Ordovician.
+
+  Order 2. _Melonitoida._--Ambulacrals simple, each with two pores
+  horizontally juxtaposed, in 2 to 18 columns; interambulacrals
+  granulate with occasional tubercles, in 3 to 11 columns, not more than
+  one row passing on to the peristome; mouth central, with jaws, no
+  external gills or sphaeridia; anus aboral, endocyclic. Families:
+  Palechinidae (fig. 19, 1), Melonitidae and Lepidesthidae, Silurian to
+  Carboniferous.
+
+  Order 3. _Cystocidaroida._--Ambulacrals simple, each with one or two
+  pores, which sometimes pass between rather than through the plates, in
+  2 columns; interambulacrals, uni- or multi-tuberculate, in numerous
+  (say 10 or more) columns, none passing on to peristome; mouth central
+  with jaws, no external gills or sphaeridia; position of anus doubtful,
+  acyclic, i.e. no apical system so far as known. Include only
+  _Echinocystis_, _Palaeodiscus_ and (?) _Myriastiches_, all Upper
+  Silurian.
+
+  Order 4. _Cidaroida._--Ambulacrals simple, each with two pores
+  horizontally juxtaposed, in 2 columns; interambulacrals
+  unituberculate, in 2 to 11 columns, some rows may pass on to the
+  peristome; mouth central, with jaws, no external gills or sphaeridia;
+  anus aboral, endocyclic. Families: Lepidocentridae and
+  Archaeocidaridae (fig. 19, 2), Devonian and Carboniferous; Cidaridae
+  (fig. 19, 3, 4). Permian to present; Diplocidaridae and Tiarechinidae,
+  Mesozoic.
+
+  Order 5. _Diademoida._--Ambulacrals generally compound, with two pores
+  obliquely juxtaposed, in 2 columns as in all subsequent orders;
+  interambulacrals usually with large radioles surrounded by smaller
+  ones, as in Cidaroida, in 2 columns as in all subsequent orders, only
+  one plate resorbed; mouth central, with jaws and external gills,
+  sphaeridia present; anus aboral endocyclic. J.W. Gregory divides this
+  into four suborders, each representing a distinct evolutionary series;
+  i. _Calycina_, Saleniidae (fig. 19, 5) and Acrosaleniidae; ii.
+  _Arbacina_, Hemicidaridae and Arbaciidae; iii. _Diademina_,
+  Orthopsidae, Diadematidae, Diplopodiidae, Pedinidae, Cyphosomatidae,
+  and Echinothuridae; iv. _Echinina_, Temnopleuridae, Triplechinidae,
+  Strongylocentrotidae and Echinometridae. The order is Triassic to
+  Recent.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 19.--Denuded tests of some fossil Echinoids.
+
+    1, _Palaeechinus_; Carboniferous.
+    2, A plate and radiole of _Archaeocidaris_; Carboniferous.
+    3, A radiole of _Cidaris_; Jurassic.
+    4, _Hemicidaris_; Mid. Jurassic.
+    5, _Salenia_; Cretaceous.
+    6, _Dysaster_; Jurassic.
+    7, _Enallaster_: Cretaceous.
+    8, _Catopygus_; Cretaceous.]
+
+  Order 6. _Holectypoida._--Ambulacrals sometimes compound, with one or
+  two pores to a plate, some dorsal podia begin to assume respiratory
+  function; interambulacrals multi-tuberculate, none resorbed; mouth
+  central, with jaws weak or wanting, with external gills and
+  sphaeridia; anus exocyclic. Families: Pygasteridae, Discoidiidae,
+  Galeritidae, Conoclypeidae; Jurassic to Recent.
+
+  Order 7. _Spatangoida._--Ambulacrals simple, with two pores
+  juxtaposed, dorsal podia respiratory; interambulacrals bearing
+  numerous small spines, none resorbed; mouth central or shifted
+  forwards, with no jaws or external gills, sphaeridia numerous; anus
+  exocyclic. As the mouth moves forward and the anus downward, the
+  posterior interambulacrals between them are enlarged and strengthened
+  so as to form a sternum. The order may therefore be divided into: (i.)
+  _Asternata_, Famm. Echinoneidae, Nucleolitidae and Cassidulidae (fig.
+  19, 8); (ii.) _Sternata_, Famm. Collyritidae (fig. 19, 6),
+  Echinocorytidae, Spatangidae (fig. 19, 7), Palaeostomidae, and
+  Pourtalesiidae; Jurassic to Recent.
+
+  Order 8. _Clypeastroida._--Ambulacrals simple or compound, with two
+  pores juxtaposed, dorsal podia respiratory; interambulacrals
+  multi-tuberculate, none resorbed; mouth central with flattened unequal
+  jaws, reduced external gills, and few sphaeridia; anus exocyclic.
+  Families: Fibulariidae, Laganidae, Scutellidae, Clypeastridae;
+  Cretaceous to Recent.
+                                                                           _
+    Cambrian                                                                |
+                                                                            |
+                                                                            |
+    Ordovician       BOTHRIOCIDAROIDA (jaws unknown)                        |
+                        /       \                                           |
+                       /         \                                    columns
+    Silurian   MELONITOIDEA       \                                   unfixed
+                    #      CYSTO-  \                                       in
+                    ##     CIDAR-   \                                  number
+                    ###     OIDA     \                                      |
+    Devonian        ###           CIDAROIDA                                 |
+                    ###           #                                         |
+                    ###           #                                         |
+    Carboniferous   ###           ##\                                      _|
+                    ##            ## \
+                    ##            ##  \                                    _
+    Permian         #             ##   \                                    |
+                                  ##    \                                   |
+    Trias                         ##  DIADEMOIDA                      columns
+                                  ##  #       \                            20
+    Jurassic                      ##  ##        \  HOLECTYPOIDA             |
+                                  ##  ###               / #  \ SPATANGOIDEA |
+    Cretacious                    ##  ### CLYPEASTROIDEA  #   \     #       |
+                                  ##  ###       #         ##        ##      |
+    Tertiary                      ##  ###       ##        ##        ###     |
+                                  ##  ###       ###       #         ###     |
+    Recent                        ##  ###       ###       #         ####   _|
+
+             |----------jaws lofty--------|  jaws flat-reduced ---- lost
+
+             |------abranchiate-----| |-----branchiate-----| |-lipobranchiate-|
+
+             |----no sphaeridia-----| |--------------sphaeridia---------------|
+
+             |-------endocyclic---------| |------------exocyclic--------------|
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 20.]
+
+  The probable relationship of these orders is shown in the annexed
+  table. Here the Cystocidaroida occupy an isolated position. It is,
+  however, quite possible that _Echinocystis_ may some day be referred
+  to the Cidaroida, and _Palaeodiscus_ to the Melonitoida. This would
+  leave the Echinoid scheme remarkably simple, with the Melonitoida and
+  Cidaroida as divergent branches from an ancestor like
+  _Bothriocidaris_; but while the former branch soon decayed, the latter
+  continues to flourish at the present day. To take the Echinoidea now
+  living, and to divide them into Endocyclica and Exocyclica, Branchiate
+  and Abranchiate, Gnathostomata and Atelostomata, is easy and
+  convenient; or again to distinguish as Palechinoidea those
+  pre-Jurassic genera which do not conform to the fixed type of twenty
+  vertical columns found in the later Euechinoidea, is to express an
+  interesting fact; but all such divisions obscure the true
+  relationships, and the corresponding terms should be recognized as
+  descriptive rather than classificatory.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--In addition to the works referred to at the beginning of
+  the article, the following deal with the general subject: Bather,
+  Gregory and Goodrich, "Echinoderma," in Lankester's _Treatise on
+  Zoology_ (London, 1900); F.J. Bell, _Catalogue of the British
+  Echinoderms in the British Museum_ (London, 1892); P.H. Carpenter,
+  "Notes on Echinoderm Morphology," _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._,
+  1878-1887; Y. Delage and E. Hérouard, _Traité de zoologie concrète,
+  iii., Échinodermes_ (Paris, 1904); A. Lang, _Text-Book of Comparative
+  Anatomy_, transl., part ii. (London, 1896); Ludwig and Hamann,
+  "Echinodermen," in Bronn's _Klassen und Ordnungen des Tierreichs_
+  (Leipzig, 1889), in progress; M. Neumayr, _Die Stämme des Tierreiches_
+  (Wien, 1889); P.B. and C.F. Sarasin, "Über die Anatomie der
+  Echinothuriden und die Phylogenie der Echinodermen," _Ergebnisse
+  naturw. Forsch. auf Ceylon_, Bd. i Heft 3 (Wiesbaden, 1888); R. Semon,
+  "Die Homologien innerhalb des Echinodermenstammes," _Morph. Jahrb._
+  (1889); W.P. Sladen, "Homologies of the Primary Larval Plates in the
+  Test of Brachiate Echinoderms," _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._, 1884; K.A.
+  v. Zittel, _Handbuch der ... Paläozoologie_, i. pp. 308-560 (München,
+  1879); also Grundzüge, translated and revised by C.R. Eastman as
+  _Text-Book of Palaeontology_ (New York and London, 1899). The larger
+  treatises here mentioned contain very full bibliographies, and a
+  complete analytical index to the annual literature of the Echinoderma
+  has for many years been published in the _Zoological Record_ (London).
+       (F. A. B.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Sometimes called "Echinodermata," a Greek name meaning
+    "sea-urchin-skins," which was invented by J.T. Klein (1734) to denote
+    the tests of the Echini or sea-urchins; its later use for the animals
+    themselves, or for the whole phylum, was an error in both history and
+    etymology.
+
+
+
+
+ECHINUS (Gr. for "hedge-hog" or "sea-urchin"), in architecture, the
+convex moulding which supports the abacus of the Doric column. The term
+is sometimes given to the _ovolo_ of the Ionic capital, especially when
+curved with the egg-and-tongue enrichment. The origin of this use of the
+word in architecture, which comes down from ancient times, is uncertain.
+
+
+
+
+ECHIUROIDEA (Gr. [Greek: echis], adder, and [Greek: oura], tail), the
+zoological name for a small group of marine animals which show in their
+larval life-history a certain degree of segmentation, and are therefore
+grouped by some authorities as Annelids. Formerly, together with the
+Sipunculoidea and Priapuloidea, they made up the class Gephyrea, but on
+the ground that they retain in the adult a large preoral lobe (the
+proboscis), that they have anal vesicles, that their anus is terminal,
+that setae are found, and finally that they are segmented in the larval
+stage, they have been removed from the class, which by the proposed
+further separation of the Priapuloidea on account of their unique renal
+and reproductive organs, has practically ceased to exist.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--A, _Bonellia viridis_, Rol., [female]; B, B.
+_fuliginosa_. Both natural size. a, grooved proboscis; b, mouth; c,
+ventral hooks; d, anus.]
+
+Echiuroids are animals of moderate size, varying roughly from one to six
+or seven centimetres in length, exclusive of the proboscis. This organ
+is capable of very considerable extension, and may attain a length in
+_Bonellia viridis_ of about a metre and a half (fig. 1). It is grooved
+ventrally and ciliated. At its attachment to the body the groove sinks
+into the mouth. In _Bonellia_ the proboscis is forked at its free end,
+but in the other genera it is short and unforked. The body is somewhat
+sausage-shaped, with the anus at the posterior extremity, surrounded in
+_Echiurus_ by a single or double ring of setae. The skin is usually
+wrinkled, and in _B. viridis_, _Thalassema lankesteri_, _Th. baronii_,
+_Hamingia arctica_, and in the larva of many species, is of a lively
+green colour. A pair of curved bristles, formed in true setal sacs as in
+Chaetopoda, project from the body a short distance behind the mouth, and
+are moved by special muscles; they are of use in helping the animal to
+move slowly about, and they take a large share in the burrowing
+movements (C.B. Wilson, _Biol. Bull._, 1900), for some species tunnel in
+the mud and sand and form more or less permanent burrows, the walls of
+which are strengthened by mucus secreted from the skin. The openings of
+the burrows become silted up, leaving, however, a small aperture through
+which the proboscis is extruded. This organ carefully searches the
+neighbourhood for particles of food. When these are found the grooved
+proboscis folds its walls inwards, and the cilia pass the particles down
+the tube thus formed to the mouth. Echiuroids also move by extending the
+proboscis, which takes hold of some fixed object, and, then contracting,
+draws the body forwards. Recently it has been shown that _Echiurus_
+swims freely at night-time, using for locomotion both the proboscis and
+the contraction of the muscles of its body-wall. The motion is described
+as "gyratory," and the anterior end is always carried foremost. Those
+species which do not burrow usually conceal themselves in crevices of
+the rocks or under stones, or at times in empty Mollusc or Echinid
+shells. They are occasionally used by fishermen for bait.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Female _Bonellia viridis_, Rol. Opened along the
+left side.
+
+  a, Proboscis cut short.
+  b, Bristle passing through the mouth into the pharynx.
+  c, Coiled intestine.
+  d, Anal tufts or vesicles.
+  e, Ventral nerve cord.
+  f, Ovary borne on ventral vessel running parallel with e.
+  g, Position of anus.
+  h, Position of external opening of nephridium.
+  i, Nephridium--the line points towards, but does not reach, the
+    internal opening.]
+
+  _Anatomy_ (fig. 2).--A thin cuticle covers the epidermis, which
+  contains mucus-secreting glands. Beneath the epidermis is a layer of
+  circular muscles, then a layer of longitudinal, and finally in some
+  cases a layer of oblique muscle-fibres. The inner face of this
+  muscular skin is lined by a layer of epithelium. The coelomic
+  body-cavity is spacious. It does not extend into the proboscis, which
+  is a solid organ traversed by the nervous and vascular rings, but
+  otherwise largely built up of muscle fibres and connective tissue.
+  Many sense-cells lie in the epidermis. The ciliated ventral groove of
+  the proboscis leads at its base into the simple mouth, which gives
+  access to the thin-walled alimentary canal. This is longer than the
+  body, and to tuck it away it is looped from side to side. The loops
+  are supported by strands of connective tissue, which in some species
+  are united so as to form a dorsal mesentery, whilst traces of a
+  ventral mesentery are met with anteriorly and posteriorly (H.L.
+  Jameson, _Zool. Jahrb. Anat._, 1899). The alimentary canal is
+  divisible into fore-gut, mid-gut and hind-gut, and the first-named can
+  be further divided into pharynx, oesophagus, gizzard and crop, mainly
+  on histological grounds. The mid-gut is characterized by the presence
+  of a ciliated groove, from which arises the collateral intestine or
+  siphon, a second tube which rejoins the alimentary canal lower down.
+  Similar collateral intestines are familiar in the Echinids and certain
+  Polychaets (Capitellidae). The rectum receives the openings of a pair
+  of very characteristic organs, the anal vesicles. Each consists of a
+  branching tube, the tips of whose twigs terminate in minute ciliated
+  funnels. The anal vesicles are thought to be excretory; whether this
+  be so or not, they undoubtedly have some influence on the amount of
+  fluid found in the coelom. The coelomic fluid contains as a rule both
+  amoeboid and rounded corpuscles, and, when ripe, the products of the
+  gonads. A closed system of vessels, usually called the vascular
+  system, is present. There are, however, no capillaries connected with
+  this, and it is confined to certain portions of the body. It can
+  possess few of the functions usually associated with a vascular
+  system, and its main use is probably to assist in the expansion of the
+  proboscis. The system consists of the following parts:--A dorsal
+  vessel applied to the alimentary canal is continued anteriorly into a
+  median vessel, which traverses the proboscis to its tip. Here the
+  vessel splits, and each half returns along the lateral edge of the
+  proboscis; they reunite around the oesophagus and form a single
+  ventral vessel, which lies above the ventral nerve-cord. The ventral
+  vessel, which ends solidly behind, sends off a branch which forms a
+  ring around the intestine and opens into the posterior extremity of
+  the dorsal vessel. In _Echiurus_ and _Thalassema_ the same vessel
+  forms a ring round a stout muscle, which connects the bases of the two
+  ventral setae before passing to surround the intestine. Amoeboid
+  corpuscles float in the fluid contents. The nephridia vary in number
+  from a single one in _Bonellia_ to three pairs in many species of
+  _Thalassema_. Their external openings are ventral, and on the same
+  level as the ciliated funnel-shaped nephrostomes. The posterior wall
+  of the organ is produced into a long blind sac, which is lined by
+  secretory cells. The nervous system is a single ventral cord, which
+  starts from a circumoesophageal ring. This ring is involved in the
+  growth of the proboscis, and is drawn out with it. Thus there is a
+  lateral nerve near each edge of the proboscis which unites with its
+  fellow dorsally above the oesophagus at the tip of the proboscis, and
+  ventrally beneath the oesophagus, where they fuse to form the ventral
+  nerve-cord. There are no specialized ganglia, but ganglion-cells are
+  scattered uniformly along the nerve-cords. The ventral cord gives off
+  rings, which run into the skin at regular intervals. The reproductive
+  cells are modified coelomic cells, which lie on the ventral vessel.
+  They escape into the coelomic fluid and there develop. When mature
+  they leave the body through the nephridia. _Bonellia_ and _Hamingia_
+  are very interesting examples of sexual dimorphism. The female has the
+  normal Echiuroid structure, but the male is reduced to a minute,
+  flattened, planarian-like organism, which passes its life usually in
+  the company of two or three others in a special recess of the
+  nephridia of the female. Its structure may be gathered by a reference
+  to fig. 3.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Adult male, _Bonellia viridis_, Rol. The
+  original was 1.5 mm. long. The nervous system is not shown. (After
+  Selenka.)
+
+    a, Generative pore with spermatozoa coming out.
+    b, Anterior blind end of intestine attached to the parenchymatous
+      tissue by muscular strands.
+    c, Green wandering cells containing chlorophyll.
+    d, Parenchymatous connective tissue.
+    e, Epidermis.
+    i, Intestine.
+    j, Vas deferens.
+    l, Internal opening of vas deferens.
+    m, The left anal vesicle.
+    n, Spermatozoa in the body-cavity.]
+
+  _Larva._--The larva is a typical trochosphere, which, although of a
+  temporary character, shows a distinct segmentation of the mesoblast,
+  of the nervous system, and of the ciliated and pigmented structures in
+  the skin, resembling that of Chaetopods. The preoral lobe persists as
+  the proboscis. The sexes of the larvae are not determinable in the
+  early stages, but when a certain growth has been reached in Bonellia
+  the males seek the proboscis of the adult females, and passing into
+  the mouth undergo there the transformation into the planarian-like
+  parasite which is the fully-formed male. This now creeps along the
+  body of the female and takes up its home in her nephridia.
+
+_Classification and Distribution._--The Echiuroidea consists of the
+following genera:--(1) _Bonellia_ (Rol.), with four species, widely
+distributed, but inhabiting the temperate and warmer waters of each
+hemisphere. (2) _Echiurus_ (Guérin-Méneville), with four species. This
+genus reaches from the Arctic waters of both hemispheres into the cooler
+temperate regions. (3) _Hamingia_ (Kor. and Dan.), with one species,
+which has been taken in the Arctic Sea and the Hardanger Fjord. (4)
+_Saccosoma_ (Kor. and Dan.) was described from a single specimen dredged
+about half-way between Iceland and Norway. (5) _Thalassema_ (Gaertner,
+Lamarck), with twenty-one species. This genus is in the main a denizen
+of the warmer waters of the globe. Sixteen species are found only in
+tropical or subtropical seas, three species are Mediterranean (_Mt.
+Stat. Neapel_, 1899), whilst three species are from the eastern
+Atlantic, where the temperature is modified by the Gulf Stream (Shipley;
+see Willey's _Zoological Results_, part iii. 1899; _Proc. Zool. Soc.
+Lond._, 1898, 1899; and _Cambridge Natural History_, ii.). The following
+are found in the British area:--_E. pallasii_ (Guérin-Méneville), _Th.
+neptuni_ (Gaertner), and _Th. lankesteri_ (Herdman, _Q.J.M.S._, 1898).
+
+_Affinities._--The occurrence of trochosphere larva and the temporary
+segmentation of the body have led to the belief that the Echiuroids are
+more nearly allied to the Annelids than to any other phylum. This view
+is strengthened by certain anatomical and histological resemblances to
+the genus _Sternaspis_, which in one species, _S. spinosa_, is said to
+carry a bifid proboscis resembling that of the Echiuroids.
+     (A. E. S.)
+
+
+
+
+ECHMIADZIN, or ITSMIADSIN, a monastery of Russian Transcaucasia, in the
+government of Erivan, the seat of the Catholicus or primate of the
+Armenian church. It is situated close to the village of Vagarshapat, in
+the plain of the Aras, 2840 ft. above the sea, 12 m. W. of Erivan and 40
+N. of Mount Ararat. The monastery comprises a pretty extensive complex
+of buildings, and is surrounded by brick walls 30 ft. high, which with
+their loopholes and towers present the appearance of a fortress. Its
+architectural character has been considerably impaired by additions and
+alterations in modern Russian style. On the western side of the
+quadrangle is the residence of the primate, on the south the refectory
+(1730-1735), on the east the lodgings for the monks, and on the north
+the cells. The cathedral is a small but fine cruciform building with a
+Byzantine cupola at the intersection. Its foundation is ascribed to St
+Gregory the Illuminator in 302. Of special interest is the porch, built
+of red porphyry, and profusely adorned with sculptured designs somewhat
+of a Gothic character. The interior is decorated with Persian frescoes
+of flowers, birds and scroll-work. It is here that the Catholicus
+confers episcopal consecration by the sacred hand (relic) of St Gregory;
+and here every seven years he prepares with great solemnity the holy oil
+which is to be used throughout the churches of the Armenian communion.
+Outside of the main entrance are the alabaster tombs of the primates
+Alexander I. (1714), Alexander II. (1755), Daniel (1806) and Narses
+(1857), and a white marble monument, erected by the English East India
+Company to mark the resting-place of Sir John Macdonald Kinneir, who
+died at Tabriz in 1830, while on an embassy to the Persian court. The
+library of the monastery is a rich storehouse of Armenian literature
+(see Brosset's _Catalogue de la bibliothèque d'Etchmiadzin_, St
+Petersburg, 1840). Among the more remarkable manuscripts are a copy of
+the gospels dating from the 10th or 11th century, and three bibles of
+the 13th century. A type-foundry, a printing-press and a bookbinding
+establishment are maintained by the monks who supply religious and
+educational works for their co-religionists.
+
+To the east of the monastery is a modern college and seminary. Half a
+mile to the east stand the churches of St Ripsime and St Gaiana, two of
+the early martyrs of Armenian Christianity; the latter is the
+burial-place of those primates who are not deemed worthy of interment
+beside the cathedral. From a distance the three churches form a fairly
+striking group, and accordingly the Turkish name for Echmiadzin is
+Uch-Kilissi, or the Three Churches. The town of Vagarshapat dates from
+the 6th century B.C.; it takes its name from King Vagarsh (Vologaeses),
+who in the 2nd century A.D. chose it as his residence and surrounded it
+with walls. Here the apostle of Armenia, St Gregory the Illuminator,
+erected a church in 309 and with it the primacy was associated. In 344
+Vagarshapat ceased to be the Armenian capital, and in the 5th century
+the patriarchal seat was removed to Dvin, and then to Ani. The monastery
+was founded by Narses II., who ruled 524-533; and a restoration was
+effected in 618. The present name of the monastery was adopted instead
+of Vagarshapat in the 10th century. At length in 1441 the primate George
+brought back the see to the original site.     (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.)
+
+
+
+
+ECHO (Gr. [Greek: êchô]), in Greek mythology, one of the Oreades or
+mountain nymphs, the personification of the acoustical phenomenon known
+by this name. She was beloved by Pan, but rejected his advances.
+Thereupon the angry god drove the shepherds of the district mad; they
+tore Echo in pieces, and scattered her limbs broadcast, which still
+retained the gift of song (Longus iii. 23). According to Ovid (_Metam._
+iii. 356-401), Echo by her incessant talking having prevented Juno from
+surprising Jupiter with the Nymphs, Juno changed her into an "echo"--a
+being who could not speak till she was spoken to, and then could only
+repeat the last words of the speaker. While in this condition she fell
+in love with Narcissus, and in grief at her unrequited affection wasted
+away until nothing remained but her voice and bones, which were changed
+into rocks. The legends of Echo are of late, probably Alexandrian,
+origin, and she is first personified in Euripides.
+
+In acoustics an "echo" is a return of sound from a reflecting surface
+(see SOUND: _Reflection_).
+
+  See F. Wieseler, _Die Nymphe Echo_ (1854), and _Narkissos_ (1856); P.
+  Decharme in Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire des antiquités_.
+
+
+
+
+ECHTERNACH, a town in the grand duchy of Luxemburg, on the Sûre, close
+to the Prussian frontier. Pop. (1905) 3484. It is the oldest town in
+Luxemburg, and was the centre from which the English Saint Willibrord
+converted the people to Christianity in the 7th century. There are the
+Benedictine abbey, the hospital almshouse, which is said to be the
+oldest hospital in Europe except the Hôtel-Dieu in Paris, and the church
+of St Peter and St Paul. The Benedictine abbey has been greatly shorn of
+its original dimensions, but the basilica remains a fair monument of
+Romano-Gothic art. The church of St Peter and St Paul stands on an
+isolated mound, and for the ascent sixty steps have been built in the
+side, and these are well worn by the tread of numerous pilgrims who come
+in each succeeding year. The interior of the church is curious more than
+imposing, and is specially noteworthy only for its gloom. Under the
+altar, and below a white marble effigy of himself, lies Saint
+Willibrord.
+
+Echternach is famous, however, in particular for the dancing procession
+held on Whit-Tuesday every year. The origin of this festival is
+uncertain, but it dates at least from the 13th century and was probably
+instituted during an outbreak of cholera. Nowadays it is an occasion of
+pilgrimage, among Germans and Belgians as well as Luxemburgers, for all
+sick persons, but especially for the epileptic and those suffering from
+St Vitus' dance. The ceremony is interesting, and the Roman Catholic
+Church lends all its ritual to make it more imposing. The archbishop of
+Trier attends to represent Germany, and the bishop of Luxemburg figures
+for the grand duchy. There is a religious ceremony on the Prussian side
+of the bridge over the Sûre, and when it is over the congregation cross
+into the duchy to join the procession, partly religious, partly popular,
+through the streets of the town. The religious procession, carrying
+cross and banners and attended by three hundred singers, comes first,
+chanting St Willibrord's hymn. Next comes a band of miscellaneous
+instruments playing as a rule the old German air "Adam had seven sons,"
+and then follow the dancers. Many of these are young and full of life
+and health and dance for amusement, but many others are old or feeble
+and dance in the hope of recovery or of escaping from some trouble, but
+on all alike the conditions of the dance are incumbent. There are three
+steps forward and two back; five steps are thus taken to make one in
+advance. This becomes especially trying at the flight of steps mounting
+to the little church where the procession ends in front of the shrine of
+the great saint. There are sixty steps, but it takes three hundred to
+reach the top for the final time. It is said that those who fall from
+age or weariness have to be dragged out of the way by onlookers or they
+would be trampled to death by the succeeding waves of dancers. The
+procession, although it covers a distance of less than a mile, is said
+to take as much as five hours in its accomplishment. In olden days the
+abbey was the goal of the procession, and King William I. of the
+Netherlands--great-grandfather of Queen Wilhelmina--changed the day from
+Tuesday to Sunday so that a working day should not be lost. This reform
+did not answer, and the ancient order was restored. Some critics see in
+the dancing procession of Echternach merely the survival of the spring
+dance of the heathen races, but at any rate it invests the little town
+with an interest and importance that would otherwise be lacking.
+
+
+
+
+ECHUCA, a borough of the county of Rodney, Victoria, Australia, 156 m.
+by rail N. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901) 4075. It is situated on the river
+Murray, across which it is connected by bridge with Moama, on the New
+South Wales side, whence a railway runs to Deniliquin. The town is the
+terminus of the Murray River railway and the entrepot of the overland
+intercolonial trade; it has large wool stores, saw-mills, coach
+factories, breweries and soap-works. The rich agricultural district is
+noted for its vineyards.
+
+
+
+
+ÉCIJA, a town of southern Spain, in the province of Seville; on the
+Cadiz-Cordova railway and the left bank of the river Genil. Pop. (1900)
+24,372. The river, thus far navigable, is here crossed by a fine old
+bridge; and the antiquity of the town betrays itself by the irregularity
+of its arrangement, by its walls and gateways, and by its numerous
+inscriptions and other relics. Its chief buildings include no fewer than
+twenty convents, mostly secularized. The principal square is surrounded
+with pillared porticoes, and has a fountain in the centre; and along the
+river bank there runs a fine promenade, planted with poplar trees and
+adorned with statues. From an early period the shoemakers of Écija have
+been in high repute throughout Spain; woollen cloth, flannel, linen and
+silks are also manufactured. The vicinity is fertile in corn and wine,
+and cotton is cultivated. The heat is so great that the spot has
+acquired the sobriquet of _El Sarten_, or the "Frying-pan" of Andalusia.
+Écija, called _Estija_ by the Arabs, is the ancient _Astigis_, which was
+raised to the rank of a Roman colony with the title of _Augusta Firma_.
+According to Pliny and Pomponius Mela, who both wrote in the 1st century
+A.D., it was the rival of Cordova and Seville. If local tradition may be
+believed, it was visited by the apostle Paul, who converted his hostess
+Santa Xantippa; and, according to one version of his life, it was the
+see of the famous St Crispin (q.v.) in the 3rd century.
+
+
+
+
+ECK, JOHANN MAIER (1486-1543), German theologian, the most indefatigable
+and important opponent of Martin Luther, was born on the 13th of
+November 1486 at Eck in Swabia, from which place he derived his
+additional surname, which he himself, after 1505, always modified into
+Eckius or Eccius, i.e. "of Eck." His father, Michael Maier, was a
+peasant and bailiff (_Amtmann_) of the village. The boy's education was
+undertaken by his uncle Martin Maier, parish priest at Rothenburg on the
+Neckar, who sent him at the age of twelve to the university of
+Heidelberg, and subsequently to those of Tübingen, Cologne and Freiburg
+in the Breisgau. His academic career was so rapidly successful that at
+the age of twenty-four he was already doctor and professor of theology.
+During this period he was distinguished for his opposition to the
+scholastic philosophy; and, though he did not go to all lengths with the
+"modernists" (_Moderni_) of his day, his first work--_Logices
+exercitamenta_ (1507)--was distinctly on their side. This attitude
+brought him into conflict with the senate of the university, a conflict
+which Eck's masterful temper, increased by an extreme self-confidence
+perhaps natural in one so young and so successful, did not serve to
+allay. His position in Freiburg becoming intolerable, he accepted in
+1510 an invitation from the duke of Bavaria to fill the theological
+chair at Ingolstadt, where he was destined for thirty years to exercise
+a profound influence as teacher and vice-chancellor (_Prokanzler_).
+
+A ducal commission, appointed to find a means for ending the
+interminable strife between the rival academic parties, entrusted Eck
+with the preparation of fresh commentaries on Aristotle and Petrus
+Hispanus. He had a marvellous capacity for work, and between 1516 and
+1520, in addition to all his other duties, he published commentaries on
+the _Summulae_ of Petrus Hispanus, and on the _Dialectics_, _Physics_
+and lesser scientific works of Aristotle, which became the text-books of
+the university. During these early years Eck was still reckoned among
+the "modernists," and his commentaries are inspired with much of the
+scientific spirit of the New Learning. His aim, however, had been to
+find a _via media_ between the old and new; his temper was essentially
+conservative, his imagination held captive by the splendid traditions of
+the medieval church, and he had no sympathy with the revolutionary
+attitude of the Reformers. Personal ambition, too, a desire to be
+conspicuous in the great world of affairs, may have helped to throw him
+into public opposition to Luther. He had won laurels in a public
+disputation at Augsburg in 1514, when he had defended the lawfulness of
+putting out capital at interest; again at Bologna in 1515, on the same
+subject and on the question of predestination; and these triumphs had
+been repeated at Vienna in 1516. By these successes he gained the
+patronage of the Fuggers, and found himself fairly launched as the
+recognized apologist of the established order in church and state.
+Distinguished humanists might sneer at him as "a garrulous sophist"; but
+from this time his ambition was not only to be the greatest scientific
+authority in Germany but also the champion of the papacy and of the
+traditional church order. The first-fruits of this new resolve were a
+quite gratuitous attack on his old friend, the distinguished humanist
+and jurist Ulrich Zasius (1461-1536), for a doctrine proclaimed ten
+years before, and a simultaneous assault on Erasmus's _Annotationes in
+Novum Testamentum_.
+
+It is, however, by his controversy with Luther and the other reformers
+that Eck is best remembered. Luther, who had some personal acquaintance
+with Eck, sent him in 1517 copies of his celebrated 95 theses. Eck made
+no public reply; but in 1518 he circulated, privately at first, his
+_Obelisci_, in which Luther was branded as a Hussite. Luther entrusted
+his defence to Carlstadt, who, besides answering the insinuations of Eck
+in 400 distinct theses, declared his readiness to meet him in a public
+disputation. The challenge was accepted, and the disputation took place
+at Leipzig in June and July 1519. On June 27 and 28 and on July 1 and 3
+Eck disputed with Carlstadt on the subjects of grace, free will and good
+works, ably defending the Roman Semipelagian standpoint. From July 4 to
+14 he engaged with Luther on the absolute supremacy of the papacy,
+purgatory, penance, &c., showing a brilliant display of patristic and
+conciliar learning against the reformer's appeals to Scripture. The
+arbitrators declined to give a verdict, but the general impression was
+that victory rested with Eck. He did, indeed, succeed in making Luther
+admit that there was some truth in the Hussite opinions and declare
+himself against the pope, but this success only embittered his animosity
+against his opponents, and from that time his whole efforts were devoted
+to Luther's overthrow. He induced the universities of Cologne and
+Louvain to condemn the reformer's writings, but failed to enlist the
+German princes, and in January 1520 went to Rome to obtain strict
+regulations against those whom he called "Lutherans." He was created a
+protonotary apostolic, and in July returned to Germany, as papal nuncio,
+with the celebrated bull _Exsurge Domine_ directed against Luther's
+writings. He now believed himself in a position to crush not only the
+Lutheran heretics, but also his humanist critics. The effect of the
+publication of the bull, however, soon undeceived him. Bishops,
+universities and humanists were at one in denunciation of the outrage;
+and as for the attitude of the people, Eck was glad to escape from
+Saxony with a whole skin. In his wrath he appealed to force, and his
+_Epistola ad Carolum V._ (February 18, 1521) called on the emperor to
+take measures against Luther, a demand soon to be responded to in the
+edict of Worms. In 1521 and 1522 Eck was again in Rome, reporting on the
+results of his nunciature. On his return from his second visit he was
+the prime mover in the promulgation of the Bavarian religious edict of
+1522, which practically established the senate of the university of
+Ingolstadt as a tribunal of the Inquisition, and led to years of
+persecution. In return for this action of the duke, who had at first
+been opposed to the policy of repression, Eck obtained for him, during a
+third visit to Rome in 1523, valuable ecclesiastical concessions.
+Meanwhile he continued unabated in his zeal against the reformers,
+publishing eight considerable works between 1522 and 1526.
+
+His controversial ardour was, indeed, somewhat damped by Luther's
+refusal to answer his arguments, and with a view to earning fresh
+laurels he turned his attention to Switzerland and the Zwinglians. At
+Baden-in-Aargau in May and June 1526 a public disputation on the
+doctrine of transubstantiation was held, in which Eck and Thomas Murner
+were pitted against Johann Oecolampadius. Though Eck claimed the victory
+in argument, the only result was to strengthen the Swiss in their
+memorial view of the Lord's Supper, and so to diverge them further from
+Luther. At the Augsburg diet in 1530 Eck was charged by Charles V. to
+draw up, in concert with twenty other theologians, the refutation of the
+Protestant Confession, but was obliged to rewrite it five times before
+it suited the emperor. He was at the colloquy of Worms in 1540 and at
+the diet of Regensburg (Ratisbon) in 1541. At Worms he showed some signs
+of a willingness to compromise, but at Regensburg his old violence
+reasserted itself in opposing all efforts at reconciliation and
+persuading the Catholic princes to reject the Interim.
+
+Eck died at Ingolstadt on the 10th of February 1543, fighting to the
+last and worn out before his time. He was undoubtedly the most
+conspicuous champion produced by the old religion in the age of the
+Reformation, but his great gifts were marred by greater faults. His vast
+learning was the result of a powerful memory and unwearied industry, and
+he lacked the creative imagination necessary to mould this material into
+new forms. He was a powerful debater, but his victories were those of a
+dialectician rather than a convincing reasoner, and in him depth of
+insight and conviction were ill replaced by the controversial violence
+characteristic of the age. Moreover, even after discounting the bias of
+his enemies, there is evidence to prove that his championship of the
+Church was not the outcome of his zeal for Christianity; for he was
+notoriously drunken, unchaste, avaricious and almost insanely ambitious.
+His chief work was _De primatu Petri_ (1519); his _Enchiridion locorum
+communium adversus Lutherum_ ran through 46 editions between 1525 and
+1576. In 1530-1535 he published a collection of his writings against
+Luther, _Opera contra Ludderum_, in 4 vols.
+
+  See T. Wiedemann, _Dr Johann Eck_ (Regensburg, 1865).
+
+
+
+
+ECKERMANN, JOHANN PETER (1792-1854), German poet and author, best known
+owing to his association with Goethe, was born at Winsen in Hanover on
+the 21st of September 1792, of humble parentage, and was brought up in
+penury and privation. After serving as a volunteer in the War of
+Liberation (1813-1814), he obtained a secretarial appointment under the
+war department at Hanover. In 1817, although twenty-five years of age,
+he was enabled to attend the gymnasium of Hanover and afterwards the
+university of Göttingen, which, however, after one year's residence as a
+student of law, he left in 1822. His acquaintance with Goethe began in
+the following year, when he sent to him the manuscript of his _Beiträge
+zur Poesie_ (1823). Soon afterwards he went to Weimar, where he
+supported himself as a private tutor. For several years he also
+instructed the son of the grand duke. In 1830 he travelled in Italy with
+Goethe's son. In 1838 he was given the title of grand-ducal councillor
+and appointed librarian to the grand-duchess. Eckermann is chiefly
+remembered for his important contributions to the knowledge of the
+great poet contained in his _Conversations with Goethe_ (1836-1848). To
+Eckermann Goethe entrusted the publication of his _Nachgelassene
+Schriften_ (posthumous works) (1832-1833). He was also joint-editor with
+Friedrich Wilhelm Riemer (1774-1845) of the complete edition of Goethe's
+works in 40 vols. (1839-1840). He died at Weimar on the 3rd of December
+1854.
+
+  Eckermann's _Gespräche mit Goethe_ (vols. i. and ii. 1836; vol. iii.
+  1848; 7th ed., Leipzig, 1899; best edition by L. Geiger, Leipzig,
+  1902) have been translated into almost all the European languages, not
+  excepting Turkish. (English translations by Margaret Fuller, Boston,
+  1839, and John Oxenford, London, 1850.) Besides this work and the
+  _Beiträge zur Poesie_, Eckermann published a volume of poems
+  (_Gedichte_, 1838), which are of little value. See _J.P. Eckermanns
+  Nachlass_, herausgegeben von F. Tewes, vol. i. (1905), and an article
+  by R.M. Meyer in the _Goethe-Jahrbuch_, xvii. (1896).
+
+
+
+
+ECKERNFÖRDE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
+Schleswig-Holstein, on a fjord of the Baltic, 20 m. by rail N.W. from
+Kiel. Pop. (1905) 7088. It has a good harbour, fishing, trade in
+agricultural products, and manufactures of tobacco, salt and iron goods.
+There are a technical school of building and a Protestant teachers'
+seminary. Eckernförde is mentioned as far back as 1197. It was taken by
+Christian IV. of Denmark in 1628 from the Imperial troops. In 1813 the
+Danes were defeated here, while in 1849 the harbour was the scene of the
+blowing up of the Danish line-of-battle ship "Christian VIII." and of
+the surrender of the frigate "Gefion" after an engagement with the
+German shore batteries. The place lost most of its trade after the union
+with Germany in 1864, and suffered severely from a sea-flood in 1872. In
+the immediate neighbourhood is the village of Borby, much frequented for
+sea-bathing.
+
+
+
+
+ECKERSBERG, KRISTOFFER (1783-1853), Danish painter, was born in south
+Jutland. He became successively the pupil of Nikolaj Abildgaard and of
+J.L. David. From 1810 to 1813 he lived at Paris under the direction of
+the latter, and then proceeded, as an independent artist, to Rome, where
+he worked until 1816 in close fellowship with Thorwaldsen. His paintings
+from this period--"The Spartan Boy," "Bacchus and Ariadne" and
+"Ulysses"--testify to the influence of the great sculptor over the art
+of Eckersberg. Returning to Copenhagen, he found himself easily able to
+take the first place among the Danish painters of his time, and his
+portraits especially were in extreme popularity. It is claimed for
+Eckersberg by the native critics that "he created a Danish colour," that
+is to say, he was the first painter who threw off conventional tones and
+the pseudo-classical landscape, in exchange for the clear atmosphere and
+natural outlines of Danish scenery. But Denmark has no heroic landscape,
+and Eckersberg in losing the golden commonplaces scarcely succeeds in
+being delightful. His landscapes, however, are pure and true, while in
+his figure-pieces he is almost invariably conventional and
+old-fashioned. He was president of the Danish Academy of Fine Arts in
+Charlottenburg.
+
+
+
+
+ECKHART,[1] JOHANNES ["Meister Eckhart"] (?1260-?1327), German
+philosopher, the first of the great speculative mystics. Extremely
+little is known of his life; the date and place of his birth are equally
+uncertain. According to some accounts, he was a native of Strassburg,
+with which he was afterwards closely connected; according to others, he
+was born in Saxony, or at Hochheim near Gotha. Trithemius, one of the
+best authorities, speaks of him merely as "Teutonicus." 1260 has
+frequently been given as the date of his birth; it was in all
+probability some years earlier, for we know that he was advanced in age
+at the time of his death, about 1327. He appears to have entered the
+Dominican order, and to have acted for some time as professor at one of
+the colleges in Paris. His reputation for learning was very high, and in
+1302 he was summoned to Rome by Boniface VIII., to assist in the
+controversy then being carried on with Philip of France. From Boniface
+he received the degree of doctor. In 1304 he became provincial of his
+order for Saxony, and in 1307 was vicar-general for Bohemia. In both
+provinces he was distinguished for his practical reforms and for his
+power in preaching. Towards 1325 we hear of him as preaching with great
+effect at Cologne, where he gathered round him a numerous band of
+followers. Before this time, and in all probability at Strassburg, where
+he appears to have been for some years, he had come in contact with the
+Beghards (see BEGUINES) and Brethren of the Free Spirit, whose
+fundamental notions he may, indeed, be said to have systematized and
+expounded in the highest form to which they could attain. In 1327 the
+opponents of the Beghards laid hold of certain propositions contained in
+Eckhart's works, and he was summoned before the Inquisition at Cologne.
+The history of this accusation is by no means clear. Eckhart appears,
+however, to have made a conditional recantation--that is, he professed
+to disavow whatever in his writings could be shown to be erroneous.
+Further appeal, perhaps at his own request, was made to Pope John XXII.,
+and in 1329 a bill was published condemning certain propositions
+extracted from Eckhart's works. But before its publication Eckhart was
+dead. The exact date of his death is unknown. Of his writings, several
+of which are enumerated by Trithemius, there remain only the sermons and
+a few tractates. Till the middle of the 19th century the majority of
+these were attributed to Johann Tauler, and it is only from Pfeiffer's
+careful edition (_Deutsche Mystiker d. XIV. Jahrhunderts_, vol. ii.,
+1857) that one has been able to gather a true idea of Eckhart's
+activity. From his works it is evident that he was deeply learned in all
+the philosophy of the time. He was a thorough Aristotelian, but by
+preference appears to have been drawn towards the mystical writings of
+the Neoplatonists and the pseudo-Dionysius. His style is unsystematic,
+brief and abounding in symbolical expression. His manner of thinking is
+clear, calm and logical, and he has certainly given the most complete
+exposition of what may be called Christian pantheism.
+
+Eckhart has been called the first of the speculative mystics. In his
+theories the element of mystical speculation for the first time comes to
+the front as all-important. By its means the church doctrines are made
+intelligible to the many, and from it the church dogmas receive their
+true significance. It was but natural that he should diverge more and
+more widely from the traditional doctrine, so that at length the
+relation between his teaching and that of the church appeared to be one
+of opposition rather than of reconciliation. Eckhart is in truth the
+first who attempted with perfect freedom and logical consistency to give
+a speculative basis to religious doctrines. The two most important
+points in his, as in all mystical theories, are first, his doctrine of
+the divine nature, and second, his explanation of the relation between
+God and human thought. (See MYSTICISM.)
+
+  For the German writings of Eckhart see F. Pfeiffer, _Deutsche
+  Mystiker_, vol. ii. (Leipzig, 1857), and F. Jostes, _Meister Eckhart
+  und seine Jünger_ (Freiburg, 1895); for the Latin works, H. Denifle in
+  _Archiv f. Litt- und Kirchengeschichte d. Mittelalters_, ii. (1886),
+  pp. 417-652, and v. (1889), pp. 349-364; German translations by G.
+  Landauer, _Meister Eckarts mystische Schriften_ (Berlin, 1903), and
+  Büttner (Leipzig, 1903 foll.). See also A. Lasson, _Meister Eckhart
+  der Mystiker_ (1868); H.L. Martensen, _Meister Eckhart_ (1842); J.
+  Bach, _Meister Eckhart der Vater der deutschen Speculation_ (1864); C.
+  Ullmann, _Reformatoren vor der Reformation_ (1842); W. Preger,
+  _Geschichte d. deutschen Mystik_, i. (1874); and "Ein neuer Traktat M.
+  Eckharts und d. Grundzüge der Eckhartischen Theosophie" in _Zeitschr.
+  f. hist. Phil._ (1864), pp. 163 foll.; A. Bullinger, _Das Christenthum
+  im Lichte der deutschen Philos._ (Dillingen, 1895); H. Delacroix, _Le
+  Mysticisme spéculatif en Allemagne au XIV^e siècle_ (Paris, 1900); E.
+  Kramm, _Meister Eckhart im Lichte der Denifleschen Funde_ (Bonn,
+  1889); R. Langenberg, _Über die Verhältnisse Meister Eckharts zur
+  niederdeutschen Mystik_ (Göttingen, 1896); W. Schopff, _Meister
+  Eckhart_ (Leipzig, 1889); A. Jundt, _Hist. du panthéisme populaire au
+  moyen âge_ (Paris, 1875); art. in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_
+  (S.M. Deutsch); R.M. Jones, _Mystical Religion_ (1909).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The name is variously spelled: Eckehart, Eckart, Eckhard.
+
+
+
+
+ECKHEL, JOSEPH HILARIUS (1737-1798), Austrian numismatist, was born at
+Enzersfeld in lower Austria, 1737. His father was farm-steward to Count
+Zinzendorf, and he received his early education at the Jesuits' College,
+Vienna, where at the age of fourteen he was admitted into the order. He
+devoted himself to antiquities and numismatics. After being engaged as
+professor of poetry and rhetoric, first at Steyer and afterwards at
+Vienna, he was appointed in 1772 keeper of the cabinet of coins at the
+Jesuits' College, and in the same year he went to Italy for the purpose
+of personal inspection and study of antiquities and coins. At Florence
+he was employed to arrange the collection of the grand duke of Tuscany;
+and the first-fruits of his study of this and other collections appeared
+in his _Numi veteres anecdoti_, published in 1775. On the dissolution of
+the order of Jesuits in 1773, Eckhel was appointed by the empress Maria
+Theresa professor of antiquities and numismatics at the university of
+Vienna, and this post he held for twenty-four years. He was in the
+following year made keeper of the imperial cabinet of coins, and in 1779
+appeared his _Catalogus Vindobonensis numorum veterum_. Eckhel's great
+work is the _Doctrina numorum veterum_, in 8 vols., the first of which
+was published in 1792, and the last in 1798. The author's rich learning,
+comprehensive grasp of his subject, admirable order and precision of
+statement in this masterpiece drew from Heyne enthusiastic praise, and
+the acknowledgment that Eckhel, as the Coryphaeus of numismatists, had,
+out of the mass of previously loose and confused facts, constituted a
+true science. A volume of _Addenda_, prepared by Steinbüchel from
+Eckhel's papers after his death, was published in 1826. Among his other
+works are--_Choix de pierres gravées du Cabinet Impérial des Antiques_
+(1788), a useful school-book on coins entitled _Kurzgefasste
+Anfangsgrunde zur alten Numismatik_ (1787), of which a French version
+enlarged by Jacob appeared in 1825, &c. Eckhel died at Vienna on the
+16th of May 1798.
+
+
+
+
+ECKMÜHL, or EGGMÜHL, a village of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, on
+the Grosse Laaber, 13 m. S.E. of Regensburg by the railway to Munich. It
+is famous as the scene of a battle fought here on the 22nd of April
+1809, between the French, Bavarians and Wurttembergers under Napoleon,
+and the Austrians under the Archduke Charles, which resulted in the
+defeat of the latter. Napoleon, in recognition of Marshal Davout's great
+share in the victory, conferred on him the title of prince of Eckmuhl.
+For an account of this action and those of Abensberg and Landshut see
+NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS.
+
+
+
+
+ECLECTICISM (from Gr. [Greek: eklegô], I select), a term used specially
+in philosophy and theology for a composite system of thought made up of
+views borrowed from various other systems. Where the characteristic
+doctrines of a philosophy are not thus merely adopted, but are the
+modified products of a blending of the systems from which it takes its
+rise, the philosophy is not properly eclectic. Eclecticism always tends
+to spring up after a period of vigorous constructive speculation,
+especially in the later stages of a controversy between thinkers of
+pre-eminent ability. Their respective followers, and more especially
+cultured laymen, lacking the capacity for original work, seeking for a
+solution in some kind of compromise, and possibly failing to grasp the
+essentials of the controversy, take refuge in a combination of those
+elements in the opposing systems which seem to afford a sound practical
+theory. Since these combinations have often been as illogical as facile,
+"eclecticism" has generally acquired a somewhat contemptuous
+significance. At the same time, the essence of eclecticism is the
+refusal to follow blindly one set of formulae and conventions, coupled
+with a determination to recognize and select from all sources those
+elements which are good or true in the abstract, or in practical affairs
+most useful _ad hoc_. Theoretically, therefore, eclecticism is a
+perfectly sound method, and the contemptuous significance which the word
+has acquired is due partly to the fact that many eclectics have been
+intellectual trimmers, sceptics or dilettanti, and partly to mere
+partisanship. On the other hand, eclecticism in the sphere of abstract
+thought is open to this main objection that, in so far as every
+philosophic system is, at least in theory, an integral whole, the
+combination of principles from hostile theories must result in an
+incoherent patchwork. Thus it might be argued that there can be no
+logical combination of elements from Christian ethics, with its divine
+sanction, and purely intuitional or evolutionary ethical theories, where
+the sanction is essentially different in quality. It is in practical
+affairs that the eclectic or undogmatic spirit is most valuable, and
+also least dangerous.
+
+In the 2nd century B.C. a remarkable tendency toward eclecticism began
+to manifest itself. The longing to arrive at the one explanation of all
+things, which had inspired the older philosophers, became less earnest;
+the belief, indeed, that any such explanation was attainable began to
+fail. Thus men came to adopt from all systems the doctrines which best
+pleased them. In Panaetius we find one of the earliest examples of the
+modification of Stoicism by the eclectic spirit; about the same time the
+same spirit displayed itself among the Peripatetics. In Rome philosophy
+never became more than a secondary pursuit; naturally, therefore, the
+Roman thinkers were for the most part eclectic. Of this tendency Cicero
+is the most striking illustration--his philosophical works consisting of
+an aggregation, with little or no blending, of doctrines borrowed from
+Stoicism, Peripateticism, and the scepticism of the Middle Academy.
+
+In the last stage of Greek philosophy the eclectic spirit produced
+remarkable results outside the philosophies of those properly called
+eclectics. Thinkers chose their doctrines from many sources--from the
+venerated teaching of Aristotle and Plato, from that of the Pythagoreans
+and of the Stoics, from the old Greek mythology, and from the Jewish and
+other Oriental systems. Yet it must be observed that Neoplatonism,
+Gnosticism, and the other systems which are grouped under the name
+Alexandrian, were not truly eclectic, consisting, as they did, not of a
+mere syncretism of Greek and Oriental thought, but of a mutual
+modification of the two. It is true that several of the Neoplatonists
+professed to accept all the teaching both of Plato and of Aristotle,
+whereas, in fact, they arbitrarily interpreted Aristotle so as to make
+him agree with Plato, and Plato so as to make his teachings consistent
+with the Oriental doctrines which they had adopted, in the same manner
+as the schoolmen attempted to reconcile Aristotle with the doctrines of
+the church. Among the early Christians, Clement of Alexandria, Origen
+and Synesius were eclectics in philosophy.
+
+The eclectics of modern philosophy are too numerous to name. Of Italian
+philosophers the eclectics form a large proportion. Among the German we
+may mention Wolf and his followers, as well as Mendelssohn, J.A.
+Eberhard, Ernst Platner, and to some extent Schelling, whom, however, it
+would be incorrect to describe as merely an eclectic. In the first
+place, his speculations were largely original; and in the second place,
+it is not so much that his views of any time were borrowed from a number
+of philosophers, as that his thinking was influenced first by one
+philosopher, then by another.
+
+In the 19th century the term "eclectic" came to be applied specially to
+a number of French philosophers who differed considerably from one
+another. Of these the earliest were Pierre Paul Royer-Collard, who was
+mainly a follower of Thomas Reid, and Maine de Biran; but the name is
+still more appropriately given to the school of which the most
+distinguished members are Victor Cousin, Théodore Jouffroy, J.P.
+Damiron, Barthélemy St Hilaire, C.F.M. de Rémusat, Adolphe Garnier and
+Ravaisson-Mollien. Cousin, whose views varied considerably at different
+periods of his life, not only adopted freely what pleased him in the
+doctrines of Pierre Laromiguière, Royer-Collard and Maine de Biran, of
+Kant, Schelling and Hegel, and of the ancient philosophies, but
+expressly maintained that the eclectic is the only method now open to
+the philosopher, whose function thus resolves itself into critical
+selection and nothing more. "Each system," he asserted, "is not false,
+but incomplete, and in reuniting all incomplete systems, we should have
+a complete philosophy, adequate to the totality of consciousness." This
+assumes that every philosophical truth is already contained somewhere in
+the existing systems. If, however, as it would surely be rash to deny,
+there still remains philosophical truth undiscovered, but discoverable
+by human intelligence, it is evident that eclecticism is not the only
+philosophy. Eclecticism gained great popularity, and, partly owing to
+Cousin's position as minister of public instruction, became the
+authorized system in the chief seats of learning in France, where it has
+given a most remarkable impulse to the study of the history of
+philosophy.
+
+
+
+
+ECLIPSE (Gr. [Greek: ekleipsis], falling out of place, failing), the
+complete or partial obscuration of one heavenly body by the shadow of
+another, or of the disk of the sun by the interposition of the moon;
+then called an eclipse of the sun. Eclipses are of three classes: those
+of the sun, as just defined; those of the moon, produced by its passage
+through the shadow of the earth, and those of the satellites of other
+planets, produced by their passage through the shadow of their primary.
+Jupiter (q.v.) is the only planet of whose satellites the eclipses can
+be observed, unless under very rare circumstances.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+The geometrical conditions of an eclipse of the sun or moon are shown in
+fig. 1, which represents the earth E as casting its shadow towards C,
+and the moon M between the earth and sun as throwing its shadow towards
+some part of the earth and eclipsing the sun. The dark conical regions
+are those within which the sun is entirely hidden from sight. This
+portion of the shadow is called the _umbra_. Around the umbra is an
+enveloping shaded cone with its vertices directly towards the sun. To an
+observer within this region the sun is partly hidden from view. As the
+apparent path of the moon may pass to the north or south of the line
+joining the earth and sun, the axis of its shadow may pass to the north
+or south of the earth, and not meet it at all. An eclipse of the sun is
+called _central_ when the shadow axis strikes any part of the earth;
+partial when only the penumbra falls upon the earth. It is evident that
+an eclipse can be seen as central only at those points of the earth's
+surface over which the axis of the shadow passes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.]
+
+A central eclipse is _total_ when the umbra actually reaches the earth;
+_annular_ when it does not. These two cases are shown in figs. 2 and 3.
+In the first of these the sun is entirely hidden within the region uu'.
+In fig. 3 within the region aa' the apparent diameter of the sun is
+slightly greater than that of the moon, and at the moment of greatest
+eclipse a narrow ring of sunlight is seen surrounding the dark body of
+the moon.
+
+We shall treat the subject in the following sections:--
+
+I. Phenomena of Eclipses of the Sun and conclusions derived from their
+observation.
+
+II. Eclipses of the Moon.
+
+III. The Laws and Cycles of recurrences of Eclipses of the Sun and Moon.
+
+IV. Chronological list of remarkable eclipses of the Sun, past and
+future, to the end of the 20th century.
+
+V. Description of the methods of computing eclipses.
+
+
+I. _Phenomena of Eclipses of the Sun._
+
+While an eclipse of the sun, whether partial, annular or total, is in
+progress, no striking phenomena are to be noted until, in the case of
+total eclipses, the moment of the total phase approaches. It will,
+however, be noticed that as the moon advances on the solar disk the
+sharply defined and ragged edge of the moon's disk contrasts strongly
+with the soft and uniform outline of the sun's limb. As the total phase
+approaches, the phenomenon known as _shadow bands_ may sometimes be
+seen. These consist of seeming vague and rapidly moving wave-like
+alternations of light and shade flitting over any white surface
+illuminated by the sun's rays immediately before and after the total
+phase. They are probably due to a flickering of the light from the thin
+crescent, produced by the undulations of the air, in the same way that
+the twinkling of the stars is produced. The rapid progressive motion
+sometimes assigned to them may be regarded as the natural result of an
+optical illusion. A few seconds before the commencement of the total
+phase the red light of the chromosphere becomes visible, and will be
+seen most distinctly as continuations of the solar crescent at its two
+ends. Owing to the inequalities of the lunar surface, the diminution of
+the solar crescent does not go on with perfect uniformity, but, just
+before the last moment, what remains of it is generally broken up into
+separate portions of light, which, magnified and diffused by the
+irradiation of the telescope, present the phenomenon long celebrated
+under the name of "Baily's beads." These were so called because minutely
+and vividly described by Francis Baily as he observed them during the
+annular eclipse of May 15, 1836, when he compared them to a string of
+bright beads, irregular in size and distance from each other. The
+disappearance of the last bead is commonly taken as the beginning of
+totality. An arc of the chromosphere will then be visible for a few
+seconds at and on each side of the point of disappearance, the length
+and duration of which will depend on the apparent diameter of the moon
+as compared with that of the sun, being greater in length and longer
+seen as the excess of diameter of the moon is less. The red prominences
+may now generally be seen here and there around the whole disk of the
+moon, while the effulgence of soft light called the corona surrounds it
+on all sides. Before the invention of the spectroscope, observers of
+total eclipses could do little more than describe in detail the varying
+phenomena presented by the prominences and the corona. Drawings of the
+latter showed it to have the appearance of rays surrounding the dark
+disk of the moon, quite similar to the glory depicted by the old
+painters around the head of a saint. The discrepancies between the
+outlines as thus pictured, not only at different times, but by different
+observers at the same time and place, are such as to show that little
+reliance can be placed on the details represented by hand drawings.
+
+During the eclipse of July 8, 1842, the shadow of the moon passed from
+Perpignan, France, through Milan and Vienna, over Russia and Central
+Asia, to the Pacific Ocean. Very detailed physical observations were
+made, but none which need be specially mentioned in the present
+connexion.
+
+The eclipse of July 28, 1851, was total in Scandinavia and Russia. It
+was observed in the former region by many astronomers, among them Sir
+George B. Airy and W.R. Dawes. It was specially noteworthy for the first
+attempt to photograph such a phenomenon. A daguerreotype clearly showing
+the protuberances was taken by Berkowski at the Observatory of
+Königsberg. An attempt by G.A. Majocchi to daguerreotype the corona was
+a failure. Photographs of the eclipse of July 18, 1860, were taken by
+Padre Angelo Secchi and Warren De La Rue, which showed the prominences
+well, and proved that they were progressively obscured by the edge of
+the advancing moon. It was thus shown that they were solar appendages,
+and did not belong to the moon, as had sometimes been supposed. The
+corona was barely visible on De La Rue's plates, but those of Secchi
+showed it, with its rifts and the bases of the tall coronal wings, to
+about 15' from the sun's limb. The sketches taken at this eclipse proved
+that the corona extended in some regions 1° from the sun's limb. As the
+sensitiveness of photographic plates has increased, they have gradually
+been wholly relied upon for information respecting the corona, so that
+at the present time naked-eye descriptions are regarded as of little or
+no scientific value. Owing to the great contrast between the brilliancy
+of the coronal light at its base and its increasing faintness as it
+extends farther from the sun, no one photograph will bring out all the
+corona. An exposure of one or two seconds is ample to show the details
+of inner corona to the best advantage, while longer exposures give
+greater extent of the brighter portions. The most extended streamers are
+very little brighter than the sky, and must be photographed with long
+exposures.
+
+The first application of the spectroscope to the phenomenon was made
+during the total solar eclipse of August 18, 1868, by P.J.C. Janssen and
+other observers in India. By them was made the capital discovery that
+the red solar prominences give a spectrum of bright lines, and are
+therefore immense masses of incandescent gases, chiefly hydrogen and the
+vapours of calcium and helium. Janssen also found that this bright-line
+spectrum could be followed after the eclipse was over, and, in fact,
+could be observed at any time when the air was sufficiently transparent.
+By one of those remarkable coincidences which frequently occur in the
+history of science, this last discovery was made independently by Sir
+Norman Lockyer in England before the news of Janssen's success had
+reached him. It was afterwards found that, by giving great dispersing
+power to the spectroscope, the prominences could be observed in a wide
+slit, in their true form. At this eclipse the spectrum of the corona was
+also observed, and was supposed to be continuous, while polariscopic
+observation by Lieutenant Campbell showed it polarized in planes passing
+through the sun's centre. The conclusion from these two observations was
+that the light was composed, at least in great part, of reflected
+sunlight.
+
+At the total eclipse of August 7, 1869, it was independently found by
+Professors C.A. Young of Princeton and W. Harkness of Washington that
+the continuous spectrum of the corona was crossed by a bright line in
+the green, which was long supposed to be coincident with 1474 of
+Kirchhoff's scale. This coincidence is, however, now found not to be
+real, and the line cannot be identified with that of any terrestrial
+substance. The name "coronium" has therefore been given to the supposed
+gas which forms it. It is now known that 1474 is a double line, one
+component of which is produced by iron, while the other is of unknown
+origin. The wave-length of the principal component is 5317, while that
+of the coronal line was found at the eclipses of 1896 and 1898 to be
+5303.
+
+The eclipse of December 28, 1870, passed over the south-western corner
+of Spain, Gibraltar, Oran and Sicily. It is memorable for the discovery
+by Young of the "reversing layer" of the solar atmosphere. This term is
+now applied to a shallow stratum resting immediately upon the
+photosphere, the absorption of which produces the principal dark lines
+of the solar spectrum, but which, being incandescent, gives a spectrum
+of bright lines by its own light when the light of the sun is cut off.
+This layer is much thinner than the chromosphere, and may be considered
+to form the base of the latter. Owing to its thinness, the phenomenon of
+the reversed bright lines is almost instantaneous in its nature, and can
+be observed for a period exceeding one or two seconds only near the edge
+of the shadow-path, where the moon advances but little beyond the solar
+limb. Near the central line it is little more than a flash, thus giving
+rise to the term "flash-spectrum." Young also at this eclipse saw bright
+hydrogen lines when his spectroscope was directed to the centre of the
+dark disk of the moon. This can only be attributed to the reflection of
+the light of the prominences and chromosphere from the atmosphere
+between us and the moon. The coronal light as observed in the
+spectroscope may thus be regarded as a mixture of true coronal light
+with chromospheric light reflected from the air, and it is therefore
+probable that the H and K (calcium) lines of the coronal spectrum are
+not true coronal lines, but chromospheric.
+
+At the eclipse of December 12, 1871, visible in India and Australia,
+Janssen observed, as he supposed, some of the dark lines of the solar
+spectrum in the continuous spectrum of the corona, especially D, b and
+G. This would show that an important part of the coronal light is due to
+reflected sunshine. This feature of the spectrum, however, is doubtful
+in the most recent photographs under the best conditions. At this
+eclipse the remarkable observation was also made by Colonel John
+Herschel and Colonel J.F. Tennant that the characteristic line of the
+coronal spectrum is as bright in the dark rifts of the corona as
+elsewhere. This would show that the gas coronium does not form the
+streamers of the corona, but is spherical in form and distributed
+uniformly about the sun. Photographs were also taken on wet plates by a
+party in Java and by the parties of Lord Lindsay (at Baikul, India) and
+of Colonel Tennant (at Dodabetta). The Baikul and Dodabetta photographs
+were of small size (moon's diameter = 3/10 in.), but of excellent
+definition. A searching study was made of them by A. C Ranyard and W.H.
+Wesley (_Memoirs R.A.S._ vol. xli., 1879), and for the first time a
+satisfactory representation of the corona was obtained. The drawings in
+the volume quoted show its polar rays, wings, interlacing filaments and
+rifts as they are now known to be, as well as the forms and details of
+the prominences.
+
+The eclipse of April 16, 1874, was observed in South Africa by E.J.
+Stone, H.M. astronomer at the Cape, who traced the coronal line about
+30' (430,000 m.) from the sun's limb. The visual corona was seen to
+extend in places some 90' from the limb.
+
+The eclipse of April 6, 1875, was observed in Siam by Sir J. Norman
+Lockyer and Professor Arthur Schuster. Their photographs showed the
+calcium and hydrogen lines in the prominence spectrum.
+
+The eclipse of July 29, 1878, was observed by many astronomers in the
+United States along a line extending from Wyoming to Texas. A number of
+the stations were at high altitudes (up to 14,000 ft.), and the sky was
+generally very clear. The visible corona extended on both sides of the
+sun along the ecliptic for immense distances--at least twelve lunar
+diameters, about eleven million miles. Photographs taken by the parties
+of Professors A. Hall and W. Harkness gave the details of the inner
+corona and of the polar rays, showing the filamentous character of the
+corona, especially at its base in the polar regions. A photograph taken
+by the party of Professor E.S. Holden showed the outer corona to a
+distance of 50' from the moon's limb. The bright-line spectrum of the
+corona was excessively faint and, as the solar activity (measured by
+sun-spot frequency) was near a minimum, it was concluded that the
+brilliancy of the coronium line varied in the sun-spot period, a
+conclusion which subsequent eclipse observations seem to have verified.
+It is not yet certain that the other coronal spectrum lines vary in the
+same way.
+
+The eclipse of May 17, 1882, was observed in Egypt. On the photographs
+of the corona the image of a bright comet was found, the first instance
+of the sort. (A faint comet was found on the plates of the Lick
+Observatory eclipse expedition to Chile in 1893.) The slitless
+spectroscope showed the green line (coronium) and D3 (helium) in the
+coronal spectrum.
+
+The eclipse of May 6, 1883, was observed from a small coral atoll in the
+South Pacific Ocean by parties from America, England, France, Austria
+and Italy. A thorough search was made by Holden (with a 6 in. telescope)
+for an intra-Mercurial planet, without success, during an unusually long
+totality (5 m. 23 s.). J. Palisa also searched for such a planet.
+Janssen again reported the presence of dark lines in the coronal
+spectrum. "White" prominences were seen by P. Tacchini.
+
+The eclipse of August 29, 1886, was observed in the West Indies. The
+English photographs of the corona, taken with a slitless spectroscope,
+show the hydrogen lines as well as K and f. Tacchini devoted his
+attention to the spectra of the prominences, and showed that their upper
+portions contained no hydrogen lines, but only the H and K lines of
+calcium. He also observed a very extensive "white" prominence. It was
+shown on the photographs of the corona, but could not be seen in the
+H[alpha] line with the spectroscope. It has been suggested by Professor
+G.E. Hale that the colour of a "white" prominence may be due to the fact
+that the H and K lines (calcium) are of their normal intensity, while
+the less refrangible prominence lines are, from some unknown cause,
+comparatively faint. It is known that the intensity of such lines does,
+in fact, vary, though it is not yet certain that the "white" prominences
+are produced in this way. The subject is one demanding further
+observation. High prominences are generally "white" at their summits,
+"red" at their bases. The Harvard College Observatory photographs show
+the corona out to 90' from the moon's limb, though no detail is visible
+beyond 60'. W.H. Pickering made a series of photographic photometric
+measures of the corona, some of which are given below, together with
+results deduced by Holden from the eclipses of January and December
+1889:--
+
+  +--------------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+
+  |                                      | August  | January | December|
+  |                                      |  1886.  |  1889.  |  1889.  |
+  +--------------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+
+  | Intrinsic actinic brilliancy of the  |         |         |         |
+  |   brightest parts of the corona      | 0.031   | 0.079   | 0.029   |
+  |    Do. of the polar rays             |   · ·   | 0.053   | 0.016   |
+  |    Do. of the sky near the sun       | 0.0007  | 0.0050  | 0.0009  |
+  | Ratio of intrinsic brilliancy of the |         |         |         |
+  |   brightest parts of the corona to   |         |         |         |
+  |   that of the sky (actinic)          | 44 to 1 | 16 to 1 | 32 to 1 |
+  | Magnitude of the faintest star       |         |         |         |
+  |   shown on the eclipse negatives     |   · ·   | 2.3     |   · ·   |
+  +--------------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+
+
+  The results in the first and third columns are derived from plates
+  taken in a very humid climate, and are not very different.
+
+The eclipse of August 19, 1887, was total in Japan and Russia, but
+cloudy weather prevented successful observations except in Siberia and
+eastern Russia.
+
+The eclipse of January 1, 1889, was observed in California and Nevada by
+many American astronomers. The photographs of the corona, especially
+those by Charoppin and E.E. Barnard, show a wealth of detail. Those of
+Barnard, of the Lick Observatory party, were studied by Holden, and
+exhibited the fact that rays, like the "polar-rays," extended all round
+the sun, instead of being confined to the polar regions only. The outer
+corona was registered out to 100' from the moon's limb on Charoppin's
+negatives, to 130' on those of Lowden and Ireland. On other plates the
+outline of the moon is visible projected on the corona before totality
+began. The spectrum of the corona showed few bright lines besides those
+of coronium and hydrogen.
+
+The eclipse of December 22, 1889, was observed in Cayenne, S. America,
+by a party from the Lick Observatory under rather unfavourable
+conditions. Expeditions sent to Africa were baffled by cloudy weather.
+Father Stephen Joseph Perry observed at Salute Islands, French Guiana,
+and obtained some photographs of value. The effort cost him his life,
+for he died of malarial fever five days after the eclipse.
+
+The eclipse of April 16, 1893, was observed by British and French
+parties in Africa and Brazil, and by Professor J.M. Schaeberle of the
+Lick Observatory in Chile. The Chile photographs of the corona were
+taken with a lens of 40 ft. focus, and are extremely fine. They show a
+faint comet near the sun. No great extensions to the corona were shown
+on any of the negatives, or seen visually, though they were specially
+looked for by British parties. The neighbourhood of the sun was
+carefully examined by G. Bigourdan without finding any planet. The
+spectrum of the corona was the usual one. The following lines were
+photographed in slitless spectroscopes, and undoubtedly belong to the
+corona: W. L. 3987; 4086; 4217; 4231; 4240; 4280; 4486; 5303 (the last
+number is the wave-length of the green coronium line). All of these have
+been seen in slit spectroscopes also. It is possible that two lines
+observed by Young in 1869, namely, W. L. (Ångstrom) 5450 and 5570,
+should be added to the list of undoubted coronal lines. It is not likely
+that helium or hydrogen or calcium vapour forms part of the corona. The
+wave-lengths of some 700 lines belonging to the chromosphere and
+prominences were determined by the British parties.
+
+The eclipse of August 9, 1896, was total in Norway, Novaya Zemlya and
+Japan. The day was very unfavourable as to weather, but good photographs
+of the corona were obtained by Russian parties in Siberia and Lapland.
+Shackelton, in Novaya Zemlya, with a prismatic camera obtained a
+photograph of the reversing-layer at the beginning of totality. This
+photograph completely confirms Young's discovery, and shows the
+prominent Fraunhofer lines bright, the bright lines of the chromosphere
+spectrum being especially conspicuous.
+
+At the solar eclipse of January 22, 1898, the shadow of the moon
+traversed India from the western coast to the Himalaya. The duration of
+totality was about 2 m. The eclipse was very fully observed, more than
+100 negatives of the corona being secured. The equatorial extension of
+the visible corona was short and faint, and the invisible
+(spectroscopic) corona was also very faint. The spectrum of the
+reversing-layer was successfully photographed; one set of negatives
+shows the polarization of one of the longest streamers of the corona,
+and proves the presence of dust particles reflecting solar light. The
+bright-line spectrum of hydrogen in the chromosphere was followed to the
+thirtieth point of the series, and the wave-lengths were shown to agree
+closely with Balmer's formula (see SPECTROSCOPY). The wave-length of
+coronium was found to be 5303 (not 5317 as previously supposed), and the
+brightness of the corona was measured. E.W. Maunder made the curious
+observation of coronal matter enveloping a prominence in the form of a
+hood.
+
+Observations of the eclipse of May 28, 1900, were favoured in a
+remarkable degree by the absence of clouds. The photographs of the
+corona obtained by W.W. Campbell extended four diameters of the sun on
+the west side. The sun's edge was photographed with an objective-prism
+spectrograph composed of two 60° prisms in front of a telescope of 2 in.
+aperture and 60 in. focus. A fine photograph, 6 in. long, of the bright-
+and dark-line spectra of the sun's edge at the end of totality was thus
+obtained. It shows 600 bright lines sharply in focus besides the
+dark-line spectrum, to which the bright lines gave way as the sun
+reappeared. The coronal material radiating the green light was found to
+be markedly heaped up in the sun-spot regions. No dark lines were found
+in the spectrum of the inner corona. G.E. Hale and E.B. Frost also
+photographed the combined bright-and dark-line spectra of the solar
+cusps at the instants before and after totality. On one photograph
+showing no dark lines 70 bright lines could be measured between 4070 and
+4340. On another were 70 bright lines between Hb and Hs. On a third were
+266 bright lines between 4026 and 4381, and some dark lines. These lines
+show a marked dissimilarity from the solar spectrum. (S. N.)
+
+The eclipse of May 18, 1901, was observable in Mauritius with 3½ minutes
+of totality, and in Sumatra with 6½ minutes. Unfortunately there was
+cloudy weather in Sumatra, which at some stations prevented observations
+entirely and at others neutralized the advantages promised by the long
+duration of totality. Thus spectroscopic observations for the detection
+of motion of the corona, for which the long totality gave a special
+opportunity, failed owing to cloud; and the search for intra-Mercurial
+planets had only a negative result, though stars down to magnitude 8.8
+were photographed on the plates. But though no particular step in
+advance was taken, successful records of the eclipse were obtained,
+which will enable comparison to be made with other eclipses and will
+contribute their share to the discussion of the whole series. These
+include photographs of the corona, showing that it was of the sun-spot
+minimum type, and available for measures of its brightness; photographs
+of the spectra of the chromosphere and corona which are of the same
+general character as those obtained at previous eclipses; photographs
+showing the polarization of the corona, available for quantitative
+measures of polarization at different points. Photographs of the
+spectrum of the outer corona taken by the Lick Observatory party show a
+strong Fraunhofer dark-line spectrum, consistent with the view that the
+light is reflected sunlight. At Mauritius there was no cloud, but the
+definition was poor. Successful photographs of the corona were obtained
+for comparison with those taken in Sumatra one and a half hours later,
+but nothing of great interest was revealed by the comparison.
+
+The eclipse of August 30, 1905, offered a duration of 3½ minutes in
+Spain, the track running from Labrador through Spain to North Africa,
+and affording excellent opportunities for observers, who flocked to the
+central line in great numbers. Unfortunately it was cloudy in Labrador,
+so that the special advantages of the long line of possible stations
+were lost. Exceptionally good weather conditions were enjoyed in Algeria
+and Tunisia, and full advantage was taken of them by H.F. Newall, C.
+Trépied and others at Guelma, by the party from Greenwich and G.
+Bigourdan at Sfax. That G. Newall's spectroscopic photographs for
+rotation of the corona again gave no result is a clear indication of the
+faintness of the corona at 3' from the limb; but F.W. Dyson at Sfax
+obtained two new lines at 5536 and 5117 in the spectrum of the corona;
+and a very large number of photographs of the corona (including many in
+polarized light on several different plans), of its spectrum, and of the
+spectrum of the chromosphere, were obtained by the various parties,
+which will afford copious material for discussion. Newall also obtained
+a polarized spectrum of the corona. Altogether no less than eighty
+stations were occupied. There were English, American, Russian and German
+observers in Egypt; English and French in Algeria and Tunisia; English
+in Majorca; observers of almost all nationalities in Spain; and English
+and American in Labrador. In Egypt the weather was bright, though the
+sun was low; in Majorca and Spain there were local clouds. Consequently
+many observations, in addition to those in Labrador, were lost, notably
+the special spectroscopic observations undertaken by Evershed on the
+northern limit of totality, and the observations of radiation undertaken
+by H.L. Callendar. A search for intra-Mercurial planets was conducted on
+an elaborate plan, with similar batteries of telescopes, in Egypt, Spain
+and Labrador, by three parties from the Lick Observatory, but the
+examination of the plates showed nothing noteworthy. Pending discussion
+of the greater part of the material, some interesting preliminary
+results were published in 1906 by the French observers. C.E.H. Bourget
+and Montangerand conclude that there is a marked division of the
+chromosphere into two regions or shells, a lower or "reversing-layer,"
+extending only 1" from the limb, and a chromospheric layer extending to
+3" or 4"; and that the coronal light contains less blue and violet, but
+more green and yellow, than sunlight; while Fabry, by visual methods,
+obtained measures of the total and intrinsic intensity of the light from
+the corona closely confirming recent photographic observations, finding
+the total brightness about equal to that of the full moon, and the
+intrinsic brightness at 5' from the limb about one quarter of that of
+the full moon.     (H. H. T.)
+
+
+II. _Eclipses of the Moon._
+
+The physical phenomena attending eclipses of the moon are no longer of a
+high order of interest either to the layman or scientific observer. A
+brief statement of them and their causes will therefore be sufficient.
+An observer watching such an eclipse from the moon would see the earth,
+which has nearly four times the apparent diameter of the sun, impinging
+on the sun's disk and slowly hiding it. The phenomenon would be quite
+similar to that of an eclipse of the sun seen from the earth, until the
+sun was completely covered. During the progress of this partial eclipse
+the moon would be passing into the earth's penumbra. As the moment of
+total obscuration approached, a red band of light would rapidly form in
+the neighbourhood of the disappearing limb of the sun, and gradually
+extend around the earth. This would arise from the refraction of the
+sun's light by the earth's atmosphere, and the absorption of its blue
+rays. When the light of the sun was completely hidden, a reddish ring of
+great brilliancy would, owing to this cause, surround the entire dark
+body of the earth during the period of the total eclipse.
+
+The aspect of the moon, as seen from the earth, corresponds to this view
+from the moon. The fading of the moon's light, due to its entrance into
+the penumbra, is scarcely noticeable without direct photometric
+determination until near the beginning of the total phase. Then, as the
+limb of the moon approaches the earth's shadow, it begins to darken.
+When only a small portion has entered into the shadow, that portion is
+completely hidden. But, as the total phase approaches, the part of the
+moon's disk immersed in the penumbra becomes visible by a reddish
+coppery light--that of the sun refracted through the lower parts of the
+earth's atmosphere. The brightness of this illumination is different in
+different eclipses, a circumstance which may be attributed to the
+greater or less degree of cloudiness in those regions of the earth's
+atmosphere through which the light of the sun passes in order to reach
+the moon. Its colour is due to absorption in passing through the earth's
+atmosphere.
+
+
+III. _Laws and Cycles of Recurrences of Eclipses of the Sun and Moon._
+
+It has been known since remote antiquity that eclipses occur in cycles.
+These cycles are known now to be determined principally by the motion of
+the moon's node and the relations between the revolutions of the earth
+round the sun and the moon round the earth.
+
+
+  Eclipse seasons.
+
+Owing to the inclination of the moon's orbit to the plane of the
+ecliptic, an eclipse of the sun can occur only when the conjunction of
+the sun and moon takes place within about 16° of one of the nodes of the
+moon's orbit. The eclipse can be total only within about 11° of the
+node. An eclipse of the moon can occur only when the line sun-moon-earth
+makes an angle less than about 11° with the line of nodes; and the
+eclipse can be total only within about 8° of the node, the average
+limiting distances varying 1° or 2° according to the circumstances.
+These conditions being understood, the cycles of recurrence of eclipses
+of either kind can be worked out geometrically from the mean motions of
+the sun, moon, node and perigee by the aid of geometric conceptions
+shown in their simplest form in fig. 4. Here E is the earth, at the
+centre of a circle representing the mean orbit of the moon around it. MN
+is the line of nodes which is moving in the retrograde direction from N
+towards S1, at a rate of about 19.3° in a year, making a complete
+revolution in 18.6 years. Let the sun at the moment of some new moon be
+in the line ES1, continued. If the angle NES1 is less than 16° there
+will probably be an eclipse of the sun, which may be central if the
+angle is less than 11°. Let the next new moon take place in the line ES2
+a month later. The mean value of the angle S1ES2 is about 29°; but as
+the node N has moved towards S1 about 1.4° during the interval, the sum
+of the angles NES1 and NES2 will be somewhat greater than S1ES2 by about
+1.6°. The result is that if these two angles are nearly equal there may
+be two small partial eclipses of the sun, after which no more can occur
+until, by the annual revolution of the earth, the direction of the sun
+approaches the opposite line of nodes EM, nearly six months later. The
+result is that there are in the course of any one year two "eclipse
+seasons" each of about one month in duration, in which at least one
+eclipse of the sun, or possibly two small partial eclipses, may occur.
+One eclipse of the moon will generally, but not always, occur during a
+season.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.]
+
+Owing to the retrograde motion of the node the direction ES of the sun
+returns to the node at the end of about 347 days, so that a third
+eclipse season may commence before the end of a year. In this way there
+is a possible but very rare maximum of five eclipses of the sun in a
+year. Owing to the motion of the line of nodes each eclipse season
+occurs about 19 days earlier in the year than it did the year before.
+Another conclusion from the greater eclipse limit for the sun than for
+the moon is that in the long run eclipses of the sun, as regards the
+earth generally, occur oftener than those of the moon. But as any
+eclipse of the sun is visible only from a limited region of the earth's
+surface, while one of the moon may be seen from an entire hemisphere,
+more eclipses of the moon are visible at any one place than of the sun.
+
+If, starting with a conjunction along some line ES1, we mark by radial
+lines from E the successive conjunctions year after year, we shall find
+that at the end of 18 years and about 11 days the 223rd conjunction will
+fall once more very near the line ES1, the angle NES1 being about 24'
+greater than before. Successive eclipses will then occur very nearly in
+the same order as they did 18 years and 11 days before. This period of
+recurrence has been known from remote antiquity and is called the
+_Saros_. What is most remarkable in this period is that in addition to
+the distance from the node being nearly the same as before, the
+longitude of the sun increases by only 11° and the distance of the moon
+from its perigee has changed less than 3°. The result of this approach
+to coincidence is that the recurring eclipse will generally be of the
+same kind--total, annular or partial--through a number of successive
+periods.
+
+To see the law of recurrence of corresponding eclipses in the successive
+periods let us suppose the line of conjunction ES1 to be that at which
+there is a very small eclipse, visible only in high northern or southern
+latitudes. At the end of 18 years 11 days a second eclipse will occur
+along a line nearly half a degree nearer EN, the line of nodes. The
+successive eclipses will occur at the same interval through about ten
+periods, or 180 years, when the line of conjunction will pass within 11°
+of EN. Then the eclipse will be central, whether annular or total
+depending on circumstances: in the first one the central lines will pass
+only over the polar regions; but in successive eclipses of the series it
+will pass nearer and nearer to the equator until the conjunction line
+coincides with the node. The path of centrality will then cross in the
+equatorial region. During 22 or 23 more recurrences the path will
+continually approach to the opposite pole and finally leave the earth
+entirely. The entire number of central eclipses in any one series will
+generally be about forty-five. Then a series of continually diminishing
+partial eclipses will go on for about ten periods more. The whole series
+of eclipses will therefore extend through about sixty-five periods; and
+interval of time of about twelve hundred years.
+
+Another remarkable eclipse period recurs at the end of 358 lunations. At
+the end of this period the line of mean conjunction ES1 falls so near
+its former position relative to the node that we find each central
+eclipse visible in our time to be one of an unbroken series extending
+from the earliest historic times to the present, at intervals equal to
+the length of the period. The recurring eclipses in this period do not,
+however, have the remarkable similarity of those belonging to the Saros,
+but may differ to any extent, owing to the different positions of the
+line of conjunction with respect to the moon's perigee. Moreover, they
+recur alternately at the ascending and descending node. The length of
+the period is 10,571.95 days, or 29 Julian years less 20.3 days. Hence
+18 periods make 521 years, so that at the end of this time each eclipse
+recurs on or about the same day of the year. As an example of this
+series, starting from the eclipse of Nineveh, June 15, 763 B.C.,
+recorded on the Assyrian tablets, we find eclipses on May 27, 734 B.C.,
+May 7, 705 B.C., and so on in an unbroken series to 1843, 1872 and 1901,
+the last being the 93rd of the series. Those at the ends of the 521-year
+intervals occurred on June 15, O.S., of each of the years 763, 242 B.C.,
+A.D. 280, 801, 1322 and 1843. As the lunar perigee moves through 242.4°
+in a period, the eclipses will vary from total to annular, but at the
+end of 3 periods the perigee is only 7.1° in advance of its original
+position relative to the node. Hence in a series including every third
+eclipse the eclipses will be of the same character through a thousand
+years or more. Thus the eclipses of 1467, 1554, 1640, 1727, 1814, 1901,
+1988, &c., are total.
+
+
+IV. _Chronological Lists of Eclipses of the Sun._
+
+
+  Notable eclipses.
+
+The following is a brief chronological enumeration of those total
+eclipses of the sun which are of interest, either from their historic
+celebrity or the nature of the conclusions derived from them. In
+numbering the years before the Christian era the astronomical
+nomenclature is used, in which the number of the year is one less than
+that used by the chronologists. The Chinese eclipses are passed over,
+owing to the generally doubtful character of the records pertaining to
+them.
+
+  --1069 June 20 and --1062 July 31; total eclipses recorded at Babylon.
+
+  --762, June 14; a total eclipse recorded at Nineveh. Computation from
+  the modern tables shows that the path of totality passed about 100 m.
+  or more north of Nineveh.
+
+  --647, April 6; total eclipse at or near Thasos, mentioned by
+  Archilochus.
+
+  --584, May 28; the celebrated eclipse of Thales. For an account of
+  this eclipse see THALES.
+
+  --556, May 19, the eclipse of Larissa. The modern tables show that the
+  eclipse was not total at Larissa, and the connexion of the classical
+  record with the eclipse is doubtful.
+
+  --430, August 3; eclipse mentioned by Thucydides, but not total by the
+  tables.
+
+  --399, June 21; eclipse of Ennius. Totality occurred immediately after
+  sunset at Rome. The identity of this eclipse is doubtful.
+
+  --309, August 14; eclipse of Agathocles. This eclipse would be one of
+  the most valuable for testing the tables of the moon, but for an
+  uncertainty as to the location of Agathocles, who, at the time of the
+  occurrence, was at sea on a voyage from Syracuse to Carthage.
+
+  F.K. Ginzel (_Spezieller Kanon der Finsternisse_) has collected a
+  great number of passages from classical authors supposed to refer to
+  eclipses of the sun or moon, but the difficulty of identifying the
+  phenomenon is frequently such as to justify great doubt as to the
+  conclusions. In a few cases no eclipse corresponding to the
+  description can be found by our modern table to have occurred, and in
+  others the latitude of interpretation and the uncertainty of the date
+  are so wide that the eclipse cannot be identified.
+
+  Of medieval eclipses we mention only the dates of those visible in
+  England, referring for details to the works mentioned in the
+  bibliography. The letter C following a date shows that the eclipse is
+  mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles. The dates in question are:--
+
+    A.D. 538, February 15, C. (partial). | A.D.  878, October 29, C.
+         540, June 12, C. (partial).     |       885, June 15.
+         594, July 23.                   |      1023, January 24.
+         603, August 12.                 |      1133, August 1, C.
+         639, September 3.               |      1140, March 20, C.
+         664, May 1, C.                  |      1185, May 1, C.
+         733, August 14 (annular).       |      1191, June 23, C. (annular).
+         764, June 4 (annular).          |      1330, July 16.
+
+  Besides these, the tables show that the shadow of the moon passed over
+  some part of the British Islands on 1424, June 26; 1433, June 17;
+  1598, March 6; 1652, April 8; 1715, May 2; 1724, May 22. Of these the
+  eclipse of 1715 is notable for the careful observations made in
+  England, and published by Halley in the _Philosophical Transactions_.
+  The next dates are 1927, June 29, when a barely total eclipse will be
+  seen soon after sunrise in the northern counties near the Scottish
+  border, and 1999, August 11, when the moon's shadow will graze England
+  at Land's End.
+
+We give below, in tabular form, a list of the principal total eclipses
+during the 19th and 20th centuries, omitting a few visible only in the
+extreme polar regions, and some others of which the duration is very
+short. The first column gives the civil date of the point on the earth's
+surface at which the eclipse is central at noon. The next two columns
+give the position of this point to the nearest degree. The fourth column
+shows the Greenwich astronomical time of conjunction in longitude. The
+next column gives the duration of the total phase at the noon-point;
+this is sometimes 0.1' less than the absolutely greatest duration at any
+point. Next is given the node near which the eclipse occurs; and then
+the number in the Saros. Corresponding eclipses at intervals of 18 y. 11
+d. have the same number, and occur near the same node of the noon, which
+is indicated in the next column.
+
+  +----------------+--------------+---------------+---------+------+-------+------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |                | Point where  |Greenwich M.T. |Duration |      |       |                                                            |
+  |     Date at    |  Central at  |of conjunction |   of    |      |       |                                                            |
+  |   Noon-Point.  |     Noon.    | in Longitude. |Totality.| Node |Series.|                 Regions Swept by Shadow.                   |
+  |                +------+-------+---------------+---------+      |       |                                                            |
+  |                | Lat. | Long. | d.    h.   m. |    m.   |      |       |                                                            |
+  +----------------+------+-------+---------------+---------+------+-------+------------------------------------------------------------+
+  | 1803, Feb.  21 | 11 S.| 136 W.| 21    9   20  |   4.2   | Asc. |   1   | Pacific Ocean, Mexico.                                     |
+  | 1804, Aug.   5 | 38 S.|  66 W.|  5    4    6  |   1.2   | Desc.|   2   | Pacific Ocean, Chile, Argentina.                           |
+  | 1806, June  16 | 42 N.|  66 W.| 16    4   22  |   4.6   | Desc.|   3   | New England, Atlantic, Africa.                             |
+  | 1807, Nov.  29 | 11 N.|   2 E.| 28   23   48  |   1.4   | Asc. |   4   | Central Africa, Areolia.                                   |
+  | 1810, April  4 | 12 N.| 154 E.|  3   13   41  |   Ann.  | Desc.|   5   | Pacific Ocean, Borneo.                                     |
+  | 1811, Mar,  24 | 39 S.|  26 W.| 24    2   19  |   3.4   | Desc.|   6   | South Atlantic to and across South Africa.                 |
+  | 1814, July  17 | 31 N.|  84 E.| 16   18   33  |   6.6   | Asc. |   7   | Africa, Central Asia, China.                               |
+  | 1815, July   6 | 88 N.| 175 W.|  6   11   52  |   3.2   | Asc. |   8   | Polar Regions, Western Siberia.                            |
+  | 1816, Nov.  19 | 43 N.|  30 E.| 18   22    9  |   1.8   | Desc.|   9   | Eastern Europe, Central Asia.                              |
+  | 1817, Nov.   9 |  7 S.| 149 E.|  8   13   53  |   4.7   | Desc.|  10   | Burma, Pacific Ocean.                                      |
+  | 1821, Mar.   4 |  8 S.|  96 E.|  3   17   50  |   4.3   | Asc. |   1   | Indian and Pacific Oceans.                                 |
+  | 1822, Aug.  16 | 36 S.| 176 W.| 16   11   22  |   1.4   | Desc.|   2   | Australia, Pacific Ocean.                                  |
+  | 1824, June  26 | 47 N.| 175 W.| 26   11   43  |   4.4   | Desc.|   3   | Pacific Ocean, Japan, China.                               |
+  | 1825, Dec.   9 |  9 N.| 127 W.|  9    8   27  |   1.5   | Asc. |   4   | Pacific Ocean, Mexico.                                     |
+  | 1828, April 14 | 18 N.|  39 E.| 13   21   18  |   0.3   | Desc.|   5   | Northern Africa, India.                                    |
+  | 1829, April  3 | 32 S.| 149 W.|  3   10   24  |   4.1   | Desc.|   6   | South Pacific Ocean.                                       |
+  | 1832, July  27 | 24 N.|  28 W.| 27    2    2  |   6.8   | Asc. |   7   | West Indies and across Central Africa.                     |
+  | 1833, July  17 | 78 N.|  76 E.| 16   19   16  |   3.5   | Asc. |   8   | North-eastern Asia and Polar Regions.                      |
+  | 1834, Nov.  30 | 40 N.| 101 W.| 30    6   48  |   1.9   | Desc.|   9   | Southern and Western United States.                        |
+  | 1835, Nov.  20 | 10 S.|  20 E.| 19   22   31  |   4.6   | Desc.|  10   | Central Africa, Madagascar.                                |
+  | 1839, Mar.  15 |  6 S.|  31 W.| 15    2   14  |   4.4   | Asc. |   1   | South America, Africa, Egypt.                              |
+  | 1840, Aug.  27 | 34 S.|  72 E.| 26   18   45  |   1.6   | Desc.|   2   | Africa, Madagascar, Indian Ocean.                          |
+  | 1842, July   8 | 51 N.|  77 E.|  7   19    2  |   4.1   | Desc.|   3   | Spain, France, Russia to China, and Pacific Ocean.         |
+  | 1843, Dec.  21 |  8 N.| 102 E.| 20   17   10  |   1.6   | Asc. |   4   | Indian and North Pacific Oceans and India.                 |
+  | 1846, April 25 | 25 N.|  75 W.| 25    4   49  |   0.9   | Desc.|   5   | Mexico, West Indies, Africa.                               |
+  | 1847, April 15 | 24 S.|  90 E.| 14   18   22  |   4.7   | Desc.|   6   | Indian Ocean, Australia.                                   |
+  | 1850, Aug.   7 | 18 N.| 142 W.|  7    9   34  |   6.8   | Asc. |   7   | Pacific Ocean.                                             |
+  | 1851, July  28 | 70 N.|  34 W.| 28    2   41  |   3.7   | Asc. |   8   | Scandinavia, Russia and North America.                     |
+  | 1852, Dec.  11 | 37 N.| 127 E.| 10   15   32  |   2.0   | Desc.|   9   | China, Pacific Ocean.                                      |
+  | 1857, Mar.  25 |  4 S.| 155 W.| 25   10   30  |   4.5   | Asc. |   1   | Pacific Ocean, Mexico.                                     |
+  | 1858, Sept.  7 | 33 S.|  41 W.|  7    2   16  |   1.7   | Desc.|   2   | Peru, South Brazil, Uruguay.                               |
+  | 1860, July  18 | 56 N.|  31 W.| 18    2   21  |   3.7   | Desc.|   3   | British America, France, Egypt.                            |
+  | 1861, Dec.  31 |  9 N.|  29 W.| 31    1   55  |   1.8   | Asc. |   4   | Caribbean Sea to North Africa.                             |
+  | 1864, May    6 | 32 N.| 173 E.|  5   12   14  |   1.4   | Desc.|   5   | Pacific Ocean.                                             |
+  | 1865, April 25 | 16 S.|  30 W.| 25    2   13  |   5.3   | Desc.|   6   | Brazil to Central Africa.                                  |
+  | 1868, Aug.  18 | 10 N.| 103 E.| 17   17   12  |   6.8   | Asc. |   7   | India to Pacific Ocean.                                    |
+  | 1869, Aug.   7 | 61 N.| 145 W.|  7   10    8  |   3.8   | Asc. |   8   | United States and Alaska.                                  |
+  | 1870, Dec.  22 | 36 N.|   5 W.| 22    0   19  |   2.1   | Desc.|   9   | Gibraltar, Northern Africa, Sicily.                        |
+  | 1871, Dec.  12 | 12 S.| 118 E.| 11   16    2  |   4.4   | Desc.|  10   | Southern India, Northern Australia.                        |
+  | 1875, April  6 |  2 S.|  83 E.|  5   18   36  |   4.7   | Asc. |   1   | Indian Ocean, Siam, Pacific.                               |
+  | 1876, Sept. 17 | 33 S.| 156 W.| 17    9   54  |   1.8   | Desc.|   2   | Pacific Ocean.                                             |
+  | 1878, July  29 | 60 N.| 139 W.| 29    9   40  |   3.2   | Desc.|   3   | United States and Canada.                                  |
+  | 1880, Jan.  11 | 10 N.| 160 W.| 11   10   40  |   2.1   | Asc. |   4   | Pacific Ocean, California.                                 |
+  | 1882, May   17 | 39 N.|  63 E.| 16   19   34  |   1.8   | Desc.|   5   | Egypt, Central Asia, China.                                |
+  | 1883, May    6 |  9 S.| 147 W.|  6    9   58  |   6.0   | Desc.|   6   | Pacific Ocean, Caroline Islands.                           |
+  | 1886, Aug.  29 |  3 N.|  14 W.| 29    0   54  |   6.6   | Asc. |   7   | South America, Central Africa.                             |
+  | 1887, Aug.  19 | 53 N.| 102 E.| 18   17   39  |   3.8   | Asc. |   8   | Northern Europe, Siberia, Japan.                           |
+  | 1889, Jan.   1 | 37 N.| 138 W.|  1    9    8  |   2.2   | Desc.|   9   | California, Oregon, British America.                       |
+  | 1889, Dec.  22 | 12 S.|  13 W.| 22    0   52  |   4.2   | Desc.|  10   | Central Africa and South America.                          |
+  | 1893, April 16 |  1 S.|  37 W.| 16    2   35  |   4.8   | Asc. |   1   | Venezuela to West Africa.                                  |
+  | 1894, Sept. 29 | 34 S.|  86 E.| 28   17   43  |   1.8   | Desc.|   2   | East Africa, Indian Ocean.                                 |
+  | 1896, Aug.   9 | 65 N.| 112 E.|  8   17    2  |   2.7   | Desc.|   3   | North Europe, Siberia, Japan.                              |
+  | 1898, Jan.  22 | 13 N.|  69 E.| 21   19   24  |   2.3   | Asc. |   4   | East Africa, India, China.                                 |
+  | 1900, May   28 | 45 N.|  45 W.| 28    2   50  |   2.1   | Desc.|   5   | United States, Spain, North Africa.                        |
+  | 1901, May   18 |  2 S.|  97 E.| 17   17   38  |   6.5   | Desc.|   6   | Sumatra, Borneo.                                           |
+  | 1904, Sept.  9 |  5 S.| 133 W.|  9    8   43  |   6.4   | Asc. |   7   | Pacific Ocean.                                             |
+  | 1905, Aug.  30 | 45 N.|  12 W.| 30    1   13  |   3.8   | Asc. |   8   | Canada, Spain, North Africa.                               |
+  | 1907, Jan.  14 | 39 N.|  89 E.| 13   17   57  |   2.3   | Desc.|   9   | Russia, Central Asia.                                      |
+  | 1908, Jan.   3 | 12 S.| 145 W.|  3    9   44  |   4.2   | Desc.|  10   | Pacific Ocean.                                             |
+  | 1911, April 28 |  1 S.| 155 W.| 28   10   26  |   5.0   | Asc. |   1   | Australia, Polynesia.                                      |
+  | 1912, Oct.  10 | 35 S.|  33 W.| 10    1   41  |   1.8   | Desc.|   2   | Colombia, Ecuador, Brazil.                                 |
+  | 1914, Aug.  21 | 71 N.|   2 E.| 21    0   27  |   2.1   | Desc.|   3   | Scandinavia, Russia, Asia Minor.                           |
+  | 1916, Feb.   3 | 16 N.|  62 W.|  3    4    6  |   2.5   | Asc. |   4   | Pacific Ocean, Venezuela, West Indies.                     |
+  | 1918, June   8 | 51 N.| 152 W.|  8   10    3  |   2.4   | Desc.|   5   | British Columbia, United States.                           |
+  | 1919, May   29 |  4 N.|  18 W.| 29    1   12  |   6.9   | Desc.|   6   | Peru, Brazil, Central Africa.                              |
+  | 1922, Sept. 21 | 12 S.| 106 E.| 20   16   38  |   6.1   | Asc. |   7   | East Africa, Australia.                                    |
+  | 1923, Sept. 10 | 38 N.| 128 W.| 10    8   53  |   3.6   | Asc. |   8   | California, Mexico, Central America.                       |
+  | 1925, Jan.  24 | 42 N.|  44 W.| 24    2   46  |   2.4   | Desc.|   9   | United States.                                             |
+  | 1926, Jan.  14 | 10 S.|  82 E.| 13   18   35  |   4.2   | Desc.|  10   | East Africa, Sumatra, Philippines.                         |
+  | 1927, June  29 | 78 N.|  84 E.| 28   18   32  |   0.7   | Asc. |  11   | England, Scotland, Scandinavia.                            |
+  | 1929, May    9 |  1 S.|  89 E.|  8   18    8  |   5.1   | Asc. |   1   | Sumatra, Malacca, Philippines.                             |
+  | 1930, Oct.  21 | 36 S.| 155 W.| 21    9   47  |   1.9   | Desc.|   2   | Pacific Ocean, Patagonia.                                  |
+  | 1932, Aug.  31 | 78 N.| 109 W.| 31    7   55  |   1.5   | Desc.|   3   | Canada.                                                    |
+  | 1934, Feb.  14 | 19 N.| 168 E.| 13   12   44  |   2.7   | Asc. |   4   | Borneo, Celebes.                                           |
+  | 1936, June  19 | 56 N.| 101 E.| 18   17   15  |   2.5   | Desc.|   5   | Greece to Central Asia and Japan.                          |
+  | 1937, June   8 | 10 N.| 131 W.|  8    8   43  |   7.1   | Desc.|   6   | Pacific Ocean, Peru.                                       |
+  | 1940, Oct.   1 | 19 S.|  16 W.|  1    0   42  |   5.7   | Asc. |   7   | Colombia, Brazil, South Africa.                            |
+  | 1941, Sept. 21 | 30 N.| 114 E.| 20   16   39  |   3.3   | Asc. |   8   | Central Asia, China, Pacific Ocean.                        |
+  | 1943, Feb.   4 | 47 N.| 176 W.|  4   11   31  |   2.5   | Desc.|   9   | China, Alaska.                                             |
+  | 1947, May   20 |  2 S.|  25 W.| 20    1   44  |   5.2   | Asc. |   1   | Argentina, Paraguay, Central Africa.                       |
+  | 1948, Nov.   1 | 37 S.|  82 E.| 31   18    3  |   1.9   | Desc.|   2   | Central Africa, Congo.                                     |
+  | 1952, Feb.  25 | 22 N.|  39 E.| 24   21   17  |   3.0   | Asc. |   4   | Nubia, Persia, Siberia.                                    |
+  | 1954, June  30 | 62 N.|   5 W.| 30    0   27  |   2.5   | Desc.|   5   | Canada, Scandinavia, Russia, Persia.                       |
+  | 1955, June  20 | 15 N.| 117 E.| 19   16   12  |   7.2   | Desc.|   6   | Ceylon, Siam, Philippines.                                 |
+  | 1958, Oct.  12 | 26 S.| 139 W.| 12    8   52  |   5.2   | Asc. |   7   | Chile, Argentina.                                          |
+  | 1959, Oct.   2 | 23 N.|   6 W.|  2    0   32  |   3.0   | Asc. |   8   | Canaries, Central Africa.                                  |
+  | 1961, Feb.  15 | 53 N.|  53 E.| 14   20   11  |   2.6   | Desc.|   9   | France, Italy, Austria, Siberia.                           |
+  | 1962, Feb.   5 |  4 S.| 179 E.|  4   12   11  |   4.1   | Desc.|  10   | New Guinea.                                                |
+  | 1963, July  20 | 62 N.| 126 W.| 20    8   43  |   1.5   | Asc. |  11   | Alaska, Hudson's Bay Territory.                            |
+  | 1965, May   30 |  4 S.| 137 W.| 30    9   14  |   5.3   | Asc. |   1   | Pacific Ocean.                                             |
+  | 1966, Nov.  12 | 38 S.|  43 W.| 12    2   27  |   1.9   | Desc.|   2   | Bolivia, Argentina, Brazil.                                |
+  | 1970, Mar.   7 | 25 N.|  88 W.|  7    5   43  |   3.3   | Asc. |   4   | Mexico, Georgia, ? Florida.                                |
+  | 1972, July  10 | 67 N.| 111 W.| 10    7   40  |   2.7   | Desc.|   5   | North-East Asia, North-East America and Atlantic Ocean.    |
+  | 1973, June  30 | 19 N.|   6 E.| 29   23   39  |   7.2   | Desc.|   6   | South America, Africa and Atlantic Ocean.                  |
+  | 1974, June  20 | 32 S.| 107 E.| 19   16   56  |   5.3   | Desc.|  12   | South-West Australia and Indian Ocean.                     |
+  | 1976, Oct.  23 | 31 S.|  95 E.| 22   17   10  |   4.9   | Asc. |   7   | Africa, Australia, Indian and Pacific Oceans.              |
+  | 1977, Oct.  12 | 16 N.| 127 W.| 12    8   31  |   2.8   | Asc. |   8   | Venezuela, Pacific Ocean.                                  |
+  | 1979, Feb.  26 | 61 N.|  77 W.| 26    4   47  |   2.7   | Desc.|   9   | United States, British America, Pacific Ocean, N. Polar Sea|
+  | 1980, Feb.  16 |  1 N.|  48 E.| 15   20   52  |   4.3   | Desc.|  10   | Africa, Atlantic and Indian Oceans, and India.             |
+  | 1981, July  31 | 54 N.| 127 E.| 30   15   53  |   2.2   | Asc. |  11   | Pacific Ocean, Asia.                                       |
+  | 1983, June  11 |  7 S.| 111 E.| 10   16   38  |   5.4   | Asc. |   1   | Java, Atlantic Ocean.                                      |
+  | 1984, Nov.  22 | 39 S.| 170 W.| 22   10   58  |   2.1   | Desc.|   2   | Pacific Ocean, Patagonia.                                  |
+  | 1987, Mar.  29 | 17 S.|   6 W.| 29    0   45  |   0.3   | Asc. |  13   | Atlantic, Equatorial Africa.                               |
+  | 1988, Mar.  18 | 28 N.| 146 E.| 17   14    3  |   4.0   | Asc. |   4   | Indian and Pacific Oceans, Sumatra.                        |
+  | 1990, July  22 | 72 N.| 142 E.| 21   14   54  |   2.6   | Desc.|   5   | Finland, North Atlantic.                                   |
+  | 1991, July  11 | 22 N.| 105 W.| 11    7    6  |   7.1   | Desc.|   6   | Pacific Ocean, Hawaii, Central America.                    |
+  | 1992, June  30 | 26 S.|   5 W.| 30    0   19  |   5.4   | Desc.|  12   | South Atlantic.                                            |
+  | 1994, Nov.   3 | 36 S.|  31 W.|  3    1   36  |   4.6   | Asc. |   7   | Pacific Ocean, South America.                              |
+  | 1995, Oct.  24 | 10 N.| 110 E.| 23   16   37  |   2.4   | Asc. |   8   | Pacific and Indian Oceans.                                 |
+  | 1997, Mar.   9 | 71 N.| 154 E.|  8   13   16  |   2.8   | Desc.|   9   | North-East Asia, Arctic Sea.                               |
+  | 1998, Feb.  26 |  6 N.|  81 W.| 26    5   27  |   4.4   | Desc.|  10   | Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, Central America.              |
+  | 1999, Aug.  11 | 46 N.|  18 E.| 10   23    8  |   2.6   | Asc. |  11   | Central and Southern Europe touching England.              |
+  +----------------+------+-------+---------------+---------+------+-------+------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+_Recurrence of Remarkable Eclipses._
+
+From the property of the Saros it follows that eclipses remarkable for
+their duration, or other circumstances depending on the relative
+positions of the sun and moon, occur at intervals of one saros (18 y. 11
+d.). Of interest in this connexion is the recurrence of total eclipses
+remarkable for their duration. The absolute maximum duration of a total
+eclipse is about 7' 30"; but no actual eclipse can be expected to reach
+this duration. Those which will come nearest to the maximum during the
+next 500 years belong to the series numbered 4 and 6 and in the list
+which precedes. These occurring in the years 1937, 1955, &c., will
+ultimately fall little more than 20" below the maximum. But the series
+4, though not now remarkable in this respect, will become so in the
+future, reaching in the eclipse of June 25, 2150, a duration of about 7'
+15" and on July 5, 2168, a duration of 7' 28", the longest in human
+history. The first of these will pass over the Pacific Ocean; the second
+over the southern part of the Indian Ocean near Madras.
+
+All the national annual Ephemerides contain elements of the eclipses of
+the sun occurring during the year. Those of England, America and France
+also give maps showing the path of the central line, if any, over the
+earth's surface; the lines of eclipse beginning and ending at sunrise,
+&c., and the outlines of the shadow from hour to hour. By the aid of the
+latter the time at which an eclipse begins or ends at any point can be
+determined by inspection or measurement within a few minutes.
+
+
+V. _Methods of computing Eclipses of the Sun._
+
+
+  Elements of eclipses.
+
+The complete computation of the circumstances of an eclipse ab initio
+requires three distinct processes. The geocentric positions of the sun
+and moon have first to be computed from the tables of the motions of
+those bodies. The second step is to compute certain elements of the
+eclipse from these geocentric positions. The third step is from these
+elements to compute the circumstances of the eclipse for the earth
+generally or for any given place on its surface. The national
+Astronomical Ephemerides, or "Nautical Almanacs," give in full the
+geocentric positions of the sun and moon from at least the early part of
+the 19th century to an epoch three years in advance of the date of
+publication. It is therefore unnecessary to undertake the first part of
+the computation except for dates outside the limits of the published
+ephemerides, and for many years to come even this computation will be
+unnecessary, because tables giving the elements of eclipses from the
+earliest historic periods up to the 22nd century have been published by
+T. Ritter von Oppolzer and by Simon Newcomb. We shall therefore confine
+ourselves to a statement of the eclipse problem and of the principles on
+which such tables rest.
+
+Two systems of eclipse elements are now adopted in the ephemerides and
+tables; the one, that of F.W. Bessel, is used in the English, American
+and French ephemerides, the other--P. A. Hansen's--in the German and in
+the eclipse tables of T. Ritter von Oppolzer. The two have in common
+certain geometric constructions. The fundamental axis of reference in
+both systems is the line passing through the centres of the sun and
+moon; this is the common axis of the shadow cones, which envelop
+simultaneously the sun and moon as shown in figs. 1, 2, 3. The surface
+of one of these cones, that of the umbra, is tangent to both bodies
+externally. This cone comes to a point at a distance from the moon
+nearly equal to that of the earth. Within it the sun is wholly hidden by
+the moon. Outside the umbral cone is that of the penumbra, within which
+the sun is partially hidden by the moon. The geometric condition that
+the two bodies shall appear in contact, or that the eclipse shall begin
+or end at a certain moment, is that the surface of one of these cones
+shall pass through the place of the observer at that moment. Let a
+plane, which we call the fundamental plane, pass through the centre of
+the earth perpendicular to the shadow axis. On this plane the centre of
+the earth is taken as an origin of rectangular co-ordinates. The axis of
+Z is perpendicular to the plane, and therefore parallel to the shadow
+axis; that of Y and X lie in the plane. In these fundamental
+constructions the two methods coincide. They differ in the direction of
+the axis of Y and X in the fundamental plane. In Bessel's method, which
+we shall first describe, the intersection of the plane of the earth's
+equator with the fundamental plane is taken as the axis of X. The axis
+of Y is perpendicular to it, the positive direction being towards the
+north. The Besselian elements of an eclipse are then:--x, y, the
+co-ordinates of the shadow axis on the fundamental plane; d, the
+declination of that point in which the shadow axis intersects the
+celestial sphere; [mu], the Greenwich hour angle of this point; l, the
+radius of the circle, in which the penumbral or outer cone intersects
+the fundamental plane; and l', the radius of the circle, in which the
+inner or umbral cone intersects this plane, taken positively when the
+vertex of the cone does not reach the plane, so that the axis must be
+produced, and negatively when the vertex is beyond the plane.
+
+Hansen's method differs from that of Bessel in that the ecliptic is
+taken as the fundamental plane instead of the equator. The axis of X on
+the fundamental plane is parallel to the plane of the ecliptic; that of
+Y perpendicular to it. The other elements are nearly the same in the two
+theories. As to their relative advantages, it may be remarked that
+Hansen's co-ordinates follow most simply from the data of the tables,
+and are necessarily used in eclipse tables, but that the subsequent
+computation is simpler by Bessel's method.
+
+Several problems are involved in the complete computation of an eclipse
+from the elements. First, from the values of the latter at a given
+moment to determine the point, if any, at which the shadow-axis
+intersects the surface of the earth, and the respective outlines of the
+umbra and penumbra on that surface. Within the umbral curve the eclipse
+is annular or total; outside of it and within the penumbral curve the
+eclipse is partial at the given moment. The penumbral line is marked
+from hour to hour on the maps given annually in the American Ephemeris.
+Second, a series of positions of the central point through the course of
+an eclipse gives us the path of the central point along the surface of
+the earth, and the envelopes of the penumbral and umbral curves just
+described are boundaries within which a total, annular or partial
+eclipse will be visible. In particular, we have a certain definite point
+on the earth's surface on which the edge of the shadow first impinges;
+this impingement necessarily takes place at sunrise. Then passing from
+this point, we have a series of points on the surface at which the
+elements of the shadow-cone are in succession tangent to the earth's
+surface. At all these points the eclipse begins at sunrise until a
+certain limit is reached, after which, following the successive
+elements, it ends at sunrise. At the limiting point the rim of the moon
+merely grazes that of the sun at sunrise, so that we may say that the
+eclipse both begins and ends at that time. Of course the points we have
+described are also found at the ending of the eclipse. There is a
+certain moment at which the shadow-axis leaves the earth at a certain
+point, and a series of moments when, the elements of the penumbral cone
+being tangent to the earth's surface, the eclipse is ending at sunset.
+Three cases may arise in studying the passage of the outlines of the
+shadow over the earth. It may be that all the elements of the penumbral
+cone intersect the earth. In this case we shall have both a northern and
+a southern limit of partial eclipse. In the second case there will be no
+limit on the one side except that of the eclipse beginning or ending at
+sunrise or sunset. Or it may happen, as the third case, that the
+shadow-axis does not intersect the earth at all; the eclipse will then
+not be central at any point, but at most only partial.
+
+The third problem is, from the same data, to find the circumstances of
+an eclipse at a given place--especially the times of beginning and
+ending, or the relative positions of the sun and moon at a given moment.
+Reference to the formulae for all these problems will be given in the
+bibliography of the subject.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The richest mine of information respecting eclipses of
+  the sun and moon is T.R. von Oppolzer's "Kanon der Finsternisse,"
+  published by the Vienna Academy of Sciences in the 52nd volume of its
+  _Denkschriften_ (Vienna, 1887). It contains elements of all eclipses
+  both of the sun and moon, from 1207 B.C. to A.D. 2161, a period of
+  more than thirty centuries. Appended to the tables is a series of
+  charts showing the paths of all central eclipses visible in the
+  northern hemisphere during the period covered by the table. The points
+  of the path at which the eclipse occurs, at sunrise, noon and sunset,
+  are laid down with precision, but the intermediate points are
+  frequently in error by several hundred miles, as they were not
+  calculated, but projected simply by drawing a circle through the three
+  points just mentioned. For this reason we cannot infer from them that
+  an eclipse was total at any given place. The correct path can,
+  however, be readily computed from the tables given in the work. Eduard
+  Mahler's memoir, "Die centralen Sonnenfinsternisse des 20.
+  Jahrhunderts" (_Denkschriften_, Vienna Academy, vol. xlix.), gives
+  more exact paths of the central eclipses of the 20th century, but no
+  maps. General tables for computing eclipses are Oppolzer's
+  "Syzygientafeln für den Mond" (Publications of the _Astronomische
+  Gesellschaft_, xvi.), and Newcomb's, in _Publications of the American
+  Ephemeris_, vol. i. part i. Of these, Oppolzer's are constructed with
+  greater numerical accuracy and detail, while Newcomb's are founded on
+  more recent astronomical data, and are preferable for computing
+  ancient eclipses. F.K. Ginzel's _Spezieller Kanon der Sonnen- und
+  Mondfinsternisse_ (Berlin, 1899) contains, besides the historical
+  researches already mentioned, maps of the paths of central eclipses
+  visible in the lands of classical antiquity from 900 B.C. to A.D. 500,
+  but computed with imperfect astronomical data. Maguire, "Monthly
+  Notices," _R.A.S._ xlv. and xlvi., has mapped the total solar eclipses
+  visible in the British Islands from 878 to 1724. General papers of
+  interest on the same subject have been published by Rev. S.J. Johnson.
+  A résumé of all the observations on the physical phenomena of total
+  solar eclipses up to 1878, by A.C. Ranyard, is to be found in _Memoirs
+  of the Royal Astronomical Society_, vol. xli. A very copious
+  development of the computation of eclipses by Bessel's method is found
+  in W. Chauvenet's _Spherical and Practical Astronomy_, vol. i. _The
+  Theory of Eclipses_, by R. Buchanan (Philadelphia, 1904), treats the
+  subject yet more fully. Hansen's method is developed in the
+  _Abhandlungen_ of the Leipzig Academy of Sciences, vol. vi.
+  (Math.-Phys. Classe, vol. iv.). The formulae of computation by this
+  method are found in the introductions to Oppolzer's two works cited
+  above.     (S. N.)
+
+
+
+
+ECLIPTIC, in astronomy. The plane of the ecliptic is that plane in or
+near which the centre of gravity of the earth and moon revolves round
+the sun. The ecliptic itself is the great circle in which this plane
+meets the celestial sphere. It is also defined, but not with absolute
+rigour, as the apparent path described by the sun around the celestial
+sphere as the earth performs its annual revolution. Owing to the action
+of the moon on the earth, as it performs its monthly revolution in an
+orbit slightly inclined to the ecliptic, the centre of the earth itself
+deviates from the plane of the ecliptic in a period equal to that of the
+nodal revolution of the moon. The deviation is extremely slight, its
+maximum amount ranging between 0.5' and 0.6". Owing to the action of the
+planets, especially Venus and Jupiter, on the earth, the centre of
+gravity of the earth and moon deviates by a yet minuter amount,
+generally one or two tenths of a second, from the plane of the ecliptic
+proper. Owing to the action of the planets, the position of the ecliptic
+is subject to a slow secular variation amounting, during our time, to
+nearly 47" per century. The rate of this motion is slowly diminishing.
+
+The obliquity of the ecliptic is the angle which its plane makes with
+that of the equator. Its mean value is now about 23° 27'. The motion of
+the ecliptic produces a secular variation in the obliquity which is now
+diminishing by an amount nearly equal to the entire motion of the
+ecliptic itself. The laws of motion of the ecliptic and equator are
+stated in the article PRECESSION OF THE EQUINOXES.
+
+Attempts have been made by Laplace and his successors to fix certain
+limits within which the obliquity of the ecliptic shall always be
+confined. The results thus derived are, however, based on imperfect
+formulae. When the problem is considered in a rigorous form, it is found
+that no absolute limits can be set. It can, however, be shown that the
+obliquity cannot vary more than two or three degrees within a million of
+years of our epoch.
+
+  The formula for the obliquity of the ecliptic, as derived from the
+  laws of motion of it and of the equator, may be developed in a series
+  proceeding according to the ascending powers of the time as follows:
+  we put T, the time from 1900, reckoned in solar centuries as a unit.
+  Then,
+
+  Obliquity = 23° 27' 31.68" - 46.837" T - 0.0085" T² + 0.0017" T³.
+
+  From this expression is derived the value of the obliquity at various
+  epochs given in the following table. The left-hand portion of this
+  table gives the values for intervals of 500 years from 2000 B.C. to
+  A.D. 2500 as computed from modern data. For dates more than three or
+  four centuries before or after 1850 the result is necessarily
+  uncertain by one or more tenths of a minute, and is therefore only
+  given to 0.1'.
+
+    B.C. 2000; obl. = 23° 55.5"   A.D. 1700; obl. = 23° 28' 41.91"
+         1500   "   = 23  52.3         1750   "   = 23  28  18.51
+         1000   "   = 23  48.9         1800   "   = 23  27  55.10
+          500   "   = 23  45.4         1850   "   = 23  27  31.68
+            0   "   = 23  41.7         1900   "   = 23  27   8.26
+    A.D.  500   "   = 23  38.0         1950   "   = 23  26  44.84
+         1000   "   = 23  34.1         2000   "   = 23  26  21.41
+         1500   "   = 23  30.3         2050   "   = 23  25  57.99
+         2000   "   = 23  26.4         2100   "   = 23  25  34.56
+         2500   "   = 23  22.5
+       (S. N.)
+
+
+
+
+ECLOGITE (from Gr. [Greek: eklogê], a selection), in petrology, a typical
+member of a small group of metamorphic rocks of special interest on
+account of the variety of minerals they contain and their microscopic
+structures and geological relationships. Typically they consist of pale
+green or nearly colourless augite (omphacite), green hornblende and pink
+garnet. Quartz also is usually present in these rocks, but felspar is
+rare. The augite is mostly a variety of diopside and is only occasionally
+idiomorphic. The garnet sometimes forms good dodecahedra, but may occur
+as rounded grains, and encloses quartz, rutile, kyanite, and other
+minerals very frequently. The hornblende is usually pale green and feebly
+dichroic, but, in some eclogites which are allied to garnet-amphibolites,
+it is of dark brown colour. Among the commoner accessory minerals are
+kyanite (of blue or greyish-blue tints), rutile, biotite, epidote and
+zoisite, sphene, iron oxides, and pyrites. The rutile is invariably in
+small brown prisms; the kyanite forms bladed crystals, with perfect
+cleavage; felspar, if present, belongs to basic varieties rich in lime.
+Other minerals which have been found in eclogites are bronzite, olivine
+and glaucophane. The last mentioned is a bright blue variety of
+hornblende with striking pleochroism. The eclogites in their chemical
+composition show close affinities to gabbros; they often exhibit
+relationships in the field which show that they were primarily intrusive
+rocks of igneous origin, and occasionally contact alteration can be
+traced in the adjacent schists. Examples are known in Saxony, Bavaria,
+Carinthia, Austria, Norway. A few eclogites also occur in the north-west
+highlands of Scotland. Glaucophane-eclogites have been met with in Italy
+and the Pennine Alps. Specimens of rock allied to eclogite have been
+found in the diamantiferous peridotite breccias of South Africa (the
+so-called "blue ground"), and this has given rise to the theory that
+these are the parent masses from which the Kimberley diamonds have come.
+     (J. S. F.)
+
+
+
+
+ECLOGUE, a short pastoral dialogue in verse. The word is conjectured to
+be derived from the Greek verb [Greek: eklegein], to choose. An eclogue,
+perhaps, in its primary signification was a selected piece. Another more
+fantastic derivation traces it to [Greek: aix], goat, and [Greek:
+logos], speech, and makes it a conversation of shepherds. The idea of
+dialogue, however, is not necessary for an eclogue, which is often not
+to be distinguished from the idyll. The grammarians, in giving this
+title to Virgil's pastoral conversations (_Bucolica_), tended to make
+the term "eclogue" apply exclusively to dialogue, and this has in fact
+been the result of the success of Virgil's work. Latin eclogues were
+also written by Calpurnius Siculus and by Nemesianus. In modern
+literature the term has lost any distinctive character which it may have
+possessed among the Romans; it is merged in the general notion of
+pastoral poetry. The French "Églogues" of J.R. de Segrais (1624-1701)
+were long famous, and those of the Spanish poet Garcilasso de La Vega
+(1503-1536) are still admired.
+
+  See also BUCOLICS; PASTORAL.
+
+
+
+
+ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY, the name given to the study of insects based on
+their relation to man, his domestic animals and his crops, and, in the
+case of those that are injurious, of the practical methods by which they
+can be prevented from doing harm, or be destroyed when present. In Great
+Britain little attention is paid to this important branch of
+agricultural science, but in America and the British colonies the case
+is different. Nearly every state in America has its official economic
+entomologists, and nearly every one of the British crown colonies is
+provided with one or more able men who help the agricultural community
+to battle against the insect pests. Most, if not all, of the important
+knowledge of remedies comes from America, where this subject reaches the
+highest perfection; even the life-histories of some of the British pests
+have been traced out in the United States and British colonies more
+completely than at home, from the creatures that have been introduced
+from Europe.
+
+Some idea of the importance of this subject may be gained from the
+following figures. The estimated loss by the vine _Phylloxera_ in the
+Gironde alone was £32,000,000; for all the French wine districts
+£100,000,000 would not cover the damage. It has been stated on good
+evidence that a loss of £7,000,000 per annum was caused by the attack of
+the ox warble fly on cattle in England alone. In a single season
+Aberdeenshire suffered nearly £90,000 worth of damage owing to the
+ravages of the diamond back moth on the root crops; in New York state
+the codling moth caused a loss of $3,000,000 to apple-growers. Yet these
+figures are nothing compared to the losses due to scale insects, locusts
+and other pests.
+
+  The most able exponent of this subject in Great Britain was John
+  Curtis, whose treatise on _Farm Insects_, published in 1860, is still
+  the standard British work dealing with the insect foes of corn, roots,
+  grass and stored corn. The most important works dealing with fruit and
+  other pests come from the pens of Saunders, Lintner, Riley,
+  Slingerland and others in America and Canada, from Taschenberg, Lampa,
+  Reuter and Kollar in Europe, and from French, Froggatt and Tryon in
+  Australia. It was not until the last quarter of the 19th century that
+  any real advance was made in the study of economic entomology. Among
+  the early writings, besides the book of Curtis, there may also be
+  mentioned a still useful little publication by Pohl and Kollar,
+  entitled _Insects Injurious to Gardeners, Foresters and Farmers_,
+  published in 1837, and Taschenberg's _Praktische Insecktenkunde_.
+  American literature began as far back as 1788, when a report on the
+  Hessian fly was issued by Sir Joseph Banks; in 1817 Say began his
+  writings; while in 1856 Asa Fitch started his report on the "Noxious
+  Insects of New York." Since that date the literature has largely
+  increased. Among the most important reports, &c., may be mentioned
+  those of C.V. Riley, published by the U.S. Department of Agriculture,
+  extending from 1878 to his death, in which is embodied an enormous
+  amount of valuable matter. At his death the work fell to Professor
+  L.O. Howard, who constantly issues brochures of equal value in the
+  form of Bulletins of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The chief
+  writings of J.A. Lintner extend from 1882 to 1898, in yearly parts,
+  under the title of _Reports on the Injurious Insects of the State of
+  New York_. Another author whose writings rank high on this subject is
+  M.V. Slingerland, whose investigations are published by Cornell
+  University. Among other Americans who have largely increased the
+  literature and knowledge must be mentioned F.M. Webster and E.P. Felt.
+  In 1883 appeared a work on fruit pests by William Saunders, which
+  mainly applies to the American continent; and another small book on
+  the same subject was published in 1898 by Miss Ormerod, dealing with
+  the British pests. In Australia Tryon published a work on the _Insect
+  and Fungus Enemies of Queensland_ in 1889. Many other papers and
+  reports are being issued from Australia, notably by Froggatt in New
+  South Wales. At the Cape excellent works and papers are prepared and
+  issued by the government entomologist, Dr Lounsbury, under the
+  auspices of the Agricultural Department; while from India we have
+  Cotes's _Notes on Economic Entomology_, published by the Indian Museum
+  in 1888, and other works, especially on tea pests.
+
+Injurious insects occur among the following orders: _Coleoptera_,
+_Hymenoptera_, _Lepidoptera_, _Diptera_, _Hemiptera_ (both _heteroptera_
+and _homoptera_), _Orthoptera_, _Neuroptera_ and _Thysanoptera_. The
+order _Aptera_ also contains a few injurious species.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--A, Wireworm; B, pupa of Click Beetle; C, adult
+Click Beetle (_Agriotes lineatum_).]
+
+Among the _Coleoptera_ or beetles there is a group of world-wide pests,
+the _Elateridae_ or click beetles, the adults of the various
+"wireworms." The insects in the larval or wireworm stage attack the
+roots of plants, eating them away below the ground. The eggs deposited
+by the beetle in the ground develop into yellowish-brown wire-like grubs
+with six legs on the first three segments and a ventral prominence on
+the anal segment. The life of these subterranean pests differs in the
+various species; some undoubtedly (_Agriotes lineatum_) live for three
+or four years, during the greater part of which time they gnaw away at
+the roots of plants, carrying wholesale destruction before them. When
+mature they pass deep into the ground and pupate, appearing after a few
+months as the click beetles (fig. 1). Most crops are attacked by them,
+but they are particularly destructive to wheat and other cereals. With
+such subterranean pests little can be done beyond rolling the land to
+keep it firm, and thus preventing them from moving rapidly from plant to
+plant. A few crops, such as mustard, seem deleterious to them. By
+growing mustard and ploughing it in green the ground is made obnoxious
+to the wireworms, and may even be cleared of them. For root-feeders,
+bisulphide of carbon injected into the soil is of particular value. One
+ounce injected about 2 ft. from an apple tree on two sides has been
+found to destroy all the ground form of the woolly aphis. In garden
+cultivation it is most useful for wireworm, used at the rate of 1 ounce
+to every 4 sq. yds. It kills all root pests.
+
+In Great Britain the flea beetles (_Halticidae_) are one of the most
+serious enemies; one of these, the turnip flea (_Phyllotreta nemorum_),
+has in some years, notably 1881, caused more than £500,000 loss in
+England and Scotland alone by eating the young seedling turnips, cabbage
+and other _Cruciferae_. In some years three or four sowings have to be
+made before a "plant" is produced, enormous loss in labour and cost of
+seed alone being thus involved. These beetles, characterized by their
+skipping movements and enlarged hind femora, also attack the hop
+(_Haltica concinna_), the vine in America (_Graptodera chalybea_,
+Illig.), and numerous other species of plants, being specially harmful
+to seedlings and young growth. Soaking the seed in strong-smelling
+substances, such as paraffin and turpentine, has been found efficacious,
+and in some districts paraffin sprayed over the seedlings has been
+practised with decided success. This oil generally acts as an excellent
+preventive of this and other insect attacks.
+
+In all climates fruit and forest trees suffer from weevils or
+_Curculionidae_. The plum curculio (_Conotrachelus nenuphar_, Herbst) in
+America causes endless harm in plum orchards; curculios in Australia
+ravage the vines and fruit trees (_Orthorrhinus klugii_, Schon, and
+_Leptops hopei_, Bohm, &c.). In Europe a number of "long-snouted"
+beetles, such as the raspberry weevils (_Otiorhynchus picipes_), the
+apple blossom weevil (_Anthonomus pomorum_), attack fruit; others, as
+the "corn weevils" (_Calandra oryzae_ and _C. granaria_), attack stored
+rice and corn; while others produce swollen patches on roots
+(_Ceutorhynchus sulcicollis_), &c. All these _Curculionidae_ are very
+timid creatures, falling to the ground at the least shock. This habit
+can be used as a means of killing them, by placing boards or sacks
+covered with tar below the trees, which are then gently shaken. As many
+of these beetles are nocturnal, this trapping should take place at
+night. Larval "weevils" mostly feed on the roots of plants, but some,
+such as the nut weevil (_Balaninus nucum_), live as larvae inside fruit.
+Seeds of various plants are also attacked by weevils of the family
+_Bruchidae_, especially beans and peas. These seed-feeders may be killed
+in the seeds by subjecting them to the fumes of bisulphide of carbon.
+The corn weevils (_Calandra granaria_ and _C. oryzae_) are now found all
+over the world, in many cases rendering whole cargoes of corn useless.
+
+The most important Hymenopterous pests are the sawflies or
+_Tenthredinidae_, which in their larval stage attack almost all
+vegetation. The larvae of these are usually spoken of as "false
+caterpillars," on account of their resemblance to the larvae of a moth.
+They are most ravenous feeders, stripping bushes and trees completely of
+their foliage, and even fruit. Sawfly larvae can at once be recognized
+by the curious positions they assume, and by the number of pro-legs,
+which exceeds ten. The female lays her eggs in a slit made by means of
+her "saw-like" ovipositor in the leaf or fruit of a tree. The pupae in
+most of these pests are found in an earthen cocoon beneath the ground,
+or in some cases above ground (_Lophyrus pini_). One species, the
+slugworm (_Eriocampa limacina_), is common to Europe and America; the
+larva is a curious slug-like creature, found on the upper surface of the
+leaves of the pear and cherry, which secretes a slimy coating from its
+skin. Currant and gooseberry are also attacked by sawfly larvae
+(_Nematus ribesii_ and _N. ventricosus_) both in Europe and America.
+Other species attack the stalks of grasses and corn (_Cephus pygmaeus_).
+Forest trees also suffer from their ravages, especially the conifers
+(_Lophyrus pini_). Another group of Hymenoptera occasionally causes much
+harm in fir plantations, namely, the _Siricidae_ or wood-wasps, whose
+larvae burrow into the trunks of the trees and thus kill them. For all
+exposed sawfly larvae hellebore washes are most fatal, but they must not
+be used over ripe or ripening fruit, as the hellebore is poisonous.
+
+The order Diptera contains a host of serious pests. These two-winged
+insects attack all kinds of plants, and also animals in their larval
+stage. Many of the adults are bloodsuckers (_Tabanidae_, _Culicidae_,
+&c.); others are parasitic in their larval stage (_Oestridae_, &c.). The
+best-known dipterous pests are the Hessian fly (_Cecidomyia
+destructor_), the pear midge (_Diplosis pyrivora_), the fruit flies
+(_Tephritis Tyroni_ of Queensland and _Halterophora capitata_ or the
+Mediterranean fruit fly), the onion fly (_Phorbia cepetorum_), and
+numerous corn pests, such as the gout fly (_Chloropstaeniopus_) and the
+frit fly (_Oscinis frit_). Animals suffer from the ravages of bot flies
+(_Oestridae_) and gad flies (_Tabanidae_); while the tsetse disease is
+due to the tsetse fly (_Glossina morsitans_), carrying the protozoa that
+cause the disease from one horse to another. Other flies act as
+disease-carriers, including the mosquitoes (_Anopheles_), which not only
+carry malarial germs, but also form a secondary host for these
+parasites. Hundreds of acres of wheat are lost annually in America by
+the ravages of the Hessian fly; the fruit flies of Australia and South
+Africa cause much loss to orange and citron growers, often making it
+necessary to cover the trees in muslin tents for protection. Of animal
+pests the ox warbles (_Hypoderma lineata_ and _H. bovis_) are the most
+important (see fig. 2). The "bots" or larvae of these flies live under
+the skin of cattle, producing large swollen lumps--"warbles"--in which
+the "bots" mature (fig. 2). These parasites damage the hide, set up
+inflammation, and cause immense loss to farmers, herdsmen and butchers.
+The universal attack that has been made upon this pest has, however,
+largely decreased its numbers. In America cattle suffer much from the
+horn fly (_Haematobia serrata_). The dipterous garden pests, such as the
+onion fly, carrot fly and celery fly, can best be kept in check by the
+use of paraffin emulsions and the treatment of the soil with gas-lime
+after the crop is lifted. Cereal pests can only be treated by general
+cleanliness and good farming, and of course they are largely kept down
+by the rotation of crops.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--A, Ox Bot Maggot; B, puparium; C, Ox Warble Fly
+(_Hypoderma bovis_).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Looper-larva of Winter Moth (_Cheimatobia
+brumata_).]
+
+Lepidopterous enemies are numerous all over the world. Fruit suffers
+much from the larvae of the _Geometridae_, the so-called "looper-larvae"
+or "canker-worms." Of these geometers the winter moth (_Cheimatobia
+brumata_) is one of the chief culprits in Europe (fig. 3). The females
+in this moth and in others allied to it are wingless. These insects pass
+the pupal stage in the ground, and reach the boughs to lay their eggs by
+crawling up the trunks of the trees. To check them, "grease-banding"
+round the trees has been adopted; but as many other pests eat the
+leafage, it is best to kill all at once by spraying with arsenical
+poisons. Among other notable Lepidopterous pests are the "surface
+larvae" or cutworms (_Agrotis spp._), the caterpillars of various
+Noctuae; the codling moth (_Carpocapsa pomonella_), which causes the
+maggot in apples, has now become a universal pest, having spread from
+Europe to America and to most of the British Colonies. In many years
+quite half the apple crop is lost in England owing to the larvae
+destroying the fruit. Sugar-canes suffer from the sugar-cane borer
+(_Diatioca sacchari_) in the West Indies; tobacco from the larvae of
+hawk moths (_Sphingidae_) in America; corn and grass from various
+Lepidopterous pests all over the world. Nor are stored goods exempt, for
+much loss annually takes place in corn and flour from the presence of
+the larvae of the Mediterranean flour moth (_Ephestia kuniella_); while
+furs and clothes are often ruined by the clothes moth (_Tinea
+trapezella_).
+
+By far the most destructive insects in warm climates belong to the
+Hemiptera, especially to the _Coccidae_ or scale insects. All fruit and
+forest trees suffer from these curious insects, which in the female sex
+always remain apterous and apodal and live attached to the bark, leaf
+and fruit, hidden beneath variously formed scale-like coverings. The
+male scales differ in form from the female; the adult male is winged,
+and is rarely seen. The female lays her eggs beneath the scaly covering,
+from which hatch out little active six-legged larvae, which wander about
+and soon begin to form a new scale. The _Coccidae_ can, and mainly do,
+breed asexually (parthenogenetically). One of the most important is the
+San José scale (_Aspidiotus perniciosus_), which in warm climates
+attacks all fruit and many other trees, which, if unmolested, it will
+soon kill (fig. 4). These scales breed very rapidly; Howard states one
+may give rise to a progeny of 3,216,080,400 in one year. Other scale
+insects of note are the cosmopolitan mussel scale (_Mytilaspis pomorum_)
+and the Australian _Icerya purchasi_. The former attacks apple and pear;
+the latter, which selects orange and citron, was introduced into America
+from Australia, and carried ruin before it in some orange districts
+until its natural enemy, the lady-bird beetle, _Vedalia cardinalis_, was
+also imported.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--San José Scale (_Aspidiotus perniciosus_). A,
+Male scale insect; B, female; C, larva; D, female scale; E, male scale.]
+
+After the _Coccidae_ the next most important insects economically are
+the plant lice or _Aphididae_. These breed with great rapidity under
+favourable conditions: one by the end of the year will be accountable,
+according to Linnaeus, for the enormous number of a quintillion of its
+species. Aphides are born, as a rule, alive, and the young soon commence
+to reproduce again. Their food consists mainly of the sap obtained from
+the leaves and blossom of plants, but some also live on the roots of
+plants (_Phylloxera vastatrix_ and _Schizoneura lanigera_). Aphides
+often ruin whole crops of fruit, corn, hops, &c., by sucking out the
+sap, and not only check growth, but may even entail the death of the
+plant. Reproduction is mainly asexual, the females producing living
+young without the agency of a male. Males in nearly all species appear
+once a year, when the last female generation, the ovigerous generation,
+is fertilized, and a few large ova are produced to carry on the
+continuity of the species over the winter. Some aphides live only on one
+species of plant, others on two or more plants. An example of the latter
+is seen in the hop aphis (_Phorodon humuli_), which passes the winter
+and lives on the sloe and damson in the egg stage until the middle of
+May or later, and then flies off to the hops, where it causes endless
+harm all the summer (fig. 5); it flies back to the prunes to lay its
+eggs when the hops are ripe. Another aphis of importance is the woolly
+aphis (_Schizoneura lanigera_) of the apple and pear: it secretes tufts
+of white flocculent wool often to be seen hanging in patches from old
+apple trees, where the insects live in the rough bark and form cankered
+growths both above and below ground. Aphides are provided with a mealy
+skin, which does not allow water to be attached to it, and thus
+insecticides for destroying them contain soft soap, which fixes the
+solution to the skin; paraffin is added to corrode the skin, and the
+soft soap blocks up the breathing pores and so produces asphyxiation.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--The Hop Aphis (_Phorodon humuli_). A, Winged
+female; B, winged male; C, ovigerous wingless female; D, viviparous
+wingless female from plum; E, pupal stage.]
+
+Amongst _Orthoptera_ we find many noxious insects, notably the locusts,
+which travel in vast cloud-like armies, clearing the whole country
+before them of all vegetable life. The most destructive locust is the
+migratory locust (_Locusta migratoria_), which causes wholesale
+destruction in the East. Large pits are dug across the line of advance
+of these great insect armies to stop them when in the larval or wingless
+stage, and even huge bonfires are lighted to check their flight when
+adult. So dense are these "locust clouds" that they sometimes quite
+darken the air. The commonest and most widely distributed migratory
+locust is _Pachytylus cinerascens_. The mole cricket (_Gryllotalpa
+vulgaris_) and various cockroaches (_Blattidae_) are also amongst the
+pests found in this order.
+
+Of _Neuroptera_ there are but few injurious species, and many, such as
+the lace wing flies (_Hemerobiidae_), are beneficial.
+
+_The Treatment of Insect Pests._--One of the most important ways of
+keeping insect pests in check is by "spraying" or "washing." This method
+has made great advances in recent years. All the pioneer work has been
+done in America; in fact, until the South-Eastern Agricultural College
+undertook the elucidation of this subject, little was known of it in
+England except by a few growers. The results and history of this
+essential method of treatment are embodied in Professor Lodemann's work
+on the _Spraying of Plants_, 1896. In this treatment we have to bear in
+mind what the entomologist teaches us, that is, the nature, habits and
+structure of the pest.
+
+  For insects provided with a biting mouth, which take nourishment from
+  the whole leaf, shoot or fruit, the poisonous washes used are chiefly
+  arsenical. The two most useful arsenical sprays are Paris green and
+  arsenate of lead. To make the former, mix 1 oz. of the Paris green
+  with 15 gallons of soft water, and add 2 oz. of lime and a small
+  quantity of agricultural treacle; the latter is prepared by dissolving
+  3 oz. of acetate of lead in a little water, then 1 oz. of arsenate of
+  soda in water and mixing the two well together, and adding the whole
+  to 16 gallons of soft water; to this is added a small quantity of
+  coarse treacle. For piercing-mouthed pests like _Aphides_ no wash is
+  of use unless it contains a basis of soft soap. This soft-soap wash
+  kills by contact, and may be prepared in the following way:--Dissolve
+  6 to 8 lb. of the best soft soap in boiling soft water and while still
+  hot (but of course taken off the fire) add 1 gallon of paraffin oil
+  and churn well together with a force-pump; the whole may then be mixed
+  with 100 gallons of soft water. The oil readily separates from the
+  water, and thus a perfect emulsion is not obtained: this difficulty
+  has been solved by Mr Cousin's paraffin naphthalene wash, which is
+  patented, but can be made for private use. It is prepared as
+  follows:--Soft soap, 6 lb. dissolved in 1 quart of water; naphthalene,
+  10 oz. mixed with 1½ pint of paraffin; the whole is mixed together.
+  When required for use, 1 lb. of the compound is dissolved in 5 to 10
+  gallons of warm water.
+
+  These two washes are essential to the well-being of every orchard in
+  all climates. Not only can we now destroy larval and adult insects,
+  but we can also attack them in the egg stage by the use of a caustic
+  alkali wash during the winter; besides destroying the eggs of such
+  pests as the _Psyllidae_, red spider, and some aphides, this also
+  removes the vegetal encumbrances which shelter numerous other insect
+  pests during the cold part of the year. Caustic alkali wash is
+  prepared by dissolving 1 lb. of crude potash and 1 lb. of caustic soda
+  in soft water, mixing the two solutions together, adding to them ¾ lb.
+  of soft soap, and diluting with 10 gallons of soft water when required
+  for use. Another approved insecticide for scale insects is resin wash,
+  which acts in two ways: first, corroding the soft scales, and second,
+  fixing the harder scales to stop the egress of the hexapod larvae. It
+  is prepared as follows:--First crush 8 lb. of resin in a sack, and
+  then place the resin in warm water and boil in a cauldron until
+  thoroughly dissolved; then melt 10 lb. of caustic soda in enough warm
+  water to keep it liquid, and mix with the dissolved resin; keep
+  stirring until the mixture assumes a clear coffee-colour, and for ten
+  minutes afterwards; then add enough warm water to bring the whole up
+  to 25 gallons, and well stir. Bottle this off, and when required for
+  use dilute with three times its bulk of warm soft water, and spray
+  over the trees in the early spring just before the buds burst. For
+  mites (_Acari_) sulphur is the essential ingredient of a spray. Liver
+  of sulphur has been found to be the best form, especially when mixed
+  with a paraffin emulsion. Bud mites (_Phytoptidae_, fig. 6) are of
+  course not affected. Sulphur wash is made by adding to every 10
+  gallons of warm paraffin emulsion or paraffin-naphthalene-emulsion 7
+  oz. of liver of sulphur, and stirring until the sulphur is well mixed.
+  This is applied as an ordinary spray. Nursery stock should always be
+  treated, to kill scale, aphis and other pests which it may carry, by
+  the gas treatment, particularly in the case of stock imported from a
+  foreign climate. This treatment, both out of doors and under glass, is
+  carried out as follows:--Cover the plants in bulk with a light
+  gas-tight cloth, or put them in a special fumigating house, and then
+  place 1 oz. of cyanide of potassium in lumps in a dish with water
+  beneath the covering, and then pour 1 oz. of sulphuric acid over it
+  (being careful not to inhale the poisonous fumes) for every 1000 cub.
+  ft. of space beneath the cover. The gas generated, prussic acid,
+  should be left to work for at least an hour before the stock is
+  removed, when all forms of animal life will be destroyed.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Bud Mites (_Phytoptidae_). A, Currant Bud Mite
+  (_Phytoptus ribis_); B, Nut Bud Mite (_P. avellanae_).]
+
+  For spraying, proper instruments must be used, by means of which the
+  liquid is sent out over the plants in as fine a mist as possible.
+  Numerous pumps and nozzles are now made by which this end is attained.
+  Both horse and hand machines are employed, the former for hops and
+  large orchards, the latter for bush fruit and gardens. In America,
+  where trees in parks as well as orchards and gardens are treated,
+  steam-power is sometimes used. Among the most important sprayers are
+  the Strawson horse sprayers and the smaller Eclair and Notus knapsack
+  pumps, carried on the back (fig. 7). The nozzles for "mistifying" the
+  wash most in use are known as the Vermorel and Riley's, which can be
+  fitted to any length of tubing, so as to reach any height, and can be
+  turned in any direction. The pumps in the machine keep the insecticide
+  constantly mixed, and at the same time force the wash with great
+  strength through the nozzle, and so to the exterior, as a fine mist;
+  every part of the plant is thus affected.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Knapsack Sprayer for Liquid Insecticides.]
+
+_Beneficial Insects_ have also to be considered in economic entomology.
+They are of two kinds--(1) those that help to keep down an excess of
+other insects by acting either as parasites or by being insectivorous in
+habit; and (2) insects of economic value, such as the bee and silkworm.
+Amongst the most important friends to the farmer and gardener are the
+Hymenopterous families of ichneumon flies (_Ichneumonidae_ and
+_Braconidae_); the Dipterous families _Syrphidae_ and _Tachinidae_; the
+Coleopterous families _Coccinellidae_ and _Carabidae_; and the
+Neuropterous _Hemerobiidae_, or lace-wing flies. Ichneumon flies lay
+their eggs either in the larvae or ova of other insects, and the
+parasites destroy their host. In this way the Hessian fly is doubtless
+kept in check in Europe, and the aphides meet with serious hindrance to
+their increase. If a number of plant-lice are examined, a few will be
+found looking like little pearls; these are the dried skins of those
+that have been killed by _Ichneumonidae_. The _Syrphidae_, or hover
+flies, are almost exclusively aphis-feeders in their larval stage.
+_Tachina_ flies attack lepidopterous larvae. One of the most notable
+examples of the use of insect allies is the case of the Australian
+lady-bird, _Vedalia cardinalis_, which, in common with all lady-birds,
+feeds off _Aphidae_ and _Coccidae_. The Icerya scale (_Icerya purchasi_)
+imported into America ruined the orange groves, but its enemy, the
+_Vedalia_, was also imported from Australia, and counteracted its
+abnormal increase with such great results that the crippled orange
+groves are now once more profitable.     (F. V. T.)
+
+
+
+
+ECONOMICS (from the Gr. [Greek: oikonomikê], sc. [Greek: technê], from
+[Greek: oikos], a house, and [Greek: nomos], rule,--the "art of
+household management"), the general term, with its synonym "political
+economy," for the science or study of wealth (welfare) and its
+production, applicable either to the individual, the family, the State,
+or in the widest sense, the world. How far the same considerations apply
+to all these spheres is one of the problems of economic thought in its
+widest sense. The term "economy" (q.v.) by itself, which should strictly
+mean the art of applying money (or wealth) wisely, has commonly come to
+mean the art of saving money, or spending as little as possible. In
+practice the study of "political" economy is mainly devoted to the
+sphere of the State; the welfare of the individual as a member of the
+State, and of the State in its relation to the world, being internal
+aspects of the prosperity of the State itself. Economics thus includes
+the discussion of all the numerous factors which make life profitable,
+whether to the nation or to the business, or to the individual man. It
+may be conceived either as an historical science (What principles have
+in fact paid?), or as an abstract science (What are the true principles
+which must pay, presupposing an ideal?). Economists at different times
+have studied both aspects, according to their lights, and influenced by
+historical conditions of philosophic thought. A text-book on economics
+necessarily deals, therefore, with the whole subject in a manner which
+need not here be followed, since separate articles are devoted in this
+work to the biographies of writers on economics, and also to the
+principal economic questions involved, under their own headings. In
+this article we propose therefore to confine ourselves to discussing the
+character and subject-matter of the science, indicating its relation to
+other sciences, and explaining the methods by which economists reach
+their conclusions.
+
+We understand by economics the science which investigates the manner in
+which nations or other larger or smaller communities, and their
+individual members, obtain food, clothing, shelter and whatever else is
+considered desirable or necessary for the maintenance and improvement of
+the conditions of life. It is thus the study of the life of communities
+with special reference to one side of their activity. It necessarily
+involves the scientific examination of the structure and organization of
+the community or communities in question; their history, their customs,
+laws and institutions; and the relations between their members, in so
+far as they affect or are affected by this department of their activity.
+
+At the root of all economic investigation lies the conception of the
+standard of life of the community. By this expression we do not mean an
+ideal mode of living, but the habits and requirements of life generally
+current in a community or grade of society at a given period. The
+standard of life of the ordinary well-to-do middle class in England, for
+example, includes not only food, clothing and shelter of a kind
+different in many respects from that of a similar class in other
+countries and of other classes in England, but a highly complicated
+mechanism, both public and private, for ministering to these primary
+needs, habits of social intercourse, educational and sanitary
+organization, recreative arrangements and many other elements. Many
+influences operating for a long period of time on the character and the
+environment of a class go to determine its standard of life. In a modern
+industrial community it is possible to express this standard fairly
+accurately for the purposes of economic investigation in terms of money
+(q.v.). But it is doubtful whether the most complete investigation would
+ever enable us to include all the elements of the standard of life in a
+money estimate. The character, tastes and capacity for management of
+different individuals and groups differ so widely that equal incomes do
+not necessarily imply identity of standard. In the investigation of past
+times, the incommensurate elements of well-being are so numerous that
+merely money estimates are frequently misleading. The conception of the
+standard of life involves also some estimate of the efforts and
+sacrifices people are prepared to make to obtain it; of their ideals and
+character; of the relative strength of the different motives which
+usually determine their conduct. But no carefully devised calculus can
+take the place of insight, observation and experience. The economist
+should be a man of wide sympathies and practical sagacity, in close
+touch with men of different grades, and, if possible, experienced in
+affairs.
+
+
+  Character of subject-matter.
+
+It is evident that no permanent classification is possible of what is or
+is not of economic significance. No general rules, applicable to all
+times, can be laid down as to what phenomena must be examined or what
+may be neglected in economic inquiry. The different departments of human
+activity are organically connected, and all facts relating to the life
+of a community have a near or remote economic significance. For short
+historical periods, indeed, many phenomena are so remotely connected
+with the ordinary business of life that we may ignore them. But at any
+moment special causes may bring into the field of economic inquiry whole
+departments of life which have hitherto been legitimately ignored. In
+times past, biblical exegesis, religious ideals, and ecclesiastical
+organization, the purely political aims of statesmen, chance
+combinations of party politics and the intrigues of diplomatists, class
+prejudice, social conventions, apparently sudden changes of economic
+policy, capricious changes of fashion--all these causes and many others
+have exerted a direct and immediate influence on the economic life of
+the community. In our own day we have had many illustrations of the
+manner in which special circumstances may at once bring an almost
+unnoticed series of scientific investigations into direct and vital
+relation with the business world. The economist must, therefore, not
+only be prepared to take account of the physical features of the world,
+the general structure and organization of the industry and commerce of
+different states, the character of their administration and other
+important causes of economic change. He must be in touch with the actual
+life of the community he is studying, and cultivate "that openness and
+alertness of the mind, that sensitiveness of the judgment, which can
+rapidly grasp the significance of at first sight unrelated discoveries
+or events."
+
+Some people are of opinion that the factors to be taken account of in
+economic investigation are so numerous that progress on these lines is
+impossible. It would certainly be impossible if we had to begin _de
+novo_ to construct the whole fabric of economic science. But, as we
+shall see, it is no more necessary to do this in the world of science
+than it is in the world of business or politics. There is in existence a
+vast store of accumulated knowledge, and few, if any, departments of
+economics have been left quite unilluminated by the researches of former
+generations. Progress is the result of adaptation rather than
+reconstruction. It must be remembered also that economic work in modern
+times is carried on by consciously or unconsciously associated effort,
+and although it must always require high qualities of judgment, capacity
+and energy, many of the difficulties which at first sight appear so
+insuperable give way when they are attacked. In some ways also the study
+of highly developed organizations like the modern industrial state is
+simpler than that of earlier forms of society.
+
+
+  Ancient and modern conditions in England.
+
+In the earliest times for which we have abundant material the economic
+life of England had already reached in certain directions a high degree
+of complexity. Even in the rural districts, manorial records reveal the
+existence of a great variety of classes and groups of persons engaged in
+the performance of economic functions. The lord of the manor with his
+officials and retainers, the peasantry bound to him by ties of personal
+dependence and mutual rights and obligations, constituted a little
+world, in which we can watch the play of motives and passions not so
+dissimilar as we are sometimes led to believe from those of the great
+modern world. In many a country district the gradations of social rank
+were more continuous, the opportunities of intercourse more frequent,
+and the capacity for organization greater than in modern times. The
+manorial accounts were kept with precision and detail, and we are told
+that a skilled official could estimate to the utmost farthing the value
+of the services due from the villein to his lord. The manor was indeed
+self-sufficient and independent in the sense that it could furnish
+everything required by the majority of the inhabitants, and that over
+the greater part of rural England production was not carried on with a
+view to a distant market. But in the earliest times the manor was
+subjected to external influences of great importance. Vast areas of the
+country were in fact under the single control of a territorial lord or
+an ecclesiastical foundation. Every manor composing these great fiefs
+was likely to be affected by the policy or the character of the
+administration of the feudal lord, and he, again, by the policy or the
+difficulties, the strength or the weakness, of the central government.
+Foreign trade and foreign intercourse were undeveloped, but their
+influence was in historical times never entirely absent, while the
+influence of Roman law and the Christian Church constantly tended to
+modify the manorial organization. In the towns the division of labour
+had proceeded much further than in the rural districts, and there were
+in existence organized bodies, such as the Gild Merchant and the crafts,
+whose functions were primarily economic. But one of the most striking
+characteristics of town life in the middle ages was the manner in which
+municipal and industrial privileges and responsibilities were
+interwoven. In modern times the artisan, however well trained, efficient
+and painstaking he may be, does not, in virtue of these qualities, enjoy
+any municipal or political privileges. By means of his trade union,
+co-operative society or club he may gain some experience in the
+management of men and business, and in so far as the want of a
+sufficient income does not constitute an insuperable difficulty, he may
+share in the public life of the country. But in his character as
+artisan he enjoys no municipal or political privileges. In the middle
+ages this differentiation of the industrial, municipal and political
+life had not taken place, and in order to understand the working of at
+first sight purely economic regulations it is necessary to make a close
+study of the functions of local government. But this, after all, does
+not carry us very far. From the very nature of the records in which we
+study the town life of the middle ages, it follows that we obtain from
+them only a one-sided view. No one knows what proportion of the
+industrial population was included in the organized gilds, or how
+complete was the control exercised by these bodies over their members.
+Elaborate regulations were in force, but no one knows how elastic they
+were in practice. Medieval Englishmen were particularly apt to put their
+aspirations into a legal form, and then rest satisfied with their
+achievement. The number of regulations is scarcely to be regarded as a
+test of their administrative success. Further, as the country became
+more consolidated and the central government extended its authority over
+economic affairs, new regulations came into force, new organs of
+government appeared, which were sometimes in conflict, sometimes in
+harmony, with the existing system, and it becomes for a time far more
+difficult to obtain a clear view of the actual working of economic
+institutions. Thus the study of the economic life of the middle ages is
+one of the most complicated subjects which can engage the attention of
+man. It is impossible to carry the process of isolation very far. The
+different threads of social activity are so closely interwoven that we
+cannot follow any one for very long without forming wrong impressions,
+and it becomes necessary to turn back and study others which seemed at
+first sight unrelated to the subject of our investigations. Under an
+apparently uniform and stable system of social regulation there was much
+variation and movement, the significance of which it is impossible to
+estimate. Materials for forming such an estimate no doubt exist, but
+before doing so we have to study in infinite detail a vast number of
+separate manors, municipalities or other separate economic areas. This
+involves great industry on the part of many scientific workers.
+Meanwhile we can _illustrate_ the economic life of the middle ages,
+describe its main features, indicate the more important measures of
+public policy and draw attention to some of the main lines of
+development.
+
+
+  Conditions of economic science.
+
+It is only as we approach more modern times that the conditions of
+economic study are realized and economic science, as we understand it,
+becomes possible. Those conditions are: (i.) the life of the state or
+other community or communities we are studying must be so differentiated
+that we can isolate those functions which are wholly or predominantly
+economic. The "separation of employments" is not only a condition of
+economic efficiency; it was necessary before we could have an economic
+science. (ii.) We must be in a position so far to understand and
+estimate the character and motives of different classes and groups in
+these communities that we can rightly interpret their action. This
+condition cannot be realized without great difficulty, for "economic
+motives" are very different in different periods, nations and classes,
+and even for short periods of time in the same country are modified by
+the influence of other motives of an entirely different order. In
+studying the economic history of the 18th century, for example, it is
+not enough to assume with Defoe that "gain is the design of
+merchandise." We have to be saturated, as it were, with 18th-century
+influences, so that we can realize the conditions in which industry and
+trade were carried on, before we can rightly explain the course of
+development. In our own day labour disputes, to take another example,
+can scarcely ever be resolved into a question of merely pecuniary gain
+or loss. The significance of the amount of money involved varies greatly
+for different trades, and can only be understood by reference to the
+character and habits of the people concerned. But questions of
+sentiment, shop-feeling and trade customs invariably play an important
+part. (iii.) Economics can never lead to anything but hypothetical
+results unless we not only realize that we must "take account of" other
+than the purely economic factors, but also give due weight and
+significance to these factors. No explanation of the industrial
+situation in Germany, for example, would be intelligible or satisfactory
+even from the economic point of view which ignored the significance of
+the political conditions which Germans have to deal with. So, again, it
+is impossible to make a useful comparative estimate of the advantages
+and disadvantages of the transport systems of England, the United States
+and Germany, unless we keep constantly in view the very different
+geographical, military and political conditions which these systems have
+to satisfy. (iv.) Sufficient information must be available to enable us
+to test the validity of our hypotheses and conclusions. Whatever
+"method" of economic investigation we employ, we must at every stage see
+how far our reasoning is borne out by the actual experience of life.
+This obvious condition of scientific inquiry is very far from being
+completely realized even at the present time. It implies the existence
+of a well-trained class engaged in the work of collecting information,
+and much organization both by the state and private bodies. These four
+conditions can be reduced to two. The community we are studying must
+have reached such a stage of development that its economic functions and
+those immediately cognate to them form a well-defined group, and
+adequate means must be available so that we can, as it were, watch the
+performance of these functions and test our hypotheses and conclusions
+by observation and experience.
+
+It is easy to understand, therefore, why we trace the beginnings of
+economics, so far as England is concerned, in the 16th century, and why
+the application of strict scientific tests in this subject of human
+study has become possible only in comparatively recent times. Medieval
+economics was little more than a casuistical system of elaborate and
+somewhat artificial rules of conduct. From the close of the middle ages
+until the middle of the 18th century thousands of pamphlets and other
+works on economic questions were published, but the vast majority of the
+writers have little or no scientific importance. Their works frequently
+contain information given nowhere else, and throw much light on the
+state of opinion in the age in which they wrote. It is also possible to
+find in them many anticipations of the views of the economists of later
+times; but such statements were as a rule generated merely by the heat
+of controversy on some measure or event of practical importance, and
+when the controversy died down were seldom regarded or incorporated in a
+scientific system. Trade bias, personal impressions and guesswork took
+the place of scientific method. This was inevitable in the absence of
+trustworthy information on an adequate scale, and from the immediately
+practical aims of the writers. But from the end of the 17th century
+economics has been definitely recognized as a subject of scientific
+study.
+
+
+  Necessity of economic science.
+
+In modern times the conditions which have made economic science possible
+have also made it necessary. While it is impossible to give a strictly
+economic interpretation of the earlier history of nations, economic
+interests so govern the life and determine the policy of modern states
+that other forces, like those of religion and politics, seem to play
+only a subsidiary part, modifying here and there the view which is taken
+of particular questions, but not changing in any important degree the
+general course of their development. This may be, in the historical
+sense, merely a passing phase of human progress, due to the rapid
+extension of the industrial revolution to all the civilized and many of
+the uncivilized nations of the world, bringing in its train the
+consolidation of large areas, a similarity of conditions within them,
+and amongst peoples and governments a great increase in the strength of
+economic motives. When the world has settled down to the new conditions,
+if it ever does so, we may be confronted with problems similar to those
+which our forefathers had to solve. But, for the time, if we know the
+economic interests of nations, classes and individuals, we can tell with
+more accuracy than ever before how in the long run they will act. Public
+policy therefore requires the closest possible study of the economic
+forces which are moulding the destinies of the great nations of the
+world. In most civilized countries except England this is recognized,
+and adequate provision is made for the study of economic science. But
+the subject is not only of immediate concern to the state in its
+corporate and public capacity. The neglect of it in the domain of
+private business can now only lead to disastrous results. To quote from
+a useful work (_National Education: a Symposium_, 1901), "the commercial
+supremacy of England was due to a variety of causes, of which superior
+intelligence, in the ordinary business sense, was not the most
+important. Her insular position, continuity of political development and
+freedom from domestic broils played an important part in bringing about
+a steady and continuous growth of industry and manufactures for several
+generations before the modern era. The great wars of the 18th and the
+beginning of the 19th century, which arrested the growth of continental
+nations, gave England the control of the markets of the world. When
+peace was restored, England enjoyed something in the nature of a
+monopoly. The competition of France ceased for a time to be an important
+factor. What is now the German empire was a mere congeries of small
+states, waging perpetual tariff wars upon each other. In the old
+Prussian provinces alone there were fifty-three different customs
+frontiers, and German manufactures could not develop until the growth of
+the Zollverein brought with it commercial consolidation, internal
+freedom and greater homogeneity of economic conditions. The industries
+of the United States were in their infancy. Thus the productive power of
+England was unrivalled, and her manufactures and business men, under a
+régime rapidly approximating to complete freedom of trade, could reap
+the full advantages to be derived from the possession of great national
+resources and production by machinery. Commercial supremacy required not
+so much highly trained intelligence amongst manufacturers and merchants
+as keen business instinct and a certain rude energy. In the last
+generation all that has changed, and the change is of a permanent
+character. The struggle of the future must inevitably be between a
+number of great nations, more or less equally well equipped, carrying on
+production by the same general methods, each one trying to strengthen
+its industrial and commercial position by the adoption of the most
+highly developed machinery, and all the methods suggested by scientific
+research, policy or experience. Under these conditions, it is no longer
+possible for the individual merchant, or for small groups of merchants,
+to acquaint themselves, by personal experience alone, with more than a
+fractional part of the causes which affect the business in which they
+are engaged. The spread of the modern industrial system has brought with
+it the modern state, with its millions of consumers, its vast area, its
+innumerable activities, its complicated code of industrial and
+commercial law. At the same time, the revolution in the means of
+transport and communication has destroyed, or is tending to destroy,
+local markets, and closely interwoven all the business of the world.
+Events in the most distant countries, industrial and commercial
+movements at first sight unrelated to the concerns of the individual
+merchant, now exert a direct and immediate influence upon his interests.
+The technical training of the factory or the office, the experience of
+business, the discharge of practical duties, necessary as they are, do
+not infallibly open the mind to the large issues of the modern business
+world, and can never confer the detailed acquaintance with facts and
+principles which lie outside the daily routine of the individual, but
+are none the less of vital importance." Economics, therefore, under
+modern conditions, is not only a subject which may usefully occupy the
+attention of a leisured class of scientific men. It should form part of
+the training of educated men of all classes, on grounds of public policy
+and administrative and business efficiency.
+
+
+  Relations between economics and other sciences.
+
+The relations between economics and other sciences cannot be stated in a
+very general form. They vary for different periods, and are not the same
+for all branches of economics. There is no subject of human study which
+may not be at some time or other of economic significance, and anything
+which affects the character, the ideals or the environment of man may
+make it necessary to modify our assumptions and our reasoning with
+regard to his conduct in economic affairs. But if the economist, while
+studying one side of man's activities, must also cultivate all other
+branches of human learning, it is obvious that no substantial progress
+can be made. The economist frankly assumes the reality of the existing
+world and takes men as they are, or as they have been if he is studying
+past times. His assumptions are based upon ordinary observation and
+experience, and are usually accurate in proportion to his practical
+shrewdness and sagacity, so that he is not interested in the speculative
+flights of philosophy, except in so far as they influence or have
+influenced conduct. In times past, and to a less extent in our own day,
+philosophical conceptions have formed the basis of great systems of
+politics and economics. The historical relations between philosophy and
+economics are of great importance in tracing the development of the
+latter, and have done much to determine its present form. But the modern
+conception of society or the state owes more to biology than philosophy,
+and actual research has destroyed more frequently than it has justified
+the assumptions of the older philosophical school. Experimental
+psychology may in course of time have an important bearing on economics,
+but the older science cannot be said to be of much significance except
+in its historical aspects. Ethics is in much the same position. That is,
+it is possible to conceive of an ethical science which would extend
+considerably our knowledge of economic affairs, but no important new
+principle or original discovery, relevant to economic investigation, has
+come from that quarter in recent years, and at present ethics has more
+to learn from economics than the latter has from ethics. It is in the
+adaptation of biological conceptions and methods, in the positive
+contributions of jurisprudence, law and history, in the rigorous
+application, where possible, of quantitative tests, that the explanation
+of the present position of economics is to be found. Mathematics has
+influenced the form and the terminology of the science, and has
+sometimes been useful in analysis; but mathematical methods of
+reasoning, in their application to economics, while possessing a certain
+fascination, are of very doubtful utility.
+
+
+  Method of economic investigation.
+
+There is no method of investigation which is peculiarly economic or of
+which economics has the monopoly. In every age economists have applied
+the methods ordinarily in use amongst scientific men. There would
+probably have been no controversy at all on this subject but for the
+fact that economics was elaborated into systematic form, and made the
+basis of practical measures of the greatest importance, long before the
+remarkable development in the 19th century of historical research,
+experimental science and biology. The application of the _a priori_
+method in economics was an accident, due to its association with other
+subjects and the general backwardness of other sciences rather than any
+exceptional and peculiar character in the subject-matter of the science
+itself. The methods applied to economics in the 18th and the early part
+of the 19th century were no more invented with a special view to that
+subject than the principles of early railway legislation, in the domain
+of practical policy, were devised with a special view to what was then a
+new means of transport. As a matter of fact, discussions of method and
+the criticism of hypotheses and assumptions are very rarely found in
+early economic works. It is only by reference to the prevailing ideas in
+philosophy and politics that we can discover what was in the minds of
+their authors. The growth of a science is much like the growth of a
+constitution. It proceeds by adaptation and precedent. The scientific
+and historical movement of the 19th century was revolutionary in
+character. When it began to affect economics, many people were afraid
+that the whole fabric of science would be destroyed and the practical
+gains it had achieved, jeopardized. These fears were justified, in so
+far as those who entertained them shut their eyes to everything new and
+assumed an attitude of no compromise. Where the newer methods were
+assimilated, the position of economics was strengthened and its
+practical utility increased. General discussion of method, however, is
+rarely profitable. In all branches of economics, even in what is called
+the pure theory, there is an implied reference to certain historical or
+existing conditions of a more or less definite character; to the
+established order of an organized state or other community, at a stage
+of development which in its main features can be recognized. In all
+economic investigation assumptions must be made, but we must see that
+they are legitimate in view of the actual life and character of the
+community or communities which are the subject of investigation. In
+common with other sciences, economics makes use of "abstractions"; but
+if for some problems we employ symbolic processes of reasoning, we must
+keep clearly in view the limits of their significance, and neither endow
+the symbols with attributes they can never possess, nor lose sight of
+the realities behind them. Every hypothesis must be tested by an appeal
+to the facts of life, and modified or abandoned if it will not bear
+examination, unless we are convinced on genuine evidence that it may for
+a time be employed as a useful approximation, without prejudice to the
+later stages of the investigation we are conducting.
+
+
+  An illustration of economic method.
+
+We shall best illustrate the character and method of economic reasoning
+by examples, and for that purpose let us take first of all a purely
+historical problem, namely, the effect on the wage-earners of the wages
+clauses of the Statute of Apprenticeship (1563). It is at once obvious
+that we are dealing not with an abstract scheme of regulation in a
+hypothetical world, but with an act of parliament nominally in force for
+two hundred and fifty years, and applicable to a great variety of trades
+whose organization and history can be ascertained. The conclusions we
+reach may or may not modify any opinions we have formed as to the manner
+in which wages are determined under modern conditions. For the time
+being such opinions are irrelevant to the question we are investigating,
+and the less they are in our minds the better. There is no reason why we
+should apply to this particular act a different method of inquiry from
+that we should apply to any other of the numerous acts, of more or less
+economic importance, passed in the same session of parliament. The first
+step is to see whether there is a _prima facie_ case for inquiry, for
+many acts of parliament have been passed which have never come into
+operation at all, or have been administered only for a short time on too
+limited a scale to have important or lasting results. The justices were
+authorized to fix wages at the Easter quarter sessions. Did they
+exercise their powers? To answer this question we must collect the wages
+assessments sanctioned by the magistrates. This is a perfectly simple
+and straightforward operation, involving nothing more than familiarity
+with records and industry in going through them. Without having recourse
+to any elaborate process of economic reasoning, by confining our
+attention to one simple question, namely, what happened, we can
+establish conclusions of the greatest interest to economic historians
+and, further, define the problem we have to investigate. We can show,
+for example: (1) that the Statute of Apprenticeship did not stand alone;
+it was one of a long series of similar measures, beginning more than two
+centuries before, which in their turn join on to the municipal and gild
+regulations of the middle ages; one of an important group of statutes,
+more or less closely interwoven throughout their history, administered
+by local authorities whose functions had grown largely in connexion with
+this legislation and the gradual differentiation of the trades and
+callings to which it related. (2) That wages were regulated with much
+greater frequency during the reigns of Elizabeth, James I. and Charles
+I. than at any later period. (3) That they were regulated in some
+counties and not in others. (4) That in the counties and towns where
+they were regulated the action of the magistrates was in general
+spasmodic, and rarely continuous for a long series of years. (5) That
+the magistrates used their powers sometimes to raise wages, sometimes to
+force them down. (6) That the local variations of wages and prices were
+what we should call excessive, so that the standard of comfort in one
+district was very different from that of others. (7) That the wages
+assessments group themselves round certain short periods, coincident in
+many instances with high prices, increase of poverty, and other causes
+of exceptional action. (8) That what we may call, with the above
+limitations, the effective period of the act terminates with the
+outbreak of the Civil War. (9) That subsequent to that period organic
+changes in the industries affected, coupled with the incompetence of
+parliament to adapt the old legislation to new conditions, and the
+growing acceptance of the doctrine of _laissez faire_, brought about a
+general disuse of the statute, though isolated attempts to enforce it
+were made and new acts applicable to certain trades were passed in the
+18th century. (10) For more than one hundred years before the repeal of
+the act, trade unions and other forms of voluntary association amongst
+wage-earners, combinations amongst employers, collective agreements,
+customary regulations, were established in many of the important trades
+of the country. But these conclusions, after all, suggest more
+difficulties than they remove, for they show that our inquiry, instead
+of presenting certain well-marked features which can be readily dealt
+with, has to be split up into a number of highly specialized studies:
+the investigation of rates of wages, prices and the standard of comfort
+in different localities, bye-industries, regularity of employment, the
+organization of particular trades, the economic functions of local
+authorities, apprenticeship and a host of other subjects. Moreover, all
+these subjects hang together, so that it seems impossible to come to a
+decision about one of them without knowing all about the others.
+
+It is a comparatively simple thing to state the question to which we
+want an answer, but extremely difficult to define the exact nature of
+the evidence which will constitute a good answer; easy enough to say we
+must try hypothesis after hypothesis, and test each one by an appeal to
+the facts, but a man may easily spend his life in this sort of thing and
+still leave to his descendants nothing more than a legacy of rejected
+hypotheses. Every volume of records we look through contains a mass of
+detailed information on the economic life of England in the period we
+are studying. How much of it is relevant to the subject of inquiry? What
+is to be the principle of selection? How shall we determine the relative
+weight and importance of different kinds of relevant evidence? As in
+modern problems, so in those of past times, a man requires for success
+qualities quite distinct from those conferred by merely academic
+training and the use of scientific methods. A correct sense of
+proportion and the faculty of seizing upon the dominant factors in an
+historical problem are the result partly of the possession of certain
+natural gifts in which many individuals and some nations are
+conspicuously wanting, partly of general knowledge of the working of the
+economic and political institutions of the period we are studying,
+partly of what takes the place of practical experience in relation to
+modern problems, namely, detailed acquaintance with different kinds of
+original sources and the historical imagination by which we can realize
+the life and the ideals of past generations. These qualities are
+required all the more because, in order to make any further progress
+with such an inquiry as we have suggested, we have deliberately to make
+use of abstraction as an instrument of investigation.
+
+
+  The plan of a general theory.
+
+Let us see how this will work out. Suppose we have selected one of the
+numerous subsidiary problems suggested by the general inquiry, and
+obtained such full and complete information about one particular
+industry that we can tabulate the wages of the workers for a long series
+of years. We may do the same for other industries, some of them coming
+under the Statute of Apprenticeship, others not. If all the industries
+belong to one economic area over which, so far as we can tell from
+general statistics of wages and prices, and other information, fairly
+homogeneous conditions prevailed, we may be able to reach some useful
+conclusions as to the operation of the act. But it would be absurd to
+suppose that we could reach those conclusions by simple reference to the
+trades themselves. We cannot assume that the fluctuations in wages were
+due to the action or inaction of magistrates without the most careful
+examination of the other influences affecting the trades. In economic
+affairs the argument _post hoc propter hoc_ never leads to the whole
+truth, and is frequently quite misleading. We cannot suppose that the
+policy of the Merchant Adventurers' Company had nothing to do with the
+woollen industry; that the export trade in woollen cloth was quite
+independent of the foreign exchanges and international trade relations
+in those times; that the effect on wages of the state of the currency,
+the influx of new silver, the character of the harvests, and many other
+influences can be conveniently ignored. In studying, therefore, such an
+apparently simple question as the effect of an act of parliament on
+wages in a small group of trades we want a general theory which we can
+use as a kind of index of the factors we have to consider.
+
+
+  Difficulties due to want of evidence.
+
+Assuming that we have in our minds this safeguard against loose thinking
+and neglect of important factors, the investigation of the special
+problems arising out of the general inquiry resolves itself into a
+careful definition of each problem we wish to deal with, and the
+collection, tabulation and interpretation of the evidence. In most cases
+the interpretation of the facts is far from obvious, and we have to try
+several hypotheses before we reach one which will bear the strain of a
+critical examination in the light of further evidence. But at this stage
+in historical investigation it is generally the want of evidence of a
+sufficiently complete and continuous character, rather than difficulties
+of method, which forces us to leave the problem unsolved. It is, for
+instance, practically impossible to obtain reliable evidence as to the
+regularity of employment in any industry in the 17th century, and the
+best approximations and devices we can invent are very poor substitutes
+for what we really want. For this reason guesswork must continue to play
+an important part in economic history. But every genuine attempt to
+overcome its difficulties brings us into closer touch with the period we
+are examining; and though we may not be able to throw our conclusions
+into the form of large generalizations, we shall get to know something
+of the operation of the forces which determined the economic future of
+England; understand more clearly than our forefathers did, for we have
+more information than they could command, and a fuller appreciation of
+the issues, the broad features of English development, and be in a
+position to judge fairly well of the measures they adopted in their
+time. By comparing England with other countries we may be able in the
+distant future to reach conclusions of some generality as to the laws of
+growth, maturity and decay of industrial nations. But like the early
+statisticians of the 17th century, economic historians are the
+"beginners of an art not yet polished, which time may bring to more
+perfection."
+
+
+  The investigation of modern questions.
+
+When we come to exclusively modern questions, there is no reason or
+necessity for a fundamental change of method. We cannot suppose that
+there occurred, at or about the commencement of the 19th century, a
+breach of historical continuity of such a character that institutions,
+customs, laws and social conventions were suddenly swept away, the bonds
+of society loosened, and the state and people of England dissolved into
+an aggregate of competing individuals. The adoption of machinery
+gradually revolutionized the methods of production; but in the first
+instance only certain industries were affected, and those not at the
+same time or in the same degree; old laws grown obsolete were repealed,
+but other laws affecting wage-earners and employers took their place,
+more complicated and elaborate than the Elizabethan code. Trade unions,
+so far from disappearing, were legalized, gathered strength from the
+changes in industrial organization, and nowhere became so powerful as in
+the most progressive industries; while other forms of combination
+appeared, incomparably stronger, for good or evil, than those of earlier
+times. But while we recognize these facts, we must not suppose that we
+have to study the action of men as though they were all enrolled in
+organized associations, or covered by stringent laws which were always
+obeyed. There has never been in the history of English industry such
+licence as we find in certain directions in the earlier part of the 19th
+century.
+
+
+  The distinctive features of modern problems.
+
+It is not in the decay of combination and monopoly or in the growth of
+competition that we must look for the distinctive characteristics of
+modern problems. A 17th-century monopoly was a very weak and ineffective
+instrument compared with a modern syndicate; the Statute of
+Apprenticeship was certainly not so widely enforced as the "common
+rules" of trade unions; and many of the regulations of past times, which
+look so complicated to modern eyes, were conditions of free enterprise
+rather than restraints upon it. It is due to the influence of the
+_laisser faire_ doctrine that we regard law and regulation as a
+restraint on liberty. As a maxim for guidance in public affairs,
+_laisser faire_ was genuinely relevant at the end of the 18th and the
+beginning of the 19th century, when the Statute Book was cumbered with
+vexatious and obsolete laws. As an explanation of what has taken place
+in later years, or of the actual economic life of the present day, it is
+ludicrously inadequate. Competition, in the sense in which the word is
+still used in many economic works, is merely a special case of the
+struggle for survival, and, from its limitation, does not go far towards
+explaining the actual working of modern institutions. To buy in the
+cheapest market and sell in the dearest; to secure cheapness by lowering
+the expenses of production; to adopt the less expensive rather than the
+more expensive method of obtaining a given result--these and other
+maxims are as old as human society. Competition, in the Darwinian sense,
+is characteristic not only of modern industrial states, but of all
+living organisms; and in the narrower sense of the "higgling of the
+market" is found on the Stock Exchange, in the markets of old towns, in
+medieval fairs and Oriental bazaars. In modern countries it takes
+myriads of forms, from the sweating of parasitic trades to the
+organization of scientific research. Economic motives, again, are as
+varied as the forms of competition, and their development is coeval with
+that of human society. They have to be interpreted in every age in
+relation to the state of society, the other motives or ideals with which
+they are associated, the kind of action they inspire, and the means
+through which they operate. Apparently the same economic motives have
+led in the same age and in the same nation to monopoly and individual
+enterprise, protection and free trade, law and anarchy. In our own time
+they have inspired both the formation of trade combinations and attempts
+to break them up, hostility to all forms of state interference and a
+belief in collectivism.
+
+The conditions which are peculiar to the modern world are the large
+numbers we have to deal with, the vast and fairly homogeneous areas in
+which justice is administered and property secured, and the enormously
+increased facilities for transport and communication. These conditions
+are of course not independent of each other, and they have brought in
+their train many consequences, some good and some bad. But they supply
+the bases for that general theory which, as we have seen, is
+indispensable in economic investigation. From the standpoint of general
+theory economic movements assume an impersonal character and economic
+forces operate like the forces of nature. Although economic motives have
+become more complex, they have just as much and no more to do with
+general economic reasoning and analysis than the causes of death with
+the normal expectation of life, or domestic ideals with the birth-rate.
+So far as we have anything to do with psychology at all, it is the
+psychology of crowds and not of individuals which we have to consider.
+If we study the economy of a village, the idiosyncrasies of every
+individual in it are of importance. If the village is replaced by a
+large area, inhabited by millions, with modern facilities of
+communication, it is a matter of observation and experience that for the
+purposes of general reasoning the idiosyncrasies of individuals may be
+neglected. Whether such large numbers have the character of the
+"economic man" of the early economists matters very little. All the
+assumptions we require are furnished by observation of people in the
+mass and the larger generalizations of statistics. Thus we can construct
+a kind of envelope of theory, which, by careful testing as we proceed,
+can be made to indicate in a general manner the reactions of one part of
+the activities of the economic world upon the others, and the
+interdependence of the several parts. From its very nature this general
+theory can never correspond strictly to the actual life and movement of
+any given state. It is useful and necessary, and plays somewhat the same
+part in economic investigation as ton-mile statistics do in the
+administration of a railway. To express in any language or to illustrate
+by any images, from a purely objective standpoint, the infinitely
+complicated movements of the actual world, is a task far beyond human
+capacity.
+
+
+  Application to modern problems.
+
+With the aid of this general theory the methods we have sketched in
+relation to historical problems apply with greater force to the special
+problems of modern times, and are rewarded with results more accurate,
+more fruitful, more relevant to difficulties which all civilized nations
+have to face, than those of historical research. To many minds the
+interest and usefulness of economics depend entirely on the application
+of these methods, for it is the actual working of economic institutions
+about which the statesman, the publicist, the business man and the
+artisan wish to know. Under the conditions we have described, many of
+the most interesting problems of our own time, when they are once
+defined, resolve themselves into statistical inquiries. But in most
+cases such an inquiry cannot be successfully carried out by a mere
+statistician. Definite economic problems can very rarely be dealt with
+by merely quantitative methods. In the tabulation and interpretation of
+statistical evidence, as in its collection, it is scarcely possible to
+overrate the importance of wide knowledge and experience. There is
+another very important instrument of investigation which can be used in
+our own time, but cannot be employed in historical research. Historical
+documents, however detailed, rarely show all the factors we have to deal
+with or fully explain a given situation. No sane person would suppose
+that the minutes of a modern legislative body explain the steps by which
+legislation has been passed, or the issues really involved. The
+ostensible cause of a modern labour dispute is frequently not the real
+or the most important cause. In modern problems we can watch the
+economic machine actually at work, cross-examine our witnesses, see that
+delicate interplay of passions and interests which cannot be set down or
+described in a document, and acquire a certain sense of touch in
+relation to the questions at issue which manuscripts and records cannot
+impart. We can therefore substitute sound diagnosis for guesswork more
+frequently in modern than in historical problems.
+
+
+  The "old political economy."
+
+What then, it may be asked, becomes of the "old Political Economy"? Of
+what possible use are the works of the so-called classical writers,
+except in relation to the history of economics and the practical
+influence of theory in past times? If we take the mere popular view of
+what is meant by the "old Political Economy," that is, that a generation
+or so ago economics was comprised in a neatly rounded set of general
+propositions, universally accepted, which could be set forth in a
+text-book and learnt like the multiplication table, it is not incumbent
+on the present generation to define its attitude at all. In this sense
+of the words, there was no faith delivered to our fathers which we are
+under any obligation to guard or even explain. If by the "old Political
+Economy" we mean the methods and conclusions of certain great writers,
+who stood head and shoulders above their contemporaries and determined
+the general character of economic science, we are still under no
+obligation to define the attitude of the present generation with regard
+to them. The fact that Adam Smith, with the meagre materials of the 18th
+century at his disposal, saw his way to important generalizations which
+later research has established on a firm basis, may enhance greatly the
+reputation of Adam Smith, but does not strengthen the generalizations.
+They stand or fall by the strength of the evidence for or against them.
+In the history of economics or the biography of Ricardo it is of
+interest to show that he anticipated later writers, or that his analysis
+bears the test of modern criticism; but no economist is under any
+obligation to defend Ricardo's reputation, nor is the fact that a
+doctrine is included in his works to be taken as a demonstration of its
+truth. The appeal to authority cannot be permitted in economics any more
+than in chemistry, physics or astronomy. But the cases stated above
+suggest more or less false issues. There has been no revolution in
+economic science, and is not likely to be any. The question we have
+really to determine is how we can make the best use of the accumulated
+knowledge of past generations, and to do that we must look more closely
+into the economic science of the 19th century.
+
+Any one who has taken the trouble to trace the history of one of the
+modern schools of economists, or of any branch of economic science,
+knows how difficult it is to say when it began. "Anticipations" of
+method and doctrine can generally be found by the diligent investigator
+in the economic literature of his own or a foreign country. So that
+cross-sections of the stream of economic thought will reveal the
+existence, at different times, in varying proportions and at different
+stages of development, of most of the modern "schools." Again, the
+classification of an economic bibliography at once shows how varied has
+been the character of economic investigation, ranging from the most
+abstract speculation on the one hand to almost technical studies of
+particular trades on the other. Of the great army of writers who
+flourished in the first half of the 19th century some were closely
+identified with the utilitarian school, and the majority were influenced
+in a greater or less degree by the prevailing ideas of that school.
+Others, however, were hostile to it. In many works, such as those of a
+statistical or historical character, there are frequently to be found
+passages which could have been written in no other period, but are only
+of the nature of ejaculations and do not affect the argument. In stating
+the position of economics during this time we cannot ignore all writers,
+except these who belonged to one group, however eminent that group may
+have been, simply because they did not represent the dominant ideas of
+the period, and exercised no immediate and direct influence on the
+movement of economic thought. We must include the pioneers of the
+historical school, the economic historians, the socialists, the
+statisticians, and others whose contributions to economics are now
+appreciated, and without whose labours the science as we know it now
+would have been impossible. If we take this broadly historical view of
+the progress of economics, it is obvious that even in England there was
+no general agreement, during the 19th century, as to the methods most
+appropriate to economic investigation.
+
+Suppose, now, we ignore the writers who were inaugurating new methods,
+investigating special problems or laboriously collecting facts, and
+concentrate attention on the dominant school, with its long series of
+writers from Adam Smith to John Stuart Mill. It is the work of these
+writers which people have in mind when they speak of the "old Political
+Economy." There are several quite distinct questions we can ask with
+regard to them. That they must be studied closely by every one who
+wishes to follow the history of economics goes without saying. That they
+must be studied by the economic historian is equally clear, owing to
+their practical influence and the fact that they furnished the
+theoretical bases of much of the economic policy of the 19th century.
+This is true whether their method is good or bad, whether their
+conclusions are true or false. It is not so easy to determine their
+relevance and usefulness in relation to distinctively modern problems,
+or to indicate within what limits their work is of permanent value, and
+we can only deal with these questions in their more general aspects.
+
+It must be clear to every observer that the economists of the classical
+period, with the one exception of Adam Smith, will speedily share the
+fate of nearly all scientific writers. They will be forgotten, and their
+books will not be read. Adams Smith's _Wealth of Nations_, if it has
+ever been, has long ceased to be a scientific text-book. Whether a
+modern economist accepts his views or not is of no importance. There is
+probably not a single chapter in the _Wealth of Nations_ which would be
+thoroughly endorsed by any living economist. But the reputation of the
+book and its author is quite independent of considerations of this kind.
+The _Wealth of Nations_ is one of the great books of the world, many of
+the sayings of which are likely to be more frequently quoted in the
+future than they have been in the 19th century. Malthus is already an
+author whose name is probably more widely known than that of any other
+economist, but whose works are rarely read, and studied only by a small
+proportion of the few people who write books on the history of economic
+theory. Of economic students, many are unaware of the fact that he wrote
+any other book than the _Essay on the Principle of Population_, and what
+is of permanent importance in that work is contained in the
+generalization which it suggested to Darwin. Moreover, modern
+economists, while accepting in the main the general tenor of Malthus's
+theory of population, would not agree with his statement of it. Like
+Malthus, Ricardo owes his reputation very largely to the theory
+associated with his name, though it has long ceased to be stated
+precisely in the terms he employed. But there are very few people in the
+world who have made a careful study of his works; and although his
+theory of rent has a wide and increasing application in economics, it is
+not comparable in general scientific importance with Malthus's theory of
+population. It is already impossible to take J.S. Mill's _Principles of
+Political Economy_ as a text-book. Important as it was for thirty or
+forty years, it will soon be as little read as M'Culloch's _Principles_.
+For the rest of the economists of this period, it is difficult to see
+how they can escape oblivion. When the generation whose economic
+training was based upon J.S. Mill has died out, the relevance of the
+"old Political Economy" is not likely to be a question of any interest
+to ordinary educated men and women, or even to the great mass of
+economic students.
+
+The explanation of this decay of interest does not lie upon the surface.
+It is frequently supposed that the influence of the "old Political
+Economy" has been gradually undermined by the attacks of the historical
+school. But great as the achievements of this school have been, it has
+not developed any scientific machinery which can take the place of
+theory in economic investigation. If our view is correct that, broadly
+speaking, the two ways of regarding economic questions are complementary
+rather than mutually exclusive, there does not seem to be any reason why
+the growth of the historical school should have been destructive of the
+"old Political Economy" if it had been well founded. The use of the
+historical method has, in fact, raised more reputations than it has
+destroyed, because by keeping carefully in view the conditions in which
+economic works have been written, it has shown that many theories
+hastily condemned as unsound by _a priori_ critics had much to be said
+for them at the time when they were propounded. This observation is true
+not only of old-world writers like the Mercantilists, but also of
+Ricardian economics. No one is concerned to prove that the Ricardian
+economics applies to the manorial system, and it is generally supposed
+at any rate that the world has been approximating more and more nearly
+during the last century to the conditions assumed in most of the
+reasoning of that school. On the principles we have explained,
+therefore, the Ricardian economics should supply just that body of
+general theory which is required in the investigation of modern economic
+problems, and the reputation of at any rate the leading writers should
+be as great as ever. It would be of immense advantage from a scientific
+point of view if this could be taken for granted, if for a time the work
+of the classical economists could be considered final so far as it goes,
+and for the purposes of investigation regarded as the theoretical
+counterpart of the modern industrial system. This assumption, however,
+has been made quite impossible, not by the historical school, but by the
+criticism and analysis of economists in the direct line of the Ricardian
+succession.
+
+
+  Ricardo's limitations.
+
+Modern economic criticism and analysis has destroyed the authority of
+the "old Political Economy" as a scientific system. The assumptions, the
+definitions, the reasoning, the conclusions of the classical writers
+have been ruthlessly overhauled. Defects in their arguments have been
+exposed to view by those who are most concerned to defend their
+reputation. Writers with none of the prejudices of the historical
+school, but with the cold and remorseless regard for logic of the purely
+objective critic, have pointed out serious inconsistencies here, the
+omission of important factors there, until very little of the "old
+Political Economy" is left unscathed. In fact, there never was a
+scientific system at all. What was mistaken for it was fashioned in the
+heat of controversy by men whose interests were practical rather than
+scientific, who could not write correct English, and revealed in their
+reasoning the usual fallacies of the merely practical man. So the "old
+Political Economy" lies shattered. It is useless to suppose that this
+destructive criticism from within can be neutralized by generously
+sprinkling the pages of the classical writers with interpretation
+clauses. This may serve to show that the ideals of our youth were not
+without justification; but the younger generation, which does not care
+about our ideals, and looks to the future rather than the past, will not
+read annotated editions of old books, however eminent their authors. If
+the Ricardian school of economists had been merely philosophers, or even
+a group like the French physiocrats, this state of things might be
+regarded with equanimity. We might assume that criticism and analysis
+had separated the wheat from the chaff in their writings, that
+everything of permanent value had probably been preserved and
+incorporated in the works of later economists. But the character of much
+of their work makes this assumption impossible. It is, in fact, quite
+true that many of them were more interested in practical aims than in
+the advancement of economic science. We may talk of the assumptions
+implicitly involved in Ricardo's works. In reality we do not know what
+those assumptions were; we only know what assumptions we should make in
+order to reach the same conclusions, and they may be very different from
+"the mind of Ricardo." Ricardo's works, in fact, do not explain a
+theoretical system, but contain the matured reflections, more or less
+closely reasoned, of a man of great mental power looking out on the
+world as it appeared to a business man experienced in affairs. The
+conclusions of such a work are of wider significance than the
+assumptions we attribute to the author would warrant. They are not
+expressed in terms which satisfy our canons of scientific accuracy.
+Dissected sentence by sentence, the book may be shown to be a mass of
+inconsistencies. If it has the misfortune to be systematized by an
+enthusiastic but dull and incompetent disciple, it may appear even
+absurd. But after all the misinterpretation of contemporaries and the
+destructive criticism of later times, the book as a whole leaves upon us
+an impression of peculiar strength and charm, and imparts a sense of the
+relations of things truer, because less mechanical, than the laboured
+reasoning of smaller men. Such is the character of much of the work of
+Ricardo and some of his contemporaries. We think that the decay of
+interest in these writers involves a real loss, and that students of
+modern problems may do worse than read Ricardo and his school. Some of
+the criticism of their works, necessary and useful as it has been, will
+probably be corrected later on by that breadth of view and sense of
+proportion which has enabled us to appreciate justly the achievements of
+lesser men in more remote times. But rehabilitation in accordance with
+the canons of historical justice will not restore the lost influence of
+the Ricardian school. Their achievements in the 19th century will be
+fully acknowledged, but the relevance of their work to the problems of
+the 20th century will be admitted less than at the present time.
+
+
+  Economics a conservative science.
+
+In a subject like economics it must always be very difficult to decide
+how far a departure from the traditional form and expression of its main
+doctrines is necessary or desirable. No one who is really experienced in
+economic investigation cares to emphasize the originality, still less
+the revolutionary character of his own work. It is much more likely than
+not that some principle which for the moment seems new, some distinction
+which we may flatter ourselves has not been observed before, has been
+pointed out over and over again by previous writers, although, owing to
+special circumstances, it may not have received the notice it deserved.
+Economics is therefore, on the whole, an intensely conservative science,
+in which new truths are cautiously admitted or incorporated merely as
+extensions or qualifications of those enunciated by previous writers.
+This procedure has its advantages, but it may easily become dangerous by
+destroying the influence of the science it is meant to preserve. It is
+not unlike the procedure of the canonists and casuists of the middle
+ages with regard to the doctrine of usury, by which the doctrine was to
+all appearances preserved intact while in reality it was stripped of all
+its original meaning by innumerable distinctions "over-curious and
+precise." In the same way the doctrines of the classical economists may
+be adapted by interpretation clauses and qualifications the exact force
+of which cannot be tested or explained, so that we do not know whether
+the original proposition is to be considered substantially correct or
+not. The result will be that while the doctrines are apparently being
+brought into closer correspondence with the facts of life, they will in
+reality be made quite useless for practical purposes or economic
+investigation. It is easier to point out the danger than to suggest how
+it should be met. The position we have described is no doubt partly due
+to the unsettlement of economic opinion and the hostile criticism of
+old-established doctrines which has characterized the last generation.
+Or it may be the result of economic agnosticism, combined with
+unwillingness to cut adrift from old moorings. Whatever the cause, the
+complete restatement of economic theory, which some heroic persons
+demand, is clearly impossible, except on conditions not likely to be
+realized in the immediate future. The span of life is limited; the work
+requires an extensive knowledge of the economic literature of several
+countries and the general features of all the important departments of
+modern economic activity. In general theory special studies by other men
+cannot play the same part as they do in historical and statistical work.
+In historical and statistical investigation, or in special studies of
+particular subjects, it is possible, given the pecuniary means, to
+organize a whole army of skilled assistants, and with ordinary care to
+combine the results of their separate efforts. In general theory the
+inverse rule seems to prevail. There the unity of conception and aim,
+the firm grip of all the different lines of argument and their relation
+to each other, which are required, can only be given by a single brain.
+But no one individual can do original work over the whole field. He is
+lucky if he can throw new light on a few old propositions. For the rest,
+he can only, with the utmost caution, adopt the suggestions of other
+minds as qualifications of old doctrines, never feeling quite sure that
+he is right in doing so. A complete restatement could only be undertaken
+by a group of men, trained in much the same conditions, accustomed to
+think and work together, each one engaged on a special department, but
+all acting under the control of one master-mind. This is largely a
+question of the organization of economic studies, and it is of the
+greatest importance that, if possible, such an effort should be made to
+present in a connected form the best results of modern criticism and
+analysis.
+
+
+  Some recent developments of economic theory.
+
+Economics is unlike many other sciences in the fact that its claim to
+recognition must be based upon its practical utility, on its relevance
+to the actual life of the economic world, on its ability to unravel the
+social and economic difficulties of each generation, and to contribute
+to the progress of nations. The very effectiveness of modern criticism
+and analysis, which has brought great gains in almost all branches of
+economic theory, has made the science more difficult as a subject of
+ordinary study. The extensions, the changes or the qualifications, of
+old doctrines, which at any rate in the works of responsible writers are
+rarely made without good if not always sufficient reason, have modified
+very considerably the whole science, and weakened the confidence of
+ordinary educated men in its conclusions. In the case of many subjects
+this would matter very little, but in that of economics, which touches
+the ordinary life of the community at so many points, it is of great
+importance, especially at a time like the present, when economic
+questions determine the policy of great nations. The "economic man" of
+the earlier writers, with his aversion from labour and his desire of the
+present enjoyment of costly indulgences, has been abandoned by their
+successors, with the result that in the opinion of many good people
+altruistic sentiment may be allowed to run wild over the whole domain of
+economics. The "economic man" has, on the other hand, been succeeded by
+another creation almost as monstrous, if his lineaments are to be
+supposed to be those of the ordinary individual--a man, that is, who
+regulates his life in accordance with Gossen's Law of Satiety, and whose
+main passion is to discover a money measure of his motives. It is
+extremely important to consider how far the economic conceptions based
+upon this view of the action of men in the ordinary business of
+life--such, for example, as the doctrine of marginal utility--depend for
+their truth and relevance on the fact that in economics we are dealing
+with large aggregates. The earlier writers generally assumed perfect
+mobility of labour and capital. No economist would deliberately make
+that assumption now unless he were dealing with some purely theoretical
+problem, for the solution of which it was legitimate at some stage in
+the reasoning. Many of the questions of the greatest practical
+importance at the present time, such as the competition between old and
+new methods of manufacturing commodities substantially the same in kind,
+and equally useful to the great body of consumers, arise largely from
+the immobility of capital or labour, or both of them. But it is obvious
+that if the assumption of perfect mobility is invalid, there is scarcely
+any economic doctrine identified with the earlier writers which may not
+require modification, in what degree it is impossible to say without
+very careful investigation. Much suggestive work on this subject of a
+general character is incorporated in economic books of the present day,
+but there is room for a whole series of careful monographs on a question
+of such fundamental importance. The same may be said of another subject,
+too frequently neglected by earlier writers, to which due significance
+has been given in the best recent work, namely, time in relation to
+value. It would perhaps be too much to say that the full consideration
+of this point has revolutionized the theory of value, but it has
+certainly created what seems almost a new science in close contact with
+the actual life of the modern world.
+
+Some doctrines of the earlier economists, such as the Wages Fund Theory,
+are now practically abandoned, though it may be said that they contained
+a certain amount of truth. Others, which were considered of fundamental
+importance, owe their position in modern economics and the form in which
+they are stated to the "tradition of the elders." If they could, by some
+happy chance, have been left for discovery by modern economists, they
+would without doubt have received different treatment, to the great
+advantage of economic science. Such a doctrine is the so-called Law of
+Diminishing Returns, which Mill considered "the most important
+proposition in Political Economy." "Unless this one matter," he says,
+"be thoroughly understood, it is to no purpose proceeding any further in
+our inquiry." "Were the law different, nearly all the phenomena of the
+production and distribution of wealth would be other than they are." On
+the other hand, Thorold Rogers, not to speak of earlier objectors,
+described the law as a "dismal and absurd theorem." The opinions of
+present-day economists appear to fluctuate between these two extremes.
+The law may apparently be "a general rule" or "a tendency" which is
+liable to be "checked," or a particular case of the law of the
+conservation of energy. If we go to Mill to discover what it is, we find
+that "it is not pretended that the law of diminishing return was
+operative from the beginning of society; and though some political
+economists may have believed it to come into operation earlier than it
+does, it begins quite early enough to support the conclusions they
+founded on it." "It comes into operation at a certain and not very
+advanced stage in the progress of agriculture." But this very important
+stage in the history of a nation is not defined or clearly illustrated.
+We are told that we can see "the law at work underneath the more
+superficial agencies on which attention fixes itself"; it "undergoes
+temporary suspension," which may last indefinitely; and "there is
+another agency, in habitual antagonism" to it, namely, "the progress of
+civilization," which may include every kind of human improvement. Mill
+apparently is not content with the confusion between "law" and "agency"
+or "force," but opposes the one to the other. He is constantly speaking
+in terms which imply the conquering of one law by another, a habit from
+which his successors have not freed themselves; and the theory of
+natural processes which appears to have satisfied him, was that when two
+forces come into operation there is a partial or complete suspension of
+one by the other. In modern economics "fertility" has no very definite
+meaning. It may mean what is ordinarily understood by the word--climate,
+rainfall, railway rates or anything else except "indestructible powers
+of the soil." To speak of "additional labour and capital" without
+reference to the kind and quality of the labour and capital, and the
+manner in which they are employed, organized and directed, throws very
+little light on agriculture. Every improvement involves, from a
+quantitative point of view, more or less of capital or of labour, so
+that it is the "antagonizing" influences, which are nearly all
+qualitative, which appear to be really important. It is therefore
+extraordinarily difficult at present to know what happens, or rather
+what would happen if it were not prevented, when a country reaches "the
+stage of diminishing returns"; what precisely it is which comes into
+operation, for obviously the diminishing returns are the results, not
+the cause; or how commodities "obey" a law which is always "suspended."
+Possibly the present generation of English industrial history will
+furnish many illustrations of the law of diminishing returns. We can
+only say that it requires investigation and restatement.
+
+Closely related to the law of diminishing returns is the Theory of Rent.
+No economic doctrine so well illustrates the achievements and the
+defects of modern economic analysis. Ricardo's statement of the theory
+left upon the world an impression, not wholly just, of singular
+clearness. He employed the theory with wonderful success in unravelling
+the problems of his time. Its importance has not been seriously, or at
+any rate successfully, called in question. Treated at first as a
+doctrine peculiarly applicable to land, with a certain controverted
+relevance to other natural agents, it has been so extended that there is
+scarcely any subject of economic study in which we may not expect to
+find adaptations or analogies, so that Ricardo seemed to have discovered
+the key of economic knowledge. But it was discovered that there were no
+"indestructible powers of the soil"; that the fertility of land in a
+country like England is almost entirely the result of improvement at
+some time or other; that "advantage of situation" includes very much
+more than the words in their literal sense imply; that both "fertility"
+and "advantage of situation" include many kinds of differential
+advantage; that in some circumstances rent does not enter into the price
+of agricultural and other produce, and that in others it does. Moreover,
+the study of the theory of rent has had a very great influence on all
+branches of economics by destroying the notion that it is possible to
+draw sharp lines of distinction, or deal with economic conceptions as
+though they were entirely independent categories. That modern economic
+analysis is incomparably more accurate than that of earlier times there
+can be no question. But the net result of the development of the
+doctrine of rent is that all problems in which this factor appears, and
+they embrace the whole range of economic theory, must apparently be
+treated on their merits. In its modern form the doctrine is far too
+general to be serviceable without the closest scrutiny of all the facts
+relating to the particular case to which it is applied. To deal
+adequately with the numerous extensions or qualifications of these and
+other doctrines in the hands of modern economists would involve us in an
+attempt to do what we have already said is impossible except on
+conditions not at present realized. It is clear that in the interests of
+general economic theory we require a vast number of special studies
+before an adequate restatement can be undertaken.
+
+
+  Relations between general economics and special studies.
+
+It must be clearly recognized that the functions of economic science in
+the present requirements of the world cannot possibly; be discharged by
+treatises on economic theory. The relations between general theory and
+special studies conducted on the lines we have indicated have completely
+changed. General theory never has been, and in the nature of things
+never can be, the actual reflex of the life and movement of the economic
+world. It never has been, and never can be, more than an indication of
+the kind of thing which might be expected in a purely hypothetical
+world. When the aim of the man of affairs and the hypothesis of the
+economist was unrestricted competition, and measures were being adopted
+to realize it, general theory such as the classical economists provided
+was perhaps a sufficiently trustworthy guide for practical statesmen and
+men of business. If only people can be got to believe in them, a few
+abstract principles are quite enough to destroy an institution which it
+has taken centuries to create. But a new institution cannot be made on
+the same terms. The modern industrial system has brought with it an
+immense variety of practical problems which nations must solve on pain
+of industrial and commercial ruin. For these problems we want, not a few
+old-established general principles which no one seriously calls in
+question, but genuine constructive and organizing capacity, aided by
+scientific and detailed knowledge of particular institutions, industries
+and classes. Just as the historical school grew up along with the
+greatest constructive achievement of the 19th century, namely, the
+consolidation of Germany, so the application to modern problems of the
+methods of that school has been called forth by the constructive needs
+of the present generation. We have already shown how these methods, in
+their turn, require the aid of general theory, but not of a general
+theory which tries to do their work. In fact, every attempt to make it
+do so must inevitably fail. How can such a huge mass of general
+propositions as are necessarily included in a system of economics ever
+be thoroughly tested by an appeal to facts? If they are not so tested,
+the general theory will remain a general theory, of no practical use in
+itself, until the end of time. It they are to be tested, an indefinitely
+large number of special studies must be made, for which the original
+materials must be collected and examined. That is, original
+investigation of special problems has to be carried out on a more
+gigantic scale than any economist of the historical school ever dreamt
+of or the world requires, with the certain knowledge that at the end of
+it all the general theory will not correspond with the facts of life.
+For there is all the difference in the world between using a body of
+general theory as an indication of the factors to be considered in the
+study of a special problem, and undertaking special studies with a view
+to testing the general theory. If the necessary limitations of general
+economic theory are recognized, most of the difficulties we have noticed
+disappear. Now that the "industrial revolution" has extended practically
+all over the world, so that we have several countries carrying on
+production by modern methods, it is easily possible to sketch the main
+features of industrial and commercial organization at the present time,
+to describe the banking and currency systems of the principal nations,
+their means of transport and communication, their systems of commercial
+law and finance, and their commercial policy. It is true that at present
+very little work of this kind has been done in England, but innumerable
+books, many of them about England, have been written by thoroughly
+competent economists, in French, German and other languages. So that no
+great amount of original work is required for a reliable account of
+those general features of the modern system which should form the
+introduction to economics. The general theory which we require should be
+sketched in firm and clear outline, leaving the detailed qualifications
+of broad principles to special studies, where they can be dealt with if
+it is necessary or desirable, and examined by statistical and other
+tests. For such a general theory there is ample material in the economic
+literature of all civilized countries. It is of the utmost importance
+that the economic terms, which are also, though in many cases with an
+entirely different meaning, the terms of business and commerce, should
+as far as possible be used in their common and ordinary English sense:
+that they should correspond in meaning with the same words when used in
+description, in law, accountancy and ordinary business. This is no doubt
+a difficult matter. But some change in this direction is necessary both
+in the interests of the science itself and of its practical utility. All
+the materials for investigation, all the facts and figures from which
+illustrations are drawn, all methods of keeping accounts in England,
+assume the ordinary English tongue. There are few if any conceptions in
+economics which cannot be expressed in it without depleting the ordinary
+vocabulary. At present the language of economics is for the ordinary
+Englishman like a foreign language of exceptional difficulty, because
+he is constantly meeting with words which suggest to his mind a whole
+world of associations quite different from those with which economic
+theory has clothed them. The refinements of economic analysis, as
+distinguished from its broader achievements, should be reserved for
+special studies, in which a technical scientific terminology, specially
+devised, can be used without danger of misconception. But in a subject
+like economics obscurity and an awkward terminology are not marks of
+scientific merit.
+
+
+  Economic problems in Great Britain.
+
+Economic studies should be as relevant to existing needs as those of
+engineering and other applied sciences. The scientific study of
+practical problems and difficulties is (generally speaking, and with
+honourable exceptions) far more advanced in almost every civilized
+country than it is in England, where the limited scale upon which such
+work is carried on, the indifference of statesmen, officials and
+business men, and the incapacity of the public to understand the close
+relation between scientific study and practical success, contrast very
+unfavourably with the state of affairs in Germany or the United States.
+The backwardness of economic science has been an index of the danger
+threatening the industrial and commercial supremacy of the United
+Kingdom. There are very few questions of public or commercial importance
+upon which the best and most recent investigations are to be found
+amongst English works. This would matter very little, perhaps, if
+Englishmen had a firm belief, established by actual experience, in the
+soundness of their policy, the present security of their position, and
+the sufficiency of their methods to strengthen or maintain it. But this
+is very far from being the case. If we take, for example, the
+corner-stone of the British commercial system in the 19th century,
+namely, the policy of "free trade" (q.v.), the public do not now read
+the economic works which supplied the theoretical basis of that policy,
+and, indeed, would not be convinced by them. The great men of the
+period, Cobden and Bright, are merely historical figures. Long before
+his death, Bright's references in public speeches to the achievements of
+the Anti-Corn Law League were received with respectful impatience, and
+Peel's famous speech on the repeal of the corn laws would not convince
+the German Reichstag or a modern House of Commons. The result is that
+free trade had become by the end of the 19th century in the main an old
+habit, for which the ordinary English manufacturer could give no very
+reasonable explanation, whatever may be its influence in commerce and
+public affairs. The doctrine of free trade only prevailed in so far as
+it could be restated in terms which had a direct relevance to the
+existing position of England and existing conditions of international
+trade. And it was directly challenged by the representatives of Mr
+Chamberlain's school of Imperialist thought (see CHAMBERLAIN, JOSEPH).
+It thus became the work of economic science ruthlessly to analyse the
+existing situation, explain the issues involved in the commercial policy
+of different countries, and point out the alternative methods of dealing
+with present difficulties, with their probable results.
+
+
+  Commerce and finance.
+
+The commercial policy of a state is merely the reflex of its system of
+public finance (see e.g. ENGLISH FINANCE). The absence of conviction in
+regard to British commercial policy naturally had its counterpart in the
+attitude of many men to the financial system of the country. The
+eulogies showered upon it in the past were no longer considered
+adequate. The great increase in recent years in British military and
+naval expenditure, made necessary by the exceptional demands of a state
+of war and the great development of foreign powers, was partly
+responsible for the new difficulties; partly it was due to the great
+extension of the functions of the state during the latter part of the
+19th century. The former causes may be considered partly permanent,
+partly temporary; but those of a permanent character are likely to
+increase in force, and those of a temporary character will leave a
+deposit in the shape of an addition to the normal expenditure of the
+central government. The extension of government functions appeared much
+more likely to continue than to be checked. Normal expenditure might
+therefore be calculated to rise rather than fall. In spite of the vast
+increase in national wealth, it was found a matter of increasing
+difficulty to meet a comparatively slight strain without recourse to
+measures of a highly controversial character; and the search for new
+sources of revenue (as in 1909) at once raised, in an acute form,
+questions of national commercial policy and the relations between the
+United Kingdom and the colonies.
+
+The development of the powers of the central government has been less
+than that of the functions of local governing authorities. This, again,
+is a movement much more likely to extend than to be checked. Local
+governing authorities now discharge economic functions of enormous
+importance and complexity, involving sums of money larger than sufficed
+to run important states a generation ago. The scientific study of the
+economics of local administration is, however, in its infancy, and
+requires to be taken up in earnest by economists. These questions of
+commercial policy and local government are closely bound up with the
+scientific study of the transport system. Although the British Empire
+contains within itself every known species of railway enterprise, the
+study of railways and other means of transport, and their relation to
+the business, the commerce and the social life of the country, is
+deplorably backward. It is obvious that no inquiry into commercial
+policy, or into such social questions as the housing of the poor, can be
+effective unless this deficiency is remedied.
+
+The whole social and political fabric of the British Empire depends upon
+the efficiency of its industrial system. On this subject many monographs
+and larger works have been published in recent years, but dealing rather
+with such questions as trade unionism, co-operation and factory
+legislation, than the structure and organization of particular
+industries, or the causes and the results of the formation of the great
+combinations, peculiarly characteristic of the United States, but not
+wanting in England, which are amongst the most striking economic
+phenomena of modern times.
+
+These are some of the questions which must absorb the energies of the
+rising generation of economists. The claim of economics for recognition
+as a science and as a subject of study must be based on its relevance to
+the actual life of the economic world, on its ability to unravel the
+practical difficulties of each generation, and so contribute to the
+progress of nations.
+
+  LITERATURE.--See also FREE TRADE; PROTECTION; TARIFF; COMMERCIAL
+  TREATIES; TRUSTS; MONEY; FINANCE; &c. The bibliography of economics as
+  a whole would include a history of all the writers on the subject, and
+  is beyond our scope here; see the numerous articles on economic
+  subjects throughout this work. The article by Dr J.K. Ingram in the
+  ninth edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ is still a valuable
+  historical account. It is only possible to mention here a few of the
+  more recent text-books. The most important general work published in
+  English is Marshall's _Principles of Economics_, vol. i. (1st edition,
+  1890; 4th edition, 1898). J. Shield Nicholson's _Principles of
+  Political Economy_ (3 vols.) not only gives a survey of economic
+  principles since Mill's time, but contains much suggestive and
+  original work. The writer of this article is much indebted to the
+  works of Schmoller, particularly his _Grundris der allgemeinen
+  Volkswirtschaftslehre_ (1900), and Adolph Wagner, particularly his
+  _Grundlegung der politischen Ökonomie_. On the history of economic
+  theory, Cannan's _History of the Theories of Production and
+  Distribution_ (1776-1848) is an admirable criticism, from a purely
+  objective standpoint, of the works of the English classical writers.
+  The most important English works published in recent years on general
+  English economic history are W. Cunningham's _Growth of Industry and
+  Commerce_, and W.J. Ashley's _Economic History_, while Vinogradoff's
+  _Villenage in England_ and _The Growth of the Manor_, as well as
+  Maitland's _Domesday Studies_, are of great importance to the student
+  of early economic institutions. D'Avenel's _Histoire économique de la
+  propriété, &c._ (_1200-1800_), is a monumental work on the history of
+  prices in France. Other books dealing with special subjects are likely
+  to take a very high place in economic literature. We may mention
+  particularly Charles Booth's _Life and Labour of the People in
+  London_, B.S. Rowntree's _Poverty_, Sidney and Beatrice Webb's
+  _History of Trade Unionism_ and _Industrial Democracy_, and Dr Arthur
+  Shadwell's _Industrial Efficiency_ (1906). These books are generally
+  regarded as typical of the best English work of recent years in
+  economic investigation. We may also mention Schloss's _Methods of
+  Industrial Remuneration_, a most important contribution to the study
+  of the wages question; C.F. Bastable's works on _International Trade_
+  and _Public Finance_; George Clare on the _Money Market_ and the
+  _Foreign Exchanges_; and A.T. Hadley's _Economics: An Account of the
+  Relations between Private Property and Public Welfare_ (1896). Studies
+  of particular questions, both concrete and theoretical, in foreign
+  languages are too numerous to specify, and much of the best modern
+  work is to be found in economic periodicals.     (W. A. S. H.)
+
+
+
+
+ECONOMY, a township and a village of Beaver county, Pennsylvania,
+U.S.A., on the E. bank of the Ohio river, 17 m. N.W. of Pittsburg. Pop.
+of township (1900) 1062; (1910) 860. The village is served by the
+Pennsylvania system. It was owned until 1904, when it was sold to a land
+company, by the Harmony Society (see COMMUNISM), commonly called the
+Economites, Harmonists or Rappists. The founder, George Rapp, after
+living with his would-be primitive Christian followers at Harmony,
+Butler county, Pennsylvania, in 1803-1814, and in 1815-1824 in New
+Harmony (q.v.), Indiana, which he then sold to Robert Owen, settled here
+in 1824 and rapidly built up a village, in which each family received a
+house and garden. The culture of silk, flax, grapes (for wine-making)
+and fruits and cereals in general, and the manufacture of flour and of
+woollen, flannel and cotton fabrics, were carried on under a rule
+requiring every adult to labour 12 or 14 hours each day in field or
+mill. Celibacy had been adopted in 1807 as the rule of the community.
+New members were received after a half-year's probation, and members who
+left received their original investment. Three hundred thus separated
+from Rapp in 1833, with $105,000 as their share of the communal
+property, to build the millennial kingdom of New Jerusalem at
+Phillipsburg (now Monaca), Beaver county, Pennsylvania, under the lead
+of Bernhard Müller, who had come to Economy in 1831 as a fellow
+religionist, and was called Count Maximilian de Leon (or Proli); in 1833
+Leon went, with his followers, to Louisiana, and established a religious
+colony 6 m. from Natchitoches. After his death his wife until 1871 was
+head of a similar community at Germantown in Webster parish. The
+Harmonists at Economy flourished under the rule of a tradesman, R.L.
+Baker, or Romelius Langenbacher, after the death of Rapp in 1847, and
+during the Civil War had about $500,000 buried away. Their numbers were
+for a time kept up by the addition of fresh converts, but the employés
+who were not Harmonists soon greatly outnumbered the members of the
+community, the basis of which was always religious. Baker died in 1868,
+and his successor, John Henrici, in 1892, when John S. Duss became first
+trustee. In 1907 there were only two or three members in the society. In
+1851 the township of Harmony was set apart from Economy.
+
+  See Morris Hillquit, _History of Socialism in the United States_ (New
+  York, 1903); William A. Hinds, _American Communities_ (revised
+  edition, Chicago, 1902); John L. Bole, _The Harmony Society_
+  (Philadelphia, 1904); Charles Nordhoff, _The Communistic Societies of
+  the United States_ (New York, 1875); and among several excellent
+  monographs in German, Karl Knortz, _Die christlichkommunistische
+  Kolonie der Rappisten_ (Leipzig, 1892), and J. Hanno Deiler, _Eine
+  vergessene deutsche Colonie: eine Stimme zur Verteidigung des Grafen
+  de Leon_ (New Orleans, 1900).
+
+
+
+
+ECONOMY, a word ranging in application from the careful thrift of an
+individual to the systematic arrangement of an organization. It is
+derived from the Gr. [Greek: oikonomia], the management ([Greek:
+nemein], to control) of an [Greek: oikos] or house, extended in meaning
+to the administration of a state. Of its original sense, the art or
+science of managing a household, the expression "domestic economy"
+survives, but the principal use in this sense is confined to the thrifty
+management of the financial resources of a household or of an
+individual. It is thus used as equivalent to "saving," not only of
+money, but of time, labour or effort, and, generally, of the least
+expenditure of means to attain a required end. It is on the principle of
+"economy" that many phonetic changes occur in the development of
+languages, and, in aesthetics, the name has been applied to a principle
+or law that effects are pleasant in proportion to the smallness of the
+effort made, and of the means taken to produce the result. The phrase
+"economy of truth" is due to an invidious application of the use, in
+patristic theology, of the word [Greek: oikonomia] for the careful
+presentation of such doctrine as would be applicable to the hearer (see
+J.H. Newman, _History of the Arians of the 4th Century_). "Economy" is
+also used in theology in such expressions as "Mosaic" or "Christian
+economy" as a synonym of "dispensation," for the administration of the
+world by God at particular times or for particular races. From the
+meaning of organization or administration of a house or state the word
+is applied more widely to the ordered arrangement of any organized body,
+and is equivalent almost to "system"; thus the "economy" of nature or of
+animal or plant life may be spoken of. The most common use, however, of
+the word is that of "political economy," the science dealing with the
+production, distribution and consumption of wealth (see ECONOMICS).
+
+
+
+
+ECSTASY (Gr. [Greek: ekstasis], from [Greek: existêmi], put out of its
+place, alter), a term applied to a morbid mental condition, in which the
+mind is entirely absorbed in the contemplation of one dominant idea or
+object, and loses for the time its normal self-control. With this there
+is commonly associated the prevalence of some strong emotion, which
+manifests itself in various ways, and with varying degrees of intensity.
+This state resembles in many points that of catalepsy (q.v.), but
+differs from it sufficiently to constitute it a separate affection. The
+patient in ecstasy may lie in a fixed position like the cataleptic,
+apparently quite unconscious, yet, on awaking, there is a distinct
+recollection of visions perceived during this period. More frequently
+there is violent emotional excitement which may find expression in
+impassioned utterances, and in extravagant bodily movements and
+gesticulations. Ecstasy usually presents itself as a kind of temporary
+religious insanity, and has frequently appeared as an epidemic. It is
+well illustrated in the celebrated examples of the dancing epidemics of
+Germany and Italy in the middle ages, and the _Convulsionnaires_ of St
+Medard at the grave of the Abbé Paris in the early part of the 18th
+century, and in more recent times has been witnessed during periods of
+religious revivalism. (See also INSANITY and NEUROPATHOLOGY.)
+
+
+
+
+ECTOSPORA, a homogeneous and natural division of Protozoan parasites
+included under the Sporozoa; they comprise the three orders, Gregarines,
+Coccidia and Haemosporidia. The defining character of the Ectospora is
+that the spore-mother-cells (sporoblasts) are formed at the periphery of
+the parent-individual (sporont); we may, however, go further, and say
+that the formation of all the different reproductive elements is
+uniformly peripheral or exogenous. Two other very general features are
+(a) that the individual trophozoite is uninuclear, and (b) that growth
+and trophic activity are finished before the multiplicative or
+reproductive phase sets in.
+
+There is now little doubt that the Ectospora possess a flagellate
+ancestry. The principal facts in favour of this view are as follows: the
+actual ontogenetic connexion known to exist between certain
+Haemoflagellates and certain Haemosporidia (see TRYPANOSOMES); the
+possession by many Coccidia of biflagellar microgametes (male elements),
+whose general structure greatly resembles that of a Heteromastigine
+Flagellate; the possession by various parasitic Flagellates (e.g.
+_Herpetomonas_) of an attached, resting phase, when the parasites become
+gregariniform, which strongly suggests the attached phase of many young,
+growing Gregarines; the typical gregarinoid and euglenoid movements of
+Gregarines and of the germs or other stages of Coccidia and
+Haemosporidia, which are quite comparable with the contractile and
+metabolic movements of Flagellates; and, lastly, the exogenous type of
+reproduction, which is easily derivable from the multiple division of
+certain Haemoflagellates, and this, in turn, from the typical binary
+longitudinal fission of a Flagellate.
+
+
+
+
+ECUADOR
+
+  Boundaries.
+
+(officially _La Republica del Ecuador_), a republic of South
+America, bounded N. and N.E. by Colombia, S.E. and S. by Peru, and W. by
+the Pacific Ocean. Its boundary lines with Colombia and Peru were in
+1909 still unsettled, large areas of territory being claimed by all
+three republics. Under an agreement of the 15th of December 1894, the
+disputes were to be decided by the Spanish sovereign as arbitrator, but
+nothing was accomplished. On the 5th of November 1904, Colombia and
+Ecuador agreed to submit their dispute to the German emperor, and a
+convention of the 12th of September 1905 between Colombia and Peru
+established a _modus vivendi_ for the settlement of their conflicting
+claims, in which Ecuador is likewise interested. The maps of Ecuador,
+which are very defective, usually describe its territory as extending
+eastward to the Brazilian frontier, but as Peru is in actual occupation
+of the region east of Huiririma-chico, on the Napo river, 3½ degrees
+west of that frontier, those maps cannot be considered correct. The
+Trans-Andine territory occupied by Ecuador is a wedge-shaped area
+between the Coca and Napo, the provisional boundary line with Colombia,
+and a line running nearly west-south-west from Huiririma-chico (about
+lat. 2° 50' S., long. 73° 20' W.) to a point on the Santiago river in
+about lat. 4° 12' S., long. 78° W., which forms the provisional boundary
+with Peru. The eastern part of this territory is also claimed by Peru,
+which would have the effect, if allowed, of restricting Ecuador to a
+comparatively small area covered by the Andes and western Cordillera and
+the narrow plain on the Pacific coast. From the Santiago river, a
+western affluent of the Marañon, the boundary line runs south-west and
+west across the Andes to the head waters of the Macara, down that stream
+to the Chira, or Achira, whose channel marks the frontier down to about
+80° 17' W., where a small stream (the Rio Alamo) enters from the north.
+The line then runs almost due north to the south shore of the Gulf of
+Guayaquil, following the western water parting of the lower Tumbez
+valley. A small district in the valley of the Chira is claimed by Peru.
+The northern boundary line is described elsewhere (see COLOMBIA). A
+small section of this line terminating on the Pacific coast is also in
+dispute, Ecuador claiming the main channel of the Mira as the dividing
+line, and Colombia claiming a small district south of that channel, the
+line running due west from the mouth of the most southern outlet of the
+Mira opening into Panguapi Bay, to a point of intersection with that
+river.
+
+[Illustration: Map of Ecuador.]
+
+  _Physical Geography._--The surface of Ecuador may be divided into
+  three distinct regions: the Cis-Andine lying between the Western
+  Cordillera and the coast; the Inter-Andine, which includes the two
+  great mountain chains crossing the republic with the elevated plateau
+  lying between; and the Trans-Andine, lying east of the Andes in the
+  great Amazon valley. The first part consists of an alluvial, low-lying
+  plain formed in great part by the detritus brought down by the
+  mountain streams. It is irregular in form and is broken by isolated
+  elevations and spurs from the Cordillera. Large areas are still
+  subject to annual inundations in the rainy season, and the lower river
+  courses are bordered with swamps. This is the most fertile and
+  productive part of Ecuador, especially on the higher lands near the
+  Cordillera. The Trans-Andine region is similar to the neighbouring
+  territories of the upper Amazon basin occupied by Colombia, Brazil and
+  Peru--a great forest-covered plain descending gently toward the east,
+  broken on its western margin by short spurs from the Andes enclosing
+  highly fertile valleys, and by low, isolated ranges between the larger
+  river courses, and traversed by large rivers flowing into the Napo and
+  Marañon. This region has been only partially explored, and but little
+  is known of the large areas lying between the navigable rivers.
+
+
+    Mountains.
+
+  The Inter-Andine or plateau region lies in and between the two great
+  mountain chains which cross the greater part of the republic between
+  and almost parallel with the 78th and 79th meridians. The eastern
+  chain is known as the Andes of Ecuador, or the Cordillera Oriental,
+  and the western as the Cordillera Occidental (Western Cordillera).
+  Starting from the confused grouping on the southern frontier of the
+  two great chains and some transverse ranges, they run nearly north by
+  east to the Colombian frontier where another "knot" or junction
+  occurs. The summits of the western range form a line of noteworthy
+  regularity, but those of the eastern form a broken irregular line of
+  varying distances from the first. The elevated plateau between the two
+  great chains, which is about 300 m. long and 20 to 30 m. wide, is
+  divided into three great shallow basins or plains by the transverse
+  ridges or _paramos_ of Tiupullo and Azuay. These are known as the
+  Quito, Ambato and Cuenca basins. South of the latter is the irregular
+  and deeply broken Loja basin, which can hardly be considered a part of
+  the great Ecuador plateau. The three great basins, which are broken
+  and subdivided by mountainous spurs and ridges, descend gradually
+  toward the south, the Quito plain having an average elevation of 9500
+  ft. above the sea, Ambato 8500, and Cuenca 7800. They are also
+  characterized by the increasing aridity of the plateau from north to
+  south, the Quito plain being fertile and well covered with vegetation,
+  and the Ambato and Cuenca plains being barren and desolate except in
+  some favoured localities. The volcanic character of the region is
+  likewise responsible for large areas of barren surfaces. Rising from
+  this elevated plateau, along its eastern and western margins, are the
+  Cordilleras with their principal summits culminating far above the
+  line of perpetual snow, which in this region is about 15,750 ft. above
+  the sea. These summits are remarkable, not only for their great
+  height, but also for their apparent symmetrical arrangement in
+  parallel lines, sometimes in pairs facing each other across this
+  cyclopean passage. Nowhere in the world can there be found another
+  such assemblage of snow-clad peaks, several of which are active
+  volcanoes. There are 22 of them grouped around these central plains
+  almost within sight of each other. The western chain has the
+  distinction of having the highest summit, the eastern the greatest
+  number of high summits and the highest average elevation. From the
+  time of Humboldt's visit to this remarkable region down to the present
+  time there have been many diverse calculations of the height of these
+  peaks, but with a considerable variation. It is estimated that there
+  was a considerable decrease in the elevation of this part of the Andes
+  during the past century, Quito having sunk 26 ft. in 122 years,
+  Pichincha 218 ft. in the same time, and the farm of Antisana, where
+  Humboldt resided for a time, 165 ft. in 64 years. At the same time
+  Cotopaxi and Sangay, the two active volcanoes, have actually increased
+  in elevation since the measurement of La Condamine in 1742. These
+  changes in elevation, if correct, are due to seismic disturbances, a
+  cause that may be partially responsible for the varying computations
+  of the heights of these well-known peaks. Among modern investigators
+  are W. Reiss and A. Stübel (1871-1873), and Edward Whymper (1880),
+  whose measurements of the principal summits were:--
+
+            _Eastern Cordillera._             _Western Cordillera._
+    +--------------------------+--------+----------------------+--------+
+    |                          |   Ft.  |                      |   Ft.  |
+    +--------------------------+--------+----------------------+--------+
+    | Cayambe            (W.)  | 19,186 | Cotocachi      (W.)  | 16,301 |
+    | Sara-Urcu           "    | 15,502 | Mojanda     (R. & S.)| 14,088 |
+    | Antisana            "    | 19,335 | Pichincha      (W.)  | 15,918 |
+    | Sincholagua     (R. & S.)| 16,365 | Atacatzo    (R. & S.)| 14,892 |
+    | Rumiñagui           "    | 15,607 | El Corazon           |        |
+    | Cotopaxi           (W.)  | 19,613 |  (Chamalari)   (W.)  | 15,871 |
+    | Tunguragua      (R. & S.)| 16,690 | Iliniza     (R. & S.)| 17,405 |
+    | Altar (Capac-Urcu)  "    | 17,730 | Carahuairazo   (W.)  | 16,515 |
+    | Sangay              "    | 17,464 | Chimborazo      "    | 20,498 |
+    +--------------------------+--------+----------------------+--------+
+
+  The Imbabura volcano, celebrated for its destructive eruptions of mud
+  and water, stands midway between the two ranges at the northern end of
+  the plateau, and belongs to the transverse ridge of knot (_nudo_)
+  which unites them. It is the most northern of the higher peaks of
+  Ecuador, with the exception of Cotocachi, and possibly of Chiles on
+  the Colombian frontier, and reaches the elevation of 15,033 ft. Ibarra
+  on the northern flanks of the volcano has suffered severely from its
+  eruptions. The name is derived from _imba_, fish, and _bura_, mother,
+  and is said to have originated from the quantities of a fish called
+  "preñadilla" (_Pimelodus cyclopum_) discharged from its crater during
+  one of its eruptions--a phenomenon which, after a searching
+  investigation, was discredited by Wagner. Cayambe, or Cayembi, the
+  second highest peak of the Ecuadorean Andes, has the noteworthy
+  distinction of standing very nearly on the equator. Its base covers a
+  large area, and its square top, rising far above the snow-line, is one
+  of the sights of Quito. Antisana is crowned with a double dome, and is
+  described as an extinct volcano, though Humboldt saw smoke issuing
+  from it in 1802. On its western side is the famous _hacienda_ (farm)
+  of Antisana, 13,306 ft. above the sea, where Humboldt resided for
+  several months in 1802. Sara-Urcu stands south-east of Antisana in a
+  densely forested region, drenched with rain and only slightly
+  explored. Sincholagua and Rumiñagui are the next two peaks, going
+  southward, and then the unrivalled cone of Cotopaxi (q.v.)--the
+  highest active volcano in the world--from whose summit smoke curls
+  upward unceasingly.
+
+  Llanganati or Cerro Hermoso is chiefly known through the tradition
+  that the treasures of the Incas were buried in a lake on its slopes.
+  It consists of a group of summits, the highest being credited with
+  17,843 ft. Tunguragua, or Tungurahua, has a cone-shaped summit like
+  that of Cotopaxi, with a slope of 38°. It rises from a plain somewhat
+  lower than the neighbouring central plateau and stands free from the
+  surrounding elevations, except on the south, which give it an
+  exceptionally imposing appearance. Among its characteristic features
+  is a cataract fed by melting snows, which descends 1500 ft. in three
+  leaps, and an enormous basaltic lava-stream, which crosses the face of
+  the mountain in a north-easterly direction. Its most notable eruption
+  was in 1777. It has been sometimes classed among the extinct
+  volcanoes, but smoke has been seen issuing from it at different dates,
+  and a violent eruption occurred on January 12, 1886. The fertile
+  cultivated valley of Baños, with its thermal springs, lies at the base
+  of Tunguragua, which F. Hassaurek describes as "the most beautiful of
+  all the snow peaks in the country." The next in line is El Altar,
+  which the natives call Capac-Urcu ("king mountain"), whose broken cone
+  and impressive outlines make it one of the most attractive mountains
+  of Ecuador. Its summit comprises a group of eight snow-clad peaks, and
+  its crater is surrounded by a steep and jagged wall of rocks. There is
+  a tradition that this mountain was once higher than Chimborazo, but a
+  series of eruptions caused the cone to fall in and reduced its summit
+  to its present altitude and broken appearance. Altar has shown no
+  signs of activity since the discovery of America. Sangay, or Sangai,
+  the next and last large volcano to the south, is in a state of
+  frequent eruption, however, and is known as one of the most restless
+  volcanoes of the world. Since the Spanish conquest it has been in a
+  state of uninterrupted activity, but no damage has been done, because
+  there are no civilized settlements in its immediate vicinity. Though
+  of great interest to scientific investigators because of this
+  unceasing activity, and of its peculiar position in the Andean system,
+  and because of the difficult and dangerous country by which it is
+  surrounded, Sangay has been but rarely visited by European travellers.
+  Its eruptions are not on a grand scale, but small outbursts of lava
+  and explosions of steam occur at frequent intervals, and at longer
+  intervals more violent explosions in which the molten rock is thrown
+  2000 ft. above its summit, and ashes are carried away as far as the
+  streets of Guayaquil.
+
+  Turning to the Cordillera Occidental and taking the principal peaks in
+  order from south to north, the first to claim attention is Chimborazo
+  (from _Chimpu-raza_, "mountain of snow"), the highest summit of
+  Ecuador, and once believed to be the culminating point of the Andes.
+  Humboldt, who unsuccessfully attempted its ascent in 1802, gives its
+  elevation as 21,425 ft., Reiss and Stubel as 20,703, and Whymper as
+  20,498. It stands 76 m. north-east of Guayaquil, and, according to
+  Spruce, rises majestically from the valley of the Guayas, on the west,
+  without a "positive break from the summit down to the plain." This,
+  however, is erroneous, for Whymper located a detached range running
+  parallel with the Cordillera on the west, for a distance of 65 m. with
+  the Chimbo valley between them. The magnificence of its mass is
+  imposing from almost any point of view, but it can be most fully
+  appreciated from its western or Pacific side, where its base is
+  covered with forest up to the snow-line, above which its pure white
+  cone rises another 5000 ft. An unobstructed view of the great mountain
+  is rarely obtained, however, because of the mists and clouds which
+  cover its cone. Its summits were reached for the first time in 1880 by
+  Edward Whymper, all previous attempts having failed. It is considered
+  to be an extinct volcano because it makes the plumb-line deviate only
+  7" to 8", from which it is deduced that the mountain is hollow.
+  Moreover, the calcined matter resembling white sand which covers its
+  sides below the snow-line, extensive beds of lava, and the issue of
+  streams of hot water from its northern side, seem to confirm the
+  deduction that Chimborazo is an extinct volcano. Immediately north of
+  Chimborazo, and separated from it by only a narrow valley, are the
+  lower triple summits of Carahuairazo, or Carguairazo (which the
+  natives call _Chimborazo-embra_, "Chimborazo's wife"), whose hollow
+  cone collapsed in 1698 during a great earthquake, and left the jagged
+  rim which adds so much to its present picturesque appearance. Mr
+  Whymper's measurement is for the middle peak. Quirotoa, still farther
+  north, is supposed to have suffered a similar catastrophe. Its hollow
+  summit, 13,510 ft. above sea-level, now contains a large lake.
+  Iliniza, which stands west by north of Cotopaxi, has two pyramidal
+  peaks, and is one of the most interesting mountains of the Ecuadorean
+  group. It stands at the western end of the Tiupullo ridge, and
+  overlooks the Quito basin to the north-east. The French academician
+  Bouger, who was chief of the scientific commission sent to Ecuador in
+  1736 to measure a degree of the meridian on the equator, made a
+  trigonometrical measurement of Iliniza, and Wagner ascended to within
+  800 ft. of its summit in 1859. The geological structure of the
+  mountain furnishes no evidence of volcanic activity. Chamalari, which
+  the Spaniards called El Corazon from its heart-shaped appearance, is
+  similarly destitute of a crater. It overlooks the Quito basin and has
+  been ascended many times. Among the earlier explorers to reach its
+  summit were Bouger and La Condamine, Humboldt and Bonpland, and José
+  Cáldas, the Granadian naturalist. Atacatzo is an extinct volcano, with
+  nothing noteworthy in its appearance and history. Pichincha, its
+  famous neighbour, is apparently of later origin, according to Wagner,
+  and of slightly lower elevation. Perhaps no Ecuadorean volcano is
+  better known than Pichincha, the "boiling mountain," because of its
+  destructive eruptions and its proximity to the city of Quito. Its
+  summit comprises three groups of rocky peaks, of which the most
+  westerly, Rucu-Pichincha (Old Pichincha), contains the crater, a
+  funnel-shaped basin 2460 ft. deep and about 1500 ft. wide at the
+  bottom, whose walls in places rise perpendicularly and in others at an
+  angle of 20°. The exterior of the cone has an angle of 30°. Bouger and
+  La Condamine were the first to reach its brink in 1742, after which
+  Humboldt made the ascent in 1802, Boussingault and Hall in 1831,
+  Garcia Moreno and Sebastian Wisse in 1844 and 1845 (descending into
+  the crater for the first time), Garcia Moreno and Jameson in 1857,
+  Farrand and Hassaurek in 1862, Orton in 1867, and Whymper in 1880.
+  Farrand spent more than a week in the crater trying to get some good
+  photographic views, and Orton has given a graphic description of his
+  experiences in the same place. He found that the real cone of eruption
+  was an irregular heap 250 ft. in height and 800 ft. in diameter,
+  containing about 70 vents. The temperature of the vapour within the
+  fumarole was 184°, and water boiled at 189°. There have been five
+  eruptions of Pichincha since the Spanish conquest--in 1539, 1566,
+  1575, 1587 and 1660. The second covered Quito 3 ft. deep with ashes
+  and stones, but the last three were considered as the most destructive
+  to that city. The last happily broke down the western side of the
+  crater, which, it is believed, will ensure the city against harm in
+  any subsequent eruption. Since the earthquake of August 1867 Pichincha
+  has sent forth dense masses of black smoke and great quantities of
+  fine sand. Cotocachi is a double-peaked mountain, rising from an
+  extremely rough country. It was ascended by Whymper in 1880. All the
+  higher summits of Ecuador have true glaciers, the largest being found
+  on Antisana, Cayambe and Chimborazo. Whymper located and named no less
+  than eleven on Chimborazo, and counted twelve on Cayambe.
+
+
+    Rivers.
+
+  There are two distinct hydrographic systems in Ecuador--the streams
+  that flow south-eastward to the Marañon, or Amazon, and those which
+  flow westward to the Pacific. The southern part of the great central
+  plateau is arid and has a very light rainfall; it has no streams,
+  therefore, except from melting snows, and the higher elevations which
+  receive the impact of the easterly winds. Farther north the rainfall
+  becomes heavier, the plateau is covered with vegetation, and a
+  considerable number of small rivers flow westward through the
+  Cordillera to the Pacific. The Eastern Cordillera, or Andes, forms the
+  water-parting between the two systems. The largest of the
+  eastward-flowing rivers is the Napo, which rises in the eastern
+  defiles of Cotopaxi and Sincholagua--the principal source being the
+  Rio del Valle, which traverses the Valle Vicioso. It at first flows
+  south by east, and at the village of Napo is 1450 ft. above sea-level,
+  at the mouth of the Coca 858 ft., at the mouth of the Aguarico 586
+  ft., 500 at the mouth of the Curaray, and 385 at its junction with the
+  Marañon. Orton estimates its current at Napo in the month of November
+  as 6 m. an hour; in the next 80 m. the river falls 350 ft. and
+  produces a fine series of rapids; and from Santa Rosa downwards the
+  rate is not less than 4 m. an hour. Its breadth at Napo is only 120
+  ft., but at Coca it has widened to 1500 ft., and at its mouth to
+  nearly 1 m. Like most of the large Amazon tributaries, its discharge
+  into the Marañon is through several distinct channels. The Napo is
+  navigable for steam-boats for some distance above the mouth of the
+  Coca, and thence for canoes as far as the Cando cataract, 3332 ft.
+  above the sea. Its total length is 920 m. The principal tributaries of
+  the Napo are the Coca and Aguarico from the north, and the Curaray
+  from the south. The Coca rises on the eastern slopes of the Andes near
+  Cayambe and the Guamani range, and flows eastward near the equator to
+  San Rafael (about 76° 30' W. long.), where it turns sharply southward
+  to a junction with the Napo in about lat. 1° S., long. 76° W. The
+  Coca forms the provisional boundary line between Ecuador and Colombia
+  from its source to the Napo. The Aguarico also rises on the eastern
+  slopes of the Andes north of Cayambe and flows south-eastward to a
+  junction with the Napo in about long. 75° W., its length being roughly
+  estimated at 420 m. Little is known of its course, or of the country
+  through which it flows, which is provisionally occupied by Colombia.
+  The Curaray has its sources in the defiles of the Cerros de
+  Llanganati, and flows south-eastward to the Napo, its length being
+  estimated at 490 m. Its lower course is sluggish, where its waters are
+  made unpalatable by a reddish slime. The Napo and its tributaries are
+  celebrated in the early history of South America as the route by which
+  Gonzalo Pizarro and Orellana first reached the Amazon, and it was
+  afterwards the principal route by which the early expeditions across
+  the continent at this point connected the Andean Plateau with the
+  Amazon. The other rivers which flow through the Oriente territory of
+  Ecuador into the Marañon are the Tigre, Pastaza, Morona and Santiago.
+  The Tigre, of which little was known until a recent date, is formed by
+  the confluence of the Cunambo and Huiviyacu, whose sources are on the
+  eastern slopes of the Andes near those of the Curaray. Its length
+  below this confluence is 416 m., into which are received 109
+  tributaries, the largest of which are the Pucacuro and Corrientes. The
+  Tigre is navigable at all stages up to the Cunambo confluence, and
+  promises to afford one of the most valuable river routes in Ecuador.
+  It enters the Marañon very near the 74th meridian. The Pastaza, or
+  Pastassa, unlike the rivers already described, has its source on the
+  central plateau west of the principal chain of the Andes, within the
+  shadow of Cotopaxi, and breaks through the Cordillera to the north of
+  Tunguragua. After flowing southward along the base of the high Andes
+  for a short distance and receiving a number of torrents from the
+  snowclad heights, it turns south-eastward across the plain and enters
+  the Marañon about 70 m. above the mouth of the Huallaga. The stream is
+  known as the Patate down to its junction with the Chambo, near Baños,
+  and is not called Pastaza until the Agoyan falls are passed. It was
+  navigated by Don Pedro Maldonado as early as 1741, and is navigable
+  for steamboats of 2 to 4 ft. draft up to the mouth of the Huasaga
+  (about 124 m.) in times of high water, and for canoes nearly 200 m.
+  farther. The Pastaza, however, is subject to irresistible floods
+  caused by the sudden rising of the mountain torrents on its upper
+  course, especially the Toro, which sweep down with such fury that
+  navigation on the river is practically impossible. The shallowness of
+  the lower stream, where the current is sluggish, is probably due to
+  the great quantities of silt brought down by these floods. Many of the
+  rivers of eastern Ecuador are subject to similar floods from the
+  Andean slopes, which have cut away broad, deep channels, through the
+  adjacent plains, leaving long, narrow ridges between their courses
+  which the natives call _cuchillas_. The Morona is formed by the
+  confluence of the Manhuasisa and Cangaima about 310 m. above its
+  mouth, and is freely navigable for small steamboats to that point. The
+  two confluents just mentioned have their sources in the Andes, and
+  flow for some distance across the plain before uniting to form the
+  Morona. Both are navigable for considerable distances. The Morona
+  follows a very tortuous course before entering the Marañon, at long.
+  70° W., and receives a large number of affluents, one of which serves
+  as the outlet for Lake Rimachuma, in Peruvian territory. Very little
+  is definitely known of the affluents of the Morona, Pastaza and Tigre,
+  as the territory through which they run has been but slightly
+  explored. The Santiago, which enters the Marañon near the Pongo de
+  Manseriche, is formed by the confluence of the Paute, which rises in
+  the province of Azuay, and the Zamora, which has its source among the
+  mountains of Loja. According to Alexander Garland (_Peru in 1906_),
+  the rivers of eastern Ecuador are navigable at low water for steamers
+  of 2 to 4 ft. draft for an aggregate distance of 1503 m., as
+  follows:--
+
+                                              Miles.
+    Napo, to the mouth of the Aguarico         559
+    Curaray, up to Canonaco                    286
+    Tigre, up to Cunambo-Huiviyacu confluence  416
+    Pastaza                                     31
+    Morona, up to the Rarayacu                 211
+
+  These same rivers are navigable at high water for steamers of 19½ ft.
+  draft for an aggregate distance of 1330 m., including 68 m. of the
+  Aguarico, and for steamers of 2 to 4 ft. draft for an additional 733
+  m. The last aggregate includes an extension of 93 m. on the Pastaza,
+  99 on the Morona, 186 on the Napo, and the balance on the Manhuasisa,
+  Cangaima, Pucacuro, Corrientes, Cunambo and Huiviyacu.
+
+  On the western versant of the Andes of Ecuador there are three river
+  systems of considerable size--the Mira, the Esmeraldas and the Guayas.
+  The sources of the first--the Rioblanco, Pisco and Puntal--are to be
+  found on the northern slopes of the transverse ridge which culminates
+  in the Imbabura volcano. Its course is north and north-west to the
+  Colombian frontier, thence westward and north-west to the Pacific,
+  breaking through the Western Cordillera on its way. It forms the
+  boundary line for some distance between Ecuador and Colombia, but near
+  its mouth where the river turns northward Colombia has taken
+  possession of the left bank and all the territory covered by its large
+  delta. Its principal tributaries on the left are the San Pedro,
+  Paramba, Cachiyacu, Chachavi and Canumbi, and on the right the San
+  Juan, Caiquer and Nulpe. The delta channels of the Mira are navigable,
+  being tributary to the Colombian port of Tumaco. The Esmeraldas drains
+  all that part of the central plateau lying between the transverse
+  ridge of Tiupullo on the south, and the Imbabura ridge on the north,
+  together with the western slopes of the Cordillera between Iliniza and
+  Cotocachi, and a considerable part of the lower plain. It is formed by
+  the confluence of the Quininde and Toachi with the Guaillabamba
+  between 40 and 50 m. above its mouth, and discharges into the Pacific
+  in lat. 1° N., long. 79° 40' W., through a narrow and precipitous
+  gorge. The volume and current of the river is sufficient to freshen
+  the sea 2 m. from the coast. The Guaillabamba is the larger and more
+  important tributary, and should be considered the main stream. It
+  rises in the Chillo valley in the vicinity of Cayambe, and flows
+  across the northern end of the central plateau, breaking through the
+  Western Cordillera between Cotocachi and Pichincha. One of its plateau
+  tributaries, Rio Pedregal, rises on the slopes of Cotopaxi and is
+  celebrated for its three beautiful cascades, the highest of which is
+  about 220 ft. The Toachi and Quininde have their sources on the
+  western slopes of the Cordillera. The Guayas or Guayaquil river is in
+  part an estuary extending northward from the Gulf of Guayaquil,
+  bordered by mangrove swamps and mud banks formed by the silt brought
+  down from the neighbouring mountains. All the bordering country on
+  both sides is of the same description, and for a long distance inland
+  extensive areas of swampy country are submerged during the rainy
+  season. Above the mouth of the Daule the river is known as the
+  Bodegas, which in turn is formed by the confluence of the Babahoyo and
+  the Vinces. The Guayas also receives a large tributary from the east
+  called the Yaguachi. All these streams are navigable on their lower
+  courses, regular steamboat communication being maintained on the
+  Guayas and Bodegas to a river port of the latter name, 80 m. above
+  Guayaquil, and for 40 m. on the Daule. The navigable channels of all
+  the rivers are computed at 200 m. The drainage basin of the Guayas,
+  according to Theodor Wolf, covers an area of 14,000 sq. m., and
+  includes the greater part of the lower plain and the western slopes of
+  the Cordillera Occidental as far north as Iliniza. The Babahoyo, which
+  is the main stream, has its sources on the slopes of Chimborazo, the
+  Daule on the Sandomo ridge in the latitude of Pichincha, the Yaguachi
+  on the south-eastern slopes of Chimborazo, whence it flows southward
+  for a considerable distance before breaking through the Cordillera to
+  the western plain. The Guayas is one of the most interesting and
+  varied of the South American river systems, and is of great economic
+  importance to Ecuador. In addition to these three river systems, there
+  are a large number of short streams on the coast flowing into the
+  Pacific and Gulf of Guayaquil, only two of which have any special
+  importance in the present undeveloped state of the country. These are
+  the Santiago, which drains several fertile valleys in northern
+  Esmeraldas and western Carchi, and whose outlet is connected with some
+  navigable tide-water channels, including the Pailon basin and the
+  Caráquez, or Caracas, on which is located the village of Bahia de
+  Caráquez (lat. 0° 34' S.), the nearest port to the city of Quito.
+
+
+    Lakes.
+
+  There are a considerable number of small lakes in Ecuador, but no
+  large ones. These are of two classes--those of the bowl-like valleys
+  and extinct craters of the mountainous region, and the reservoir lakes
+  of the lowland plains caused by the annual overflow of the rivers. It
+  is impossible to say how many of the latter there may be, for much of
+  the territory where they are found is unexplored. They are usually
+  shallow and malarial. Among the upland lakes, there are some of
+  special interest because of their position and historical association.
+  The Yaguar-cocha ("lake of blood"), in the province of Imbabura, near
+  Ibarra, which is only 1½ m. in circumference, is celebrated for the
+  tradition that Huayna-Capac, one of the great conquerors of the Inca
+  dynasty, defeated an army of rebellious Carranquis on its shores, and
+  threw so many of their bleeding corpses into it as to turn its waters
+  to the colour of blood. On the south-east skirt of Cotocachi, 10,200
+  ft. above the sea, is the beautiful little Cuy-cocha, which
+  originated, it is believed, through the falling in of the mountain's
+  sides. There are two others of apparently the same origin on the
+  north-west slopes of the Mojanda volcano, but they are less attractive
+  because of their gloomy surroundings. In the deep valley between the
+  mountains of Imbabura and Mojanda is the lake of San Pablo, 8848 ft.
+  above the sea. It is one of the largest of its class, being about 5 m.
+  in circumference, and is situated in an exceptionally fertile region.
+  It drains through the Peguchi into the Rio Blanco, a tributary of the
+  Mira. Other well-known lakes of the plateau region are Quirotoa, about
+  4600 ft. in diameter; Colta, east of Riobamba, and Colay, south of the
+  same place. Among the many thermal springs throughout the Andean
+  districts, the best known are at Belermos and San Pedro del Tingo,
+  north-east of Quito; at Cachillacta, in the district of Nanegal; at
+  Timbugpoyo, near Latacunga; at Baños (5906 ft. elevation), near the
+  foot of Tunguragua; and on the slopes of Rumiñagui and Chimborazo.
+
+
+    Coast.
+
+  The coast of Ecuador extends from about lat. 1° 20' N. to the vicinity
+  of the Boca Jambeli on the southern shore of the Gulf of Guayaquil, in
+  lat. 3° 14' S., and has an outward curve. Its more prominent headlands
+  are Punta Galera, Cabo Pasado, Cabo de San Lorenzo and La Puntilla, or
+  Santa Élena Point. The bays on this coast are commonly broad
+  indentations, and the rivers discharging into them are generally
+  obstructed by bars. The small ports along the coast, therefore, do not
+  afford much protection to shipping. The most northern of these bays is
+  the Ancon de Sardinas, lying south of the Mira delta. The head of the
+  bay is fringed with islands and reefs, behind which is the mouth of
+  the Santiago river, Poza Harbour, San Lorenzo Bay, Pailon basin and a
+  network of navigable channels, all of which are difficult of access.
+  The small ports of La Tola and Pailon are located on these waters. The
+  port of Esmeraldas, near the mouth of the Esmeraldas river, is located
+  near the southern entrance to this bay. As the mouth of the river is
+  obstructed by a bar and its current is swift, the anchorage is outside
+  in an open roadstead, only slightly protected on the south. Farther
+  south is the broad Bay of Manta, with a small port of the same name at
+  its southern extremity. The most frequented port on this part of the
+  coast is that of Bahia de Caráquez, at the mouth of the Caráquez, or
+  Caracas river, which is also obstructed by a bar. There is a fertile,
+  productive country back of this port, and it is the objective point of
+  a road from Quito. Immediately north of the Gulf of Guayaquil is the
+  Bay of Santa Élena, with a small port of the same name, which has a
+  good, well-sheltered anchorage and is the landing-place of the West
+  Coast cable. The Gulf of Guayaquil, which lies between the Ecuadorean
+  and Peruvian coasts, is the largest gulf on the Pacific coast of South
+  America between Panama and Chiloe. Its mouth is 140 m. wide between La
+  Puntilla on the north and Cabo Blanco on the south, and it penetrates
+  the land eastward, with a slight curve northward at its head, for a
+  distance of about 100 m., terminating in the Guayas estuary or river,
+  on which is located the port of Guayaquil. The upper end of the bay
+  and its northern shores are fringed with swamps through which numerous
+  estuaries penetrate for some distance inland. Immediately west of the
+  Guayas river the Estero Salado, which comprises a great many shallow
+  tide-water channels, or bayous, penetrates as far inland as Guayaquil,
+  but is used only by canoes. The upper end of the gulf is filling up
+  with the silt brought down from the Cordillera. It is divided midway
+  by the large island of Puna, at the eastern end of which is the
+  anchorage for steamers too large to ascend the Guayas. The steamship
+  channel passes between this island and the Peruvian coast, and is
+  known as the Jambeli channel. The passage north of Puna Island is
+  known as the Morro channel, but its entrance is obstructed by shoals
+  and it is considered dangerous for shipping. A small port in the
+  Jambeli channel, on the south-east shore of the gulf, is that of
+  Puerto Bolivar, or Puerto Huaila, the shipping port for the town of
+  Machala and the Zaruma mining region.
+
+
+    Islands.
+
+  There are few islands off the coast of Ecuador, and only one of any
+  considerable size--that of Puna in the Gulf of Guayaquil, which is 29
+  m. long from north-east to south-west and 8 to 14 m. wide. It lies in
+  the north-east part of the gulf, and is separated from the Ecuadorean
+  mainland by the Morro channel, and from the southern mainland by the
+  wider and deeper Jambeli channel. There is a low, mountainous ridge,
+  called the Zampo Palo, running through it, and its eastern shores have
+  some moderately high bluffs; otherwise the island is low and swampy,
+  and its shores, except the eastern end, are fringed with mud banks.
+  The island is densely wooded (in marked contrast with the opposite
+  Peruvian shore), and is considered unhealthy throughout the greater
+  part. It has a population of 200, chiefly centred in the village of
+  Puna, at its north-east extremity, which is a shipping port and health
+  resort for the city of Guayaquil. Puna island is celebrated for its
+  connexion with Pizarro's invasion of Peru in 1531. It is said that it
+  had a considerable population at that time, and that the natives
+  resisted the invaders so vigorously that it cost six months to reduce
+  them. Midway in the outer part of the Gulf of Guayaquil is Amortajada
+  or Santa Clara island, whose resemblance to a shrouded corpse
+  suggested the name which it bears. It lies 12 m. south-west of Puna
+  island and 80 m. from Guayaquil. It rises to a considerable elevation,
+  and carries a light 256 ft. above sea-level. There are some low,
+  swampy islands, or mud flats, covered with mangrove thickets, in the
+  lower Guayas river, but they are uninhabited and of no importance.
+  North of the Gulf of Guayaquil there are only two small islands on the
+  coast of more than local interest. The first of these is Salango, in
+  lat. 1° 25' S., which is 2 m. in circumference and rises to a height
+  of 524 ft. It is richly wooded, and has a well-sheltered anchorage
+  much frequented by whalers in search of water and fresh provisions.
+  The next is La Plata, in lat. 1° 16' S., which rises to a height of
+  790 ft., and has a deep anchorage on its eastern side where Drake is
+  said to have anchored in 1579 to divide the spoils of the Spanish
+  treasure ship "Cacafuego." The Galapagos Islands (q.v.) belong to the
+  republic of Ecuador, and form a part of the province of Guayas.
+
+  _Geology._[1]--The great longitudinal depression which lies between
+  the eastern and the western branches of the Andes is also the boundary
+  between the ancient rocks of the east and the Mesozoic beds which
+  form the greater part of the west of the country. The Eastern
+  Cordillera is composed of gneiss, mica and chlorite schist and other
+  crystalline rocks of ancient date; the Western Cordillera, on the
+  other hand, is formed of porphyritic eruptive rocks of Mesozoic age,
+  together with sedimentary deposits containing Cretaceous fossils. Most
+  of the country between the Andes and the sea is covered by Tertiary
+  and Quaternary beds; but the range of hills which runs north-west from
+  Guayaquil is formed of Cretaceous and porphyritic rocks similar to
+  those of the Andes. In the intra-andine depression, between the East
+  and West Cordilleras, recent deposits with plant remains occur near
+  Loja, and to the north-east of Cuenca is a sandstone containing
+  mercury ores, somewhat similar to that of Peru. Farther north nearly
+  the whole of the depression is filled with lavas, tuffs and
+  agglomerates, derived from the Tertiary and recent volcanoes which
+  form the most striking feature of the Andes of Ecuador. These
+  volcanoes are most numerous in the northern half of the country, and
+  they stand indifferently upon the folded Mesozoic beds of the Western
+  Cordillera (e.g. Chimborazo, Iliniza, Pichincha), the ancient rocks of
+  the Eastern Cordillera (Altar, Tunguragua, Cotopaxi, Antisana), or the
+  floor of the great depression between. The lavas and ashes are for the
+  most part andesitic.
+
+  _Climate._--Climatic conditions in Ecuador are very largely contingent
+  on altitude, and the transition from one climate to another is a
+  matter of only a few hours' journey. Although the equator crosses the
+  northern part of the republic, only 15 m. north of the city Of Quito,
+  a very considerable part of its area has the temperature of the
+  temperate zone, and snow-crowned summits are to be seen every day in
+  the year from its great central plateau. In addition to the climatic
+  changes due to altitude, there are others caused by local arid
+  conditions, by volcanic influences and by the influence of mountain
+  ranges on the temperature and rainfall of certain districts. These
+  influences are not general; on the contrary, they often affect very
+  limited areas. For instance, Guayaquil has a hot humid climate and
+  mangrove swamps line the shores of Guayas down to the gulf; at Santa
+  Élena, about 60 m. due west, arid conditions prevail and vegetation is
+  scanty and dwarfed; at Salango island, 50 m. north of Santa Élena,
+  there is an abundance of moisture and vegetation is luxuriant; 33 m.
+  farther north, at Manta, the country is a desert; and at Atacames bay,
+  135 m. north of Manta, the rainfall and vegetation are again
+  favourable. On the plateau similar conditions prevail. There is no
+  great display of arboreal vegetation anywhere except in the valleys
+  and lower passes where the rainfall is abundant, but in general terms
+  it may be said that the rainfall and vegetation which characterize the
+  Quito basin soon disappear as one proceeds southward, and are
+  substituted by arid conditions. Even here there are local
+  modifications, as at Ambato, where a shallow depression, surrounded by
+  barren, dust-covered ridges exposed to cold winds, is celebrated for
+  its warm, equable climate and its fruit. It is to be noted that the
+  Gulf of Guayaquil separates the humid, forest-covered coastal plain of
+  Ecuador from the arid, barren coast of Peru, the two regions being
+  widely dissimilar. The mean annual temperature, on this plain,
+  according to an official publication, is 82.4° F., and the range is
+  from 66° to 95°. The heat is modified at many points on the coast,
+  however, by the cold Humboldt current which sweeps up the west coast
+  of South America from the Antarctic seas. The year is divided into a
+  wet and dry season--the former running from December to June, and the
+  latter from July to December. The rainy season, or _invierno_, is
+  broken by a short period of dry weather, called the _veranillo_
+  (little summer), shortly after the December solstice; otherwise it
+  rains every day, the streams overflow, land traffic is suspended, and
+  the air is drenched with moisture and becomes oppressive and
+  pestiferous. The dry season, which is called the _verano_, or summer,
+  is also broken by a short rainy spell called the _inviernillo_ (little
+  winter) or "cordonazo de San Francisco," which follows the September
+  equinox. Apart from these the two seasons are sometimes broken by
+  cloudless skies in winter, and a drizzling mist, called the _garua_,
+  in summer. In the inter-andine region the variations in temperature
+  are frequent and the averages comparatively low. An official estimate
+  gives the mean annual temperature as 64° to 68° between 6000 and
+  11,000 ft. In Quito the mean annual temperature is 58.8°, the diurnal
+  variation 10°, the annual maximum 70°, and the annual minimum 45°.
+  Other returns give the mean annual temperature at 55°. It is said that
+  pulmonary tuberculosis is unknown in these altitudes, though it is
+  common in the coast districts. Catarrhal complaints are common,
+  however, and leprosy is widely prevalent, it being necessary to
+  maintain three large hospitals for lepers. In the higher altitudes
+  there are wide variations in the snow-fall and intensity of the cold
+  even on the same mountain. The line of permanent snow is much higher
+  on the plateau side in both ranges, the precipitation being greater on
+  the outer sides--those facing the forested lowlands--and the
+  terrestrial radiation being greater from the barren surfaces of the
+  plateau. In some instances the difference in the elevation of the
+  snow-line has been found to be fully 1000 ft. Moreover, no two summits
+  seem to retain the snow permanently at the same altitude. For
+  instance, in 1880 Whymper found permanent snow on Cotocachi at 14,500
+  ft., while near by Imbabura was bare to its summit (15,033 ft.);
+  Antisana was permanently covered at 16,000 ft., and near by Sara-Urcu,
+  which is drenched with rains and mists from the Amazon valley all the
+  year round, at 14,000 ft.; Sincholagua had large beds of permanent
+  snow at 15,300 ft., Cotopaxi was permanently covered at 15,500 ft. on
+  its western side, Corazon had daily snowstorms down to 14,500 ft., but
+  no permanent beds of snow on its east side (elevation 15,871 ft.); and
+  Chimborazo had deep snow at 15,600 ft. on its north-east and south
+  sides in June--July. The eastern range was found to receive the
+  heaviest snowfall. The elevation at which human residence is possible
+  seems to be unusually high in Ecuador. Many of the towns and villages
+  of central Ecuador lie at altitudes ranging from 8606 ft. (Ambato) to
+  9839 ft. (Machachi). The capital city of Quito is 9343 ft. above the
+  sea, and is celebrated for its agreeable temperature, and also for its
+  healthiness in spite of prevailing unsanitary conditions. Above these
+  towns are a number of farms and herdsmen's habitations, where men live
+  the whole or a part of the year with less discomfort from low
+  temperature than is experienced in northern Europe and northern United
+  States. According to Whymper, the _tambo_ of Chuquipoquio, at the foot
+  of Chimborazo, is 11,704 ft., and the _hacienda_ of Pedregal, near
+  Iliniza, 11,629 ft., both being permanently occupied. The _hacienda_
+  of Antisana, 13,306 ft., and the herdsmen's hut of Cunayaco on
+  Chimborazo, 13,396 ft., are occupied only for a part of the year. The
+  highest elevations are generally covered with ice and snow, and
+  glaciers, according to Whymper, are to be found upon no less than nine
+  of the culminating peaks, and possibly upon two or three more. These
+  serve to modify the temperatures of the plateau, which is swept by
+  cold winds at all seasons of the year. The prevailing wind is that of
+  the north-east and south-east trade winds, broken and modified on the
+  plateau and western lowlands by mountain barriers. Westerly and
+  north-west winds are sometimes experienced, but are not permanent.
+
+  _Flora._--The flora of the Quito basin has been well studied by
+  various European botanists, more especially by Dr William Jameson
+  (1796-1873) of the university of Quito, who began the preparation of a
+  synopsis of the Ecuadorean flora in 1864-1865 (_Synopsis plantarum
+  Quitensium_, 2 vols., Quito, 1865). The flora of the forested lowlands
+  on both sides of the Andes has not been studied and described so
+  fully. From the Pacific coast upward to a height of about 3000 to 4000
+  ft. the vegetation is distinctively tropical, including among its
+  economic products cacao, cotton, sugar, tobacco, rice, maize, yucca
+  (also known as cassava and mandioca), peanuts, bananas, sweet
+  potatoes, yams, arracacha (_Conium moschatum_, H.B.K., or _Arracacha
+  esculenta_), indigo, rubber (_Castilloa_), ivory-nuts, cinchona and
+  bread-fruit. Most of these become rare at 3000 ft., but a few, like
+  sugar-cane, are cultivated as high as 8000 ft. The alluvial valley of
+  the Guayas, above Guayaquil, is celebrated for the richness of its
+  vegetation, which, in fruit alone, includes cacao, coffee, coco-nuts,
+  pine-apples, oranges, lemons, guayavas (_Psidium pomiferum_), guavas
+  (_Inga spectabilis_), shaddocks (or grape-fruit), pomegranates,
+  apricots, chirimoyas (_Anona Chirimolia_), granadillas (_Passiflora
+  quadrangularis_), paltas (_Persea gratissima_, otherwise known as
+  "alligator pears"), tunas (_Cactus_), mangoes (_Mangifera Indica_),
+  pacays (_Prosopis dulcis_), aji (Chile pepper), and many others of
+  less importance. Besides rubber, the forests produce a great variety
+  of cabinet and construction woods, ivory-nuts (from the "tagua" palm,
+  _Phytelephas macrocarpa_), "toquilla" fibre (_Carludovica palmata_)
+  for the manufacture of so-called Panama hats, cabbage palms, several
+  species of cinchona, vanilla and dyewoods. Among the large trees which
+  are valued for their timber are redwood (_Humiria balsamifera_),
+  Brazil-wood, algarrobo, palo de cruz (_Jacquinea ruscifolia_),
+  guaiacum or holy wood, rosewood, cedar and walnut. From 6000 to 10,000
+  ft. above the sea, the indigenous species include the potato, maize,
+  oca (_Oxalis tuberosa_), and quinua (_Chenopodium quinoa_), and the
+  exotic species, wheat, barley, oats, alfalfa (_Medicago sativa_), and
+  most of the fruits and vegetables of the northern temperate zone.
+  Wheat does not form a head below 4500 ft., nor ripen above 10,500. The
+  larger forest trees are rarely seen above 10,000 ft., and even there
+  only on the outer slopes of the Cordilleras. The _Escallonia
+  myrtalloides_, however, is found at an elevation of 13,000 ft., and
+  the shrubby _Befarias_ 400 or 500 ft. higher. A characteristic growth
+  of the open plateau and upland valleys is the cabulla, cabaya or
+  maguey (_Agave americana_), whose fibre is much used by the natives in
+  the manufacture of cordage, sandals (_alpargatas_) and other useful
+  articles. In the treeless region lying between 11,600 and 13,800, or
+  in other places between 12,000 and 14,000 ft., the similarity of the
+  vegetation to that of the corresponding European region, according to
+  Wagner, is especially striking. On the _paramos_ of Chimborazo,
+  Pichincha, Iliniza, &c., the relation of characteristic genera to
+  those identical with genera in the Alpine flora of Europe is as 5 to
+  4; and the botanist might almost suppose himself in the Upper
+  Engadine. Of the flora of the highest Andes, Whymper found 42 species,
+  of various orders, above 16,000 ft., almost all of which were from
+  Antisana and Chimborazo; 12 genera of mosses were found above 15,000
+  ft., and 59 species of flowering plants above 14,000 ft., of which 35
+  species came from above 15,000 and 20 species from above 16,000 ft.
+  The highest specimen obtained was a lichen (_Lecanora subfusca_, L.)
+  on the south side of Chimborazo, 18,400 ft. above sea-level. Mosses
+  (_Grimmia_) were found on Chimborazo at 16,660 ft., ferns (_Polypodium
+  pycnolepis_, Kze.) at 14,900, and specimens of _Gentiana rupicola_, H.
+  B. K., _Achyrophorus quitensis_, Sz. Bip., _Culcitium nivale_, H. B.
+  K., at 16,300; _Phyllactis inconspicua_, Wedd., at 16,600,
+  _Astragalus geminiflorus_, H. B. K., at 14-15,000, _Geranium
+  diffusum_, H. B. K., at 16,000, _Malvastrum phyllanthos_, Asa Gray, at
+  16,500, _Draba obovata_, Benth., at 16,660, and _Ranunculus
+  praemorsus_, Kth., at 16,500--all on Chimborazo. _Fuchsia loxensis_,
+  H. B. K., was found on the slope of Sara-Urcu at 12,779 ft., and
+  currant bushes (_Ribes glandulosum_, R. & P.), on Chimborazo, at
+  14,000. On the eastern slopes of the Andes, where the rainfall is
+  continuous throughout the year and the atmosphere is surcharged with
+  moisture, the forest growth is phenomenal. It is similar to that of
+  the Colombian and Peruvian _montanas_, modified, if at all, by the
+  excessive humidity which prevails in this region.
+
+  _Fauna._--The fauna of Ecuador is comparatively poor in mammalia, but
+  the birds and still more the insects are very numerous. The Quadrumana
+  are represented by a large number of species, the eastern forests
+  being very much like the other parts of the great Amazonian basin in
+  this respect. The Carnivora include the puma (_Felis concolor_),
+  jaguar (_F. onca_), ocelot (_F. grisea_), bear (_Ursus ornatus_), fox,
+  weasel and otter. A small deer and, in southern Ecuador, the llama
+  (_Auchenia_) with its allied species, the alpaca, guanaco and vicuña,
+  represent the ruminants. The rodents are numerous and include most, if
+  not all, of the Amazonian species--the capybara (_Hydrochoerus
+  capybara_), cavia (_C. aperea_), paca (_Coelogenys paca_) and cutia
+  (_Dasyprocta aguti_), all amphibious and having an extensive range.
+  Tapirs are to be found in the eastern forests, the peccary in more
+  open woodlands, and the opossum in nearly every part of the country.
+  Cattle, horses, asses, sheep and swine were introduced by the
+  Spaniards, and thrive well in some of the provinces. Excellent horses
+  are reared in the uplands, as well as mules and cattle, the pasturage
+  on the mountain slopes being good, and alfalfa being grown in
+  abundance in many districts. The Reptilia include countless numbers of
+  alligators in the Guayas and its tributaries and in the tide-water
+  channels of many of the smaller rivers; many species of lizards, of
+  which Mr Whymper found three in the Quito basin; snakes of every
+  description from the huge anaconda of the Amazon region down to the
+  beautifully marked coral snake; and a great variety of frogs and
+  toads. Bats also are very numerous, especially in the eastern forest
+  region, where the vampire bat is a serious obstacle to permanent
+  settlement. The avifauna of Ecuador is distinguished for the great
+  variety of its genera and species, among which are many peculiar to
+  the Amazon valley, and others to the colder uplands. Among the Amazon
+  species may be mentioned the parrot, macaw (_Macrocercus_), toucan
+  (_Ramphastos_), curassow (_Crax_), penelope, trogon, and horned
+  screamer (_Palamedea cornuta_). There are also herons, ibises, storks
+  and cranes, including the great black-headed white crane, _Mycteria
+  americana_, which ranges from northern Argentina to Colombia. One
+  species of ibis, the _Theristicus caudatus_, is to be found, it is
+  said, only on the slopes of Antisana. Species of the pheasant and
+  partridge are not uncommon, and the "guácharo" (_Steatornis
+  caripensis_), once believed to inhabit Venezuela only, is found in
+  Ecuador also. The Raptores are well represented by a large number of
+  genera and species, which include the condor, eagle, vulture, falcon,
+  hawk and owl. The condor (_Sarcorhamphus gryphus_) is commonly found
+  between the elevations of 6000 and 16,000 ft., rarely, if ever,
+  descending to the lowland plains or rising above the lower peaks. It
+  preys upon the smaller animals and inflicts much loss upon stock
+  farmers through the destruction of calves, lambs, &c., but it very
+  rarely ventures to attack man or any of the larger animals. The eagle
+  common to Ecuador is the _Morphnus taeniatus_, and possibly the _M.
+  guaianensis_ on the eastern slopes of the Andes. The harrier-eagle
+  (_Herpetotheres cachinnans_) is also to be found throughout this part
+  of the continent. An eagle with buzzard-like habits, the _Leucopternis
+  plumbea_, is likewise common in Ecuador. Among the vultures the
+  turkey-buzzard group (_Rhinogryphus_ or _Cathartes_), including the
+  _R. aurus_, _burrovianus_ and _perniger_, is common everywhere. The
+  carrion crow, or black vulture (_Catharista atrata_), is also common
+  to every part of the country, and is the general scavenger. The
+  carrion hawks are represented by the _Polyborus tharus_, popularly
+  called the "caracara," and the _Phalcobaenus carunculatus_; the
+  falcons by the _Aesalon columbarius_; and the kites by the _Gampsonyx
+  swainsoni_. The Ecuadorean owl is the _Bubo nigrescens_. An
+  interesting species of the song birds is popularly known as the
+  "flautero" (flute-bird), which inhabits the eastern forests. Its notes
+  are marvellous imitations of "the most mellow, sweet-sounding flute,"
+  but the singer itself, according to Mr Simson, is "a very
+  insignificant-looking little, greyish-coloured bird," which "always
+  dies in captivity." The most interesting group of the smaller birds is
+  that of the hummingbirds, of which the number and variety is
+  astonishing. Some of these have a very wide range, while others are
+  apparently limited to a small district, or to a certain altitude. The
+  best-known fish of Ecuador is the insignificant _Pimelodus cyclopum_,
+  the only fish found in the streams and lakes of the plateau region.
+  Its fame rests on Humboldt's publication of the tradition that great
+  numbers of this tiny fish had been thrown out during the eruptions of
+  Imbabura and other volcanoes. Mr Whymper's explanation of the
+  phenomenon is that the fish are scattered over the land by the sudden
+  overflow during volcanic eruptions of the rivers and lakes which they
+  inhabit. The rivers of the eastern plains are probably stocked with
+  the fish found in the Amazon. On the coast, the Ancon de Sardinas bay
+  is so named from the multitude of small fish (_sardinas_) which
+  inhabit its waters. Elsewhere there are no fisheries of importance,
+  except those of the Galapagos Islands.
+
+  The insect inhabitants of Ecuador, like the birds, include a large
+  number of genera and species, but no complete entomological survey of
+  the country has ever been made, and our knowledge in this respect is
+  insufficient to warrant a detailed description. In one ascent of
+  Pichincha in 1880, Mr Whymper collected 21 species of beetles, all new
+  to science, between 12,000 and 15,600 ft. elevation. On Cotopaxi, at
+  elevations of 13,000 to 15,800 ft., 18 species of the genus _Colpodes_
+  were collected, of which 16 were new. This may be considered a fair
+  illustration of the situation in Ecuador so far as natural history
+  exploration is concerned. Of the Machachi basin, near Quito, which he
+  calls a "zoologist's paradise," Mr Whymper writes (_Travels amongst
+  the Great Andes of the Equator_): "Butterflies above, below and
+  around; now here, now there, by many turns and twists displaying the
+  brilliant tessellation of their under-sides ... May-flies and
+  dragon-flies danced in the sunlight; lizards darted across the paths;
+  and legions of spiders pervaded the grass, many very
+  beautiful--frosted--silver backs, or curious, like the saltigrades,
+  who took a few steps and then gave a leap. There were crickets in
+  infinite numbers; and flies innumerable, from slim daddy-long-legs to
+  ponderous, black, hairy fellows known to science as _Dejeaniae_;
+  hymenopterous insects in profusion, including our old friend the
+  bishop of Ambato (possibly _Dielis_), in company with another
+  formidable stinger, with chrome antennae, called by the natives 'the
+  Devil'; and occasional _Phasmas_ (caballo de palo) crawling painfully
+  about, like animated twigs." This description refers to a fertile
+  sub-tropical oasis on the partially barren plateau; below in the
+  forested lowlands, where tropical conditions prevail, the numbers and
+  varieties are many times greater. The Coleoptera are especially
+  numerous; Mr Whymper took home with him 206 species which had been
+  identified and described up to 1892, most of them from the uplands and
+  most of them new to science. The total number of species in Ecuador is
+  roughly estimated to be 8000. The Hymenoptera are also numerous, but
+  less so than the Lepidoptera, with which the mountain slopes and
+  sunny, open spaces seem to be literally covered. Of moths alone Mr
+  Whymper took away with him specimens representing no less than 23
+  genera, with a probable addition of 13 genera more among his
+  undescribed specimens, the largest of which (an _Erebus odora_) was 7¼
+  in. across the wings. Among the Diptera, which includes a very wide
+  range of genera and species, are some of a highly troublesome
+  character, though on the whole, Mr Whymper did not find the flies and
+  mosquitoes so. His explorations, however, did not extend to the
+  eastern region, where the mosquitoes are usually described by
+  travellers as extremely troublesome. Sand-flies are common, and in the
+  eastern forests the tiny _piúm_ fly (_Trombidium_, sp.?) is a
+  veritable pest. Of the insects which infest dwellings and prey upon
+  their human inmates, such as fleas, bed-bugs, roaches, &c., Ecuador
+  has more than a bountiful supply. Lice-eating is a widely prevalent
+  habit among the Indians and mestizos, and demonstrates how numerous
+  these parasites are among the people. A good illustration of the
+  prevalence of house-infesting animals and insects is given by Mr
+  Whymper (_op. cit._ p. 391), who made a collection of 50 different
+  specimens of the vermin which infested his bedroom in Guayaquil.
+
+_Population._--The indigenous population of Ecuador was originally
+composed of two distinct races--the Quitus and Caras, the former being
+the older, and the latter presumably of Quichua origin. The Caras,
+according to tradition, entered the country from the coast, and had
+thoroughly established themselves there long before the conquest by the
+Inca rulers Tupac-Yupanqui and his son Huayna-Capac. This conquest was
+comparatively easy because the Caras spoke a dialect of the same
+language, and were not greatly unlike their conquerors in manners and
+customs. The present Indian population of Ecuador, excepting those of
+the trans-Andean region, may be considered as descendants of these two
+races. They are subjected to incredible abuses under Spanish colonial
+rule, their numbers being reduced to a fraction of the former
+population, and even yet they are subjected to a kind of debt-bondage
+which is slavery in all but the name. Notwithstanding all this they
+still represent from two-thirds to three-fourths of the actual
+population of Ecuador. East of the Andes the forests are inhabited by
+tribes of what are termed "aucas" or "infieles" (infidels)--Indians who
+are independent of both church and political control. Missions have been
+established among some of the tribes, but their influence reaches only a
+small part of the wild inhabitants of this extensive region.
+
+The principal tribes are the Quijos or Canelos, who are settled about
+the headwaters of the Napo, on the eastern slopes of the Andes, and are
+in great part grouped about the missions; the Jivaros who inhabit the
+valley of the Pastaza; the Zaparos who occupy the forest region between
+the Pastaza and Napo; the Piojes of the middle Napo, and eastward to the
+Putumayo; and the Iquitos and Mazanes of the lower Napo and Tigre,
+chiefly in territory occupied by Peru. The Jivaros are the best known of
+these tribes because of their successful resistance to the Spanish
+invaders. They are still independent of political control, live in
+permanent settlements, till the soil (producing Indian corn, beans,
+yucca and plantains), and have developed some rude manufactures. The
+Zaparos are less homogeneous, some of their hordes living in a state of
+complete savagery. They are classified with the Guaranis of Brazil, whom
+they resemble in many particulars. The Piojes live in permanent
+communities and cultivate the soil. The total number of "aucas" or
+uncivilized Indians in the republic has been estimated at about 200,000,
+but this estimate covered a larger area than Ecuador actually occupies
+and is evidently too high. Their settlements are usually small and very
+much scattered, and their aggregate number is evidently much under the
+earlier estimates. An official estimate given to Mr Whymper in 1880,
+however, places the population of Oriente (the eastern territory) at
+80,000, which is probably more nearly correct.
+
+No general census has ever been taken in Ecuador, and estimates are
+little better than vague conjectures. One of these estimates, that
+published by P.F. Cevallos for 1889, which has been generally accepted,
+gave the total population as 1,272,161, and these figures have been used
+with but slight changes for various later estimates. A later official
+estimate appeared in 1900 in _La République de l'Équateur et sa
+participation à l'Exposition Universelle de 1900_, which gives for the
+provinces practically the same figures as those of Cevallos, and at the
+same time assumes the total for the whole republic to be 1,500,000. The
+white population is estimated at 100,000 to 120,000, which probably
+includes many of mixed ancestry, and the mixed bloods at 300,000 to
+450,000. The tendency is for the _mestizo_ who dwells in Indian
+communities to revert to the Indian type, and it is probable that the
+larger estimate is nearer the truth. On the other hand _mestizos_ who
+live among the whites and form new alliances with them eventually class
+themselves as whites wherever their social condition has been improved.
+As a rule, the _mestizos_ of Ecuador are ignorant, indolent and
+non-progressive. As in Colombia they are the artizans and small traders
+and the Indians are the farm labourers. The land is held by a few
+proprietors, and caste sentiment is strong among those who claim unmixed
+European descent; consequently the _mestizos_ have limited opportunities
+to improve their condition.
+
+The whites form an exclusive governing caste, as in Chile. The territory
+of the republic is divided among a very few of them, and its government
+is in their hands.
+
+In the hot seaboard districts there are a small number of negroes, and a
+somewhat larger number of their crosses with the other two races. The
+majority of these are to be found in the northern provinces. There are
+comparatively few negroes and mulattoes on the colder plateaus.
+Villavicencio estimated their numbers at 7831 pure negroes and 36,592
+mixed bloods, which is probably not far from the correct totals.
+
+The foreign population is small, the total being estimated at about
+6000, of which 5000 are natives of the neighbouring Latin republics, 700
+Europeans and Americans, and 300 Chinese.
+
+_Territorial Divisions and Towns._--The republic is divided into 15
+provinces and one territory. The Galapagos Islands were declared a
+dependency of the province of Guayas in 1885, but are practically
+independent and constitute a second territory under the administration
+of _jefe territorial_ appointed by the national executive.
+
+  The official estimate (_La République de l'Équateur et sa
+  participation à l'Exposition Universelle de 1900_) gives the data for
+  the provinces and their capitals, which are shown on the next page.
+
+  These population figures are very nearly the same as those given by
+  Cevállos for 1889. If the population of the Oriente be taken as
+  80,000, the aggretate is very nearly the same. The population of the
+  provincial capitals is in some cases over-estimated, especially for
+  Guayaquil and Quito, neither of which could have had 50,000 at the
+  date of this estimate. The population of Quito in May 1906 was 50,841,
+  of which 1365 were foreigners. As for the areas of the provinces the
+  figures need not be questioned except those for the Oriente territory,
+  which are much too large for the region actually occupied by Ecuador,
+  and for the Galapagos Islands which are described by competent
+  authorities as 2400 sq. m. The population of these islands was 400
+  (principally convicts) on Chatham Island in 1901, about 115 on
+  Albemarle and 3 on Charles Island in 1903. Besides the provincial
+  capitals already noted, there are no large and important towns in the
+  country. The largest of the smaller towns is probably Jipijapa, in the
+  province of Manabi, which is the centre of the Panama hat industry and
+  had in 1900 an estimated population of 6000, nearly all Indians.
+
+    +----------------+---------+-----------+------------+-----------+
+    |   Provinces.   |  Area.  |Population.|  Capital.  |Population.|
+    +----------------+---------+-----------+------------+-----------+
+    |                | sq. m.  |           |            |           |
+    | Carchi         |  1495   |   40,000  | Tulcan     |   5,000   |
+    | Imbabura       |  2416   |   68,000  | Ibarra     |   5,000   |
+    | Pichincha      |  6219   |  205,000  | Quito      |  80,000   |
+    | Léon           |  2595   |  109,600  | Latacunga  |  12,000   |
+    | Tunguragua     |  1686   |  103,000  | Ambato     |   8,000   |
+    | Chimborazo     |  2990   |  122,000  | Riobamba   |  12,000   |
+    | Bolivar        |  1260   |   43,000  | Guaranda   |   6,000   |
+    | Cañar          |  1519   |   64,000  | Azogues    |   4,000   |
+    | Azuay          |  3874   |  132,400  | Cuenca     |  30,000   |
+    | Loja           |  3707   |   66,000  | Loja       |  10,000   |
+    | El Oro         |  2340   |   32,600  | Machala    |   3,200   |
+    | Guayas         |  8216   |   98,100  | Guayaquil  |  60,000   |
+    | Los Rios       |  2296   |   32,800  | Babahoyo   |   3,000   |
+    | Manabi         |  7893   |   64,100  | Portoviejo |   5,000   |
+    | Esmeraldas     |  5465   |   14,600  | Esmeraldas |   6,000   |
+    | Oriente (ter.) | unknown |           |            |           |
+    | Galapagos Is.  |  2865   |    2,000  |    · ·     |    · ·    |
+    +----------------+---------+-----------+------------+-----------+
+
+  _Communications._--The first railway to be completed in Ecuador was
+  the line between Guayaquil and Quito, 290 m. in length, the last
+  section of which was formally opened at Quito on the 25th of June
+  1908. It belongs to an American company, and had been under
+  construction for many years. Lines from Puerto Bolívar to Machala,
+  province of El Oro, and another from Bahia de Caráquez to Chone, were
+  under construction in 1908. Several lines were also projected, two to
+  penetrate the Ecuadorean _montana_. There is only one highway in the
+  country on which vehicles can be used, the paved road extending
+  southward from Quito 115 m. on the Guayaquil route, which was begun by
+  Garcia Moreno but has been allowed to fall into neglect. Other roads
+  have been projected to the coast and one to the eastern territory. The
+  ordinary roads are rough mule-tracks. These are difficult at all
+  times, and in the rainy season are quite impassable. On the Pacific
+  lowlands the rivers Guayas, Daule, Vinces and Yaguachi have about 200
+  m. of navigable channels in the rainy season, and are used for the
+  transportation of produce and merchandise. There are also several
+  short river channels along the coast which are used by planters for
+  the same purpose. A great part of the country, however, is still
+  compelled to use the most primitive means of communication--mule
+  paths, fords in the smaller streams in the dry season, and rude
+  suspension bridges across deep gorges and swift mountain torrents. The
+  latter are usually constructed from the tough fibre of the _Agave
+  americana_ and consist of one or more cables. When of one cable,
+  called the _taravita_, the passenger and his luggage are drawn across
+  in a rude kind of basket suspended from it; but when two or more
+  cables are used, transverse sticks of bamboo and reeds are laid upon
+  them, forming a rude prototype of the regular suspension bridge. Such
+  a bridge is called a _chimba-chaca_, and is very hazardous for an
+  unpractised foot. In 1907 there were 2564 m. of telegraph lines in
+  operation, connecting Quito with all the principal towns. The national
+  capital is connected with the submarine cable at Santa Elena (via
+  Guayaquil) and at Tumaco, in Colombia. Guayaquil is provided with
+  tramway and telephone lines. These public services are under the
+  general supervision of the Minister of Public Instruction, Posts and
+  Telegraphs.
+
+  _Commerce._--Ecuador has no merchant marine beyond a few small vessels
+  engaged in the coastwise traffic, some eighteen or twenty river
+  steamers on the Guayas and its tributaries, and a number of steam
+  launches, towboats and various descriptions of barges engaged in the
+  transportation of produce and goods on the rivers. The ocean-going
+  foreign trade of the country is carried wholly in foreign vessels, for
+  the regular lines of which Guayaquil is a principal port of call. Less
+  frequent calls are made at Esmeraldas and some of the other small
+  ports on the coast, of which there are nine in all. Most of these are
+  difficult of access and their trade is unimportant. The total trade of
+  the republic in 1905, according to returns published by the Guayaquil
+  Chamber of Commerce, amounted to only £3,429,955, of which £1,573,389
+  (15,733,891 sucrés) were credited to imports, and £1,856,566
+  (18,565,668 sucrés) to exports. Of these totals, all but £127,532 of
+  the imports and £441,679 of the exports passed through the port of
+  Guayaquil. The great poverty of the people has been a serious obstacle
+  to the development of a larger commerce.
+
+  _Agriculture._--The agricultural industries on which the export trade
+  depends are almost wholly restricted to the western lowlands, and
+  include cacao, coffee, cotton, sugar, tobacco, rice, yucca and sweet
+  potatoes. The Guayas basin and the district about Machala are
+  celebrated for their cacao, and produce about one-third of the world's
+  supply. It is the staple product of the country. Coffee is produced
+  on the lower slopes of the Cordilleras and is of excellent quality.
+  The production is small, but would be increased at remunerative
+  prices. During the American civil war the planters of Ecuador entered
+  largely into the production of cotton, which at that time yielded
+  large profits, but the industry has declined to very insignificant
+  proportions since then because of inability to compete with the lower
+  cost of production in the United States. The output of sugar and
+  tobacco is small, but could be largely increased, as the conditions of
+  soil and climate are favourable. Much of the sugar-cane produced is
+  turned into rum, which is consumed in the country. The tobacco grown
+  is of excellent quality. Efforts have been made to promote the
+  cultivation of indigo, but without much success. On the uplands,
+  wheat, Indian corn, oats, barley, potatoes and vegetables of many
+  kinds are successfully cultivated, but wholly for home consumption.
+  The vine is successfully grown in the warm upland valleys, both for
+  its fruit and for the production of wine. The staple foods for the
+  common people are potatoes on the plateau (which are chiefly consumed
+  in the form of _locro_, or potato-soup) and yucca- or cassava-meal in
+  the warmer regions. Although cattle and horses were not known before
+  the Spanish conquest, they have become since then important products
+  of the country. The best grazing lands are on the lower elevations
+  west of the Cordilleras in certain districts of the plateau and on the
+  slopes of some of the higher Andes, as on Chimborazo and Antisana.
+  Horses and mules are reared for export on a small scale, and sheep for
+  their wool, which is used in home manufactures.
+
+  _Forest Products._--The forest and other natural products include
+  rubber, cinchona bark, ivory-nuts, mocora and toquilla fibre for the
+  manufacture of hats, hammocks, &c., cabaya fibre for shoes and
+  cordage, vegetable wool (_Bombax ceiba_), sarsaparilla, vanilla,
+  cochineal, cabinet woods, fruit, resins, &c. The original source of
+  the Peruvian bark of commerce, the _Cinchona calisaya_, is completely
+  exhausted, and the "red bark" derived from _C. succirubra_, is now the
+  principal source of supply from Ecuador. Guaranda is the centre of the
+  industry, but bark gatherers are to be found everywhere in the forest
+  regions. The rubber-gathering industry is comparatively new. The
+  product is derived from the _Castilloa elastica_, the _Heveas_ not
+  being found west of the Andes.
+
+  _Minerals._--The mineral resources are much inferior to those of
+  Colombia and Peru. Gold is found in the province of El Oro, where the
+  great Zaruma and other companies have opened a number of mines. It is
+  also found in the provinces of Loja, Esmeraldas, and in the river-beds
+  along the eastern slopes of the Andes. Quicksilver has been mined at
+  Azogues, in the province of Cañar, and is also to be found in Azuay.
+  Iron ores and lead are credited to several provinces, and platinum has
+  been found in Esmeraldas, where emerald mines have been worked ever
+  since the Spanish conquest. Coal of good quality has been found in
+  Azuay and at other points, and petroleum is known to exist in several
+  localities. Salt springs near Riobamba and at Salinas, in Imbabura,
+  have long been used by the natives in the manufacture of salt.
+
+  _Manufactures._--The manufacturing industries are chiefly of a
+  primitive character and have been developed to meet local necessities.
+  There are some cotton factories and sugar mills provided with modern
+  machinery, but the cotton and woollen cloths of the country are
+  commonly coarse and manufactured in the most primitive manner. Some of
+  these goods are sent into southern Colombia, but they are chiefly made
+  for the local market. Hats and hammocks are made from the fibres of
+  the mocora and toquilla palms, and sandals from the fibre of the
+  _Agave americana_. The hats are an article of export, and are known
+  abroad as Panama hats. Hand-made laces of admirable workmanship are
+  made in some localities, especially on the plateau about Quito. Among
+  other manufactories, all for the home market, may be mentioned:
+  flour-mills, sugar refineries, rum distilleries, breweries, chocolate
+  factories, a candle factory, saw-mills and tanneries.
+
+_Government._--Constitutionally, the government of Ecuador is that of a
+centralized republic, whose powers are defined by a written constitution
+and whose chief organs are an executive consisting of a president and
+vice-president, and a national congress consisting of two houses, a
+senate and a chamber of deputies. Revolutionary changes, however, have
+been very frequent in Ecuador, and no less than eleven constitutions
+were adopted between 1830 and 1909.
+
+  The constitution adopted in 1906 succeeded that of 1884 (amended in
+  1887 and 1897), and its terms may be given here, subject to what may
+  be regarded as the extra-constitutional powers vested in the
+  executive. Executive power is vested in a president and vice-president
+  elected for periods of four years by a direct vote of the people.
+  (Under the constitution of 1884 the official terms of these two
+  officers were not wholly synchronous, the vice-president's term
+  beginning with the president's third year.) These officials cannot be
+  re-elected to succeed themselves. The president, whose salary is
+  12,000 sucrés per annum, has a limited veto power, and may convene
+  extraordinary sessions of Congress for a specified purpose, but he has
+  no further authority over that body. He appoints the diplomatic and
+  consular representatives of the republic and the governors of the
+  provinces, exercises a limited control over the administration of
+  justice and public instruction through the appointment of officials,
+  and is chief of the small military force maintained by the republic.
+  The construction of railways with public funds and under government
+  supervision also places him at the head of a very important public
+  service. The president is assisted by a cabinet of five
+  ministers:--foreign relations and justice; interior and public works;
+  finance; war; public instruction, posts and telegraphs--all of whom
+  may be impeached by congress. The executive authority is also
+  partially exercised by a council of state composed of 15 members,
+  including the five cabinet ministers, of which the vice-president is
+  _ex-officio_ president. The council has important advisory functions,
+  and must be consulted by the president on every important measure or
+  appointment. The provinces are administered by governors chosen by the
+  national executive; the departments by _jefes politicos_ (political
+  chiefs); and the municipalities by _tenientes politicos_ (political
+  lieutenants). The Galapagos Islands are under a _jefe territorial_
+  (territorial chief), Chatham Island being a penal colony and governed
+  by special laws.
+
+  The congressional organization is similar to that of the majority of
+  South American states. The senate is composed of 32 members (2 from
+  each province) elected for two years, one-half the number being
+  renewed each two years. The chamber is composed of 42 deputies, who
+  are elected by the provinces for a period of two years, on a basis of
+  one representative for each 30,000 inhabitants and one supplementary
+  representative for an additional 15,000. A senator must be at least 35
+  years of age, and a deputy 25. The elections are direct, and members
+  of both houses may be re-elected. The immunities of legislators begin
+  30 days before the opening session of congress, and terminate 30 days
+  after its dissolution. Congress meets at Quito on the 10th of August,
+  and remains in session for a period of 60 days, but its sessions may
+  be extended or extraordinary sessions called for specified purposes.
+  The right of suffrage is restricted to literate male adults.
+
+  The judicial branch of the government is composed of a supreme court,
+  located at Quito, consisting of 5 judges and a fiscal (public
+  prosecutor) appointed by the executive; six superior courts (in Quito,
+  Guayaquil, Cuenca, Riobamba, Loja and Portoviejo) with a total of 9
+  judges; _a Tribunal de Cuentas_ of seven members at Quito; and various
+  municipal courts, or _alcaldes_, in the chief towns of the
+  departments. There are civil courts of first and second instance in
+  the larger towns, and consular courts in Quito, Guayaquil and Cuenca
+  with jurisdiction in commercial cases. There are also police
+  commissaries in the departments and justices of the peace in the
+  municipalities, the latter having jurisdiction in civil cases where
+  the amount involved does not exceed 200 sucrés. The laws of Ecuador
+  are based on the old Spanish laws and procedure, and include civil,
+  criminal and commercial codes.
+
+  _Army._--The army, according to an official report of 1900, consisted
+  of 4 battalions of infantry (about 3690 strong), 3 brigades of
+  artillery (1362), and 2 regiments of cavalry (468), in all, about 5520
+  men, rank and file. In 1908 this force was reported to comprise 4350
+  men. The national guard is composed of three classes: actives--all
+  enrolled citizens of 20 to 38 years; auxiliaries--enrolled citizens of
+  38 to 44 years; and passives--enrolled citizens of 44 to 50 years.
+  These were estimated at 95,329 men. There is a military school at
+  Quito and a naval school at Guayaquil.
+
+  _Education._--Although primary instruction is free, and is obligatory
+  for children of 6 to 12 years, a considerable part Of the population
+  is unprovided with schools and is indifferent in regard to them. An
+  official report for 1900 gives the number of primary schools as 1297,
+  and the number of pupils in attendance as about 80,000. The secondary
+  schools numbered 37, with 371 teachers and about 4500 pupils. Higher
+  instruction includes the technical and professional schools with the
+  three universities of Quito, Guayaquil and Cuenca, and 6 schools of
+  "trades and professions" (_artes y oficios_) in as many provinces. The
+  old University of Quito has a staff of 32 professors divided into 5
+  faculties: Philosophy and Belles-Lettres, Law, Medicine, Physical and
+  Natural Sciences and Mathematics. There are also in Quito a school of
+  agriculture, astronomical observatory, botanical garden, museum and
+  national printing office, all apparently under the supervision of the
+  University.
+
+  _Church._--According to the constitution of 1884, "the religion of the
+  Republic is the Roman Catholic Apostolic, and all others are
+  excluded." The only opposition which the Church has ever had to
+  encounter has been from the "liberal" element within itself, and thus
+  has arisen, seemingly from political motives, a desire to restrict
+  clerical influence in political affairs. This influence has been
+  exercised to an extreme in Ecuador, so much so, in fact, that its
+  government at times was more nearly a theocracy than a republic. The
+  growth of liberalism finally began to produce results. In 1889 the
+  tithes from which the Church revenues had been derived were abolished,
+  and a tax of 3 per mil. on real estate was substituted. In 1902 a
+  signal victory was won in a law permitting civil marriage, but in 1904
+  a social revolution was effected by legislation, which placed the
+  Church under State control, forbade the foundation of new religious
+  orders and admission into the country of new religious communities,
+  and provided that the members of the episcopate must be citizens of
+  Ecuador. The higher dignitaries of the Church are an archbishop at
+  Quito, and six suffragan bishops at Cuenca, Loja, Ibarra, Riobamba,
+  Guayaquil and Manabi.
+
+  _Finance._--The revenues of the republic are derived from import and
+  export duties, liquor, tobacco and stamp taxes, inheritance tax, salt,
+  gunpowder and playing cards monopolies, consular charges, and sundry
+  miscellaneous receipts, including those from posts, telegraphs and
+  railways. Up to 1907 the customs duties were increased by surtaxes
+  amounting at that time to 100%. The minister of finance proposed to
+  abolish these surtaxes and double all the rates of duties involved. On
+  exports, however, all the duties were to be abolished except those on
+  cacao, coffee, hides, rubber, tagua (ivory nuts), hat fibre, hammock
+  fibre and tobacco. For 1907 the revenues were £1,424,770 and the
+  expenditures £1,383,122.
+
+  On the 10th of October 1906, when the report of the provisional
+  government created by the revolution of the preceding January
+  presented its financial report to a national assembly, the total
+  obligations of the country were stated to be:--
+
+                                             Sucrés.
+    Railway bonds, 12,282,000 sucrés gold
+      at 107% premium                      25,423,740
+    Banco del Ecuador, advances             3,000,000
+    Banco Comercial y Agrocola, idem        2,400,000
+    Internal debt                             739,575
+    Condor bonds                              757,000
+    French Finance Corporation                887,000
+                                            ---------
+                             Total         33,207,315
+        In £ sterling at 10 sucrés per £    3,320,731
+
+  The foreign debt of the republic, which in 1898 stood at £693,160 in
+  bonds, was assumed by the Guayaquil & Quito Railway Co. under
+  contracts of 1897, 1898, 1899 and 1900, the government guaranteeing
+  interest on the sum of £2,520,000 railway mortgage bonds for 33 years
+  and recognizing the external debt at 35% of its face value. This debt
+  originated in 1830, when Ecuador seceded from the Colombian
+  confederacy and was charged with 21½% of the indebtedness of the three
+  states. In 1855 the amount was fixed at £1,824,000, and in 1892 it was
+  converted into a new consolidated debt of £750,000. Payments of
+  interest and amortization had been very irregular, and its transfer to
+  a foreign company as the price of a railway concession put an end to a
+  transaction which had been a serious discredit to the country. The
+  amount outstanding on the 31st of December 1907 was 10,808,000 sucrés
+  (£1,080,800). It should be said that the difficulties in regard to
+  this debt arose from a feeling in Ecuador that the part assigned to it
+  in 1830 was much too large, and that it was contracted almost wholly
+  for the benefit of the two northern republics, Colombia and Venezuela.
+
+  _Money and Measures._--Under the law of 1898, which came into effect
+  on the 4th of June 1900, gold is made the monetary standard in
+  Ecuador, the legal tender of silver being limited to 10 sucrés, and
+  banks of issue being required to hold at least one-half their metallic
+  reserves in gold coin. Previously there had been much confusion in the
+  circulating medium because of the depreciated value of the Quito
+  currency in comparison with that of Guayaquil, but the new law has
+  corrected the anomaly and has given a simple and uniform medium for
+  the whole country. The coinage under the law of 1898 consists of the
+  gold _condor_, of 10 _sucrés_, which weighs 8.136 grams, contains
+  7.3224 grams of fine gold, and is equal to the English pound sterling
+  in value; the silver _sucré_, of 100 centavos, equivalent to 24d. in
+  value; and smaller coins of silver, nickel and copper, the
+  denominations being decimal parts of the sucré. The sucré received its
+  name from the portrait of General Sucré engraved on the coin, and is
+  legal tender up to 10 sucrés. The paper money circulation consists of
+  the issues of two Guayaquil banks--the Banco del Ecuador, and the
+  Banco Comercial y Agricola, whose united issues on June 30th, 1906,
+  amounted to 7,414,140 sucrés (£741,414). The Bank of Quito at one time
+  issued notes which, according to Whymper, were not current at and
+  south of Riobamba, but it does not appear that this bank is authorized
+  to issue its notes under the new law. The metallic money nominally in
+  circulation on the 30th of June 1906, amounted to 2,587,667 sucrés
+  gold and 2,522,802 sucrés silver. Although the metric system was
+  adopted in 1856, the old Spanish weights and measures--the quintal,
+  libra, vara and fanega--are still in use, the quintal being equivalent
+  to about 101 lb.
+
+  _Antiquities._--Throughout Ecuador there are still considerable
+  remains of the architectural and artistic skill of the ante-European
+  period. At Cañar, to the north-east of Cuenca, stands the Incapirca, a
+  circular rampart of finely hewn stone, enclosing an open area with a
+  roofless but well-preserved building in the centre; not far off is the
+  Inca-chungana, a very much smaller enclosure, probably the remains of
+  a pavilion; and in the same neighbourhood the image of the sun and a
+  small cabinet are carved on the face of a rock called Intihuaicu. On
+  one of the hills running from Pichincha to the Esmeraldas there are
+  remains at Paltatamba of a temple and a conical tower, the buttresses
+  of a bridge composed of stone and bitumen, portions of a great
+  causeway, and numerous tombs from which mummies and plates of silver
+  have been obtained. At Hantuntaqui similar sepulchral mounds, called
+  _tolas_, may be seen, as well as traces of military structures. On the
+  plain of Callo, near Cotopaxi, at a height of 8658 ft., the ruins of
+  an Incarial palace, Pachusala, are utilized by the _hacienda_; and a
+  conical hill at its side is supposed to be of artificial
+  construction. The remains of another fortress and palace are preserved
+  at Pomallacta, and in the neighbouring pueblo of Achupallas an ancient
+  temple of the sun now serves as parish church. In many localities,
+  especially in Imbabura, pottery and various objects are found
+  belonging to the pre-Colombian period, among which five and six rayed
+  stars (_casse-têtes_) are very numerous. (A. J. L.)
+
+_History._--The territory of the republic of Ecuador, when first it
+becomes dimly visible in the grey dawn of American history, appears to
+be inhabited by upwards of fifty independent tribes, among which the
+Quitus seem to hold the most important position. About A.D. 280 a
+foreign tribe is said to have forced their way inland up the valley of
+the Esmeraldas; and the kingdom which they founded at Quito lasted for
+about 1200 years, and was gradually extended, both by war and alliance,
+over many of the neighbouring dominions. In 1460, during the reign of
+the fourteenth _Caran Shyri_, or king of the Cara nation, Hualcopo
+Duchisela, the conquest of Quito was undertaken by Tupac Yupanqui, the
+Inca of Peru; and his ambitious schemes were, not long after his death,
+successfully carried out by his son Huayna-Capac, who inflicted a
+decisive defeat on the Quitonians in the battle of Hatuntaqui, and
+secured his position by marrying Pacha, the daughter of the late Shyri.
+By his will the conqueror left the kingdom of Quito to Atahuallpa, his
+son by this alliance; while the Peruvian throne was assigned to Huascar,
+an elder son by his Peruvian consort. War soon broke out between the two
+kingdoms, owing to Huascar's pretensions to supremacy over his brother;
+but it ended in the defeat and imprisonment of the usurper, and the
+establishment of Atahuallpa as master both of Quito and Cuzco. The
+fortunate monarch, however, had not long to enjoy his success; for
+Pizarro and his Spaniards were already at the door, and by 1533 the fate
+of the country was sealed. As soon as the confusions and rivalries of
+the first occupation were suppressed, the recent kingdom of Quito was
+made a presidency of the Spanish viceroyalty of Peru, and no change of
+importance took place till 1710. In that year it was attached to the
+viceroyalty of Santa Fé; but it was restored to Peru in 1722. When,
+towards the close of the century, the desire for independence began to
+manifest itself throughout the Spanish colonies of South America, Quito
+did not remain altogether indifferent. The Quitonian doctor Eugenio
+Espejo, and his fellow-citizen Don Juan Pio Montufar, entered into
+hearty co-operation with Nariño and Zea, the leaders of the
+revolutionary movement at Santa Fé; and it was at Espejo's suggestion
+that the political association called the _Escuela de Concordia_ was
+instituted at Quito. It was not till 1809, however, that the Quitonians
+made a real attempt to throw off the Spanish yoke; and both on that
+occasion and in 1812 the royal general succeeded in crushing the
+insurrection. In 1820 the people of Guayaquil took up the cry of
+liberty; and in spite of several defeats they continued the contest,
+till at length, under Antonio José de Sucré, who had been sent to their
+assistance by Bolivar, and reinforced by a Peruvian contingent under
+Andres de Santa Cruz, they gained a complete victory on May 22, 1822, in
+a battle fought on the side of Mount Pichincha, at a height of 10,200
+ft. above the sea. Two days after, the Spanish president of Quito, Don
+Melchor de Aymeric, capitulated, and the independence of the country was
+secured. A political union was at once effected with New Granada and
+Venezuela on the basis of the republican constitution instituted at
+Cucuta in July 1821--the triple confederation taking the name of
+Colombia.
+
+A disagreement with Peru in 1828 resulted in the invasion of Ecuador and
+the temporary occupation of Cuenca and Guayaquil by Peruvian forces; but
+peace was restored in the following year after the Ecuadorian victory at
+Tarqui. In the early part of 1830 a separation was effected from the
+Colombian federation, and the country was proclaimed an independent
+republic. General Juan José Flores was the first president, and in spite
+of many difficulties, both domestic and foreign, he managed to maintain
+a powerful position in the state for about 15 years. Succeeded in 1835
+by Vicente Rocafuerte, he regained the presidency in 1839, and was
+elected for the third time in 1843; but shortly afterwards he accepted
+the title of generalissimo and a sum of 20,000 pesos, and left the
+country to his rivals. One of the most important measures of his second
+presidency was the establishment of peace and friendship with Spain.
+Roca, who next attained to power, effected a temporary settlement with
+Colombia, concluded a convention with England against the slave trade,
+and made a commercial treaty with Belgium. Diego Noboa, elected in 1850
+after a period of great confusion, recalled the Jesuits, produced a
+rupture with New Granada by receiving conservative refugees, and thus
+brought about his own deposition and exile. The democratic Urbina now
+became practically dictator, and as the attempt of Flores to reinstate
+Noboa proved a total failure, he was quickly succeeded in 1856 by
+General Francisco Robles, who, among other progressive measures, secured
+the adoption of the French system of coinage, weights and measures. He
+abdicated in 1859 and left the country, after refusing to ratify the
+treaty with Peru, by which the defender of Guayaquil had obtained the
+raising of the siege. Dr Gabriel Garcia Moreno, professor of chemistry,
+the recognized leader of the conservative party at Quito, was ultimately
+elected by the national convention of 1861. Distrust in his policy,
+however, was excited by the publication of some of his private
+correspondence, in which he spoke favourably of a French protectorate,
+and the army which he sent under Flores to resist the encroachments of
+Mosquera, the president of New Granada, was completely routed. His first
+resignation in 1864 was refused; but the despotic acts by which he
+sought to establish a dictatorship only embittered his opponents, and in
+September 1865 he retired from office. While he had endeavoured to
+develop the material resources of the country, he had at the same time
+introduced retrograde measures in regard to religion and education. The
+principal event in the short presidency of his successor, Gerónimo
+Carrion (May 1865-Nov. 1867), was the alliance with Chile and Peru
+against Spain, and the banishment of all Spanish subjects. Several
+important changes were made by congress in the period between his
+resignation and the election of Xavier Espinosa, January 1868: the power
+of the president to imprison persons regarded as dangerous to public
+order was annulled; and the immediate naturalization of Bolivians,
+Chilians, Peruvians and Colombians was authorized. Espinosa had hardly
+entered on his office when, in August 1868, the country was visited by
+an earthquake, in which 30,000 people are said to have perished
+throughout South America. The public buildings of Quito were laid in
+ruins; and Ibarra, Otavalo, Cotacachi and several other towns were
+completely destroyed. Next year a revolution at Quito, under Moreno,
+brought Espinosa's presidency to a close; and though the national
+convention appointed Carvajal to the vacant office, Moreno succeeded in
+securing his own election in 1870 for a term of six years. His policy
+had undergone no alteration since 1865: the same persistent endeavour
+was made to establish a religious despotism, in which the supremacy of
+the president should be subordinate only to the higher supremacy of the
+clergy.
+
+President Moreno was eventually assassinated at Quito, in August 1875,
+and Dr Borrero was elected to the presidency, but his tenure of power
+was short. A revolution headed by General Veintemilla, the Radical
+leader, then military commandant at Guayaquil, broke out in 1876, and on
+the 14th of December of that year the government forces under General
+Aparicio were completely routed at Galte. Veintemilla was proclaimed
+president, and in 1877 was duly elected by the cortes. He altered the
+constitution in a more Liberal direction, and struck various blows at
+the Clerical party, among other things abolishing the concordat with
+Rome. In 1878 Veintemilla caused himself to be declared elected as
+president for a term of four years. At the expiration of this period the
+president assumed dictatorial powers and remained in office as chief of
+the executive. This action on the part of General Veintemilla led to a
+union between the Clericals and Moderate Liberals, and resulted in a
+popular rising throughout the republic, ending in his defeat and
+overthrow. His power was first restricted to Guayaquil and Esmeraldas,
+and finally General Rinaldo Flores drove him from Guayaquil, and
+Veintemilla fled (July 1883) to Peru. Dr Placido Caamaño was then called
+upon to take charge temporarily, and on the 17th of February 1884 was
+definitely elected for the presidential period terminating in 1888.
+Several revolutionary outbreaks occurred during the Caamaño
+administration, but were successfully suppressed. In 1888 Dr Antonio
+Flores succeeded Caamaño, the four years following being passed in
+peaceful conditions. In 1892 Dr Luis Cordero was elected, his
+administration again plunging the country into an epoch of internal
+disturbance.
+
+The cause of the troubles under President Cordero was the assistance
+lent by Ecuador to Chile in the matter of the sale of the cruiser
+_Esmeralda_ to the Japanese government in 1894, in the middle of the
+Japanese-Chinese War. The government of Chile arranged the sale of the
+_Esmeralda_, but wished to be free from all danger of international
+complications in the affair. To this end the transfer of the vessel was
+made to Ecuador, and she proceeded to Ecuadorian waters. On arriving at
+the Galapagos Islands the flag of Ecuador was replaced by that of Japan
+and the vessel handed over to the representatives of that nation sent
+for the purpose. When the part played by President Cordero in this
+transaction became known, an outburst of popular indignation occurred.
+An insurrection, headed by General Eloy Alfaro, followed; and after
+desultory skirmishing extending over a period of nearly a year the
+government forces were finally routed, President Cordero abandoning his
+office and escaping from the country.
+
+General Alfaro then assumed dictatorial powers as supreme chief of the
+nation, continuing in this capacity until the 6th of February 1897, on
+which date he was declared to be elected president of the republic. A
+series of revolutionary movements against the administration of
+President Alfaro occurred in the course of the next few years. Many of
+these risings were due to the intrigues of the Church party, and in view
+of these circumstances President Alfaro curtailed the influence of the
+clergy in several directions. On the 31st of August 1901 General Alfaro
+peacefully handed over the presidency to his elected successor, General
+Leonidas Plaza.
+
+General Plaza continued the anticlerical policy of his predecessor.
+Civil marriage and divorce were introduced, and in 1904 all religions
+were placed on a position of equality in the eye of the law, and the
+foundation of new monasteries and convents was forbidden. The final year
+of Plaza's tenure of office was marked by a still stronger measure, all
+the property of the church being declared to be national property, and
+let to the highest bidders. In 1905 the Opposition made an effort to
+effect a change of policy, and were successful in obtaining the election
+of Lizaro Garcia, a well-to-do merchant and a director of the Banco
+commercial y Agricola. General Alfaro, however, appealed to arms,
+ejected Garcia from office, and made himself ruler with practically
+dictatorial powers.
+
+The more recent history of Ecuador would not be complete without a
+reference to the work of Mr Archer Harman (b. 1860), an American railway
+builder and financier whose connexion with the construction of the
+Guayaquil and Quito railway began in 1897. To his personal energy and
+enterprise, as manager of the railway company, was largely due the
+continued prosecution of this difficult engineering undertaking, in
+connexion with which he was responsible for a thorough reconstruction of
+Ecuador finance. He thus came to exercise a powerful influence on the
+internal progress of the country.
+
+  See C.E. Akers, _History of South America, 1854-1904_ (London, 1904);
+  H.W. Bates, _Central and South America_ (London, 1882); Pedro F.
+  Cevallos, _Resumen de la historia del Ecuador_ (Guayaquil, 1886); Hans
+  Meyer, _In den Hoch-Anden von Ecuador_ (Berlin 1907); A.H. Keane,
+  _Stanford's Compendium_, vol. i. (1904); W. Reiss and A. Stübel, _Das
+  Hochgebirge der Republik Ecuador_ (Berlin, 1892-1898); Edward Whymper,
+  _Travels amongst the Great Andes of the Equator_ (London, 1892); T.
+  Wolf, _Geografia y geologia del Ecuador_ (Leipzig, 1892); A. Stübel,
+  _Skizzen aus Ecuador_ (Berlin, 1886); _Die Vulkanberge von Ecuador_
+  (Berlin, 1897); _Handbook of Ecuador_ (Bureau of the American
+  Republics, Washington, 1892); _The World's Work_, vol. ii. pp.
+  1271-1277; _Engineering News_ (New York), vol. 52, pp. 117-119;
+  _Bulletin of Internat. Bureau of American Republics_ for July 1900, p.
+  26, and for August 1908, pp. 280-282; _Thirty-fifth Annual Report of
+  the Council of Foreign Bondholders_, pp. 115, 117.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] See J. Siemiradzki, "Geologische Reisenotizen aus Ecuador,"
+    _Neues Jahrb. f. Min._, Beil. Band iv. (1886, pp. 195-227, pl. vii.);
+    Th. Wolf, _Geografia y geologia del Ecuador, publicada por orden del
+    Supremo Gobierno de la Republica_ (Leipzig, 1892); W. Reiss and A.
+    Stübel, _Reisen in Sud-America. Das Hochgebirge der Republik Ecuador_
+    (Berlin, 1892-1902).
+
+
+
+
+ECZEMA (Gr. [Greek: ekzema], a cutaneous eruption), one of the most
+common and important of all skin diseases, consisting of a catarrhal
+inflammation of the skin originating without visible external
+irritation, and characterized in some stage of its evolution by a serous
+exudation. This definition excludes all those forms of inflammation of
+the skin (dermatitis), which though they may be identical in course and
+manifestation are yet caused by chemical or mechanical irritants. For an
+attack of eczema two conditions are necessary: a predisposition or
+special irritability of the skin, and a directly exciting cause. The
+first of these conditions is usually inherited or depends on some
+underlying constitutional state. Thus any organic lesion which may
+produce oedema and malnutrition of the cutis and epidermis as in kidney
+diseases, any condition of imperfect metabolism as in dyspepsia or
+malnutrition, or seborrhoea, may be the predisposing cause. Another
+influence that has received increasing attention from skin specialists
+is that of any nervous shock or prolonged mental strain. A "chill" is
+followed in most people by an ordinary cold, but in some by an attack of
+eczema. Again, it may be caused by reflex nervous irritation from the
+uterus, stomach, &c. In some women it always accompanies menstruation,
+and in others pregnancy. It is of common occurrence in infancy, being
+attributed by some specialists to dentition, but by others to
+seborrhoea. Also there is an undoubted relationship between eczema and
+certain forms of functional neurosis, of which perhaps asthma is the
+most striking illustration, some physicians considering the latter
+trouble to be eczema of the bronchial tubes. Sufferers from rheumatism
+and gout are also specially prone to eczema, though the exact
+relationship is a much disputed point. There are yet other cases that
+are undoubtedly microbic, but the micro-organism cannot produce the
+lesion unless the soil is suitable. As a rule it is not contagious,
+though when complicated by micro-organisms it may be auto-inoculable, or
+more rarely inoculable from one patient to another. Except between the
+ages of ten and twenty years when menstruation is becoming established,
+and again at the menopause, males are more liable to be attacked than
+females. In old age the sex influence is lost.
+
+An attack of eczema is usually described as acute or chronic, but the
+only distinction lies in the greater or less intensity of the
+inflammation at the time of description: it has nothing to do with the
+length of time that the disease has lasted. The illness usually begins
+with a feeling of itching and burning at the site of the lesion. The
+skin becomes covered with an erythematous blush, on which numerous tiny
+vesicles form. Swelling, heat, redness and tension are all present. The
+vesicles grow larger, run together, and either burst or are broken by
+the patient's scratching, a clear fluid exuding which stiffens linen.
+The discharge does not dry up at once, but continues to exude--hence the
+name of "weeping eczema" when this is a prominent symptom. In mild cases
+the symptoms begin to subside in a few days, the exudation growing less
+and scales and scabs forming, under which new skin is formed. But where
+the attack is more acute fresh crops of vesicles spring up and the
+process repeats itself. In some cases papules are the predominant
+lesions, but in others, especially when the face is attacked, the
+erythematous condition is more marked. A severe attack of eczema is
+usually accompanied by some slight constitutional disturbance, but the
+general health seldom suffers appreciably, unless, as occasionally, the
+itching is so bad as to make sleep impossible. The irritation and local
+heat may be out of all proportion to visible changes in the skin, and in
+neurotic patients the nervous excitement may be extreme. The attack may
+centre itself on any part of the body, but there are certain places
+where it more usually begins, such as the bends of the elbows, the backs
+of the knees and the groins; the groove behind the ears, the scalp, the
+palms or the soles, and the breasts of women. According to its position
+the form of the eczema is somewhat modified. On the front of the legs
+and arms, from the uniform redness it exhibits in these positions, it is
+known as eczema rubrum. On the scalp it is generally of the seborrhoeic
+type, and in children, especially when pediculi are present, it will
+become pustular from microbic infection. On the palms and soles it
+brings about a thickening of the epidermis which leads to the formation
+of cracks, and is hence called eczema rimosum.
+
+The disease can best be treated by a combination of internal and
+external remedies. Internally, when the inflammation is acute, nothing
+is so good as antimony, since this relieves the arterial tension and
+thus reduces the local inflammation. But this must never be given when
+the patient is suffering from depression. In other cases, especially for
+babies and children, small doses of calomel are very beneficial;
+strychnine, phosphorus and ergot are all useful at times. When nervous
+excitement is marked it must be treated with sedatives. Arsenic and iron
+are both contra-indicated in this disease, since they increase blood
+formation and hence stimulate the eczematous process. Internal treatment
+is always best when combined with local treatment, but as a preliminary
+to this all crusts and scales must first be removed to allow the remedy
+free access to the disease. Locally the aim is (1) to overcome any
+source of irritation, (2) to protect the inflamed surface from the air
+and from microbic infection, and (3) to relieve the itching. The diet
+should be simple but nourishing, and all hygienic precautions must be
+taken.
+
+
+
+
+EDAM, a town of Holland in the province of North Holland, close to the
+Zuider Zee, about 13 m. N.N.E. of Amsterdam by steam tramway. It is
+connected with the Zuider Zee by a fine canal protected by a large
+sea-lock (1828), and has regular steam-boat communication in various
+directions. Pop. (1900) 6444. The many quaint old brick houses form the
+chief feature of interest in the town. The façades are frequently
+adorned with carvings and inscriptions, one of which records the legend
+of the capture of a siren in 1403, who lived for some time among the
+people of Edam, but escaped again to the sea. The Great Church of St
+Nicholas, probably founded in the 14th century, was largely rebuilt
+after a fire in 1602, which, originating in the church, destroyed nearly
+the whole town. It contains some fine stained glass and carved woodwork
+of this period. The Little Church (15th century) was demolished in 1883,
+except for a portion of the nave and the old tower and steeple, from
+which the bells curiously project. The town hall dates from 1737, and
+there is a museum founded in 1895. Edam has some trade in timber, while
+shipbuilding, rope-spinning and salt-boiling are also carried on. It
+gives its name to the description of "sweet-milk cheese" (_zoetemelks
+kaas_) made throughout North Holland, which is familiar on account of
+its round shape and red rind.
+
+Edam took its name and origin from the dam built on the little river Ye
+which joined the great Purmer lake close by. Free access to the Zuider
+Zee was obtained by the construction of a new dock in 1357, in which
+year the town also received civic rights from William V. of Bavaria,
+count of Holland. Owing to the danger of the extension of the Purmer and
+Beemster lakes, Philip II. of Spain caused a sluice to be built into the
+dock in 1567. In the next century Edam was a great shipbuilding centre,
+and nearly the whole of Admiral de Ruyter's fleet was built here; but in
+the same century the harbour began to get blocked up, and the importance
+and industrial activity of the city slowly waned.
+
+
+
+
+EDDA, the title given to two very remarkable collections of old
+Icelandic literature. Of these only one bears that title from antiquity;
+the other is called _Edda_ by a comparatively modern misnomer. The word
+is unknown to any ancient northern language, and is first met with in
+_Rigspula_, a fragmentary poem at the end of Codex Wormianus, dated
+about 1200, where it is introduced as the name or title of a
+great-grandmother. From the 14th to the 17th century, this word--but no
+one has formed a reasonable conjecture why--was used to signify the
+technical laws of Icelandic court metre, _Eddu regla_, and "Never to
+have seen Edda" was a modest apology for ignorance of the highest poetic
+art. The only work known by this name to the ancients was the
+miscellaneous group of writings put together by Snorri Sturlason (q.v.;
+1178-1241), the greatest name in old Scandinavian literature. It is
+believed that the _Edda_, as he left it, was completed about 1222.
+Whether he gave this name to the work is doubtful; the title first
+occurs in the Upsala Codex, transcribed about fifty years after his
+death. The collection of Snorri is now known as the _Prose or Younger
+Edda_, the title of the _Elder Edda_ being given to a book of ancient
+mythological poems, discovered by the Icelandic bishop of Skálaholt,
+Brynjulf Sveinsson, in 1643, and erroneously named by him the _Edda of
+Saemund_.
+
+1. The Prose _Edda_, properly known as _Edda Snorra Sturlusonar_, was
+arranged and modified by Snorri, but actually composed, as has been
+conjectured, between the years 1140 and 1160. It is divided into five
+parts, the Preface or _Formáli_, _Gylfaginning_, _Bragaraeður_,
+_Skáldskaparmál_ and _Háttatal_. The preface bears a very modern
+character, and simply gives a history of the world from Adam and Eve, in
+accordance with the Christian tradition. _Gylfaginning_, or the Delusion
+of Gylfi, on the other hand, is the most precious compendium which we
+possess of the mythological system of the ancient inhabitants of
+Scandinavia. Commencing with the adventures of a mythical king Gylfi and
+the giantess Gefion, and the miraculous formation of the island of
+Zealand, it tells us that the Aesir, led by Odin, invaded Svithjod or
+Sweden, the land of Gylfi, and settled there. It is from the
+_Ynglingasaga_ and from the _Gylfaginning_ that we gain all the
+information we possess about the conquering deities or heroes who set
+their stamp upon the religion of the North. Advancing from the Black Sea
+northwards through Russia, and westward through Esthonia, the Aesir seem
+to have overrun the south lands of Scandinavia, not as a horde but as an
+immigrant aristocracy. The Eddaic version, however, of the history of
+the gods is not so circumstantial as that in the _Ynglingasaga_; it is,
+on the other hand, distinguished by an exquisite simplicity and archaic
+force of style, which give an entirely classical character to its
+mythical legends of Odin and of Loki. The _Gylfaginning_ is written in
+prose, with brief poetic insertions. The _Bragaraeður_, or sayings of
+Bragi, are further legends of the deities, attributed to Bragi, the god
+of poetry, or to a poet of the same name. The _Skáldskaparmál_, or Art
+of Poetry, commonly called _Skálda_, contains the instructions given by
+Bragi to Aegir, and consists of the rules and theories of ancient verse,
+exemplified in copious extracts from Eyvindr Skáldaspillir and other
+eminent Icelandic poets. The word _Skáldskapr_ refers to the form rather
+than the substance of verse, and this treatise is almost solely
+technical in character. It is by far the largest of the sections of the
+_Edda_ of Snorri, and comprises not only extracts but some long poems,
+notably the _Thorsdrapa_ of Eilifr Guðrúnarson and the _Haustlaung_ of
+Thjóðólfr. The fifth section of the _Edda_, the _Háttatal_, or Number of
+Metres, is a running technical commentary on the text of Snorri's three
+poems written in honour of Haakon, king of Norway. Affixed to some MS.
+of the _Younger Edda_ are a list of poets, and a number of philological
+treatises and grammatical studies. These belong, however, to a later
+period than the life of Snorri Sturlason.
+
+  The three oldest MSS. of the prose _Edda_ all belong to the beginning
+  of the 14th century. The Wurm MS. was sent to Ole Wurm in 1628; the
+  Codex Regius was discovered by the indefatigable bishop Brynjulf
+  Sveinsson in 1640. The most important, however, of these MSS. is the
+  Upsala Codex, an octavo volume written probably about the year 1300.
+  There have been several good editions of the _Edda Snorra
+  Sturlusonar_, of which perhaps the best is that published by the
+  Arne-Magnaean Society in Copenhagen in 1848-1852, in two vols., edited
+  by a group of scholars under the direction of Jón Sigurdsson. There
+  are English translations by T. Percy, _Northern Antiquities_, from the
+  French by P.H. Mallet (1770); by G. Webbe Dasent (Stockholm, 1842); by
+  R.B. Anderson (Chicago, 1880).
+
+2. The Elder _Edda_, Poetic _Edda_ or _Saemundar Edda hins froða_ was
+entirely unknown until about 1643, when it came into the hands of
+Brynjulf Sveinsson, who, puzzled to classify it, gave it the title of
+_Edda Saemundi multiscii_. Saemund Sigfusson, who was thus credited with
+the collection of these poems, was a scion of the royal house of Norway,
+and lived from about 1055 to 1132 in Iceland. The poems themselves date
+in all probability from the 10th and 11th centuries, and are many of
+them only fragments of longer heroic chants now otherwise entirely lost.
+They treat of mythical and religious legends of an early Scandinavian
+civilization, and are composed in the simplest and most archaic forms of
+Icelandic verse. The author of no one of them is mentioned. It is
+evident that they were collected from oral tradition; and the fact that
+the same story is occasionally repeated, in varied form, and that some
+of the poems themselves bear internal evidence of being more ancient
+than others, proves that the present collection is only a gathering made
+early in the middle ages, long after the composition of the pieces, and
+in no critical spirit. Sophus Bugge, indeed, one of the greatest
+authorities, absolutely rejects the name of Saemund, and is of opinion
+that the poetic _Edda_, as we at present hold it, dates from about 1240.
+There is no doubt that it was collected in Iceland, and by an Icelander.
+
+The most remarkable and the most ancient of the poems in this priceless
+collection is that with which it commences, the _Völuspá_, or prophecy
+of the Völva or Sibyl. In this chant we listen to an inspired
+prophetess, "seated on her high seat, and addressing Odin, while the
+gods listen to her words."
+
+She sings of the world before the gods were made, of the coming and the
+meeting of the Aesir, of the origin of the giants, dwarfs and men, of
+the happy beginning of all things, and the sad ending that shall be in
+the chaos of Ragnarök. The latter part of the poem is understood to be a
+kind of necromancy--according to Vigfusson, "the raising of a dead
+völva"; but the mystical language of the whole, its abrupt transitions
+and terse condensations, and above all the extinct and mysterious
+cosmology, an acquaintance with which it presupposes, make the exact
+interpretation of the _Völuspá_ extremely difficult. The charm and
+solemn beauty of the style, however, are irresistible, and we are
+constrained to listen and revere as if we were the auditors of some
+fugual music devised in honour of a primal and long-buried deity. The
+melodies of this earliest Icelandic verse, elaborate in their extreme
+and severe simplicity, are wholly rhythmical and alliterative, and
+return upon themselves like a solemn incantation. _Hávamál_, the Lesson
+of the High One, or Odin, follows next; this contains proverbs and wise
+saws, and a series of stories, some of them comical, told by Odin
+against himself. The _Vafprúðnismál_, or Lesson of Vafprúðnir, is
+written in the same mystical vein as _Völuspá_; in it the giant who
+gives his name to the poem is visited by Odin in disguise, and is
+questioned by him about the cosmogony and chronology of the Norse
+religion. _Grimnismál_, or the Sayings of The Hooded One, which is
+partly in prose, is a story of Odin's imprisonment and torture by King
+Geirrod. _För Skirnis_, or the Journey of Skirnir, _Harbarðslióð_, or
+the Lay of Hoarbeard, _Hymiskviða_, or the Song of Hymir, and
+_Aegisdrekka_, or the Brewing of Aegir, are poems, frequently composed
+as dialogue, containing legends of the gods, some of which are so
+ludicrous that it has been suggested that they were intentionally
+burlesque. _Thrymskviða_, or the Song of Thrym, possesses far more
+poetic interest; it recounts in language of singular force and
+directness how Thor lost his hammer, stolen by Thrym the giant, how the
+latter refused to give it up unless the goddess Freyia was given him in
+marriage, and how Thor, dressed in women's raiment, personated Freyia,
+and, slaying Thrym, recovered his hammer. _Alvíssmál_, or the Wisdom of
+Allwise, is actually a philological exercise under the semblance of a
+dialogue between Thor and Alvis the dwarf. In _Vegtamskviða_, or the
+Song of Vegtam, Odin questions a völva with regard to the meaning of the
+sinister dreams of Balder. _Rígsmál_, or more properly _Rígspula_,
+records how the god Heimdall, disguised as a man called Rig, wandered by
+the sea-shore, where he met the original dwarf pair, Ai and Edda, to
+whom he gave the power of child-bearing, and thence sprung the whole
+race of thralls; then he went on and met with Afi and Amma, and made
+them the parents of the race of churls; then he proceeded until he came
+to Faðir and Moðir, to whom he gave Jarl, the first of free men, whom he
+himself brought up, teaching him to shoot and snare, and to use the
+sword and runes. It is much to be lamented that of this most
+characteristic and picturesque poem we possess only a fragment. In
+_Hyndluljóð_, the Lay of Hyndla, the goddess Freyia rides to question
+the völva Hyndla with regard to the ancestry of her young paramour
+Ottar; a very fine quarrel ensues between the prophetess and her
+visitor. With this poem, the first or wholly mythological portion of the
+collection closes. What follows is heroic and pseudo-historic. The
+_Völundarkviða_, or Song of Völundr, is engaged with the adventures of
+Völundr, the smith-king, during his stay with Nidud, king of Sweden.
+Völundr, identical with the Anglo-Saxon Wêland and the German Wieland
+(O.H.G. _Wiolant_), is sometimes confused with Odin, the master-smith.
+This poem contains the beautiful figure of Svanhvít, the swan-maiden,
+who stays seven winters with Völundr, and then, yearning for her
+fatherland, flies away home through the dark forest. _Helgakviða,
+Hiörvarðs sonar_, the Song of Helgi, the Son of Hiörvarð, which is
+largely in prose, celebrates the wooing by Helgi of Svava, who, like
+Atalanta, ends by loving the man with whom she has fought in battle. Two
+Songs of Helgi the Hunding's Bane, _Helgakviða Hundingsbana_, open the
+long and very important series of lays relating to the two heroic
+families of the Völsungs and the Niblungs. Including the poems just
+mentioned, there are about twenty distinct pieces in the poetic _Edda_
+which deal more or less directly with this chain of stories. It is
+hardly necessary to give the titles of these poems here in detail,
+especially as they are, in their present form, manifestly only fragments
+of a great poetic saga, possibly the earliest coherent form of the story
+so universal among the Teutonic peoples. We happily possess a somewhat
+later prose version of this lost poem in the _Völsungasaga_, where the
+story is completely worked out. In many places the prose of the
+_Völsungasaga_ follows the verse of the Eddaic fragments with the
+greatest precision, often making use of the very same expressions. At
+the same time there are poems in the _Edda_ which the author of the saga
+does not seem to have seen. But if we compare the central portions of
+the myth, namely Sigurd's conversation with Fafnir, the death of Regin,
+the speech of the birds and the meeting with the Valkyrje, we are struck
+with the extreme fidelity of the prose romancer to his poetic precursors
+in the _Sigurðarkviða Fafnisbana_; in passing on to the death of Sigurd,
+we perceive that the version in the _Völsungasaga_ must be based upon a
+poem now entirely lost. Of the origin of the myth and its independent
+development in medieval Germany, this is not the place for discussion
+(see NIBELUNGENLIED). Suffice to say that in no modernized or Germanized
+form does the legend attain such an exquisite colouring of heroic poetry
+as in these earliest fragments of Icelandic song. A very curious poem,
+in some MSS. attributed directly to Saemund, is the Song of the Sun,
+_Sólarlióð_, which forms a kind of appendix to the poetic _Edda_. In
+this the spirit of a dead father addresses his living son, and exhorts
+him, with maxims that resemble those of _Hávamál_, to righteousness of
+life. The tone of the poem is strangely confused between Christianity
+and Paganism, and it has been assumed to be the composition of a writer
+in the act of transition between the old creed and the new. It may,
+however, not impossibly, be altogether spurious as a poem of great
+antiquity, and may merely be the production of some Icelandic monk,
+anxious to imitate the Eddaic form and spirit. Finally _Forspjallsljóð_,
+or the Preamble, formerly known as the Song of Odin's Raven, is an
+extremely obscure fragment, of which little is understood, although
+infinite scholarship has been expended on it. With this the poetic
+_Edda_ closes.
+
+  The principal MS. of this _Edda_ is the Codex Regius in the royal
+  library at Copenhagen, written continuously, without regard to prose
+  or verse, on 45 vellum leaves. This is that found by Bishop Brynjulf.
+  Another valuable fragment exists in the Arne-Magnaean collection in
+  the University of Copenhagen, consisting of four sheets, 22 leaves in
+  all. These are the only MSS. older than the 17th century which contain
+  a collection of the ancient mythico-heroic lays, but fragments occur
+  in various other works, and especially in the _Edda_ of Snorri. It is
+  believed to have been written between 1260 and 1280. The poetic _Edda_
+  was translated into English verse by Amos Cottle in 1797; the poet
+  Gray produced a version of the _Vegtamskviða_; but the first good
+  translation of the whole was that published by Benjamin Thorpe in
+  1866. An excellent edition of the Icelandic text has been prepared by
+  Th. Möbius, but the standard of the original orthography will be found
+  in the admirable edition of Sophus Bugge, _Norroen Fornkvaeði_,
+  published at Christiania in 1867.
+
+  The Eddaic poems were rearranged, on a system of their own which
+  differs entirely from that of the early MSS., by Gudbrand Vigfusson
+  and F. York Powell, in their _Corpus poeticum boreale_ (Oxford, 1883).
+  This is a collection, not of _Edda_ only but of all existing fragments
+  of the vast lyrical literature of ancient Iceland. It supplies a prose
+  translation.     (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+EDDIUS (AEDDI), a Kentish choirmaster, summoned by Wilfrid (c. 634-709),
+bishop of York, to help in organizing church services in Northumbria. He
+wrote the _Life_ of his patron, and this biography of St Wilfrid is the
+earliest extant historical work compiled by an Anglo-Saxon author. He is
+a strong partisan and very credulous, but the _Vita Wilfridi_ is
+nevertheless invaluable for the period it treats. Its date is little
+after the first decade of the 8th century, and it was used by Bede in
+compiling his _Historia_.
+
+  See Eddius, _Vita Wilfridi_ (Raine, _Historians of Church of York_,
+  London, 1879-1894), 14; Bede, _Hist. Eccl._ (Plummer, Oxford, 1896),
+  iii. 2.
+
+
+
+
+EDELINCK, GERARD (1649-1707), Flemish copper-plate engraver, was born at
+Antwerp. The rudiments of the art, which he was to carry to a higher
+pitch of excellence than it had previously reached, he acquired in his
+native town under the engraver Cornelisz Galle. But he was not long in
+reaching the limits of his master's attainments; and then he went to
+Paris to improve himself under the teaching of De Poilly. This master
+likewise had soon done all he could to help him onwards, and Edelinck
+ultimately took the first rank among line engravers. His excellence was
+generally acknowledged; and having become known to Louis XIV. he was
+appointed, on the recommendation of Le Brun, teacher at the academy
+established at the Gobelins for the training of workers in tapestry. He
+was also entrusted with the execution of several important works. In
+1677 he was admitted member of the Paris Academy of Painting and
+Sculpture. The work of this great engraver constitutes an epoch in the
+art. His prints number more than four hundred.
+
+Edelinck stands above and apart from his predecessors and contemporaries
+in that he excelled, not in some one respect, but in all respects,--that
+while one engraver attained excellence in correct form, and another in
+rendering light and shade, and others in giving colour to their prints
+and the texture of surfaces, he, as supreme master of the burin,
+possessed and displayed all these separate qualities, in so complete a
+harmony that the eye is not attracted by any one of them in particular,
+but rests in the satisfying whole. Edelinck was the first to break
+through the custom of making prints square, and to execute them in the
+lozenge shape. Among his most famous works are a "Holy Family," after
+Raphael; a "Penitent Magdalene," after Charles le Brun; "Alexander at
+the Tent of Darius," after Le Brun; a "Combat of Four Knights," after
+Leonardo da Vinci; "Christ surrounded with Angels"; "St Louis praying";
+and "St Charles Borromeo before a crucifix,"--the last three after Le
+Brun. Edelinck was especially good as an engraver of portraits, and
+executed prints of many of the most eminent persons of his time. Among
+these are those of Le Brun, Rigaud, Philippe de Champagne (which the
+engraver thought his best), Santeuil, La Fontaine, Colbert, John Dryden,
+Descartes, &c. He died at Paris in 1707. His younger brother John, and
+his son Nicholas, were also engravers, but did not attain to his
+excellence.
+
+
+
+
+EDELWEISS, known botanically as _Leontopodium alpinum_, a member of the
+family _Compositae_, a native of the Alps of Central Europe. It is a
+small herb reaching about 6 in. high, with narrow white woolly leaves,
+and terminal flower-heads enveloped in woolly bracts. The woolly
+covering enables the plant to thrive in the exposed situations in which
+it is found, by protecting it from cold and from drying up through
+excessive loss of moisture. It is grown in Britain as a rock-plant.
+
+
+
+
+EDEN, SIR ASHLEY (1831-1887), Anglo-Indian official and diplomatist,
+third son of Robert John Eden, third Lord Auckland and bishop of Bath
+and Wells, was born on the 13th of November 1831, and was educated at
+Rugby, Winchester and the East India Company's college at Haileybury,
+entering the Indian civil service in 1852. In 1855 he gained distinction
+as assistant to the special commissioner for the suppression of the
+Santal rising, and in 1860 was appointed secretary to the Bengal
+government with an _ex officio_ seat on the legislative council, a
+position he held for eleven years. In 1861 he negotiated, as political
+agent, a treaty with the raja of Sikkim. His success led to his being
+sent on a similar mission to Bhutan in 1863; but, being unaccompanied by
+any armed force, his demands were rejected and he was forced under
+circumstances of personal insult to come to an arrangement highly
+favourable to the Bhutias. The result was the repudiation of the treaty
+by the Indian government and the declaration of war against Bhutan. In
+1871 Eden became the first civilian governor of British Burma, which
+post he held until his appointment in 1877 as lieutenant-governor of
+Bengal. In 1878 he was made a K.C.S.I., and in 1882 resigned the
+lieutenant-governorship and returned to England on his appointment to
+the council of the secretary of state for India, of which he remained a
+member till his death on the 8th of July 1887. The success of his
+administration of Bengal was attested by the statue erected in his
+honour at Calcutta after his retirement.
+
+
+
+
+EDEN, the name of the region in which, according to the Hebrew
+paradise-tradition in its present form, God planted a garden (or park),
+wherein he put the man whom he had formed (Gen. ii. 8). Research into
+primitive beliefs, guided by the comparative method, leads to the view
+that the "garden" was originally a celestial locality (see PARADISE),
+and we cannot therefore be surprised if, now that paradise has been
+brought down to earth, the geographical details given in the Bible are
+rather difficult to work into a consistent picture. The fantastic
+geography of the (Indian) _Vishnu Purana_ and the (Iranian) _Bundahish_
+will, in this case, be a striking parallel.
+
+Let us now take the details of Eden as they occur. In Gen. ii. 8 we read
+that the garden lay "in Eden eastward," where "eastward" is generally
+taken to mean "in the east of the earth." This, however, seems
+inconsistent with Isa. xiv. 13, where the "mountain of God," which
+corresponds (see Ezek. xxviii. 13, 14 and the article ADAM) to the
+"garden in Eden," is said to have been "in the uttermost parts of the
+north" (so R.V.). The former statement ("eastward") suits Babylonia,
+where Friedrich Delitzsch[1] places Eden; the latter does not. We are
+further told (v. 10) that "a river went out from Eden to water the
+garden," and that "from thence it parted itself (?), and became four
+heads (?)," which is commonly understood to mean that the river was so
+large that, soon after leaving the garden ("from thence" is all that the
+text says), it could still supply four considerable streams (the text
+says, not "streams," but "heads," i.e. perhaps "beginnings" or
+"starting-points"). In _vv._ 11-14 the names of four rivers are given,
+but in spite of the descriptive supplements attached to three of them,
+only that one which has no supplement can be identified with much
+probability. In fact, Perath may without any obvious difficulty be
+"Euphrates," except in Jer. xiii., where a more southerly stream seems
+indicated, but to the identification of "Hiddekel" with "Tigris"
+(Babylonian Diglat) the presence of the initial _Hi_ in the Hebrew is an
+objection. Now as to "Pishon" and "Gihon." If a moderately early
+tradition may be trusted, the "Gihon" is another name for the "Shihor,"
+which was either in or beside "Mizraim" (= Egypt) or Mizrim (= the North
+Arabian Musri), and indeed according to most scholars means the Nile in
+Jer. ii. 18, where the Septuagint substitutes for it Geon, i.e. Gihon.
+For "Pishon" few plausible suggestions have been made; it is not,
+however, a hopeless problem from the point of view which recognizes Eden
+in Arabia.
+
+For details of the interesting descriptive supplements of the names
+Pishon, Gihon, and Hiddekel, on which there is much difference of
+opinion, it must suffice to refer to the _Encyclopaedia Biblica_ and
+Hasting's _Dictionary of the Bible_. We must, however, mention a widely
+held explanation of the name _Eden_. Plausible as it is to interpret
+this name as "delight"--indeed, the Septuagint translates in Gen. iii.
+23 f. [Greek: ho paradeisos tês tryphês]--this cannot have been the
+original meaning. Hence Delitzsch (_Wo lag das Paradies?_ p. 79)
+suggested that "Eden" might be a Hebraized form of the Babylonian
+_edinu_, "field, plain, desert." But whereas Delitzsch takes "Eden" to
+be the entire plain of Babylonia, Hommel thinks that it is rather the
+plain about the sacred city of Eridu. It is the latter scholar to whom
+the "Arabian theory" of Paradise in its best-known form is due. The
+rivers (apart from Perath, "Euphrates") he locates in northern and
+central Arabia, the "Cush" and "Asshur" of Genesis being, according to
+him, central Arabia and Edom respectively (_Ancient Hebrew Traditions_,
+pp. 314-316; _Aufsätze u. Abhandlungen_, iii. 281-284, 335-339). These
+rivers, in short, become Arabian wadis, on which see Hast. _D.B._ i.
+132a (foot). Cheyne, on the other hand, rejects the Babylonian
+explanation of Eden as = "field, plain," on the ground that "Eden" was
+originally regarded as a mountainous tract.
+
+  See further Driver, _Book of Genesis_ (1904), pp. 57-60; _Ency. Bib._
+  "Paradise"; and the commentaries of Gunkel (2nd ed., 1902), and Cheyne
+  (1907).     (T. K. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] _Wo lag das Paradies?_ p. 66. A Sumerian name of Babylon was
+    Tin-ter, "dwelling of life." Cf. Babilu, Babili, "gate of God."
+
+
+
+
+EDENBRIDGE, a market town in the south-western parliamentary division of
+Kent, England, 26 m. S.S.E. of London, on the South-Eastern & Chatham,
+and the London, Brighton & South Coast railways. Pop. (1901) 2546. It is
+pleasantly situated on the river Eden, an affluent of the Medway, in a
+valley between the Ragstone Hills and the Forest Ridges. The church of
+St Peter and St Paul is principally Perpendicular. The town, which has
+considerable agricultural trade, possesses a chalybeate spring, but this
+is little used. Two miles from the town is Hever Castle, a beautiful
+moated mansion dating from the 15th and 16th centuries, but occupying
+the site of an earlier structure. This was rebuilt by Sir Geoffrey
+Boleyn, whose grandson, Sir Thomas, was father of Anne, second wife of
+Henry VIII., who here spent much of her life before her marriage, and
+was visited several times by the king. There is a chapel of her family
+in the fine parish church of Hever. Not far distant is the modern
+Chiddingstone Castle, on an ancient site. A block of sandstone in the
+park is called the "chiding stone," tradition asserting it to be a
+prehistoric seat of judgment.
+
+
+
+
+EDEN HALL, LUCK OF, an old painted drinking goblet preserved at Eden
+Hall, Cumberland, the seat of the Musgrave family. It is of enamelled or
+painted glass and is believed to date from the 10th century. It is of
+fair size and has the letters I.H.S. on the top. Round the vase is the
+famous verse given below. A legend involving the fortunes of the
+Musgraves attaches to this cup. In the grounds of Eden Hall is a spring
+called St Cuthbert's Well, and the story is that one of the earliest of
+the Musgraves surprised the fairies feasting and making merry round the
+well. He snatched at the goblet from which the Fairy King was drinking
+and made off with it. The fairies pursued him to his castle, but failed
+to catch him. The Fairy King acknowledged his defeat and gave the cup as
+a prize to Musgrave, but warned him that the gift carried with it a
+condition:--
+
+  "When this cup shall break or fall.
+   Farewell the luck of Eden Hall."
+
+There are variants of this legend, but substantially they agree.
+Possessed of the lucky cup the knight of Musgrave is said to have at
+once prospered in a love-suit which had till then gone against him.
+There is a curious poem on the cup called "The Drinking Match at Eden
+Hall," by Philip, duke of Wharton, a parody on the ballad of Chevy
+Chase. This is reprinted in full in Edward Walford's _Tales of Great
+Families_ (1877, vol. 11), under the heading, "The witty Duke of
+Wharton." In Longfellow's famous poem the goblet is represented as
+having been broken.
+
+
+
+
+EDENKOBEN, a town of Germany, in the Bavarian Palatinate, 6 m. N. from
+Landau, on the railway to Weissenburg. Pop. 5300. It has a Roman
+Catholic and a Protestant church, several high-grade schools and a
+sulphur-spring. Its industries comprise linen- and damask-weaving,
+ironworks, and the manufacture of machinery, furniture and cigars. It
+has also a considerable trade in wine.
+
+
+
+
+EDENTATA, the name assigned by Cuvier to an order of placental mammals
+apparently typified by the South American anteater, but likewise
+including the sloths and armadillos of the same country, and the Old
+World aard-varks and pangolins. Only the anteaters and pangolins are
+absolutely without teeth (Lat. _e_, out, _dens_, tooth), and the name is
+strictly applicable only to those two groups; but in all the existing
+representatives of the order teeth are absent from the front of the
+jaws, while the cheek-teeth are devoid of roots and of enamel, and only
+very exceptionally have deciduous predecessors. Practically this is all
+the definition that can be given to the assemblage, which is possibly an
+artificial one. It may be mentioned, however, that there is not
+unfrequently a separate coracoid bone.
+
+Edentates may be divided into three distinct sections or suborders,
+firstly the Xenarthra, or Edentata Vera, of America, secondly the
+Tubulidenta, represented by the African aard-varks, and thirdly the
+Pholidota, which includes only the pangolins common to Africa and Asia.
+The Xenarthra are essentially a South and Central American group, some
+of the members of which have effected an entrance into North America.
+The three families by which they are now represented are widely
+sundered, both as regards habits and structure; but two of them--the
+sloths and the anteaters--are intimately connected by means of the
+extinct ground-sloths. As regards the presumed relationship of the Old
+World to the New World types, it is noteworthy that in the early
+Tertiary deposits of France and Germany are found certain fossil remains
+apparently referable to armadillos, aard-varks and pangolins, some of
+the armadillos coming very close to South American forms. This
+assemblage of three groups of edentates in the countries fringing
+northern Africa is suggestive that the latter continent may have been
+the original home of the group, which reached South America by means of
+a direct land connexion.
+
+_Xenarthra._--The typical American edentates, or Xenarthra, are
+characterized by the circumstance that the last dorsal and all the
+lumbar vertebrae carry additional articular facets, or abnormal
+articulations (xenarthral). Teeth may be absent or present, and when
+developed either all similar (homaeodont) or to some extent
+differentiated. The bodily covering may take the form either of coarse
+hairs, or of bony plates, with a larger or smaller intermixture of
+hairs.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Skull of Unau or Two-toed Sloth (_Choloepus
+didactylus_).]
+
+Of the three existing families of this group, the first is that of the
+_Bradypodidae_, or sloths, characterized by the presence of five pairs
+of upper and four of lower teeth, the normally-formed tongue and the
+rudimentary tail. The species are arboreal and feed on leaves; all being
+confined to the forests of tropical America. Externally sloths are
+clothed with long coarse, crisp hair; the head is short and rounded, and
+the external ears inconspicuous. The teeth are subcylindrical, of
+persistent growth, consisting of a central axis of vasodentine, with a
+thin investment of hard dentine, and a thick outer coating of cement;
+without any succession. Fore-limbs greatly longer than the hind-limbs;
+the extremities terminating in narrow, curved feet; with the digits
+never exceeding three in number, and encased for nearly their whole
+length in a common integument, and armed with long, strong claws.
+Stomach complex. No caecum. Placenta deciduate and dome-like, composed
+of an aggregation of numerous discoidal lobes.
+
+A remarkable feature connected with sloths is the development of a green
+colour in their hair, due to the growth of an alga. According to Dr
+W.G. Ridewood, in the three-toed sloth the hair is invested with a thick
+extra-cortical layer. "The hair has a tendency to crack in a transverse
+direction, and in the cracks there come to lodge unicellular algae, to
+which Kühn has given the name _Pleurococcus bradypi_. The moisture of
+the climate in which _Bradypus_ lives enables the alga to live and
+propagate in this curious position, and the sloth acquires a general
+green tint which must render it very difficult to distinguish as it
+hangs among the green foliage." In the two-toed sloth, on the other
+hand, the bulk of the hair is composed of an outer coat, or cortex,
+which is longitudinally fluted or grooved, the grooves being filled with
+strands of extra-cortex in which flourishes an alga (_Pleurococcus
+choloepi_) distinct from the one infesting the hairs of the three-toed
+species. Of quite a different type are the hairs of the extinct
+ground-sloths (see MYLODON), which are smooth and solid, Dr Ridewood
+rejecting the idea that they were originally coated with a cortex that
+has disappeared.
+
+The typical genus _Bradypus_ is represented by the various species of
+ai, or three-toed sloth, in which none of the teeth project greatly
+beyond the others; the first in the upper jaw is much smaller than any
+of the others, while the first in the lower jaw is broad and compressed,
+and the grinding surfaces of all are much cupped. Vertebrae: C 9, D and
+L 20 (of which 15 to 17 bear ribs), S 6, Ca 11. All the species present
+the peculiarity of possessing nine cervical vertebrae; but the ninth,
+and sometimes the eighth, bears a pair of short movable ribs. The
+fore-limbs are considerably longer than the hind-legs, and the bones of
+the fore-arm are complete, free and capable of pronation and supination.
+The fore-feet are long, very narrow, habitually curved and terminate in
+three pointed curved claws, in close apposition to each other; they are,
+in fact, incapable of being divaricated, so that the foot is reduced to
+the condition of a triple hook, fit only for the function of suspension
+from the boughs of trees. The hind-foot closely resembles the fore-foot
+in general structure and mode of use, and has the sole habitually turned
+inwards so that it cannot be applied to the ground in walking. The
+tongue is short and soft, and the stomach large and complex, bearing
+some resemblance to that of ruminants. The windpipe or trachea has the
+remarkable peculiarity--not unfrequent among birds and reptiles--of
+being folded on itself before it reaches the lungs. The two teats are
+pectoral in position. The premaxilla is rudimentary and loosely attached
+to the maxilla. Except in _B. torquatus_, there is no perforation in the
+lower end of the humerus. Some of the species are covered uniformly with
+a grey or greyish-brown coat; others have a dark collar of elongated
+hairs around the shoulders (_B. torquatus_); some have the hair of the
+face shorter than that of the rest of the head and neck; and others have
+a remarkable-looking patch of soft, short hair on the back between the
+shoulders, consisting, when best marked, of a median stripe of glossy
+black, bordered on each side by bright orange, yellow or white. There
+are also structural differences in the skulls, as in the amount of
+inflation of the pterygoid bones. The habits of all are apparently
+alike. They are natives of Guiana, Brazil and Peru, and two species (_B.
+infuscatus_ and _B. castaneiceps_) extend north of the Isthmus of Panama
+as far as Nicaragua. Of the former of these a specimen in captivity
+uttered a shrill sound like a monkey when forcibly pulled away from the
+tree to which it was holding.
+
+In the species of unau, or two-toed sloths, _Choloepus_, the front tooth
+in both jaws is separated by an interval from the others, and is large
+and caniniform, wearing to a sharp bevelled edge against the opposing
+tooth, the upper shutting in front of the lower when the mouth is
+closed, unlike true canines. Vertebrae: C 6 or 7, D 23-24, L 3, S 7-8,
+Ca 4-6. One species (_C. didactylus_) has the ordinary number of
+vertebrae in the neck; but an otherwise closely allied form (_C.
+hoffmanni_) has but six. The tail is very rudimentary. The fore-feet
+generally resemble those of _Bradypus_, but there are only two
+functional digits, with claws; these answering to the second and third
+of the typical five-toed limb. The structure of the hind-limb generally
+resembles that of _Bradypus_, the appellation "two-toed" referring only
+to the anterior limb, for in the foot the three middle toes are
+functionally developed and of nearly equal size. The premaxilla is well
+developed, and firmly attached to the maxilla; and there is always a
+perforation, or foramen, on the inner side of the lower end of the
+humerus. _C. didactylus_, which has been longest known, and is commonly
+called by the native name of unau, inhabits the forests of Brazil. _C.
+hoffmanni_ has a more northern geographical range, extending from
+Ecuador through Panama to Costa Rica. Its voice, which is seldom heard,
+is like the bleat of a sheep, and if the animal is seized it snorts
+violently. Both species are very variable in external coloration (see
+SLOTH).
+
+The second family is that of the anteaters, _Myrmecophagidae_,
+distinguished from the last by the absence of teeth, the elongated
+tongue and the long tail. The long and slender head has a tubular mouth,
+with a small terminal aperture through which the worm-like tongue,
+covered with the sticky secretion of the enormous submaxillary salivary
+glands, is rapidly protruded in feeding, and withdrawn again with the
+adhering particles of food which are then sucked into the gullet. In the
+foot the third toe is greatly developed, and has a long sickle-like
+claw; the others are reduced or suppressed. The hind-foot has four or
+five subequal digits with claws. The long tail is sometimes prehensile.
+Placenta dome-like or discoidal. Externally the body is covered with
+hair. Anteaters feed exclusively on animal substances, mostly insects.
+One species is terrestrial, the others arboreal; none burrow in the
+ground. They are all inhabitants of tropical America. In the typical
+genus _Myrmecophaga_ the skull is remarkably elongated and narrow, with
+its upper surface smooth and cylindriform. Anteriorly the face is
+produced into a long tubular rostrum, rounded above and flattened below,
+with terminal nostrils, and composed of the mesethmoid (ossified for
+more than half its length), the vomer, the maxillae, and the long and
+narrow nasal bones, the premaxillae being extremely short and confined
+to the margin of the nostrils. The zygomatic arch is incomplete, the
+rod-like jugal only articulating with the maxilla in front, and not
+reaching the short zygomatic process of the squamosal. The lachrymal
+foramen is in front of the margin of the orbit. There are no
+post-orbital processes to the frontals or any other demarcation between
+the orbits and the temporal fossae. Palate extremely elongated, and
+produced backwards as far as the level of the external auditory meatus
+by the meeting in the middle line of the largely developed pterygoids.
+The glenoid fossa for the lower jaw, a shallow oval facet, with its long
+diameter from before backwards. Lower jaw long and slender, with an
+exceedingly short symphysis, no distinct coronoid process, and a
+slightly elevated, elongated, flattened, condylar articular surface.
+Vertebrae: C 7, D 15-16, L 3-2, S 6, Ca 31. Clavicles rudimentary. In
+the fore-foot the first digit is very slender, the second also slender,
+with compressed phalanges of nearly equal length, but the third is
+immensely developed, though its first phalanx is extremely short, while
+the terminal one is so long that the entire length of the digit exceeds
+that of the second. The fourth has a long and rather slender metacarpal,
+and three phalanges diminishing in size, the terminal phalange being
+very small. The fifth has the metacarpal nearly as long, but not so
+stout as the fourth, and followed by two small phalanges, the last
+rudimentary and conical. Claws are developed upon all but the fifth. In
+walking the toes are kept bent, with their points turned upwards and
+inwards, the weight being supported on a pad over the end of the fifth
+digit, and the upper surfaces of the third and fourth digits. The hind
+feet are short and rather broad, with five subequal claws, the fourth
+rather longest, the first shortest; the whole sole is placed on the
+ground in walking. Body rather compressed, clothed with long, coarse
+hair. Tail about as long as the body, and covered with very long hair;
+not prehensile. Ears small, oval, erect. Eyes very small. Stomach
+consisting of a sub-globular, thin-walled, cardiac portion, and a
+muscular pyloric gizzard with dense epithelial lining. No ileocolic
+valve; but a short, wide, ill-defined caecum. The two teats are
+pectoral.
+
+The tamandua anteaters (_Tamandua_, or _Uroleptes_), of which several
+species (or races) are now recognized, are smaller animals than the
+last, in which the head is much less elongated, the fur short and
+bristly, and the tail, tapering, prehensile, with the under side
+throughout, and the whole of the terminal portion naked and scaly. The
+stomach is similar to that of _Myrmecophaga_, but with the muscular
+pyloric gizzard less strongly developed. There is a distinct ileocolic
+valve and short globular caecum. The fore-foot has a very large claw on
+the third toe, moderate-sized claws on the second and fourth, a minute
+one on the first, and none on the fifth, which is entirely concealed
+within the skin. The hind-foot has five subequal claws. Vertebrae: C 7,
+D 17, L 2, S 5, Ca 37. There are very rudimentary clavicles.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Tamandua Anteater (_Tamandua tetradactyla_).]
+
+The last representative of the family is the tiny golden-haired pigmy or
+two-toed anteater, _Cyclopes_ (or _Cycloturus_) _didactylus_, in which
+the skull is much shorter even than in the preceding genus, and arched
+considerably in the longitudinal direction. It differs from that of the
+other members of the family mainly in the long canal for the posterior
+nostrils not being closed by bone below, as the greater part of the
+palatines and the pterygoids do not meet in the middle line. The lower
+jaw has a prominent, narrow, recurved coronoid, and a well-developed
+angular process, and is strongly decurved in front. Vertebrae: C 7, D
+16, L 2, S 4, Ca 40. Ribs remarkably broad and flat. Clavicles well
+developed. Fore-foot remarkably modified, having the third digit greatly
+developed at the expense of all the others; it has a short stout
+metacarpal and but two phalanges, of which the terminal one is large,
+compressed, pointed and much curved, with a strong hook-like claw. The
+second digit has the same number of phalanges, and bears a claw, but is
+much more slender than the third. The fourth is represented only by the
+metacarpal, and one nailless phalange, the first and fifth only by
+rudimentary metacarpals. The hind-foot is also modified into a climbing
+organ, the first toe being rudimentary and consisting of a metatarsal
+and one phalange concealed beneath the skin, but the other four toes
+subequal and much curved, with long, pointed, compressed claws. The
+tuberosity of the heel-bone or calcaneum is directed towards the sole,
+and parallel with it and extending to about double its length is a
+greatly elongated sesamoid ossicle. These together support a prominent
+cushion to which the nails are opposed in climbing. Stomach pyriform,
+with muscular walls, but no distinct gizzard-like portion. The
+commencement of the colon provided with two small caeca, narrow at the
+base, but rather dilated at their terminal blind ends, and communicating
+with the general cavity by very minute apertures. Tail longer than the
+body, tapering, bare on the under surface and prehensile. Fur soft and
+silky.
+
+The third and last existing family of the Xenarthra is that of the
+armadillos, or _Dasypodidae_, in which there are at least seven pairs of
+teeth in each jaw, while the tongue is normal, the tail generally long,
+and the body covered with an armour of bony plates overlain by horny
+scales. All the species are terrestrial, and insectivorous or more or
+less omnivorous.
+
+The union of the numerous polygonal bony shields on the back and sides
+forms a hard shield, usually consisting of an anterior (scapular) and
+posterior (pelvic) solid portion (which overhang on each side the parts
+of the body they respectively cover, forming chambers into which the
+limbs are withdrawn), and a variable number of rings between, connected
+by soft flexible skin so as to allow of curvature of the body. The top
+of the head has also a similar shield, and the tail is usually encased
+in bony rings or plates. The outer or exposed surfaces of the limbs are
+protected by irregular bony plates, not united at their margins; but the
+skin of the inner surface of the limbs and under side of the body is
+soft and more or less clothed with hair. Hairs also in many species
+project through apertures between the bony plates of the back. The bony
+plates are covered by a layer of horny epidermis. Teeth numerous,
+simple, of persistent growth and usually without milk predecessors.
+Zygomatic arch of skull complete. Cervical vertebrae with extremely
+short, broad and depressed bodies; the first free, but the second and
+third, and often several of the others united together both by their
+bodies and arches. Clavicles well developed. A third trochanter on the
+femur. Tibia and fibula united at their lower extremities. Fore-feet
+with strongly developed, curved claws, adapted for digging and
+scratching, three, four or five in number. Hind-feet plantigrade, with
+five toes, all provided with nails. Tongue long, pointed and extensile,
+though to a less degree than in the anteaters. Submaxillary glands
+largely developed. Stomach simple. Placenta discoidal and deciduate.
+
+The typical genus _Dasypus_, with several others, represents the
+subfamily _Dasypodinae_, which usually have all five toes developed and
+with nails, though the first and fifth may be suppressed. The first and
+second are long and slender, with the normal number and relative length
+of phalanges, the others stout, with short broad metacarpals, and the
+phalanges reduced in length and generally in number by coalescence; the
+terminal phalange of the third being large, that of the others gradually
+diminishing to the fifth. _Dasypus_ has the most normal form of
+fore-foot, but the modifications developed in all the others
+(culminating in _Tolypeutes_) are foreshadowed. Ears wide apart. Teats,
+one pair, pectoral. In _Dasypus_ the teeth are 9/10 or 8/9, of which the
+first in the upper jaw is usually implanted in the premaxillary bone.
+The series extends posteriorly some distance behind the anterior root of
+the zygoma, almost level with the hind edge of the palate. The teeth are
+large, subcylindrical, slightly compressed, diminishing in size towards
+each end of the series; the anterior two in the lower jaw smaller and
+more compressed than the others. Cranial portion of the skull broad and
+depressed, facial portion triangular, broad in front and depressed.
+Auditory bulla completely ossified, perforated on the inner side by the
+carotid canal, and continued externally into an elongated bony meatus
+auditorius, with its aperture directed upwards and backwards. (In all
+the other genera of _Dasypodinae_ the tympanic bone is a mere half-ring,
+loosely attached to the cranium.) Lower jaw with a high ascending
+branch, broad transversely placed condyle, and high slender coronoid
+process. Vertebrae: C 7, D 11-12, L 3, S 8, Ca 17-18. Head broad and
+flat above, with the muzzle obtusely pointed. Ears of moderate size or
+rather small, placed laterally far apart. Body broad and depressed.
+Armour with six or seven movable bands between the scapular and pelvic
+shields. Tail shorter than the body, tapering, covered with plates
+forming distinct rings near the base. Fore-feet with five toes; the
+first much more slender than the others, and with a smaller ungual
+phalange and nail; the second, though the longest, also slender. The
+third, fourth and fifth gradually diminishing in length, all armed with
+strong, slightly curved compressed claws, sloping from an elevated,
+rounded inner border to a sharp, outer and inferior edge. The hind-foot
+is rather short, and has all five toes armed with stout, compressed,
+slightly curved, obtusely pointed claws--the third the longest, the
+second nearly equal to it, the fourth the next, the first and fifth
+shorter and nearly equal.
+
+To this genus belongs one of the best-known species of the group, the
+six-banded armadillo or encoubert (_D. sexcinctus_) of Brazil and
+Paraguay; a very similar species, _D. villosus_, the hairy armadillo,
+replacing it south of the Rio Plata. There are also two small species,
+_D. vellerosus_ and _D. minutus_, from the Argentine Republic and North
+Patagonia; the latter, which differs from the other three in having no
+tooth implanted in the premaxillary bone and is often referred to a
+genus apart, as _Zäedius_.
+
+In _Tatoua_ (_Cabassous_ or _Lysiurus_) the teeth are 9/9 or 8/8, of
+moderate size and subcylindrical: the most posterior placed a little way
+behind the anterior root of the zygoma, but far from the hinder margin
+of the palate. Skull somewhat elongated, much constricted behind the
+orbits, and immediately in front of the constriction considerably
+dilated. Lower jaw slender, with the coronoid process small and sharp
+pointed, sometimes obsolete. Vertebrae: C 7, D 12-13, L 5, S 10, Ca 18.
+Head broad behind. Ears rather large and rounded, wide apart. Movable
+bands of armour 12-13. Tail considerably shorter than the body, and
+slender, covered with nearly naked skin, with a few small, scattered,
+bony plates, chiefly on the under surface and near the apex. On the
+fore-feet the first and second toes are long and slender, with small
+claws and the normal number of phalanges. The other toes have but two
+phalanges; the third has an immense sickle-like claw; the fourth and
+fifth similar but smaller claws. The hind-feet are comparatively small,
+with five toes, and small, triangular, blunt nails; the third longest,
+the first shortest. The best-known species of this genus, the tatouay or
+cabassou, _T. unicinctus_, is, after _Priodon gigas_, the largest of the
+group. It is found, though not abundantly, in Surinam, Brazil and
+Paraguay. Others, such as _T. hispidus_ and _T. lugubris_, have been
+described.
+
+In the giant armadillo (_Priodon gigas_) the teeth are variable in
+number, and generally differ on the two sides of each jaw, being usually
+from 20 to 25 on each side above and below, so that as many as a hundred
+may be present altogether; but as life advances the anterior teeth fall
+out, and all traces of their sockets disappear. The series extends as
+far back as the hinder edge of the anterior root of the zygoma. They are
+all very small, in the anterior half of each series strongly compressed,
+with flat sides and a straight free edge, but posteriorly more
+cylindrical, with flat, truncated, free surfaces. Vertebrae: C 7, D 12,
+L 3, S 10, Ca 23. Head small, elongated, conical. Ears moderate, ovate.
+Armour with 12-13 movable bands. Tail nearly equal to the body in
+length, gradually tapering, closely covered with quadrangular scales,
+arranged in a quincunx pattern. Fore-feet with five toes, formed on the
+same plan as those of _Tatoua_, but with the claw of the third of still
+greater size, and that of the others, especially the fifth,
+proportionally reduced. Hind-foot short and rounded, with five very
+short toes, and short, broad, flat obtuse nails. The giant armadillo is
+by far the largest existing member of the family, measuring rather more
+than 3 ft. from the tip of the nose to the root of the tail, the tail
+being about 20 in. long. It inhabits the forest of Surinam and Brazil.
+The powerful claws of its fore-feet enable it to dig with great
+facility; and its food consists chiefly of termites and other insects,
+although it is said to attack and uproot newly-made graves for the
+purpose of devouring the flesh of the bodies contained in them.
+
+The apar (_Tolypeutes tricinctus_) typifies a genus in which the teeth
+are 9/9 or 8/9, and are rather large in proportion to the size of the
+skull, with the hinder end of the series reaching nearly to the
+posterior margin of the palate. Vertebrae: C 7, D 11, L 3, S 12, Ca 13.
+Ears placed low on the sides of the head, rather large, broadly ovate.
+Armour with its scapular and pelvic shields very free at the sides of
+the body, forming large chambers into which the limbs can be readily
+withdrawn, and only three movable bands. Tail short, conical, covered
+with large bony tubercles. The fore-feet formed on the same type as in
+the last genus, but the peculiarities carried to a still greater extent.
+The claw of the third toe is very long, while those of the first and
+fifth are greatly reduced and sometimes wanting. On the hind-foot the
+three middle toes have broad, flat, subequal nails, forming together a
+kind of tripartite hoof; the first and fifth much shorter, with more
+compressed nails.
+
+The armadillos of this genus have the power of rolling themselves up
+into a ball, the shield on the top of the head and the tuberculated
+dorsal surface of the tail exactly fitting into and filling up the
+apertures left by the notches at either end of the body-armour. This
+appears to be their usual means of defence when frightened or surprised,
+as they do not burrow like the other species. They run very quickly,
+with a very peculiar gait, only the tips of the claws of the fore-feet
+touching the ground. In addition to the apar, there are the Argentine
+and Bolivian _T. conurus_, and _T. muriei_ from Argentina or Patagonia.
+
+The last group of existing armadillos forms the genus _Tatusia_ and the
+subfamily _Tatusiinae_; the subfamily rank being based on the fact that
+of the seven or eight pairs of small subcylindrical teeth, all but the
+last, which is considerably smaller than the rest, are preceded by
+milk-teeth not changed until the animal has nearly attained full size.
+Vertebrae: C 7, D 9-11, L 5, S 8, Ca 20-27. Head narrow, with a long,
+narrow, subcylindrical obliquely truncated snout. Ears rather large,
+ovate and erect, placed close together on the occiput. Armour with seven
+to nine distinct movable bands. Body generally elongated and narrow.
+Tail moderate, or long, gradually tapering; its plates forming distinct
+rings for the greater part of its length. Fore-feet with four visible
+toes, and a concealed clawless rudiment of the fifth; the claws long,
+slightly curved, and slender, the third and fourth subequal and alike,
+the first and fourth much shorter. Hind-feet with five toes, armed with
+strong, slightly curved, conical, obtusely pointed nails, and the third
+longest, then the second and fourth, and the first and fifth much
+shorter than the others. This genus differs from all the other
+armadillos in having a pair of inguinal teats in addition to the usual
+pectoral pair, and in producing a large number (4 to 10) of young at a
+birth, all the others having usually but one or two. The peba armadillo,
+_T. septemcincta_, is a well-known species, having an extensive range
+from Texas to Paraguay. It is replaced in the more southern regions of
+South America by a smaller species, with shorter tail, the mulita (_T.
+hybrida_) so called from the resemblance of its head and ears to those
+of a mule. _T. kappleri_ is a large species from Guiana.
+
+Finally we have the pichiciago, or fairy armadillo, _Chlamydophorus
+truncatus_, typifying the subfamily _Chlamydophorinae_. In most
+anatomical characters, especially the structure of the fore-foot, this
+group resembles the _Dasypodinae_, but it differs remarkably from all
+other known armadillos, living or extinct, in the peculiar modification
+of the armour.
+
+The teeth, which number 8/(8-9), are subcylindrical, somewhat
+compressed, moderate in size, and smaller at each end (especially in
+front) than at the middle of the series. Skull broad and rounded behind,
+pointed in front. Muzzle subcylindrical and depressed. A conspicuous
+rounded rough prominence on the frontal bone, just before each orbit.
+Tympanic prolonged into a tubular auditory meatus, curving upwards round
+the base of the zygoma. Vertebrae: C 7, D 11, L 3, S 10, Ca 15. Upper
+part of head and trunk covered with four-sided horny plates (with small
+thin ossifications beneath), forming a shield, free and overhanging the
+sides of the trunk, and attached only along the middle line of the back.
+The plates are arranged in a series of distinct transverse bands, about
+twenty in number between the occiput and the posterior truncated end,
+and not divided into solid scapular and pelvic shields with movable
+bands between. The hinder end of the body is abruptly truncated and
+covered by a vertically placed, strong, solid, bony shield, of an oval
+(transversely extended) form, covered by thin horny plates. This shield
+is firmly welded by five bony processes to the hinder part of the
+pelvis. Through a notch in the middle of its lower border the tail
+passes out. The latter is rather short, cylindrical in its proximal
+half, and expanded and depressed or spatulate in its terminal portion,
+and covered with horny plates. The dorsal surfaces of the fore and
+hind-feet are also covered with horny plates. The remainder of the limbs
+and under surface and sides of the body beneath the overlapping lateral
+parts of the back shield are clothed with rather long, soft silky hair.
+Eyes and ears very small, and concealed by the hair. Extremities short.
+Feet large, each with five well-developed claws, those on the fore-feet
+very long, stout and subcompressed, the structure of the digits being
+essentially the same as those of _Tatoua_ and _Priodon_. Teats two,
+pectoral. Visceral anatomy closely resembling that of _Dasypus_, the
+caecum being broad, short and bifid. The pichiciago, a burrowing animal,
+about 5 in. long, inhabits the sandy plains of western Argentina,
+especially the vicinity of Mendoza. Its horny covering is pinkish, and
+its silky hair white. A second species, _C. retusus_, from Bolivia is
+rather larger and has the dorsal shield attached to the skin of the back
+as far as its edge, instead of only along the median line. (See
+ARMADILLO.)
+
+_Tubulidentata._--The second suborder of edentates, namely the
+Tubulidentata, is represented at the present day only by the aard-varks,
+or ant-bears, of Africa, constituting the family _Orycteropodidae_ and
+the genus _Orycteropus_. Together with the following group, they differ
+from the Xenarthra in the absence of additional articular facets to the
+lumbar vertebrae; for which reason the term Nomarthra has been proposed
+for the Tubulidentata and Pholidota as collectively distinct from the
+Xenarthra. In the present group the external surface is scantily covered
+with bristle-like hairs. The teeth are numerous, and traversed by a
+number of parallel vertical pulp-canals. Femur with a third trochanter.
+Fore-feet without the first toe, but all the other digits well
+developed, with strong moderate-sized nails, suited to digging, the
+plantar surfaces of which rest on the ground in walking. Hind-feet with
+five subequal toes. Placenta broadly zonular. The brain is very like
+that of the Ungulata; and there are two pairs of teats, one abdominal,
+and the other inguinal. Aard-varks feed on animal substances; and are
+terrestrial and fossorial in habits. The total number of teeth is from
+eight to ten in each side of the upper, and eight in the lower jaw; but
+they are never all in place at one time, as the small anterior ones are
+shed before the series is completed behind. In the adult they number
+usually five on each side above and below, of which the first two are
+simple and compressed, the next two larger and longitudinally grooved at
+the sides, the most posterior simple and cylindrical. Their summits are
+rounded before they are worn; their bases do not taper to a root, but
+are evenly truncated and continually growing. Each tooth is made up of
+an aggregation of parallel dental systems, having a slender pulp cavity
+in the centre, from which the dentinal tubes radiate outwards, and being
+closely packed together each system assumes a polygonal outline as seen
+in transverse section. A series of milk-teeth is developed. Skull
+moderately elongated with the facial portion subcylindrical and slightly
+tapering, and the zygoma complete and slender. The palate ends
+posteriorly in the thickened transverse border of the palatines, and is
+not continued back by the pterygoids. The tympanic is annular, and not
+welded to the surrounding bones. The lower jaw is slender anteriorly,
+but rises high posteriorly, with a slender recurved coronoid, and an
+ascending pointed process on the hinder edge below the condyle, which is
+small, oval, and looks forward as much as upwards. Vertebrae: C 7, D 13,
+L 8, S 6, Ca 25. The large number of lumbar vertebrae is peculiar among
+Edentates. The tongue is less worm-like than in _Myrmecophaga_, being
+thick and fleshy at the base and gradually tapering to the apex. The
+salivary apparatus is developed much in the same manner as in that
+genus, but the duct of the submaxillary gland has no reservoir. The
+stomach consists of a large subglobular cardaic portion, with a thick,
+soft, and corrugated lining membrane, and a smaller muscular, pyloric
+part, with a comparatively thin and smooth lining. There is a distinct
+ileocaecal valve and a considerable sized caecum; also a gall-bladder.
+Head elongated, with a tubular snout, terminal nostrils and small
+mouth-opening. Ears large, pointed, erect. Tall nearly as long as the
+body, cylindrical, thick at the base, tapering to the extremity.
+
+According to the researches of Dr E. Lönnberg, the teeth of the
+aard-varks correspond only to the roots of those of other mammals, the
+crowns being unrepresented, except to a very small degree when the teeth
+first cut the gum. This explanation renders the peculiar internal
+structure of these teeth much less difficult to understand than if they
+represented both crown and root. In Dr Lönnberg's opinion, the teeth
+indicate the descent of the aard-vark from an ungulate stock,--a view in
+harmony with the evidence of the brain. If this idea prove well
+founded, and if the aard-varks are rightly classed with the Edentata,
+the whole order must apparently be regarded as an offshoot from
+primitive Ungulata. The fact of the frequent distinctness of the
+coracoid bone requires, however, explanation in connexion with such a
+descent (see AARD-VARK).
+
+_Pholidota._--The Pholidota, constituting the third and last group of
+the Edentata, are represented by the pangolins, or scaly anteaters, of
+Asia and Africa, all of which are included in the family _Manidae_ and
+the genus _Manis_. Pangolins differ from all other mammals by the armour
+of overlapping horny scales (often with hairs growing between them)
+which invests the whole animal, with the exception of the under surface
+of the body, and sometimes a small patch near the tip of the under side
+of the tail. There are no teeth; and although the tongue is long and
+worm-like, it is not extensile. The scaphoid and lunar bones of the
+carpus are united. The uterus is bicornuate, and the placenta diffused
+and non-deciduate. The skull has somewhat the form of an elongated cone,
+with the small end turned forwards, and is smooth and free from crests
+and ridges. No distinction between the orbits and temporal fossae. The
+zygomatic arch usually incomplete, owing to the absence of the jugal
+bone; no distinct lacrymal bone; and the palate long and narrow. The
+pterygoids extend backwards as far as the tympanics, but do not meet in
+the middle line below. Tympanic welded to the surrounding bones, and
+more or less bladder-like, but not produced into a tubular auditory
+meatus. Two halves of lower jaw very slender and straight, without any
+angle or coronoid process, on the anterior extremity of the upper edge a
+sharp, conical, tooth-like process projecting upwards and outwards. No
+clavicles. No third trochanter to the femur. Terminal phalanges cleft at
+the tip. Caudal vertebrae with very long transverse processes and
+numerous chevron-bones. Stomach with thick muscular walls and lining
+membrane, and a special gland near the middle of the great curvature,
+consisting of a mass of complex secreting follicles, the ducts of which
+terminate in a common orifice. No caecum, but a gall-bladder. Head
+small, depressed, narrow, and pointed in front, with a very small
+mouth-opening. Eyes and ears very small. Body elongated, narrow. Tail
+more or less elongated, convex above, flat underneath. Limbs short, and
+in walking the surface and outer sides of the phalanges of the two outer
+digits of the front feet alone rest on the ground, with the points of
+the nails turning upwards and inwards. The third toe the longest, with a
+powerful compressed curved claw, the second and fourth with similar but
+smaller claws, but that of the first toe often almost rudimentary.
+Hind-feet plantigrade with the first toe very short, and the four other
+toes subequal, and carrying moderate, curved, compressed nails.
+Pangolins are of small or moderate size, terrestrial and burrowing, and
+feed mainly on termites or white ants; some of the species being more or
+less arboreal. They can roll themselves up in a ball when in danger.
+Their peculiar elongated form, short limbs, long tapering tail, and
+scaly covering give them on a superficial inspection more the appearance
+of reptiles than of mammals. The species are not numerous and may be
+divided into two sections, one comprising the Asiatic species, such as
+_M. javanica_, _M. aurita_ of China, and the Indian _M. pentadactyla_,
+and the other the African, as represented by the large _M. gigantea_,
+_M. temminchi_, the long-tailed _M. macrura_, and the small arboreal _M.
+tricuspis_. In the Asiatic group the middle series of scales continues
+to the tip of the tail; but in the African forms this row splits into
+two a few inches from the tail-tip. The latter have also no hairs
+between the scales and no external ears. The climbing species have a
+small bare patch on the under side of the tail near the tip (see
+PANGOLIN).
+
+
+_Extinct Edentates._
+
+Beyond remains of species closely allied to or identical with the
+existing forms, the sloths and anteaters appear to be unknown in a
+fossil state. On the other hand the extinct family of ground sloths, or
+_Megatheriidae_, which includes the largest of all edentates, is an
+exceedingly large one, and extends in South America from the Miocene to
+the Pleistocene, and was also represented during the latter epoch in
+North America. It serves to connect the _Bradypodidae_ with
+_Myrmecophagidae_. The alleged occurrence of an allied form in
+Madagascar is somewhat doubtful (see MEGATHERIUM and MYLODON).
+
+Of _Dasypodidae_ numerous representatives occur in the South American
+Tertiaries. From the higher beds many of the species are referable to
+existing genera, such as _Dasypus_ and _Tatusia_, although some are much
+larger than any living forms, the skull in one case being nearly a foot
+in length. In other instances, when lower formations are reached, the
+genera are also distinct, _Eutatus_ having the whole armour divided into
+movable bands, and the allied _Stegotherium_ representing the group in
+the Santa Cruz formation of Patagonia. Even in the Argentine Pleistocene
+there is an extinct genus, _Chlamydotherium_, represented by a species
+of the size of a rhinoceros, with grooved teeth approximating to those
+of the glyptodonts. The latter represent a family (_Glyptodontidae_) by
+themselves, and typically may be described as giant solid-shelled
+armadillos, although some of their smaller Santa Cruz representatives
+(_Propalaeohoplophorus_) approximate in some degree to true armadillos
+(see GLYPTODON).
+
+A very remarkable Santa Cruz armadillo, _Peltephilus_, has an altogether
+peculiar type of head-shield, developed into horns in front of the eyes;
+and, what is still more noteworthy, teeth in the front of the jaws,
+thereby rendering the ordinary definition of the order Edentata
+incorrect. It has been made the type of a distinct family,
+_Peltephilidae_.
+
+The past history of the armadillo group does not, however, by any means
+end here. True armadillos, it should be observed, are known in North
+America as far north as Texas, from the Pleistocene onwards; but in
+formations of middle Tertiary age are unrepresented. Recent discoveries
+apparently indicate, however, the occurrence of armadillos of a
+primitive type in the lower Tertiary or Eocene formations of Wyoming.
+The first evidence of these Eocene armadillos was afforded by portions
+of the jaws, which, together with a leg-bone of a totally different
+animal, were believed to indicate creatures nearly allied to the aye-aye
+(_Chiromys_) of Madagascar, and for which the name _Metachiromys_ was
+consequently proposed. According to modern usage, this name, in spite of
+its inappropriate nature, is retained for the armadillos, although in
+the writer's opinion it ought to be replaced. According to Professor
+H.F. Osborn, by whom their remains have been described, the North
+American fossil armadillos were closely related to the existing members
+of the group, from which they differ chiefly by the armour, or shield,
+having probably been formed of tough leathery skin instead of bony
+plates, by the presence of a single pair of large enamel-capped
+tusk-like teeth in each jaw, and by the degeneration of the other teeth.
+If these determinations are trustworthy, the question arises whether we
+should regard the armadillos of South America as the descendants of
+North American forms which migrated southwards before that separation of
+the two continents was established, which lasted for a large portion of
+the Tertiary period, or whether a migration took place at the same early
+epoch in the opposite direction.
+
+More interesting still is the occurrence of remains of reputed
+armadillos (_Necrodasypus_) from the Oligocene of France and Germany. In
+the opinion of Dr F. Ameghino these Oligocene armadillos, which had bony
+shields on both the head and body, were near akin to some of the modern
+South American forms.
+
+Passing on to the aard-varks (_Orycteropodidae_), we find these
+represented by a species closely allied to the existing ones in the
+Lower Pliocene formations of Spain, France, Hungary, Samos and Asia
+Minor. A single tibia from the French Oligocene is identified by Dr
+Ameghino with the present family, and the genus _Archaeorycteropus_
+established for its reception; this genus, in its founder's opinion,
+being also represented in the Santa Cruz beds of Patagonia. As regards
+the pangolins, the only fossils referred to this group (apart from a few
+discovered in a cave in India) appear to be certain limb-bones from the
+Oligocene of France and Germany, for which the names _Necromanis_ and
+_Teutomanis_ have been proposed. The occurrence of the characteristic
+cleft terminal toe-bones among these remains seems to leave little
+doubt as to the correctness of the determination.
+
+The alleged occurrence of remains of giant pangolins in the upper
+Tertiary of Europe is due to misidentification (see ANCYLOPODA). By some
+authorities the Eocene group of Ganodonta has been affiliated to the
+Edentata, but this reference is not accepted by Prof. W.B. Scott.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The above article is to some extent based on the
+  articles by Sir W.H. Flower in the 9th edition of this work. See also
+  O. Thomas, "A Milk-dentition in _Orycteropus_," _Proc. Royal Soc._
+  vol. xlvii. (1890); R. Lydekker, "The Extinct Edentates of Argentina,"
+  _Palaeont. Argentina_, vol. iii., An. Mus. (La Plata, 1894); C.W.
+  Andrews, "On a Skull of _Orycteropus gaudryi_ from Samos," _Proc.
+  Zool. Soc. London_ (1896); G.E. Smith, "The Brain in the Edentata,"
+  _Trans. Linn. Soc. London_, vol. vii. (1899); W.B. Scott, "Mammalia of
+  the Santa Cruz Beds--_Dasypoda_," _Rep. Princeton Exped. to
+  Patagonia_, vol. v. (1903); H.F. Osborn, "An Armadillo from the Middle
+  Eocene of North America," _Bull. Amer. Mus._ vol. xx. art. 12 (1904);
+  J.A. Allen, "The Tamandua Anteaters," _T.C._, art. 33 (1904); F.
+  Ameghino, "Les Édentes fossiles de France et d'Allemagne," _Ann. Mus.
+  Buenos Aires_, vol. xiii. (1905); E. Lönnberg, "On a new
+  _Orycteropus_," and "Remarks on the dentition of the Tubulidentata,"
+  _Archiv für Zoologie_, vol. iii. No. 3 (1906).     (R. L.*)
+
+
+
+
+EDENTON, a town and the county-seat of Chowan county, North Carolina,
+U.S.A., on Edenton Bay, an estuary of Albemarle sound, near the mouth of
+Chowan river, in the N.E. part of the state. Pop. (1890) 2205; (1900)
+3046 (2090 negroes); (1910) 2789. It is served by the Norfolk & Southern
+railway, and by the Albemarle Steam Navigation Co. In 1907 the former
+projected a great bridge across Albemarle sound near the city. Edenton
+is an old and interesting town, has a number of fine old homesteads, and
+has broad and well-shaded streets. Lumbering and the shad and herring
+fisheries are the most important industrial interests, and the town is a
+shipping point for fish, truck and other farm products, cotton and
+peanuts. There is a Fish Cultural Station here, established by the
+Federal government. The court-house was built about 1750.
+
+Edenton was settled about 1658, and was for some time known as the
+"Towne on Queen Anne's Creek" or the "Port of Roanoke"; in 1722 the
+present name was adopted in honour of Governor Charles Eden (1673-1722),
+whose grave is in St Paul's churchyard here. Throughout the 18th century
+Edenton was a place of considerable social and political importance; the
+legislative assembly of North Carolina met here occasionally, and here
+lived the royal governors and various well-known citizens of the
+province, among them: Joseph Hewes (1730-1779), a signer of the
+Declaration of Independence; James Iredell, Sr. (1750-1799), a
+Federalist leader and after 1790 a justice of the United States Supreme
+Court, and his son James Iredell, Jr. (1788-1853), a prominent lawyer,
+for many years a member of the state legislature, governor of North
+Carolina in 1827-1828, and a member of the United States Senate in
+1828-1831. Near Edenton lived Samuel Johnston (1733-1816), a prominent
+leader of the American Whigs preceding and during the War of American
+Independence, a member of the Continental Congress in 1780-1782,
+governor of North Carolina in 1787-1789, and a Federalist member of the
+United States Senate in 1790-1793. In 1907 the Hewes, Iredell and
+Johnston homesteads were still standing. In a house facing the
+court-house green the famous "Edenton Tea Party" of fifty-one ladies met
+on the 24th of October 1774 and signed resolutions that they would not
+conform "to that Pernicious Custom of Drinking Tea" and would not
+"promote the wear of any manufacture from England" until the tax on tea
+should be repealed. Near Edenton the Confederate ram "Albemarle," on
+emerging from the Roanoke river, was met by the Union "double-enders,"
+"Sassacus," "Mattabesett," and "Miami," on the 5th of May 1864; the
+battle, which resulted in favour of the Confederates, was a duel between
+the Confederate ironclad and the Union wooden side-wheeler, the
+"Sassacus," which rammed the "Albemarle" and had her bows, fitted with a
+three-ton bronze beak, twisted off and carried away.
+
+
+
+
+EDESSA (mod. _Vodena_), the ancient capital of Macedonia, previously
+known as Aegae, situated 46 m. W. of Thessalonica on the banks of a
+beautiful stream in the very centre of the kingdom, and at the head of a
+defile commanding the approaches from the coast to the interior. It was
+the original residence of the Macedonian kings; and even after the seat
+of government was removed by Philip II. to the more accessible Pella, it
+continued to be the burial-place of the royal family. At the celebration
+of his daughter's marriage here, Philip II. was murdered by Pausanias in
+336 B.C. His son Alexander was buried at Memphis through the contrivance
+of Ptolemy; but the bodies of his granddaughter Eurydice and her husband
+Arrhidaeus were removed by Cassander to the ancestral sepulchre. On the
+occupation of the town by Pyrrhus the royal tombs were plundered by the
+Gallic mercenaries. Owing to its position commanding the Via Egnatia,
+the town retained its importance during the Roman and Byzantine periods.
+For its present condition, see VODENA.
+
+
+
+
+EDESSA, the Greek name of an ancient city of N.W. Mesopotamia (in 37°
+21' N. lat. and 39° 6' E. long.), suggested perhaps by a comparison of
+its site, or its water supply,[1] with that of its Macedonian namesake.
+It still bears its earlier name, modified since the 15th century (by the
+Turks?) to Urfa.
+
+  The oldest certain form is the Aramaic _Urhai_ ("Western"
+  pronunciation _Urhoi_), which appears in Greek as an adjective as
+  [Greek: Horrhoênhê][2], [Greek: -noi][3] (perhaps also as a fortress
+  with spring, as [Greek: Orrha]),[4] and in Latin as Orr(h)ei,[5] and
+  (in the inscription on Abgar's grave) _Orrhenoru(m)_.[6] The Syriac
+  Chronicle ascribed to Dionysius of Tell-mahre derives the name from a
+  first king Urhai, son of Hewya, whom Procopius (_De bello persico_, i.
+  17) calls Osroes (cf. below), connected by Bayer[7] with Chosroes,[8]
+  from which G. Hoffmann would also derive the Syriac Urhai (_Z.D.M.G._
+  xxxii. 742). The Syriac town name has, however, the form of an ethnic,
+  and we may therefore with Duval leave it unexplained (_Hist._ 22). The
+  fact that the Arabic name is Ruhä supports the hint of the
+  Graeco-Latin forms that there was a vowel between the R and the H.
+  There is little plausibility in the suggestion of Assemani and others
+  that Ruha comes from [Greek: rhoê] of Callirrhoe. A gentilic of the
+  form Ru-u-ai occurs in a letter (of an Assyrian king?) to chiefs in a
+  (Babylonian?) town as the designation of three captives (Harper, _Ass.
+  and Bab. Letters_, No. 287 [= K 94], line 6; cf. Bezold, _Die
+  Achämenideninschriften_, p. xii.), who have Semitic names; and
+  Ru-'-u-a is the name of an Aramaic people mentioned with other
+  Aramaeans by Tiglath-pileser IV., Sargon and Sennacherib. It is not
+  impossible that some such people may have settled at Urhai and given
+  it their name, although the Ru-'-u-a are always mentioned in
+  connexions that imply seats near the Persian Gulf.[9] The district
+  name Osroene for [Greek: Orrhoênhê], is Greek, perhaps due to analogy
+  of Chosroes. It occurs but rarely in Syriac (Uzroina); e.g. Chronicle
+  of Edessa. § 35;[10] elsewhere Beth-Urhaye (e.g. Cureton, _Spicileg.
+  Syr._ 20). In the time of Tiglath-pileser I. (c. 1100 B.C.) the name
+  seems to have been "District of (not Edessa, but) Harran" (Annals, vi.
+  71). The Arabs pronounced the name er-Ruha (see above), and that form
+  prevailed till it gave place to Urfa in the 15th century.
+
+  The Greek name Edessa appears in the Jerusalem Targum to Gen. x. 10 as
+  Hadas ([Hebrew: hadas], myrtle); it has been proposed (cf. Duval,
+  _Hist. d'Édesse_, 23) to derive Edessa from Aram. [Hebrew: hadat], as
+  though = Carthage, New Town; but Syriac writers, when they
+  occasionally [11] use the name (Edessa, [Hebrew: adasa]; so Yaqut,
+  Adasa), show no suspicion of its being Semitic. According to Pliny, v.
+  86, Edessa was also called Antioch, and coins of Antiochus IV.
+  Epiphanes with the legend "Antioch on the Callirrhoe" may imply that
+  he rebuilt and renamed the place (so Ed. Meyer in Pauly-Wissowa,
+  _Realencyclopädie_, col. 1933, 66; otherwise Duval, _Hist._ 23; cf.
+  art. OSROENE). Pliny indeed seems to call the city itself Callirrhoe,
+  and S. Funk finds it so named in the Talmud (_Bab. Mez._, 18a [Hebrew:
+  raal raham bahara shuiar meta]: _Die Juden in Babylonien 200-500_, ii.
+  148; 1908); but K. Regling (_Klio_, i. 459 n. 1) may be right in his
+  emendation which applies the title in Pliny to the sacred spring.
+
+_History: Pre-Hellenistic._--Until excavation gives us more definite
+data we can only infer from its position on one of the main
+thoroughfares between the Mediterranean and the East (see MESOPOTAMIA)
+that Urhai-Edessa, possibly bearing some other name, was already a town
+of some importance in the early Babylonian-Assyrian age. Whatever may
+have been the ethnographical type of the early inhabitants, it must by
+the beginning of the second last millennium B.C. have included Hittites
+in the large sense of the term, probably Aryans, and certainly Semites
+of some of the types characteristic of early Assyrian history. Most
+probably its people belonged to the domain of the then more famous
+Harran-Carrhae, between which and Samosata (on the Euphrates) Urhai lies
+midway (some 25-30 m. distant from each) in the district watered by the
+Balih. Although at Edessa itself no cuneiform documents have yet been
+found, a little more than four hours journey eastwards, at Anaz (=
+Gullab?) = Dur of Tiglath-pileser IV. was found in 1901 a slab with a
+bas-relief and an inscription; and 15-20 min. W. of Eski-Harran, in 1906
+a very interesting 6th-century Assyrian inscription (see MESOPOTAMIA).
+
+In the later Assyrian empire the population was largely
+Aramaic-speaking; but S. Schiffer's theory (Beiheft I. zur
+_Orientalistischen Litteratur-Zeitung_) finds contemporary evidence of
+Israelites settled in the neighbourhood of Edessa in the second half of
+the 7th century B.C. At the fall of Nineveh many towns in Mesopotamia
+suffered severely at the hands of the Medes. The period remains dark,
+notwithstanding the obscure light that has been thrown on it lately
+(Pognon, _Inscriptions_). When Aramaic began to take the place of
+Assyrian in written documents is not known; but just across the
+Euphrates the change had occurred as early as the 8th century B.C.
+(Zengirli, Hamath; see also Pognon). Certain it is that the earliest
+documents that have survived in Syriac, or Edessene Aramaic, do not
+represent an experimental stage. Moreover, although the Syriac of the
+Story of Ahiqar is of a late type, the sources of the story, traces of
+which are to be found in the Hebrew Tobit (q.v.), go back to the
+pre-Hellenistic period.
+
+_Graeco-Roman Times._--According to a credible tradition found in
+Eusebius (_Excerpta_, 179), the Syriac Chronicle ascribed to Dionysius
+of Tell-mahre (Tullberg, 61), and elsewhere, Urhai was renovated, like
+other Mesopotamian sites, in 304 B.C. by Seleucus I. Nicator, who gave
+it its Greek name.[12] It would share in the Hellenistic culture of
+Syria, although the language of the common people would continue to be
+Aramaic (E.R. Bevan, _House of Seleucus_, i. 227 f. with reff.). With
+the decay of the Seleucid power, weakened by Rome and Parthia, the old
+influx from the desert would recommence, and an Arabic element begin to
+show. Von Gutschmid (_Untersuch._, cf. Duval, ch. iii. end) argues
+plausibly that it was in 132 B.C., in the reign of Antiochus VII.
+Sidetes, that Edessa became the seat of a dynasty of some thirty local
+kings, whose succession has been preserved in native sources. The name
+of the first king, however, appears in different forms (cf. above), and
+one (Osroës-Orhai) is so like that of the town that Ed. Meyer suspects
+the historicity of the first reign, of five years. The names of the
+other kings--Abgar, Ma'nu, Bekr, &c.--are for the most part Arabic, as
+the people (in whose inscriptions the same mixture of names occurs) are
+called by classical authors; but the rulers, among whom an occasional
+Iranian name betrays the influence of the dominant Parthians,[13] would
+hardly maintain their distinctness from the Aramaic populace. This state
+which lasted for three centuries and a half, naturally varied in
+extent.[14] Bounded on the W. and the N. by the Euphrates, it reached at
+its widest as far as the Tigris. At such times, therefore, it included
+such towns as Harran (Carrhae), Nisibis, Sarug, Zeugma-Birejik, Resaena,
+Singara, Tigranocerta, Samosata, Melitene. Its position "on the
+dangerous verge of two contending empires," Parthia and Rome,
+determined its changeful fortunes. Parthian predominance yielded for a
+time to Armenian (Tigranes, 88-86 B.C.). Then, at the time of the
+expeditions of Lucullus, Pompey and Crassus, Edessa was an ally of Rome,
+though Abgar II. Ariamnes (68-53) played an ambiguous part. In A.D. 114
+Abgar VII. entertained Trajan on his way back to Syria (Dio Cass. xviii.
+21); but in 116, in consequence of a general rising, his consul L.
+Quietus sacked the city, Abgar perhaps dying in the flames, and made the
+state tributary. Hadrian, however, abandoning Trajan's forward policy in
+favour of a Euphrates boundary, restored it as a dependency of Rome.
+When L. Verus (163-165) recovered Mesopotamia from Parthia, it was not
+Edessa but Harran that was chosen as the site of a Roman colony, and
+made the metropolis by Marcus Aurelius (172).
+
+To one of the native kings doubtless is to be ascribed the Syriac
+inscription[15] on one of the pair of pillars, 50 ft. high, which stood,
+no doubt, in front of a temple connected with some local cult.
+Trustworthy data for determining its nature are lacking. One or both of
+the pools below the citadel containing sacred fish may have been sacred
+to Atargatis (q.v.), an Ishtar-Venus deity; and according to the
+_Doctrine of Addai_, alongside of Venus were worshipped the sun and the
+moon.[16] Nergal and Sin were known as "twins," and connected with the
+sign Gemini, under the name _ellamme_, "the youths" (cf. Zimmern,
+_K.A.T._ 363). This makes more plausible than it otherwise would be the
+suggestion of J. Rendel Harris that the great twin pillars were
+connected with the cult of the Dioscuri, and that in the Acts of Thomas
+is to be seen a later attempt to substitute other "twins," viz. Jesus
+and Judas-Thomas (Addai), whom legend buried "in Britio Edessenorum"
+(explained by Harnack as the Edessan citadel: Aram. _birtha_).[17]
+
+Whether it was at Edessa that a Jewish translation of the Old Testament
+into Syriac was made,[18] under the encouragement perhaps of the favour
+of the royal house of Adiabene (Josephus, _Bell. Jud._ ii. 19. 4), or
+whether that work was done _in_ Adiabene,[19] cannot be discussed here.
+That the translation did not share the fate of the other non-Christian
+Syriac writings, which did not survive the 13th century (see SYRIAC
+LITERATURE), is due to the fact that it was adopted (after being
+revised) by the Christians, and thus rescued. Although the beginnings of
+Christianity at Edessa are enshrouded in the mists of legend, and the
+first mention of Christian communities in Osrhoëne and the towns there
+is connected with the part they played in the paschal controversy (c.
+A.D. 192), it has been reasonably urged that the legends imply a fact,
+namely that Christianity began in the Jewish colony, perhaps by the
+middle of the 2nd century, although the earliest seat of the Syrian
+church may have been farther east, in Adiabene.[20] Parts of the New
+Testament were certainly translated into Syriac in the 2nd century,
+although whether the "Old Syriac" (so e.g. Hjelt) or the Diatessaron (so
+Burkitt) came first is uncertain. About the end of the 2nd century
+Edessene Christianity seems to have made a fresh beginning: the
+ordination of Palut by Serapion of Antioch may mean that things
+ecclesiastical took a westward trend, and it is possible (so Burkitt)
+that the "Old Syriac" New Testament version was now introduced. A strong
+man offered himself in Bardaisan (q.v.; Bardesanes), to whom perhaps we
+owe the finest Syriac poem extant, the "Hymn of the Soul," though
+orthodoxy rejected him. He was a contemporary of Abgar IX., at whose
+court Julius Africanus stayed for a while. A Syrian official record from
+this reign, preserved in the _Edessene Chronicle_, gives a somewhat
+detailed account of a violent flood (autumn, 201) of the Daisan river
+which did much damage, destroying amongst other things "the palace of
+Abgar the Great," rebuilt as a summer palace by Abgar IX., and "the
+temple of the church of the Christians." The form of this last statement
+shows that at the time of writing (206) the rulers had not adopted
+Christianity themselves. Abgar IX. is now commonly supposed to be the
+ruler to whom the famous legend was first attached (see ABGAR); but
+though he visited Rome there is no proof that he ever became a Christian
+(Gomperz, in _Archäologisch-epigraphische Mitteilungen aus
+Österreich-Ungarn_, xix. 154-157). It was at Edessa that Caracalla, who
+made it a military colony under the style of Colonia Marcia Edessenorum,
+spent the winter of 216-217, and near there that he was murdered. The
+religious philosophical treatise preserved under the title of _Book of
+the Laws of the Lands_ was probably produced at this time by a pupil of
+Bardesanes, and the _Acts of Thomas_ in its original form may have
+followed not long after.
+
+_Sassanian Period._--In 226 the Parthian empire gave place to the new
+kingdom of the Sassanidae, whose claim to the ancient Achaemenian empire
+led to constant struggle with Rome in which Edessa naturally suffered.
+The native state was restored by Gordian in 242; but in 244 it became
+again directly subject to Rome. The Edessan martyrs Sharbel and
+Barsamya, whose "Acts" in legendary form have come down to us, may have
+perished in the Decian persecution. In 260 the city was besieged by the
+Persians under Shapur I., and Valerian was defeated and made prisoner by
+its gates. Odaenathus of Palmyra (d. 267), however, wrested Mesopotamia
+from the Persians; but Aurelian defeated his successor Zenobia at Emesa
+(273), and Carus, who died in 283 in an expedition against the Persians,
+and Galerius (297) carried the frontier again to the Tigris.
+Diocletian's persecution secured the martyr's crown for the Edessenes
+Shamona, Guria (297), and Habbib (309), and shortly thereafter Lucian
+"the martyr," who though born at Samosata received his training at
+Edessa; but the bishop Qona, who laid the foundations of "the great
+church" by the sacred pool, somehow escaped. Edessa can claim no share
+in "the Persian Sage" Aphrahat or Afrahat (Aphraates); but Ephraem,
+after bewailing in Nisibis the sufferings of the great Persian war under
+Constantius and Julian, when Jovian in 363 ceded most of Mesopotamia to
+Shapur II., the persecutor of the Christians, settled in Edessa, which
+as the seat of his famous school (called "the Persian") grew greatly in
+importance, and attracted scholars from all directions. He taught and
+wrote vigorously against the Arians and other heretics, and although
+just after his death (373) the emperor Valens banished the orthodox from
+Edessa, they returned on the emperor's death in 378. Under Zenobius,
+disciple of Ephraem, studied the voluminous writer, Isaac of Antioch (d.
+circ. 460). Rabbula perhaps owed his elevation to the see of Edessa
+(411-435), in the year which produced the oldest dated Syriac MS., to
+his asceticism, and it was to his time that the sojourn there of the
+"Man of God" (Alexis) was assigned; but he won from the Nestorians the
+title of the Tyrant of Edessa. In particular he exerted himself to stamp
+out the use of the Diatessaron in favour of the four Gospels, the Syriac
+version of which probably now took the form known as the Peshitta. When
+the popular Nestorianism of the Syrians was condemned at Ephesus (431)
+it began to gravitate eastwards, Nisibis becoming its eventual
+headquarters; but Edessa and the western Syrians refused to bow to the
+Council of Chalcedon (451) when it condemned Monophysitism. In and
+around Edessa the theological strife raged hotly.[21] When, however,
+Zeno's edict (489) ordered the closing of the school of the Persians at
+Edessa, East and West drifted apart more and more; the ecclesiastical
+writer Narsai, "the Harp of the Holy Spirit," fled to Nisibis about 489.
+Till about this time Syriac influence was strong in Armenia, and some
+Syriac works have survived only in Armenian translations. In the opening
+years of the 6th century the Persian-Roman War (502-506) found a
+chronicler in the anonymous Edessene history known till recently as the
+Chronicle of Joshua Stylites. Whether Edessa received from the emperor
+Justin I. the additional name of Justinopolis may be uncertain (see
+Hallier, _op. cit._ p. 128); but it seems to have been renewed and
+fortified after the "fourth" flood in 525 (Procop. _Pers._ ii. 27; _De
+aedific._ ii. 7). About this time, according to Nöldeke, an anonymous
+Edessene wrote the Romance of Julian the Apostate, which so many Arab
+writers use as a history. Chosroes I. Anushirwan succeeded in 540,
+according to the last entry in the Edessene Chronicle, in exacting a
+large tribute from Edessa; but in 544 he besieged it in vain. A few
+years later Jacob Baradaeus, with Edessa as centre of his bishopric, was
+carrying on the propaganda of Monophysitism which won for the adherents
+of that creed the name of Jacobites (q.v.). The valuable Syriac
+Chronicle just referred to probably was compiled in the latter half of
+this century.
+
+_Islam._--In the first decade of the next century Edessa was taken by
+Chosroes II., and a large part of the population transported to eastern
+Persia. Within a score of years it was recovered by the emperor
+Heraclius, who reviewed a large army under its walls. The prophet of
+Islam was now, however, building up his power in Arabia, and although
+Heraclius paid no heed to the letter demanding his adhesion which he
+received from Medina (628), and the deputation of fifteen Rahawiyin who
+paid homage in 630 were not Edessenes but South Arabians, a few years
+later (636?) Heraclius's attempts, from Edessa as a centre, to effect an
+organized opposition to the victorious Arabs were defeated by Sa'd, and
+he fell back on Samosata. The terms on which Edessa definitely passed
+into the hands of the Moslems (638) under Riyad are not certain
+(Baladhuri). As it now ceased to be a frontier city it lost in
+importance. In 668 occurred another destructive flood (Theophanes, p.
+537), and in 678 an earthquake which destroyed part of the "old church,"
+which the caliph Mo'awiya I. is said to have repaired. To the latter
+part of the century belongs the activity of Edessa's bishop Jacob, whose
+chronicle is unfortunately lost. It may have been the impulse given by
+the final supremacy of the caliphate to the long process which
+eventually substituted a new branch of Semitic speech for the Aramaic
+(which had now prevailed for a millennium and a half), that led Jacob to
+adopt the Greek vowel signs for use in Syriac. A century later
+Theophilus of Edessa (d. 785), author of a lost history, translated into
+Syriac "the two books of the poet Homer on the Conquest of the city of
+Ilion." When the Bagdad caliphs lost control of their dominions, Edessa
+shared the fortunes of western Mesopotamia, changing with the rise and
+fall of Egyptian dynasties and Arab chieftains. In the 10th century
+al-Mas'udi, writing in the very year in which it happened, tells how the
+Mahommedan ruler of Edessa, with the permission of the caliph, purchased
+peace of the emperor Romanus Lecapenus by surrendering to him the napkin
+of Jesus of Nazareth, wherewith he had dried himself after his baptism.
+The translation of the Holy Icon of Christ from Edessa is commemorated
+on the 16th of August (Cal. Byzant). A few years later Ibn Haukal (978)
+estimates the number of churches in the city at more than 300, and
+al-Mokaddasi (985) describes its cathedral, with vaulted ceiling covered
+with mosaics, as one of the four wonders of the world. In 1031 the
+emperor recovered Edessa; but in 1040 it fell into the hands of the
+Seljuks, whose progress had added a large element of Armenian refugees
+to the population of Osrhoëne. There is no reason, therefore, to
+discredit Maqrizi's statement that it was three brother architects from
+Edessa that the Armenian minister Badr al-Gamali employed to build three
+of the fine city gates of Cairo (1087-1091). The empire soon recovered
+Edessa, but the resident made himself independent. Thoros applied for
+help to Baldwin, brother and successor of Godfrey of Bouillon in the
+First Crusade, who in 1098 took possession of the town and made it the
+capital of a Burgundian countship, which included Samosata and Sarug',
+and was for half a century the eastern bulwark of the kingdom of
+Jerusalem.[22] The local Armenian historian, however, Matthew of Edessa,
+tells of oppression, decrease of population, ruin of churches, neglect
+of agriculture. With the campaign of Maudud in 1110 fortune began to
+favour the Moslems. Edessa had to endure siege after siege. Finally, in
+1144 it was stormed, Matthew being among the slain, by 'Imad ud-Din
+Zengi, ruler of Mosul, under Joscelin II., an achievement celebrated as
+"the conquest of conquests," for laying the responsibility of which not
+on God but on the absence of the Frankish troops, an Edessan monk, John,
+bishop of Harran (d. 1165), brought down upon himself the whole bench of
+bishops. Edessa suffered still more in 1146 after an attempt to recover
+it. Churches were now turned into mosques. The consternation produced in
+Europe by the news of its fate led to "the Second Crusade." In 1182 it
+fell to Saladin, whose nephew recovered it when it had temporarily
+passed (1234) to the sultan of Rum; but the "Eye of Mesopotamia" never
+recovered the brilliance of earlier days. The names it contributed to
+Arabic literature are unimportant. By timely surrender (1268) it escaped
+the sufferings inflicted by Hulaku and his Monguls on Saru'g
+(Barhebraeus, _Chron. Arab._, Beirut ed., 486). Mostaufi describes a
+great cupola of finely worked stone still standing by a court over a
+hundred yards square (1340). Ali b. Yazd in his account of the campaigns
+of Timur, who reduced Mesopotamia in 1393, still calls the city (1425)
+Ruha. In 1637, when Amurath IV. conquered Bagdad and annexed
+Mesopotamia, it passed finally into the hands of the Turks, by whom it
+is called Urfa.
+
+_The Modern Town._--Urfa lies north-east of the Nimrud Dagh. It is
+surrounded by a wall, strengthened by square towers at distances of
+18-20 steps, probably dating in its present condition from medieval
+Mahommedan times. On a height in a corner towards the west, overtopping
+the town by 100-200 ft., are the remains of the old citadel, and the two
+famous Corinthian columns[23] known as "the Throne of Nimrud." In the
+hollow between this height and the town rise two springs which form
+ponds, the farther removed of which from the citadel is known as Birket
+al-Khalil, doubtless the Callirrhoe of the classical writers, and
+contains the sacred fish, estimated by J.S. Buckingham at 20,000, and
+the nearer as 'Ain Zalkha (i.e. Zuleikha, the wife of Potiphar). On the
+north edge of the Birket al-Khalil (see plan in Sachau, p. 197) is the
+great mosque of Abraham, the interior of which is described by J.S.
+Buckingham (_Travels_, pp. 108-110). Diagonally opposite the mosque is a
+house with a square tower, which is locally believed to occupy the place
+of the famous ancient school. The waters of the two pools make their way
+in a single stream southwards out of the town. The once dangerous stream
+Daisan ([Greek: Skirtos]) no longer flows southwards through the town,
+but encircles it on the north and east in the channel of the old moat.
+This stream, now called Kara Kuyun, and the other are exhausted in the
+irrigation of the gardens lying south-east of the town, except when
+fuller than usual, when they reach the Balih. Not far east of the sacred
+pool is the largest building in the town, the recent Armenian Gregorian
+cathedral, whose American bells were first heard during Sachau's visit
+in 1879. About the middle of the town is the largest mosque, Ulu 'Gami
+(parts of it probably pre-Islamic), which probably occupies the site of
+the Christian church reckoned by the early Mahommedan writers as one of
+the wonders of the world. In the bazaar, which lies between the chief
+mosque and the sacred pool, and contains several streets, are displayed
+not only the native woollen stuffs, pottery and silver work, but also a
+considerable variety of European goods, especially cloth stuffs. The
+principal manufactures are fine cotton stuffs and yellow leather. The
+streets are of course narrow and winding; but the houses are well built
+of stone. The outskirts are occupied by melon gardens, vineyards and
+mulberry plantations. The fertile plain south of the town is noted for
+its wheat and fine pasture. The climate is healthy except in summer; the
+"Aleppo button" (see BAGDAD, vilayet), a painful boil, is common. The
+rocky heights south and west of the town, whence the building material
+is largely obtained, are full of natural and artificial caverns, once
+used as dwellings, cloisters and graves, where are most of the
+inscriptions published by Sachau, who also visited and describes (pp.
+204-206) the Der Ya'qub, nearly two hours distant.
+
+Urfa is the capital of a sanjak of the same name, in the vilayet of
+Aleppo. The population was estimated by Olivier in 1796 at 20,000 to
+24,000, by Buckingham at 50,000, by Chernik in 1873 at 40,000, by Sachau
+in 1879 at 50,000, in Baedeker's Handbook in 1906 at 30,000. Vice-Consul
+Fitzmaurice said that before December 1895 it was close on 65,000, of
+whom about 20,000 were Armenian, 3000 or 4000 Jacobites,
+Syrian-Catholic, Greek-Catholic, Maronites and Jews, and the remaining
+40,000 Turkish, Kurdian and Arab Mahommedans. Two barbarous massacres
+occurred on the 28th and 29th of October and the 28th and 29th of
+December 1895; 126 Armenian families were absolutely wiped out. He
+believes that 8000 Armenians perished in the second massacre. The
+Deutsche Orient-Mission has its chief seat in Urfa, and there have for
+years been American and French missions. The Germans have an orphanage
+with 300 Armenian children, a carpet factory and a medical station. The
+American school had some years ago 250 pupils.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Inscriptional: H. Pognon, _Inscriptions sémitiques de la
+  Syrie, de la Mésopotamie et de la région de Mossoul_ (1907, 1908);
+  Sachau, "Edessenische Inschriften," in _Z.D.M.G._ xxxvi. 142-167; F.C.
+  Burkitt, "The Throne of Nimrod," in _P.S.B.A._ xxviii. 149-155 (1906);
+  J. Rendel Harris, _The Cult of the Heavenly Twins_ (1906); Nöldeke,
+  "Syrische Inschriften," in _Z.A._ xxi. 151-161, 375-388 (1908).
+  Literary: Ludwig Hallier, _Untersuchungen über die Edessenische
+  Chronik mit dem Syrischen Text_ (1892); F. Nau, _Analyse des parties
+  inédites de la chronique attribuée à Denys de Tell-mahré_ (1898);
+  J.-B. Chabot, _Chronique de Denys de Tell-Mahré, quatrième partie_
+  (1895); W. Wright, _The Chronicle of Joshua the Stylite_ (1882);
+  Bayer, _Historia Osrhoena et Edessena_ (St Petersburg, 1784), collects
+  the references in classical authors; for the coinage see references in
+  von Gutschmid (see below). Discussions: A. von Gutschmid,
+  "Untersuchungen über die Geschichte des Königreichs Osroëne" (in
+  _Mémoires de l'acad. imper. des sciences de St-Pétersb._ vii. sér.
+  tome 35, No. 1, 1887); L.-J. Tixeront, _Les Origines de l'église
+  d'Édesse et la légende d'Abgar_ (1888); R.A. Lipsius, _Die
+  Edessenische Abgarsage kritisch untersucht_ (1880); K.C.A. Matthes,
+  _Die Edess. Abgarsage auf ihre Fortbildung untersucht_ (1882); F. Nau,
+  _Une Biographie inédite de Bardesane l'astrologue_ (1897); _Bardesane
+  l'astrologue: le livre des Lois des Pays_ (1899); A. Hilgenfeld,
+  _Bardesanes, der letzte Gnostiker_ (1864); A.A. Bevan, "The Hymn of
+  the Soul" (in _Texts and Studies_, 1897); F.C. Burkitt, _Early Eastern
+  Christianity_ (1904); J.R. Harris, _The Dioscuri in Christian Legend_
+  (1903), and _The Cult of the Heavenly Twins_ (1906); the histories of
+  Rome, Persia, Crusades, Mongols, &c.; Rubens Duval, _Histoire
+  politique, religieuse et littéraire d'Édesse jusqu'à la première
+  croisade_ (1892), a useful compilation reprinted from the _Journ.
+  As._; the excellent article by E. Meyer in Pauly-Wissowa,
+  _Realencyclopädie_, 1933-1938. Topography: J.S. Buckingham, _Travels
+  in Mesopotamia_ (1827); E. Sachau, _Reise in Syrien u. Mesopotamien_
+  (1883), 189-210; cf. Duval, _op. cit._ chap, i.; C. Ritter,
+  _Erdkunde_, xi. 315-356. Map of town in Niebuhr, _Voyage en Arabie_,
+  reproduced with modifications in Wright, _Chron. Josh. Styl._; also a
+  map in Reclus, _Univ. Geog._ ix. 232. Four pictures of the town in
+  Burkitt, _Early East. Christ._     (H. W. H.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] So Appian, _Syr._ 57; cp. Steph. Byz., s.v. [Greek: Edessa: dia
+    tên tôn hudatôn rhumên.]
+
+  [2] Steph. Byz., s.v. [Greek: Batnai].
+
+  [3] Dio, _passim._
+
+  [4] Isidore Charac. 1 (Müller, _Geog. Gr. Min._, i. 246).
+
+  [5] Several times in Pliny, _Nat. Hist._
+
+  [6] _CIL._ vi. 1797.
+
+  [7] _Hist. Osrhoena et Edessena_, p. 33.
+
+  [8] Written [Greek: Osroês] in Dio Cassius, _Excerpta_, lxviii. 22.
+
+  [9] See the reff. collected by M. Streck, _M.V.G._, 1906. The name
+    occurs in the same company in the fragmentary tablet K. 1904. The
+    mountain Ru-u-[a], mentioned thrice by Tiglath-pileser IV., is placed
+    by Billerbeck near Hamadan (_Sandschak Suleimania_, 82, 86, and map,
+    1898).
+
+  [10] See further Payne Smith, _Thesaurus_ 110 b.
+
+  [11] In translating from the Greek; also in Ephraim (Duval, _Hist._
+    22, n. 4) and the Acts of Sharbil (Cureton, _Anc. Syr. Doc._ 41).
+
+  [12] On a possible restoration under the name of "Antioch on the
+    Callirrhoe" see above.
+
+  [13] The Edessans used to call their town "the city," or "the
+    daughter," "of the Parthians" (Cureton, _Anc. Syr. Doc._, 41 ult., 97
+    l. 7; 106 l. 12).
+
+  [14] The portion of the Mesopotamian steppe under Osrhoënic influence
+    was, according to Nöldeke (_Zeitsch. Ass._ xxi. 153, 1908), called
+    'Arabh in Syriac.
+
+  [15] The inscription, which is difficult to read, connects the
+    structure with Shalmat the queen, daughter of Ma'nu, who cannot be
+    identified with certainty, and refers to some image(s), which
+    probably excited the pious vandalism of the Arabs.
+
+  [16] Nebo and Bel (_Doctr. Addai_, 31) may come from the Old
+    Testament (Burkitt).
+
+  [17] _S.B.A.W._, 1904, 910 ff.
+
+  [18] So, e.g. F.C. Burkitt, _Early Eastern Christianity_, 72.
+
+  [19] Marquart, _Ostasiat. und osteurop. Streitzüge_, 292 ff.
+
+  [20] Marquart, _op. cit._
+
+  [21] Some one found time, however, to produce the oldest _dated_ MS.
+    of a portion of the Bible in any language.
+
+  [22] The counts were: Baldwin I. (1098), Baldwin II. (1100), Joscelin
+    I. (1119), Joscelin II. (1131-1147).
+
+  [23] Pictures in Burkitt, _Early East. Christ._, frontispiece;
+    _P.S.B.A._ xxviii. 151 f.; J.R. Harris, _The Heavenly Twins_.
+
+
+
+
+EDFU, in Coptic _Atbo_, a town of Upper Egypt, 484 m. S.S.E. of Cairo by
+rail, on the W. bank of the Nile, the railway station being on the
+opposite side of the river. Pop. (1907) 19,262. The inhabitants
+manufacture earthenware, which finds ready sale all through Egypt. The
+ancient Atbo (_Apollinopolis Magna_) was capital of the second nome of
+Upper Egypt. The great sandstone temple is practically complete (see
+ARCHITECTURE: _Egypt_). It was built on the site of an earlier structure
+entirely in the time of the Ptolemies. The central part of the building,
+begun by Ptolemy III. Euergetes in 237 B.C., was finished by his
+successor in 212; the portico, court, pylons and surrounding wall were
+added by Ptolemy Euergetes II., Soter II. and Alexander I.; but the
+decoration was not finished till 57 B.C. in the reign of Ptolemy XIII.
+Neos Dionysus. The god of Atbo was a form of Horus (Apollo) as the
+sun-god; his most characteristic representation is as the disk of the
+sun with outspread wings, so often seen over the doors of shrines, at
+the top of stelae, &c. In the temple, where he is often figured as a
+falcon-headed man, he is associated with Hathor of Dendera and the child
+Harsemteus.
+
+  See Baedeker's _Egypt_; Ed. Naville, _Textes relatifs au mythe d'Horus
+  recueillis dans le temple d'Edfou_.     (F. Ll. G.)
+
+
+
+
+EDGAR (EADGAR), king of the English (944-975), was the younger son of
+Edmund the Magnificent and Ælfgifu. As early as 955 he signed a charter
+of his uncle Eadred, and in 957 the Mercian nobles, discontented with
+the rule of his elder brother Eadwig, made him king of England north of
+the Thames. On the death of his brother in October 959 Edgar became king
+of a united England. Immediately on his accession to the throne of
+Mercia Edgar recalled St Dunstan from exile and bestowed on him first
+the bishopric of Worcester, and then that of London. In 961 Dunstan was
+translated to Canterbury, and throughout Edgar's reign he was his chief
+adviser, and to him must be attributed much of the peace and prosperity
+of this time.
+
+The reign of Edgar was somewhat uneventful, but two things stand out
+clearly: his ecclesiastical policy and his imperial position in Britain.
+Edgar and Dunstan were alike determined to reform the great monastic
+houses, and to secure that they should be restored once more to their
+true owners and not remain in the hands of the secular priests or
+_canonici_, whose life and discipline alike seem to have been extremely
+lax. In this reform Edgar was helped not only by St Dunstan but also by
+Oswald of Worcester and Æthelwold of Winchester. The priests of the old
+and new monasteries at Winchester, at Chertsey and at Milton Abbas were
+replaced by monks, and in monastic discipline the old rule of St
+Benedict was restored in all its strictness.
+
+The coronation of Edgar was, for some unexplained reason, delayed till
+the Whitsunday of 973. It took place with much ceremony at Bath, and was
+followed shortly after by a general submission to Edgar at Chester. Six,
+or (according to later chroniclers) eight kings, including the kings of
+Scotland and Strathclyde, plighted their faith that they would be the
+king's fellow-workers on sea and land. The historical truth of this
+story has been much questioned; there seems to be little doubt that it
+is true in its main outlines, though we need not accept the details
+about Edgar's having been rowed on the Dee by eight kings.
+
+Two isolated and unexplained incidents are also recorded in the
+chronicle: first, the ravaging of Westmorland by the Scandinavian
+Thored, son of Gunnere, in 967; and second, the ravaging of Thanet by
+Edgar's own command in 970.
+
+Edgar's death took place in the year 975, and he was buried at
+Glastonbury. By his vigorous rule and his statesmanlike policy Edgar won
+the approval of his people, and in the Saxon chronicle we have poems
+commemorating his coronation and death, and describing his general
+character. The only fault ascribed to him is a too great love for
+foreigners and for foreign customs. Edgar strengthened the hands of the
+provincial administration, and to him has been attributed the
+reorganization of the English fleet. The characteristic feature of his
+rule was his love of peace, and by efficient administration he secured
+it.
+
+Edgar formed an irregular union in 961 with Wulfthryth, an inmate of the
+convent at Wilton, who bore him a daughter Eadgyth. He next married
+Æthelflæd, "the white duck," daughter of Earl Ordmær, who bore him a
+son, afterwards known as Edward the Martyr. Finally he was united to
+Ælfthryth, daughter of Earl Ordgar, who became the mother of the
+Ætheling Edmund (d. 971) and of Æthelred the Unready.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--_Saxon Chronicle_ (ed. Plummer and Earle, Oxford), _sub.
+  ann._; _Vita Sancti Oswaldi_ (_Historians of the Church of York_, ed.
+  Raine, Rolls Series); William of Malmesbury, _Gesta regum_ (ed.
+  Stubbs, Rolls Series); Birch, _Cartularium Saxonicum_, vol. iii. Nos.
+  1047-1319; F. Liebermann, _A.-S. Laws_, i. 192-216; "Florence of
+  Worcester" (_Mon. Hist. Brit._); E.W. Robertson, _Historical Essays_,
+  pp. 189-215.     (A. Mw.)
+
+
+
+
+EDGAR, or EADGAR (c. 1050-c. 1130), called the Ætheling, was the son of
+Edward, a son of the English king Edmund Ironside, by his wife Agatha, a
+kinswoman of the emperor Henry II., and was born probably in Hungary
+some time before 1057, the year of his father's death. After the death
+of Harold in 1066, Archbishop Aldred and the citizens of London desired
+to make him king, but on the advance of William, Edgar and his
+supporters made their submission. In 1068, after the failure of the
+first rising of the north, Edgar retired to Scotland, when his sister
+Margaret married the Scottish king, Malcolm Canmore. Next year he
+returned to take part in the second rising, but, this proving no more
+successful than the first, he again took refuge in Scotland. In 1074 he
+went to Normandy and made peace with William. In the struggle between
+Henry I. and Robert of Normandy, Edgar sided with the latter. He was
+taken prisoner at the battle of Tinchebrai in 1106, but was subsequently
+released. The date of his death is uncertain, but he was certainly alive
+about 1125.
+
+
+
+
+EDGECUMBE, or EDGECOMBE, the name of a celebrated west of England
+family, taken from the manor of Edgecumbe in Cornwall. One of its
+earlier members was Sir Richard Edgecumbe (d. 1489), who was descended
+from a Richard Edgecumbe who flourished during the reign of Edward I.
+Richard was a member of parliament in 1467; afterwards he joined Henry,
+earl of Richmond, in Brittany, returned with the earl to England, and
+fought at Bosworth, where he was knighted. He received rich rewards from
+Henry, now King Henry VII., who also sent him on errands to Scotland, to
+Ireland and to Brittany, and he died at Morlaix on the 8th of September
+1489. His son and successor, Sir Piers Edgecumbe, went to France with
+Henry VIII. in 1513, and when he died on the 14th of August 1539 he left
+with other issue a son, Sir Richard Edgecumbe (1499-1562), a cultured
+and hospitable man, who is celebrated through Richard Carew's _Friendly
+Remembrance of Sir Richard Edgecumbe_. Sir Richard's eldest son, Piers
+or Peter Edgecumbe (1536-1607), was a member of parliament under
+Elizabeth for about thirty years.
+
+Another famous member of this family was Richard, 1st baron Edgecumbe
+(1680-1758), a son of Sir Richard Edgecumbe. Educated at Trinity
+College, Cambridge, he was successively member of parliament for St
+Germans, Plympton and Lostwithiel from 1701 to 1742; on two occasions he
+served as a lord of the treasury; and from 1724 to 1742 he was
+paymaster-general for Ireland, becoming chancellor of the duchy of
+Lancaster in 1743. Edgecumbe was a faithful follower of Sir Robert
+Walpole, in whose interests he managed the elections for the Cornish
+boroughs, and his elevation to the peerage, which took place in 1742,
+was designed to prevent him from giving evidence about Walpole's
+expenditure of the secret service money. He died on the 22nd of November
+1758. His son and successor, Richard, the 2nd baron (1716-1761), was
+comptroller of the royal household, a member of parliament, and a
+major-general in the army. A wit, a writer of verse, a gambler and an
+intimate friend of Horace Walpole, "Dick Edgecumbe" died unmarried on
+the 10th of May 1761.
+
+Edgecumbe's brother, George, 1st earl of Mount Edgecumbe (1721-1795),
+was a naval officer who saw a great deal of service during the Seven
+Years' War. Succeeding to the barony on the 1st baron's death in 1761 he
+became an admiral and treasurer of the royal household; he was created
+Viscount Mount-Edgecumbe in 1781 and earl of Mount-Edgecumbe in 1789. He
+died on the 4th of February 1795, his only son being his successor,
+Richard, the 2nd earl (1764-1839), the ancestor of the present earl and
+the author of _Musical Reminiscences of an Old Amateur_. He died on the
+26th of September 1839. His son, Ernest Augustus, the 3rd earl
+(1797-1861), wrote _Extracts from Journals kept during the Revolutions
+at Rome and Palermo_.
+
+
+
+
+EDGE HILL, an elevated ridge in Warwickshire, England, near the border
+of Oxfordshire. The north-western face is an abrupt escarpment of the
+lias, and the summit of the ridge is almost level for nearly 2 m., at a
+height somewhat exceeding 700 ft. The escarpment overlooks a rich
+lowland watered by streams tributary to the Avon; the gentle eastern
+slope sends its waters to the Cherwell, and the ridge thus forms part of
+the divide between the basins of the Severn and the Thames. Edge Hill
+gave name to the first battle of the Great Rebellion (q.v.), fought on
+the 23rd of October 1642. Charles I., marching on London from the
+north-west, was here met by the parliamentary forces under Robert
+Devereux, earl of Essex. The royalists were posted on the hill while the
+enemy was in the plain before Kineton. But the rash advice of Prince
+Rupert determined the king to give up the advantage of position; he
+descended to the attack, and though Rupert himself was successful
+against the opposing cavalry, he was checked by the arrival of a
+regiment with artillery under Hampden, and, in the meantime, the
+royalist infantry was driven back. The parliamentarians, however, lost
+the more heavily, and though both sides claimed the advantage, the king
+was able to advance and occupy Banbury.
+
+
+
+
+EDGEWORTH, MARIA (1767-1849), Irish novelist, second child and eldest
+daughter of Richard Lovell Edgeworth (q.v.) and his first wife, Anna
+Maria Elers, was born in the house of her maternal grandparents at Black
+Bourton, Oxfordshire, on the 1st of January 1767. Her early efforts in
+fiction were of a sufficiently melodramatic character; for she
+recollected one of her schoolgirl compositions, in which the hero wore a
+mask made of the dried skin taken from a dead man's face. Her holidays
+were often spent in the house of the eccentric Thomas Day, for whom she
+entertained a genuine respect. She had ample opportunities for society
+among her father's neighbours in Ireland, among whom were the second
+Lord Longford, whose daughter, "Kitty" Pakenham, became later duchess of
+Wellington, Lady Moira at Castle Forbes, and Maria's aunt, Margaret
+Ruxton, at Black Castle. She gained a first-hand experience of the Irish
+peasantry by acting as her father's assistant in the management of the
+estate. The Edgeworths were in Ireland from 1793 onwards through that
+dangerous period, and Maria's letters, always gay and natural, make very
+light of their anxieties and their real perils.
+
+Mr Edgeworth encouraged his daughter's literary instincts. It has been
+the fashion to regard his influence over Maria's work as altogether
+deplorable, but against the disadvantages arising from his interference
+must be weighed the stimulus she undoubtedly derived from his powerful
+mind. Her first publication was a plea for female education, _Letters to
+Literary Ladies_ (1795), and in 1796 appeared the collection of stories
+known as _The Parent's Assistant_ (2nd ed., 6 vols., 1800), an
+unpromising title which was not chosen by the author. The stories had
+been submitted as they were written to the juvenile critics of the
+Edgeworth nursery. They were therefore children's stories for children,
+even though the morals were Mr Edgeworth's. In 1798 Mr Edgeworth's
+fourth marriage threatened the family harmony, but Maria soon became a
+close friend of her stepmother. _Practical Education_ (2 vols., 1798)
+was written in conjunction with her father, who also collaborated with
+her in the _Essay on Irish Bulls_ (1802). Miss Edgeworth's first novel,
+_Castle Rackrent, an Hibernian Tale taken from Facts, and from the
+Manners of the Irish Squires before the year 1782_, was written without
+her father's supervision, and appeared anonymously in 1800. It is the
+story of an Irish estate and its owners, the Rackrents, as told by
+Thady, the steward. Its success was immediate, and a second edition soon
+appeared with the author's name. Perhaps because of the absence of
+Richard Lovell Edgeworth's co-operation, the book is the most natural
+and vigorous of her novels. The course of the story is not altered to
+suit any moral, and the personages appear to be drawn immediately from
+the natives of Edgeworthstown, though Miss Edgeworth asserts that only
+Thady himself was an actual portrait. In her realistic pictures of Irish
+peasant life she opened up a new vein in fiction, and even if the
+unquestionable excellences of _Castle Rackrent_ were less, it would
+still be a noteworthy book. In the "General Preface" to the 1829 edition
+of his novels Sir Walter Scott, writing of the publication of
+_Waverley_, says: "I felt that something might be attempted for my own
+country, of the same kind with that which Miss Edgeworth so fortunately
+achieved for Ireland," and in the "Postscript, which should have been a
+preface," in the original edition of _Waverley_, he describes his aim as
+being "in some distant degree to emulate the admirable Irish portraits
+of Miss Edgeworth, so different from the 'Teagues' and 'dear joys' who
+so long, with the most perfect family resemblance to each other,
+occupied the drama and the novel." _Belinda_ (1801) is a society novel,
+and one of her best books. Mr Saintsbury thinks that Miss Austen's
+heroines owe something of their naturalness to Belinda, who was one of
+the earliest to break with the tradition of fainting and blushing.
+_Moral Tales for Young People_ (5 vols.) and _Early Lessons_, which
+included "Harry and Lucy," "Rosamond" and "Frank," appeared in 1801.
+
+In 1802 the Edgeworths went abroad, first to Brussels and then to Paris.
+They had already connexions in Paris through their kinsman, the abbé
+Henri Allen Edgeworth de Firmont, who was, however, then in exile. They
+met all the notabilities in Paris, and Maria refused an offer of
+marriage from a Swedish count named Edelcrantz. Although _Leonora_, not
+published until four years later, is said to have been written to meet
+his taste, she apparently remained then and always heart-whole; but her
+stepmother thought otherwise, and maintained that she suffered severely
+for her decision (_Memoir_, i. 144). Returning to Edgeworthstown, Miss
+Edgeworth resumed her writing, which was always done in the rooms
+commonly used by the whole family. _Popular Tales_ was published in
+1804, and _The Modern Griselda_ in the same year; _Leonora_ in 1806; and
+in 1809 the first series of _Tales of Fashionable Life_, three volumes
+containing "Ennui," "Madame de Fleury," "Almeria," "The Dun" and
+"Manoeuvring"; the second series (3 vols., 1812) included "The
+Absentee," one of her best tales, which was originally designed as a
+play, "Vivian" and "Émilie de Coulanges." In 1813 Maria and her parents
+spent a considerable time in London, and her society was much sought
+after. When _Waverley_ was published, Miss Edgeworth received a copy
+from the publishers, and at once recognized the authorship. She wrote a
+long letter of appreciation (23rd of October 1814) to "the author of
+_Waverley_," which she began with the phrase _aut Scotus, aut diabolus_,
+but the letter was merely acknowledged by the publishers. _Patronage_ (4
+vols., 1814), the longest of her novels, and _Harrington, a tale_, and
+_Ormond, a tale_ (3 vols., 1817) complete the list of the works which
+received what her father called his _imprimatur_.
+
+After his death in 1817 Miss Edgeworth occupied herself with completing
+his _Memoirs_, which were published in 1820. The book was the excuse for
+an attack on Mr Edgeworth's reputation in the July number of the
+_Quarterly Review_, which Miss Edgeworth had the courage to leave
+unread. Her life at Edgeworthstown was varied by visits to London, to
+Lord Lansdowne at Bowood, Wiltshire, to the Misses Sneyd in
+Staffordshire, and to many other friends. In 1820 she was again in
+Paris, and in 1823 she spent a happy fortnight with the Scotts at
+Abbotsford. In 1825 Scott went to Edgeworthstown, and their relations
+were always cordial.
+
+Miss Edgeworth's production was less after her father's death. Sequels
+to "Rosamond," "Frank," "Harry and Lucy" in the _Early Lessons_ were
+published in 1822-1825. _Comic Dramas_ appeared in 1817, and _Helen_ in
+1834. She worked to the last, and in 1846 laboured strenuously for the
+relief of the famine-stricken Irish peasants. She died on the 22nd of
+May 1849.
+
+Miss Edgeworth's novels are distinguished by good sense, humour and an
+easy flowing style. As the construction of a plot is not her strong
+point, she is generally more successful in tales than in lengthy novels.
+The vivacity of her dialogues is extraordinary; and in them her
+characters reveal themselves in the most natural way possible. Her books
+are character-studies rather than intensely interesting narratives.
+Sobriety of judgment is seen throughout; and passion, romance and poetry
+rarely, if ever, shed their lustre on her pages. Three of her aims were
+to paint national manners, to enforce morality, and to teach fashionable
+society by satirizing the lives of the idle and worldly. She expressly
+calls some of her stories "Moral Tales"; but they all fall under this
+category. In her pages the heroic virtues give place to prudence,
+industry, kindness and sweetness of temper. There are few instances of
+overwhelming emotions or tumultuous passions in her works; and it is
+remarkable how little the love of nature appears. She never uses
+material which does not yield some direct moral lesson. But the
+freshness of her stories, her insight into character, lively dialogues,
+originality of invention, and delightfully clear style render it quite
+possible to read her works in succession without any sense of
+weariness. Among the many sweet memories her unsullied pages have
+bequeathed to the world, not the least precious is her own noble
+character, which ever responded to all that is best and most enduring in
+human nature.
+
+  See _A Memoir of Maria Edgeworth, with a Selection from her Letters_
+  (1867), by her stepmother, F.A. Edgeworth, privately printed. A
+  selection from this was made by Augustus J.C. Hare, and printed under
+  the title of _The Life and Letters of Maria Edgeworth_ (2 vols.,
+  1894). See also _Maria Edgeworth_ (1883), by Helen Zimmern, in the
+  "Eminent Women" series; Grace A. Oliver, _A Study of Maria Edgeworth_
+  ... (3rd ed., Boston, U.S.A., 1882); and _Maria Edgeworth_ (1904), by
+  the Hon. Emily Lawless in the "English Men of Letters" series. Among
+  the numerous shorter articles dealing with Maria Edgeworth and the
+  family circle at Edgeworthstown may be mentioned a friendly
+  appreciation of Miss Edgeworth's novels by George Saintsbury in
+  _Macmillan's Magazine_ (July 1895), and a charming description of her
+  family circle and surroundings in the preface supplied by Lady
+  Thackeray Ritchie to Macmillan's edition of the novels (1895).
+
+
+
+
+EDGEWORTH, RICHARD LOVELL (1744-1817), British writer, was born at Bath
+on the 31st of May 1744. The greater part of his life, however, was
+spent at Edgeworthtown, or Edgeworthstown, in the county of Longford,
+Ireland, where the Edgeworth family had been settled for upwards of 150
+years. He was of gentle blood--his father being the son of Colonel
+Francis Edgeworth, and his mother, Jane Lovell, being the daughter of
+Samuel Lovell, a Welsh judge. Richard's mother taught him to read at a
+very early age; and from childhood he had a strong love for mechanical
+science. The Rev. Patrick Hughes initiated him in Lilye's _Latin
+Grammar_--an office he also performed for Goldsmith, who was born on the
+property of the Edgeworths--and his public education began, in August
+1752, in a school at Warwick. He subsequently attended Drogheda school,
+then reputed the best in Ireland; and, after spending two years at a
+school in Longford, entered Trinity College, Dublin, in April 1761, but
+was transferred to Corpus Christi College, Oxford, in October of the
+same year. While still at college, he made a runaway match, marrying at
+Gretna Green, Anna Maria, one of the daughters of Paul Elers of Black
+Bourton, Oxfordshire, an old friend of his father. His eldest son was
+born before Edgeworth reached his twentieth birthday, and his daughter
+Maria in 1767.
+
+Shortly after the birth of his son, he and his wife went to
+Edgeworthstown, but in 1765 they took a house at Hare Hatch, near
+Maidenhead. Edgeworth devoted much time to scientific reading and
+experiments; and he made an attempt to establish telegraphic
+communication (_Memoirs_, 2nd edition, i. 144). He also invented a
+turnip-cutter, a one-wheeled chaise and other contrivances. In the
+pursuit of his mechanical inventions he visited Erasmus Darwin at
+Lichfield, where he met Anna Seward, and her cousin, Honora Sneyd. His
+home was now at Hare Hatch, in Berkshire, where he endeavoured to
+educate his son according to the method explained in Rousseau's _Émile_.
+In later life, however, the ill-success of this experiment led him to
+doubt many of Rousseau's views (_Memoirs_, ii. 374). At the same time he
+kept terms at the Temple, and formed the greatest friendship of his life
+with Thomas Day, the author of _Sandford and Merton_, which was written
+at Edgeworth's suggestion. In 1769, on the death of his father, he gave
+up the idea of being a barrister; but, instead of immediately settling
+on his Irish estate, he spent a considerable time in England and France,
+mainly in Day's company. In Lyons, where he resided for about two years,
+he took an active part in the management of public works intended to
+turn the course of the Rhone. He was summoned to England by the death of
+his wife (March 1773), with whom he was far from happy. Edgeworth
+hurried to Lichfield, to Dr Erasmus Darwin's, and at once declared his
+passion for Honora Sneyd, which had been the cause of his flight to
+France two years before. Miss Sneyd had been the object of attention
+from Thomas Day, but her views on marriage were not submissive enough to
+please him. She had other suitors, among them the unfortunate Major
+André. She married Edgeworth (July 1773), and after residing at
+Edgeworthstown for three years, they settled at Northchurch, in
+Hertfordshire. After six years of domestic happiness, Honora Edgeworth
+died (April 1780), recommending her husband to marry her sister
+Elizabeth; and they were actually married on Christmas Day, 1780.
+
+In 1782 Edgeworth returned to Ireland, determined to improve his estate,
+educate his seven children, and ameliorate the condition of the tenants.
+Up to this point Edgeworth has told his own story in his _Memoirs_. The
+rest of his life is written by his daughter, who opens with a lengthy
+panegyric on her father as a model landlord (_Memoirs_, ii. 12-36). In
+1785 he was associated with others in founding the Royal Irish Academy;
+and, during the two succeeding years, mechanics and agriculture occupied
+most of his time. In October 1789 his friend Day was killed by a fall
+from his horse, and this trial was soon followed by the loss of his
+daughter Honora, who had just reached her fifteenth year. In 1792 the
+health of one of Edgeworth's sons took him to Clifton, where he remained
+with his family for about two years, returning in 1794 to
+Edgeworthstown. Ireland was, at that time, harassed by internal
+disturbances, and threats of a French invasion, and Edgeworth offered to
+establish telegraphic communication of his own invention throughout the
+country. This offer was declined. A full account of the matter is given
+in Edgeworth's _Letter to Lord Charlemont on the Telegraph_; and his
+apparatus is explained in an "Essay on the art of Conveying Swift and
+Secret Intelligence," published in the sixth volume of the _Transactions
+of the Royal Irish Academy_. In the autumn of 1797 the third Mrs
+Edgeworth died.
+
+_Practical Education_ (1798) was written in collaboration with his
+daughter Maria, and embodied the experience of the authors in dealing
+with children. "So commenced," says Miss Edgeworth, "that literary
+partnership which, for so many years, was the pride and joy of my life"
+(_Memoirs_, ii. 170). This book, generally regarded as old-fashioned,
+has a real value in the history of education. Mr Edgeworth's interest in
+the subject had been inspired by the study of Rousseau and by his
+friendship with Thomas Day. But he went beyond Rousseau, who developed
+his theories from his own ingenious mind and related an imaginary
+process. The Edgeworths brought a scientific method to their work. The
+second Mrs Edgeworth (Honora Sneyd) began the collection of actual
+examples of conversations between the children and their elders. This
+was continued patiently by the writers of the book; and their reasonings
+were thus founded on an accurate record of childish methods of thought.
+They deprecated especially any measures that interrupted the child's own
+chain of reasoning. The chapters on special subjects of study,
+chronology, geometry, &c., were written by Richard Lovell Edgeworth;
+those on toys, on rewards and punishments, on temper, &c., by his
+daughter.[1]
+
+In 1798 Edgeworth married Miss Beaufort, and was elected M.P. for the
+borough of St John's Town, Longford. The same year, too, saw a hostile
+landing of the French and a formidable rebellion; and for a short time
+the Edgeworths took refuge in Longford. The winter of 1802 they spent in
+Paris. In 1804 the government accepted his telegraphic apparatus, but
+the installation was left incomplete when the fear of invasion was past.
+In 1802 appeared the _Essay on Irish Bulls_ by Mr and Miss Edgeworth;
+and in 1806 Edgeworth was elected a member of the board of commissioners
+to inquire into Irish education. From 1807 till 1809 much of his time
+was spent on mechanical experiments and in writing the story of his
+life. In 1808 appeared _Professional Education_, and in 1813 his _Essay
+on the Construction of Roads and Carriages_. He died on the 13th of June
+1817, and was buried in the family vault in Edgeworthstown churchyard.
+
+Many of Edgeworth's works were suggested by his zeal for the education
+of his own children. Such were _Poetry Explained for Young People_
+(1802), _Readings in Poetry_ (1816), _A Rational Primer_ (unpublished),
+and the parts of _Early Lessons_ contributed by him. His speeches in the
+Irish parliament have also been published; and numerous essays, mostly
+on scientific subjects, have appeared in the _Philosophical
+Transactions_, the _Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy_, the
+_Monthly Magazine_ and _Nicholson's Journal_. The story of his early
+life, told by himself, is fully as entertaining as the continuation by
+Maria, as it contains less dissertation and more incident. One of his
+daughters by his first marriage, Anna Maria, married Dr Beddoes and
+became the mother of T.L. Beddoes, the poet.
+
+  See _Memoirs of Richard Lovell Edgeworth, Esq._, begun by himself and
+  concluded by his daughter, Maria Edgeworth (2 vols., 1820, 3rd and
+  revised ed. 1844). A selection from this, giving an optimistic view of
+  him, _Richard Lovell Edgeworth_ (1896), was edited by Mrs Lionel
+  Tollemache.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] For an appreciation of the two Edgeworths from the teacher's
+    point of view, see Prof. L.C. Miall in the _Journal of Education_
+    (August 1, 1894).
+
+
+
+
+EDGEWORTH DE FIRMONT, HENRY ESSEX (1745-1807), last confessor to Louis
+XVI., was the son of Robert Edgeworth, rector of Edgeworthstown in
+Ireland, his mother being a granddaughter of Archbishop Ussher. When he
+was three years old his father became a Roman Catholic, resigned his
+living and emigrated to Toulouse, where the boy was brought up by the
+Jesuits. In 1769, after his father's death, he went to Paris to be
+trained for the priesthood. On taking orders he assumed the additional
+surname of de Firmont, from the family estate of Firmount near
+Edgeworthstown. Though originally studying with a view to becoming a
+missionary, he decided to remain in Paris, devoting himself especially
+to the Irish and English Roman Catholics. In 1791 he became confessor to
+the princess Elizabeth, sister of Louis XVI., and earned the respect
+even of the _sans-culottes_ by his courage and devotion. By Madame
+Elizabeth he was recommended to the king when his trial was impending;
+and after Louis' condemnation to death he was able to obtain permission
+to celebrate mass for him and attend him on the scaffold, where he
+recommended the king to allow his hands to be tied, with the words:
+"Sire, in this new outrage I see only the last trait of resemblance
+between your Majesty and the God who will be your reward." It is said
+that at the moment of the execution, the confessor uttered the
+celebrated words: "Son of St Louis, ascend to heaven." But it is certain
+that the phrase was never spoken. The abbé himself does not quote it,
+either in his memoirs or in a letter written in 1796 to his brother, in
+which he describes the death of the king. Moreover, Edgeworth declared
+to several persons who asked him about it, that the words were not his.
+In spite of the danger he now ran, Edgeworth refused to leave France so
+long as he could be of any service to Madame Elizabeth, with whom he
+still managed to correspond. At length, in 1795, his mother having
+meanwhile died in prison, where his sister was also confined, he
+succeeded in escaping to England, carrying with him Elizabeth's last
+message to her brother, the future King Charles X. whom he found in
+Edinburgh. He afterwards went with some papers to Monsieur (Louis
+XVIII.) at Blankenburg in Brunswick, by whom he was induced to accompany
+him to Mittau, where, on the 22nd of May 1807, he died of a fever
+contracted while attending some French prisoners.
+
+  Edgeworth's _Memories_, edited by C.S. Edgeworth, were first published
+  in English (London, 1815), and a French translation (really the
+  letters and some miscellaneous notes, &c.) was published in Paris in
+  1816. A translation of the _Lettres de l'abbé Edgeworth avec des
+  mémoires sur sa vie_ was published by Madame Elizabeth de Bow in Paris
+  in 1818, and _Letters from the Abbé Edgeworth to his Friends, with
+  Memoirs of his Life_, edited by T.B. England, in London in 1818. See
+  J.B.A. Hanet-Cléry, _Journal de ce qui s'est passé, &c._ (Paris,
+  1825); A.H. du D. de Beauchesne, _Vie de Madame Elisabeth_ (Paris,
+  1869); J.C.D. de Lacretelle, _Précis historique de la Révolution
+  française_ (Paris, 1801-1806).
+
+
+
+
+EDGREN-LEFFLER, ANNE CHARLOTTE, duchess of Cajanello (1849-1892),
+Swedish author, daughter of the mathematician Prof. C.O. Leffler, was
+born on the 1st of October 1849. Her first volume of stories appeared in
+1869, but the first to which she attached her name was _Ur Lifvet_
+("From Life," 1882), a series of realistic sketches of the upper circles
+of Swedish society, followed by three other collections with the same
+title. Her earliest plays, _Skådespelerskan_ ("The Actress," 1873), and
+its successors, were produced anonymously in Stockholm, but in 1883 her
+reputation was established by the success of _Sanna Kvinnor_ ("True
+Women"), and _En Räddande engel_ ("An Angel of Deliverance"). _Sanna
+Kvinnor_ is directed against false femininity, and was well received in
+Germany as well as in Sweden. Anne Leffler had married in 1872 G.
+Edgren, but about 1884 she was separated from her husband, who did not
+share her advanced views. She spent some time in England, and in 1885
+produced her _Hur man gör godt_ ("How men do good"), followed in 1888 by
+_Kampen för lyckan_ ("The Struggle for Happiness"), in which she had the
+help of Sophie Kovalevsky. Another volume of the _Ur Lisvet_ series
+appeared in 1889; and _Familjelycka_ ("Domestic Happiness," 1891) was
+produced in the year after her second marriage, with the Italian
+mathematician, Pasquale del Pezzo, duca di Cajanello. She died at Naples
+on the 21st of October 1892. Her dramatic method forms a connecting link
+between Ibsen and Strindberg, and its masculine directness, freedom from
+prejudice, and frankness gave her work a high estimation in Sweden. Her
+last book was a biography (1892) of her friend Sophie (Sonya)
+Kovalevsky, by way of introduction to Sonya's autobiography. An English
+translation (1895) by A. de Furnhjelm and A.M. Clive Bayley contains a
+biographical note on Fru Edgren-Leffler by Lily Wolffsohn, based on
+private sources.
+
+  See also Ellen Key, _Anne Charlotte Leffler_ (Stockholm, 1893).
+
+
+
+
+EDHEM PASHA (c. 1815-1893), Turkish statesman, was of Greek origin, and
+is said to have been taken into a Turkish household at the time of the
+Chio massacre in 1822, and to have been brought up as a Mussulman. He
+entered the Turkish government service and rose to high office, being
+successively minister of public works, grand vizier for eleven months
+(1878), ambassador at Vienna (1879) and minister of the interior. He was
+quick-tempered, but of kindly disposition, intelligent and patriotic,
+and he left a reputation of unblemished honesty and uprightness.
+
+
+
+
+EDICT (Lat. _edictum_, from _e_, out, and _dicere_, to say, speak), an
+order or proclamation issued under authority and having the force of
+law. The word is especially used of the promulgations of the Roman
+praetor (q.v.), of the Roman emperors, and also of the kings of France
+(see also ROMAN LAW).
+
+
+
+
+EDINBURGH, a city and royal burgh, and county of itself, the capital of
+Scotland, and county town of Edinburghshire or Midlothian, situated to
+the south of the Firth of Forth, 396 m. by rail N. of London. The old
+Royal Observatory on Calton Hill stands in 55° 57' 23" N. and 12° 43'
+05" W. Edinburgh occupies a group of hills of moderate height and the
+valleys between. In the centre is a bold rock, crowned by the castle,
+between which and the new town lies a ravine that once contained the
+Nor' Loch, but is now covered with the gardens of Princes Street. To the
+east rises Calton Hill (355 ft.) with several conspicuous monuments, the
+city prison and the Calton cemetery. On the south-east, beyond the
+Canongate limits, stands the hill of Arthur's Seat (822 ft.). Towards
+the north the site of the city slopes gently to the Firth of Forth and
+the port of Leith; while to the south, Liberton Hill, Blackford Hill,
+Braid Hills and Craiglockhart Hills roughly mark the city bounds, as
+Corstorphine Hill and the Water of Leith do the western limits. The
+views of the city and environs from the castle or any of the hills are
+very beautiful, and it is undoubtedly one of the most picturesque
+capitals in the world. Its situation, general plan and literary
+associations suggested a comparison that gave Edinburgh the name of "the
+modern Athens"; but it has a homelier nickname of "Auld Reekie," from
+the cloud of smoke (reek) which often hangs over the low-lying quarters.
+
+_Chief Buildings._--Of the castle, the oldest building is St Margaret's
+chapel, believed to be the chapel where Queen Margaret, wife of Malcolm
+Canmore, worshipped, and belonging at latest to the reign of her
+youngest son, David I. (1124-1153). Near it is the parliament and
+banqueting hall, restored (1889-1892) by the generosity of William
+Nelson (1817-1887) the publisher, which contains a fine collection of
+Scottish armour, weapons and regimental colours, while, emblazoned on
+the windows, are the heraldic bearings of royal and other figures
+distinguished in national history. Other buildings in the Palace Yard
+include the apartments occupied by the regent, Mary of Guise, and her
+daughter Mary, queen of Scots, and the room in which James VI. was born.
+Here also are deposited the Scottish regalia ("The Honours of
+Scotland"), with the sword of state presented to James IV. by Pope
+Julius II., and the jewels restored to Scotland on the death (1807) of
+Cardinal York, the last of the Stuarts. The arsenal, a modern building
+on the west side of the rock, is capable of storing 30,000 stand of
+arms. In the armoury is a collection of arms of various dates; and on
+the Argyll battery stands a huge piece of ancient artillery, called Mons
+Meg, of which repeated mention is made in Scottish history. Argyll
+Tower, in which Archibald, 9th earl of Argyll, spent his last days
+(1685), was also restored in 1892 by Mr William Nelson.
+
+Holyrood Palace was originally an abbey of canons regular of the rule of
+St Augustine, founded by David I. in 1128, and the ruined nave of the
+abbey church still shows parts of the original structure. Connected with
+this is a part of the royal palace erected by James IV. and James V.,
+including the apartments occupied by Queen Mary, the scene of the murder
+of Rizzio in 1566. The abbey suffered repeatedly in invasions. It was
+sacked and burnt by the English under the earl of Hertford in 1544, and
+again in 1547. In a map of 1544, preserved among the Cotton MSS. in the
+British Museum, the present north-west tower of the palace is shown
+standing apart, and only joined to the abbey by a low cloister. Beyond
+this is an irregular group of buildings, which were replaced at a later
+date by additions more in accordance with a royal residence. But the
+whole of this latter structure was destroyed by fire in 1650 while in
+occupation by the soldiers of Cromwell; and the more modern parts were
+begun during the Protectorate, and completed in the reign of Charles II.
+by Robert Milne, after the designs of Sir William Bruce of Kinross. They
+include the picture gallery, 150 ft. in length, with 106 mythical
+portraits of Scottish kings, and a triptych (c. 1484) containing
+portraits of James III. and his queen, which is believed to have formed
+the altar-piece of the collegiate church of the Holy Trinity, founded by
+the widowed queen of James II. in 1462, demolished in 1848, and
+afterwards rebuilt, stone for stone, in Jeffrey Street. The picture
+gallery is associated with the festive scenes that occurred during the
+short residence of Prince Charles in 1745; and in it the election of
+representative peers for Scotland takes place. Escaping from France at
+the revolution of 1789, the comte d'Artois, afterwards Charles X. of
+France, had apartments granted for the use of himself and the emigrant
+nobles of his suite, who continued to reside in the palace till August
+1799. When driven from the French throne by the revolution of 1830,
+Charles once more found a home in the ancient palace of the Stuarts.
+George IV. was received there in 1822, and Queen Victoria and the prince
+consort occupied the palace for brief periods on several occasions, and
+in 1903 Edward VII., during residence at Dalkeith Palace, held his court
+within its walls. A fountain, after the original design of that in the
+quadrangle of Linlithgow Palace, was erected in front of the entrance by
+the prince consort. The royal vault in the Chapel Royal, which had
+fallen into a dilapidated condition, has been put in order; Clockmill
+House and grounds have been added to the area of the parade ground, and
+the abbey precincts generally and the approaches to the King's Park have
+been improved. With the abolition of imprisonment for debt in 1881 the
+privileges of sanctuary came to an end.
+
+Parliament House, begun in 1632 and completed in 1640, in which the
+later assemblies of the Scottish estates took place until the
+dissolution of the parliament by the Act of Union of 1707, has since
+been set apart as the meeting-place of the supreme courts of law. The
+great hall, with its fine open-timbered oak roof, is adorned with a
+splendid stained-glass window and several statues of notable men,
+including one (by Louis François Roubiliac) of Duncan Forbes of
+Culloden, lord president of the court of session (1685-1747), and now
+forms the ante-room for lawyers and their clients. The surrounding
+buildings, including the courtrooms, the Advocates' and the Signet
+libraries, are all modern additions. The Advocates' library is the
+finest in Scotland. Founded in 1682, at the instance of Sir George
+Mackenzie, king's advocate under Charles II., and then dean of the
+faculty, it is regarded as the national library, and is one of the five
+entitled by the Copyright Act to receive a copy of every work published
+in Great Britain.
+
+[Illustration: Map of Edinburgh.]
+
+The General Register House for Scotland, begun in 1774 from designs by
+Robert Adam, stands at the east end of Princes Street. It contains, in
+addition to the ancient national records, adequate accommodation, in
+fireproof chambers, for all Scottish title-deeds, entails, contracts and
+mortgages, and for general statistics, including those of births, deaths
+and marriages.
+
+The Royal Institution, in the Doric style, surmounted by a colossal
+stone statue Of Queen Victoria by Sir John Steell, formerly furnished
+official accommodation for the Board of Trustees for Manufactures and
+the Board of Fishery, and also for the school of art, and the libraries
+and public meetings of the Royal Society (founded in 1783), and the
+Society of Antiquaries of Scotland (founded in 1780). In 1910 it was
+renamed and appropriated to the uses of the Royal Scottish Academy of
+Painting, Sculpture and Architecture, which was instituted in 1826, and
+incorporated by royal charter in 1838, on the model of the Royal Academy
+in London. It is situated on the Mound close to the National Gallery, of
+which the prince consort laid the foundation stone in 1850. These
+collections, especially rich in Raeburn's works, include also Alexander
+Nasmyth's portrait of Robert Burns, Gainsborough's "The Hon. Mrs.
+Graham" (see PAINTING, Plate VI. fig. 20), Sir Noel Paton's "Quarrel"
+and "Reconciliation of Oberon and Titania," several works by William
+Etty, Robert Scott Lauder and Sam Bough, Sir Edwin Landseer's "Rent Day
+in the Wilderness," and the diploma pictures of the academicians,
+besides many specimens of the modern Scottish school. The National
+Portrait Gallery and Antiquarian Museum are housed in Queen Street, in a
+building designed by Sir Rowand Anderson and constructed at the expense
+of J.R. Findlay of Aberlour (1824-1898), the government providing the
+site.
+
+_Churches._--In conformity with the motto of the city, _Nisi Dominus
+frustra_, there are numerous handsome places of public worship. St
+Giles's church, which was effectively restored (1879-1883) by the
+liberality of Dr William Chambers the publisher, has interesting
+historical and literary associations. The regent Moray, the marquess of
+Montrose, and Napier of Merchiston were buried within its walls and are
+commemorated by monuments, and among the memorial tablets is one to R.L.
+Stevenson by Augustus St Gaudens. The choir (restored in 1873 by public
+subscription) is a fine example of 15th-century architecture, and the
+Gothic crown surmounting the central tower forms one of the most
+characteristic features in every view of the city. Just outside the
+church in Parliament Square, the supposed grave of John Knox is
+indicated by a stone set in the pavement bearing his initials, and in
+the pavement to the west a heart indicates the site of the old
+Tolbooth,[1] which figures prominently in Scott's _Heart of Midlothian_.
+Other churches having historical associations are the two Greyfriars
+churches, which occupy the two halves of one building; Tron church, the
+scene of midnight hilarity at the new year; St Cuthbert's church; St
+Andrew's church in George Street, whence set out, on a memorable day in
+1843, that long procession of ministers and elders to Tanfield Hall
+which ended in the founding of the Free Church; St George's church in
+Charlotte Square, a good example of the work of Robert Adam. The United
+Free Church claims no buildings of much historic interest, but St
+George's Free was the scene of the ministrations of Dr Robert S.
+Candlish (1806-1873), Dr Oswald Dykes (b. 1835), Dr Alexander Whyte (b.
+1837), a man of great mark and influence in the city, and his successor
+Hugh Black (b. 1868). Preachers like Robert Candlish, Thomas Guthrie
+(1803-1873), Marcus Dods (b. 1834), occupied many pulpits, besides those
+of the particular congregations whom each served. The most imposing
+structure belonging to the Scottish Episcopal Church is St Mary's
+cathedral, built on ground and chiefly from funds left by the Misses
+Walker of Coates, and opened for worship in 1879. It is in the Early
+Pointed style, by Sir Gilbert Scott, is 278 ft. long, and is surmounted
+by a spire 275 ft. high. The old-fashioned mansion of East Coates,
+dating from the 17th century, still stands in the close, and is occupied
+by functionaries of the cathedral. St John's Episcopal church at the
+west end of Princes Street was the scene of the ministrations of Dean
+Ramsay, and St Paul's Episcopal church of the Rev. Archibald Alison,
+father of the historian. The Catholic Apostolic church at the foot of
+Broughton Street is architecturally noticeable, and one of its features
+is a set of mural paintings executed by Mrs Traquair. The Central Hall
+at Tollcross testifies to Methodist energy. John Knox's house at the
+east end of High Street is kept in excellent repair, and contains
+several articles of furniture that belonged to the reformer. The
+Canongate Tolbooth adjoins the parish church, in the burial-ground of
+which is the tombstone raised by Burns to the memory of Robert
+Fergusson, and where Dugald Stewart, Adam Smith and other men of note
+were buried. Almost opposite to it stands Moray House, from the balcony
+of which the 8th earl of Argyll watched Montrose led to execution
+(1650). The city gaol, a castellated structure on the black rock of
+Calton Hill, forms one of the most striking groups of buildings in the
+town. In the Music Hall in George Street, Carlyle, as lord rector of the
+university, delivered his stimulating address on books to the students,
+and Gladstone addressed the electors in his Midlothian campaigns. St
+Bernard's Well, on the Water of Leith, was embellished and restored
+(1888) at the cost of Mr William Nelson. A sum of £100,000 was
+bequeathed by Mr Andrew Usher (1826-1898) for a hall to be called the
+Usher Hall and to supplement the municipal buildings. The library of
+the solicitors to the supreme courts presents to the Cowgate a lofty
+elevation in red sandstone. The Sheriff Court Buildings stand on George
+IV. Bridge, and facing them is Mr Andrew Carnegie's free library
+(1887-1889). At the corner of High Street and George IV. Bridge stand
+the County buildings. The _Scotsman_ newspaper is housed in an ornate
+structure in North Bridge Street, the building of which necessitated the
+demolition of many old alleys and wynds, such as Fleshmarket Close and
+Milne Square. Ramsay Gardens, a students' quarter fostered by Prof.
+Patrick Geddes (b. 1854), grew out of the "goose-pie" house where Allan
+Ramsay lived, and with its red-tiled roof and effective lines adds
+warmth to the view of the Old Town from Princes Street. Not the least
+interesting structure is the old City Cross (restored at the cost of
+W.E. Gladstone), which stands in High Street, adjoining St Giles's.
+Several of the quaint groups of buildings of Auld Reekie have been
+carefully restored, such as the White Horse Close in the Canongate; the
+mass of alleys on the north side of the Lawnmarket, from Paterson's
+Close to James's Court have been connected, and here Lord Rosebery
+acquired and restored the 17th-century dwelling which figures in the
+legend of _My Aunt Margaret's Mirror_. Another model restoration of a
+historic close is found in Riddle's Close, which contains a students'
+settlement. If these and other improvements have led to the
+disappearance of such old-world picturesque buildings as Allan Ramsay's
+shop "at the sign of the Mercury, opposite Niddry Wynd," Cardinal
+Beaton's palace, the old Cunzie House, or mint, the beautiful
+timber-fronted "land" that stood at the head of the West Bow, and even
+such "howffs" as Clerihugh's tavern, where Mr Counsellor Pleydell and
+the rest played the "high jinks" described in _Guy Mannering_, it must
+be conceded that the changes in the Old Town (many of a drastic nature)
+have been carried out with due regard to the character of their
+environment.
+
+_Monuments._--Edinburgh is particularly rich in monuments of every
+description and quality. Of these by far the most remarkable is the
+Scott monument in East Princes Street Gardens, designed by George Meikle
+Kemp (1795-1844); it is in the form of a spiral Gothic cross with a
+central canopy beneath which is a seated statue of Scott with his dog
+"Maida" at his side, by Sir John Steell, the niches being occupied by
+characters in Sir Walter's writings. A column, 136 ft. high, surmounted
+by a colossal figure of Viscount Melville, Pitt's first lord of the
+Admiralty, rises from the centre of St Andrew Square. At the west end of
+George Street, in the centre of Charlotte Square, stands the Albert
+Memorial, an equestrian statue of the prince consort, with groups at
+each of the four angles of the base. Burns's monument, in the style of a
+Greek temple, occupies a prominent position on the Regent Road, on the
+southern brow of the lower terrace of Calton Hill. It was originally
+intended to form a shrine for Flaxman's marble statue of the poet (now
+in the National Portrait Gallery), but it proved to be too confined to
+afford a satisfactory view of the sculptor's work and was at length
+converted into a museum of Burnsiana (afterwards removed to the
+municipal buildings). On Calton Hill are a number of finely placed
+monuments. The stateliest is the national monument to commemorate the
+victory of Waterloo, originally intended to be a reproduction of the
+Parthenon. The plan was abandoned for lack of funds, after twelve out of
+the twenty-four Greek pillars had been erected, but it is perhaps more
+effective in its unfinished state than if it had been completed. The
+Nelson monument, an elongated turreted structure, stands on the highest
+cliff of the hill. Close by is the monument to Dugald Stewart, a copy of
+the choragic monument of Lysicrates. Sir John Steell's equestrian statue
+of the duke of Wellington stands in front of the Register House, and in
+Princes Street Gardens are statues of Livingstone, Christopher North,
+Allan Ramsay, Adam Black and Sir J.Y. Simpson. In George Street are
+Chantrey's figures of Pitt and George IV., and a statue of Dr Chalmers;
+the 5th duke of Buccleuch stands beside St Giles's. Charles II. surveys
+the spot where Knox was buried; the reformer himself is in the
+quadrangle of New College: Sir David Brewster adorns the quadrangle of
+the university; Dr William Chambers is in Chambers Street, and
+Frederick, duke of York (1763-1827), and the 4th earl of Hopetoun are
+also commemorated.
+
+_Cemeteries._--Obviously the churchyards surrounding the older and more
+important parish churches--such as Greyfriars', St Cuthbert's and the
+Canongate, contain the greatest number of memorials of the illustrious
+dead. In Greyfriars' churchyard the Solemn League and Covenant was
+signed, and among its many monuments are the Martyrs' monument,
+recording the merits of the murdered covenanters, and the tomb of
+"Bluidy" Mackenzie. To the three named should be added the Calton
+burying-ground, with its Roman tomb of David Hume, and the obelisk
+raised in 1844 to the memory of Maurice Margarot, Thomas Muir
+(1765-1798), Thomas Fyshe Palmer (1747-1802), William Skirving and
+Joseph Gerrald (1765-1796), the political martyrs transported towards
+the end of the 18th century for advocating parliamentary reform. The
+Scottish dead in the American Civil War are commemorated in a monument
+bearing a life-sized figure of Abraham Lincoln and a freed slave. The
+cemeteries are all modern. In Warriston cemetery (opened in 1843) in the
+New Town, were buried Sir James Young Simpson, Alexander Smith the poet,
+Horatio McCulloch, R.S.A., the landscape painter, the Rev. James Millar,
+the last Presbyterian chaplain of the castle, and the Rev. James Peddie,
+the pastor of Bristo Street church. In Dean cemetery, partly laid out on
+the banks of the Water of Leith, and considered the most beautiful in
+the city (opened 1845), were interred Lords Cockburn, Jeffrey and
+Rutherford; "Christopher North," Professor Aytoun, Edward Forbes the
+naturalist, John Goodsir the anatomist; Sir William Allan, Sam Bough,
+George Paul Chalmers, the painters; George Combe, the phrenologist;
+Playfair, the architect; Alexander Russel, editor of the _Scotsman_; Sir
+Archibald Alison, the historian; Captain John Grant, the last survivor
+of the old Peninsular Gordon Highlanders; Captain Charles Gray, of the
+Royal Marines, writer of Scottish songs; Lieutenant John Irving, of the
+Franklin expedition, whose remains were sent home many years after his
+death by Lieut. Frederick Schwatka, U.S. navy; and Sir Hector Macdonald,
+"Fighting Mac" of Omdurman. In the south side are the Grange, Newington
+or Echobank, and Morningside cemeteries. In the Grange repose the ashes
+of Chalmers, Guthrie and Lee, Sir Thomas Dick Lauder, Sir Hope Grant,
+Hugh Miller and the 2nd Lord Dunfermline.
+
+_Parks and Open Spaces._--Edinburgh is exceptionally well provided with
+parks and open spaces. The older are Princes Street Gardens, covering
+the old Nor' Loch, Calton Hill, the Meadows and the Bruntsfield Links.
+The municipal golf links are on the Braid Hills. On the southern side
+Blackford Hill has been set apart for public use. Here stands the Royal
+Observatory, in which the great Dunecht telescope was erected in 1896.
+Harrison Park is a breathing spot for the congested district of
+Fountainbridge, and the park at Saughton Hall, opened in 1905, for the
+western district of the city. To the north of the Water of Leith lie
+Inverleith Park, the Arboretum and the Royal Botanical Garden. This
+institution has undergone four changes of site since its foundation in
+1670 by Sir Andrew Balfour and Sir Robert Sibbald, and now occupies an
+area of 34 acres in Inverleith Row. It includes a herbarium and palm
+house, with an extensive range of hot-houses, a museum of economic
+botany, a lecture-room and other requisites for the study of botany. The
+most important open spaces, however, surround Arthur's Seat (822 ft.).
+This basaltic hill, the name of which is believed to commemorate the
+British king Arthur, who from its height is said to have watched the
+defeat of the Picts by his followers, is shaped like a lion _couchant_,
+with head towards the north. It is separated from the narrow valley, in
+which lie the Canongate and Holyrood Palace, by Salisbury Crags, named
+after Edward III.'s general William Montacute, 1st earl of Salisbury
+(1301-1344). At their base is the Queen's Drive (3½ m. long), named by
+Queen Victoria. Adjoining Holyrood Palace is the King's Park, used as a
+parade ground. Facing the crags on the south-west are the spots
+familiar to readers of _The Heart of Midlothian_, where stood Jeanie
+Deans's cottage, and between the crags and Arthur's Seat lies Hunter's
+Bog, used as a shooting range. Near here too are three small lakes,
+Duddingston, Dunsappie and St Margaret's, the last overlooked by the
+ruins of St Anthony's chapel.
+
+_Environs._--In several directions many places once to be described
+among the environs have practically become suburbs of Edinburgh.
+Newhaven (population of parish, 7636), so called from the harbour
+constructed in the reign of James IV., had a shipbuilding yard of some
+repute in former times. The village has always been a fishing-place of
+importance, the "fishwives" in their picturesque garb being, till
+recently, conspicuous figures in the streets of the capital. It used to
+be a popular resort for fish dinners, and it plays a prominent part in
+Charles Reade's novel of _Christie Johnstone_. To the west lies Granton
+(pop. 1728), where the 5th duke of Buccleuch constructed a magnificent
+harbour. Before the building of the Forth Bridge the customary approach
+to Fifeshire and the north-east of Scotland was by means of a steam
+ferry from Granton to Burntisland, which is still used to some extent.
+There is regular communication with Iceland, the continental ports and
+London. A marine station here was established by Sir John Murray, but
+has been discontinued. Still farther west lies the village of Cramond
+(pop. of parish, 3815), at the mouth of the river Almond, where Roman
+remains have often been found. It was the birthplace of several
+well-known persons, among others of John Law (1671-1729), originator of
+the Mississippi scheme, Lauriston Castle being situated in the parish.
+Cramond Brig was the scene of one of the "roving" adventures of James
+V., when the life of the "Gudeman of Ballengeich" was saved by Jock
+Howieson of the Braehead. Corstorphine (pop. 2725), once noted for its
+cream and also as a spa, is now to all intents and purposes a western
+suburb of the capital. The parish church contains the tombs of the
+Forresters, of old the leading family of the district, with full-length
+sculptured figures, and at the base of Corstorphine Hill--from one point
+of which ("Rest and be Thankful") is to be had one of the best views of
+Edinburgh--are the seats of several well-known families. Among these are
+Craigcrook Castle (where Lord Jeffrey spent many happy years, and the
+gardens of which are said to have given Scott a hint for Tullyveolan in
+_Waverley_), and Ravelston House, the home of the Keiths. To the south
+of the metropolis are Colinton (pop. 5499), on the Water of Leith, with
+several mansions that once belonged to famous men, such as Dreghorn
+Castle and Bonally Tower; and Currie (pop. 2513), which was a Roman
+station and near which are Curriehill Castle (held by the rebels against
+Queen Mary), the ruins of Lennox Tower, and Riccarton, the seat of the
+Gibson-Craigs, one of the best-known Midlothian families. At Dalmahoy
+Castle, near Ratho (pop. 1946), the seat of the earl of Morton, are
+preserved the only extant copy of the bible of the Scottish parliament
+and the original warrant for committing Queen Mary to Lochleven Castle
+in Kinross-shire. Craigmillar, though situated in the parish of
+Liberton, is really a part of Edinburgh. Its picturesque castle, at
+least the oldest portion of it, probably dates from the 12th century.
+Its principal owners were first the Prestons and latterly the Gilmours.
+After playing a varied rôle in local and national story, now as
+banqueting-house and now as prison, it fell gradually into disrepair. It
+was advertised as to let in 1761, and early in the 19th century, along
+with the chapel adjoining, was in ruins, but has been restored by
+Colonel Gordon-Gilmour. It was a favourite residence of Mary Stuart, and
+its associations with the hapless queen give it a romantic interest.
+Duddingston (pop. 2023), once a quiet village, has become a centre of
+the distilling and brewing industries. The parish church, effectively
+situated on an eminence by the side of the lake, was the scene of the
+ministration of the Rev. John Thomson (1778-1840), the landscape
+painter, who numbered Sir Walter Scott among his elders. Duddingston
+House is a seat of the duke of Abercorn. Liberton (pop. of parish,
+7233), a name that recalls the previous existence of a leper's hospital,
+is prominently situated on the rising ground to the south of Edinburgh,
+the parish church being a conspicuous landmark. Adjoining is the village
+of Gilmerton (pop. 1482), which used to supply Edinburgh with yellow
+sand, when sanded floors were a feature in the humbler class of houses.
+Portobello (pop. 9180), being within 3 m. of the capital, must always
+enjoy a large share of public patronage, though it is not in such favour
+as a watering-place as it once was. Its beautiful stretch of sands is
+flanked by a promenade extending all the way to Joppa. The beach was at
+one time used for the purpose of reviews of the yeomanry. The town dates
+from the middle of the 18th century, when a cottage was built by a
+sailor and named Portobello in commemoration of Admiral Vernon's victory
+in 1739. The place does a considerable trade in the making of bricks,
+bottles, earthenware, pottery, tiles and paper. Joppa, which adjoins it,
+has salt works, but is chiefly a residential neighbourhood. Inveresk
+(pop. 2939), finely situated on the Esk some 6 m. from Edinburgh, is a
+quaint village with several old-fashioned mansions and beautiful
+gardens. Alexander Carlyle, the famous divine (1772-1805), whose
+_Memorials of his Times_ still affords fascinating reading, ministered
+for fifty-five years in the parish church, in the graveyard of which
+lies David Macbeth Moir (1798-1851), who under the pen-name of "Delta"
+wrote _Mansie Wauch_, a masterpiece of Scots humour and pathos. Lasswade
+(pop. of parish, 9708), partly in the Pentlands, famous for its oatmeal,
+was often the summer resort of Edinburgh worthies. Here Sir Walter Scott
+lived for six years and De Quincey for nineteen, and William Tennant
+(1784-1848), author of _Anster Fair_, was the parish dominie. Many
+interesting mansions were and are in the vicinity, amongst them Melville
+Castle, the seat of the Dundas Melvilles, and Auchendinny, where Henry
+Mackenzie, author of _The Man of Feeling_, resided. The two most
+celebrated resorts, however, amongst the environs of Edinburgh are
+Roslin (pop. 1805) and Hawthornden. Roslin Castle is romantically
+situated on the beautifully wooded precipitous banks of the Esk. It
+dates from the 12th century and is a plain, massive ruin,
+architecturally insignificant. Partially destroyed by fire in 1447 and
+afterwards rebuilt, it was sacked in 1650 and again in 1688, and then
+gradually fell into decay. The chapel, higher up the bank, a relic of
+great beauty, was founded in 1446 by William St Clair, 3rd earl of
+Orkney. It is believed to be the chancel of what was intended to be a
+large church. Although it suffered at the hands of revolutionary
+fanatics in 1688, the damage was confined mainly to the external
+ornament, and the chapel, owing to restoration in judicious taste, is
+now in perfect condition. The Gothic details are wonderful examples of
+the carver's skill, the wreathed "Prentice's pillar" being the subject
+of a well-known legend. The walk to Hawthornden, about 1½ m. distant,
+through the lovely glen by the river-side, leads to the mansion of the
+Drummonds, perched high on a lofty cliff falling sheer to the stream.
+The caverns in the sides of the precipice are said to have afforded
+Wallace and other heroes (or outlaws) refuge in time of trouble, but the
+old house is most memorable as the home of the poet William Drummond,
+who here welcomed Ben Jonson; the tree beneath which the two poets sat
+still stands. Near Swanston, on the slopes of the Pentlands, where R.L.
+Stevenson when a boy used to make holiday occasionally, is a golf-course
+which was laid out by the Lothianburn Club. The Pentland range contains
+many points of interest and beauty, but these are mostly accessible only
+to the pedestrian, although the hills are crossed by roads, of which the
+chief are those by Glencorse burn and the Cauld Stane Slap. Habbie's
+Howe, the scene of Allan Ramsay's pastoral _The Gentle Shepherd_, is
+some 2 m. from Carlops, and Rullion Green is noted as the field on which
+the Covenanters were defeated in 1666. At Penicuik (pop. 5097), where
+the Clerks were long the ruling family, S.R. Crockett was minister until
+he formally devoted himself to fiction. The town is, industrially,
+remarkable for its paper mills and mines of coal and other minerals.
+
+_Communications._--The two trunk railways serving Edinburgh are the
+North British and the Caledonian. The North British station is Waverley,
+to which the trains of the Great Northern, North Eastern and the Midland
+systems run from England. The Caledonian station is Princes Street,
+where the through trains from the London & North-Western system of
+England arrive. Leith, Granton and Grangemouth serve as the chief
+passenger seaports for Edinburgh. Tramways connect the different parts
+of the city with Leith, Newhaven, Portobello and Joppa; and the Suburban
+railway, starting from Waverley station, returns by way of Restalrig,
+Portobello, Duddingston, Morningside and Haymarket. In summer, steamers
+ply between Leith and Aberdour and other pleasure resorts; and there is
+also a service to Alloa and Stirling. In the season brakes constantly
+run to Queensferry (for the Forth Bridge) and to Roslin, and coaches to
+Dalkeith, Loanhead and some Pentland villages.
+
+_Population._--In 1801 the number of inhabitants was 66,544; in 1851 it
+was 160,302; in 1881 it was 234,402; and in 1901 it was 316,479. In 1900
+the birth-rate was 26.90 per thousand, 7.8% of the births being
+illegitimate; the death-rate was 19.40 per thousand, and the
+marriage-rate 10 per thousand.
+
+The area of the city has been enlarged by successive extensions of its
+municipal boundaries, especially towards the west and south. An
+important accession of territory was gained in 1896, when portions of
+the parishes of Liberton and Duddingston and the police burgh of
+Portobello were incorporated. Under the Edinburgh Corporation Act 1900,
+a further addition of nearly 1800 acres was made. This embraced portions
+of South Leith parish (landward) and of Duddingston parish, including
+the village of Restalrig and the ground lying on both sides of the main
+road from Edinburgh to Portobello; and also part of Cramond parish, in
+which is contained the village and harbour of Granton. The total area of
+the city is 10,597½ acres. The increase in wealth may best be measured
+by the rise in assessed valuation. In 1880 the city rental was
+£1,727,740, in 1890 it was £2,106,395, and in 1900-1901 £2,807,122.
+
+_Government._--By the Redistribution Act of 1885 the city was divided
+for parliamentary purposes into East, West, Central and South Edinburgh,
+each returning one member; the parliamentary and municipal boundaries
+are almost identical. The town council, which has its headquarters in
+the Municipal Buildings in the Royal Exchange, consists of fifty
+members, a lord provost, seven bailies, a dean of guild, a treasurer, a
+convener of trades, seven judges of police, and thirty-two councillors.
+The corporation has acquired the gas-works, the cable tramways (leased
+to a company), the electric lighting of the streets, and the
+water-supply from the Pentlands (reinforced by additional sources in the
+Moorfoot Hills and Talla Water). Among other duties, the corporation has
+a share in the management of the university, and maintains the Calton
+Hill observatory.
+
+_May Meetings._--During the establishment of Episcopacy in Scotland,
+Edinburgh was the seat of a bishop, and the ancient collegiate church of
+St Giles rose to the dignity of a cathedral. But the annual meeting of
+the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland at Edinburgh is now the
+public manifestation of the predominance of Presbyterianism as the
+national church. In May each year the sovereign appoints a
+representative as lord high commissioner to the General Assembly of the
+Established Church, who takes up his abode usually in the palace of
+Holyrood, and thence proceeds to the High Church, and so to the assembly
+hall on the Castle Hill. The lord provost and magistrates offer to him
+the keys of the city, and levees, receptions and state dinners revive in
+some degree the ancient glories of Holyrood. The General Assembly of the
+United Free Church is usually held at the same time.
+
+_University._--The university of Edinburgh, the youngest of the Scottish
+universities, was founded in 1583 by a royal charter granted by James
+IV., and its rights, immunities and privileges have been remodelled,
+ratified and extended at various periods. In 1621 an act of the Scottish
+parliament accorded to the university all rights and privileges enjoyed
+by other universities in the kingdom, and these were renewed under fresh
+guarantees in the treaty of union between England and Scotland, and in
+the Act of Security. Important changes were made in the constitution by
+acts passed in 1858 and 1889. It was one of the first universities to
+admit women students to its classes and degrees, and its _alumni_ are
+brought into close bonds of sympathy and activity by a students' union.
+The number of students averages nearly three thousand a year. As a
+corporation it consists of a chancellor, vice-chancellor, lord rector
+(elected by the students every three years), principal, professors,
+registered graduates and matriculated students. The chancellor is
+elected for life by the general council, of which he is head; and the
+rights of the city as the original founder have been recognized by
+giving to the town council the election of four of the seven curators,
+with whom rest the appointment of the principal, the patronage of
+seventeen of the chairs, and a share in other appointments. Along with
+that of St Andrews, the university sends one member to parliament. While
+the college, as such, bears the name of the College of King James, or
+King's college, and James VI. is spoken of as its founder, it really
+originated in the liberality of the citizens of Edinburgh. William
+Little of Craigmillar, and his brother Clement Little, advocate, along
+with James Lawson, the colleague and successor of John Knox, may justly
+be regarded as true founders. In 1580 Clement Little gave all his books,
+three hundred volumes, for the beginning of a library, and this was
+augmented by other valuable benefactions, one of the most interesting of
+which was the library of Drummond of Hawthornden. The library now
+contains upwards of 220,000 volumes, and more than 7000 MSS. The
+buildings of the university occupy the site of the ancient collegiate
+church of St. Mary in the Field (the "Kirk of Field"), the scene of the
+murder of Darnley. The present structure, the foundation-stone of which
+was laid in 1789, is a classical building, enclosing an extensive
+quadrangle. The older parts of it, including the east front, are from
+the design of Robert Adam, his plans being revised and modified by W.H.
+Playfair (1789-1857), but it was not till 1883 that the building was
+completed by the dome, crowned by the bronze figure of Youth bearing the
+torch of Knowledge, on the façade in South Bridge Street. This edifice
+affords accommodation for the lecture rooms in the faculties of arts,
+law and theology, and for the museums and library. The opening up of the
+wide thoroughfare of Chambers Street, on the site of College Wynd and
+Brown and Argyll Squares, cleared the precincts of unsightly
+obstructions and unsavoury neighbours. The Royal Scottish Museum,
+structurally united to the university, contains collections illustrative
+of industry, art, science and natural history; and Minto House college
+and Heriot-Watt college are practically adjuncts of the university. The
+library hall was restored and decorated, largely through the generosity
+of Sir William Priestley (1829-1900), formerly M.P. for the university;
+while munificent additions to the academic funds and resources were made
+by the 15th earl of Moray (1840-1901), Sir William Fraser (1816-1898),
+and others. The university benefits also, like the other Scottish
+universities, from Mr Andrew Carnegie's endowment fund. The medical
+school stands in Teviot Row, adjoining George Square and the Meadows. To
+this spacious and well-equipped group of buildings the faculty of
+medicine was removed from the college. The medical school is in the
+Italian Renaissance style from the designs of Sir Rowand Anderson. The
+magnificent hall used for academic and public functions was the gift of
+William M'Ewan, some time M.P. for the Central division of Edinburgh.
+Closely associated with the medical school, and separated from it by the
+Middle Meadow Walk, is the Royal Infirmary, designed by David Bryce,
+R.S.A. (1803-1876), removed hither from Infirmary Street. Its wards, in
+which nearly ten thousand patients receive treatment annually, are
+lodged in a series of turreted pavilions, and cover a large space of
+ground on the margin of the Meadows, from which, to make room for it,
+George Watson's College--the most important of the Merchant Company
+schools--was removed to a site farther west, while the Sick Children's
+hospital was moved to the southern side of the Meadows.
+
+_Scientific Institutions._--The old Observatory is a quaint structure on
+Calton Hill, overlooking the district at the head of Leith Walk. The
+City Observatory stands close by, and on Blackford Hill is the newer
+building of the Royal Observatory. The Astronomer-Royal for Scotland
+also holds the chair of practical astronomy.
+
+The museum and lecture-rooms of the Royal College of Surgeons occupy a
+handsome classical building in Nicolson Street. The college is an
+ancient corporate body, with a charter of the year 1505, and exercises
+the powers of instructing in surgery and of giving degrees. Its
+graduates also give lectures on the various branches of medicine and
+science requisite for the degree of doctor of medicine, and those
+extra-academical courses are recognized, under certain restrictions, by
+the University Court, as qualifying for the degree. The museum contains
+a valuable collection of anatomical and surgical preparations.
+
+The Royal College of Physicians is another learned body organized, with
+special privileges, by a charter of incorporation granted by Charles II.
+in 1681. In their hall in Queen Street are a valuable library and a
+museum of materia medica. But the college as such takes no part in the
+educational work of the university.
+
+_Educational Institutions._--After the Disruption in 1843, and the
+formation of the Free Church, New College was founded in connexion with
+it for training students in theology. Since the amalgamation of the
+United Presbyterian and the Free Churches, under the designation of the
+United Free Church of Scotland, New College is utilized by both bodies.
+New College buildings, designed in the Pointed style of the 16th
+century, and erected on the site of the palace of Mary of Guise, occupy
+a prominent position at the head of the Mound.
+
+Edinburgh has always possessed exceptional educational facilities. The
+Royal high school, the burgh school _par excellence_, dates from the
+16th century, but the beautiful Grecian buildings on the southern face
+of Calton Hill, opened in 1829, are its third habitation. It was not
+until 1825, when the Edinburgh Academy was opened, that it encountered
+serious rivalry. Fettes College, an imposing structure in a 16th-century
+semi-Gothic style, designed by David Bryce and called after its founder
+Sir William Fettes (1750-1836), is organized on the model of the great
+English public schools. Merchiston Academy, housed in the old castle of
+Napier, the inventor of logarithms, is another institution conducted on
+English public school lines. For many generations the charitable
+foundations for the teaching and training of youth were a conspicuous
+feature in the economy of the city. Foremost among them was the hospital
+founded by George Heriot--the "Jingling Geordie" of Scott's _Fortunes of
+Nigel_--the goldsmith and banker of James VI. At his death in 1624
+Heriot left his estate in trust to the magistrates and ministers of
+Edinburgh for the maintenance and teaching of poor fatherless sons of
+freemen. The quadrangular edifice in Lauriston, sometimes ascribed to
+Inigo Jones, is one of the noblest buildings in the city. Even earlier
+than Heriot's hospital was the Merchant Maiden hospital, dating from
+1605, which gave to the daughters of merchants similar advantages to
+those which Heriot's secured for burgesses' sons. In 1738 George
+Watson's hospital for boys was founded; then followed the Trades' Maiden
+hospital for burgesses' daughters, John Watson's, Daniel Stewart's, the
+Orphans', Gillespie's,[2] Donaldson's[3] hospitals, and other
+institutions founded by successful merchants of the city, in which poor
+children of various classes were lodged, boarded and educated. Nearly
+all these buildings are characterized by remarkable distinction and
+beauty of design. This is especially true of Donaldson's hospital at the
+Haymarket, which has accommodation for three hundred children. As the
+New Town expanded, the Heriot Trust--whose revenues were greatly
+benefited thereby--erected day-schools in different districts, in which
+thousands of infants and older children received a free education, and,
+in cases of extreme poverty, a money grant towards maintenance. Public
+opinion as to the "hospital" system of board and education, however,
+underwent a revolutionary change after the Education Act of 1872
+introduced school boards, and the Merchant Company--acting as governors
+for most of the institutions--determined to board out the children on
+the foundation with families in the town, and convert the buildings into
+adequately equipped primary and secondary day-schools. This
+root-and-branch policy proved enormously successful, and George Watson's
+college, Stewart's college, Queen Street ladies' college, George Square
+ladies' college, Gillespie's school, and others, rapidly took a high
+place among the educational institutions of the city. Nor did the Heriot
+Trust neglect the claims of technical and higher education. The
+Heriot-Watt college is subsidized by the Trust, and Heriot's hospital is
+occupied as a technical school. Concurrently with this activity in
+higher branches, the school board provided a large number of handsome
+buildings in healthy surroundings. The Church of Scotland and the United
+Free Church have training colleges.
+
+_Charities._--Besides the Royal Infirmary there are a considerable
+number of more or less specialized institutions, two of the most
+important being situated at Craiglockhart. On the Easter Hill stands the
+Royal Edinburgh asylum for the insane, which formerly occupied a site in
+Morningside, while the City infectious diseases hospital is situated at
+Colinton Mains. The Royal blind asylum at Powburn in its earlier days
+tenanted humbler quarters in Nicolson Street. Chalmers's hospital in
+Lauriston was founded in 1836 by George Chalmers for the reception of
+the sick and injured. The home for incurables is situated in Salisbury
+Place. The infirmary convalescents are sent to the convalescent house in
+Corstorphine. Other institutions are the Royal hospital for sick
+children, the home for crippled children, the Royal maternity hospital,
+and the deaf and dumb asylum. Though Trinity hospital no longer exists
+as a hospital with resident pensioners, the trustees disburse annually
+pensions to certain poor burgesses and their wives and children; and the
+trust controlling the benevolent branch of the Gillespie hospital
+endowment is similarly administered.
+
+_Industries._--Although Edinburgh is a residential rather than a
+manufacturing or commercial centre, the industries which it has are
+important and flourishing. From 1507, when Walter Chapman, the Scottish
+Caxton, set up the first press, to the present day, printing has enjoyed
+a career of almost continuous vitality, and the great houses of R. & R.
+Clark, T. & A. Constable, the Ballantyne Press, Morrison & Gibb,
+Turnbull & Spears, and others, admirably maintain the traditional
+reputation of the Edinburgh press. Publishing, on the other hand, has
+drifted away, only a few leading houses--such as those of Blackwood,
+Chambers and Nelson--still making the Scottish capital their
+headquarters. Mapmakers, typefounders, bookbinders and lithographers all
+contribute their share to the prosperity of the city. Brewing is an
+industry of exceptional vigour, Edinburgh ale being proverbially good.
+The brewers and distillers, such as M'Ewan, Usher and Ure, have been
+amongst the most generous benefactors of the city. The arts and crafts
+associated with furniture work, paper-making and coach-building may also
+be specified, whilst tanneries, glassworks, india-rubber and vulcanite
+factories, brass-founding, machinery works, the making of biscuits,
+tea-bread and confectionery are all prominent. In consequence of the
+large influx of tourists every year the North British and Caledonian
+railway companies give employment to an enormous staff. Building and the
+allied trades are chronically brisk, owing to the constant development
+of the city. Fine white freestone abounds in the immediate vicinity (as
+at Craigleith, from the vast quarry of which, now passing into disuse,
+the stone for much of the New Town was obtained) and furnishes excellent
+building material; while the hard trap rock, with which the stratified
+sandstones of the Coal formation have been extensively broken up and
+overlaid, supplies good materials for paving and road-making. On this
+account quarrying is another industry which is seldom dormant. Owing to
+the great changes effected during the latter part of the 19th century,
+some of the old markets were demolished and the system of centralizing
+trade was not wholly revived. The Waverley Market for vegetables and
+fruit presents a busy scene in the early morning, and is used for
+monster meetings and promenade and popular concerts. Slaughter-houses,
+cattle markets and grain markets have been erected at Gorgie, thus
+obviating the driving of flocks and herds through the streets, which was
+constantly objected to. An infantry regiment is always stationed in the
+castle, and there are in addition the barracks at Piers-hill (or "Jock's
+Lodge"), half-way between Edinburgh and Portobello.
+
+_Social Life._--Edinburgh society still retains a certain old-fashioned
+Scottish exclusiveness. It has been said that the city is "east-windy"
+and the folk "west-endy." But this criticism needs judicious
+qualification. The local patriotism and good taste of the citizens have
+regulated recreation and have also preserved in pristine vigour many
+peculiarly Scottish customs and pastimes. Classical concerts and
+concerts of the better sort, chiefly held in the M'Ewan and Music Halls,
+are well attended, and lectures are patronized to a degree unknown in
+most towns. In theatrical matters in the old days of stock companies the
+verdict of an Edinburgh audience was held to make or mar an actor or a
+play. This is no longer the case, but the Lyceum theatre in Grindlay
+Street and the Theatre Royal at the head of Leith Walk give good
+performances. Variety entertainments are also in vogue, and in Nicolson
+Street and elsewhere there are good music halls. Outdoor recreations
+have always been pursued with zest. The public golf-course on Braid
+Hills and the private courses of the Lothianburn club at Swanston and
+the Barnton club at Barnton are usually full on Saturdays and holidays.
+The numerous bowling-greens are regularly frequented and are among the
+best in Scotland--the first Australian team of bowlers that visited the
+mother country (in 1901) pronouncing the green in Lutton Place the
+finest on which they had played. Cricket is played by the university
+students, at the schools, and by private clubs, of which the Grange is
+the oldest and best. In winter the game of curling is played on
+Duddingston Loch, and Dunsappie, St Margaret's Loch, Lochend and other
+sheets of water are covered with skaters. Rugby football is in high
+favour, Edinburgh being commonly the scene of the international matches
+when the _venue_ falls to Scotland. Hockey claims many votaries, there
+usually being on New Year's day a match at shinty, or _camanachd_,
+between opposing teams of Highlanders resident in the city. The central
+public baths in Infirmary Street, with branch establishments in other
+parts of the town, including Portobello, are largely resorted to, and
+the proximity of the Firth of Forth induces the keener swimmers to visit
+Granton every morning. Facilities for boating are limited (excepting on
+the Forth), but rowing clubs find opportunity for practice and races on
+the Union Canal, where, however, sailing is scarcely possible. Edinburgh
+maintains few newspapers, but the _Scotsman_, which may be said to reign
+alone, has enjoyed a career of almost uninterrupted prosperity, largely
+in consequence of a succession of able editors, like Charles Maclaren,
+Alexander Russel, Robert Wallace and Charles Cooper. The _Edinburgh
+Evening News_ and the _Evening Dispatch_ are popular sheets. In the past
+the _Edinburgh Evening Courant_, the chief organ of the Tory party, of
+which James Hannay was editor for a few years, had a high reputation.
+_The Witness_, edited by Hugh Miller, the _Daily Review_, edited first
+by J.B. Manson and afterwards by Henry Kingsley, and the _Scottish
+Leader_, were conducted more or less as Liberal organs with a distinct
+bias in favour of the then Free Church, but none of these was
+long-lived. Volunteering has always attracted the younger men, and the
+highest awards at Wimbledon and Bisley have been won by the Queen's
+Edinburgh.
+
+_History._--In remote times the seaboard from the Tyne to the Forth was
+occupied by the Ottadeni, a Welsh tribe of the Brigantes, the territory
+immediately to the west of it being peopled by the Gadeni. It is
+probable that the Ottadeni built a fort or camp on the rock on which
+Edinburgh Castle now stands, which was thus the nucleus around which, in
+course of time, grew a considerable village. Under the protection of
+the hill-fort, a native settlement was established on the ridge running
+down to the valley at the foot of Salisbury Crags, and another hamlet,
+according to William Maitland (1693-1757), the earliest historian of
+Edinburgh, was founded in the area at the north-western base of the
+rock, a district that afterwards became the parish of St Cuthbert, the
+oldest in the city. The Romans occupied the country for more than three
+hundred years, as is evidenced by various remains; but James Grant
+(1822-1887), in _Old and New Edinburgh_, doubts whether they ever built
+on the castle rock. When they withdrew, the British tribes reasserted
+their sway, and some authorities go so far as to suggest that Arthur was
+one of their kings. The southern Picts ultimately subdued the Britons,
+and the castle became their chief stronghold until they were overthrown
+in 617 (or 629) by the Saxons under Edwin, king of Northumbria, from
+whom the name of Edinburgh is derived. Symeon of Durham (854) calls it
+Edwinesburch, and includes the church of St Cuthbert within the
+bishopric of Lindisfarne. Its Gaelic name was Dunedin. This name is
+probably a translation of the Saxon name. James Grant's view that it may
+have been the earlier name of the castle, from _dun_ ("the fort"), and
+_edin_ ("on the slope"), conflicts with the more generally received
+opinion that the Britons knew the fortress as _Castelh Mynedh Agnedh_
+("the hill of the plain"), a designation once wrongly interpreted as the
+"castle of the maidens" (_castrum puellarum_), in allusion to the
+supposed fact that the Pictish princesses were lodged within it during
+their education. In the 16th century the latinized form Edina was
+invented and has been used chiefly by poets, once notably by Burns,
+whose "Address" begins "Edina! Scotia's darling seat." Long after
+Edwin's conquest the lowland continued to be debatable territory held by
+uncertain tenure, but at length it was to a large extent settled anew by
+Anglo-Saxon and Norman colonists under Malcolm Canmore and his sons.
+
+In the reign of Malcolm Canmore the castle included the king's palace.
+There his pious queen, Margaret, the grand-niece of Edward the
+Confessor, died in 1093. It continued to be a royal residence during the
+reigns of her three sons, and hence the first rapid growth of the upper
+town may be referred to the 12th century. The parish church of St Giles
+is believed to have been erected in the reign of Alexander I., about
+1110, and the huge Norman keep of the castle, built by his younger
+brother, David I., continued to be known as David's Tower till its
+destruction in the siege of 1572. Soon after his accession to the
+Scottish throne David I. founded the abbey of Holyrood (1128), which
+from an early date received the court as its guests. But notwithstanding
+the attractions of the abbey and the neighbouring chase, the royal
+palace continued for centuries to be within the fortress, and there both
+the Celtic and Stuart kings frequently resided. Edinburgh was long an
+exposed frontier town within a territory only ceded to Malcolm II. about
+1020; and even under the earlier Stuart kings it was still regarded as a
+border stronghold. Hence, though the village of Canongate grew up beside
+the abbey of David I., and Edinburgh was a place of sufficient
+importance to be reckoned one of the four principal burghs as a
+judicatory for all commercial matters, nevertheless, even so late as
+1450, when it became for the first time a walled town, it did not extend
+beyond the upper part of the ridge which slopes eastwards from the
+castle. So long, however, as its walls formed the boundary, and space
+therefore was limited, the citizens had to provide house-room by
+building dwellings of many storeys. These tall tenements on both sides
+of what is now High Street and Canongate are still a prominent
+characteristic of the Old Town. The streets were mostly very narrow, the
+main street from the castle to Holyrood Palace and the Cowgate alone
+permitting the passage of wheeled carriages. In the narrow "wynds" the
+nobility and gentry paid their visits in sedan chairs, and proceeded in
+full dress to the assemblies and balls, which were conducted with
+aristocratic exclusiveness in an alley on the south side of High Street,
+called the Assembly Close, and in the assembly rooms in the West Bow.
+Beyond the walls lay the burghs of Calton, Easter and Wester Portsburgh,
+the villages of St Cuthbert's, Moutrie's Hill, Broughton, Canonmills,
+Silvermills and Deanhaugh--all successively swallowed up in the
+extension of the modern city. The seaport of Leith, though a distinct
+burgh, governed by its own magistrates, and electing its own
+representative to parliament, has also on its southern side become
+practically united to its great neighbour.
+
+The other three royal burghs associated with Edinburgh were Stirling,
+Roxburgh and Berwick; and their enactments form the earliest existing
+collected body of Scots law. The determination of Edinburgh as the
+national capital, and as the most frequent scene of parliamentary
+assemblies, dates from the death of James I. in 1436. Of the thirteen
+parliaments summoned by that sovereign, only one, the last, was held at
+Edinburgh, but his assassination in the Blackfriars' monastery at Perth
+led to the abrupt transfer of the court and capital from the Tay to the
+Forth. The coronation of James II. was celebrated in Holyrood Abbey
+instead of at Scone, and the widowed queen took up her residence, with
+the young king, in the castle. Of fourteen parliaments summoned during
+this reign, only one was held at Perth, five met at Stirling and the
+rest at Edinburgh; and, notwithstanding the favour shown for Stirling as
+a royal residence in the following reign, every one of the parliaments
+of James III. was held at Edinburgh. James II. conferred on the city
+various privileges relating to the holding of fairs and markets, and the
+levying of customs; and by a royal charter of 1452 he gave it
+pre-eminence over the other burghs. Further immunities and privileges
+were granted by James III.; and by a precept of 1482, known as the
+Golden Charter, he bestowed on the provost and magistrates the
+hereditary office of sheriff, with power to hold courts, to levy fines,
+and to impose duties on all merchandise landed at the port of Leith.
+Those privileges were renewed and extended by various sovereigns, and
+especially by a general charter granted by James VI. in 1603.
+
+James III. was a great builder, and, in the prosperous era which
+followed his son's accession to the throne, the town reached the open
+valley to the south, with the Cowgate as its chief thoroughfare. But the
+death of James IV. in 1513, along with other disastrous results of the
+battle of Flodden, brought this era of prosperity to an abrupt close.
+The citizens hastened to construct a second line of wall, enclosing the
+Cowgate and the heights beyond, since occupied by Greyfriars churches
+and Heriot's hospital, but still excluding the Canongate, as pertaining
+to the abbey of Holyrood. In the 16th century the movements connected
+with John Knox and Mary, queen of Scots, made Edinburgh a castle of much
+activity. With the departure, however, of the sixth James to fill the
+English throne in 1603, the town lost for a long period its influence
+and prestige. Matters were not bettered by the Act of Union signed in a
+cellar in High Street in 1707, amidst the execrations of the people, and
+it was not till the hopes of the Jacobites were blasted at Culloden
+(1746) that the townsfolk began to accept the inevitable. This epoch,
+when grass grew even in High Street, long lingered in the popular memory
+as the "dark age."
+
+By the accession of George III. (1760), Edinburgh showed signs of
+revived enterprise. In 1763 the first North Bridge, connecting the Old
+Town with the sloping ground on which afterwards stood the Register
+House and the theatre in Shakespeare Square, was opened; a little later
+the Nor' Loch was partially drained, and the bridging of the Cowgate in
+1785 encouraged expansion southwards. Towards the end of the 18th
+century the New Town began to take shape on the grand, if formal, lines
+which had been planned by James Craig (d. 1795), the architect, nephew
+of the poet Thomson, and the erection of Regent Bridge in Waterloo Place
+(formally opened in 1819 on the occasion of the visit of Prince Leopold,
+afterwards king of the Belgians) gave access to Calton Hill. The
+creation of Princes Street, one of the most beautiful thoroughfares in
+the world, led to further improvement. The earth and débris from the
+excavation of the sites for the houses in this and adjoining streets had
+been "dumped" in the centre of the drained Nor' Loch. This unsightly
+mass of rubbish lay for a while as an eye-sore, until the happy thought
+arose of converting it into a broad way joining the new road at Hanover
+Street with the Old Town at the Lawnmarket. Upon this street, which
+divides Princes Street and its gardens into east and west, and which
+received the title of the Mound, were erected the National Gallery and
+the Royal Institution. Speaking generally, the New Town was resorted to
+by professional men--lawyers, doctors and artists,--and in its principal
+streets will be found the head offices of the leading banks and
+insurance offices, all lodged in buildings of remarkable architectural
+pretensions. The Commercial, the Union and the Clydesdale banks are in
+George Street, the National Bank of Scotland, the Royal Bank of
+Scotland, and the British Linen Company's Bank are in St Andrew Square,
+the Bank of Scotland is at the head of the Mound. The extensive building
+operations engaged in by the town council in the early part of the 19th
+century resulted in the insolvency of the city in 1833. The property of
+the corporation was valued at £271,658 against a debt of £425,195, which
+was compounded for by the issue of 3% annuity bonds--the loss to the
+creditors amounting to 25% of their claims.
+
+Meanwhile the progress of letters, science and learning manifested the
+recovery of the city. The names of Knox (d. 1572), Buchanan (1582),
+Alexander Montgomery (1605), Drummond of Hawthornden (1649), Allan
+Ramsay (1757), Smollett (1771), Fergusson (1774), and Burns (1796),
+carried on the literary associations of the Scottish capital nearly to
+the close of the 18th century, when various causes combined to give them
+new significance and value. The university was served by a body of
+teachers and investigators who won for it a prominent position among
+European schools. Then succeeded the era of Scott's _Marmion_ and _The
+Lady of the Lake_, followed by the Waverley novels and the foundation of
+_Blackwood's Magazine_ and the _Edinburgh Review_.
+
+Modern conditions have changed the character of Edinburgh society. In
+Scott's early days a journey to London was beset with difficulties and
+even dangers; but railways have now brought it within a few hours'
+distance, and Scottish artists and literary men are tempted to seek a
+wider field. Nevertheless, the influence of the past survives in many
+ways. Edinburgh is not markedly a manufacturing city, but preserves its
+character as the Scottish capital.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--James Grant, _Old and New Edinburgh_ (London, 1880 et
+  seq.); W. Maitland, _History of Edinburgh_ (1753); Hugo Arnot,
+  _History of Edinburgh_ (1789); B. Chambers, _Traditions of Edinburgh_
+  (1824); D. Wilson, _Memorials of Edinburgh in the Olden Time_
+  (1846-1848); O. Smeaton, _Edinburgh and its Story_ (1904). _The
+  Municipal Buildings of Edinburgh_, by Robert Miller, Lord Dean of
+  Guild, printed by order of the town council (Edinburgh, 1895); _Royal
+  Edinburgh_, by Mrs Oliphant, illustrations by Sir George Reid, R.S.A.
+  (London, 1890).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The original Tolbooth was completed in 1501, but a new one took
+    its place in 1563-1564, and was subsequently altered. At first
+    occupied by the parliament and courts of justice, it served later as
+    a prison, and was removed in 1817.
+
+  [2] James Gillespie (1726-1797) was a tobacco and snuff manufacturer,
+    and when he set up his carriage Henry Erskine suggested as a motto
+    the homely couplet:--
+
+      "Wha wad hae thocht it,
+       That noses wad bocht it?"
+
+  [3] James Donaldson (1751-1830) was a printer who bequeathed nearly
+    the whole of his large fortune for the purposes of a hospital for
+    poor boys and girls, and the trustees have usually selected half of
+    the children admitted from the ranks of the deaf and dumb.
+
+
+
+
+EDINBURGHSHIRE, or MIDLOTHIAN, a county of Scotland, bounded N. by the
+Firth of Forth, E. by the shires of Haddington, or East Lothian, and
+Berwick, S.E. by Roxburghshire, S. by Selkirkshire, Peeblesshire and
+Lanarkshire, S.W. by Lanarkshire, and W. by Linlithgowshire or West
+Lothian. Its area is 234,339 acres or 3662 sq. m. The island of Cramond
+belongs to the county. There are no mountains, but the Pentland Hills
+advance boldly from the south-west to within 5 m. of the sea. The
+loftiest summits are Scald Law (1898 ft.), Carnethy (1881), West and
+East Cairn Hill (1844 and 1839), and West Kip (1806). They are generally
+of rounded form, and covered with heath or grass. The Moorfoot Hills, in
+the south-east, are a continuation of the Lammermuirs, and attain in
+Blackhope Scar a height of 2136 ft. Of more or less isolated eminences
+there are the Braid Hills (698 ft.), Blackford Hill (500), Arthur's Seat
+(822), Corstorphine Hill (500)--all practically within Edinburgh--and
+Dalmahoy Craig (800), 7 m. south-west of the city. Of the rivers the
+Gala rises on the south-east of the Moorfoot Hills and flows south to
+join the Tweed, and the Tyne after a course of 7 m. passes into
+Haddingtonshire. All the others flow into the Firth of Forth. Of these
+the Esk, which is the longest, drains the district between the Pentlands
+and the Moorfoot Hills, and empties into the sea at Musselburgh. The
+southern branch has its source near Blackhope Scar, receives on its
+right Gore Water and, on its left, Dalhousie Burn, and flows past
+Newbattle Abbey; the northern rises in the Pentlands, and proceeds
+through much picturesque scenery past Penicuik, Roslin, Hawthornden and
+Lasswade; the two streams uniting within the grounds of Dalkeith Palace.
+Braid Burn from Capelaw Hill passes between the Braid Hills and
+Blackford Hill, and reaches the sea at Portobello. The Water of Leith,
+with its head streams on the western slope of the Pentlands, flows past
+Balerno, Currie, Juniper Green, Colinton, Edinburgh and Leith. The
+Almond, rising in Lanarkshire, and its right-hand tributary, Breich
+Water, form the boundary between Midlothian and Linlithgowshire. Several
+of these streams, especially the Esk and the Water of Leith, furnish
+much water power. The only loch is that at Duddingston, but there are
+several large reservoirs connected with the water supply of Edinburgh.
+Cobbinshaw reservoir, situated at the head of Bog Burn, a tributary of
+the Almond, is used for the supply of the Union Canal connecting the
+Forth with the Clyde.
+
+  _Geology._--The southern portion of the county, embracing the Moorfoot
+  Hills and a large part of the catchment basin of the Gala Water, lies
+  within the Silurian tableland of the south of Scotland. From Bowland
+  northwards to Crookston in the Gala valley the Silurian strata are
+  mainly of Tarannon age and consist of greywackes, grits, flags and
+  shales, with thin dark seams which yield graptolites sparingly. To the
+  north of this area, older sediments, comprising Arenig cherts, black
+  shales, greywackes and grits of Llandeilo and Caradoc age, rise from
+  underneath the Tarannon strata and spread over the hills north to the
+  margin of the tableland. In some of the folds of Arenig cherts diabase
+  lavas appear, which occupy small lenticular areas. All the Silurian
+  strata are repeated by folds striking north-east and south-west and
+  frequently dipping in one direction, to the north-west as in the Gala
+  valley. North of the Silurian tableland and within the area occupied
+  by the younger palaeozoic rocks of the Pentland Hills, there are
+  various inliers of Upper Silurian strata. These isolated patches occur
+  (1) in the North Esk section, (2) at Loganlee reservoir, (3) near
+  Bavelaw Castle, and (4) in Bavelaw Burn. The section in the North Esk
+  is by far the most complete, as the strata embrace Wenlock, Ludlow and
+  Downtonian rocks with a north-east strike similar to that of the beds
+  in the Silurian tableland. The Wenlock rocks have yielded a rich suite
+  of organic remains. In the Pentland Hills the folded and denuded
+  Silurian strata are covered unconformably by Lower Old Red Sandstone
+  rocks, comprising conglomerates and red sandstones, which are
+  succeeded by a great volcanic series, the latter extending from the
+  West Kip Hill to the Braid Hills. The pebbles of the basal
+  conglomerates are derived chiefly from the underlying platform of
+  greywackes and shales and from the Radiolarian cherts and volcanic
+  rocks in the tableland to the south. The contemporaneous igneous rocks
+  include olivine basalts, andesites, trachytes, rhyolites and tuffs,
+  which are pierced by the microgranite of the Black Hill and by several
+  vents filled with agglomerate, as near Swanston.
+
+  The Upper Old Red Sandstone rests unconformably on all older
+  formations. The red sandstones and cornstones of this division form
+  the Cairn Hills, and are traceable north-eastwards along the
+  north-west slope of the Pentland Hills towards the Clubbiedean
+  reservoir, where they are overlapped by Carboniferous strata. They
+  occupy the south part of the city of Edinburgh, they occur in the
+  lower slope of Salisbury Crags, and south by Craigmillar and Liberton
+  towards Mortonhall. Recently the horizon of these beds has been proved
+  by the discovery of fish remains (_Holoptychius_), a zonal form of the
+  Upper Old Red Sandstone. The remainder of the county embracing the
+  fertile low ground west of the city of Edinburgh and along the basin
+  of the Esk is occupied by Carboniferous strata and various igneous
+  rocks associated with that formation. The Pentland Hills, formed of
+  older Palaeozoic deposits, appear as a prominent ridge, throwing off
+  the Carboniferous beds to the north-west and south-east. In the former
+  direction only the Calciferous Sandstone series is represented, and in
+  the latter all the Carboniferous divisions are well developed. The
+  lowest subdivision of the Calciferous Sandstone series, consisting of
+  sandstones, red and green shales, marls and cement-stones, appears in
+  the ridge of the old part of the city between the Castle and Holyrood,
+  in the Hunter's Bog and on the north-west side of the Pentland Hills.
+  Intercalated in this series near the top, there are interbedded
+  volcanic rocks, comprising olivine basalts, mugearites, tuffs and
+  agglomerates, which form conspicuous features on Arthur's Seat, on
+  Calton Hill, at Craiglockhart and Corston Hill south of Mid Calder.
+  Next in order come the Granton sandstones and Wardie shales, which are
+  best seen on the shore at Granton, and extend up the Water of Leith in
+  the direction of Colinton, where they are succeeded by the Hailes
+  sandstone. The upper portion of the Calciferous Sandstone series,
+  overlying the Hailes sandstone, embraces the valuable oil-shales,
+  which give rise to one of the chief industries of the Lothians.
+  Recently, however, it has been proved that some of the bands in the
+  Wardie shales give a low yield of oil and sulphate of ammonia. The
+  oil-shale-fields in the county lie partly along its west margin from
+  Mid Calder south to Breich and also on the south-east side of the
+  Pentland Hills between Straiton and Carlops along the west side of the
+  Midlothian basin. From an economic point of view the Midlothian
+  coalfield is of special importance, the strata being arranged in a
+  syncline, the long axis of which trends north-north-east and
+  south-south-west. In the centre of the basin lie the Coal-Measures
+  covered by the barren red sandstone of Dalkeith, probably on the same
+  horizon as the red sandstones of Wemyss in Fife (Middle
+  Coal-Measures). The underlying Millstone Grit and Carboniferous
+  Limestone series with its middle-coal-bearing group rise from
+  underneath the Coal-Measures, forming parallel bands curving round the
+  basin. Along the west side of the syncline, the strata dip at high
+  angles to the south-east, are sometimes vertical and even in some
+  cases inverted, while in the centre they become flat and rise at
+  gentle angles towards the east. The Coal Measures and the coal-bearing
+  group of the Carboniferous Limestone series contain numerous valuable
+  coals and ironstones, and there still remains a large field for
+  development. The intrusive igneous rocks forming prominent features in
+  the county are divisible into two main groups, which are separated
+  from each other by a considerable interval of time. The coarse
+  agglomerate filling the old volcano on the top of Arthur's Seat is
+  associated with the eruption of the volcanic rocks of Calciferous
+  Sandstone age near Edinburgh. The fine grained basalt appearing as a
+  plug on the Castle Rock closely resembles the basalt on the top of
+  Arthur's Seat, and is likewise of the same age. The intrusive sheets
+  of Salisbury Crags and Corstorphine Hill composed of olivine-dolerite
+  belong to the same general period. But the quartz-dolerites
+  represented by the Ratho sill are in all probability of late
+  Carboniferous age.
+
+_Climate and Agriculture._--In the hill country the average rainfall is
+37.4 in., but on the coast only 28.4 in. The average temperature ranges
+from 38° F. in January to 59°.5 in July, the mean for the year being
+47.7. The north-east and easterly winds prevailing in spring are,
+especially in Edinburgh and its vicinity, remarkable for their cold and
+blighting character. Excepting in the uplands, snow seldom lies long,
+but frosts sometimes occur at night as late as the beginning of June,
+and severe enough to destroy the young shoots of seedling trees in
+nurseries. But the winter is often astonishingly mild. The common
+snowdrop (_Galanthus nivalis_) blossoms as early as the 25th of January,
+the kidney liverleaf (_Hepatica triloba_) by the 31st of January and the
+rhododendron (_R. nobleanum_) by the 25th of February. On the shores of
+the Forth along the Almond and the Esk, and on some of the richer flats,
+grain crops ripen early; 2 m. nearer the hills and 200 ft. higher the
+harvest is ten days later; and at 600 ft. still another week later. High
+farming is the rule in the three Lothians. All the area on which wheat
+can be profitably grown is so occupied; oats, however, is the
+predominant grain crop, though barley is also raised. Turnips and
+potatoes are the chief roots, and beans are grown to a limited extent. A
+large area is occupied by pasture and sown grasses, fallow land having
+practically disappeared. Near Edinburgh sewage farming has been largely
+developed. There are 200 acres at Craigentinny between Restalrig and the
+Forth, besides smaller tracts under similar treatment at Lochend, Dalry
+and the Grange. The produce consists principally of natural grasses.
+Sheep and cattle raising is an important pursuit. In the neighbourhood
+of the capital dairy farming is conducted on an extensive scale. Horse
+breeding flourishes, several of the studs being of excellent character,
+Clydesdales predominating. Pig-keeping has grown considerably and
+poultry-farming is carried on near Edinburgh. The nursery gardens are
+extensive, and, besides market gardening, which prospers near the
+capital, there are many orchards.
+
+_Other Industries._--Though as a whole not a mining county, Midlothian
+possesses some mineral wealth. Coal is extensively mined at various
+points on the North Esk, like Penicuik, Loanhead, Bonnyrigg, Eskbank and
+at Gorebridge, Newbattle, Newbigging, Niddrie, Gilmerton, Mid and West
+Calder. Ironstone is obtained chiefly at Lasswade and Penicuik and
+fire-clay occurs at various points. In the vicinity of West Calder there
+is a large amount of valuable oil-bearing shale. Limestone is of
+frequent occurrence--at Esperston, Cousland, Crichton near Dalkeith,
+Burdiehouse, Gilmerton near Edinburgh, the Camps in Kirknewton parish,
+and at Muirieston and Leven Seat in the south-west. Freestone is
+quarried at Craigleith, Hailes, Redhall and Craigmillar. It is used for
+pavements and stairs, and for the great docks at Leith. Barnton Mount
+supplies large blocks of whinstone, also used for docks and for
+fortifications; the causeway stones for the streets of Edinburgh are
+mainly procured from the quarries at Ratho; and a number of smaller
+quarries for the supply of road-material are scattered throughout the
+county. Owing no doubt to the growth of printing and publishing in the
+metropolis, the chief manufacturing industry in Midlothian is
+paper-making. Most of the mills are extensive and equipped with the most
+modern processes and have an enormous yearly output. The most important
+mills, some of them dating from the beginning of the 18th century, are
+situated on the North Esk between Penicuik and Musselburgh, and on the
+South Esk at Newbattle. At Balerno, Currie, Colinton and elsewhere on
+the Water of Leith there are several mills, as well as near Mid Calder
+and at Portobello. The ancient vat-mill called Peggy's Mill, at Cramond,
+produces handmade papers. There are carpet factories on the Esk at
+Roslin and at Lasswade. The manufacture of gunpowder is also carried on
+at Roslin, the works being distributed in recesses on the Esk. Iron
+foundries exist at Dalkeith, Westfield, Loanhead, Penicuik, Millerhill
+and in the suburbs of Edinburgh; brick and tile works at Portobello,
+Millerhill, Newbattle, Bonnyrigg and Rosewell; and candle works at
+Dalkeith and Loanhead. Leather also is tanned at Edinburgh and Dalkeith.
+The shipping trade is concentrated at Leith and Granton, and Newhaven is
+still an important fishery centre, while there are also fleets at
+Fisherrow and Granton.
+
+_Population and Government._--The population in 1891 was 434,276, and in
+1901 488,796, of whom 5765 spoke both Gaelic and English, and 75 Gaelic
+only. The chief towns, besides Edinburgh, the capital (pop. in 1901,
+316,837), are Bonnyrigg (1924), Dalkeith (6812), Leith (77,439),
+Loanhead (3071), Musselburgh (11,711), Newton Grange (2406), Penicuik
+(3574), and West Calder (2652). The county forms a single parliamentary
+constituency, exclusive of Edinburgh city and Leith burghs. It has been
+divided by the county council into four county districts (Calder, Gala
+Water, Lasswade, Suburban) for the purposes of the Roads and Bridges Act
+1878, and the Public Health Acts. The management of special districts
+formed for water supply, drainage and other sanitary purposes is
+entrusted to sub committees appointed by the respective district
+committees. The grant under the Local Taxation (Customs and Excise) Act
+is administered by the Technical Education Committee appointed by the
+Council; and, subject to the same authority, the Secondary Education
+Committee provides for the distribution of the grant under the Local
+Taxation (Scotland) Act. In respect of education the shire is under
+school-board jurisdiction.
+
+_History and Antiquities._--Cramond was once a Roman seaport, and
+various objects of Roman art and workmanship have been discovered in its
+vicinity and along the banks of the Almond. On several heights are
+remains of early military works--the most important being that on
+Dalmahoy Hill, Braidwood Castle in the parish of Penicuik, and Castle
+Greg on the Harburn estate in Mid Calder parish. Picts' houses are found
+at Crichton Mains, at Borthwick Castle, near Middleton House and
+elsewhere, the first being especially interesting from the fact that
+some of the stones bear marks of Roman masonry. There are hut-circles
+and a fort on Kaimes Hill, near Ratho; a large tumulus, with three
+upright stones, at Old Liston; a smaller tumulus at Newbattle; a
+cistvaen or stone burial chest at Carlowrie; and standing stones at
+Lochend, at Comiston (the Caiy stone), and the "Cat Stane" near
+Kirkliston. Temple, on the South Esk, was at one time the chief seat of
+the Knights Templars in Scotland for whom David I. here built a church,
+now in ruins.
+
+The history of the county is almost identical with that of the capital.
+Traces of Celtic occupation are obvious in such names as Inveresk,
+Almond, Leith, Dalry, Dalmahoy, Dalkeith and others; though most of the
+villages, hamlets and castles received their present designation from
+Saxon possessors. The termination _ton_ is very frequent. Following upon
+the withdrawal of the Romans the land was the scene of intertribal
+strife, but it was in a measure subdued by the Saxons and passed under
+the rule of the Northumbrian kings, who held it till 1020, when the
+Lothians were handed over to the Scottish king, Malcolm II. The people
+of the Lothians, however, stipulated that they were to retain their
+manners and customs, and in this way the south-eastern lowlands became
+the centre from which Anglo-Saxon and Norman civilization gradually
+spread throughout Scotland, and hence, too, was assured the pre-eminence
+of Edinburgh. Within the county lie the battlefields of Roslin, where
+(in 1303) the English suffered three reverses in one day; Burghmuir,
+where the English were defeated by the earl of Moray in 1334; Pinkie
+near Inveresk, where (in 1547) the duke of Somerset inflicted heavy loss
+upon the Scots; and Rullion Green, on the eastern slopes of the
+Pentlands, where (in 1666) the Covenanters were routed by the royal
+troops under General Dalziel.
+
+  See James Grant, _Old and New Edinburgh_ (London, 1880 et seq.); Miss
+  Warrender, _Walks near Edinburgh_ (Edinburgh, 1890); J.C. Oliphant,
+  _Rambles round Edinburgh_ (Edinburgh, 1892); J.M. Bell, _Castles of
+  the Lothians_ (Edinburgh, 1893); W. Baird, _Annals of Duddingston and
+  Portobello_ (Edinburgh, 1898); J. Geddie, _The Water of Leith_
+  (Edinburgh, 1896); Rev. J. Dickson, _Ruined Castles of Midlothian_
+  (Edinburgh, 1895); _The Islands of the Forth_ (Edinburgh 1899).
+
+
+
+
+EDISON, THOMAS ALVA (1847-   ), American inventor, was born on the 11th
+of February 1847, at Milan, Erie county, Ohio, of mixed Dutch and
+Scottish descent; but his parents moved to Port Huron, Michigan, when he
+was seven years old. At the age of twelve he became a train news-boy on
+the railway to Detroit, and managed to gratify his youthful interest in
+chemistry by performing experiments while travelling. At fifteen he
+became a telegraph operator, and was employed in many cities in the
+United States and Canada, but frequently neglected his duties in order
+to carry on studies and experiments in electrical science. Before he was
+twenty-one he had constructed an automatic repeater, by means of which a
+message could be transferred from one wire to another without the aid of
+an operator; and he had also directed his attention to the problem of
+duplex telegraphy, of which he later invented a successful system. In
+1869 Edison came to New York city, and soon afterwards became connected
+with the Gold & Stock Company. He invented an improved printing
+telegraph for stock quotations, for which he received $40,000. He then
+established a laboratory and factory in Newark, N.J., for further
+experiments and for the manufacture of his inventions. In 1876 he
+removed to Menlo Park, and later to West Orange, N.J., where he
+continued his experiments. Since then his name has been prominently
+associated with all kinds of novelties in practical electricity. Among
+his principal inventions are his system of duplex telegraphy, which he
+later developed into quadruplex and sextuplex transmission; his carbon
+telephone transmitter; the microtasimeter, for the detection of small
+variations in temperature; the phonograph, which records and reproduces
+all manner of sounds; the cinematograph, which his improvements made
+practicable; and his method of preparing carbon filaments for the
+incandescent electric lamp. In 1878 Edison was made a chevalier of the
+Legion of Honour by the French government.
+
+
+
+
+EDMONTON, the capital city of the province of Alberta, Canada, which was
+constituted in 1905. Pop. (1901) 2652; (1906) 11,167. It is
+picturesquely situated on the north bank of the North Saskatchewan river
+in 113° 37' W. and 53° 32' N. It is on a high tableland which rises 200
+ft. above the river, and overlooks the thickly wooded valley of the
+North Saskatchewan river--at this point a mile in width, the river
+itself being one-eighth of a mile wide. Directly opposite Edmonton on
+the south bank of the river stands Strathcona, a town with a population
+of 2927. The streets of Edmonton are wide and laid out in rectangular
+form. Its excellent drainage makes street grading an easy matter. In
+1896 it was scarcely a village; in 1901 it assumed some importance, but
+three-quarters of the city were built between 1901 and 1906. Its choice
+as capital in 1905 gave it a great impetus. The buildings, largely of
+brick, give a substantial appearance to the place. The public school
+buildings, high school and Alberta College are attractive. The church
+buildings, many in number, include several architecturally beautiful.
+Three well planned and commodious hospital buildings represent the
+benevolent work of the community. The banks and the wholesale warehouses
+are well built, and many beautiful private residences are worthy of
+note. Its growth may be realized from the fact that during a part of
+1906, $806,015 worth of building permits were granted; the customs
+receipts, $57,994 in 1905, grew to $104,416 in 1906; the mail parcels
+handled increased from 6800 to 12,079; and the express parcels handled
+from 1277 to 2347. Edmonton is the depot of the fur traders for the
+great region on the north and west. The Hudson's Bay Company has great
+interest in Edmonton, but is vigorously opposed by a strong French firm,
+Revillon Frères of Paris. These two companies have their posts wide
+spread over the north country. The city, being incorporated, is governed
+by a mayor and a board of aldermen. It operates its own water service,
+electric light plant, and telephone system. Its schools are managed by
+an elected public school board.
+
+Edmonton was begun as a post of the North West Company about the year
+1778. Early in the 19th century the Hudson's Bay Company also
+established a fort at this point. On the union of the two companies
+under the name of the latter, Fort Edmonton sprang into new importance.
+It became a north-western centre, and in its neighbourhood many
+employees of the fur company, both Scottish and French, took up land as
+settlers. As freighters for the Hudson's Bay Company many of these
+settlers made, with their ox or pony carts, the long journey over the
+natural prairie roads to Fort Garry, fording or swimming the streams,
+carrying furs for a thousand miles or more on the eastern trip, and
+returning brought loads of merchandise for the company. Its
+inaccessibility made the Edmonton settlement grow very slowly, so that
+its great increase in population belongs to the period subsequent to
+1896.
+
+
+
+
+EDMONTON, an urban district in the Enfield parliamentary division of
+Middlesex, England, suburban to London, 7½ m. N. of London Bridge, on
+the Old North Road, on the west side of the Lea Valley. Pop. (1891)
+25,381; (1901) 46,899. There are numerous factories in the valley, and
+Edmonton consists largely of the cottages of artisans. The church of All
+Saints has been extensively restored, but retains part of the ancient
+fabric of Perpendicular and earlier date. It contains brasses of
+interest, and in the churchyard is the memorial of Charles Lamb, who
+lived and died (1834) at Edmonton, and his sister. Cowper and Keats were
+also residents, and the Bell Inn is famed through Cowper's poem _John
+Gilpin_.
+
+
+
+
+EDMUND, SAINT [EDMUND RICH] (d. 1240), English saint and archbishop of
+Canterbury, was born at Abingdon, near Oxford, about 1175. His father
+was a merchant of that town who retired, with his wife's consent, to the
+monastery of Eynsham, leaving in her hands the education of their
+family. Her name was Mabel; she was a devout woman who lived an ascetic
+life and encouraged her children to do the same. Both her daughters took
+the veil; three of her sons served the church in different capacities.
+Edmund, her first-born, began his education in a grammar school at
+Oxford. Of weak health and a contemplative disposition, he showed, from
+his earliest years, a remarkable taste for learning and religious
+exercises. He saw visions while still at school, and at the age of
+twelve took a vow of perpetual chastity in the Virgin's church at
+Oxford. Later he was sent, with his brother Robert, to study the liberal
+arts at Paris. His mother's death and family affairs recalled him for a
+time to England; but he afterwards graduated at Paris. For six years he
+lectured in the liberal arts, partly in Paris and partly in Oxford; his
+career as an Oxford teacher commenced before 1205, and is noteworthy for
+the fact that he was the first who lectured there on Aristotle. He then
+returned to Paris for a course of theological studies, and rapidly made
+himself proficient in that branch of learning.
+
+After spending a year in retirement with the Augustinian canons of
+Merton (Surrey) he became a theological lecturer in Oxford. In this
+capacity he gained some reputation, and it is related that his audience
+were often moved to tears by his eloquence. He spent the fees which he
+received in charity, and refused to spend upon himself the revenues
+which he derived from several benefices. He not infrequently retired
+for solitude to Reading Abbey; it is probable that he would have become
+a monk if that profession had afforded more scope for his gifts as a
+preacher and expositor. As his fame increased he became alarmed by the
+temptations which it threw in his way. He ceased to lecture in Oxford,
+and about 1222 accepted, at the invitation of Bishop Richard Poore, the
+treasurership of Salisbury cathedral. Little is known of his life for
+the next ten years. But he attracted the notice of the Roman court, and
+was appointed in 1227 to preach the Crusade in England; he formed a
+friendship with Ella, countess of Salisbury, and her husband, William
+Longsword, and he won general admiration by his works of charity and the
+austerity of his life.
+
+In 1233 he was elected archbishop of Canterbury at the express
+suggestion of Gregory IX., after the monks of Canterbury had in vain
+suggested three other candidates for the pope's approval. Edmund at once
+leaped into prominence by the outspoken manner in which he rebuked the
+king for following the advice of foreign favourites. In common with the
+baronial opposition he treated Henry III. as responsible for the tragic
+fate of Richard Marshal, earl of Pembroke, and threatened the king with
+excommunication. The king bowed before the storm, dismissed the foreign
+counsellors, made peace with Marshal's adherents, and was publicly
+reconciled with the barons. But the new ministers were as unpopular as
+the old; nor was the archbishop allowed that political influence which
+he claimed in virtue of his office. It was with the object of
+emancipating himself from Edmund's control that the king asked the pope
+to send him a legate (1236). On the arrival of Cardinal Otho (1237) the
+archbishop found himself thwarted and insulted at every point. The
+marriage between Simon de Montfort and the Princess Eleanor, which
+Edmund had pronounced invalid, was ratified at Rome upon appeal. The
+king and legate upheld the monks of Canterbury in their opposition to
+the archbishop's authority. On all public occasions the legate took
+precedence of the archbishop. By the advice of his suffragans Edmund
+laid a protest before the king, and excommunicated in general terms all
+who had infringed the liberties of Canterbury. These measures led to no
+result; nor could the pope be moved to reverse the legate's decisions.
+Edmund complained that the discipline of the national church was ruined
+by this conflict of powers, and began to meditate retiring. He was
+confirmed in this intention by the papal encroachments of the year 1240,
+when the English clergy were required to pay a subsidy of a fifth for
+the war against Frederick II., and simultaneously three hundred Romans
+were "provided" with English benefices in return for their political
+services to the Holy See. Edmund withdrew to Pontigny in the summer of
+1240. A little later the state of his health compelled him to seek the
+cooler air of Soissy (near Provins). Here he died on the 16th of
+November 1240.
+
+His canonization was at once demanded by his admirers, and only delayed
+(till 1247) through the opposition of Henry III. The honour was well
+deserved. He is one of the most saintly and attractive figures in the
+history of the English church. It was his misfortune to be placed at the
+head of the national hierarchy in a crisis for which he had not been
+prepared by practical training or experience. As archbishop he showed no
+great capacity or force of character; but the purity of his motives and
+the loftiness of his ideals commanded universal respect.
+
+  See the Life printed by Martène and Durand in the _Thesaurus novus
+  anecdotorum_ (1717). Other lives of importance exist in manuscript at
+  the British Museum, in the Cambridge University library and in that of
+  St John's College, Cambridge. The last-named is printed by W. Wallace
+  in the appendix to his _Life of St Edmund_ (1893). An account of the
+  manuscript lives and many extracts (translated) will be found in the
+  Rev. B. Ward's _St Edmund_ (1903). See also _St Edmund of Abingdon_
+  (1898), by the Baroness Paravicini; and the _English Historical
+  Review_, xxii. pp. 84 ff.     (H. W. C. D.)
+
+
+
+
+EDMUND, king of East Anglia (c. 840-870), succeeded to the East Anglian
+throne in 855 while he was yet but a boy. According to Abbo, followed by
+Florence of Worcester, he was "_ex antiquorum Saxonum prosapia_," which
+would seem to mean that he was of foreign origin and that he belonged to
+the Old Saxons of the continent. This very doubtful tradition was
+expanded later into a fuller legend which spoke of his Old Saxon
+parentage, his birth at Nuremberg, his nomination as successor to Offa,
+king of East Anglia, and his landing at Hunstanton to claim his kingdom.
+His coronation took place in the next year at "Burna" (i.e. probably
+Bures St Mary, Suffolk), which was then the royal capital.
+
+Of the life of St Edmund during the next fourteen years we know nothing.
+In the year 870 the Danes, who had been wintering at York, marched
+through Mercia into East Anglia and took up their quarters at Thetford.
+Edward engaged them fiercely in battle, but the Danes under their
+leaders Ubba and Inguar were victorious and remained in possession of
+the field of battle. The king himself was slain, whether on the actual
+field of battle or in later martyrdom is not certain, but the widely
+current version of the story which makes him fall a martyr to the Danish
+arrows when he had refused to renounce his faith or hold his kingdom as
+a vassal from the heathen overlords, may very probably be true. The
+story is a very old one, and according to Abbo of Fleury (945-1004), St
+Edmund's earliest biographer, it was told him by Dunstan, who heard it
+from the lips of Edmund's own standard-bearer. This is chronologically
+just possible, but that is all. The battle was fought at Hoxne, some 20
+m. south-east of Thetford, and the king's body was ultimately interred
+at Beadoricesworth, the modern Bury St Edmunds. The shrine of Edmund
+soon became one of the most famous in England and the reputation of the
+saint was European. The date of his canonization is unknown, but
+churches dedicated to his memory are found all over England.
+
+  See _Asser's Life of Alfred_, ed. W.H. Stevenson; _Annals of St
+  Neots_; _Saxon Chronicle_; _Memorials of St Edmund's Abbey_ (Rolls
+  Series), including the _Passio Sancti Edmundi_ of Abbo of Fleury; and
+  the _Corolla Sancti Eadmundi_, edited by Lord Francis Hervey (1907).
+       (A. Mw.)
+
+
+
+
+EDMUND I., king of the English (d. 946), was the son of Eadgifu, third
+wife of Edward the Elder, and half-brother to his predecessor Æthelstan.
+He succeeded to the throne in 940, but had already played an active part
+in the previous reign, especially when he fought by the side of his
+half-brother in the great battle of Brunanburh.
+
+In the first year of his reign Edmund had trouble with Olaf or Anlaf
+Sihtricsson, called Cuaran. The latter had just crossed from Ireland and
+had been chosen king by the Northumbrians, who threw off their
+allegiance to Edmund. Anlaf took York, besieged Northampton and
+destroyed Tamworth, but was met by Edmund at Leicester. The enemy
+escaped, but a peaceful settlement was made by the good offices of Odo
+of Canterbury and Wulfstan of York. Simeon of Durham states that a
+division of the kingdom was now made, whereby Edmund took England south
+of Watling Street and Anlaf the rest. This division seems incredible,
+especially in face of the poem inserted in the chronicle (_sub anno_
+942). There can be little doubt that the story told there of the
+reconquest of Northern Mercia by Edmund refers to the compact with
+Anlaf, made as a result of the campaign, and it is probable that
+Simeon's statement is a wide exaggeration, due in part at least to a
+confused reminiscence of the earlier pact between Alfred and Guthrum.
+All Mercia south of a line from Dore (near Sheffield), through Whitwell
+to the Humber, was now in Edmund's hands, and the five Danish boroughs,
+which had for some time been exposed to raids from the Norwegian kings
+of Northumbria, were now freed from that fear. The peace was confirmed
+by the baptism of Kings Anlaf and Rægenald, Edmund standing as sponsor,
+but in 944 or 945 the peace was broken and Edmund expelled Anlaf and
+Rægenald from Northumbria.
+
+In 945 Edmund ravaged Strathclyde, and entrusted it all to Malcolm, king
+of Scotland, "on condition that he should be his fellow-worker by sea
+and land," the object of this policy being apparently to detach the king
+of Scots from any possible confederacy such as had been formed in 937.
+
+On the 26th of May 946 Edmund's brief but energetic reign came to a
+tragic conclusion when he was stabbed at the royal villa of
+Pucklechurch, in Gloucestershire, by an exiled robber named Liofa, who
+had returned to the court unbidden. Edmund, the "deed-doer" as the
+chronicle calls him, "Edmundus magnificus" as Florence of Worcester
+describes him, perhaps translating the Saxon epithet, was buried at
+Glastonbury, an abbey which he had entrusted in 943 to the famous
+Dunstan.
+
+Edmund was twice married; first to Ælfgifu, the mother of Eadwig and
+Edgar; second to Æthelflæd "æt Damerhame" (i.e. of Damerham, Co. Wilts).
+Ælfgifu died in 944, according to Ethelwerd.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--_Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_ (ed. Earle and Plummer, Oxford);
+  _Simeon of Durham_ (Rolls Series); _A.S. Laws_, ed. Liebermann, pp.
+  184-191; Birch, _Cartularium Saxonicum_, Nos. 745-817; _Dictionary of
+  National Biography_, s.v.     (A. Mw.)
+
+
+
+
+EDMUND, or EADMUND (c. 980-1016), called IRONSIDE, king of the English,
+was the son of Æthelred II. by his first wife Ælfgifu. When Canute
+invaded England in 1015, Edmund sought to resist him, but, paralysed by
+the treachery and desertion of the ealdorman Edric, he could do nothing,
+and Wessex submitted to the Danish king. Next year Canute and Edric
+together harried Mercia, while Edmund with infinite difficulty gathered
+an army. Returning into Northumbria, he in his turn harried the
+districts which had submitted to the invader, but a march northward by
+Canute brought about the speedy submission of Northumbria and the return
+of Edmund to London. The death of Æthelred on the 23rd of April 1016 was
+followed by a double election to the English crown. The citizens of
+London and those members of the Witan who were present in the city chose
+Edmund, the rest of the Witan meeting at Southampton elected Canute. In
+the warfare which ensued Edmund fought at the severest disadvantage, for
+his armies dispersed after every engagement, whatever its issue. Canute
+at once fiercely besieged London, but the citizens successfully resisted
+all attacks. Edmund meanwhile marched through Wessex and received its
+submission. At Pen in Somersetshire he engaged the Danes and defeated
+them. Canute now raised the siege of London and soon afterwards
+encountered Edmund at Sherston in Wiltshire. The battle was indecisive,
+but Canute marched back to London and left Edmund in possession of
+Wessex. Edmund hastened after him and relieved London, which he had
+again besieged. He defeated the Danes at Brentford and again at Otford,
+and drove them into Sheppey. He was now joined by Edric, in conjunction
+with whom he followed the Danes into Essex, overtaking them at Assandun
+(or Ashington). In the battle which ensued Edric again played the
+traitor, and the English were routed with terrible slaughter. Edmund
+retired into Gloucestershire, whither he was followed by Canute. He
+himself was anxious to continue the struggle, but Edric and the Witan
+persuaded him to accept a reconciliation. At Olney the two rivals swore
+friendship, and a division of the kingdom was effected--Canute taking
+the north, Edmund the south. Soon afterwards Edmund died (30th of
+November 1016), probably from natural causes, though later historians
+hint at foul play.     (C. S. P.*)
+
+
+
+
+EDMUND, king of Sicily and earl of Lancaster (1245-1296), was the second
+son of Henry III. of England by Eleanor of Provence. At ten years of age
+Edmund was invested by Pope Alexander IV. with the kingdom of Sicily
+(April 1255); the pecuniary obligations which Henry III. undertook on
+his son's behalf were not the least among the causes which led to the
+Provisions of Oxford and the Barons' War. Alexander annulled his grant
+in 1258, but still pressed Henry for the discharge of unpaid arrears of
+subsidies. In 1265, after Montfort's fall, Edmund received the earldom
+of Leicester, and two years later was created earl of Lancaster. He
+joined the crusade of his elder brother, the Lord Edward (1271-1272);
+and Edward, on his accession, found in Edmund a loyal supporter. In
+1275, two years after the death of his first wife, Aveline de Fortibus,
+Edmund married Blanche of Artois, the widow of Henry III. of Navarre and
+Champagne. Although the county of Champagne had descended to his wife's
+infant daughter, Joan, Edmund assumed the title "Count Palatine of
+Champagne and Brie," and is described in the English patent rolls as
+earl of Lancaster and Champagne. Until 1284 he held, in his wife's
+right, the custody of Champagne. This he was compelled to renounce upon
+the marriage of Joan to Philip the Fair, the heir to the crown of
+France. But he retained the possession of his wife's dowerlands in
+Champagne, and is described in an official document of Champagne so late
+as the year 1287, as "the Count Edmund." He was employed by his brother
+as a mediator with Philip the Fair in 1293-1294. When Philip's court
+pronounced that the king of England had forfeited Gascony, Edmund
+renounced his homage to Philip and withdrew with his wife to England. He
+was appointed lieutenant of Gascony in 1296, but died in the same year,
+leaving a son Thomas to succeed him in his English possessions.
+
+  See "Edmund, Earl of Lancaster," by W.E. Rhodes, in the _English
+  Historical Review_, vol. x. pp. 19, 209.
+
+
+
+
+EDMUNDS, GEORGE FRANKLIN (1828-), American lawyer and political leader,
+was born in Richmond, Vermont, on the 1st of February 1828. He began the
+practice of law in 1849. He was a member of the Vermont House of
+Representatives in 1854, 1855, 1857, 1858 and 1859, acting for the last
+two years as speaker, and was a member and president _pro tem._ of the
+state Senate in 1861-1862. In 1866 he became a member, as a Republican,
+of the United States Senate, where he remained until 1891, when he
+resigned in order to have more time for the practice of his profession.
+He took an active part in the attempt to impeach President Johnson. He
+was influential in providing for the electoral commission to decide the
+disputed presidential election of 1876, and became one of the
+commissioners. In the national Republican nominating conventions of 1880
+and 1884 he was a candidate for the presidential nomination. From 1882
+to 1885 he was president _pro tem._ of the Senate. As senator he was
+conspicuous on account of his legal and parliamentary attainments, his
+industry and his liberal opinions. He was the author of the so-called
+Edmunds Act (22nd of March 1882) for the suppression of polygamy in
+Utah, and of the anti-trust law of 1890, popularly known as the Sherman
+Act.
+
+
+
+
+EDOM, the district situated to the south of Palestine, between the Dead
+Sea and the Gulf of 'Akaba (Aelanitic Gulf), the inhabitants of which
+were regarded by the Israelites as a "brother" people (see ESAU). On the
+E. it touched Moab, the tribes of the great desert and the northern part
+of Arabia; on the W. its boundaries were determined by the Sinaitic
+peninsula, Egypt and Israel. Both Kadesh and Mt. Hor (perhaps Jebel
+Madera) are represented as lying on its border (Num. xx. 16, 22), and
+the modern Wadi el-Fikreh, in which the "Scorpion pass" was probably
+situated (Judg. i. 36; Num. xxxiv. 4), may have marked its limits from
+Jebel Madera north-west towards the southern extremity of the Dead Sea.
+Kadesh (_'Ain Kadis_), however, lies about 50 m. south of Beersheba (the
+southern end of Israel as opposed to Dan in the north), and the precise
+borders must always have been determined by political conditions: by the
+relations between Edom and its neighbours, Judah, the Philistine states,
+Moab, and the restless desert tribes with which Edom was always very
+closely allied.
+
+  The northern part of Edom became known by a separate name as Gebalene
+  (Gebal in Ps. lxxxiii. 7), the modern Jibal, "mountain country." Seir
+  or Mt. Seir, a synonym for Edom, not to be confused with the Judaean
+  locality (Josh. xv. 10), has been identified with the modern
+  _es-sarah_, the hilly region to the south of Petra; though its use
+  probably varied in ancient times as much as that of Edom certainly
+  did. Mt. Halak, apparently one of its offshoots (Josh. xi. 17, xii.
+  7), is of uncertain identification, nor can the exact position of
+  Paran (probably desert of _et-Tih_) or Zin (Sin) be precisely
+  determined. The chief Edomite cities extended from north to south on
+  or adjoining an important trade-route (see below); they include Bozrah
+  (Buseire), Shobek, Petra (the capital), and Ma'an; farther to the
+  south lay the important seaports Ezion-Geber (mod. 'Ain el-Ghudyan,
+  now 15 m. north of the head of the Aelanitic Gulf) and Elath (whence
+  the gulf derives its name). Petra (q.v.) is usually identified with
+  the biblical Sela, unless this latter is to be placed at the south end
+  of the Dead Sea (Judg. i. 36). The sites of Teman and Dedan, which
+  also were closely associated with Edom (Jer. xlix. 7 seq.; Ez. xxv.
+  13), are uncertain. No doubt, as a general rule, the relations between
+  Edomites and the "sons of the east" (Ezek. xxv. 10; Job i. 3) and the
+  "kingdoms of Hazor" (nomad states; Jer. xlix. 28, 30, 33) varied
+  considerably throughout the period of O.T. history.
+
+
+The land of Edom is unfruitful and forbidding, with the notable
+exception of fertile districts immediately south of the Dead Sea and
+along its eastern border. It was traversed by an important trade-route
+from Elath (the junction for routes to Egypt and Arabia) which ran
+northwards by Ma'an and Moab; but cross-routes turned from Ma'an and
+Petra to Gaza or up the Ghor (south end of Dead Sea) to Hebron and
+Jerusalem.[1] Thus Edom formed a prominent centre for traffic from
+Arabia and its seats of culture to Egypt, the Philistine towns,
+Palestine and the Syrian states, and it enjoyed a commercial importance
+which made it a significant factor in Palestinian history.
+
+The earliest history of Edom is that of the "sand-dwellers," "archers"
+or _Shasu_ (perhaps "marauders"), whose conflicts with ancient Egypt are
+not infrequently mentioned. The first clear reference is in the eighth
+year of Mineptah II. (close of 13th century B.C.), when a tribe of Shasu
+from Aduma received permission to enter Egypt and feed their flocks.[2]
+A little more than a century later Rameses III. claims to have
+overthrown the Saaru among the tribes of the Shasu, and the
+identification of this name with Seir is usually recognized, although it
+is naturally uncertain whether the Edomites of Old Testament tradition
+are meant. According to the latter, the Edomites were a new race who
+drove out the Horites from Mt. Seir. The designation suggests that these
+were "cave-dwellers," but although many caves and hollows have been
+found about Petra (and also in Palestine), this tradition probably
+"serves only to express the idea entertained by later generations
+concerning their predecessors" (Nöldeke).
+
+Not only is Edom as a nation recognized as older than Israel, but a list
+of eight kings, who reigned before the Israelite monarchy, is preserved
+in Gen. xxxvi.
+
+  The first Bela, son of Beor, is often identified with Balaam, but the
+  traditions of the Exodus are not precise enough to warrant the
+  assumption that the seer was the king of a hostile land in Num. xx. 14
+  sqq., which in Deut. ii. 1-8 appears to have been peaceful; see
+  BALAAM; EXODUS. In Husham, the third king, several scholars (Grätz,
+  Klostermann, Marquart, &c.) have recognized the true adversary of
+  Othniel (q.v.; Judg. iii.). The defeat of Midian in the land of Moab
+  by his successor Hadad has been associated with the Midianite invasion
+  in the time of Gideon (q.v.; Judg. vi. sqq.). The sixth is Shaul,
+  whose name happens to be identical with Saul, king of Israel, whilst
+  the last Hadad (so 1 Chron. i. 50) of Pau (or Peor in Moab, so the
+  Septuagint) should belong to the time of David. The list, whatever its
+  value, together with the other evidence in Gen. xxxvi., implies that
+  the Edomites consisted of a number of local groups with chieftains,
+  with a monarchy which, however, was not hereditary but due to the
+  supremacy of stronger leaders. The tradition thus finds an analogy in
+  the Israelite "judges" before the time of Saul and David.
+
+Saul, the first king of Israel, conquered Edom (1 Sam. xiv. 47).[3] Of
+the conquest of Edom by David, the first king of the united Judah and
+Israel, several details are given (2 Sam. viii. 13 seq.; 1 Kings xi. 14
+sqq.; 1 Chron. xviii. 11 seq.; cf. Ps. lx. title and ver. 8 seq.),
+although the account of the slaughter is certainly exaggerated. The
+scene was the valley of Salt, probably to the south of the Dead Sea. Of
+the escape of the Edomite prince Hadad, and of his residence in Egypt, a
+twofold account is preserved.[4] After the death of David he returned
+to Edom; if, as the narrative implies, he became a troublesome adversary
+to Solomon, nothing is known of his achievements, and if the royal
+trading-journeys from Ezion-geber were maintained, Edom could have done
+little. However, in the first half of the 9th century Edom was under the
+rule of Jehoshaphat of Judah, and this king together with Israel held
+Ezion-geber (1 Kings xxii. 47 sqq.; 2 Chron. xx. 35 sqq.). But some
+catastrophe befell the fleet, and shortly afterwards Jehoshaphat's son
+Jehoram had to face a revolt in which Edom and the men of Libnah (the
+Philistines) were concerned. It was about this period that Israel had
+conquered Moab, thrusting it farther south towards Edom, and the
+subsequent success of Moab in throwing off the yoke, and the
+unsuccessful attempt of Jehoram of Israel to regain the position, may
+show that Edom was also in alliance with Moab.[5] In the time of
+Adad-nirari of Assyria (812-783 B.C.) Edom is mentioned as an
+independent tributary with Beth-Omri (Israel) and Palashtu (Philistia);
+the absence of Judah is perplexing. Amaziah of Judah had gained a signal
+victory over Edom in the valley of Salt (2 Kings xiv. 7), but after his
+defeat by Jehoash of Israel there is a gap and the situation is obscure.
+Consequently it is uncertain whether Edom was the vassal of the next
+great Israelite king Jeroboam II., or whether the Assyrian evidence for
+its independent position belongs to this later time. However, Uzziah, a
+contemporary of Jeroboam II., and one of the most successful of Judaean
+kings, overcame Edom and its natural allies (2 Chron. xxvi. 6 sqq.), and
+at this stage Edomite history becomes more prominent. It joined the
+great coalition in which Philistia and Israel were leagued against
+Assyria, and drove out the Judaeans who had been in possession of
+Elath.[6] On the events that followed see AHAZ; HEZEKIAH; PHILISTINES.
+The Assyrian inscriptions name as tributary kings of Edom, Kaus-melek
+(time of Tiglath-Pileser IV.), Malik (?)-ram (701 B.C.), and Kaus-gabri
+(7th century). In the middle of the 7th century both Edom and Moab
+suffered from the restlessness of the desert tribes, and after another
+period of obscurity, they joined in the attempt made by Zedekiah of
+Judah to revolt against Nebuchadrezzar (Jer. xxvii. 3). In the last
+years before the fall of Jerusalem many of the Jews found a refuge in
+Edom (Jer. xl. 11), although other traditions throw another light upon
+the attitude of Edom during these disasters.
+
+  That Edomites burned the temple after the destruction of Jerusalem (1
+  Esd. iv. 45, cf. v. 50) is on a line with the repeated denunciation of
+  their "unbrotherly" conduct in later writings. Certainly the weak
+  state of Palestine invited attacks from the outlying tribes, but the
+  tone of certain late writings implies a preliminary period of, at
+  least, neutrality (cf. Deut. ii. 4 sqq., xxiii. 7 seq.; the omission
+  of Edom in xxiii. 3; Neh. xiii. 1; and in Ezra ix. 1--contrast 1 Esd.
+  viii. 69). Subsequently Edom is execrated for revengeful attacks upon
+  the Jews, and its speedy destruction is foretold; but the passages
+  appear to be much later than the disaster of 587 B.C., and may even
+  imply conditions after the restoration (Ob. 10 sqq.; Ezek. xxv. 12-14;
+  Jer. xlix. 7; Ps. cxxxvii. 7; Lam. iv. 21 seq., v. 2 sqq.). But at
+  length the day of reckoning came (cf. Is. xxxiv. 5; lxiii. 1-6), and
+  the fate of Edom is still fresh in the mind of Malachi (i. 1-5).
+
+The problem is complicated by the possibility that during the ages over
+which the references can range many changes of fortune could have
+occurred. The pressure of the Nabataeans (q.v.) forced Edom to leave its
+former seats and advance into the south of Judah with Hebron as the
+capital. This had been fully accomplished by 312 B.C., but the date of
+the first occupation cannot be ascertained from the literary evidence
+alone. Thus the district in question is Jewish in the time of Nehemiah
+(Neh. xi. 25-30), but it is uncertain whether the Edomite occupation was
+earlier (a fusion being assumed) or later, or whether the passage may be
+untrustworthy. Henceforth, the new home of the Edomites is consequently
+known as Idumaea. See, for further history, HEROD; JEWS.[7]
+
+Although but little is known of the inhabitants of Edom, their close
+relationship to Judah and their kinship with the surrounding tribes
+invest them with particular interest. The ties which united Lot (the
+"father" of Ammon and Moab), Ishmael, Midian and Edom (Esau) with the
+southern tribes Judah and Simeon, as manifested in the genealogical
+lists, are intelligible enough on geographical grounds alone, and the
+significance of this for the history of Judah and Palestine cannot be
+ignored. The traditions recording the separation of Lot from Abraham, of
+Hagar and Ishmael from Isaac, and of Esau from Jacob, although at
+present arranged in a descending scheme of family relationship, are the
+result of systematic grouping and cannot express any chronological order
+of events (see GENESIS). Many motives have worked to bring these legends
+into their present form, and while they depict the character of Israel's
+wilder neighbours, they represent the recurrent alternating periods of
+hostility and fellowship between it and Edom which mark the history.
+Esau (Edom) although the older, loses his superiority, and if the
+oracles declare that the elder shall serve the younger (Jacob, i.e.
+Israel), the final independence of Esau (Gen. xxv. 23, xxvii. 39 seq.),
+as foretold, obviously alludes to some successful Edomite revolt. As an
+enemy, Edom in alliance with the tribes along the trade-routes
+(Philistines, Moabites, &c.) was responsible for many injuries, and in
+frequent forays carried away Judaeans as slaves for Gaza and Tyre (Am.
+i. 6 seq., 9). As an ally or vassal, it was in touch with the wealth of
+Arabia (Ezek. xxvii. 16, read "Edom" for "Aram"), and Judah and Israel
+as well as Gaza and Damascus enjoyed the fruits of its commerce. In view
+of the evidence for the advanced culture of early Arabia, the question
+of Edom is extremely suggestive, and although speculation at this stage
+would be premature, it is interesting to observe that Edomite and allied
+tribes were famed for their wisdom,[8] and that apart from the
+_possibility_ of Arabian influence upon Israelite culture, the influence
+of Midian and related tribes is _certain_ from the traditions of Moses
+and of his work (see JETHRO; KENITES; MOSES), and the Edomite district
+was a traditional home of Yahweh himself (Deut. xxxiii. 2; Judg. v. 4;
+Hab. iii. 3); see HEBREW RELIGION. It should be added, however, that the
+Edomite names and other evidence point to the cult of other gods, viz.
+Baal, Hadad, Malik (cf. MOLOCH), Kaus, or Kus, and Kozeh (Jos. _Ant._
+xv. 7, 9), who was probably a sky or lightning deity.
+
+  The names Esau and Edom are possibly old divine names; see ESAU and
+  _Ency. Bib._ s.v. "Obed edom" (the name appears to mean "servant of
+  Edom"). For Kaus, see Baethgen, _Beitr. z. semit.
+  Religionsgeschichte_, p. 11 seq.; G.A. Cooke, _N. Sem. Inscr._ p. 234;
+  _Ency. Bib._ col. 2682, n. 2 and 2688 (s.v. "Kushaiah"); and Zimmern,
+  _Keilinschr. u. d. alte Test._^3, pp. 472 seq. On the question of
+  early Arabian civilization see YEMEN. That the name Mizraim (Misraim),
+  "Egypt," was extended eastwards of the Delta is in itself probable,
+  but it is still uncertain whether the term (also Ass. Musri) was
+  applied to Edom. The evidence (which is of mixed value) makes the view
+  a plausible one, but the theory has often been exaggerated (see
+  MIZRAIM). For Edom see, generally, Buhl, _Gesch. d. Edomiter_ (1893);
+  Nöldeke's article in _Ency. Bib._; W. Libbey and F.E. Hoskins, _The
+  Jordan Valley and Petra_ (1905); the conjectural sketch by I. Levy in
+  _Rev. d'études juives_ (Jan. 1906). For the history and culture of the
+  latest period, see J.P. Peters and Thiersch, _Painted Tombs in the
+  Necropolis of Marissa_ (1905), ch. i.     (S. A. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See further, E. Robinson, _Biblical Researches_, vol. ii.; E.
+    Hull, _Mt. Seir_; E.H. Palmer, _Desert of the Exodus_; Baedeker's
+    _Palestine and Syria_; C.W. Wilson, "Quart. Stat." (_Pal. Explor.
+    Fund_), 1899, p. 307, and G.A. Smith, _Ency. Bib._ col. 5162 seq.
+
+  [2] In the old story of Sinuhit (ascribed to the 12th dyn.) the hero
+    visits the land of _Kedem_, which, it was suggested, lay to the
+    south-east or south of the Dead Sea; see, however, now A.H. Gardiner,
+    _Sitz.-Ber._ of the Berlin Academy, 1907, pp. 142 sqq. The suggestion
+    that the city Udumu, in the land of Gar, mentioned in the 15th
+    century (_Amarna Tablets_, ed. Winckler, No. 237), is Edom, Gar being
+    the Eg. _Kharu_ (Palestine) and the O.T. Horites (see above), is
+    extremely hazardous. That the name Aduma (above) refers to Etham (so
+    Naville, &c.) is improbable.
+
+  [3] That the Edomites preserved this tradition of Saul's sovereignty
+    and (from their standpoint) enrolled him among their kings (Gen.
+    xxxvi. 37) cannot of course be proved. The account of the ferocious
+    slaughter of the priests of Nob at Saul's command by Doeg the Edomite
+    is a secondary tradition and probably of late origin (1 Sam. xxi.
+    1-9, xxii. 6-23); cf. the hostility of Edom in exilic and post-exilic
+    times (p. 878, col. 1).
+
+  [4] 1 Kings l.c., see the Septuagint and, especially, H. Winckler,
+    _Alttest. Untersuch._, pp. 1-15; C.F. Burney, _Kings_, pp. 158 sqq.;
+    J. Skinner, _Kings_, pp. 443 sqq.; Ed. Meyer, _Israeliten_, pp. 358
+    sqq.
+
+  [5] On 2 Kings iii. see JEHORAM; JEHOSHAPHAT; MOAB; and for the
+    biblical traditions relating to this period see KINGS (Book) and
+    JEWS: _History_. The chronicler's account of Judaean successes (2
+    Chron. xvii. 10 seq.; xx.) and reverses (xxi. 16, xxii. 1) may rest
+    originally upon the source from which 1 Kings xxii. 47 seq.; 2 Kings
+    viii. 20, 22, have been abbreviated. It is hardly probable that there
+    was enmity between Edom and Moab as 2 Kings iii. now implies,
+    although hostile relations at other periods are likely (cf. Am. ii.
+    1); for Edom in Moabite territory see above on Gen. xxxvi. and
+    "Quart. Stat." (_Pal. Explor. Fund_), 1902, pp. 10 sqq.
+
+  [6] 2 Kings xvi. 6; on the text see the commentaries.
+
+  [7] For the Jewish hatred of Edom in later times see the book of
+    Enoch lxxxix. 11-12; Jubilees, xxxvii. 22 seq., and on the Talmudic
+    custom of applying to the Romans the references to Edom or Esau, see
+    _Jewish Ency._ vol. v. p. 41.
+
+  [8] Ob. 8; Jer. xlix. 7 sqq.; Baruch iii. 22, cf. 1 Kings iv. 30; see
+    also JOB.
+
+
+
+
+EDRED (EADRED), king of the English (d. 955), was the youngest son of
+Edward the Elder and his wife Eadgifu. He succeeded his brother Edmund
+in the year 946 and at this time received the formal submission both of
+the Northumbrians and Scots. In the next year Edred himself went to
+Tanshelf, near Pontefract, in Yorkshire, where he received from
+Wulfstan, archbishop of York, and the Northumbrian "witan" confirmation
+of their submission. Shortly after they threw their pledges to the winds
+and took the Norwegian Eric Bloodaxe, son of Harold Fairhair (Harald
+Harfagar), as their king. Edred recklessly ravaged all Northumbria in
+revenge, burning Ripon during his march. On his return home Edred's
+rearguard was attacked at Castleford, and the infuriated king once more
+turned to ravage Northumbria, which was only saved by its abandonment of
+Eric and by compensation made to Edred. Archbishop Wulfstan seems to
+have been a centre of disaffection in the north, and in 952 Edred caused
+him to be imprisoned in the castle of "Judanburh," while in the same
+year the king, in revenge for the slaying of Abbot Eadelm, slew many of
+the citizens of Thetford. After the brief rule of Anlaf Cuaran in
+Northumbria, Eric was once more restored, probably in 950, only to be
+expelled again in 953 or 954, when Edred took the Northumbrian kingdom
+into his own hands. In the same year Wulfstan was liberated and
+appointed to the Mercian bishopric of Dorchester. Edred died on the 23rd
+of November 955 at Frome, in Somersetshire, and was buried in the old
+minster at Winchester. During the whole of his life Edred was troubled
+by ill-health, a fact which may help to explain some of the more
+passionate acts of violence attributed to him. The king was throughout
+his life on terms of personal intimacy with St Dunstan, and his public
+policy was largely guided by that prelate and by his own mother Eadgifu.
+So far as we know, Edred was never married.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The _Saxon Chronicle_ (ed. Earle and Plummer, Oxford),
+  _sub ann._; _Memorials of St Dunstan_ (Rolls Series, ed. Stubbs);
+  Florence of Worcester; Birch, _Cartularium Saxonicum_, vol. iii., Nos.
+  815-834 and 860-931; _D.N.B._, art. _sub voce_.     (A. Mw.)
+
+
+
+
+EDRIC, or EADRIC, STREONA (d. 1017), ealdorman of the Mercians, was a
+man of ignoble birth who was advanced to high dignity through the favour
+of the English king Æthelred II. In 1007 he became ealdorman of the
+Mercians, and subsequently married Æthelred's daughter Eadgyth. In the
+struggle between the English and the Danes he appears in the character
+of an arch-traitor. When Æthelred in 1009 proposed a great attack on the
+Danes, Edric dissuaded him from carrying it into effect. Again, on the
+invasion of England by Canute in 1015 Edric deserted Edmund Ironside and
+joined him. After the battle of Otford he returned to Edmund, but only
+by his treachery at the battle of Assandun to secure the utter defeat of
+the national cause. When peace was at length made, Canute restored to
+Edric the earldom of Mercia; but at Christmas 1017, fearing further
+treachery, he had him slain--"very rightly" says the _Saxon Chronicle_.
+
+
+
+
+EDUCATION. In the following treatment of this subject, the theory and
+early history of education is first dealt with, and secondly the modern
+organization of education as a national concern. Many definitions have
+been given of the word "education," but underlying them all is the
+conception that it denotes an attempt on the part of the adult members
+of a human society to shape the development of the coming generation in
+accordance with its own ideals of life. It is true that the word has not
+infrequently been used in wider senses than this. For example, J.S. Mill
+included under it everything which "helps to shape the human being";
+and, with some poetic licence, we speak of the education of a people or
+even of the whole human race. But all such usages are rhetorical
+extensions of the commonly accepted sense of the term, which includes,
+as an essential element, the idea of deliberate direction and training
+(Lat. _educare_, to bring up; _educere_, to draw out, lead forth). No
+doubt, all education is effected through the experiences of the
+educated, and much of it is indirect, consisting mainly in the
+determination of the form of experiences other than those of direct
+precept, compulsion and instruction. But it does not follow that all
+experiences are educative. Whether an experience is part of an
+individual's education or not is determined by its origin. Whatever be
+its effect, it is educative in so far as its form has been arranged with
+greater or less deliberation by those who are concerned with the
+training of him whose experience it is. It follows that an education may
+be good or bad, and that its goodness or badness will be relative to
+the virtue, wisdom and intelligence of the educator. It is good only
+when it aims at the right kind of product, and when the means it adopts
+are well adapted to secure the intended result and are applied
+intelligently, consistently and persistently.
+
+Education is, thus, a definitely personal work, and will vary between
+wide extremes of effectiveness and worth in any given society. For in
+all times and places there are wide differences in virtue, wisdom and
+capacity among those who have in their hands the care and nurture of the
+young. But the inference that, therefore, no comparative estimate of the
+education of different times and places can be made would be fallacious.
+For, despite all differences in conception and efficiency among
+individual educators, each expresses, more or less perfectly and
+clearly, the common conception and energy of his age and country. As
+these rise or fall the general level of the actual educative practice
+rises or sinks with them. The first essential for successful educative
+effort is, then, that the community as a whole should have a true
+estimate of the nature and value of education.
+
+
+I. EDUCATIONAL THEORY
+
+In any comparative estimate of different places and times, as tested by
+the standard just given, it must be borne in mind that, except in the
+most general and abstract form, we cannot speak of an ideally best
+education. Looking at the individual to be educated, we may say with
+Plato that the aim of education is "to develop in the body and in the
+soul all the beauty and all the perfection of which they are capable,"
+but this leaves quite undecided the nature and form of that beauty and
+perfection, and on such points there has never been universal agreement
+at any one time, while successive ages have shown marked differences of
+estimate. We get nearer to the point when we reflect that individual
+beauty and perfection are shown, and only shown, in actual life, and
+that such life has to be lived under definite conditions of time, place,
+culture, religion, national aspirations and mastery over material
+conditions. Perfection of life, then, in the Athens of the age of Plato
+would show a very different form from that which it would take in the
+London or Paris of to-day. So an individualistic statement of the
+purpose of education leads on analysis to considerations that are not,
+in themselves, individualistic. The personal life is throughout a
+relation between individual promptings to activity and the environment
+in which alone such promptings can, by being actualized, become part of
+life. And the perfection of the life is to be sought in the perfection
+of the relations thus established. So far, then, as any conception of
+education can give guidance to the actual process it must be relative in
+every way to the state of development of the society in which it is
+given. Indeed, looked at in the mass, education may be said to be the
+efforts made by the community to impose its culture upon the growing
+generation. Here again is room for difference. The culture in question
+may be accepted as absolute at least in its essentials, and then the
+ideal of education will be to secure its stability and perpetuation, or
+it may be regarded as a stage in a process of development, and then the
+ideal will be to facilitate the advance of the next generation beyond
+the point reached by the present. So some ages will show a relatively
+fixed conception of the educative process, others will be times of
+unrest and change in this as in other modes of social and intellectual
+life.
+
+It is in these latter times that the actual work of education is apt to
+lose touch with the culture of the community. For schools (q.v.) and
+universities (q.v.), which are the ordinary channels through which adult
+culture reaches the young, are naturally conservative and bound by
+tradition. They are slow to leave the old paths which have hitherto led
+to the desired goal, and to enter on new and untried ways. If the
+opposition to change is absolute, there must come a time when the
+instruments of education are out of true relation to the desired end.
+For change in culture ideals means change in the specific form of the
+goal of education, and consequently the paths of educative effort need
+readjustment. When the goal of the past is no longer the goal of the
+present, to follow the ways which led to the former is to fail to reach
+the latter. Continuous readjustment, by small and almost imperceptible
+degrees, is the ideal at which the educator should aim. When this is not
+secured, the educational domain is liable to sudden and violent
+revolutions which are destructive of successful educative effort at the
+time they occur, however beneficial their results may be in the future.
+
+But the relation of adjustment is not entirely one-sided. The tone of
+thought and feeling and the direction of will induced by education
+necessarily affect the common ideals of the next generation, and may
+make them better or worse than those of the present. Hence, the educator
+must not blindly accept all current views of life, but rather select the
+highest. For the average thought of every community is obviously below
+its best thought; and may, in some points at any rate, be lower than the
+best thought of a past age. While, then, all true education must be in
+direct relation with the culture of its age and country, yet, especially
+on the ethical side, it should aim at transcending the average thought
+and tone.
+
+Still more does this imply that education strives to transcend the
+present condition of the educated by making their life more rational,
+more volitional, and more attracted by goodness and beauty than it would
+otherwise be. It can never be a passive watching of the child's
+development. No more fundamental error can be made than the assumption
+that education can be determined wholly, or even mainly, by the
+tendencies and impulses with which a child is endowed. Its real guiding
+principle must be a conception of the nature to which the child may
+attain, not a knowledge of that with which it starts. The educator
+studies the original endowment of the child and the early stages in the
+development of that innate nature in order that he may, wisely and
+successfully, employ appropriate means to direct further development and
+to accelerate its progress towards a more rational, complete and worthy
+life; not that he may the more skilfully give facilities to the child to
+drift about on the unregulated currents of caprice.
+
+Such considerations show the importance of an insight into the theory of
+education on the part of all who are practically concerned with its
+direction. But the theory required is no system of abstract ideas
+ignoring the real concrete conditions of the life for which the actual
+education it is to guide is a preparation. To approach the subject only
+from the standpoint of the mental sciences which underlie it is to run
+the risk of setting up such a body of abstractions, whose relation to
+real life is neither very close nor very direct. The most profitable way
+of developing an educational theory for the present is to trace how in
+the past education has consciously adapted itself, more or less truly
+and fully, to the conditions of culture and social life; and by analysis
+to discover the reasons for comparative success or failure in the degree
+of clearness with which the end to be sought was apprehended and the
+nature of the children to be trained was understood.
+
+In all ages the claims of the individual and those of the community have
+struggled for the mastery as the ultimate principles of life. As one or
+the other has prevailed the conception of education has emphasized
+social service or individual success as the primary end. The true
+harmony of human life will only be attained when these two impulses,
+contradictory on their own level, are united in a higher synthesis which
+sees each as the complement of the other in a life whose purpose is
+neither simple egoism nor pure altruism. Until that conception of life
+is attained and held generally there can be no sure and universally
+accepted conception of the aim and function of education. Much of the
+interest of the history of education[1] turns on the relation of these
+two principles as determinants of its aim.
+
+
+  Old Greek education.
+
+In ancient Greece the supremacy of the state was generally unquestioned,
+and, especially in the earlier times, the good man was identified with
+the good citizen. No doubt, in later days philosophers, such as Plato
+and Aristotle, saw clearly that the round of the duties of citizenship
+did not exhaust the life of the individual. With them the highest life
+was one of cultured leisure in which the energies were mainly
+concentrated on the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake. But this
+"diagogic" life was only for the select few; for the undistinguished
+many the fulfilment by each of the duties of his station remained the
+measure of worthy life, though such duties were regarded as affecting
+the individual and private relations of the citizens in a much more
+intimate way than in former and ruder ages. And for those who devoted
+their lives to the highest culture, the essential preliminary condition
+was the existence of such a state as would form the most favourable
+environment for their pursuits and the most stable foundation for their
+leisured life. Thus Greek thought was saturated with the conception of
+life as essentially a set of relations between the individual and the
+city-state of which he formed an integral part. The first aim of
+education was therefore to train the young as citizens.
+
+This training must, of necessity, be of a specific kind; for, like other
+small communities, the Greek city-states showed a life fundamentally one
+in conception, under various specific forms. Each state had its special
+character, and to this character the education given in it must conform
+if it were to be an effective instrument for training the citizens. From
+these fundamental conceptions flowed the demands of Plato and Aristotle
+that education should be regulated in all its details by the state
+authority, should be compulsory on all free citizens, and should be
+uniform--at any rate in its earlier stages--for all. In the _Republic_
+and the _Laws_, Plato shows to what extreme lengths theory may go when
+it neglects to take account of some of the most pertinent facts of life.
+For the guardian-citizens of the ideal state family life and family ties
+are abolished; no lower community is to be allowed to enter into
+competition with the state. Aristotle, indeed, did not go to these
+extreme lengths; he allowed the family to remain, but he seems to have
+regarded it as likely to affect children more for evil than for good.
+
+In the essential principles laid down by both philosophers as to the
+relation of the state to education, and in the corollaries they drew
+from that relation, they were not at variance with the accepted Greek
+theory on the subject. It is true that the actual practice of Greek
+states departed, and often widely, from this ideal, for, especially in
+later centuries, the Greek always tended to live his own life. The
+nearest approach to the theory was found in Sparta, where the end of the
+state as a military organization was kept steadily in view, and where,
+after early childhood, the young citizens were trained directly by the
+state in a kind of barrack life--the boys to become warriors, the girls
+the mothers of warriors. It was this feature of Spartan education,
+together with the rude simplicity of life it enforced, which attracted
+Plato, and, to a less extent, Aristotle. In Athens there had of old been
+state laws insisting on the attendance of the children of the free
+citizens at school, and, in some degree, regulating the schools
+themselves. But at the time of Plato these had fallen into desuetude,
+and the state directly concerned itself only with the training of the
+ephebi, for which, we learn from Aristotle's _Constitution of Athens_,
+somewhat elaborate provisions were made by the appointment of officers,
+and the regulation of both intellectual and physical pursuits. For
+children and youths under the ephebic age there was no practical
+regulation of schools or palaestra by the state. Yet there is no doubt
+that the education really given was in conformity with Athenian ideals
+of culture and life, and that it was generally received by the children
+of free citizens, though of course the sons of the wealthy, then as now,
+could and did continue their attendance at school to a later age than
+their poorer brethren. The education of girls was essentially a domestic
+training. What Plato and Aristotle, with the theorist's love of official
+systematic regulation, regarded as the greatest defect of Athenian
+education was in reality its strongest point. In practice, the harmony
+between individual liberty and social claims was much more nearly
+attained under a system of free working out of common thoughts and
+ideals than would have been the case under one of the irresistible
+imposition from without of a rigid mould.
+
+The instruments of education everywhere found to be in harmony with the
+Greek conception of life and culture were essentially twofold,--"music"
+([Greek: mousikê]), or literary and artistic culture, for the mind, and
+systematic gymnastic ([Greek: gymnastikê]) for the body. Plato, in the
+_Republic_, shows that the latter, as well as the former, affects the
+character, and doubtless, though not formulated, this was generally more
+or less vaguely felt. But Greek gymnastic was really an individual
+training, and therefore made only indirectly for the aim of cultivating
+the social bonds of citizenship. Ancient Greece had nothing
+corresponding in value in this respect to the organized games which form
+so important a feature in the school life of modern England. The
+"musical" training was essentially in the national literature and music
+of Greece, and this could obviously be carried to very different
+lengths. The elements of mathematical science were also commonly taught.
+The essential purpose throughout was the development of the character of
+a loyal citizen of Athens. As Athenian culture advanced, increasing
+attention was paid to diagogic studies, especially in the ephebic age,
+with a corresponding decrease of attention to merely physical pursuits;
+hence the complaints of such satirists as Aristophanes of a growing
+luxury, effeminacy and corruption of youths: complaints apparently based
+on a comparison of the worst features of the actual present with an
+idealized and imaginative picture of the virtues of the past. Such
+comparison is, indeed, implicit in much of Plato and Aristotle as well
+as in Aristophanes.
+
+But a disintegrating force was already at work in the educational system
+of Greece which Plato and Aristotle vainly opposed. This was the
+rhetorical training of the Sophists, the narrowly practical and
+individualistic aim of which was entirely out of harmony with the older
+Greek ideals of life and culture. In a democratic city-state the orator
+easily became a demagogue, and generally oratory was the readiest path
+to influence and power. Thus oratory opened the way to personal
+ambition, and young men who were moved by that passion eagerly attended
+the Sophist schools where their dominant motive was strengthened.
+
+Further, the closer relations between the Greek states, both in nearer
+and farther Hellas, led naturally to the diminution of differences
+between civic ideals, and, as a consequence, to a more cosmopolitan
+conception of higher education. This process was completed by the loss
+of political independence of the city-states under the Macedonian
+domination. Henceforth, higher education became purely intellectual, and
+its relation to political and social life increasingly remote. This,
+combined with the growing rhetorical tendency already noticed, accounts
+for the sterility of Greek thought during the succeeding centuries. The
+means of higher education were, indeed, more fully organized. The
+university of Athens was the outcome of a fusion of the private
+philosophical schools with the state organization for the training of
+the ephebi, and there were other such centres of higher culture,
+especially in after years at Alexandria, where the contact of Greek
+thought with the religions and philosophies of Egypt and the East gave
+birth in time to the more or less mystical philosophies which culminated
+in Neo-platonism. But at Athens itself thought became more and more
+sterile, and education more and more a mere training in unreal rhetoric,
+till the dissolution of the university by Justinian in A.D. 529.
+
+
+  Old Roman education.
+
+Thus when Rome conquered Greece, Greek education had lost that reality
+which is drawn from intimate relation to civic life, and the fashionable
+individualistic schools of philosophy could do nothing to replace the
+loss. It was, then, an education which had largely lost its life-springs
+that was transferred to Rome. In the earlier centuries of the republic,
+Roman education was given entirely in family and public life. The father
+had unlimited power over his son's life, and was open to public censure
+if he failed to train him in the ordinary moral, civic and religious
+duties. But it is doubtful if there were any schools (q.v.), and it is
+certain there was no national literature to furnish an instrument of
+culture. A Roman boy learnt to reverence the gods, to read, to bear
+himself well in manly exercises, and to know enough of the laws of his
+country to regulate his conduct. This last he acquired directly by
+hearing his father decide the cases of his clients every morning in his
+hall. The rules of courtesy he learnt similarly by accompanying his
+father to the social gatherings to which he was invited. Thus early
+Roman education was essentially practical, civic and moral, but its
+intellectual outlook was extremely narrow.
+
+
+  Hellenized Roman education.
+
+When a wider culture was imported from Greece it was, however, the form
+rather than the spirit of true Hellenic education that was transferred.
+This was, indeed, to some extent inevitable from the decadent state of
+Greek education at the time, but it was accentuated by the essentially
+practical character of the Roman mind. The instrument of education first
+introduced was Greek literature, much of which was soon translated into
+Latin. In time the schools of the _grammatici_, teaching grammar and
+literature, were supplemented by schools of rhetoric and philosophy,
+though the philosophy taught in them was itself little more than
+rhetorical declamation. These furnished the means of higher culture for
+those youths who did not study at Alexandria or Athens, and were also
+preparatory to studies at those universities. Under the Empire the
+rhetorical schools were gradually organized into a state system, the
+general principles of administration being laid down by imperial decree,
+and even such details as the appointment and rate of payment of the
+professors, at first left to the municipalities, being in time assumed
+by the central government. There is no evidence of any state regulation
+or support of the lower schools. This widening of culture affected both
+boys and girls, the domestic education of the latter being supplemented
+by a study of literature. But it is the higher training in rhetoric
+which is especially characteristic of Hellenized Roman education.
+
+The conception of a rhetorical culture is seen at its best in
+Quintilian's _Institutio oratoria_, the most systematic treatise on
+education produced by the ancient world. With Quintilian the ideal of an
+orator was a widely cultured, wise and honourable man. And at first the
+teaching of rhetoric undoubtedly made for higher and true culture. But
+with the autocracy, soon passing into tyranny, of the empire, rhetoric
+ceased to be a preparation for real life. The true function of oratory
+is to persuade a free people. When it cannot be applied to this purpose
+it becomes little more than a means of intellectual frivolity, or, at
+the best, an exhibition of cultured ingenuity. Under the empire a
+rhetorical training was, indeed, turned in not a few instances to
+practical but most unworthy uses by the delators; a result made possible
+by the legal system which rewarded delation with a considerable portion
+of the estate of the condemned. Even apart from this, the education in
+rhetoric had an increasingly evil effect both on the culture and on the
+character of the higher classes in the Roman empire. Out of real
+connexion with life as it was, it sought its subjects in the realms of
+the fanciful and the trivial, and with unreality of topic went of
+necessity deterioration of style. The vivid presentment of living
+thought gave way to that inflated and bombastic abuse of meretricious
+ornament and far-fetched metaphor in which human speech is always
+involved when it sets forth ideas, or shadows of ideas, which grow out
+of no conviction in the speaker and are expected to carry no conviction
+to the hearer. Imitation of the form of great models, without the
+substance of thought which underlay them, led to a general unreality and
+essential falseness of mental life. Further, the continual gazing with
+admiration on the productions of the past, and the conception of
+excellence as consisting in closeness of imitation, induced a servile
+attitude of mind towards authority in all too close agreement with the
+political servility which marked the Roman court. Such an attitude was
+essentially hostile to mental initiative, and thus rhetoric became not
+merely an art of expression but a type of character.
+
+Nor was there anything in the general conditions of society to
+counterbalance the ill effects of school and university education.
+Quintilian lamented that, even in his time, the old Roman family
+education by example was corrupted; and the moral degradation of later
+times, though it has doubtless been exaggerated, was certainly real and
+widespread. Nor does the religious revival of Paganism which
+synchronized with the early centuries of Christianity appear to have
+effected any reform in life. Alexandria, the birthplace of Neo-platonism
+and the intellectual centre of the later empire, was also a very sink of
+moral obliquity.
+
+
+  Christianity and Pagan education.
+
+It was into such a decaying civilization, which by its want of vitality
+sterilized education, oppressing it under the weight of a dead
+tradition, that Christianity brought new life. Of course, careful
+instruction in the Faith was given in catechetical schools, of which
+that at Alexandria was the most famous. But the question as to the
+attitude of Christians towards the ordinary classical culture was
+important. On the one hand, literature was saturated with Paganism, and
+the Pagan festivals formed a regular part of school life. On the other
+hand, the Pagan education offered the only means of higher culture, and
+thus furnished the only weapon with which Christians could successfully
+meet their controversial antagonists. Quite at first, no doubt, when the
+converts to the new faith were few and obscure, the question scarcely
+arose; but as men of culture and position were attracted to the Church
+it became urgent. The answers given by the Christian leaders were
+various, and largely the outcome of temperament and previous training.
+The Greek Fathers, especially Clement of Alexandria (150-217) and Origen
+(185-253), regarded Christianity as essentially the culmination of
+philosophy, to which the way must be found through liberal culture.
+Without a liberal education the Christian could live a life of faith and
+obedience but could not attain an intellectual understanding of the
+mysteries of the Faith. On the other hand, Tertullian (160-240) was very
+suspicious of Pagan culture; though he granted the necessity of
+employing it as a means of education, yet he did so with regret, and
+would forbid Christians to teach it in the public schools, where some
+recognition of Paganism would be implied. The general practice of the
+Christians, however, did not conform to Tertullian's exhortations.
+Indeed, many of the cultivated Christians of the 3rd and 4th centuries
+were little more than nominal adherents to the Faith, and the
+intercourse between Christian and Pagan was often close and friendly.
+The general attitude of Christians towards the traditional education is
+evidenced by the protest raised against the edict of Julian, which
+forbade them to teach in the public schools. The ultimate outcome seems
+to be fairly expressed in the writings of St Augustine (354-430) and St
+Jerome (346-420), who held that literary and rhetorical culture is good
+so long as it is kept subservient to the Christian life.
+
+In another way Greek philosophy exercised an abiding influence over the
+culture of future ages. The early centuries of Christianity felt the
+need of formulating the Faith to preserve it from disintegration into a
+mass of fluid opinions, and such formulation was of necessity made under
+the influence of the philosophy in which the early Fathers had been
+trained--that Neo-platonism which was the last effort of Paganism to
+attain a conception of life and of God. In the West, this formulation
+had to be translated into Latin, for Greek was no longer generally
+understood in Italy, and thus the juristic trend of Roman thought also
+became a factor in the exposition of Christian doctrine. This
+formulation of the Faith was one of the chief legacies the transition
+centuries passed on to the middle ages.
+
+Had classical culture been less formal than it was during the early
+centuries of Christianity, the innate antagonism of the Pagan and
+Christian views of life and character must have been so apparent that
+the education which prepared for the one could not have been accepted by
+the other. It was only because rhetorical culture was so emphatically
+intellectual, and so little, if at all, moral in its aims, that its
+inherent opposition to the Christian conception of character was not
+obvious. That its antagonistic influence was not inoperative is shown by
+the not infrequent perversions of cultured Christians to Paganism. But
+generally the opposition was so obscured that the ethical writings of St
+Ambrose (340-397) are largely Stoic in conception and reasoning. Yet the
+Pagan ideal of life, especially as it had been developed in the
+individualistic ethics which had prevailed for more than six centuries,
+was antithetical in essence to that of the Christian Church. The former
+was essentially an ethics of self-reliance and self-control showing
+itself in moderation and proportion in all expressions of life. An
+essential feature in such a character was high-mindedness and a
+self-respect which was of the nature of pride. On the contrary,
+Christian teaching exalted humility as one of the highest virtues, and
+regarded pride and self-confidence as the deadliest of sins. It
+recognized no doctrine of limitation; what was to be condemned could not
+be abhorred too violently, nor could what was good be too strongly
+desired or too ardently sought. The highest state attainable by man was
+absorption in loving ecstasy in the mystic contemplation of God. The
+practical attempt to realize this gave rise to monasticism, with its
+minutely regulated life expressing unlimited obedience and the
+renunciation of private will at every moment. The monastic life was
+regarded as the nearest approach to the ideal which a Christian could
+make on earth. Naturally, as this conception gathered strength in
+generations nurtured in it, the value of classical culture became less
+and less apparent, and by the time of St Gregory the Great (d. 604) the
+use of classical literature except as means of an education having quite
+another end than classical culture was discouraged.
+
+
+  Effect of barbarian inroads.
+
+Of course, during these centuries, the gradual subjugation of the
+western empire by the barbarians had been powerfully operative in the
+obscuring of culture. Most of the public schools disappeared, and
+generally the light of learning was kept burning only in monasteries,
+and in them more and more faintly as they became more or less isolated
+units exposed to attack by ruthless foes or living in continual dread of
+such attack. Though the barbarians absorbed the old culture in various
+degrees of imperfection, yet the four centuries following the death of
+St Augustine were plunged in intellectual darkness, relieved by
+transitory gleams of light in Britain and by a more enduring flame in
+Ireland. The utmost that could be done was to preserve to some extent
+the heritage of the past. This, indeed, was essentially the work of men
+like Boethius, Cassiodorus, Isidore and Bede.
+
+
+  Modification of Latin.
+
+During these same centuries another process had been advancing with
+accelerating steps. This was the modification of the Latin language. In
+the early centuries of Christianity literary Latin was already very
+different from colloquial Latin, especially in the provinces; and, as
+has been said, the literary output of the last age of Paganism was
+marked by sterility of thought and meretricious redundancy of
+expression. On the other hand, the writings of Christianity show a real
+living force seeking to find appropriate expression in new forms. Thus,
+with Christian writers, slavish imitation of the past gradually gave way
+to the evolution of a new and living Latin, which showed itself more and
+more regardless of classical models. To express the new ideas to which
+Christianity gave birth fresh words were coined, or borrowed from
+colloquial speech or from the Hebrew and Greek Scriptures. This
+Christian Latin was a real living instrument of expression, which
+conformed itself in its structure much more closely to the mode of
+thought and expression of actual life than did the artificial imitation
+of antiquity in which the literary productions of Paganism were clothed.
+It is the Latin in which St Jerome wrote the Vulgate. But with the
+obscuring of culture during the barbarian invasions this current Latin
+became more and more oblivious of even such elements of form as
+grammatical inflexions and concords.
+
+
+  The Carolingian revival.
+
+It was to the reformation of this corrupt Latin by a return to classical
+models, and to the more general spread of culture, especially among
+clergy and nobles, that the Carolingian revival addressed itself. The
+movement was essentially practical and conservative. Alcuin (735-804),
+who was Charlemagne's educational adviser and chief executive officer in
+scholastic matters, was probably the best scholar of his time, and
+himself loved the classical writings with which he was acquainted; but
+the text-books he wrote were but imperfect summaries of existing
+compendia, and the intellectual condition of his pupils forbade a very
+generous literary diet even had he thought it desirable, of which there
+is some doubt. The most valuable outcome of the movement was the
+establishment of the palace school, and of bishops' schools and
+monastic schools throughout the empire. Of these the latter were the
+most important, and each of the chief monasteries had from the time of
+Charlemagne an external school for pupils not proposing to enter the
+order as well as an internal school for novices. Thus, the educational
+system north of the Alps was pre-eminently ecclesiastical in its
+organization and profoundly religious in its aims. For two centuries the
+new intellectual life was obscured by the troubled times which followed
+the death of Charlemagne, but the learning which the Carolingian revival
+had restored was preserved here and there in cathedral and monastic
+schools, and the sequence of well-educated ecclesiastics was never
+altogether interrupted.
+
+
+  The medieval curriculum.
+
+The scope of that learning was comprised within the seven liberal arts
+and philosophy, on the secular side, together with some dogmatic
+instruction in the doctrines of the Church, the early fathers, and the
+Scriptures. Theology was as yet not organized into a philosophical
+system: that was the great work the middle ages had to perform. The
+seven liberal arts (divided into the _Trivium_--grammar, dialectic,
+rhetoric; and the more advanced _Quadrivium_--geometry, arithmetic,
+music, astronomy) were a legacy from old Roman education through the
+transition centuries. They appear in the _Disciplinarum libri IX._ of
+Varro in the 2nd century B.C., where are added to them the more
+utilitarian arts of medicine and architecture. But they reached the
+middle ages chiefly through the summaries of writers in the transition
+centuries, of which the best known were the _De nuptiis Philologiae et
+Mercurii_ of the Neo-platonist Martianus Capella, who wrote probably
+early in the 5th century; the _De artibus ac disciplinis liberalium
+litterarum_ of the Christian Cassiodorus (468-562); and the
+_Etymologiarum libri XX._ of St Isidore of Seville (570-636).
+
+The scope of the arts was wider than their names would suggest in modern
+times. Under grammar was included the study of the content and form of
+literature; and in practice the teaching varied from a liberal literary
+culture to a dry and perfunctory study of just enough grammar to give
+some facility in the use of Latin. Dialectic was mainly formal logic.
+Rhetoric covered the study of law, as well as composition in prose and
+verse. Geometry was rather what is now understood by geography and
+natural history, together with the medicinal properties of plants.
+Arithmetic, with the cumbrous Roman notation, included little more than
+the simplest practical calculations required in ordinary life and the
+computation of the calendar. Music embraced the rules of the plain-song
+of the Church, some theory of sound, and the connexion of harmony and
+numbers. Astronomy dealt with the courses of the heavenly bodies, and
+was seldom kept free from astrology. In philosophy the current
+text-books were the _De consolatione philosophiae_ of Boethius
+(470-524), an eclectic summary of pagan ethics from the standpoint of
+the Christian view of life, and the same writer's adapted translations
+of the _Categories_ and _De interpretatione_ of Aristotle and of
+Porphyry's _Introduction to the Categories_.
+
+It is evident that though such a scheme of studies might in practice,
+during ages of intellectual stagnation and general ignorance, be arid in
+the extreme, it was capable in time of revival of giving scope to the
+widest extension of culture. It was, indeed, at once comprehensive and
+unified in conception, and well adapted to educate for the perfectly
+definite and clear view of life which the Church set before men.
+
+
+  The scholastic revival.
+
+In the 11th century Europe had settled down, after centuries of war and
+invasion, into a condition of comparative political stability,
+ecclesiastical discipline, and social tranquillity: the barbarians had
+been converted, and, as in the case of the Normans, had pressed to the
+forefront of civilization; civic life had developed in the fortified
+towns of Italy, raised as defences against the pressure of Saracen and
+Hungarian invasions. Soon, communication with the East by trade and in
+the Crusades, and with the highly cultivated Moors in Spain, further
+stimulated the new burst of intellectual life. Arabic renderings of some
+of the works of Aristotle and commentaries on them were translated into
+Latin and exercised a profound influence on the trend of culture. A new
+translation of Aristotle's _Metaphysics_ appeared in 1167, and by the
+beginning of the 13th century all his physical, metaphysical and ethical
+treatises were available, and during the next half century the
+translations from Arabic versions were superseded by renderings direct
+from the original Greek. As expositions of the real doctrines of
+Aristotle the translations from the Arabic left much to be desired.
+Renan calls the medieval edition of the _Commentaries_ of Averroës "a
+Latin translation of a Hebrew translation of a commentary made upon an
+Arabic translation of a Syriac translation of a Greek text." The study
+of such works often led to the enunciation of doctrines held heretical
+by the theologians, and it was only when the real Aristotle was known
+that it was found possible to bring the Peripatetic philosophy into the
+service of theology.
+
+There were thus two broad stages in the educational revival commonly
+known as scholasticism. In the first the controversies were essentially
+metaphysical, and centred round the question of the nature of
+universals; the orthodox theological party generally supporting realism,
+or the doctrine that the universal is the true reality, of which
+particulars and individuals are only appearances; while the opposite
+doctrine of nominalism--that universals are "mere sounds" and
+particulars the only true existences--showed a continual disposition to
+lapse into heresies on the most fundamental doctrines of the Church. The
+second stage was essentially constructive; the opposition of philosophy
+to theology was negated, and philosophy gave a systematic form to
+theology itself. The most characteristic figure of the former period was
+Abelard (1079-1142), of the latter St Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274). The
+former knew little of Aristotle beyond the translations and adaptations
+of Boethius, but he was essentially a dialectician who applied his logic
+to investigating the fundamental doctrines of the Church and bringing
+everything to the bar of reason. This innate rationalism appeared to
+bring theology under the sway of philosophy, and led to frequent
+condemnations of his doctrines as heretical. With St Thomas, on the
+other hand, the essential dogmas of Christianity must be unquestioned.
+In his _Summa theologiae_ he presents all the doctrines of the Church
+systematized in a mould derived from the Aristotelian philosophy.
+
+
+  Scholastic education.
+
+It is evident, then, that during the period of the scholastic revival,
+men's interests were specially occupied with questions concerning the
+spiritual and the unseen, and that the great instrument of thought was
+syllogistic logic, by which consequences were deduced from premises
+received as unquestionably true. There was a general acceptance of the
+authority of the Church in matters of belief and conduct, and of that of
+Aristotle, as approved by the Church, in all that related to knowledge
+of this world.
+
+Before the rediscovery of Aristotle exerted such a general influence on
+the form of education, there was a real revival of classical literary
+culture at Chartres and a few other schools, and John of Salisbury (d.
+1182) in his _Metalogicus_ advocated literature as an instrument of
+education and lamented the barrenness of a training confined to the
+subtleties of formal logic. But the recrudescence of Aristotle
+accelerated the movement in favour of dialectic, though at the same time
+it furnished topics on which logic could be exercised which only a bare
+materialism can esteem unimportant. The weaknesses of the general
+educational system which grew up within scholasticism were that haste to
+begin dialectic led to an undue curtailment of previous liberal culture,
+and that exclusive attention to philosophical and theological questions
+caused a neglect of the study of the physical world and a disregard of
+the critical functions of the intellect. Doubtless there were
+exceptions, of which perhaps the most striking is the work in physical
+science done at Oxford by Roger Bacon (1214-1294). But Albertus Magnus
+(1193-1280), the master of St Thomas, was also a student of nature and
+an authority for his day on both the natural and the physical sciences.
+And the work of Grosseteste (d. 1253), as chancellor of the university
+of Oxford, shows that care for a liberal literary culture was by no
+means unknown. Always there were such examples. But too often boys
+hastened to enter upon dialectic and philosophy as soon as they had
+acquired sufficient smattering of colloquial Latin to engage in the
+disputes of the schools. A deterioration of Latin was the unavoidable
+consequence of such premature specialization. The seven liberal arts
+were often not pursued in their entirety, and students remained
+satisfied with desiccated compendia of accepted opinions. Thus the
+encyclopaedias of general information which were in general use during
+the middle ages show little or no advance in positive knowledge upon the
+treatment of similar subjects in Isidore of Seville.
+
+
+  The foundation of universities.
+
+The services of scholasticism to the cause of education, however, cannot
+well be overestimated, and the content of scholastic studies was in
+fundamental harmony with the intellectual interests of the time. Above
+all other benefits owed by future ages to scholasticism is the
+foundation of the universities of western Europe. The intellectual
+activity of the 11th century led everywhere to a great increase in the
+number of scholars attending the monastic and cathedral schools. Round
+famous teachers, such as Abelard, gathered crowds of students from every
+country. In the 12th century the need for organizing such bodies of
+teachers and students was imperative, and thus the earlier universities
+arose in Italy, France and England, not by deliberate foundation of
+secular or ecclesiastical ruler, but as spontaneous manifestations of
+the characteristic medieval impulse to organize into institutions.
+Afterwards, charters conferring powers and privileges were sought from
+both Church and state, but these only confirmed the self-governing
+character the universities had borne from the first. Each of the early
+universities was a specialized school of higher study: Salerno was a
+school of medicine; Bologna was the centre of that revival of Roman law
+which wrought so profound an effect upon the legal systems of France and
+Germany towards the close of the medieval period. But the greatest of
+medieval universities was that of Paris, emphatically the home of
+philosophy and theology, which was the model upon which many other
+universities, including Oxford and Cambridge, were organized.
+
+The German universities were of later origin, the earliest being Prague
+(1348) and Vienna (1365). They indicate the more recognized position the
+movement had attained; for nearly all were founded by the civic
+authority, and then obtained the recognition of the Church and charters
+from the emperor.
+
+
+  University work and life.
+
+The concentration of higher instruction in universities was not
+antagonistic to the medieval conception of the Church as the teacher of
+mankind. University life was modelled on that of the cloister, though
+the monastic ideal could not be fully realized, and the scholars not
+infrequently exhibited considerable licence in life. This was inevitable
+with the very large numbers of the scholars and the great variations of
+age among them. Moreover students, and to a less extent teachers, passed
+from university to university, so that the universities of medieval
+Europe formed a free confederacy of learning in close relation to the
+Church but untrammelled by state control. Nevertheless, they were less
+definitely ecclesiastical than the cathedral seminaries which they
+largely supplanted, and the introduction of studies derived from the
+Greeks through the Arabians led to an increased freedom of thought, at
+first within authorized limits, but prepared, when occasion served, to
+transcend those limits.
+
+The scheme of instruction was arranged on the assumption that special
+studies should be based on a wide general culture. Thus of the four
+faculties into which university teaching was organized, that of arts,
+with its degrees of _Baccalaureat_ and _Magister_, was regarded as
+propaedeutic to those of theology, law and medicine. It often included,
+indeed, quite young boys, for the distinction between grammar school and
+university was not clearly drawn. Attention was concentrated on those
+subjects which treat of man and his relations to his fellow-men and to
+God, and no attempt was made to extend the bounds of knowledge. The aim
+was to pass on a body of acquired knowledge regarded as embracing all
+that was possible of attainment, and the authority of Aristotle in
+physics as well as in philosophy, and of Galen and Hippocrates in
+medicine was absolute. The methods of instruction--by lecture, or
+commentary on received texts; and by disputation, in which the scholars
+acquired dexterity in the use of the knowledge they had absorbed--were
+in harmony with this conception, and were undoubtedly thoroughly well
+suited to the requirements of an age in which the ideal of human thought
+was not discovery but order, and in which knowledge was regarded as a
+set of established propositions, the work of reason being to harmonize
+these propositions in subordination to the authoritative doctrines of
+the Church.
+
+
+  Medieval schools.
+
+Such an extension of the means of higher education as was given by the
+universities was naturally accompanied by a corresponding increase in
+schools of lower rank. Not only were there grammar schools at cathedral
+and collegiate churches, but many others were founded in connexion with
+chantries, and by some of the many gilds into which medieval
+middle-class life organized itself. The Dominican and Franciscan friars
+were enthusiastic promoters of learning both in universities and in
+schools, and in the Netherlands the Brethren of the Common Life, founded
+by Gerard Groote and approved by Eugenius IV. in 1431, regarded school
+teaching as one of their main functions, and the promotion of learning
+by the multiplication of manuscripts as another. The curriculum was
+represented broadly by the _Trivium_. The greatest attention was paid to
+grammar, which included very various amounts of reading of classical and
+Christian authors, the most commonly included being Virgil, parts of
+Ovid and Cicero, and Boethius. The text-books in grammar were the
+elementary catechism on the eight parts of speech by Donatus, a Roman of
+the 4th century, said to have been the tutor of St Jerome, and the more
+advanced treatise of Priscian, a schoolmaster of Constantinople about
+A.D. 500, which remained the standard text-book for over a thousand
+years. In rhetoric Cicero's _De oratore_ was read, and dialectic was
+practised, as in the universities, by means of disputations.
+
+In addition to the grammar schools were writing and song schools of an
+elementary type, in which instruction was usually in the vernacular.
+Girls were taught in women's monasteries and in the home, and those of
+the upper classes at least very generally learned to read, write and
+keep accounts, as well as fine needlework, household duties and
+management, and such elementary surgery and medicine as served in cases
+of slight daily accidents and illnesses. Even those boys and girls who
+did not receive formal scholastic instruction were instructed orally by
+the parish priests in the doctrines and duties of the Faith; while the
+pictures and statues with which the churches were adorned aided the
+direct teaching of sermons and catechizing in giving a general knowledge
+of Bible history and of the legends of the saints.
+
+No doubt, in times of spiritual and intellectual lethargy, the practice
+fell short of the theory; but on the whole it may be concluded that in
+medieval times the provision for higher instruction was adequate to the
+demand, and that, relatively to the culture of the time, the mass of the
+people were by no means sunk in brutish ignorance. Indeed, especially
+when the paucity of books before the invention of printing is borne in
+mind, the number of people who could read the vernacular, as evidenced
+by the demand for books in the vulgar tongue as soon as printing made
+them available, is clear proof that the latter part of the middle ages
+was by no means a time of general illiteracy.
+
+
+  Education of chivalry.
+
+Feudalism, the other characteristic aspect of medieval society, had also
+its system of education, expressing its own view of life, and preparing
+for the adequate performance of its duties. This was the training in
+chivalry given to pages and squires in the halls and castles of the
+great. Hallam has well said: "There are, if I may so say, three powerful
+spirits which have from time to time moved over the face of the waters,
+and given a predominant impulse to the moral sentiments and energies of
+mankind. These are the spirits of liberty, of religion and of honour. It
+was the principal business of chivalry to animate and cherish the last
+of these." And this was not in opposition to the spirit of religion
+which animated the scholastic education which went on side by side with
+it. Throughout chivalry was sanctified by the offices of the Church. The
+education of chivalry aimed at fitting the noble youth to be a worthy
+knight, a just and wise master, and a prudent manager of an estate. Much
+was acquired by daily experience of a knightly household, but in
+addition the page received direct instruction in reading and writing;
+courtly amusements, such as chess and playing the lute, singing and
+making verses; the rules and usages of courtesy; and the knightly
+conception of duty. As a squire he practised more assiduously the
+knightly exercises of war and peace, and in the management of large or
+small bodies of men he attained the capacity of command.
+
+
+  Decadence of scholasticism.
+
+With the unification of existing knowledge and the systematization of
+theology the constructive work of scholasticism was done. At the same
+time the growth of national feeling was slowly but surely undermining
+feudalism. Moreover, deep resentment was accumulating throughout western
+Europe against the practical abuses which had become prevalent in the
+Church, and especially in the court of Rome and in the prince-bishoprics
+of Germany. In short, Europe was out-growing medieval institutions,
+which appeared more and more as empty forms unable to satisfy the needs
+and longings of the human soul. In such conditions, the customary and
+traditional education of school and university tended to lose touch more
+and more completely with the new aspirations and views of life which
+were everywhere gathering adherents among the keenest and most active
+intellects. Had a new cultural movement not begun, the education of
+Europe threatened to become as arid as the rhetorical education of the
+last centuries of the Roman empire had been. From this it was saved by
+the renaissance of classical studies which began in the 14th century.
+
+
+  The Renaissance.
+
+Italy, by its greater wealth and its more intimate commerce with the
+eastern empire, was the seed-plot of this new tree of knowledge. Ever
+since the 11th century the cities of northern Italy had been in advance
+of Europe beyond the Alps both in culture and in material progress. The
+old classical spirit and the feeling of Roman citizenship had never
+quite died out, and the _Divina Commedia_ of Dante (1265-1321) furnishes
+evidence that the poet of the scholastic philosophical theology was also
+a keen student and lover of the old Latin poets. But the greatest
+impulse to the revived study of the classics was given by Petrarch
+(1304-1374) and Boccaccio (1313-1375). Generally throughout western
+Europe the 14th century, though full of war and political unrest, was a
+time of considerable intellectual activity, shown in the increase of
+schools and universities, as well as in the literary and artistic
+revival in Italy, in the social and theological movement in England and
+Bohemia associated with the names of Wycliffe and Huss, and in the more
+or less perfect substitution of Roman law everywhere except in England
+for the law of custom which had hitherto prevailed.
+
+But it was the literary movement which most affected education, and
+indeed the whole life of Europe. A decisive step was taken when Manuel
+Chrysoloras was invited to teach Greek in the university of Florence in
+1397. The enthusiasm for classical culture, to which Petrarch had given
+so great an impetus, gathered force and extended over the whole of
+Italy, though, of course, felt only by a select few and leaving the mass
+of the people little, if at all, affected. From Italy it spread
+gradually to countries north of the Alps. In the old writers men found
+full expression of that new spirit of self-conscious freedom which was
+vaguely striving for expression throughout the whole of Christendom. In
+the free political atmosphere of the Italian communes, with their
+wealthy and leisured merchant class, that spirit could flourish much
+more readily than in the feudalized Europe across the Alps. Moreover,
+the antique spirit was in direct line of ancestry with that of medieval
+Italy. Thus, for a couple of centuries, Italy stood in the van of
+European culture.
+
+The stages of the movement cannot be traced here: suffice it to say it
+showed itself especially in an enthusiastic search for manuscripts,
+followed by their multiplication and wider distribution; in an intense
+devotion to literary form; in a revival of classic taste in
+architecture; in a wonderful development of painting and sculpture from
+symbolism of spiritual qualities towards naturalism and romanticism; in
+a return to Platonism in philosophy; in a contempt, often unreasoning
+and wanting a foundation in knowledge, for the scholastic Aristotelian
+philosophy itself, and not simply for the trivialities into which its
+actual exercise had so commonly degenerated. The invention of printing
+necessarily gave the movement both a stronger and a wider influence than
+it could otherwise have attained. And in its search after knowledge it
+was in full harmony with the spirit of adventure which marked the age,
+and by the discovery of the New World wrought so profound a change in
+the relative importance and prosperity of the countries of western
+Europe.
+
+
+  Influence of the Renaissance on education.
+
+It is the spirit of the movement which is of interest to the student of
+education. And that spirit was essentially one of opposition to
+authority and of assertion of individual liberty, which worked itself
+out in various forms among peoples of different temperaments. In Italy
+the form was literary and artistic, and the full development of the
+Renaissance spirit was seen in a practical Paganism which substituted
+the attractions of art for the claims of religion and morality, and
+eventuated in deep and widespread immorality and a contemptuous
+tolerance of the outward observances of religion without faith in the
+doctrines they symbolized. The movement became an attempt to
+reconstitute the past intellectual life of Italy, and, as such, was
+foredoomed to sterility as soon as the work of re-discovery was
+completed; for the revived forms were not inspired with the vital spirit
+which had once made them realities, and consequently men's minds once
+again were occupied with mere verbal subtleties. The really valuable
+service of the Italian humanists to Europe was the restoration to man of
+the heritage of knowledge which he had allowed to slip from his grasp,
+and the leading the way to a freer intellectual atmosphere. In Germany
+the spirit manifested itself in a rebellion against the doctrinal system
+of the Church as the only effectual means of attaining reform of
+ecclesiastical abuses. The Protestant reformation of Luther was the real
+German outcome of the Renaissance. In no other country of Europe did the
+movement take so distinctive a form.
+
+It was, then, not merely the revival of interest in classical studies
+which so profoundly affected the life and education of western Europe.
+It was rather that in those literatures men found a response to
+intellectual and moral cravings which had been blindly gathering force
+for generations, and which found themselves formulated and objectified
+in the writings which set forth the Pagan view of life with its
+assumption of the essential worth and self-reliance of the individual
+and its frank delight in all the pleasures of existence. It was, in
+short, in proportion as men not only found delight in Pagan literature
+but returned in essence to the Pagan view of individual worth and the
+supremacy of the human intellect, that the Church realized the danger to
+herself which lurked in the new movement.
+
+At first the revival of interest in the classical literatures did not
+show any antagonism to Catholic faith and practice, and its warmest
+supporters were faithful sons of the Church. The view of the relation of
+classical literature to Christianity adopted by the great humanist
+schoolmaster Vittorino da Feltre (1378-1446) was broadly that of the
+early Fathers, and in his school at Mantua he showed that culture was
+not inconsistent with loyalty to the Church or with purity of life. With
+him classical literature was not the end and sum of education, but was a
+means of implanting ideas, of developing taste, and of acquiring
+knowledge, all as helps and ornaments of a Christian life. Though Pagan
+literature was the means of education, the Pagan spirit had not
+supplanted that of Christianity. The school at Mantua may, indeed, be
+said to have exhibited in practice a Christianized application of the
+doctrines of Quintilian and Plutarch.
+
+So was it in the other countries of Christendom. In the Netherlands the
+Brethren of the Common Life introduced humanistic studies into their
+schools side by side with definite religious teaching and observances
+and their work was always dominated by the Christian spirit. The
+earlier German humanists, such as Nicholas de Cusa, Hegius, Agricola and
+Wimpheling, adopted the same attitude, and Erasmus himself, bitterly as
+he attacked the practical abuses of the Church, remained in communion
+with it, and aimed at harmonizing classical culture with the Christian
+life. In England the same love of culture combined with devotion to the
+Church was seen in Selling, prior of Christ Church, Canterbury, the
+first real English humanist, in Grocyn, Linacre, More, Fisher, Colet and
+many others whose enthusiasm for culture was as undoubted as was their
+loyalty to Catholicism. It seemed, then, at first as if the greatest
+educational effect of the classical revival would be the deepening of
+literary culture, and the substitution of real inquiry for dialectic
+subtleties in the courses of schools and universities, without any break
+with established religious teaching. It is true that the majority of
+schools were but little affected, and many of the universities had given
+but a half-hearted welcome to humanistic studies when the religious
+revolt in Germany under the leadership of Luther threw the whole of
+Europe into two hostile camps. But even the conservative university of
+Paris--the headquarters of scholastic philosophical theology--had
+permitted the teaching of Greek as early as 1458, and both Oxford and
+Cambridge had welcomed the new studies. That the influence of the new
+movement for classical study was gradually permeating the schools is
+shown not only by the practice of the Brethren of the Common Life but by
+the curriculum laid down by the statutes of the schools refounded by
+Wolsey at Ipswich and by Colet at St Paul's.
+
+
+  Immediate influence of the Reformation on education.
+
+The immediate effect of the religious controversies of the 16th century
+on education was emphatically, if unintentionally, disastrous. The
+secularization of ecclesiastical property too often absorbed the
+endowments of the schools, so that, both in Germany and in England, the
+majority of grammar schools either disappeared or continued a starved
+existence with diminished funds; the doctrine of salvation by faith
+alone and the futility of good works dried up the source from which such
+endowments had flowed; the violent fulminations of the German reformers
+against the universities as the homes of the hated scholastic theology
+and philosophy found an echo in minds fired with the renaissance
+enthusiasm for poetry and oratory, and correlative distaste for the more
+severe and abstract speculations of logic and philosophy, which
+expressed itself in abstention from those seats of learning; the
+preoccupation of men's minds with theological speculations and quarrels
+led those few who did resort to the universities to neglect their
+appointed studies and to devote their energies to interminable wrangling
+over the points in dispute. This decadence in culture was attended by an
+outbreak of licence and immorality, especially among the young, which
+called forth violent denunciations from Luther and many of his followers
+in Germany, and from Latimer and other reformers in England. In some
+respects these results were only transitory. Humanism and Protestantism,
+which had so far diverged that Erasmus (1467-1536) had declared that
+where Lutheranism flourished learning decayed, were brought together
+again by Melanchthon (1497-1560) under whose influence universities were
+founded or reorganized and schools re-established in Protestant German
+states; and in England the reign of Elizabeth saw many new educational
+foundations. But this restoration of the means of education was only
+partial, and the doctrine of the worthlessness of "carnal knowledge,"
+which led the Barebones Parliament to propose the suppression of the
+English universities, was held by many fervent Protestants both in
+England and in Germany all through the 17th century.
+
+
+  Protestant schools.
+
+Moreover, the schools established a tradition of curriculum and
+instruction which ignored the new directions of men's thoughts and the
+new view of knowledge as something to be enlarged, and not merely a
+deposit to be handed down from generation to generation. The later
+humanist theories of education, which the schools continued to follow
+generally for over two centuries, and in many cases for another hundred
+years after that, were drawn mainly from Erasmus and Melanchthon, who
+found in the classical languages and literatures, and especially in
+Latin, the only essential instruments of education. General knowledge of
+natural facts might be desirable to the cultured man as ornaments to his
+rhetoric, but it was to be sought in the writings of antiquity. Even so
+revolutionary a thinker on education as Rabelais (1495-1553) with all
+his demand for an encyclopaedic curriculum, held the writings of the
+ancients as authoritative on natural phenomena. Melanchthon, whose
+conception of instruction was much narrower, exercised enormous
+influence in the moulding of Protestant universities and secondary
+schools, both directly and through such disciples as Trotzendorf and
+Neander, but especially through his friend Sturm (1507-1589), whose
+Latin gymnasium at Strassburg became the model which the grammar schools
+of Protestant Europe strove to imitate. In this school nearly the whole
+of the energies of the boys was given to acquiring a mastery of the
+Latin language after the model of Cicero. Sturm, indeed, did not go to
+the extreme length of the Ciceronians, opposed and satirized by Erasmus,
+who would allow no word or construction which could not be found in the
+extant writings of their master, but a like spirit dominated him.
+
+
+  The Society of Jesus.
+
+In Catholic countries the Church retained control of education. The
+practical reformation of abuses by the Council of Trent, and the energy
+and skill of the Society of Jesus, founded by St Ignatius Loyola, in
+1534, brought back most of south Germany into the fold of the Church.
+Everywhere Catholic universities were mainly taught by Jesuit fathers;
+and under their influence, scholasticism, purged from the excretions
+which had degraded it, was restored, and continued to satisfy the
+longings of minds which felt the need of an authoritative harmonizing of
+faith and knowledge. Everywhere the society established schools, which,
+by their success in teaching and the mildness of their discipline,
+attracted thousands of pupils who came even from Protestant homes. Their
+curriculum was purely classical, but it was elaborated with much skill,
+and the methods of instruction and discipline were made the subject of
+much thought and of long-continued experiment. In the methods thus
+determined all Jesuit fathers were trained, so that the teachers in
+Jesuit schools attained a degree of skill in their art which was too
+generally wanting elsewhere.
+
+
+  Early proposals for reform.
+
+So long as Latin remained the language of learning, and new fields of
+knowledge were not appropriated, the schools remained in harmony with
+the culture of their time, though, as Mulcaster (1530-1611) pointed out,
+such a training was not of value to the majority of boys. For them he
+urged an elementary education in the vernacular; but neither in this nor
+in his advocacy of the training of teachers was his advice followed.
+
+In the 17th century the dislocation between the Latin schools and the
+needs of life began to be accentuated as Latin gradually ceased to be
+the language of learning; and, as a consequence, the numbers attending
+the schools decreased, and the mass of the people sunk continually lower
+in ignorance. In vain Hoole urged the establishment of a universal
+system of elementary schools giving instruction in the vernacular, Petty
+put forth his plan for elementary trade schools, and Cowley proposed the
+establishment of a college devoted to research. Ideas of reform were in
+the air, but the main current of scholastic practice flowed on
+unaffected by them. Some attention was, indeed, paid to the conservative
+reforms advocated by the Port Royalists, of which the most important was
+the inclusion of the vernacular as a branch of instruction, but the cry
+for more fundamental changes based on the philosophy of Bacon was
+unheeded. Of these, none was a more active propagandist than Comenius
+(1571-1635). Unfortunately his _Great Didactic_, in which he set forth
+his general principles, attracted little attention and won less
+adherence, though his school books, in which he attempted with very
+little success to apply his principles, were widely used in schools. But
+these were little more than bald summaries of real and supposed facts,
+stated in Latin and the vernacular in parallel columns. In content they
+differed from such medieval summaries of knowledge as the well-known
+work of Bartholomew Anglicus, which had been widely used since the 13th
+century, chiefly by their greater baldness and aridity of statement.
+
+
+  Decadence of universities.
+
+In the universities, too, the 16th and 17th centuries saw a continuous
+decadence. The 16th century was not ripe for real intellectual freedom;
+and Protestantism, having based its revolt on the right of private
+judgment, soon produced a number of conflicting theological systems,
+vying with each other in rigidity and narrowness, which, as Paulsen
+says, "nearly stifled the intellectual life of the German people."
+Further, the idea of national autonomy, which exercised so great an
+effect on the politics of the time, included the universal adherence of
+the citizens to the religion of the state. Hence, till the end of the
+17th century the universities of Protestant Europe were regarded mainly
+as instruments for securing adhesion to the national theological system
+on the part of future clergy and officials, and the state interfered
+more and more with their organization and work. Theology occupied the
+most important place in the higher studies pursued, which for the rest
+differed little in content and less in spirit from those of preceding
+centuries, except that more attention was paid to the study of classical
+literature. Even that decayed into formal linguistics as the Renaissance
+enthusiasm for poetry and oratory died out, and interest in logical and
+philosophical questions, fostered by the dominance of dogmatic
+controversial theology, again became dominant. In Paris, on the other
+hand, the faculty of theology had decayed through the withdrawal of
+those preparing for the priesthood into episcopal seminaries, and the
+higher studies pursued were mainly law and medicine. Thus, generally,
+the universities were less and less fulfilling the function of providing
+a general liberal education. Another change, due to the same causes and
+making for the same results, was the isolation of universities, often
+directly fostered by the state governments, which for the universal
+interchange of medieval thought substituted a narrow provincial culture
+and outlook. It is no wonder that numbers everywhere decayed and that
+complaints as to the habits of the students were loud and frequent.
+
+
+  Education of the higher classes.
+
+At the close of the 17th century, then, universities as well as schools
+had reached a very low level of efficiency and were held in little
+respect by the cultured. Indeed, from the middle of the century, the
+main current of intellectual life had drifted away from the orthodox
+centres of learning. The formation of the Berlin Academy in Germany and
+of the Royal Society in England, and the refusal of Leibnitz to accept a
+chair in any German university, were signs of the times. In France, and
+later in Germany, the education of the noble youth was increasingly
+carried on apart from the schools, and was really an outgrowth from the
+education of chivalry. In the 16th century Castiglione and Montaigne had
+advocated a training directly adapted to prepare for polite life, and
+Elyot wrote on similar lines. But the most important movement in this
+direction was the formation of the courtly academies which flourished in
+France in the 17th century, and were soon imitated in the
+_Ritterakademien_ of Germany. In these schools of the nobility French
+was more honoured than classics, and the other subjects were chosen as
+directly adapted to prepare for the life of a noble at the court. Milton
+in his _Tractate_ advocated the foundation of such academies in England,
+though he proposed a curriculum far more extensive than had ever been
+found possible. More and more, too, foreign travel had, from the middle
+of the 16th century, been looked upon as a better mode of finishing the
+education of a gentleman than a course at a university.
+
+
+  Revival of university life.
+
+The later years of the 17th century saw a revival of university life in
+Cambridge, through the work of Newton and the increasing attention paid
+to mathematics and the physical sciences, though the number of students
+continued very small. In Germany, also, a new era opened with the
+foundation of the universities of Halle (1694) and Göttingen (1737),
+which from the first discarded the old conception that the function of a
+university is to pass on knowledge already complete, and so opened the
+door of the German universities to the new culture and philosophy. It
+was soon seen that students could thus be attracted, and the influence
+spread to the other German universities, which by the end of the 18th
+century had regained their position as homes of the highest German
+thought.
+
+
+  Education of the poor.
+
+At Halle, too, was set the example by Francke of providing for the
+education of the children of the poor, and to his disciple Hecker
+Germany owes the first _Realschule_. Simultaneous movements for the
+education of the poor were made by St Jean-Baptiste de la Salle and the
+Brothers of the Christian Schools in France, and by the Society for the
+Promotion of Christian Knowledge in England. But the total results were
+not great; the mass of the people in every European country remained
+without schooling throughout the 18th century.
+
+
+  18th-century thought and education.
+
+The intellectual movements of that century were, indeed, essentially
+aristocratic. Voltaire and the Encyclopaedists aimed at the
+enlightenment of the select few, and Rousseau declared baldly that the
+poor need no education. That these movements influenced education
+profoundly is undoubted. The individualistic and abstract rationalism of
+Voltaire, derived from the sensationist philosophy of Locke through the
+more thorough-going Condillac, and finding its logical outcome in the
+materialistic atheism of La Mettrie and the refined selfishness of
+Rochefoucault, infected the more cultured classes. In Lord
+Chesterfield's _Letters to his Son_ is shown its educational outcome--a
+veneer of superficial culture and artificial politeness covering, but
+not hiding, the most cold-blooded selfishness. Against this fashionable
+artificiality, as well as against the obvious social and political
+abuses of the time, Rousseau's call for a return to nature was a needed
+protest.
+
+
+  Rousseauism.
+
+Rousseauism, however, was not merely a transitory revolt against a
+conventionality of life that had become unbearable; it was emphatically
+the voicing of a view of life and of education which has profoundly
+influenced Europe ever since. In that Rousseau (1712-1778) attempted to
+look at life as a whole he was on truer ground than were the
+intellectualists of the "Enlightenment"; but in that he found the
+essence of life in the gratification of the desires and impulses of the
+moment, he enunciated a doctrine which banished high principle and
+strenuous effort from life and consequently from education. In the
+_Émile_ is presented a purely fantastic scheme of education based on a
+psychology of development so crude as to be absolutely false, and
+producing a young man utterly unable to guide his own life or to control
+his emotions and impulses. Rousseauism is, indeed, in its essence the
+application to education of the doctrines of naturalism--the philosophy
+which regards human life as a mere continuation of physical process, and
+consequently as determined wholly by environment. So Rousseau would
+abolish all moral training and leave the child to the reactions of the
+physical world upon his actions.
+
+
+  Kant.
+
+Against this position the educational teaching of Kant (1724-1804),
+influenced though he was by the _Émile_, is essentially a protest. The
+most necessary element in education, according to Kant, is constraint,
+which by the formation of habit prepares the young to receive as
+principles of conduct the laws at first imposed upon them from without.
+And the supreme guide of life is the law of duty which is always more or
+less opposed to the promptings of inclination. Kant exaggerates the
+dualism: Rousseau would abolish it by ignoring the more important of the
+two antitheses.
+
+
+  Educational outcome of the Revolution.
+
+The French Revolution--the natural outcome of the teachings of Voltaire
+and of Rousseau--was the second stage in the movement of which the
+Reformation was the first. It was essentially the assertion of the
+natural rights of man, and, as a logical sequence, of the right of every
+child to be properly trained for life. The reaction due to the excesses
+of the revolutionists no doubt delayed the acknowledgment for a time,
+but its gradual recognition is emphatically the characteristic mark of
+the educational history of the 19th century.
+
+
+  State education.
+
+Preached and practised by Pestalozzi (1746-1827) in Switzerland, the
+general education of the poor was first made a reality by Prussia after
+the crushing defeat of Jena. In France and England it remained for
+nearly three-quarters of the century the work of the Church and other
+voluntary agencies, though aided by the state. Finally a state system of
+schools has been more or less fully set up in every state of western
+Europe and in America, and subjected to more or less state regulation
+and control. Equally marked has been the growing care for the scholastic
+education of girls as well as boys, though only in America are the two
+regarded as practically identical in form and content.
+
+Thus the 19th century saw the final working out of the idea that the
+state should be substituted for the Church as the official agent of
+education, an idea which had its roots in the Renaissance conception of
+the right of man to direct his life apart from theological
+determinations. The more direct outcome of the same idea is apparent in
+the absolute liberty with which the presuppositions of knowledge are
+questioned, and the maxim of Descartes--to prove everything by the
+reason and to accept nothing which fails to stand the test--is acted
+upon. No greater contrast is possible than that between the medieval
+student and the modern searcher after truth.
+
+
+  Methods of instruction.
+
+The influence of the same spirit has wrought an equally momentous change
+in the methods of instruction. The impetus given by the exaggerated
+doctrine of Rousseau to the view that the nature of the child should
+determine the means of education, led to more thorough-going attempts
+than had hitherto been made to base educational method on a knowledge of
+child psychology. Pestalozzi and Froebel (1782-1852), by their
+insistence on the need of educating a child through his own activity,
+and by their widespread influence, made the new view of method an
+actuality. The influence of Rousseau has, thus, passed into modern
+educational practice in a form that, in its essence, is true, though in
+practice it has shown itself apt to run into the same excess of emphasis
+on impulse and feeling which vitiated the teaching of Rousseau himself.
+The influence of Herbart (1776-1841) has tended to counteract this. The
+essence of Herbartianism is that mental life consists of presentations,
+or reactions of the mind on the environment, and that will springs from
+the circle of thought thus developed. The emphasis is therefore placed
+on intellect and instruction while in Froebelianism it is placed on
+spontaneous activity and on the arrangement of the environment. Each
+exaggerates the function of the one factor in concrete experience which
+it makes the centre of interest, and each is tinged with the
+individualistic conception of life which characterized the 18th and
+early 19th century.
+
+
+  Curriculum of instruction.
+
+The most marked change in the outward aspect of education has been the
+modification of the curriculum of school and university by the
+introduction of various branches of natural science. Conjointly with
+this has been much increase of specialization, and that not only in the
+university but in the school. There is no longer a universally
+recognized circle of knowledge constituting a liberal education
+preparatory to specialist studies, as there was in the middle ages. Nor
+is there general agreement as to what such educational institutions as
+schools and universities should attempt to do, or even as to the end
+that should be sought by education as a whole. Nor can agreement on such
+points be expected while men differ widely as to the meaning and purpose
+of life. The work of the organization of the material means of education
+has largely been accomplished by the civilized world: that of
+determining the true theory and practice of the educative process itself
+is still incomplete. To that, both discussion of the philosophy of life
+and of the relative values in life, of various kinds of experience and
+experiment in the light of the conclusions reached, are needed. The
+problem will never be absolutely solved, for that would imply an
+absolutely best education irrespective of conditions, but its practical
+solution will be reached when a true adjustment is made between the
+process of education and the life for which that education is intended
+to be a preparation.
+
+  See also the articles ACADEMIES; CLASSICS; CO-EDUCATION; EXAMINATIONS;
+  POLYTECHNIC; SCHOOLS; TECHNICAL EDUCATION; UNIVERSITIES; WOMEN; &c.
+       (J. Wn.)
+
+
+II. NATIONAL SYSTEMS OF PUBLIC EDUCATION
+
+A statement of the principles commonly recognized by modern communities
+as governing the action of the state in relation to education may
+facilitate at the outset a clearer understanding of the problems which
+the organization of public education presents. The cardinal doctrine of
+state interference in the educational domain is universally accepted by
+all the great nations of the modern world; and in regard to its extent
+and limits a large measure of agreement has now been reached.
+
+
+  Principles of state interference.
+
+In the first place, it is recognized as the duty of the state to insist
+upon a certain minimum of education for every future citizen. This does
+not necessitate a monopoly of education on the part of the state, such
+as was claimed by the Napoleonic despotism under the traditional
+influence (it would seem) of the old authoritative Gallo-Roman
+tradition, transformed in its outward manifestation but not in its
+inward spirit by the French Revolution. Such a monopoly would be plainly
+repugnant to the spirit of Anglo-Saxon individualism, and it is
+interesting to note that attempts to reassert it have in recent times
+been repudiated in republican France by some of the best exponents of
+modern free thought, as an infringement of personal liberty not
+calculated to justify itself by any corresponding public gain.
+Nevertheless, the recognition of this primary duty of the state plainly
+implies a state system of at least elementary education. The masses of
+the industrial population cannot afford the necessary minimum of
+instruction which the public interest demands, and private and voluntary
+effort cannot efficiently supply the want resulting from the unequal
+distribution of wealth. But it is in the nature of things that, so far
+as private effort attempts anything in this direction, it should be
+motived in the main by religion and associated with the great historical
+religious organizations; thus it comes about that the moment the state
+steps in to make good the deficiency of voluntary effort a fruitful and
+embittering source of difficulty and friction is disclosed. Hence, in
+England, the history of public elementary education since the beginning
+of the 19th century has been very largely the history of what is called
+the religious difficulty. Here we find ourselves in the region of acute
+controversy in which it is useless to do more than note empirically the
+various solutions adopted by different states. Perhaps all that can
+safely be indicated as commanding universal acceptance is the principle
+that the state must not impose upon an individual citizen in the person
+of his child any form of religious instruction to which he
+conscientiously objects. Modern controversies show the difficulty of
+applying even this rudimentary principle to the complicated
+circumstances of a free community split up into a number of groups
+differing profoundly in religious sentiment, and zealous each for the
+recognition of its own ideal within the common system. So far, however,
+as secular instruction (i.e. the teaching of other subjects than
+religion) is concerned it is now generally accepted that the elementary
+minimum must be both compulsory and free for every individual child
+whose parents will not or cannot (as the case may be) provide such
+instruction for it efficiently elsewhere than in the state-supported
+schools.
+
+Next, the action of the modern state cannot stop short at elementary
+education. The principle of "the career open to talent" is no longer a
+matter of abstract humanitarian theory, a fantastical aspiration of
+revolutionary dreamers; for the great industrial communities of the
+modern world it is a cogent practical necessity imposed by the fierce
+international competition which prevails in the arts and industries of
+life. The nation that is not to fail in the struggle for commercial
+success, with all that this implies for national life and civilization,
+must needs see that its industries are fed with a constant supply of
+workers adequately equipped in respect both of general intelligence and
+technical training.
+
+On political grounds too, the increasing democratization of
+institutions renders a wide diffusion of knowledge and the cultivation
+of a high standard of intelligence among the people a necessary
+precaution of prudent statesmanship, especially for the great imperial
+states which confide the most momentous issues of world policy to the
+arbitrament of the popular voice. The state then must satisfy itself
+that the means of education are placed within the reach of all, in
+grades adapted to the varying degrees of intelligence and educational
+opportunity to be found among a community upon the majority of whose
+members is imposed the necessity of entering upon the practical business
+of life at a more or less early age. The organization of the higher
+grades of education constitutes a task of less formidable magnitude than
+the organization of elementary education, for the reason that, at any
+rate in the prevailing social conditions, it is only a minority who can
+benefit by it, and that of this minority a large proportion can afford
+the whole or a considerable portion of the cost in each individual case.
+The class, however, whose education must needs be assisted by the state
+if it is not to remain inefficient must always be considerable; and
+account must be taken also of the necessities of the further class whose
+exceptional mental development is such as to make it worth while for the
+state to bestow gratuitously an education higher than elementary at the
+public expense. University education is distinguished from education of
+the lower grades by the fact that, being necessarily restricted to an
+élite of intellect or birth, it cannot, save in very exceptional
+circumstances, usefully be organized locally. Although universities are
+the necessary complement of a public educational system they do not in
+strictness or necessity form part of such a system, and in so far as
+they are brought within the purview of public authority it must be as a
+matter of national, rather than municipal or provincial, concern.
+Accordingly university education is separately treated (see
+UNIVERSITIES), and will not be referred to, save incidentally, in the
+present article.
+
+Reserving to a final section the history of education in the United
+States of America, a brief description is given here of the educational
+systems of the leading European countries by way of introduction to a
+more detailed, but still summary, historical sketch of public education
+in England. The highly organized educational systems of France and
+Prussia (as representing Germany) are manifestly suitable for the
+purposes of a general study of the principles of educational polity as
+worked out upon logical and consistently thought-out plans by highly
+centralized states. As to other European countries, a brief mention must
+suffice of certain features of special interest presented by smaller
+progressive states of such different types as Switzerland, Belgium and
+Holland. Similarly, in the case of the United Kingdom, considerations of
+space forbid more than a brief notice of the educational systems of
+Scotland (q.v.) and Ireland (q.v.). For other countries see the sections
+in the articles under the headings of the respective states.
+
+
+_France._
+
+France (q.v.) presents the most complete type of a state system of
+education organized under a strongly centralized administration in all
+grades. This centralized administration in education, as in other
+departments, represents the Napoleonic heritage of the Republic, and,
+although there has been an increasing tendency of recent years to study
+local conditions in the internal organization of schools, anything
+approaching to local autonomy is unknown in educational affairs. The
+necessary checks upon bureaucracy are supplied not by popularly elected
+municipal bodies but by a strong infusion of the pedagogic element in
+the administrative machinery. The pedagogic element in turn does but
+represent another side of the collective activities of the state. The
+teaching profession both in the primary and higher spheres--and the two
+are sharply marked off from one another--consists of a highly organized
+body of state functionaries, united by a strong _esprit de corps_ and
+actuated by ideals and aims which are inspired by the state. The
+importance of this condition of things lies in the fact that the
+Republic is something more than a form of government: it is the social
+and moral expression of the democratic ideal as conceived by a people
+profoundly imbued by tradition with the sense of social solidarity, or
+collectivism; and nowhere has this expression been more characteristic
+or more complete than in the domain of public education. Yet the
+educational system of modern France is by no means exclusively the
+creation of the Third Republic, and the main stages in its development
+deserve to be traced historically.
+
+
+  Frères de la Doctrine chrétienne.
+
+No historical sketch, however slight, of French education can ignore the
+great Catholic religious educator of the 18th century, Jean Baptiste de
+la Salle, the founder of _Les Frères de la Doctrine chrétienne_,
+commonly known as the "Christian Brothers." The Brothers were not merely
+pioneers of elementary education, they may also be regarded (as M.
+Buisson, formerly director of public instruction, has shown) as the
+originators of higher primary instruction. Under the Restoration they
+upheld the method of simultaneous teaching against the partisans of the
+mutual (or monitorial) method, successfully demonstrating the
+superiority of the trained teacher. The unfortunate effects of the
+monitorial system upon English education show the reality of the service
+which this religious congregation rendered to the national pedagogy in
+France.
+
+
+  The Revolution and Napoleon.
+
+The Constitution of 1791 decreed that primary instruction should be
+compulsory and gratuitous. (It may be explained that the term "free
+education," _instruction libre_, does not bear the same meaning in
+France as in England. In France a free school means a school not under
+state control and not forming part of the state system.) In this as in
+much else the Revolution was powerless to do more than enunciate general
+principles which it left for later generations, in the present instance
+after the lapse of nearly a century, to carry into effect. True to its
+theories of individualistic liberty, the Revolution admitted liberty of
+teaching. Napoleon, on the other hand, by the law of 1806, centralized
+all forms of education in one official teaching body under the name of
+the Imperial University, thus securing a monopoly of teaching to the
+state. The Napoleonic idea of the university, doubtless because a true
+expression of the national genius, has never ceased to exert a profound
+influence upon French education, an influence which of late years has
+been revivified and reinforced by the modern ideal of social solidarity.
+
+
+  Reforms of Guizot.
+
+Under the Restoration education fell inevitably under the control of the
+church, but under the Liberal Monarchy Guizot in 1833 passed a law which
+laid the foundations of modern primary instruction, obliging the
+communes to maintain schools and pay the teachers. It is also to the
+credit of Guizot as an educational reformer that he perceived the
+necessity for the higher primary as distinct from the secondary school.
+The higher primary schools which he founded were unfortunately
+suppressed by the _Loi Falloux_; their restoration constitutes one of
+the great positive services rendered by the Third Republic to the cause
+of popular education.
+
+
+  Loi Falloux.
+
+The _Loi Falloux_ of 1850, passed by the Second Republic under the
+influence of the prince president, is chiefly memorable for its
+restoration of the liberty of teaching, which in a Catholic country
+means in effect free scope for priestly schools. This law also made
+provision for separate communal schools for girls, for adult classes and
+for the technical instruction of apprentices. In 1854 France was divided
+for purposes of educational administration into sixteen academies, each
+administered by a rector with an academy inspector under him for each
+department. This organization survives to-day, with the difference that
+for each academy (except Chambéry) there is now a local teaching
+university.
+
+
+  Ministry of M. Duruy.
+
+The ministry of the well-known educationist M. Duruy (1865-1869),
+corresponding to the period of the Liberal Empire, was notable for
+marked administrative progress. A permanent memorial of this epoch is
+the enactment rendering primary schools for girls obligatory in communes
+of over 500 inhabitants. Duruy also provided for the introduction of
+gratuitous instruction at the option of the commune.
+
+
+  The Third Republic.
+
+The task of educational reform imposed itself upon the republic by a
+twofold necessity. The wars of 1866 and 1870 were victories for the
+Prussian schoolmaster, and aroused all western Europe to the national
+importance of popular education. For France then the reform of popular
+education was an essential part of the work of national restoration. For
+the republic too, menaced by older and hostile traditions, the creation
+of a national system of education inspired by its own spirit was an
+essential condition of the permanence and security of its government and
+the social ideals of which that government was the expression. Hence the
+energy with which the republican state addressed itself to the
+organization of primary instruction, "obligatory, gratuitous, secular."
+
+
+  Acquisition of elementary school buildings and organization of teaching
+  profession.
+
+By the law of June 1, 1878, there was imposed upon the communes the
+obligation of acquiring their school buildings; and as a grant in aid a
+sum of £2,400,000 was set aside for this purpose by the state. In 1879 a
+law was passed compelling every department to maintain a training college
+for male and female teachers respectively. The two higher normal schools
+of Fontenay and St Cloud were also founded to supply the training
+colleges with professors. During the same period, among other
+_certificats_ or professional diplomas, there were established the
+_certificat d'aptitude pédagogique_, which qualifies probationer-teachers
+(_stagiaires_) for appointment as teachers in full standing
+(_titulaires_), and the _certificat d'aptitude_ for primary inspectors
+and heads of normal schools. The law of June 16, 1881, rendered
+obligatory for all teachers, whether public or private, the _brevet de
+capacité_. It was found impracticable to carry this law into immediate
+effect, and as late as 1902 only about 60% of the men and 52% of the
+women were provided with the professional certificate necessary for
+becoming _titulaires_.
+
+
+  Reforms of Jules Ferry. Laicization.
+
+The laws making primary education gratuitous, compulsory and secular,
+are indissolubly associated with the name of Jules Ferry. The law of
+June 16, 1881, abolished fees in all primary schools and training
+colleges, the law of 1882 established compulsory attendance, and finally
+the law of October 30, 1886, enacted that none but lay persons should
+teach in the public schools, and abolished in those schools all
+distinctively religious teaching. In the boys' schools members of
+religious communities were to be displaced within five years, but in
+girls' schools the _religieuses_ might remain till death or resignation.
+
+
+  Moral instruction.
+
+Religious teaching was replaced in the state schools under the Ferry law
+by moral instruction according to official curricula, a change which has
+been described by M. Séailles (_Éducation ou révolution_) as a
+revolution of the profoundest philosophical meaning. The difficult and
+delicate topics of the relation of the state school to religion and the
+value of the substituted moral instruction have recently received
+illuminating and objective treatment from different points of view in
+the series of reports on _Moral Instruction and Training in Schools_,
+edited by Professor M.E. Sadler (1908, vol. ii.); the barest reference
+to the questions at issue must here suffice. As regards the character of
+the moral instruction, it would appear to have shifted from a Kantian to
+a purely sociological basis. Roman Catholic opinion is at least not
+unanimous in regarding the "lay" or neutral school as essentially or
+necessarily anti-religious, and plainly there is no inherent reason why
+the neutrality should not be a real neutrality, but with the existing
+relations between the Catholic Church and modern thought in France the
+influence of the Normalist teachers is in fact apt to be anti-religious,
+and moreover no system of independent moral doctrine, whether based upon
+a priori or inductive reasoning, can be acceptable to the Roman Catholic
+Church. In whatever degree the blame may be rightly apportionable
+between church and state, the fact is that the two find themselves in
+acute conflict, and that from the conflict there has resulted a certain
+moral confusion which Christian and non-Christian moralists alike view
+with alarm. It may be that the mischief would have been mitigated had
+more moderate counsels prevailed at the time of the Ferry law, and had
+the church been willing to accept (as the Republic might then have been
+willing to concede) right of entry for the clergy into the schools. But
+the real causes of the trouble lie deep in the philosophical and
+religious problems of our time, and in the constant and self-sacrificing
+devotion of the French to logical ideals on either side. Perhaps it is
+not too sanguine to discern in the growing tendency to idealism in
+French philosophy, and to liberal ideas in French and Catholic religious
+thought, the promise of a happier state of things. In the meantime, the
+religious difficulty in the schools divides the nation into two hostile
+camps (_les deux Frances_, as a Swiss Protestant writer puts it) in the
+shape of the state secular schools on the one side and the private
+religious schools on the other.
+
+In the year 1903-1904 the total number of pupils in private primary
+schools was 1,298,591, as against 4,935,000 in the public primary
+schools, but these figures were liable to be materially affected by the
+rigorous enforcement of the laws against the religious orders.
+
+
+  Financial reform of 1889.
+
+In 1889 an important change was made in educational finance by
+transferring the cost of teachers' salaries in primary schools from the
+communes to the state, a right consequence of the changes which made the
+teacher a state official. Thus the state assumed the greater part of the
+burden of primary instruction, leaving to the communes merely the cost
+of fabric, and to the department the maintenance of the fabric of the
+normal schools and certain expenses of inspection.
+
+
+  Administrative machinery. Minister and conseil supérieur.
+
+At this point it will be convenient to describe shortly the various
+central and local authorities that constitute the official machine. The
+minister, the head of the entire hierarchy, is assisted by a _conseil
+supérieur_ consisting of fifty-seven members, of whom the majority are
+elected by the higher teaching profession, while a few are nominated by
+the president, including a small number to represent private schools,
+and a few are elected by the primary teachers. Practically the ordinary
+work of the council is carried on by a sub-committee consisting of the
+nine nominees of the president and six others designated for this
+purpose by the minister. The council has administrative, judicial and
+disciplinary, as well as advisory, powers which enable it to exert a
+direct influence upon the internal organization of schools. There is
+also a pedagogic _comité consultatif_ and a legal _comité contentieux_,
+whose respective functions are purely advisory.
+
+
+  Inspecteurs généraux.
+
+The _inspecteurs généraux_ "act," says Mr Brereton in his official
+report to the English Board of Education, "as the eyes and ears of the
+central authority." Their duties are: first to inspect the normal
+schools; next to supervise the work of the ordinary inspectorate; lastly
+to give general and comparative information on the progress of primary
+instruction in the various parts of France. For the purpose of general
+inspection France is divided into seven districts.
+
+
+  Rector and council of academy.
+
+As already indicated, for the purpose of educational administration, the
+departments of France are grouped in seventeen divisions called
+academies. At the head of each academy is the rector. He is appointed
+directly by the president and must hold the doctor's degree. He is not
+only the head of the local teaching university, but is also charged in a
+general way with the oversight of all three departments of education,
+superior, secondary and primary; in regard to the last, however, his
+functions are confined to the pedagogic side. The direct share of the
+rector in administration is mainly confined to the normal schools and
+the higher primary schools. The rector is assisted by an academic
+council composed almost exclusively of pedagogic elements.
+
+
+  The academy inspector.
+
+Each department of France has an academy inspector appointed by the
+minister. The duties of the academy inspector embrace both higher and
+primary education. In the latter sphere he is the real head of the local
+administration, and the primary inspectors are his subordinate officers.
+He appoints the probationer-teachers and nominates the regular teachers
+for appointment by the _préfet_.
+
+
+  Préfet and conseil départemental.
+
+The _préfet_, the chief administrative officer of each department, not
+only appoints the teachers upon the proposition of the academy
+inspector, he is also as president of the _conseil départemental_
+concerned generally with the externa of school administration, including
+the supply of schools. The _conseil départemental_ with respect to its
+powers corresponds in some degree to our own local education
+authorities, but as regards its constitution it is in no sense a
+municipal body, the representatives of the _conseil général_ of the
+department (which corresponds to the county council) being greatly
+outnumbered by the pedagogical members.
+
+
+  Primary inspectors.
+
+The inspectors of primary schools, as has already been stated, act under
+the academy inspector. They are appointed upon the result of examination
+and not by direct nomination as in England. The examination is severe,
+and it is from the body of the professors of the normal schools rather
+than from the ranks of the primary teachers that the successful
+candidates are chiefly drawn.
+
+
+  Minor local authorities.
+
+Very limited powers are entrusted to certain communal and cantonal
+authorities. The _commission scolaire_ is a committee organized in each
+commune for the purpose of improving school attendance, to which end
+they administer a _caisse des écoles_ or school fund for supplying
+clothing and meals to needy children. The _maire_ of the commune has the
+right of visiting the schools, but neither he nor any of the minor local
+authorities can interfere with the teaching. Similar duties are assigned
+to the _délégués cantonaux_, who are appointed by the _conseil
+départemental_ for each canton (a wider area than the commune), and can
+best be described as local visitors or visiting committees rather than
+managers in our sense of the word. "All this hierarchy of central and
+local officials," says Mr Brereton, "will doubtless seem complicated to
+English minds. The extraordinary thing is that, so far as I could learn,
+the machine, for all its complexity, works smoothly enough. The truth is
+that the province of each particular functionary is so clearly defined
+that there is no debateable ground over which ambitious rival
+authorities can wrangle."
+
+
+  Conception of secondary education.
+
+In proceeding to sketch the French system of higher primary and
+secondary schools, it may be observed that European systems of higher
+education have generally been framed upon the view that the divisions of
+education are longitudinal, not latitudinal, and that secondary
+education is a training complete in itself from the preparatory stage to
+the university, with aims and ideals of general culture which
+differentiate it radically and at the very outset from education of the
+elementary type. On the other hand, in the United States the view has
+prevailed that the divisions of education must be latitudinal, that the
+secondary school must be complementary to the elementary school, in
+which even the élite must receive their preparatory or elementary
+training. At any rate down to the reform of 1902, which will presently
+be explained, the French system could be regarded as a typical and even
+extreme example of the European theory, little consistent as this might
+seem to be with the broader principles of democracy. This view of the
+matter is expressed by the French terminology, by which what in England
+is called "elementary" is in France termed "primary" education.
+
+
+  Higher primary schools.
+
+The thoroughness with which the principle of the autonomous character of
+the two divisions of education was carried out undoubtedly favoured in a
+special degree the complete organization given to higher primary
+instruction in the _écoles primaires supérieures_ under the Third
+Republic. The aim of these schools is to fill the void which must
+otherwise exist for those who need a higher education than the primary
+school can give, but for whose subsequent careers secondary education
+would be ill-adapted and injudicious. Throughout the organization of
+primary education the French have kept steadily in view the danger of
+creating an intellectual proletariate. "Nous poursuivons la culture
+générale du caractère et de l'esprit, mais nous cherchons en même temps
+à orienter l'enfant vers la vie pratique," says an official report. The
+aim of the higher primary school is to continue education in this
+spirit up to the age of sixteen so as to prepare the scholar to take an
+honourable place in the higher ranks of skilled industry rather than to
+deflect him towards a professional career or intellectual pursuits for
+which he is unfitted, not so much by the accidents of birth and social
+circumstance as by his own natural aptitudes. Within the limits
+necessarily marked out for them the higher primary schools of France
+have aimed at imparting what may be termed a general culture as distinct
+from purely technical or trade teaching, and this development has been
+greatly furthered by the separate organization given to the latter
+teaching in the _écoles professionnelles_. At the same time, prominence
+is given in the higher primary schools to practical training of an
+educational character with special reference to the industries and
+circumstances of the locality, and in the rural districts a special
+agricultural bias is imparted to the curriculum. It is interesting to
+note that the institution of the higher primary schools was due in large
+part to the spontaneous initiative of the municipalities, and that in
+the later phases of state organization special care has been taken to
+avoid anything in the nature of a rigid uniformity in these schools.
+
+
+  Supplementary courses.
+
+A wider extension has been given to higher primary instruction by the
+establishment of _cours complémentaires_ in certain schools, at centres
+at which it would be impossible to organize separate higher primary
+schools. A similar solution of the continuation school problem has
+recently commended itself to the consultative committee of the Board of
+Education for England.
+
+Admission to the higher primary schools in France is only accorded to
+those who have obtained the elementary school leaving certificate,
+_certificat d'études primaires_. A feature of importance for
+continuation work in rural districts is the provision made for boarding
+scholars in attendance at these schools. The boarding arrangements are
+generally, as in the case of the secondary schools, left to the head
+teacher, but in some instances municipal hostels have been provided. No
+fees may be charged for higher primary instruction, and scholarships
+(_bourses_) are provided to a certain extent in the form either of
+boarding scholarships or maintenance allowances to compensate the parent
+for the loss of the child's labour. The number of scholars in the public
+higher primary schools for the year 1903-1904 was 34,084, and in _cours
+complémentaires_ 21,777, making a total of 55,861. In addition there
+were 8891 scholars in receipt of higher primary instruction in private
+schools.
+
+
+  Secondary schools, lycées and collèges.
+
+French secondary education is given in the _lycées_ which are
+first-grade schools maintained and controlled by the state, and the
+_collèges_, which are schools of the second grade maintained partly by
+the state and partly by the municipality. A considerable number of
+scholars pass annually from the collèges to the lycées. In both grades
+of schools the teachers are paid by the state and nominated directly or
+indirectly by the minister of education. They are required to possess
+certain specified academic qualifications which can only be obtained
+from the _université_, but failing teachers with the prescribed
+qualifications the classes are taught by teachers styled _chargés de
+cours_ as distinct from professors.
+
+
+  École Normale Supérieure.
+
+With a view to supplying teachers for the secondary schools, the state
+maintains the École Normale Supérieure, a college in which instruction,
+board and lodging are given free to a number of scholars selected by
+competition from the best secondary school boys, though residence in the
+institution is no longer compulsory. By the decrees of November 10,
+1903, and May 10, 1904, the École Normale became practically the College
+of Pedagogy of the University of Paris. Its students are entered as
+students of the university, and study for their qualifying examination
+as teachers in secondary schools (_agrégation_) under university
+professors, partly at the Sorbonne, partly at the École Normale, while
+their professional preparation is entrusted solely to the latter
+institution.
+
+
+  Classical and modern education. Reform of 1902.
+
+The Republic has not reorganized secondary education by a comprehensive
+law; it has, however, introduced by decree, under parliamentary
+authority, an important reform in the internal organization of the
+schools which marks a notable departure from the traditional view of
+secondary education as a self-contained whole. Article 1 of the decree
+of May 31, 1902, declares that secondary education is co-ordinated with
+primary education in such a way as to constitute a continuation of a
+course of primary studies of a normal duration of four years. The decree
+goes on to provide for a full course of secondary studies of seven
+years' duration, divided into two cycles of four and three years
+respectively. In the first cycle the scholar has two options. In section
+1 Latin is obligatory and Greek optional from the beginning of the third
+year (_classe iv._). In section 2 there is no Latin. At the end of the
+first cycle the state grants a _certificat d'études secondaires du
+premier degré_. In the second cycle one of four courses may be taken;
+section 1 with Latin and Greek continues the old classical education;
+section 2 with Latin and modern languages corresponds to the German
+Realgymnasium; section 3 with Latin and science, and section 4 with
+modern languages and science, to the Oberrealschule. The _baccalauréat_,
+or secondary school-leaving examination, conducted by the university, is
+adapted to all the courses on the principle that courses of study of
+equal length, whether classical or modern, literary or scientific, are
+entitled to equal advantages. This system of alternative courses with
+leaving examinations of equal value is mainly German in origin, and may
+be said to represent the results of the best European thought upon the
+problem of the organization of secondary education.
+
+
+  Religious instruction in lycées.
+
+It is remarkable in view of the thoroughness with which the principle of
+laicization has been applied to the primary schools that the lycées
+still retain their chaplains (_aumôniers_) for the purpose of giving
+religious instruction. This difference of treatment is apparently based
+upon the consideration that the gratuitous and compulsory character of
+primary education demanded a much stricter interpretation of the
+principle of the neutrality of the state than was necessary in the case
+of secondary education, which is neither compulsory nor gratuitous.
+
+
+  Private secondary schools.
+
+In addition to the state schools there have until lately been in France
+a large number of private secondary schools, the most important of which
+have been associated with the Catholic religious orders. The enforcement
+of the laws against these communities has resulted in the closure of a
+number of these schools, and in the reorganization of others under a lay
+teaching staff. It is conceivable that the action of the Republic may
+largely forward the movement, otherwise perceptible in the Roman
+Catholic Church, to transfer education, even when combined with specific
+religious teaching, from ecclesiastical to lay hands. Evidence of this
+tendency is to be found in the boarding-schools (some four in number)
+founded upon the plan of M. Demolins (author of _A quoi tient la
+supériorité des Anglo-Saxons_) after the English public school model,
+but with a distinctly Catholic colouring.
+
+Apart from the position of the religious orders, the future of private
+education in France is far from secure at the present time. The liberty
+of teaching secured by the _Loi Falloux_ is regarded as a pseudo-liberty
+by the advanced republican educationists, and the principle that
+education is a function of the state and not a matter of supply and
+demand is deeply rooted in the public mind. Proposals have been mooted
+for making the baccalauréat strictly a school leaving examination
+attached to the state schools. The adoption of any such measure would
+practically destroy liberty of teaching by reason of the power which the
+baccalauréat secures to the state as the key to the professions.
+
+
+  Secondary education for girls.
+
+The foundation of secondary schools for girls in connexion with the
+educational reform of Jules Ferry is in its way one of the most notable
+achievements of the republic. There is little doubt that the expulsion
+of the religious orders is destined to exercise a profound influence
+upon the education of women in France. The place of the closed convent
+schools is being taken either by new state schools or by Catholic
+schools under lay teachers, and the number of scholars affected by this
+process of laicization is far larger in the case of girls than of boys.
+This change is calculated to produce far-reaching effects in the social
+and religious order, by no means necessarily, however, of an
+anti-Catholic or irreligious kind.
+
+For an account of the resuscitation by the Republic of the local
+universities under the one great state teaching body collectively known
+as the University, see UNIVERSITIES.
+
+
+_Germany._
+
+Under the German empire education is left to the exclusive control of
+each of the federated states. The only point of direct contact between
+the Empire and education lies in the mutual undertaking of the federated
+states to bring the law of compulsory school attendance to bear upon all
+subjects of the empire resident within their respective borders. Of far
+greater moment is the moral influence exerted upon the other states by
+the Prussian hegemony, in virtue of which the Prussian educational
+system comes to be in all essential characteristics typical and
+representative of Germany as a whole. It is remarkable that though, as
+Matthew Arnold was able to report to the Schools Inquiry Commission in
+1866, "the school system of Germany in its completeness and carefulness
+is such as to excite the foreigner's admiration," neither Prussia
+herself, nor Bavaria, nor several other of the principal states of the
+Empire, have found it practicable to pass a comprehensive education law,
+owing to the religious and political difficulties with which any general
+legislative assertion of principle is attended in Germany as in England.
+The consequence is that the Prussian system in particular is the result
+of a long and complicated series of special laws, decrees and
+administrative regulations. In such circumstances it is inevitable that,
+especially in secondary education, some considerable local variations
+and anomalies should remain, but the centralized authority of the state
+has confined these to questions of patronage and external
+administration, and even within this sphere has successfully asserted
+its own ultimate supremacy as the guardian of the educational interests
+of its citizens. A detailed historical study would bring out clearly the
+intimate connexion between the development of the educational system and
+the growth of the Prussian state, and again between these and the
+expansion of the national life of the German people; incidentally it
+would exhibit the supremacy of Prussia in the modern Empire as the
+inevitable result not merely of military force but of a genuine hegemony
+of intellect and culture.
+
+
+  Influence of Luther.
+
+Stress is rightly laid by all educational writers upon Luther's famous
+letter to the German municipalities in 1524, urging upon them the duty
+of providing schools and upon parents the duty of sending their children
+to school. An attempt to give effect to this teaching was at once made
+by the electoral government of Saxony, which by a school ordinance of
+1528 provided for the establishment in every town and village of Latin
+schools, for in Germany as in England the influence of the Protestant
+reformers was solidly on the side of classical education as the key to
+the study of the Scriptures and theological learning. All the more
+remarkable, therefore, was the initiative of the electorate of
+Württemberg, whose school ordinance of 1559 represents the first
+systematic attempt to make provision for both elementary and higher
+education, directing that elementary schools should be set up throughout
+the country, and _Particularschulen_ or Latin schools in every
+considerable centre of population. The educational efforts both of the
+early Reformers and of the remarkable Jesuit educationists, who
+contributed so largely to the partial reconquest of south Germany for
+the Catholic Church, were brought to naught amid the troublous times of
+the Thirty Years' War, and the desolation and national decadence which
+that calamity brought in its train. To this result the aridity of the
+Protestant scholastics who succeeded Luther and Melanchthon, and the
+frivolity, incompetence and petty despotism of the small German courts,
+contributed in no slight measure. The permanent and positive value of
+Luther's pronouncement of 1524 consists not so much in the direct
+effects which it produced as in the hallowed association which it
+established for Protestant Germany between the national religion and the
+educational duties of the individual and the state, and doubtless this
+association largely contributed to the creation of that healthy public
+opinion which in Prussia rendered the principle of compulsory school
+attendance easy of acceptance at a much earlier date than in England and
+elsewhere, save only Scotland, where a similar historical religious
+influence was supplied by John Knox.
+
+
+  Early Prussian measures.
+
+State interference in education is almost coincident with the rise of
+the Prussian state. Already in 1717 Frederick William I. ordered all
+children to attend school where schools existed, and fixed the fee at 5
+pf. (½d.) a week. This was followed in 1736 by edicts for the
+establishment of schools in certain provinces and by a royal grant of
+50,000 thalers for that purpose in the following year. In 1763 the
+_General Landschulreglement_ of Frederick the Great laid down the broad
+lines upon which the Prussian state has since proceeded, asserting the
+principle of compulsory school attendance, fixing the fees, with
+provision for the assistance of very poor children, prescribing the
+course of instruction, and giving directions for the examination and
+supervision of teachers. Much progress was made, more especially in the
+organization of higher education, under Baron von Zedlitz, who was
+appointed minister for Lutheran church and school affairs by Frederick
+the Great in 1771, and retired under Frederick William II. in 1788. The
+last-mentioned year saw the establishment of the _Abiturientenexamen_,
+or leaving examinations, which form the determining element in the state
+organization of secondary education in Germany. As in England, the fear
+of the French Revolution produced a corresponding reaction in
+educational affairs, and the policy of Frederick William II. was to bind
+ever closer school and church in a system practically independent of
+state control. The first departure from this policy was marked by the
+_Allgemeines Landrecht_ of 1794, which boldly proclaims that schools and
+educational institutions may be founded only with the knowledge and
+consent of the state, and must always be under its supervision and
+subject to its examination and control. This law also laid upon heads of
+families in every place the duty of providing and maintaining schools.
+
+
+  Reconstruction after Jena.
+
+It was not till the disaster of Jena and the prostration of Prussia at
+the feet of Napoleon awoke the dormant spirit of patriotism, and
+concentrated all the intellectual forces of north Germany upon the task
+of national regeneration, that the principles of the _Allgemeines
+Landrecht_ of 1794 bore full fruit. "The organization of the Prussian
+school system," says Dr James E. Russell in his work on _German Higher
+Schools_, "waited on the reorganization of the Prussian State." One of
+the first acts of the great patriotic minister von Stein, upon his
+assuming control of the civil administration in 1807, was to abolish the
+semi-ecclesiastical Oberschulkollegium which had been set up as the
+central authority under the churchly policy of Frederick William II.,
+and to place education under the Ministry of the Interior as a special
+section. Wilhelm von Humboldt was placed at the head of this section in
+1809, and the work which this "great master of the science and art of
+education" (as Professor Seeley terms him in his _Life of Stein_)
+inaugurated in his one year of office entitles him to be ranked among
+the founders of German unity. Humboldt's greatest positive
+achievements--the foundation of the university of Berlin and its
+organization under a professorial staff which included Fichte,
+Schleiermacher, Savigny, Wolf and Niebuhr, as also the internal reform
+of secondary schools undertaken with the pedagogical assistance of Wolf
+and under the inspiration of Fichte--lie beyond the scope of this
+article. It may, however, be observed that Humboldt's policy in
+secondary education represents a compromise between the narrow
+philological pedantry of the old Latin schools and the large demands of
+the new humanism of the period; and the recent reform of the Prussian
+secondary schools may be said to represent a return to the spirit of
+Humboldt in this respect. The measure introduced by Humboldt in 1810 for
+the state examination and certification of teachers checked the then
+common practice of permitting unqualified theological students to teach
+in the schools, and at once raised the teaching profession to a high
+level of dignity and efficiency which of itself sufficed to place
+Prussia in the forefront of educational progress. It was due also to
+the initiative of Humboldt that the methods of Pestalozzi were
+introduced into the teachers' seminaries, through them to vitalize the
+elementary schools. To the period of the national struggle belong the
+revival in 1812 of the Abiturientenexamen which had fallen into
+abeyance, and the institution about the same time of the local
+authorities called _Schulvorstände_ for the country and
+_Schuldeputationen_ for the towns.
+
+
+  Reforms of 1825 and 1834. Abiturientenexamen.
+
+Though the period which succeeded the peace of 1815 was one of political
+reaction, the cabinet order of Frederick William III. in 1825
+strengthened the law of compulsory attendance and carried on the work of
+administrative organization by defining the duties of the
+Provinzial-Schul-Kollegium and the Regierung. In 1834 an important
+development was given to secondary education by making it necessary for
+candidates for the learned professions as well as for the civil service,
+and for university studies, to have passed the leaving examination of
+the gymnasia. Thus through the leaving examination the state holds the
+key to the liberal careers, and has thereby been able to impose its own
+standard upon all secondary schools. Apart from the privileges relative
+to professional studies, the system of leaving examinations has exerted
+a wide influence upon popular education in connexion with the
+institution of compulsory military service, in virtue of a regulation
+which entitles those who pass the leaving examination of any of the
+recognized kinds of secondary schools to the much-coveted privilege of
+service for one year as a "volunteer" instead of two years as an
+ordinary conscript.
+
+The revolutionary and national movement of 1848 was followed by a period
+of further educational activity. The Act of Constitution of 1850
+declared teachers civil servants and elementary education free. In
+practice, the abolition of school fees did not become general until
+1888. Since then the view has more and more prevailed that elementary
+education must be free,[2] and, broadly speaking, fees in elementary
+schools are now charged only for children attending from another school
+district.
+
+
+  Kulturkampf and the confessional system.
+
+In connexion with the _Kulturkampf_, or struggle between the state and
+the Roman Catholic Church, the _Schulaufsichtsgesetz_ of 1872 reasserted
+the absolute right of the state alone to the supervision of the schools;
+but the severity of this law as a measure against Roman Catholic
+clerical education was considerably modified as a result of the
+subsequent reconciliation with the papacy under Leo XIII., and the
+Prussian system remains to-day both for Catholics and Protestants
+essentially denominational. All schools, whether elementary or
+secondary, are Evangelical, Catholic, Jewish or mixed. In the elementary
+sphere, in particular, recourse is only had to the mixed school
+(_Simultanschule_ or _paritätische Schule_), where the creeds are so
+intermingled that a confessional school is impracticable. In all cases
+the teachers are appointed with reference to religious faith; religious
+instruction is given compulsorily in school hours and is inspected by
+the clergy. The general purport of the Prussian school law of 1906 is to
+strengthen the system of separate confessional schools, which it extends
+to certain provinces where it had not previously been in operation.
+
+In financial respects the last-mentioned law effected some readjustment
+of burdens by charging a proportion of the expenditure upon landed
+property. Other recent changes relate to the reform of secondary
+education referred to below. The system of educational administration as
+it stood in 1909 may shortly be described as follows.
+
+
+  Administrative machinery.
+
+Under the ministerium in Berlin stands the Provinzial-Schul-Kollegium,
+the chairman of which is the _Ober-Präsident_ of the province, composed
+of four or five _Räte_ or councillors, generally selected from the
+directors of training colleges and gymnasia. This body is concerned
+mainly with higher education.
+
+Each province is divided for purposes of general administration into two
+_Regierungen_ or governments, and in each Regierung there is a section
+of usually three or four Schulräte, which controls the elementary
+schools. This council is usually recruited from the ranks of directors
+of training colleges and from the inspectorate. The Regierung is divided
+into _Kreise_ or districts, and in each district an administrative
+officer, called the _Landrat_, represents the government. The Landrat is
+concerned with the provision and repair of elementary school buildings;
+as regards internal organization, the elementary schools are under the
+Kreisschulinspektor.
+
+
+  Inspection.
+
+In the Protestant districts the inspectors (_Kreisschulinspektoren_) are
+usually Evangelical clergymen holding the position of superintendent in
+the Lutheran Church. In the Catholic and certain other exceptional
+districts inspectors with pedagogical qualifications and the status of
+full government inspectors are appointed. Every candidate for Lutheran
+ordination is required to spend six months at a training college, but
+pedagogical opinion is hostile to the system, which must be regarded as
+a survival of the traditional union of church and state in educational
+affairs, retained at the present day from motives of economy and a
+desire to conciliate the church.
+
+For every school there is an _Ortsschulinspektor_, usually the clergyman
+of the parish, who discharges the duties of local manager and
+correspondent. This local inspector is also chairman of the
+_Schulvorstand_ or committee, elected by the _Schulgemeinde_, and
+charged with questions of attendance and maintenance rather than with
+internal affairs. The Schulgemeinde need not coincide with the civil
+parish. Parishes may unite to provide one school, or within one parish
+different religious communities may form separate school "parishes."
+
+Thus the administrative system of Prussia in education as in other
+matters may be described in general as a decentralized bureaucracy. This
+bureaucracy is somewhat checked by the rights of patronage attaching to
+the local boards in certain cases, but the exercise of such rights is in
+all cases subject to government approval. As regards higher-grade
+elementary and secondary schools, the local boards in the towns
+(_Schuldeputationen_) are able to exert a considerable influence in the
+way of selection of the type of school, and even of suggestion for the
+modification of recognized types, as is shown by the cases of the famous
+"reformed" secondary curricula of Altona and Frankfort. Still, the legal
+powers of the local board are restricted to the establishment of an
+approved type of school, the control of externa, and the right of
+nominating teachers.
+
+
+  Peculiarities of elementary education.
+
+_Elementary Schools._--The single-class school (_Einklassige Schule_)
+and the half-day school (_Halbtagsschule_) are features of the Prussian
+elementary system which require notice. The Einklassige Schule is a
+school taught by a single teacher, who may teach a maximum number of
+eighty children. The Halbtagsschule is a single-class school of which
+half the children are taught in the morning and half in the afternoon.
+During the summer months, owing to the exigencies of agricultural
+labour, many single-class schools are taught as half-day schools. The
+system of course is regarded as a makeshift, but in this, as in the
+matter of buildings for rural elementary schools, the Prussian
+administration attaches great weight to the consideration of financial
+economy. As regards staff, a large measure of economy is rendered
+possible by the high average standard of merit reached by German
+elementary teachers, whose powers of oral exposition have struck English
+observers as specially remarkable, and again by the national readiness
+to be content with a moderate salary in return for official status. A
+survival of the old close connexion between church and school is to be
+found in the _Kirchendienste_, the duties of training the choir, playing
+the organ, &c., which are attached in many cases to the post of
+schoolmaster, and afford an additional source of emolument, rendered
+feasible by the practical absence of religious dissent.
+
+For the preliminary training of elementary teachers there are special
+schools called _Präparanden-Anstalten_, of which most are state
+institutions, some are municipal, and a few are private. The training
+colleges themselves are provided by the state and have a three years'
+course.
+
+
+  Continuative education.
+
+_Continuation Schools (Fortbildungsschulen)._--Germans have been
+foremost to realize the truth which is gradually being brought home to
+English educationists, that adequate value for the heavy expenditure of
+public funds upon education can only be obtained by providing for the
+continued education for two or three years of the children of the
+working classes who leave school at fourteen years of age. One of the
+educational results of the war of 1870, with its great lesson of the
+importance of national education, was the Saxon law of 1873 making
+attendance at continuation schools compulsory for three years (i.e. up
+to seventeen) in that kingdom: The Saxon law appears to have been
+justified by the experience of nearly a generation. It must suffice here
+to note the following features of its working. (1) The schools are
+taught by the primary teachers, supplemented in the towns by some
+technical instructors. (2) The school session may be either for the
+whole year or for only half the year, and may also be held on Sunday,
+like the old English secular Sunday schools. (3) The schools are brought
+into close relation with trades, not only for purposes of curriculum,
+but also with a view to considering the exigencies and meeting the
+convenience of employers with respect to hours of attendance. (4) The
+discipline of the continuation school is extended to supervision out of
+school hours. "Visits to dancing-halls and all such exhibitions as are
+dangerous to uprightness and purity are forbidden to scholars of
+continuation schools." Further, useful institutions such as savings
+banks, and also associations for social intercourse and the promotion of
+_esprit de corps_, are organized in connexion with continuation schools.
+There is no doubt that in this matter of continuation schools, as in so
+many other fields of social organization, the adoption of compulsion has
+been facilitated by the habituation of the working classes to compulsory
+military service, which has made the German workman more disciplined,
+more "organizable" as a social unit, more accustomed to subordinate the
+principle of individual freedom and self-will to the collective claims
+of the state, than the workman reared in the traditions of Anglo-Saxon
+individualism.
+
+Attendance at continuation schools is now compulsory by state law in 12
+states, including (besides Saxony) Baden, Württemberg and Bavaria. The
+city of Munich is notable for its highly organized system of technical
+continuation schools for apprentices. In Prussia compulsory attendance
+is still the exception (save in the provinces of Posen and West Prussia,
+where it is enforced by state law), but the permissive act is being
+rapidly adopted by the great cities, including Berlin.
+
+
+  Grading of secondary schools.
+
+_Secondary Education._--The official classification or grading according
+to the type of curriculum of secondary schools in Prussia (and indeed
+throughout Germany) is very precise. The following are the officially
+recognized types. I. Classical schools: (a) Gymnasium, with nine years'
+course; (b) Progymnasium, with six years' course. II. Modern schools:
+(a) with Latin (semi-classical)--(i.) Realgymnasium (nine years'
+course), (ii.) Realprogymnasium (six years' course); (b) without Latin
+(non-classical)--(i.) Oberrealschule (nine years' course), (ii.)
+Realschule (six years' course). The six-year classical and
+semi-classical schools are comparatively unimportant subdivisions in
+smaller towns.
+
+
+  Co-ordination of elementary and secondary education.
+
+_Lower-grade Secondary Education._--Inasmuch as French is taught in the
+lowest class of the Realschule under the official curriculum (English,
+on the other hand, beginning in Tertia, the fourth class from the
+lowest), it follows that this, the lowest type of secondary school, is
+not directly co-ordinated with the elementary school. The Realschulen of
+Berlin, however, form an important exception to the general rule; their
+curriculum, sanctioned by the ministry at the instance of the Berlin
+municipality, provides for the beginning of French in Quarta (the third
+class from the bottom) and English in Secunda. The consequence is that
+in Berlin a very large number of pupils pass from the elementary schools
+to the Realschulen, which take the place of the Mittelschulen or
+higher-grade elementary schools that are to be found in some towns,
+though something in the nature of higher elementary education is
+afforded by the top sections of the elementary schools.
+
+
+  First grade secondary schools.
+
+_First-grade Schools._--One of the most striking features of German
+secondary education is the careful differentiation of schools according
+to the type of curriculum adopted. Thus, every German school is a
+homogeneous unit with a definite educational aim and organization,
+conforming to a common standard approved by public authority for the
+particular type to which it belongs. Hence the importance attached by
+the Germans to nomenclature; so that in selecting a Gymnasium, a
+Realgymnasium or an Oberrealschule, the parent knows exactly the type of
+education he is going to secure for his son. In England, on the other
+hand, as has often been observed, a great school tends to multiply
+within itself different types of curricula in a haphazard way according
+to the demand of parents, whose original choice of school is based
+rather on social than on educational grounds. Modern sides, army classes
+and engineering classes grow up as excrescences upon an originally
+classical type, with the waste of power that results from loss of
+consistency and concentration of purpose. The difference between the
+English and German systems is due ultimately to the adoption in Germany
+of the day-school system and the absence, very remarkable in an
+otherwise aristocratically governed country, of the caste spirit in
+education above the elementary level, thanks to which the nobly born are
+not ashamed to sit on the school bench side by side with the children of
+the trading classes. On the other hand, the English boarding-school
+system, despite all the want of social solidarity, and all the class
+jealousy and exclusiveness with which it is inevitably associated, has
+admittedly favoured those ideals of the cultivation of character as
+distinct from book-learning which give a special value to what is in
+England called a public school education.
+
+
+  Rise of semi-classical schools.
+
+The present differentiation of first-grade schools in Prussia is the
+result of a natural educational development corresponding with the
+economic changes which have transformed Prussia and the empire from an
+agricultural to an industrial state. It was in 1855 that semi-classical
+schools (teaching Latin without Greek) were first recognized for a nine
+years' course under the title of Realschule I. Ordnung, and in 1871
+pupils possessing their leaving certificates were admitted to
+mathematical studies in the universities. The Latinless Realschule II.
+Ordnung is the direct product of the great industrial development of the
+modern empire. In 1882 the Realschule I. Ordnung received the title of
+Realgymnasium, and the Realschule II. Ordnung that of Oberrealschule,
+both types being at the same time admitted to certain privileges in the
+universities, schools of technology and civil service.
+
+
+  The "reform school" movement.
+
+About the same period official recognition was obtained for reformed
+secondary curricula, first at Altona and afterwards (1892) at Frankfort.
+These two types differ from each other in detail, but the feature which
+distinguishes both from the older types is the postponement of Latin to
+Untertertia. The design is to secure for all types of secondary
+education a common non-classical base coextensive with the first three
+years of school life, followed by a trifurcation or threefold choice
+between the classical, semi-classical and non-classical types. The
+principle of the "reform-school" has been adopted in a considerable
+number of German (chiefly Prussian) schools, but it would be premature
+to see in it at present more than a new variety of Realgymnasium or
+semi-classical school; it can hardly be said as yet to have affected the
+course of classical studies in the full sense. The widespread sentiment
+of discontent with the old philological type of classical school was
+vigorously expressed in a private letter written by the emperor William
+II. as crown prince of Prussia in 1885, but not published until
+some-years later. In December 1890 the Prussian ministry convoked a
+conference at Berlin of secondary school experts, and the emperor
+presided in person at the opening session. His majesty delivered a
+speech criticizing the Gymnasia as wanting a national basis. "It is our
+duty to educate young men to become young Germans and not young Greeks
+or Romans" was the keynote of the imperial discourse. The outcome of the
+conference was a shortening of the hours allowed to Latin in the
+Gymnasia, a reduction of the hours of study in view of over-pressure,
+and an expression of official opinion adverse to the Realgymnasium.
+These changes, introduced in 1892, did not go far enough to satisfy the
+reformers, whilst the reduction of the hours allowed for Latin caused
+misgivings among the upholders of the traditional Gymnasium. Moreover,
+the Realgymnasium showed greater vitality among the large towns than its
+official critics anticipated. The ensuing decade witnessed a certain
+reaction in favour of the classical humanities as a barrier against the
+materialistic influences of the new industrialism. At the same time the
+protagonists of the classics came to recognize that side by side with
+the old humanities there must be accorded to modern and scientific
+subjects that place in the high-grade schools which the practical
+exigencies of industrial life demanded. Thus, the opinion grew that the
+best line of defence for the classical schools lay in the concession of
+equal privileges to the non-classical types; in this way only could the
+classical schools be kept safe from demands upon their time that could
+not be conceded without endangering their proper work. It was upon this
+basis that an agreement was reached between the contending parties at a
+second school conference that met in Berlin in June 1900. As the result
+of this conference there was issued a royal decree laying down certain
+general principles, of which the following are the most important. (1)
+There must be equality of privileges as between classical,
+semi-classical and non-classical first-grade schools. The decree
+recognizes, however, that this principle must be applied with a certain
+elasticity and with due regard to the necessity for training in
+particular branches of knowledge as a preliminary to certain lines of
+university study and certain professional pursuits. Consequently the
+Prussian system of privileges has become extremely complicated, and it
+is truer to speak, as the decree goes on to do, of an extension of the
+privileges of the non-classical schools, rather than of absolute
+equality. (2) "In thus acknowledging the equality of the three types of
+higher institutions, it will be possible more thoroughly to strengthen
+the special characteristics of each type. In this connexion," the royal
+decree proceeds, "I shall offer no objection to an increase in the
+number of hours devoted to Latin in the Gymnasium and Realgymnasium."
+Thus, both as to the place of Latin in the curriculum of classical
+schools and as to the status of semi-classical schools, the decree of
+1900 involves a reversal of the policy of 1890. (3) The decree expresses
+approval of the reformed curricula of Altona and Frankfort, and a desire
+for an extension of the experiment where the conditions are suitable.
+
+Notwithstanding the growing official encouragement of education upon
+semi-classical or non-classical lines, the upper and professional
+classes of Germany continue to show a marked preference for the fully
+classical Gymnasium; hence, in Germany as in England, the tendency for a
+widening gulf to disclose itself between the education of the directing
+classes in politics and administration and the bulk of the industrial
+population, which suggests that the problem of combining in just
+proportions the liberal and practical elements in a thoroughly national
+system of education has not yet reached the solution that the needs of
+the age require.
+
+
+_Switzerland._
+
+  Educational influence of federal constitution.
+
+Switzerland affords perhaps the best type of a democratic system of
+local authorities. The central authority is the canton, not the
+federation. The interference of the federal authority is confined to the
+imposition of certain broad principles by the constitution, to the
+indirect influence exerted by the examination of recruits for the
+national army, and to financial grants for technical instruction, its
+most important direct educational work being the support of the
+technological university at Zurich. The federal constitution (1) states
+that primary instruction must be under the control of the canton (an
+important point in view of the strength of ecclesiastical influence in
+some of the Catholic cantons), and must be compulsory and gratuitous;
+(2) declares that it must be possible for the public schools to be
+attended by the adherents of all creeds without hurting their freedom of
+conscience; (3) forbids the employment of child labour before completion
+of the fourteenth year, with a provision that in the fifteenth and
+sixteenth years factory work, together with the time given to school and
+religious instruction, must not exceed eleven hours a day. (4) All
+recruits for the federal army (in which service is compulsory on a
+militia basis) are examined in their twentieth year, and the results are
+published. This examination affords an instructive index to the state of
+education in the several cantons and promotes a healthy emulation among
+them.
+
+
+  Cantonal organization.
+
+The cantonal organization of education presents the variety which the
+extraordinary diversity of race, language, religion and physical
+conditions of the component states of the federation would lead one to
+expect. The large canton of Bern may be instanced as the type of a
+strong central authority. The commune or parish is the unit for
+elementary education. The communal council nominates a school board of
+at least five members, whose function is to spend the money voted for
+school purposes by the general communal council. Several communes in
+combination form a district authority for the support of what are in
+reality higher primary schools, though called in Switzerland
+_Sekundarschulen_, maintained by the district. The maintenance both of
+the primary and higher primary schools is aided by grants from the
+central authority. The true secondary schools, called middle or higher
+schools, are maintained and controlled by the central or cantonal
+authority. The existence of separate local authorities for each grade of
+education is characteristic of Switzerland generally, this system being
+the opposite to that adopted in England in 1902.
+
+The central grants in Switzerland always take the form of payments to
+the local authorities of a proportion of the teachers' salaries; they
+are never, as in England, assessed upon the number of children in
+attendance, nor are they dependent, as was formerly the case in England,
+upon the results of examination, nor again are grants made in respect of
+particular subjects as is the case with the grants for special, i.e.
+practical, instruction in England.
+
+Religious instruction in the Swiss communal schools generally follows
+the faith of the majority; in a few cantons separate schools being
+provided for minorities if sufficiently numerous. In the town of
+Lucerne, Catholic instruction is given in school hours and Protestant
+instruction is provided out of school and out of hours for the
+Protestant minority.
+
+In 19 out of the 25 cantons attendance at continuation schools is
+compulsory (at least in some districts) for boys up to 17, and in 3
+cantons it is compulsory also wholly or in part for girls.
+
+
+_Belgium._
+
+  Belgian treatment of religious question.
+
+The interesting feature in Belgian education is the treatment of the
+religious question in successive laws.
+
+1. The law of 1842 obliged the communes to provide primary instruction,
+which was to be free in the case of poor children. The state made grants
+in aid, subject to inspection. Subject to a conscience clause, religious
+instruction was obligatory, and was placed under ecclesiastical
+inspection.
+
+2. The law of 1879 removed religious instruction from the curriculum,
+and provided for facilities to the clergy to give such instruction
+outside school hours. This law furnishes a striking instance of the
+futility of a parliamentary majority legislating in a sense opposed to
+the convictions of a considerable section of the community. The law
+evoked a storm of opposition in the country, still profoundly Catholic
+and attached to ecclesiastical traditions, and within eighteen months
+the Catholics founded private elementary schools with 455,000 scholars.
+In 1883 the Catholic private schools numbered 622,000 scholars, whilst
+the attendance at the communal schools had sunk to 324,000. Their
+doctrinaire treatment of the education question resulted in the
+political annihilation of the Belgian Liberals, and was responsible for
+the strongest and most persistent Roman Catholic reaction that has been
+witnessed in western Europe since the beginning of the 19th century.
+
+3. The law of 1884 was the work of the moderate Catholic party. It did
+not make religious instruction obligatory, but it gave liberty to the
+communes to provide for the giving of religious and moral instruction at
+the beginning or end of school hours, subject to a conscience clause.
+Power was given to the communes to "adopt" private confessional schools
+and maintain them. Provision was further made entitling any twenty
+parents of children of school age to demand a school of the normal
+communal type as against a proposal to adopt a confessional school.
+Power was also given to a like number of parents to compel the adoption
+of a confessional school in the case of the commune refusing to provide
+religious instruction of the type demanded by them, or putting obstacles
+in the way of its being given by the clergy or their representatives.
+
+4. The law of 1895 is the work of the more authoritarian Catholics, and
+makes religious instruction obligatory, placing it directly under the
+control of the clergy. It also increased the subsidies to private
+schools. This law was passed in face of opposition from the moderate
+section, who saw in it an exaltation of state authority which might be
+turned by opponents to the disadvantage of the religious interest. It is
+by no means clear that Belgium has yet attained a final solution of the
+religious difficulty; the life of the present law is probably to be
+measured by that of the Catholic political majority.
+
+
+_Holland._
+
+The outstanding feature of public education in Holland is the strength
+of the private primary schools. Under the law of 1857 secular teaching
+alone was provided in the primary schools at the public cost. The law of
+1878 allowed communes to make grants to private schools on condition of
+their becoming neutral in the matter of religion. The law of 1889
+allowed private denominational schools to receive government grants
+while retaining their denominational character, but forbade further
+grants to such schools by the communes.
+
+In 1905 there were 566,460 children in the public and 278,632 in the
+private schools.
+
+
+_Scotland._
+
+The diverse religious and social conditions of the three constituent
+parts of the United Kingdom must necessarily cause the education problem
+to assume a different shape and to receive different solutions in
+England, Scotland and Ireland respectively; latterly also the special
+conditions obtaining in Wales have received partial recognition at the
+hands both of the legislature and the executive. In Scotland the
+conditions have been less complex than in England. The practical
+unanimity of the people in religious faith, which has remained
+undisturbed by the institutional divisions of recent times, the wider
+diffusion of a sense of the value of education, the greater simplicity
+of life which has rendered all classes largely content to avail
+themselves of the preparatory education afforded by the common school
+and favoured the development in the secondary sphere of day rather than
+boarding schools, are among the causes which have contributed to the
+early building up of a national system which in some respects resembles
+the continental rather than the English type.
+
+
+  Historical development.
+
+The national appreciation of education is found marked already before
+the Reformation in a statute of James IV. (1494) requiring all
+freeholders of substance to send their heirs to school and to keep them
+there until they had perfect Latin. The Reformation, asserting itself by
+common consent under one ecclesiastical form, and free from the
+divisions of religious organization which tended to neutralize it as an
+educational force in England, put fresh life into the educational
+aspirations of the people. As early as 1560 the Church Assembly, largely
+under the influence of John Knox, put forth the _Book of Discipline_,
+providing that "every several kirk" in a town "of any reputation" was to
+have its Latin school, that the "upaland" or country parts were to have
+a teacher of the "first rudiments" in every parish, and that each
+"notable" town was to have "a college for logic, rhetoric and the
+tongues." Practical effect was later given to this scheme by an act of
+the Scottish parliament in 1696, under which parish schools were set up
+in connexion with the Established Church of Scotland. This system was
+extended by an act of 1803, which made better provision for teachers'
+salaries and also confirmed the position of the parish school as an
+adjunct of the parish church. The system of inspection and state aid
+introduced in England in 1839 was made applicable to Scotland, thus
+grafting upon Scotland the English system of voluntary state-aided
+schools. At the same period another new factor was imported into
+Scottish education by the ecclesiastical disruption of 1843. As a result
+of these changes in 1861 a new act was passed which relaxed, though it
+did not sever, the ties which bound the parish school to the church.
+
+
+  Scottish school boards and school attendance law.
+
+The Education (Scotland) Act of 1872 set up elective school boards for
+parishes and boroughs, and vested in them the existing parish and burgh
+schools. Long prior to the act it had been the practice of the Church of
+Scotland to allow exemption in the schools from religious instruction;
+consequently in imposing a compulsory conscience clause the act did
+little more than confirm existing usage. The school boards were left
+full liberty as to the religious instruction to be given in their
+schools, and in practice school boards universally adopt the Shorter
+Catechism, which is acceptable to all denominations of Presbyterians.
+The act made the school boards responsible for the supply of school
+accommodation, and introduced compulsory attendance, for which opinion
+in England was not at that time ripe. By the act of 1901, the age of
+compulsory attendance was raised to fourteen, with provision for
+exemption after twelve.
+
+
+  Administrative progress.
+
+The experience of the Scottish Education Department, like that of the
+English, has led to the gradual abandonment of individual examination as
+the basis for the payment of grants. The institution of the merit
+certificate is one of the features in which the Scottish system differs
+from the English. Prior to the code of 1903 the merit certificate,
+awarded on examination after the age of twelve, was properly described
+as the leaving certificate of the elementary school. Under the more
+recent codes merit certificates are awarded under a system designed to
+encourage the transference of promising pupils at an early age to
+supplementary courses or higher-grade departments. Under this system the
+fitness of the pupil to enter upon a course of higher studies is
+determined not solely by the results of a single examination, but by the
+whole character of his work during the preceding school course.
+
+
+  Higher-grade schools.
+
+A notable factor historically in Scottish education was the extent to
+which the parish schools supplied their best pupils with higher or
+further education. The administrative changes last mentioned have led to
+a remarkable development of organized higher-grade schools and
+departments. These departments have now been organized upon the lines of
+the higher primary schools of France, "to continue a stage further"
+(says the report of the Scottish Education Department) "the general
+education of that considerable body of pupils who, under new conditions,
+may be expected to remain at school till fifteen or sixteen." The
+function "of giving something of the nature of a specialized education
+to pupils who will leave school at a comparatively early age" is now
+discharged by the supplementary courses.
+
+
+  Free education.
+
+Elementary education has generally been rendered free by the fee grants
+under the parliamentary vote, and by the sums accruing under the Local
+Taxation (Customs and Excise) Act 1890 and the Education and Local
+Taxation (Scotland) Act 1892.
+
+Voluntary schools are not numerous, being chiefly those of the Roman
+Catholic Church. The average cost of maintenance per child in average
+attendance in public schools (according to the official report
+1907-1908) was £3, 11s. 1¼d., of which £2, 4s. 4½d. was met by
+government grants for elementary education. In voluntary schools the
+average cost of maintenance was £2, 15s. 1¾d., of which £2, 2s. 7d. was
+met by elementary grants, including a special aid grant of 3s. per head
+under the Education (Scotland) Act 1897.
+
+The total number of children (1907-1908) in average attendance in
+grant-earning schools was 712,076, and the percentage of attendances to
+numbers on the register was 87.66%. As regards teaching power, 81.52% of
+the male teachers and 56.71% of the female teachers in the elementary
+teachers had been trained in training colleges.
+
+
+  Education (Scotland) Act 1908.
+
+Certain miscellaneous additional powers are conferred upon school boards
+by the Education (Scotland) Act 1908, including powers to provide school
+meals; in outlying parts, to provide means of conveyance, or pay
+travelling expenses of teachers or pupils, or defray the cost of lodging
+pupils in convenient proximity to a school; to provide for medical
+inspection; and as to children neglected by reason of the ill-health or
+poverty of the parent, to supply food, clothing and personal attention.
+
+
+  Compulsory continuation classes.
+
+Perhaps the most noteworthy provision in the act of 1908 is that which
+enables (not obliges) school boards to make bye-laws requiring
+attendance at continuation classes up to the age of seventeen years.
+Apart from compulsory attendance, the act lays upon school boards the
+duty of making suitable provision of continuation classes with reference
+to the crafts and industries practised in the district.
+
+
+  Secondary education.
+
+The Scottish Education Act of 1872 distinguished certain burgh and
+parish schools as "higher class public" or secondary schools. The act of
+1908 deals in some detail with secondary education, modifying and
+strengthening the framework in various ways, but without introducing
+organic changes. "Secondary" schools are distinguished from
+"intermediate," the former being defined as providing at least a five
+years' course; the latter as providing at least a three years' course in
+languages, mathematics, science and such other subjects as may from time
+to time be deemed suitable for the instruction of pupils who have
+reached a certain standard of attainment in elementary subjects under
+the code. Intermediate and secondary schools may be provided and
+maintained either by school boards or otherwise, and provision is
+contained in the act for the transfer of endowed schools to the school
+board. Thus secondary (as well as elementary and continuative) education
+is organized upon the basis of the parish or burgh; it receives,
+however, grants in aid through the agency of county (or large urban)
+authorities (called district committees) constituted under schemes of
+the Scottish Education Department. For the purpose of such grants in aid
+the funds available under the various local taxation acts, together with
+parliamentary grants, other than a fee grant at the rate of 12s. per
+child in average attendance, form a fund called the Education (Scotland)
+Fund. After provision has been made for (_inter alia_) grants for
+universities, higher technical education and training colleges, the fund
+is allocated to the district committees according to a scheme laid
+before parliament and approved by the king in council. Out of the
+"district education fund" the school board receives (ordinarily) a sum
+equal to one-half of the amount by which the net cost to the school
+board (after deducting income from grants made by the department and
+from fees) exceeds the amount which would be produced by such rate per
+pound upon the district of the school board as the committee may
+determine, not being more than a rate of twopence in the pound.
+Important powers are also conferred upon the district committee for
+organizing and aiding within their district the provision by the school
+boards of medical examination and supervision of school children, the
+supply of bursaries for purposes of all forms of higher education, and
+the provision of instruction in special subjects, such as agriculture,
+&c.
+
+
+_Ireland._
+
+  Special difficulties of Irish education.
+
+The full development of a system of public education in Ireland has been
+hampered and retarded by the general difficulties inherent in the
+problem of Irish government. In consequence of the fundamentally
+different social, religious and political conditions in the two
+countries, the English and Irish systems have developed down to the
+present time upon divergent lines. In England, popular education was
+founded in the first instance upon individual initiative combining in
+organized voluntary effort, and, though the voluntary agencies have been
+first supplemented and latterly to a large extent supplanted by public
+action, the tendency has been in the direction of municipalization
+rather than in that of central state control. In Ireland, on the other
+hand, education has suffered in the past from the general absence of
+individual initiative and local interest almost as seriously as from the
+mistakes of the English government. These causes, more directly perhaps
+than the prevailing poverty of the country, made it necessary to throw
+the burden of supporting the schools to an increasing extent upon the
+state, while the want of local self-government precluded any devolution
+of powers and duties upon municipal authorities.
+
+
+  Historic retrospect.
+
+State intervention is actually of earlier date in Ireland than in
+England. From the reign of Elizabeth onwards, English Protestant schools
+were founded by the government in a sporadic and intermittent fashion in
+pursuance of its Anglicizing policy. To mention briefly one or two
+historical features, the great religious educational enterprise of
+Edmond Rice in founding the well-known Irish Catholic order of the
+Christian Brothers in 1802 forms an exception to the general lack of
+initiative among the people themselves. About the same period the
+Kildare Place Society (founded in 1811 while the first commission of
+inquiry into Irish education was sitting) attempted to grapple with the
+peculiar difficulties of the religious situation upon lines somewhat
+similar to those just laid down by Lancaster and his followers in
+England. This organization comprised both Roman Catholic and Protestant
+schools upon a common religious basis of Bible reading without note or
+comment, and received government grants which rose to £30,000 a year
+before they were discontinued in 1833. The religious compromise which
+the system embodied broke down in consequence of Catholic
+dissatisfaction, and that it was at first fairly successful may seem
+extraordinary in view of the later attitude of the Catholic Church
+towards the question of common schools and combined religious
+instruction.
+
+
+  The national system.
+
+In 1833, as the result of a second commission of inquiry (1824) and a
+select committee of the House of Commons (1828), Mr Stanley inaugurated
+the national system of elementary schools under a board of commissioners
+nominated from the different religious denominations. The government
+appears from the outset to have aimed at combined secular and separate
+religious instruction for Roman Catholics and Protestants. At the same
+time, an attempt was inconsistently made to provide an ethical basis for
+the secular instruction by means of Bible extracts. The story of the
+preparation of these extracts by an ingenious compound of the Protestant
+Authorized and Douai versions of Scripture is in its way one of the
+curiosities of religious history. The extracts were designed to meet the
+recognized Catholic objection to the indiscriminate reading of the Bible
+without note or comment. In practice they were chiefly used in the
+Protestant schools (in which their use is now practically extinct), and
+the growing Catholic objection to the policy of the National Board in
+this respect found authoritative, though somewhat cautiously worded,
+expression in a decree of the Roman Congregation De Propaganda Fide of
+January 11, 1846, declaring that non-sectarian religious instruction was
+dangerous to youth. "Tutius multo esse ut literarum tantummodo humanarum
+magisterium fiat in scholis promiscuis, quam ut fundamentales, ut aiunt,
+et communes religionis Christianae articuli restricte tradantur,
+reservata singulis sestis peculiari seorsum eruditione. Ita enim cum
+pueris agere periculosum valde videtur." The religious difficulty in
+Irish elementary education may be said to have been solved in process of
+time by the conversion of the national system in practice, though not in
+theory, into a system strongly denominational and therefore widely
+different from the design of its founders, combined Biblical instruction
+being discarded, and separate schools for the most part taking the place
+of common schools for the two creeds. In the latter respect the like
+tendency has been noted in the case of Germany.
+
+The following are the chief specific points upon which the Irish system
+of elementary education differs from the English.
+
+
+  Irish elementary education.
+
+_Finance._--The state still makes building grants to the extent of
+two-thirds of the cost. Such grants are only made to what are called
+vested schools, that is to say, schools of which the premises are vested
+in trustees or in the commissioners themselves. The state further pays
+in the case of all national schools the entire cost of maintenance
+except only the upkeep of the building, and the provision of books after
+the exhaustion of a first free grant.
+
+_Appointment and Payment of Teachers._--For the purpose of promotion the
+state through its inspectors undertakes the duty of classifying the
+individual teachers in four grades, passage from one grade to another
+being secured by examination. Appointments of teachers to schools are
+made by the school managers subject to the approval of the
+commissioners. Rights of dismissal are reserved to the local managers
+and also to the commissioners independently. Lastly, the teachers'
+salaries are now paid directly by the state. The old system of payment
+by results was abandoned in 1900, and the teacher is paid (a) a fixed
+salary according to grade, (b) a continued good service salary which may
+be increased triennially, (c) a capitation payment.
+
+_Convent Schools._--In addition to the national schools supported as
+above, there are a considerable number of convent or monastery schools
+which receive capitation grants after the English plan, but not direct
+salaries. There were 308 such schools in 1908, with an average
+attendance of 70,003. There were also 83 other convent or monastery
+schools paid by personal salaries, with an average attendance of 11,075.
+
+_School Attendance and Free Education._--The Irish Education Act 1892
+provided for compulsory attendance in towns and for the adoption of
+compulsion in other districts. In virtue of the financial sections of
+this act, which provided an increased grant for salaries, most national
+schools have become free.
+
+_General Elementary-School Statistics._--In 1908 the average number of
+scholars on the rolls of all the schools was 708,992, and the average
+daily attendance was 494,662, or 69.8% as compared with the number on
+the rolls. As regards religious denomination, 74.42% of the scholars on
+the rolls were Roman Catholics; 28.6% were in schools attended by both
+Roman Catholic and Protestant children and 71.4% in schools attended
+solely by Roman Catholics or solely by Protestants. The total
+expenditure on the schools and teaching staffs was £1,591,214, of which
+£1,451,139, equivalent to £2, 19s. 3d. per scholar, was contributed from
+state grants, and £140,074, equivalent to 5s. 9d. per scholar, from
+local (i.e. voluntary) sources, the rate per scholar from all sources
+being £3, 5s.
+
+_Training of Teachers._--Salaried monitors are employed in the Irish
+schools, but, unlike the English pupil teachers, are not explicitly
+recognized as forming part of the school staff. There are now seven
+training colleges, viz. one undenominational college maintained by the
+commissioners, five Roman Catholic colleges, and one college in
+connexion with the Protestant Episcopal Church of Ireland. Of the
+scholars in the undenominational college, 73 out of 312 were Roman
+Catholics. The total number of students in training was 1189, viz. 514
+men and 675 women. The percentage of trained teachers to the total
+number of teachers was 64.7. A special training college for the
+instruction of teachers in Irish has been recognized.
+
+
+  Secondary education.
+
+One of the chief desiderata in Irish education is a single central
+authority for all branches of education, elementary, secondary (or
+"intermediate") and technical. There are two central authorities
+dealing with secondary education, viz. the Intermediate Education Board
+and the Department for Agriculture and Technical Instruction. The
+Intermediate Board administers sums available under the Intermediate
+Education Act of 1878 from the Irish Church Surplus, and also the sum
+allocated under the Local Taxation Act 1890. The vice of the system in
+the opinion of educational experts lies in the statutory obligation to
+award grants on the result of an individual examination of the scholars.
+As a result of the vice-regal commission of 1898, power was taken to
+introduce a system of school inspection, though not to dispense with the
+individual examination as the basis for the award of the grants; this
+measure of reform was ultimately carried out in 1909. The sum
+distributed in result grants is about £50,000 per annum.
+
+Prior to the Agriculture and Technical Instruction (Ireland) Act 1899,
+science and art grants were administered by the Science and Art
+Department in England; by this act they were transferred to the new
+Irish Department for Agriculture and Technical Instruction. This
+department makes block grants to secondary schools in respect of science
+and art teaching, and manual instruction or domestic economy. Measures
+have been taken for the co-ordination of the duties of the Technical
+Department and the Intermediate Board, and the impetus given to the
+teaching of experimental science by grants for the erection of
+laboratories represents a reform of undoubted value for higher education
+in Ireland, especially when considered in connexion with the enlistment
+of the local interest of the technical education committees in the
+intermediate schools. Nevertheless, in the absence of a reform of the
+results system of intermediate grants, the special subsidizing of
+science teaching has tended to put an undue premium upon this subject to
+the detriment of the rest of the curriculum.
+
+Ireland possesses no such system of scholarships for assisting the
+passage of scholars from the elementary to the secondary school as
+England enjoys as a result of the municipalization of the educational
+system. Nevertheless, Irish children as a fact pass much more freely
+from the elementary to the secondary school than is the case in England
+where social prejudices are stronger. The schools of the Christian
+Brothers are usually organized in two departments, primary and
+intermediate, and thus supply for the Roman Catholic population the
+demand for the cheap type of secondary day school represented by the
+municipal schools in England. It must be added that the Irish
+intermediate schools are purely denominational. The widespread demand
+for secondary education among the people, to which the report of Messrs
+Dale and Stephens bears witness, is a gratifying feature of Irish life,
+while the recent establishment (1908) of the long-deferred national
+university, and the perceptible quickening of intellectual interests
+throughout the country in connexion with the Celtic revival, point to
+better conditions for higher education and to the development of a
+wider, deeper and truer, because more national, culture.
+
+
+_England._
+
+It was justly observed by Sir Joshua Fitch (_Ency. Brit._, 10th ed.,
+xxvii. p. 655) that "the public provision for the education of the
+people in England is not the product of any theory or plan formulated
+beforehand by statesmen or philosophers; it has come into existence
+through a long course of experiments, compromises, traditions,
+successes, failures and religious controversies. What has been done in
+this department of public policy is the resultant of many diverse forces
+and of slow evolution and growth rather than of pure purpose and
+well-defined national aims. It has been effected in different degrees by
+philanthropy, by private enterprise, by religious zeal, by ancient
+universities and endowed foundations, by municipal and local effort, and
+only to a small extent by legislation. The genius--or rather
+characteristic habit--of the English people is averse from the
+philosophical system, and is disposed to regard education, not as a
+science, but as a body of expedients to be discovered empirically and
+amended from time to time as occasion may require." Clearly, then, the
+English system of public education, as it results from successive acts
+of the administration and the legislature, is one which can only
+adequately be appreciated in the light of an historical survey of the
+various stages which have led up to it and the social conditions by
+which they were determined. The history of state education in England
+begins tardily in 1832, when after a generation of hesitation and
+controversy a beginning was made upon an exceedingly modest scale with
+the system of treasury grants in aid of elementary schools. The diverse
+forces which were at that date at work in the education of the nation as
+a whole, retarding state interference and marking out the limits within
+which it was long to be confined, derive their origin from a much
+remoter period.
+
+
+  Influence of the English Reformation.
+
+The apprenticeship laws of Henry VIII. contain the earliest germ of
+state interference. These laws obliged children between five and
+thirteen years of age who were found begging or idle to be bound
+apprentices to some handicraft. If the immediate object was the
+prevention of crime rather than education as such, this early
+legislation is at least significant of the primary and intimate
+connexion that exists between popular education and industrial and
+economic needs. Yet in the shaping of the educational system the
+original influences were religious rather than economic; hence the
+importance of the canons of 1604, which secured the control of education
+to the Established Church. This of course was no novel doctrine, but
+merely the reaffirmation by the Reformed Church of the Catholic
+tradition of religious exclusiveness, presenting itself to the mind of
+contemporaries rather as the recognition of a national, that was also a
+religious, duty than as the assumption of an ecclesiastical privilege.
+Whatever mischief the Tudor statesmen wrought by indiscriminate
+destruction of chantries and other foundations which combined
+educational work with observances that the new religion branded as
+superstitions, however far the English Reformation fell short of the
+organized enthusiasm for popular education and culture that marked the
+first most vigorous and constructive period of Lutheranism in Germany,
+the Protestant, and especially the Puritan, spirit unquestionably
+inspired a considerable volume of individual educational effort during
+the latter half of the 16th and the first half of the 17th centuries.
+Here, as in Germany, the influence of the Reformation was wholly on the
+side of classicism, the dead languages being the key to the theological
+learning which was of primary concern to the men of that theological
+age. The conception of elementary education as a system complete in
+itself and adapted to the needs of the masses of the people was
+unfamiliar at this date. The earliest elementary schools were _petits_
+schools, which (as the name implies) were really preparatory departments
+of the grammar-schools. Education in fact was still regarded as the
+privilege of an élite, but, as in the middle ages, the élite for whom it
+was sought to provide a ladder to the university by means of the endowed
+schools so numerously founded about this time was an élite of intellect
+and not of mere wealth; the class feeling which became so marked a
+feature of English higher education was of much later growth.
+
+
+  Rise of elementary education.
+
+Towards the end of the 17th century elementary education began to
+differentiate itself, partly by way of reaction against the unnatural
+classicism of the preceding age, but more especially as the result of
+the growth of towns and the creation of a considerable industrial
+population. At the close of the century the moral evils attendant upon
+industrialism alarmed the religious conscience and prompted one of the
+great educational movements that stand to the credit of the national
+church. In 1699 Dr Bray founded the Society for Promoting Christian
+Knowledge, and the movement thereby initiated may be traced in the
+numerous "charity" or "Blue Coat" schools scattered plentifully
+throughout the country and especially in the great centres of
+population. The foundation of these schools, which was pushed forward
+with vigour during the early years of the 18th century, represents an
+energetic and well-planned attempt to cope with the social evil of
+poverty by educational means. The instruction was elementary, the
+scholars were clothed as well as taught free, and the schools in the
+first instance were supported not so much by permanent endowment as by
+voluntary effort, so that with this movement the voluntary system may be
+said to make its appearance. Lastly, all these philanthropic efforts
+were inspired by a solid but sober piety nurtured by a church which came
+nearer than at any other period of its history to enjoying the undivided
+allegiance of the people. Another notable movement in connexion with the
+church was one confined to Wales, that of the Welsh "circulating
+schools" established by Griffith Jones about 1730, consisting of an
+organized staff of schoolmasters who went round teaching adults to read
+the Bible in Welsh. In the English rural parishes the comparative
+religious unanimity favoured the quiet development of elementary
+education in a small way upon less specifically religious lines.
+Numerous small endowments for the elementary education of poor children
+were provided by well-to-do parishioners; indeed to such an extent did
+the practice of making charitable (and largely educational) bequests
+increase that the legislature intervened in the interest of private
+inheritance by reviving the law of mortmain in an act of 1736. The
+village schoolmaster became a feature of rural life, frequently enjoying
+a schoolhouse provided sometimes by endowment and sometimes even
+directly by the parishioners at the cost of the rate levied by the
+vestry, but more often aided only by a little stipend from an endowment
+for teaching poor children, and eking out an always scanty subsistence
+by the fees of such paying scholars as he could succeed in getting
+together.
+
+
+  The Sunday-school movement.
+
+Towards the end of the 18th century the emergency of the industrial
+revolution evoked a fresh religious effort upon a more highly organized
+scale in the shape of the Sunday-school movement, which may be said to
+represent the educational contribution of the Evangelical revival Robert
+Raikes, the founder of the Sunday School Union, established his first
+Sunday school in 1782. The idea of the Sunday school did not originate
+with Raikes; among earlier pioneers in this field were John Wesley, who
+held Sunday classes at Savannah in 1737; Theophilus Lindsey at Catterick
+in the North Riding of Yorkshire, about 1769; Hannah Ball at High
+Wycombe in 1769; and Jenkin Morgan near Llanidloes in 1770. Sunday
+schools, too, had been founded in England by Joseph Alleine, the Puritan
+Father, in the 17th century, and in Catholic Italy and France by St
+Charles Borromeo and Jean Baptiste de la Salle in the 16th and 17th
+centuries respectively. Nevertheless, in virtue of his achievement in
+organization, Raikes is rightly regarded as the founder of the English
+Sunday school. The peculiar value of the Sunday-school system in its
+early days lay in the combination of secular with religious instruction;
+in many cases the school was held on Saturday as well as Sunday, and its
+restriction to the one day or two days was due to the prevalence of
+child labour under stress of the great industrial expansion. With better
+economic conditions and with the development of day schools the Sunday
+schools gradually became restricted in function to purely religious
+instruction. Even with this limitation there is no doubt that the great
+Sunday-school organizations of the various churches still deserve to be
+reckoned among the educational assets of the nation, and as agencies
+both of religious instruction and of general culture they may tend,
+under modern educational and religious developments, to play an
+increasingly important part.
+
+
+  Movements of Lancaster and Bell, and rise of the religious controversy.
+
+At the end of the 18th century the development of industry and the
+social unrest which followed the French Revolution combined to bring
+home to the public mind the need of a national system of day schools.
+Unfortunately, just at this moment the revival of Nonconformity as the
+result of the religious vitality of the Evangelical movement shattered
+the religious peace of the early Hanoverian period and divided the
+nation once more into hostile camps, to which class distinctions lent
+additional bitterness. The famous controversy between Andrew Bell and
+Joseph Lancaster and their respective followers in the opening years of
+the 19th century served to define the religious difficulty substantially
+in the form in which it exists after the lapse of a century for the
+present generation. Both these remarkable men conceived independently
+the idea of a national system of popular education upon a voluntary
+basis; both concurred in extolling the merits of the monitorial system,
+which each claimed to have originated. The controversy between them,
+begun upon personal grounds, resolved itself into a national contest of
+rival principles of religious teaching. Lancaster as a young Quaker
+schoolmaster, confronted with pupils drawn from various religious
+bodies, planned his religious instruction upon the lines of doctrine
+common to all the orthodox Christian denominations. Thus he is the
+father of the undenominational religious teaching which later formed the
+basis of the Cowper-Temple compromise. But whereas the Cowper-Temple
+clause is purely negative in form and so seems to point to an undogmatic
+religion, the Lancasterian teaching was essentially positive and
+dogmatic within its limits. In 1805 Mrs Trimmer opened the attack upon
+Lancaster's system with a work bearing the expressive title of _A
+Comparative View of the New Plan of Education promulgated by Mr Joseph
+Lancaster and of the System of Christian Instruction founded by our
+Forefathers for the initiation of the young members of the Established
+Church in the Principles of the Reformed Religion_. The church as a
+whole refused to co-operate in religious teaching upon the basis of a
+common Christianity, and joined issue with Lancaster and his Whig and
+Nonconformist following not merely upon the question of the exclusion of
+dogmatic formularies, but also upon the question of the control of
+whatever religious teaching should be given. In fact the vital question
+at this period was whether the clergy of the Established Church were to
+control the national education. The religious issue was prominent in
+connexion with the remarkable attempt at legislation made by the Whig
+statesman Mr Whitbread in his Parochial Schools Bill of 1807. As
+originally introduced, the bill proposed to make it compulsory on
+parochial vestries to levy rates for the support of schools for teaching
+reading, writing and arithmetic. The compulsory provisions were dropped
+in the House of Commons, but the bill was rejected by the Lords, mainly
+on the ground that it did not place education on a religious basis or
+sufficiently secure control to the minister of the parish.
+
+
+  Foundation of voluntary schools.
+
+The failure of the liberal proposals of Whitbread, and the strength of
+the Dissenting opposition to any settlement on purely church lines (such
+as that advocated by Bell in 1808 for establishing schools under the
+control of the parochial clergy), rendered recourse to voluntary effort
+inevitable. In 1808 the Royal Lancasterian Society was formed to carry
+on the work of Lancaster, the name being afterwards changed, owing to
+personal difficulties due to the wayward character of Lancaster, to the
+British and Foreign School Society. In the following year the National
+Society for Promoting the Education of the Poor in the Principles of the
+Established Church throughout England and Wales was formed, with Bell as
+its superintendent. In voluntary effort on a grand scale the church
+easily outdistanced her opponents, and in 1831 the National Society was
+able to show that there were in all over 13,000 schools in connexion
+with the church, of which 6470 were both day and Sunday schools, having
+a total attendance of 409,000.
+
+
+  Monitorial system.
+
+The rapid development of the voluntary school system was no doubt
+greatly facilitated by the monitorial plan of teaching, upon which Bell
+and Lancaster equally relied. Probably the first idea of utilizing the
+older pupils to teach the younger presented itself independently to
+Lancaster in the Borough Road and to Bell in Madras. The monitorial plan
+never rested upon any educational theory; it was simply a makeshift, a
+rough-and-ready expedient for overcoming the practical difficulty caused
+by the dearth of competent teachers. Historically it is important as the
+precursor of the pupil-teacher system which so long formed the exclusive
+basis of the English elementary system.
+
+
+  Activities of Brougham.
+
+Meantime a further political move was attempted by Brougham, who
+included educational reform among his multifarious activities. In 1816
+he procured the appointment of a general commission of inquiry into
+endowed charities. The labours of this great inquisition lasted for
+twenty years and led to the reformation of many cases of abuse or waste
+of wealthy endowments, and eventually to the establishment of the
+Charity Commission in 1853. In 1820 Brougham introduced a remarkable
+bill which proposed to make the magistrates in quarter sessions the
+rating authority, to require teachers to be members of the Church of
+England and to be appointed upon a certificate from the parochial
+clergyman, and on the other hand to prohibit religious formularies and
+to confine religious instruction to Bible reading without comment. The
+bill naturally failed through the opposition cf the Dissenters, and
+served only to accentuate the religious impasse.
+
+
+  Treasury grants.
+
+In 1832 the Whig government which passed the Reform Bill placed on the
+Estimates a sum of £20,000 for public education, thus initiating the
+system of the annual grant voted by parliament and dispensed under
+regulations framed by administrative act. The grant of 1832 was
+administered by the treasury and not by a special department, under
+certain conditions laid down by treasury minute of August 30, 1833. The
+chief of these were that grants were confined to the erection of school
+buildings, and were to be administered only through the National and the
+British and Foreign School societies; there was a provision for audit,
+but no condition of inspection.
+
+
+  Establishment of State-aided system.
+
+In 1839 Lord Melbourne's government by means of an order in council
+established a separate education office under the style of the Committee
+of Council on Education, and the sum voted by parliament was increased
+to £39,000. The original intention of the government was to establish a
+state normal school or training college as the foundation of a national
+system of education. Unfortunately this design had to be abandoned in
+view of the religious difficulty, with the result (so fruitful in
+controversy at the present time) that the training of elementary
+teachers was left in private hands and became a stronghold of the
+voluntary and denominational interests. In view of the limited resources
+placed at their disposal by parliament, the Committee of Council were at
+first compelled to confine their assistance to capital grants in aid of
+the provision of school buildings, but in the distribution of the money
+three important conditions were at once imposed. In the first place, the
+continuing right of inspection was required in all cases; secondly,
+promoters were obliged to conform to a fixed standard of structural
+efficiency; thirdly, the building must be settled upon trusts
+permanently securing it to the education of poor children.
+
+
+  Concordat with the church.
+
+By the minute of August 10, 1840, the Committee of Council concluded
+what came to be known as the concordat with the church. Under this
+minute no appointment was to be made of any person to inspect schools in
+connexion with the Church of England without the concurrence of the
+archbishop of the province, and, what seems still more extraordinary to
+modern ideas, any such appointment was to be revoked should the
+archbishop at any time withdraw his concurrence. The inspectors were
+charged with the duty of inspecting religious teaching, but under
+instructions to be framed by the archbishop, and their reports were to
+be transmitted in duplicate to the archbishop and the bishop for the
+information of these authorities. Further, the general instructions of
+the Committee of Council themselves were to be communicated to the
+archbishop before being finally sanctioned. The march of events, and in
+particular the altered financial relations between the state and the
+voluntary managers brought about by the institution of maintenance
+grants, soon rendered this concordat obsolete, but it remains
+historically important as showing how at the outset the denominational
+principle was recognized and fostered by the state.
+
+
+  Trust deeds.
+
+Among the first acts of the Committee of Council was the promulgation of
+a set of model trusts deeds, one or other of which applicants for
+building grants were required to adopt for the settlement of their
+school premises. The necessary conditions were the permanent
+appropriation of the site to purposes of education, and the permanent
+right of government inspection; it must, however, be noted that this
+latter right was generally limited in terms to the inspection provided
+for by the minute of August 10, 1840. A conscience clause was not
+obligatory, and indeed was only offered in the limited form of exemption
+from instruction in formularies and attendance at Sunday school or
+public worship. A more systematic attempt to promote public control by
+means of trust deeds in 1846 led the Committee of Council into a
+controversy with the National Society which extended over a period of
+three years, turning chiefly upon the management clauses and the
+question of appeals, and resulting in compromises which constituted a
+fresh concordat with the church. In point of fact, the management
+clauses proved to be of little practical consequence, save in a few
+controversial cases, until the act of 1902, which had the effect of
+bringing them once more into prominence in connexion with the
+constitution of statutory bodies of foundation managers. The act of 1902
+also dealt specifically with two other points arising upon the old trust
+deeds, viz. the control of religious instruction and the appeal to the
+bishop in religious questions. Special facilities for the conveyance of
+land for school purposes were afforded to limited owners by the School
+Sites Acts of 1841 and subsequent years. The landed gentry responded
+with great public spirit to the call thus made upon their generosity by
+the state, with the result that the vast majority of rural, and many
+urban, parishes were freely endowed with sites for elementary schools.
+
+
+  Grammar Schools Act 1840.
+
+The Grammar Schools Act of 1840, which was passed to deal with the case
+of the decayed "grammar" (i.e. classical) schools which abounded
+throughout the country, belongs to the history of elementary rather than
+secondary education. It expressly empowered the Court of Chancery, where
+the endowment was insufficient for a classical school, to substitute
+subjects of useful learning analogous to those contained in the original
+trusts. As a result of this act a considerable number of ancient
+endowments were reorganized so as to afford an improved elementary
+instead of an inefficient classical education, and the schemes made
+under the act constituted an early, but not very successful, experiment
+in the direction of higher elementary schools.
+
+
+  Training-college grants.
+
+In 1843 the Committee of Council decided to make grants in aid of the
+erection of normal schools or training colleges in connexion with the
+National Society and the British and Foreign School societies, thus
+marking the definite abandonment of the provision of training colleges
+to voluntary effort.
+
+
+  Pupil-teacher system.
+
+In 1846 an important step forwards was taken in the foundation of the
+pupil-teacher system. The regulations of this year inaugurated annual
+maintenance grants in the form of stipends for apprenticed pupil
+teachers receiving a prescribed course of instruction under the head
+teacher, and a lower grade of stipendiary monitors in schools where such
+instruction could not be provided. These regulations inaugurated the
+system of Queen's Scholarships to assist pupil teachers to proceed to a
+training college; they also established capitation grants for the
+support of such colleges, and annual grants to elementary schools under
+government inspection of from £15 to £30 in aid of the salary of every
+trained teacher employed. Provision was at the same time made for
+retiring pensions to elementary teachers.
+
+
+  Extension of state aid to Wesleyans, Roman Catholics and Jews.
+
+Down to 1847 state aid was confined to two religious categories of
+schools: those giving specifically Church of England teaching, and those
+in connexion with the British and Foreign School Society giving simple
+Bible teaching. To facilitate the recognition of other denominational
+schools the Committee of Council in 1847 issued a minute dispensing
+schools not connected with the Established Church from inquiries
+concerning their religious condition, and in the same year state aid was
+extended to Wesleyan and Roman Catholic schools. The settlement of model
+trust deeds gave occasion for each of these two great religious bodies
+to negotiate a kind of concordat with respect to school management, and
+the Roman Catholic deed was only settled after a controversy, similar to
+that which had arisen with the National Society, as to the rights of
+ecclesiastical authority. Jewish schools received recognition in 1851
+upon condition that the Scriptures of the Old Testament should be daily
+read in them.
+
+
+  Bills of 1842-57.
+
+During the middle years of the century various unsuccessful legislative
+attempts were made to establish a national system of elementary schools
+upon the basis of rate-aid. These attempts began with the education
+clauses of Sir Robert Peel's Factory Bill of 1842, and were renewed in a
+series of bills from 1853 to 1857, of which one set was introduced by
+Lord John Russell on behalf of the Whig government, whilst a second was
+promoted by an organization called the Manchester and Salford Committee
+on Education, in the denominational interest, and a third set by an
+organization called the Lancashire (afterwards the National) Public
+Schools Association, in the secular interest. The only one of these
+attempts which calls for notice here is the bill introduced by Lord John
+Russell (called the Borough Bill, on account of its being restricted to
+municipal boroughs) in 1853, and forming part of a comprehensive scheme
+of legislative and administrative reform of which a portion was actually
+carried into effect. The bill as a measure for elementary education was
+supplemented by an administrative system of capitation grants for rural
+areas. The government scheme also comprised a measure dealing with the
+administration of charitable trusts (which took shape as the Charitable
+Trusts Act 1853), the constitution of the Department of Science and Art,
+and university reform upon the lines recommended by the Oxford and
+Cambridge commissions. The Borough Bill left it optional with
+municipalities to adopt the act. It provided for the appointment of a
+school committee, one half of whose members might be non-members of the
+council. The school committee was merely given power to assist existing
+voluntary schools out of the rates. No provision was made for public
+control beyond the requirement of audit; the sole condition as to
+religious instruction was the acceptance of a conscience clause.
+
+
+  Capitation grants.
+
+The failure of the Borough Bill did not affect the new system of
+capitation grants which was introduced by minute of the Committee of
+Council dated April 2, 1853. These grants were fixed at a scale varying
+from 3s. to 6s. per head, payable upon certain conditions, of which the
+most important were that the school must be under a certificated
+teacher, and that three-fourths of the children must pass a prescribed
+examination. In consequence of the failure of the several fresh bills
+introduced in 1855 by the government, the church party and the secular
+party respectively amplifying the proposals previously brought forward,
+the capitation grant was, by minute of January 26, 1856, extended to
+urban areas. As in the case of all the early grants, the regulations
+governing the distribution of the capitation grants were framed upon the
+principle that subventions of public money must be met by local funds
+derived from voluntary contributions, endowments and school fees; thus
+the basis of the denominational system as fostered by the state at this
+stage was one of financial partnership.
+
+
+  Education minister, 1856.
+
+In 1856 a purely administrative bill was passed, establishing the office
+of vice-president of the Committee of Council on Education as a minister
+responsible to parliament. At the same time, the Science and Art
+Department was transferred from the Board of Trade to the Committee of
+Council.
+
+
+  Newcastle Commission.
+
+The progress of state-aided education during this period may be measured
+by the increase of the annual parliamentary grant, which rose from
+£30,000 in 1839 to £100,000 in 1846, £150,000 in 1851, £396,000 in 1855,
+and £663,400 in 1858. This expansion was viewed with misgiving by the
+friends of the denominational system, and by the strong individualist
+school of that day, who upon wider grounds clung to the old ideal of
+voluntary initiative. These sections combined with the advocates of
+further state intervention to press for a commission of inquiry, and at
+the instance of Sir John Pakington (the eminent Conservative
+educationist who was responsible for the denominational bills of the
+'fifties) a royal commission was appointed in 1858, under the
+chairmanship of the duke of Newcastle, to inquire into the state of
+popular education in England, and to consider and report what measures,
+if any, were required for the extension of sound and cheap elementary
+instruction to all classes of the people. The _Report_ of the Newcastle
+Commission, issued in 1861, contains an exhaustive account of the
+existing condition of elementary education, and, with due allowance for
+the grave defects revealed, and in particular the glaring inefficiency
+of the numerous little private-venture schools kept by "dames" and
+others, the graphic picture drawn by the commissioners constitutes a
+striking tribute to the sterling qualities of self-help and religious
+earnestness which were so characteristic of the early Victorian period.
+It was found that in round numbers about 2,500,000 children were
+attending day schools, the proportion to population being 1 in 7, as
+compared with 1 in 9 in France, 1 in 8 in Holland, and 1 in 6 in
+Prussia, where education was compulsory. On the other hand, of this
+number only 1,675,000 were in public schools of all kinds, only
+1,100,000 in schools liable to inspection, and 917,000 in schools
+receiving annual grant. The result was that only one child in every
+twenty was attending a school whose efficiency could be in any way
+guaranteed by the state. In the constructive portion of their work the
+comments and recommendations of the commissioners reflected the
+prevailing perplexity of the public mind. A consistent individualistic
+minority considered that the annual grant should be withdrawn
+altogether, and that any further state aid should be confined to
+building grants, which they would concede not as desirable in themselves
+but as necessitated out of considerations of fairness to the parishes
+that had not yet received such aid. The commissioners as a body rejected
+free and compulsory education in view of the religious difficulty and
+upon general grounds of individualistic principle. Of the religious
+difficulty itself the commissioners had some wise words to say which
+hold good in substance at the present time. In their judgment the
+considerable evidence they had amassed conclusively proved that the
+religious difficulty originated with the managers, promoters and
+organizers of the schools, and not with the parents themselves; yet the
+indifferent or comparatively passive attitude of the people nowise
+materially diminished the practical difficulty of introducing a
+comprehensive system, since it was not with the body of the people but
+with the founders and supporters of schools that legislators would
+always have to deal. In view of the solution adopted in 1902 it is of
+interest to note that the Newcastle Commissioners deliberately rejected
+the parish as unfit to be taken as the unit of elementary education upon
+the ground that management by parochial ratepayers must tend to be
+illiberal and niggardly, bent upon economy of the rates to the detriment
+of educational interests; accordingly they recommended the constitution
+of county boards (which in the absence of elective councils must needs
+originate with quarter sessions) clothed with power to levy a rate for
+the aid of existing voluntary schools.
+
+
+  Payment by results.
+
+The one definite achievement of the Newcastle Commission was the famous
+system of payment by results, which may be said to have excited a keener
+and more prolonged controversy than any other measure of a purely
+educational character. Impressed by the defects of the existing
+teaching, the commissioners reported that there was only one way of
+securing efficiency, and that was to institute a searching examination
+by competent authority of every child in every school to which grants
+were to be paid, with the view of ascertaining whether the indispensable
+elements of knowledge were thoroughly acquired, and to make the
+prospects and position of the teacher dependent to a considerable extent
+upon the results of this examination. Thus the commissioners hoped to
+counteract what appeared to them to be the crying defect of the existing
+training college system, viz. that it tended mainly to adapt the young
+schoolmaster to advance his higher, rather than to thoroughly ground his
+junior, pupils. They recognized that to raise the character of the
+children, both morally and intellectually, was and must always be the
+highest aim of education, and they were far from desiring to supersede
+this by any plan of a mere examination into the more mechanical work of
+elementary education, the reading, writing and arithmetic of young
+children; but they thought that the importance of this training, which
+must be the foundation of all other teaching, had been lost sight of,
+and that there was justice in the common complaint that while a fourth
+of the scholars were really taught, three-fourths after leaving school
+forgot everything they had learnt there.
+
+
+  Revised Code.
+
+Mr Lowe (Lord Sherbrooke) as vice-president of the Committee of Council
+(1859-1864) adopted the system of payment by results in what became
+famous in history as the Revised Code, issued in 1862 and so called
+because it was a revision of the minutes and regulations of the
+Committee of Council, which were first collected and issued in the form
+of a code in 1860. The Revised Code provided for the payment of a grant
+of 4s. upon the old principle and a further grant of not more than 8s.
+upon the result of examination. Mr Lowe declared of the system in the
+House of Commons that "if it was costly it should at least be efficient;
+and if it was inefficient it should at least be cheap." In fact, it
+proved to be cheap; the giant fell from £813,400 in 1861 to £636,800 in
+1865. The upholders of the existing system denounced the Revised Code as
+an undeserved slight upon the voluntary managers, and even as a breach
+of faith with the great religious denominations. On purely educational
+grounds, which need not be here re-capitulated, it was at once viewed
+with misgiving by many authorities, including Matthew Arnold. To meet
+objections, some modifications were introduced in the code under the
+Conservative government in 1867. The system of paying grant upon the
+result of individual examination of the scholars was not finally
+abolished till 1904.
+
+
+  Proceedings preliminary to the act of 1870.
+
+The years immediately preceding 1870 were occupied with discussion and
+preparation for the great legislative measure for which the time was now
+felt to have arrived. Good work was done in this direction by the Select
+Committee of the House of Commons in 1866, over which Sir John Pakington
+presided. For reasons connected with the political situation of the
+moment this committee never reported, but the minutes of evidence and
+the draft report prepared by Sir John Pakington contained much valuable
+material in the way of criticism of the existing system and suggestion
+for the coming settlement; in particular the draft report insisted upon
+the inevitableness of an education rate. In 1868 the Conservative
+government brought in, but did not proceed with, an education bill
+deliberately discarding the principle of rate-aid on the ground that it
+would destroy voluntary contributions and gradually starve out the
+denominational schools. In 1867 and again in 1868 Mr Bruce (afterwards
+Lord Aberdare), Mr W.E. Forster and Mr Algernon Egerton introduced a
+bill which formed the basis of the measure of 1870. As redrafted in 1868
+the bill of Mr Bruce and his coadjutors proposed a universal system of
+municipal and parochial rating with liberty for voluntary schools to
+unite themselves to the rate-aided system under their existing
+management, subject to the acceptance of a conscience clause. The bill
+also proposed to empower town councils to co-opt outsiders upon their
+education committees. Thus both in the principle of co-optation and in
+the extension of rate aid to schools not under public control the bill
+of these Liberal statesmen in 1868 anticipated certain controverted
+features of Mr Balfour's Education Act of 1902. In the meantime, in the
+country the Education League, originated at Birmingham, was carrying on
+a propaganda in favour of free secular schools, whilst the Education
+Union, formed to counteract the influence of the league, urged a
+settlement upon the old lines. As a concession to the popular feeling
+against secularism, the league proposed to allow Bible reading without
+doctrinal exposition. Thus opinion was sufficiently focussed to enable
+Mr Gladstone's administration in 1870 to undertake the comprehensive
+measure of educational reform for which the country had had to wait so
+long.
+
+
+  Act of 1870.
+
+The Elementary Education Act of 1870 bore in every respect the marks of
+compromise. As Mr Forster explained in introducing the bill, the object
+of the government was "to complete the voluntary system and to fill up
+gaps," not to supplant it. To this end the Education Department was
+charged with the duty of ascertaining whether or not there was in every
+parish a deficiency of public school accommodation, and provision made
+for the formation of school boards in every school district (i.e. parish
+or municipal borough) requiring further public school accommodation.
+Such accommodation might consist either of public elementary schools as
+defined by the act, or other schools giving efficient and suitable
+elementary education. The definition of public elementary school
+contained in section 7 of the act is still in force. Shortly, a public
+elementary school is a school subject to a conscience clause entitling
+scholars to complete exemption from all religious instruction and
+observance whatsoever. Any religious instruction or observance in the
+school must be either at the beginning or the end of the school meeting.
+The school must also be open at all times to the government inspectors
+and must be conducted in accordance with the conditions required to be
+fulfilled in order to obtain an annual parliamentary grant. In the same
+connexion an important change was made in the conditions of inspection
+by declaring that it should be no part of the duties of the inspector to
+inquire into religious instruction, whilst a later section of the act
+provided that no parliamentary grant should be made in respect of any
+religious instruction.
+
+Three important changes were made in the measure during its passage
+through parliament. As at first proposed, (1) the school boards were not
+to be directly elected by the ratepayers, but were to be appointed by
+the town council or the vestry. (2) These nominated boards were
+empowered either to provide schools themselves or to assist existing
+public elementary schools, provided that such assistance was granted on
+equal terms to all such schools, upon conditions to be approved by the
+Education Department. Thus the school board, if it exercised the option
+of assisting denominational schools, would have been obliged to assist
+all or none. (3) With regard to its own schools, the school board was to
+settle the form of religious instruction. These proposals raised serious
+opposition in the country, and when the committee stage of the bill was
+reached two fundamental changes were made in the policy of the bill. In
+the first place, as Mr Gladstone put it, the government had decided "to
+sever altogether the tie between the local board and the voluntary
+schools." In lieu of the suggested rate-aid they proposed an increased
+grant from the treasury, that is to say, the voluntary schools were left
+standing as state-aided schools under private management, side by side
+with the new rate-supported schools.
+
+
+  Cowper-Temple clause.
+
+Next, the character of the religious instruction in the board schools
+was determined upon an undenominational basis by a provision which has
+become known to history after the name of its author, then Mr
+Cowper-Temple, as the Cowper-Temple clause (section 14 of the act),
+directing that "no religious catechism or religious formulary which is
+distinctive of any particular denomination shall be taught in the
+school." The clause was not intended to exclude doctrinal exposition,
+and was in fact a compromise not merely between absolute secularism and
+denominationalism, but between denominationalism and the view of those
+who would have the Bible read without note or comment. The Apostles'
+Creed as a symbol common to all denominations of Christians was held by
+Mr Forster (at the suggestion of Mr Gladstone) not to be excluded under
+the Cowper-Temple clause. The result was the establishment in the
+schools, upon the lines laid down by Joseph Lancaster at the beginning
+of the 19th century, of what may be termed the common Protestantism of
+the English nation; and though Mr Disraeli urged that a religion without
+formularies was in fact a new religion, and that in leaving its
+exposition to the teachers we were creating a new sacerdotal class, the
+Cowper-Temple compromise, notwithstanding its inherent want of logic,
+stood the test of experience for more than a generation against the
+consistent denominationalists on the one hand and the party of secular
+education on the other. It is important to observe that the act of 1870
+left the giving of religious instruction, whether in voluntary schools
+(in which its inclusion might be assumed as of course) or in board
+schools, purely permissive. In practice it was only in Wales that school
+boards availed themselves to any extent of the liberty to abstain from
+giving religious instruction, and this comparative secularism of Wales
+certainly argued no lack of religious life among the people.
+
+The third change in the bill was the substitution of the _ad hoc_ school
+board for the municipally appointed board originally proposed, a change
+which commended itself in view of the special difficulty presented by
+the case of London. These boards were elected by the system of
+cumulative voting under which each elector had as many votes as there
+were candidates to be elected, with liberty to give all his votes to one
+candidate or to distribute them amongst the candidates as he thought
+fit. This system was much criticized as being unduly favourable to
+minorities, whose representation it was devised to secure; it continued,
+however, until the supersession of the _ad hoc_ authorities by
+committees of the county and urban councils under the act of 1902.
+
+School boards were empowered not only to acquire sites for schools under
+powers of compulsory purchase, but also to take transfers of existing
+voluntary schools from their managers. The section which enables
+managers to transfer schools to the school board or local education
+authority for the purpose of board or council schools freed from
+religious trusts unquestionably marks an important inroad by the state
+upon the sanctity of trusts. Thus though the act of 1870 did not itself
+introduce the principle of compulsory transfer, it formed the point of
+departure for the proposals in this direction which were the basis of
+the unsuccessful bills of 1906 and 1908. The act of 1870 did not
+introduce either direct compulsory attendance or free education, but it
+took a distinct step forward in each direction by enabling school boards
+to frame by-laws rendering attendance compulsory, and also to pay the
+school fees in the case of poverty of the parent.
+
+The policy of compromise between the two systems of voluntary and
+rate-established schools was carried out in the provisions relating to
+the future supply of schools. On the one hand, building grants were
+continued temporarily for the benefit of those who applied (as voluntary
+managers alone could apply) before the 31st of December 1870. On the
+other hand, the Education Department was authorized to refuse
+parliamentary grants to schools established in school board districts
+after the passing of the act if they thought such schools unnecessary.
+
+
+  Progress under the act of 1870.
+
+The following figures are of interest as showing the progress made under
+the act of 1870. In the year 1870 there was accommodation in inspected
+day schools for about 2,000,000 children; the average attendance was
+1,168,000, and the number on the books about 1,500,000. It was computed,
+however, that there were, exclusive of the well-to-do classes, at least
+1,500,000 children who attended no school at all or schools not under
+inspection. In 1876 accommodation had been provided for nearly
+3,500,000, and of the 1,500,000 new places nearly two-thirds were
+provided by voluntary agencies. "These voluntary agencies," says Sir H.
+Craik, "had received grants in aid for about one-third of the schools
+they had built, the grants defraying about one-fifth of the cost of the
+aided schools." On the other hand, the growth of school boards was rapid
+and continuous, notwithstanding the permissive character of the act and
+the strenuous efforts of the voluntaryists to keep pace with the new
+demands. In 1872, 9,700,000 of the population were under school boards,
+and of these 8,142,000 were under by-laws; in 1876 the numbers were
+respectively 12,500,000 and 10,400,000. In the same period the annual
+grants increased from £894,000 in 1870 to £1,600,000 in 1876.
+
+
+  Act of 1876.
+
+The development evidenced by the above figures, and in particular the
+fact that 52% of the population were subject to by-laws, enabled Mr
+Disraeli's government in 1876 to take a notable step forward in the
+direction of universal direct compulsion. The act of 1876 embodied the
+declaration that "it shall be the duty of the parent of every child to
+cause such child to receive efficient elementary instruction in
+reading, writing and arithmetic, and if such parent fail to perform
+such duty he shall be liable to such orders and penalties as are
+provided by the Act"; next, it rendered an employer liable to a penalty
+who took into his employment a child under the age of ten years, or a
+child between the ages of ten and fourteen years who had not obtained
+the required certificate of proficiency in reading, writing and
+arithmetic, or of previous attendance at a certified efficient school.
+In order to complete the machinery for compulsion, the act directed
+that, in every district where there was no school board, a school
+attendance committee should be appointed by the local authority. The law
+as to school attendance, resting upon this and subsequent enactments, is
+complicated and in some details obscure. The subject was dealt with in
+the report of an inter-departmental committee in 1909, who recommended
+the abolition of the partial exemptions permitted, and the raising of
+the age of exemption to 13.
+
+
+  Act of 1880.
+
+In 1880 Mr Mundella, as vice-president of the Council in Mr Gladstone's
+administration, passed a short act which made the framing of by-laws
+compulsory upon school boards and school attendance committees, thus
+completing the system of universal direct compulsion. Under the acts of
+1876 and 1880 the average attendance increased from 2,000,000 in 1876 to
+3,500,000 in 1878 and 4,000,000 in 1881; in terms of percentage to
+population, 8.06 in 1876, 9.60 in 1878, and 10.69 in 1881. In the
+last-mentioned year the annual grant rose to £2,200,000, having more
+than doubled in the decade.
+
+
+  Development of public opinion.
+
+With the passing of the Elementary Education Act 1880 the education
+question entered upon a new phase. The country was now possessed of a
+national system of elementary education, in the sense that provision was
+made for the supply of efficient schools and for compulsory attendance.
+The question of free education was brought within the range of practical
+politics by the adoption of universal compulsion, but as yet it was
+advocated only by a small political group of pronounced collectivist
+tendencies. Whilst opinion was maturing on this topic, there began to
+force itself upon the public mind the vastly more difficult problem of
+combining the two systems of voluntary, denominational, state-aided
+schools on the one hand, and public, undenominational, rate-supported
+schools on the other. From the denominational point of view the problem
+presented itself as that of a burden imposed and a danger threatened in
+ever-increasing degree by the competition of the board schools, a
+competition that was felt not so much by direct rivalry of school with
+school as indirectly by the steady raising of the standard of efficiency
+with respect to buildings, equipment, salaries of teachers and
+educational attainment which inevitably resulted from the establishment
+of authorities with power to draw upon the rates. On the other hand,
+from the purely educational point of view, it was seen that the dual
+system tended in practice to an illicit but almost inevitable
+recognition of two standards of efficiency, the lower being conceded to
+voluntary schools in consideration of their comparative poverty.
+Experience, too, of the shortcomings of small country school boards was
+beginning to confirm the misgivings entertained long before by the
+Newcastle Commissioners as to the wisdom of entrusting autonomous powers
+to the parish, when the reform of local government by the creation of
+popularly elected county authorities turned attention once more to the
+question of organizing education upon a county basis.
+
+
+  Cross Commission, 1887.
+
+In 1887 a royal commission under the presidency of Viscount Cross was
+appointed to inquire into the working of the education acts. The labours
+of this commission produced a thorough discussion of the educational
+problem in all its aspects, political, administrative, scholastic and
+religious. For any clear recommendations with regard to the
+reorganization of education generally the moment was not opportune,
+inasmuch as the commission just preceded the establishment of the new
+county authorities and the powers with respect to instruction other than
+elementary which parliament was shortly to confide to them under the
+Technical Instruction Acts. Nevertheless the report of the majority of
+the commissioners pointed unmistakably towards the solution adopted in
+the act of 1902, and their definite recommendation that voluntary
+schools should be accorded rate-aid without the imposition of the
+Cowper-Temple clause, served as the basis of that legislation. The
+commission brought into strong relief the opposing currents of thought
+in educational politics, the majority report, representing the
+principles of denominationalism, being balanced by a strong minority
+report embodying the views of those who looked for progress along the
+lines of the school-board system. Taken together, the two reports form a
+comprehensive survey of the difficulties which still in the main beset
+public education in this country.
+
+
+  Elementary Education Act 1891.
+
+Of the developments which followed the Cross report, it is convenient to
+mention in the first place, out of chronological sequence, the practical
+establishment of free education by the act of 1891, not by the absolute
+prohibition of school fees but by the device of a special grant payable
+by parliament in lieu of fees, called the fee grant. The result of this
+legislation and of subsequent administrative action was to place free
+education within the reach of every child, fees being retained (with few
+exceptions) only where some instruction of a higher elementary type was
+given.
+
+
+  Education other than elementary.
+
+The establishment of county councils by the Local Government Act 1888
+introduced a new factor which was destined to exert a determining
+influence upon subsequent developments of public education. In the first
+place, it at once rendered possible the partial and experimental
+provision for higher education attempted by the Technical Instruction
+Acts, which affected secondary education as well as technical education
+in the proper sense of the term. In order to understand the state of
+secondary education at this period, it is necessary to refer back to the
+first attempts made to deal with secondary education a generation
+earlier.
+
+
+  Public Schools Commission, 1861.
+
+In 1861, that is to say, nearly thirty years after the state began to
+concern itself with elementary education, the first step in the way of
+intervention in what is now called secondary or intermediate education
+was taken by the appointment of a royal commission, presided over by
+Lord Clarendon, to inquire into the condition of nine of the chief
+endowed schools in the country, viz. Eton, Winchester, Westminster,
+Charterhouse, St Paul's, Merchant Taylors, Harrow, Rugby and Shrewsbury.
+The report of this commission led to a statute, the Public Schools Act
+of 1864, which introduced certain reforms in the administration of seven
+of these schools, leaving the two great London day schools, St Paul's
+and Merchant Taylors, outside its operation. The results achieved were
+seen to be important enough to call for a further and much wider
+inquiry.
+
+
+  Schools Inquiry Commission, 1864-68.
+
+Accordingly in 1864 the Schools Inquiry Commission was appointed under
+the presidency of Lord Taunton to inquire into all the schools which had
+not been included either in the commission of 1861 or the Popular
+Education Commission of 1858. It included several men of eminent
+distinction, such as Dr Temple (afterwards archbishop of Canterbury), Mr
+W.E. Forster, Dean Hook, and Sir Stafford Northcote; and it was
+singularly fortunate in its staff of assistant commissioners, among whom
+were numbered Mr James Bryce, Mr Matthew Arnold, and Mr (afterwards Sir
+Joshua) Fitch. It thoroughly explored the field of secondary education,
+discussing all the problems, administrative and pedagogic, which the
+subject presents, and "its luminous and exhaustive report" (to quote the
+words of Mr Bryce's Commission of 1894) remains the best introduction to
+the problem of public secondary education in England. The existence of
+numerous and frequently very wealthy endowments arising from private
+benefactions and bequests has at all times been a feature in education
+as in other departments of English social life. In the organization of
+secondary education in particular, private endowments have played and
+continue still to play a part which cannot be paralleled in any other
+country. This circumstance has undoubtedly resulted in a great economy
+of resources, though in numerous instances the difficulties occasioned
+by the haphazard distribution of endowments and the local jealousies
+invariably aroused by any attempt to readjust their areas to modern
+conditions have obstructed useful reform and proved a source of
+misdirected and wasted effort. At the date of the Schools Inquiry
+Commission the state of the ancient endowments was largely one of abuse.
+Very many endowments intended for advanced education were applied for
+instruction of a purely elementary character, and that of an inferior
+kind; indeed the possession of an endowment in a rural locality not
+infrequently operated to prevent the establishment of an efficient
+state-aided school. The evidence showed that the proportion of scholars
+in the country grammar-schools who were receiving some tincture of the
+classical education intended by the founders was steadily decreasing,
+and nothing had been done to bring the curriculum into harmony with the
+actual needs of the time. No doubt a small élite of classical scholars
+were sent to the older universities by these schools, but in the main
+they were in a feeble and decadent state, giving, more or less
+inefficiently, an education wholly unsuited to the wants of the class to
+whom they ministered. In addition to the general inelasticity of the
+curriculum, the special evils from which the grammar-schools suffered
+were the want of effective governing bodies and the freehold tenure of
+the headmasterships.
+
+
+  Endowed Schools Acts 1869-74.
+
+The commission was singularly successful in bringing about the reform of
+these abuses, its report being immediately followed in 1869 by the
+Endowed Schools Act, which was based upon its recommendations and
+conferred upon a special commission (united in 1874 with the Charity
+Commission) very wide and drastic powers of reorganizing ancient
+endowments. A direction for extending the benefits of endowments to
+girls did much to assist the movement for the secondary education of
+girls. The Endowed Schools Acts 1869-1874 introduced modifications of
+importance and general interest into the law of trusts. Under the
+existing rules of the court of chancery, which rules were also binding
+upon the Charity Commissioners, educational endowments were generally
+treated, in the absence of evidence to the contrary, as subject to a
+trust for instruction in the doctrines of the Church of England. Under
+the Endowed Schools Acts the presumption is reversed, and ancient trusts
+are treated as free from denominational restrictions, save in virtue of
+express conditions imposed by or under the authority of the founder. The
+result was that in framing schemes for the reorganization of ancient
+endowed schools the commissioners found themselves able to treat the
+majority of cases as undenominational. In such cases the general
+practice was to direct that instruction should, subject to a strict
+conscience clause, be given in the principles of the Christian faith;
+this provision corresponded in a way to the Cowper-Temple clause in
+elementary education, with the important distinction that it was
+positive, not negative, and did not exclude special doctrinal
+instruction.
+
+
+  Schools Inquiry Commission's proposals for reform of secondary
+  education.
+
+Besides the recommendations for the reform of endowed schools, to which
+substantial effect was given directly or indirectly by means of the
+Endowed Schools Acts, the Schools Inquiry Commission also submitted
+proposals for the general administrative organization of a system of
+secondary education. They recommended the establishment of three
+authorities--(1) a central authority; (2) a local or provincial
+authority, representing the county or a group of counties, with a
+certain jurisdiction both in proposing schemes for the reform of endowed
+schools in their area (such as that afterwards conferred upon the joint
+education committees under the Welsh Intermediate Education Act), and in
+administering these schools; and (3) a central council of education
+charged with examination duties. Further, it was proposed to raise the
+level of proprietary and private schools by offering them inspection and
+examination and by establishing a system of school registration. Lastly,
+in order that the supply of public secondary schools might not be
+dependent upon endowments, it was proposed to confer upon towns and
+parishes powers of rating for the establishment of new schools. For
+these proposals as a whole the time was not ripe. The bill of 1869 as
+originally introduced in the House of Commons attempted to give effect,
+with some variations, to one of these suggestions, namely, that for the
+creation of a central council, but exigencies of parliamentary time made
+it necessary to drop this part of the measure; the result was that the
+plan of the commissioners was only half carried out. Nevertheless, owing
+to the multiplicity and wealth of endowments, the work accomplished was
+sufficient to exert a considerable influence upon the secondary
+education of the country. Thus in 1895 Mr Bryce's Commission was able to
+report that schemes under the Endowed Schools Acts had been made for 902
+endowments in England, excluding Wales and Monmouth, leaving only 546
+endowments out of the total of 1448 endowments in England known to be
+subject to the Endowed Schools Acts, which had not felt the reforming
+hand of the commissioners. The total income of the endowments known to
+be Subject to the Endowed Schools Acts, and therefore available for
+purposes of secondary education, according to the estimate of the
+Secondary Education Commission (still in 1909 the latest available
+source of complete information), was in 1895 about £735,000 gross.
+
+
+  Technical Instruction Acts 1889, &c.
+
+Twenty years after the Schools Inquiry Commission the creation by the
+Local Government Act in 1888 of the representative and popular county
+authorities of which the need had been felt by reformers alike in
+secondary and elementary education, rendered the first step in the
+direction of the municipalization of secondary instruction at last
+possible. In 1889 the Technical Instruction Act (extended in some
+particulars by an act of 1891) empowered the councils of counties,
+boroughs and urban districts to levy a rate (not exceeding a penny in
+the pound) for the support or aid of technical or manual instruction.
+Comparatively few councils were prepared to resort to their rating
+powers, but progress under these acts was greatly facilitated by the
+Local Taxation (Customs and Excise) Act of 1890, which mentioned
+technical instruction as one of the purposes to which the imperial
+contribution paid to local authorities in respect of the beer and spirit
+duties might be applied. By virtue of the very liberal interpretation
+given to technical instruction by these acts the financial assistance
+afforded under them was extended to cover the whole field of
+mathematical and physical science, as well as modern languages.
+
+
+  Grants of science and art department.
+
+The Department of Science and Art acted as an agency in the development
+of secondary education upon the same lines as the Technical Instruction
+Acts, administering a parliamentary grant which was gradually extended
+with a view to encouraging literary studies as well as the scientific
+and mathematical subjects to the promotion of which it was primarily
+directed. Thus the combined effect of the local resources available
+under the Technical Instruction Act and the imperial grant administered
+by the department was gradually to develop a national system of
+secondary education with a marked bias on the side of physical science.
+
+
+  Influence of new university colleges.
+
+An undoubted stimulus was given to secondary education in the great
+centres of industry during the last quarter of the 19th century by the
+rise of the new university colleges, among which must be reckoned those
+established expressly for women. In the main the influence of these new
+institutions made for a non-classical and scientific type of curriculum
+in the popular secondary schools.
+
+
+  Influence of school boards.
+
+At the same time, the pressure of the school boards influenced secondary
+education in two ways. In the first place, the elementary schools were
+found to act as feeders for schools of a higher type, and the idea of
+the "educational ladder" began to play a leading part in plans for the
+organization of national education. It was seen that there must be
+schools to which the more advanced scholars could pass from the public
+elementary schools, and scholarships to assist such scholars to continue
+their education in this way. In the next place, it was recognized that
+to provide adequately for the further education of public elementary
+scholars a new type of school was required. Thus there came into being
+through the initiative of the great school boards what were known as
+higher-grade elementary schools. These were really secondary schools of
+the third grade, and, as the Commission on Secondary Education observed,
+the school boards simply stepped in to fill the educational void which
+the Schools Inquiry Commissioners had proposed to fill by schools of
+that name. The happy obscurity of the legal definition of elementary
+education left these schools free to develop during the long years of
+the neglect of secondary education by the state, and when in 1901 the
+famous judgment in the test case of _Rex_ v. _Cockerton_ pronounced them
+to be illegal, it was at once recognized that the legislature must
+without delay step in to secure the educational work which the
+undoubtedly correct principles of judicial interpretation had placed in
+jeopardy.
+
+
+  Secondary Education Commission, 1894.
+
+Such were the agencies at work in the domain of secondary education when
+in 1894 a royal commission was appointed under the presidency of Mr
+Bryce to inquire into this branch of education. The terms of reference
+excluded elementary education, and the report may be taken as embodying
+the views of that school of educational statesmen who held that progress
+would best be attained by keeping elementary and secondary education
+entirely separate for purposes of local administration, the parish being
+regarded as the natural unit for elementary and the county for secondary
+education, a topic to which it will be necessary to revert in connexion
+with the act of 1902. The principal recommendations of the commission
+were: (1) the unification of the existing central authorities, viz. the
+Department of Science and Art, the Charity Commission (so far as it
+dealt with educational endowments), and the Education Department, in one
+central office, and the establishment of an educational council to
+advise the minister of education in certain professional matters; (2)
+the establishment of local authorities, to consist of committees of the
+county councils with co-opted elements; (3) the formation of a register
+of teachers with a view to the encouragement of professional training,
+and a system of school registration upon the basis of inspection and
+examination. The first of these recommendations was carried out by the
+Board of Education Act 1899, as mentioned below, and under the same act
+an attempt was made to give some effect to the third-named object,
+which, though it unfortunately fell short of success, may serve as a
+point of departure for further efforts. The realization of the second,
+and the most important, of the recommendations was deferred till 1902,
+when it was brought about as a part of a wider reorganization of the
+educational system.
+
+
+  Agitation on behalf of voluntary schools.
+
+The religious difficulty in elementary education during the period
+immediately succeeding the report of Mr Bryce's Commission in 1895 once
+more reached an acute stage, and this circumstance was immediately
+unfavourable to a resolute handling of educational problems as such,
+public attention being largely concentrated upon the demand of the
+supporters of voluntary schools for relief from the growing financial
+burden which was laid upon them by that steady raising of the standard
+to which reference has been made above. In 1896 an endeavour was made to
+meet the demands of the voluntary managers by means of a bill introduced
+by Sir John Gorst on behalf of the Conservative government. This bill
+with its provision for a special aid grant to be administered by county
+education authorities, which were to exist side by side with the school
+boards, represented a kind of compromise between the systems of 1870 and
+1902. It encountered opposition in all quarters and was withdrawn. In
+1897, however, the position of the denominational schools was
+strengthened by the Voluntary Schools Act, which provided for a special
+aid grant of five shillings per head of the scholars in average
+attendance in these schools.
+
+
+  Board of Education Act 1899.
+
+In view of the difficulties which beset any comprehensive treatment of
+the education question, partial effect was given to the recommendations
+of the Secondary Education Commission by the Board of Education Act of
+1899, which abolished the office of vice-president of the council,
+united the Department of Science and Art with the Education Department
+in one central office under the title of the Board of Education, with a
+president and parliamentary secretary; and provided for the transfer to
+this board of the powers of the Charity Commissioners in relation to
+educational endowments; also for the association with the board of a
+consultative committee, consisting as to not less than two-thirds of
+persons qualified to represent the views of university and other bodies
+interested in education, for the purpose (1) of framing a register of
+qualified teachers, and (2) of advising the Board of Education upon any
+matters referred to the committee by the board. The administrative
+reorganization of the Education Office was completed shortly after the
+passing of the act of 1902, when a tripartite division was adopted to
+correspond with the three branches of education with which the Board of
+Education is concerned, viz. elementary, secondary and technological.
+
+
+  Act of 1902, general principles.
+
+No law of recent years has excited an acuter or more prolonged
+controversy than the Education Act of 1902, and amid the dust of
+religious and political strife it is not easy for contemporaries to view
+it objectively and in its true proportions. Nevertheless, considered
+historically, the act becomes intelligible as the product of the forces,
+partly religious and partly educational, which have been already
+described. The immediate impulse for this measure must be sought in the
+agitation that during the preceding decade had been gathering force
+among the adherents of the Established and Roman Catholic churches for
+equality of financial treatment as between voluntary and board schools.
+It must be placed to the credit of the constructive statesmanship of the
+Conservative party that it availed itself of an ecclesiastical agitation
+to take an important step forward in the organization of national
+education. The difficulty inherent in such a measure was the admitted
+difficulty of securing public control, as a necessary concomitant of
+public maintenance, without jeopardizing or destroying the special
+religious character of the voluntary schools. The act of 1902 sought to
+solve this problem, so difficult of solution under democratic
+conditions, upon the principle of a division of financial responsibility
+justifying a corresponding division of control between the voluntary
+managers and the local authority. The constitution of the local
+authority to be charged not only with the delicate duty of participating
+in the dual control of the voluntary public elementary schools, but also
+with the responsible task of co-ordinating public higher with public
+elementary education, presented features of controversy only less
+formidable than the purely religious question itself. Boldly reversing
+the settlement of 1870, the act of 1902 abolished the parochial school
+boards, and with them the system of _ad hoc_ election, and made the
+county councils, already seised of technical and secondary education
+under the Technical Instruction Acts, the local authorities for all
+forms of education, thus reverting to the solution propounded by
+Conservative statesmanship in the middle period of the 19th century and
+endorsed by an important memorandum contributed by Lord Sandford
+(formerly permanent secretary of the Education Department) to the report
+of the Cross Commission. The unquestionable niggardliness and
+inefficiency of many small country school boards, which had been
+foretold by the prescience of the Newcastle Commissioners, constituted
+the chief educational argument for the selection of the wider area so
+far as the interests of elementary education alone were concerned. On
+the other hand, experience has shown that in the rural districts against
+the undoubted gain in general efficiency there must be set a certain
+loss on account of the decay of local and personal interest consequent
+upon the centralization of authority in the hands of the county
+councils. Account, too, must be taken of the comparative heaviness with
+which a uniform county rate is apt to press upon sparsely populated
+agricultural parishes, especially in counties which include considerable
+industrial districts. Notwithstanding these minor drawbacks, it may be
+said that upon the whole the best opinion has endorsed the policy of
+1902 with respect to the area of administration. At any rate it has been
+necessary to recognize the impracticability of disestablishing the
+strongly organized provincial authorities which the act brought into
+being, and proposals for amendment in this particular have been
+confined to schemes, favoured in principle by all parties, for securing
+some measure of decentralization and delegation of powers calculated to
+restore and stimulate local interest without derogating from the
+financial and administrative responsibility of the county council.
+
+The principal provisions of the act of 1902 may be summarized as
+follows:--
+
+
+    Act of 1902, summary of provisions.
+
+  Part I. Local Education Authority. The council of every county and of
+  every county borough is the local education authority for the purposes
+  of the act, i.e. for both higher and elementary education, but for the
+  purpose of elementary education autonomous powers are conferred upon
+  boroughs with a population of over 10,000, and urban districts with a
+  population of over 20,000 (§ 1).
+
+  Part II. Higher Education. "The L.E.A. (local education authority)
+  shall consider the educational needs of their area and take such steps
+  as seem to them desirable, after consultation with the Board of
+  Education, to supply or aid the supply of education other than
+  elementary, and to promote the general co-ordination of all forms of
+  education." For this purpose the application of the money received by
+  the local authority under the Local Taxation (Customs and Excise) Act
+  1890, heretofore optional, is made compulsory, and power is given to
+  levy a rate which in the case of a county is not to exceed two pence
+  in the pound, or such higher rate as the county council with the
+  consent of the Local Government Board may fix (§ 2). Concurrent powers
+  are given to the councils of non-county boroughs and urban districts,
+  with the limit of a penny rate (§ 3). A council must not require any
+  particular form of religious instruction or observance, but the usual
+  conscience clause in schools, colleges, or hostels provided by the
+  council is modified by a provision for facilities for any particular
+  religious instruction to be given at the request of parents of
+  scholars at such times and under such conditions as the council think
+  desirable, otherwise than at the cost of the council (§ 4).
+
+  Part III. Elementary Education. (1) Powers and duties. School boards
+  and school attendance committees are abolished and their powers and
+  duties are transferred to the L.E.A., who are also to be responsible
+  for and have the control of all secular instruction in public
+  elementary schools not provided by them (§ 5).
+
+  (2) Management of schools. (a) For public elementary schools provided
+  by the L.E.A. (now officially styled "council schools"): (1) in
+  counties, there is to be a body of six managers, viz. four appointed
+  by the county council and two by the borough or urban district
+  council, or parish council or parish meeting as the case may be,
+  called in the act the minor local authority; (2) in non-county areas,
+  the L.E.A. (being the borough or urban district council) may, if they
+  think fit, appoint a body of managers consisting of such number as
+  they may determine (§ 6 [1]).
+
+  (b) For schools not provided by the L.E.A. (voluntary schools) the act
+  directs that there shall be a body of six managers, of whom four are
+  to be "foundation managers," and two are to be appointed as follows:
+  in counties, one by the L.E.A. and one by the minor local authority,
+  and in autonomous boroughs or urban districts both by the borough or
+  urban district council (§ 6 [2]). Directions for the appointment of
+  foundation managers are given by § 11, which in effect declares that,
+  unless the trust deed of the school provides for the appointment of
+  the required number, the foundation managers must be appointed under
+  an order of the Board of Education, in making which the board are to
+  have regard to the ownership of the school building and to the
+  principles on which the education given in the school had been
+  conducted in the past. It was found necessary for the board to make
+  over 11,000 of these orders, a heavy task which was rendered the more
+  formidable by the controversial character of the questions arising
+  upon trust deeds as to the mode of appointment and the qualifications
+  of managers.
+
+  (3) Maintenance of schools (§ 7). (a) Powers. The L.E.A. are required
+  to maintain and keep efficient all public elementary schools which
+  were necessary (i.e. which, as defined by § 9, have an average
+  attendance of not less than thirty), under certain specified
+  conditions, of which the most material are as follows. The managers
+  must carry out the directions of the L.E.A. as to the secular
+  instruction to be given in the school, including any directions with
+  respect to the number and educational qualifications of the teachers,
+  and for the dismissal of any teacher on educational grounds (§ 7 [1]
+  [a]). The consent of the L.E.A. is required to the appointment of
+  teachers, but that consent may not be withheld except on educational
+  grounds; and the consent of the authority is also required to the
+  dismissal of a teacher unless the dismissal is on grounds connected
+  with the giving of religious instruction (§7 [1] [c]).
+
+  (b) Liabilities. The managers are required to provide the school
+  premises to the L.E.A. for use as a public elementary school free of
+  charge, except that a rent is payable for the teacher's residence
+  where one exists; and the managers are further required out of funds
+  provided by them to keep the school premises in good repair and to
+  make such alterations and improvements in the buildings as might
+  reasonably be required by the L.E.A. On the other hand, the L.E.A. are
+  required to make good such damage as they consider to be due to fair
+  wear and tear of rooms used by them (§ 7 [1] [d]). Thus, by virtue of
+  the teacher's house rent and the wear-and-tear allowance the voluntary
+  managers secured a valuable set-off against the cost of ordinary
+  repairs.
+
+  Any question arising under this section (§ 7) between the L.E.A. and
+  the managers of a voluntary school is to be determined by the Board of
+  Education (§ 7 [3]).
+
+  It is further provided with respect to teachers in voluntary schools
+  that assistant teachers and pupil teachers may be appointed "if it is
+  thought fit" without reference to religious creed and denomination,
+  and in any case in which there are more candidates for the post of
+  pupil teacher than there are places to be filled, the appointment is
+  to be made by the L.E.A. (§ 7. [5]).
+
+  A provision, § 7 (6), known from the name of its author (d. 1908),
+  Colonel Kenyon Slaney, M.P., as the Kenyon-Slaney clause, attracted
+  considerable attention and formed the subject of much ecclesiastical
+  controversy during the passage of the bill through parliament. The
+  Kenyon-Slaney clause requires the religious instruction in voluntary
+  schools to be in accordance with the provisions (if any) of the trust
+  deed, but also to be under the control of the managers as a whole,
+  whereas the common form of trust deed of the National Society reserves
+  the control of religious instruction to the clergyman, whilst the
+  clause was equally in conflict with the well-known sacerdotal
+  principles of the Roman Catholic Church. Thus the clause represented a
+  revival, as did the questions with respect to foundation managers, of
+  the early controversy over the management clauses of the Committee of
+  Council on Education. Its special interest lies, not so much in its
+  intrinsic importance, as in the precedent it affords, specially
+  notable as emanating from a Conservative source, for the overruling of
+  trust deeds upon grounds of public policy. By way of saving another
+  familiar provision of the trust deeds, a proviso to the Kenyon-Slaney
+  clause reserves the existing trust-deed rights of appeal to the bishop
+  or other denominational authority as to the character of the religious
+  instruction.
+
+  _Provision of New Schools._--New schools may be provided either by the
+  L.E.A. or any other persons, subject to the issue of three months'
+  public notice, and to a right of appeal on the part of the managers of
+  any existing school, the L.E.A. (in the case of proposed voluntary
+  schools) or any ten ratepayers of the district, to the Board of
+  Education on the ground that the proposed school is not required, or
+  that a school provided by the L.E.A., or not so provided, as the case
+  might be, is better suited to meet the wants of the district than the
+  proposed school. Any enlargement of a public elementary school which
+  in the opinion of the Board of Education is such as to amount to the
+  provision of a new school is to be so treated for the purposes of the
+  section, and any transfer of a school to or from the L.E.A. must be
+  treated as the provision of a new school. In deciding appeals as to
+  new schools and in determining a case of dispute whether a school was
+  necessary or not, the board are directed to have regard to the
+  interest of secular instruction, the wishes of parents as to the
+  education of children, and the economy of the rates, but existing
+  schools are not to be considered unnecessary if the average attendance
+  is not less than thirty (§§ 8-9). The last-mentioned canons have
+  played a prominent part in subsequent discussions. Experience of these
+  sections has shown that though it is extremely difficult to set up new
+  voluntary schools in face of opposition from the L.E.A., such
+  opposition is rarely offered or pressed where any really strong local
+  demand is shown to exist.
+
+  _Aid Grant._--Section 10 provides a new aid grant payable to the
+  L.E.A. in respect of the number of scholars in average attendance in
+  schools maintained by them. This new grant, calculated by an elaborate
+  method which need not here be set out, took the place of the grants
+  under the Voluntary Schools Act 1897, and § 97 of the act of 1870 as
+  amended by the Elementary Education Act 1897.
+
+  _Education Committees._--The constitution of education committees is
+  dealt with by § 17. All councils having powers under the act, except
+  those having concurrent powers as to higher education only, must
+  establish education committees in accordance with schemes made by the
+  councils and approved by the Board of Education (§ 17 [1]). A scheme
+  may provide for more than one education committee under a single
+  council, but before approving such a scheme the board must satisfy
+  themselves that due regard is paid to the importance of the general
+  co-ordination of all forms of education (§ 17 [6]). All matters
+  relating to the exercise by a council of their powers under the act,
+  except the power of raising a rate or borrowing money, stand referred
+  to the education committee; the council may also delegate to the
+  education committee any of their powers other than financial powers as
+  above (§ 17 [2]). Every scheme must provide (a) for the appointment of
+  a majority of the committee by the council, the persons so appointed
+  to be persons who are members of the council unless in the case of a
+  county the council otherwise determine; (b) for the appointment by the
+  council, on the nomination or recommendation, where it appears
+  desirable, of other bodies (including associations of voluntary
+  schools) of persons of experience in education, and of persons
+  acquainted with the needs of the various kinds of schools in the area
+  of the council; (c) for the inclusion of women. Provision was also
+  made (d) for the representation in the first instance of members of
+  existing school boards (§ 17 [3]).
+
+  _Expenses._--All parliamentary grants are made payable to the L.E.A.
+  instead of as previously to the managers (§ 18 [2]). The county
+  council must charge a proportion of all capital expenditure and
+  liabilities, including rent, on account of the provision or
+  improvement of any public elementary school on the parish or parishes
+  which in the opinion of the council are served by the school, such
+  proportion to be not less than one-half or more than three-fourths as
+  the council think fit (§ 18 [1] [c] [d]). The county council may also
+  if they think fit charge on the parishes benefited any expenses
+  incurred with respect to education other than elementary (§ 18 [1]
+  [a]).
+
+  _Endowments._--The act introduced a new principle into the
+  administration of endowments by directing that their income so far as
+  necessarily applicable in any case for those purposes of a public
+  elementary school for which the local authority are liable must be
+  paid to that authority for the relief of the parochial rate (§ 13). As
+  the result of technicalities of legal interpretation the section has
+  been found to have in practice a narrower scope than had been
+  generally anticipated.
+
+  The act of 1902 was extended to London by a separate act in 1903,
+  containing certain special provisions of only minor importance.
+
+
+  "Passive resistance" to 1902 act. Default Act 1904.
+
+The hostility of Nonconformists to the extension of rate-aid to
+denominational schools led to the organization upon a considerable scale
+of what became known as the "Passive Resistance" movement, a number of
+Nonconformist rate-payers refusing to pay the education rate on the
+ground that their consciences forbade their supporting the religious
+teaching in denominational schools; and their willingness to become
+subject to distraint and consequent inconveniences rather than pay the
+rates became the foundation of a widespread political campaign. In
+Wales, where in the rural districts the schools were commonly Anglican
+whilst the population was Nonconformist, particular difficulties arose
+in administering the act in consequence of the hostile attitude of the
+county authorities. Friction likewise manifested itself in one or two
+English areas, which reflected militant Nonconformist views. Accordingly
+the government passed the Local Education (Local Authority Default) Act
+1904, empowering the Board of Education, in the case of default by the
+local authority, to make payments direct to the managers of the school
+and to deduct the amount from the sums payable to the defaulting
+authority on account of parliamentary grants.
+
+
+  Bill of 1906.
+
+When the liberal party came into power again in 1906, Mr Birrell as
+president of the Board of Education in Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman's
+administration introduced a bill to amend the Education Acts 1902-1903,
+with the object of securing full public control of all rate-aided
+schools and the appointment of teachers without reference to religious
+belief. The bill was of a highly complex character; its principal
+features were,--compulsory transfer of existing voluntary schools to the
+local authority, facilities for the giving of denominational instruction
+in transferred schools out of school hours by persons other than the
+regular teachers, and the recognition in populous districts, upon the
+demand of parents, of special publicly maintained schools in which
+denominational teaching could be included in the curriculum; the latter
+schools might (according to the bill as finally amended) in the last
+resort, i.e. if the local authority refused to maintain them, be
+recognized as state-aided schools. The bill encountered strong
+opposition from Anglicans and Catholics (though the Catholic Irish
+members finally voted for it as amended); it passed the House of Commons
+by a large majority, but after unavailing attempts at compromise upon
+the amendments introduced in the House of Lords, the two Houses failed
+to agree and the measure was lost.
+
+
+  Bills of 1908.
+
+Mr Birrell was soon transferred to another office, and nothing more was
+done to amend the act of 1902 till early in the session of 1908, his
+successor Mr McKenna introduced a bill based on what was known as
+"contracting out." In single-school parishes the existing schools were
+to be compulsorily transferred, subject to the grant of denominational
+facilities out of school hours; elsewhere a sufficiency of places in
+schools with Cowper-Temple teaching, which the bill proposed to make
+compulsory in all provided schools, must be supplied by the local
+authority, while existing voluntary schools might become state-aided
+schools upon terms of receiving a grant of 47s. per head. The bill was
+accompanied by a financial scheme for a new system of allocating the
+parliamentary grant. In view of the improbability of its passing into
+law the bill was not pressed beyond the stage of second reading.
+Meanwhile, when Mr Asquith reorganized the cabinet, Mr Runciman
+succeeded Mr McKenna at the education office, and in the autumn he
+introduced a fresh measure framed as the result of negotiations between
+the government and the archbishop of Canterbury (Dr Randall Davidson)
+and designed to be passed rapidly through parliament by consent of all
+parties. Mr Runciman's bill, like his predecessor's, was based upon the
+principle of compulsory transfer in single-school parishes and
+contracting out elsewhere, but it gave a right of entry for
+denominational teaching on two days a week during school hours in all
+council schools whether transferred voluntary schools or otherwise, with
+liberty to employ for this purpose assistant teachers, but not (save
+temporarily at first in transferred schools) head teachers. Provision
+was also made for the payment of a small rent which would be applicable
+for or towards the cost of the denominational instruction.
+Unfortunately, the compromise failed at the last moment for want of
+agreement as to the financial terms of "contracting out," the government
+offering 50s. per head and the Church demanding 7s. more. It is obvious
+that "contracting out" is open to serious objection upon educational and
+economic grounds, and that if resorted to upon any very considerable
+scale it would involve a disruption of the public elementary system, and
+a duplication of schools which would constitute a wasteful drain upon
+the national exchequer. Upon such a system, therefore, some check is
+necessary, and, once decided that the check should take the form of
+financial pressure, rather than request of parents as in Mr Birrell's
+bill, or some form of administrative control, the question of pecuniary
+terms became one of principle and not merely of financial detail.
+Moreover, the difficulty of adjusting differences was intensified by the
+opposition of the extremists on either side, which daily gathered force,
+and the bill was withdrawn by the government when in committee of the
+House of Commons. The conciliatory efforts of Mr Runciman and Dr Randall
+Davidson revealed the existence of a considerable body of influential
+opinion among all schools of thought in favour of a national compromise,
+and the proposals embodied in the bill marked on the part both of
+Churchmen and Nonconformists important concessions to each other's
+views, engendering reasonable hopes of an ultimate settlement being
+reached at no distant date.
+
+
+  Feeding of school children.
+
+Two subsidiary points as regards educational machinery have to be noted.
+The Education (Provision of Meals) Act 1906 enabled local education
+authorities to aid voluntary agencies in the provision of meals for
+children attending public elementary schools, and in certain cases with
+the consent of the Board of Education to defray the cost of the food
+themselves. In 1907-1908 forty, and in 1908-1909 seventy-five
+authorities in England and Wales were authorized by the board to expend
+moneys from the rates on food under this act. In addition, a number of
+authorities expended funds on equipment and service.
+
+
+  Medical inspection.
+
+In 1907 an uncontroversial act entitled the Education (Administrative
+Provisions) Act, besides dealing with various matters of technical and
+administrative detail, laid upon local education authorities the new
+duty of providing for the medical inspection of all children attending
+public elementary schools. In connexion with this act the Board of
+Education established a medical department to advise and assist them in
+supervising local education authorities in carrying out their statutory
+duties in this regard. The whole departure is significant of the new
+sense of the importance of physical culture and hygiene which has been
+one of the remarkable features in recent educational developments.
+
+
+  General progress in elementary education.
+
+Sir Joshua Fitch, in his article on education in the 10th edition of
+this work, describes how experience had led the Education Department to
+abandon the system of payment by results, to establish "in place of
+testing the proficiency of individual scholars, ... one summary estimate
+of the work of the school; in place of an annual examination, occasional
+inspection without notice; in place of a variable grant dependent on a
+report in detail on the several subjects of instruction and on
+particular educational merits and defects, one block grant payable to
+all schools alike." He at the same time expressed some misgiving as to
+the effect of "so large a relaxation of the conditions by which it had
+hitherto been sought to secure accuracy and thoroughness in teaching."
+The act of 1902, by placing secular education in public elementary
+schools under the control of strongly organized local education
+authorities may be said to have largely removed such dangers as were to
+be apprehended from the relaxation in question. Thus it was possible for
+the Board of Education in the code of 1904 to abolish the last traces of
+the system of payment by results, by setting forth (in the language of
+their report for 1903-1904) "a properly co-ordinated curriculum suitable
+to the needs of the children, with an indication of the relation which
+the various subjects of instruction should bear to each other, in place
+of the relatively haphazard list of possible branches of knowledge which
+were formerly presented to the choice of individual schools or
+authorities." In the new code also the board for the first time
+endeavoured to state for the guidance of teachers and parents the proper
+aim of the public elementary school, laying stress upon that element of
+the training of character which the system of payment by results had so
+unfortunately obscured. The new spirit was strikingly manifested in the
+volume of _Suggestions for the Considerations of Teachers_, issued by
+the Board of Education in 1905. This volume represented a notable
+attempt to connect administration with educational theory, without in
+any way seeking to crush individual initiative, or to impose a
+bureaucratic uniformity of method upon those engaged in the actual work
+of the schools. Apprehension of the true aim of elementary education as
+essentially and primarily a preparation for practical life has led to a
+corresponding development of instruction of a practical character,
+observation lessons and nature study being treated as a necessary
+element in the curriculum, while handicraft and gardening, and domestic
+subjects (for girls), are encouraged by special grants. Particular
+attention has been bestowed both by the central and local authorities
+upon the problem of rural instruction, and much has been done in many
+areas to bring the schools into closer relations with the needs of
+agricultural and rural life generally. In this way the old and perhaps
+not altogether ill-founded distrust of popular education as tending to
+unfit the working classes for industrial pursuits is being broken down
+and a public opinion more favourable to educational progress in the
+widest sense is being created.
+
+According to the official returns for 1907-1908, the total number of
+scholars on the registers (England only) was as follows:--council
+schools, 2,991,741; voluntary schools, 2,566,030; total, 5,557,771, and
+the total attendance upon which grant was paid was 4,928,659. The
+percentage of actual average attendance to average number on the
+registers was 88.50%. The parliamentary grant (England and Wales) for
+elementary schools, other than higher elementary, amounted to
+£11,023,433.
+
+
+  Higher elementary schools.
+
+The development of higher elementary education in England is now
+proceeding very much upon the lines that have been noted in France. The
+old higher-grade board-schools (declared illegal under the Elementary
+Education Acts by the judgment in the case of _Rex_ v. _Cockerton_ in
+1901, and legalized temporarily by an act passed for the purpose in the
+same year) were mostly converted into municipal secondary schools under
+the act of 1902. In the succeeding years provision was made in the code
+for higher elementary schools of a specialized and technical type
+intended only for industrial districts. In 1906, as the result of the
+recommendations of the Consultative Committee, a new type of higher
+elementary school was admitted for children over twelve, corresponding
+generally to the French _école primaire supérieure_, described as having
+"for its object the development of the education given in the ordinary
+public elementary school, and the provision of special instruction
+bearing on the future occupations of the scholars, whether boys or
+girls." It may be possible to supplement this system in the rural areas
+to some extent by "higher tops" to the ordinary elementary schools in
+cases where it is not practicable to establish a fully organised higher
+elementary school; but for such "higher tops" no central grant is
+available. The total number of scholars upon the registers of higher
+elementary schools (England) in 1907-1908 was: New Type, 3178 (against
+2715 in the previous year); Old Type, 4492 (against 5866 in the previous
+year).
+
+
+  Expenditure on elementary education.
+
+The total expenditure (exclusive of capital outlay) of the local
+authorities (1906-1907) in England only upon elementary education,
+including "industrial" and "special" schools, was £19,776,733, of which
+(a) £10,408,242 was met by the ordinary parliamentary grant, and (b)
+£8,930,468 was the balance required to be met by rates, the difference
+being represented by receipts from various sources. The average cost per
+child of elementary schools in England and Wales (excluding London) may
+be taken at £3 (including London £3, 4s. 10d.), and the average central
+grant (excluding grants for special purposes) at 41s., leaving 19s. to
+be raised locally.
+
+
+  Preliminary training of elementary teachers.
+
+The training of teachers for the two great branches of public education,
+elementary and secondary respectively, is an important part of the
+general administrative problem. Since the middle of the 19th century
+there has been a great development of public opinion with regard to
+their professional qualifications. Sir Joshua Fitch (_Ency. Brit._ 10th
+ed.) pointed out that the full appreciation of the importance of
+training began at the lower end of the social scale. Shuttleworth and
+Tufnell in 1846 urged the necessity of special training for the primary
+teacher, and hoped to establish State Training Colleges to supply this
+want; but the one college at Battersea which was founded as an
+experiment was soon transferred to the National Society (the "National
+Society for educating the poor in the principles of the Established
+Church": founded in 1811). Before this, Bell and Lancaster had made
+arrangements in their model schools for the reception of a few young
+people to learn the system by practice. In Glasgow, David Stow, who
+founded in 1826 the Normal Seminary which afterwards became the Free
+Church College, was one of the first to insist on the need of systematic
+professional preparation. The religious bodies in England, notably the
+Established Church, availed themselves promptly of the failure of the
+central government, and a number of diocesan colleges for men, and
+separately for women, were gradually established. In 1854 the British
+and Foreign School Society (founded 1808) placed their institutes at the
+Borough Road and Stockwell on a collegiate footing, and subsequently
+founded other colleges at Swansea, Bangor, Darlington and Saffron
+Walden; the Roman Catholic Church provided two for women and one for
+men; and the Wesleyans two, one for each sex. The new provincial
+colleges of university rank were invited by the Education Department to
+attach normal classes to their ordinary course and to make provision for
+special training and suitable practice in schools for those students who
+desired to become teachers. Thus the government came to recognize two
+kinds of training schools--the residential colleges of the old type and
+the day colleges attached to institutions of university rank; both were
+subsidized by grants from the Treasury, and regularly inspected. As the
+need of special training for teachers became further recognized by the
+consideration of the same question as regards teachers in higher and
+intermediate schools (Cambridge instituting in 1879 examinations for a
+teacher's diploma, and other universities providing courses for
+secondary as well as primary teachers, and establishing professorships
+of education), the attitude of the government, i.e. the Board of
+Education, towards the problem gradually became more and more a subject
+of controversy and of public interest, as indicated by the clause in the
+Act of 1899 providing for a public registration of qualified teachers
+and for the gradual elimination from the profession of those who were
+unqualified. And meanwhile the increased solidarity of the National
+Union of Teachers (founded in 1870), the trade union, so to speak, of
+the teachers, brought an important body of professional opinion to bear
+on the discussion of their own interests.
+
+The question of the preliminary education of elementary teachers had
+after some years of discussion reached a critical stage in 1909. The
+history of pupil teachership as a method of concurrent instruction and
+employment shows that it was in its inception something in the nature of
+a makeshift; the ideal placed before local education authorities in the
+recent regulations and reports of the Board of Education is the
+alternative system whereby with the aid of national bursaries
+(instituted in 1907) "the general education of future teachers may be
+continued in secondary schools until the age of seventeen or eighteen,
+and all attempts to obtain a practical experience of elementary school
+work may be deferred until the training college is entered, or at least
+until an examination making a natural break in that general education
+and qualifying for an admission to a training college has been passed."
+Under the revised pupil-teacher system established by the regulations of
+1903 provision is made for the instruction of pupil teachers in centres
+which as far as possible are attached to secondary schools receiving
+grants from the Board of Education under the regulations for secondary
+schools, about two-thirds of the secondary schools on the grant list
+undertaking this work. Accordingly, the result of recent changes is to
+modify the old system in two ways: first by providing the alternative of
+a full course of secondary education, secondly by associating pupil
+teachership itself as far as possible with part-time attendance at a
+secondary school. The total number of pupil teachers recognized during
+the year 1907-1908 was 20,571, and of these 9770 were in centres forming
+integral parts of secondary schools. The number of bursars who passed
+the leaving examination was 1486.
+
+
+  Training colleges.
+
+One of the principal difficulties which confronted the state and the
+local authorities in their task of organizing an improved system of
+public education under the act of 1902 lay in the deficiency of training
+colleges in view of the increased number of teachers. Local authorities
+naturally hesitated to burden themselves with the cost of providing such
+institutions in view of the fact that there is nothing to prevent
+teachers trained at great expense by one authority taking service under
+a less public-spirited authority who had contributed nothing to such
+training; hence a widespread feeling that the provision of training
+colleges should be undertaken by the state as a matter of national
+concern. Under these circumstances a new system of building grants in
+aid of the establishment of training colleges was instituted in 1905. In
+1906 these grants were raised from 25 to 75% of the capital expenditure,
+but were limited to colleges provided by local authorities. A further
+difficulty in view of the municipalization of education arose from the
+fact that the majority of the residential colleges were in the hands of
+denominational trusts which did not admit a conscience clause. Under the
+presidency of Mr McKenna in 1907, the Board of Education, in regulations
+which excited much controversy, "with a view to throwing open as far as
+possible the advantages of a course of training in colleges supported
+mainly by public funds to all students who are qualified to profit by it
+irrespective of religious creed or social status," laid down that the
+application of a candidate might in no circumstances be rejected on any
+religious ground, nor on the ground of social antecedents or the like.
+The same regulations provided that no new training colleges would be
+recognized except on terms of compliance with certain conditions as to
+freedom from denominational restrictions or requirements. The obligation
+as to religious exemptions has since been limited to 50% of the
+admissions. There were in attendance (_Statistics_, England, 1907-1908)
+in the various colleges, 6561 women and 2835 men, of whom 1619 women and
+335 men were in colleges provided by local education authorities. The
+grants made by the Board of Education for training colleges were as
+follows: maintenance grants £383,851; building grants £45,000. These
+figures include Wales.
+
+
+  Continuative education.
+
+The fear has been widely entertained that a considerable part of the
+national expenditure upon elementary education is wasted for want of an
+effective system of continuative instruction to be given out of working
+hours to adolescents engaged in industrial employment. The whole subject
+was exhaustively treated by the report in 1909 of the Consultative
+Committee of the Board of Education. This report seeks to base an
+efficient continuative system upon the improvement of elementary
+education by reducing the size of the classes in the elementary schools
+upon the lines now laid down by the new staffing regulations of 1909; by
+increasing the amount of instruction in hand-work with a view to
+rendering the curriculum less bookish and more efficient as a training
+for industrial and agricultural life; and by legislation to reform the
+system of half-time attendance and raise the age of compulsory
+attendance to thirteen and ultimately fourteen. Upon the foundation of
+an improved and prolonged elementary education there would be reared a
+superstructure of continuative schools or classes, attendance at which
+up to seventeen would be compulsory under bye-laws adoptive locally at
+the option of the local education authorities. In 1906-1907 about 21 per
+thousand of the population of England and Wales attended evening schools
+and classes inspected by the Board of Education, and grant amounting to
+£361,596 was paid in respect of 440,718 regular attendants.
+
+
+  Secondary education.
+
+The most marked progress has undoubtedly been in secondary education,
+and in no direction has the act of 1902 proved more fruitful. At the end
+of the 19th century secondary instruction in England was still provided
+chiefly by endowed grammar-schools, by proprietary schools established
+by religious bodies or joint-stock companies, and by private enterprise.
+No public provision was made for secondary education as such; what
+financial assistance was forthcoming from municipal sources was given
+indirectly under cover of the grants under the Technical Instruction
+Acts, while in the administration of central grants for the first years
+of the working of the Board of Education Act 1899, no absolute
+differentiation between secondary and technological functions was
+recognized. The establishment of local authorities with direct duties in
+respect of secondary education, and the reorganization of the central
+office with reference to the three branches of education, elementary,
+secondary and technological, rendered possible for the first time an
+adequate treatment of the problem of public secondary education as a
+whole. "The regulations for secondary schools," says the prefatory
+memorandum to the regulations of the Board of Education, "grew up round
+the old provisions of the Directory of the Science and Art Department.
+Detached science classes were gradually built up into schools of
+science. Schools of science were subsequently widened into schools of
+what was known as the 'Division A' type, providing a course of
+instruction in science in connexion with, and as part of, a course of
+general education. Aid was afterwards extended to schools of the
+'Division B' type in which science did not form the preponderating
+element of the instruction given. In 1904 the board recast the
+regulations so as to bring all schools aided by grants within the
+general definition of a school offering a general education up to and
+beyond the age of sixteen through a complete graded course of
+instruction, the object of which should be to develop all the faculties,
+and to form the habit of exercising them."
+
+Two main tendencies distinguish the recent development: on the one hand
+the tendency to municipalization, or at least to the establishment of
+public control; on the other hand the tendency (marked especially by the
+regulations of 1907) to greater elasticity in regard to curricula, and
+so to the freer encouragement of local initiative and local effort.
+
+In 1907 the government of Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman placed greatly
+increased funds at the disposal of the Board of Education for the
+purpose of secondary education. The regulations under which the
+increased grant was administered imposed conditions in respect of
+freedom from denominational restrictions or requirements, representative
+local control, and accessibility to all classes of the people, which,
+like the analogous rules with regard to training colleges, roused
+considerable controversy. With regard to religious instruction, the
+requirement was made that no catechism or formulary distinctive of any
+particular religious denomination might be taught in the school except
+upon the request in writing of the parent or guardian and at the cost of
+funds other than grants of public money. Power was at the same time
+reserved to the board to waive the new conditions in the event of the
+local education authority passing a resolution that the school was in
+their view required as part of the secondary school provision for their
+area, and that the conditions, or one or more of them, might be waived
+with advantage in view of the educational needs of the area. It will be
+noticed that one effect of the regulations (as of the training college
+regulations) was to recognize as a kind of established religion those
+elements of Christianity which are shared in common by the various
+Protestant churches, according to the system of Lancaster and the
+Cowper-Temple compromise. Normally schools are required to provide 25%
+of free places for scholars from public elementary schools, and, with a
+view to encouraging the transference of children from the public
+elementary school at an early age, a grant of £2 was made payable on
+account of ex-public elementary scholars between ten and twelve years of
+age. The full scale of grants is £2 for ex-public elementary scholars
+between ten and twelve, and £5 for scholars between twelve and eighteen.
+To schools previously recognized and failing to comply with the new
+conditions, grant may be paid on the lower scale of £2 and £2, 10s.
+respectively.
+
+Secondary school grants are assessed upon average attendance, and
+efficiency is guaranteed by inspection and not by individual
+examination. All recognized schools must provide at least the
+substantial equivalent of the four-years' course formerly required, and
+recognition is withheld or withdrawn if an adequate number of the
+scholars do not remain at least four years in the school, or do not
+remain up to sixteen; in rural areas, however, and small towns, a school
+life of three years and a leaving age of fifteen may be accepted. "The
+board are now in a position, through their inspectorate, to keep a watch
+and exercise a guidance which were previously impossible over the
+planning and working of school curricula. Detailed reports following
+upon full inspections, and the more constant if less obvious influence
+exercised through informal visits, conferences, reports and suggestions,
+may now be relied upon to guard against the risks of one-sided
+education, of ill-balanced schemes of instruction, and of premature or
+excessive specialization" (Report of Board of Education, 1906-1907, page
+68). The curriculum must provide instruction duly graded and duly
+continuous, in the English language and literature, in geography and
+history, in mathematics, science and drawing, and in at least one
+language other than English. Where two languages other than English are
+taken, Latin must ordinarily be one. Provision must be made for
+organized games, physical exercises and manual instruction, and in
+girls' schools science and mathematics other than arithmetic may be
+replaced by an approved scheme of practical housewifery for girls over
+fifteen. The total number of secondary schools recognized for grant
+(_Statistics_, 1907-1908) was 736, of which only 220 were directly
+provided by local authorities. The number of pupils in attendance was
+68,104 boys and 56,359 girls, total 124,463. The government grants for
+1907-1908 amounted to £320,873 besides grants from local authorities.
+
+
+_Wales._
+
+Notwithstanding the important differences which exist between the social
+and especially the religious conditions of England and Wales
+respectively, Wales continued to be treated as one with England for
+purposes of educational administration down to quite recent years.
+Towards the end of the 19th century the striking revival of Welsh
+nationality, in itself largely an educational and a literary movement,
+led to a spontaneous demand among the Welsh people for the organization
+of a national system of higher education. In accordance with the
+recommendations of a special royal commission the Welsh Intermediate
+Education Act passed in 1889 provided for the creation in every county
+in Wales (including Monmouthshire) of joint education committees
+consisting of three nominees of the county council and two nominees of
+the lord president of the council. To these committees were entrusted
+the duties of framing (under the Charity Commissioners) schemes for the
+establishment of intermediate and technical schools and for the
+application of endowments, and for administering a ½d. county rate,
+which was supplemented by a treasury grant not exceeding the amount
+raised by the rate. Certain supervisory functions were entrusted to a
+Central Education Board, to which are committed the duties of inspection
+and examination. The joint education committees have now (except for the
+purpose of framing schemes for endowments) been superseded by the local
+education authorities under the act of 1902. The public assistance
+afforded to secondary education in Wales under the Intermediate Act is
+supplemented by the grants of the Board of Education, and the Board's
+revised Secondary School Regulations were applied to Wales in 1908.
+There were (1907-1908) 92 county secondary schools in Wales administered
+under schemes made under the Welsh Intermediate Act, attended by 6235
+boys and 6727 girls, total 12,962; and 12 other secondary schools, of
+which 8 were provided by local authorities. The total attendance at all
+secondary schools was 13,615, viz. 6819 boys and 6796 girls. The Board
+of Education grant amounted to £31,090. The expenditure of the local
+authorities for the year 1906-1907 was £85,242.
+
+The number of scholars on the registers of ordinary public elementary
+schools in Wales was (_Statistics_, 1907-1908), in council schools
+330,413, and in voluntary schools 100,290, total 430,703. The percentage
+of average attendance was 86.98. The ordinary parliamentary grant
+(1906-1907) was £794,161, and the net expenditure of local authorities
+£561,234.
+
+In 1907 a Welsh department of the Board of Education was established
+with a permanent secretary and a chief inspector, each responsible
+directly to the president. A movement was in progress in Wales in
+1908-1909 for the creation of a national council of education under an
+independent minister, but this change could in any case only be effected
+by legislation; and meanwhile the special religious and social
+conditions in Wales caused administrative difficulties in working an act
+(that of 1902) primarily designed to meet those prevailing in England.
+     (G. B. M. C.)
+
+
+_United States._
+
+  Beginnings.
+
+_History._--The first white settlers who came to North America were
+typical representatives of those European peoples who had made more
+progress in civilization than any other in the world. Those settlers, in
+particular those from England and from Holland, brought with them the
+most advanced ideas of the time on the subject of education. The
+conditions of life in the New World emphasized the need of schools and
+colleges, and among the earliest public acts of the settlers were
+provisions to establish them. The steps taken between 1619 and 1622 to
+provide schools for the colony of Virginia were frustrated by the Indian
+war which broke out in the latter year, and were never successfully
+renewed during the colonial period. In New York, where the influence of
+the Dutch was at first predominant, elementary schools were maintained
+at the public expense, and were intended for the education of all
+classes of the population. This policy reflected the very advanced views
+as to public elementary education which were then held in the
+Netherlands. The assumption of control in the colony of New York by the
+English was a distinct check to the development of public elementary
+education, and little or no further progress was made until after the
+Revolution. The most systematic educational policy was pursued in the
+colony of Massachusetts. As early as 1635, five years after it was
+founded, the town of Boston took action to the end that "our brother
+Philemon Pormort shall be entreated to become schoolmaster for the
+teaching and nurturing children with us." The General Court of the
+colony in 1636 made the first appropriation for what was to become
+Harvard College, taking its name in honour of the minister, John
+Harvard, who died in 1638, leaving his library and one-half of his
+property, having a value of £800, to the new institution. The amount of
+this appropriation of 1636 (£400) was remarkable in that it was probably
+equal to the whole colony tax for a year. In 1642 followed a legislative
+act which, while saying nothing of schools, gave to the selectmen in
+every town power to oversee both the education and the employment of
+children. It is made the duty of the selectmen to see that the children
+can read and understand the principles of religion and the capital laws
+of the country, and that they are put to some useful work.
+
+Five years later, in 1647, was enacted the law which is not only the
+real foundation of the Massachusetts school system, but the type of
+later legislation throughout the United States. This epoch-making act,
+the first of its kind in the world, represented the public opinion of a
+colony of about 20,000 persons, living in thirty towns. It required
+every town of fifty house-holders to establish a school, the master of
+which should be paid either by the parents of the children taught or by
+public tax, as the majority of the town committee might decide; and it
+further required every town of one hundred families or house-holders to
+set up a grammar school in which pupils might be prepared for the
+"University," as the new institution at Cambridge was designated.
+Moreover, a penalty was attached to neglect of this legislative
+requirement, in the form of a fine to be devoted to the maintenance of
+the nearest school. Horace Mann said of the act of 1647: "It is
+impossible for us adequately to conceive the boldness of the measure,
+which aimed at universal education through the establishment of free
+schools. As a fact it had no precedent in the world's history; and, as a
+theory, it could have been refuted and silenced by a more formidable
+array of argument and experience than was ever marshalled against any
+other institution of human origin. But time has ratified its soundness.
+Two centuries of successful operation now proclaim it to be as wise as
+it was courageous, and as beneficent as it was disinterested." The
+significance of these acts of 1642 and 1647 is that they foreshadow the
+whole American system of education, including elementary schools,
+secondary schools and colleges, and that they indicate the principles
+upon which that system rests. These principles as summarized by George
+H. Martin in his _Evolution of the Massachusetts Public School System_
+are the following:--(1) The universal education of youth is essential to
+the well-being of the state. (2) The obligation to furnish this
+education rests primarily upon the parent. (3) The state has a right to
+enforce this obligation. (4) The state may fix a standard which shall
+determine the kind of education and the minimum amount. (5) Public money
+raised by general tax may be used to provide such education as the state
+requires. The tax may be general, though the school attendance is not.
+(6) Education higher than the rudiments may be supplied by the state.
+Opportunity must be provided at the public expense for youths who wish
+to be fitted for college. These principles have now found expression in
+the public acts of every state, and upon them education in the United
+States is founded.
+
+
+  Development.
+
+Despite the praiseworthy attempts made in New York, New Jersey and
+Pennsylvania to develop schools and school systems, very little was
+accomplished in those colonies which was permanent. The sentiment in the
+more southern colonies was, as a rule, unfriendly to free schools, and
+nothing of importance was attempted in that section of the country until
+the time of Thomas Jefferson. Through religious zeal or philanthropy
+colleges were founded as far south as Virginia, and no fewer than ten of
+these institutions were in operation in 1776. Their present names and
+the dates of their foundation are: Harvard University, Massachusetts
+(1636); College of William and Mary, Virginia (1693); Yale University,
+Connecticut (1701); Princeton University, New Jersey (1746); Washington
+and Lee University, Virginia (1749); University of Pennsylvania,
+Pennsylvania (1749); Columbia University, New York (1754); Brown
+University, Rhode Island (1764); Rutgers College, New Jersey (1766); and
+Dartmouth College, New Hampshire (1769). In the colleges the
+ecclesiastical spirit was at first almost uniformly dominant. The
+greater number of their students were preparing for the ministry in some
+one of the branches of the Protestant Church. These facts caused the
+grammar schools to take on more and more the character of
+college-preparatory schools; and when this was brought about they
+supplied the educational needs of but one portion of the community. As
+time passed, the interdependence of governmental and ecclesiastical
+interests began to weaken in the colonies, and there arose among those
+who represented the new secularizing tendency a distrust of the colleges
+and their influence. This gave rise to a new and influential type of
+school, the academy, which took its name from the secondary schools
+established in England by the dissenting religious bodies during the
+latter part of the seventeenth century at the suggestion of Milton.
+These academies were intended to give an education which was thought to
+be more practical than that offered by the colleges, and they drew their
+students from the so-called middle classes of society. The older
+academies were usually endowed institutions, organized under the control
+of religious organizations or of self-perpetuating boards of trustees.
+Their programme of studies was less restricted than that of the grammar
+schools, and they gave new emphasis to the study of the English language
+and its literature, of mathematics and of the new sciences of nature.
+For two generations the academies were a most beneficent factor in
+American education, and they supplied a large number of the
+better-prepared teachers for work in other schools. These schools were
+in a sense public in that they were chartered, but they were not
+directly under public control in their management. Early in the 19th
+century there arose a well-defined demand for public secondary
+schools--high schools, as they are popularly known. They were the direct
+outgrowth of the elementary school system. Boston, Philadelphia,
+Baltimore and New York were the first of the large cities to establish
+schools of this type, and they spread rapidly. These public secondary
+schools met with opposition, however, springing partly from the friends
+of the academies, and partly from those who held that governmental
+agency should be restricted to the field of elementary education. The
+legal questions raised were settled by a decision of the supreme court
+of Michigan, which contained these words: "Neither in our state policy,
+in our constitution, nor in our laws do we find the primary school
+districts restricted in the branches of knowledge which their officers
+may cause to be taught, or the grade of instruction that may be given,
+if their voters consent, in regular form, to bear the expense and raise
+the taxes for the purpose." This decision gave marked impetus to the
+development of public secondary or high schools, and they have increased
+rapidly in number. The academies have relatively declined, and in the
+Western states are almost unknown.
+
+Meanwhile the elementary school system had grown rapidly. The school
+district, the smallest civil division, was created in Connecticut in
+1701, in Rhode Island about 1750, and in Massachusetts in 1789. From the
+point of view of efficient, well-supported schools, it has been felt
+since the time of Horace Mann that the substitution of the small school
+district for the town as the unit of school administration was a
+mistake. Yet the school district has exercised a profound influence for
+good upon the American people. In New York state, for example, there
+were in 1900 over eleven thousand school districts, and in Illinois over
+twelve thousand. The districts are small in extent and often sparsely
+settled. Their government is as democratic as possible. The resident
+legal voters, often including women, hold a meeting at least once a
+year. They elect trustees to represent them in the employment of the
+teacher and the management of the school. They determine whether a new
+schoolhouse shall be built, whether repairs shall be made, and what sum
+of money shall be raised for school purposes. In the rural districts
+this system has often been itself a school in patriotism and in the
+conduct of public affairs. Recently the tendency is to merge the school
+districts into the township, in order that larger and better schools may
+be maintained, and that educational advantages may be distributed more
+evenly among the people. Most of the southern states have the county
+system of school administration. This is because the county, rather than
+the township, has been the political unit in the south from the
+beginning. Special laws have been made for the school system in cities,
+and the form of these laws differs very much. In nearly every city there
+is a separate board of education, sometimes chosen by the voters,
+sometimes appointed by the mayor or other official, which board has
+full control of the schools. The city board of education has as its
+executive officer a superintendent of schools, who has become a most
+important factor in American educational administration. He exerts great
+influence in the selection of teachers, in the choice of text-books, in
+the arrangement of the programme of studies, and in the determination of
+questions of policy. Sometimes he is charged by law with the initiative
+in some or all of these matters. He is usually a trained administrator
+as well as an experienced teacher. The first superintendent was
+appointed in 1837 at Buffalo. Providence followed in 1839, New Orleans
+in 1841, Cleveland in 1844, Baltimore in 1849, Cincinnati in 1850,
+Boston in 1851, New York, San Francisco and Jersey City in 1852, Newark
+and Brooklyn in 1853, Chicago and St Louis in 1854, and Philadelphia in
+1883. In general, it may be said that the progress of public education
+in the United States is marked by (1) compulsory schools, (2) compulsory
+licensing of teachers, (3) compulsory school attendance, and (4)
+compulsory school supervision, and by the increasingly efficient
+administration of these provisions. The compulsion comes in each case
+from the state government, which alone, in the American system, has the
+power to prescribe it and to enforce it. Each state is therefore an
+independent educational unit, and there is no single, uniform American
+system of education in any legal sense. In fact, however, the great mass
+of the American people are in entire agreement as to the principles
+which should control public education; and the points in which the
+policies of the several states are in agreement are greater, both in
+number and in importance, than those in which they differ. An American
+educational system exists, therefore, in spirit and in substance, even
+though not in form.
+
+
+  National policy.
+
+Neither in the Declaration of Independence nor in the Constitution of
+the United States is there any mention of education. The founders of the
+nation were by no means indifferent to education, but they shared the
+common view of their time, which was that the real responsibility for
+the maintenance of schools and the expense of maintaining them should
+fall upon the several local communities. The relation of government to
+education was not then a subject of ordinary consideration or
+discussion. Later, when this question did arise and the power of
+taxation was involved, the several states assumed control of education,
+as it was necessary that they should do. Nevertheless, from the very
+beginning the national government has aided and supported education,
+while not controlling it. This policy dates from the 13th of July 1787,
+when there was passed the famous "Ordinance for the Government of the
+Territory of the United States North-West of the River Ohio," meaning
+the territory north and west of the Ohio river now represented by the
+states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, and the eastern
+side of Minnesota, embracing more than 265,000 sq. m. of territory. This
+ordinance contains this declaration: "Religion, morality, and knowledge
+being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools
+and the means of education shall for ever be encouraged." The Ordinance
+of 1787 also reaffirmed the provisions of the so-called Land Ordinance
+of 1785, by which section No. 16 in every township (a township consists
+of 36 numbered sections of 1 sq. m. each), or one thirty-sixth of the
+entire north-west territory, was set aside for the maintenance of public
+schools within the township. The funds derived from the sale and lease
+of these original "school lands" form the major portion of the public
+school endowment of the states formed out of the north-west territory.
+The precedent thus established became the policy of the nation. Each
+state admitted prior to 1848 reserved section No. 16 in every township
+of public land for common schools. Each state admitted since 1848 (Utah
+being an exception, and having four sections) has reserved sections No.
+16 and No. 36 in every township of public lands for this purpose. In
+addition, the national government has granted two townships in every
+state and territory containing public lands for seminaries or
+universities. A third land grant is that made in 1862 for colleges of
+agriculture and the mechanical arts. The sum total of these three land
+grants amounted in 1900 to 78,659,439 acres, to which there must be
+added various special grants made from time to time to the states and
+devoted to education. The portion of the public domain so set apart in
+1900 amounted in all to 86,138,473 acres, or 134,591 English sq. m. This
+is an area greater than those of the six New England states, New York,
+New Jersey, Maryland and Delaware added together. It is a portion of the
+earth's surface as great as the kingdom of Prussia, about seven-tenths
+as great as France, and considerably greater than the combined areas of
+Great Britain (including the Channel Islands) and the kingdom of
+Holland. Besides the enormous grants of land in aid of education, the
+national government has maintained since 1802 a military academy at West
+Point, New York, for the training of officers for the army, and since
+1845 a naval academy at Annapolis, Maryland, for the training of
+officers for the navy. It has also taken charge of the education of the
+children of uncivilized Indians, and of all children in Alaska. It has
+voted, by act of 1887, a perpetual endowment of $15,000 a year for each
+agricultural experiment station connected with a state agricultural
+college, and, by act of 1890, an additional endowment of $25,000 a year
+for each of the agricultural colleges themselves. The aggregate value of
+land and money given by the national government for education in the
+several states and territories is about $300,000,000.
+
+
+  Bureau of education.
+
+In 1867 the Congress established a bureau of education, presided over by
+a commissioner who is under the jurisdiction of the secretary of the
+interior, the purpose of which is declared to be to collect "such
+statistics and facts as shall show the condition and progress of
+education in the several states and territories, and of diffusing such
+information respecting the organization and management of school systems
+and methods of teaching as shall aid the people of the United States in
+the establishment and maintenance of efficient school systems, and
+otherwise promote the cause of education throughout the country." The
+bureau has therefore no direct power over the educational policy of the
+several states. It has, however, exercised a potent influence for good
+in its advisory capacity. Up to 1900 this bureau had published 360
+separate volumes and pamphlets, including 31 annual reports, covering
+from 800 to 2300 pages each; and the number has since been much
+increased. The annual reports alone of the Commissioner of Education are
+mines of information. These standard works of reference are distributed
+gratuitously in large numbers to libraries, school officials and other
+persons interested, and to foreign governments. The several
+commissioners of education have been: Henry Barnard, 1867-1870; John
+Eaton, 1870-1886; Nathaniel H.R. Dawson, 1886-1889; William T.
+Harris,[3] 1889-1906; Elmer Ellsworth Brown, 1906- .
+
+
+  State governments and education.
+
+In the United States the sovereign powers are not all lodged in one
+place. Such of those powers as are not granted by the Constitution to
+the national government are reserved to the states respectively, or to
+the people. The power to levy taxes for the support of public education
+has been almost universally held to be one of the powers so reserved.
+The inhabitants of the several local communities, however indisposed
+they may have been to relinquish absolute control of their own schools,
+have been compelled to yield to the authority of the state government
+whenever it has been asserted, for except under such authority no civil
+division--county, city, township, or school district--possesses the
+power to levy taxes for school purposes. Moreover, since the exercise of
+state authority has uniformly improved the quality of the schools, it
+has usually been welcomed, not resisted. In general, it may be said that
+the state has used its authority to prescribe a minimum of efficiency
+which schools and teachers must reach, and it enforces this minimum
+through inspection and the withholding of its proper share of the state
+school fund from any locality where schools or teachers are permitted to
+fall below the required standard. In extreme cases the state authorities
+have interfered directly to prevent the evil results of local
+inefficiency or contumacy. In addition, the states, almost without
+exception, maintain at their own expense schools for the training of
+teachers, known as normal schools. Many of the states also offer
+inducements to the cities, towns and districts to exceed the prescribed
+minimum of efficiency. Through the steady exercise of state supervision
+the school buildings have improved, the standard for entrance upon the
+work of teaching has been raised, the programme of studies has been made
+more effective and more uniform, and the length of the school term has
+increased. The Constitution of every state now contains some provision
+as to public education. Each state has an executive officer charged with
+the enforcement of the state school laws. Sometimes, as in New York,
+this official has plenary powers; sometimes, as in Massachusetts and
+Ohio, he is little more than an adviser. In twenty-nine states this
+official is known as the superintendent of public instruction; in
+Massachusetts and Connecticut he is called secretary of the state board
+of education; other titles used are commissioner of public schools,
+superintendent of common schools, and superintendent of public schools.
+The schools are administered, on behalf of the taxpayers, by an elected
+board of school trustees in rural school districts, and by an elected
+(though sometimes appointed) board of education or school committee in
+cities and towns. In 836 cities and towns there is a local
+superintendent of schools, who directs and supervises the educational
+work and acts as the executive officer of the board of education. The
+schools in the rural districts are under the direct supervision of a
+county superintendent of schools or similar official, who is often
+chosen by the people, but who sometimes is named by the state
+authorities. The county and city superintendents are often charged with
+the duty of holding examinations for entrance upon the work of teaching,
+and of issuing licences to those persons who pass the examinations. This
+system works best where it is carefully regulated by state law. Thirty
+states, one territory, and the District of Columbia have enacted
+compulsory education laws, but the enforcement of them is usually very
+lax. In fifteen states and territories there are no compulsory education
+laws, although there are in existence there fully organized school
+systems free to all children. The usual age during which school
+attendance is required is from 8 to 14. Provision is made in Maine, New
+Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New
+Jersey, Pennsylvania, Indiana, Minnesota and Michigan, for sending
+habitual truants to some special institution. Laws forbidding the
+employment of children under a specified minimum age in any mercantile
+or manufacturing establishment are in force in twelve states, and are
+usually administered in connexion with the compulsory education laws.
+
+The universal establishment in America of public secondary schools (high
+schools), and the existence of state universities in all of the states
+south and west of Pennsylvania, have brought into existence a system of
+state education which reaches from the kindergarten and the elementary
+school to the graduate instruction offered at state colleges and
+universities. This system includes (1) about 1500 free public
+kindergartens scattered over fifteen states; (2) free public elementary
+schools within reach of almost every home in the land; (3) free public
+secondary schools (high schools) in every considerable city or town and
+in not a few rural communities; (4) free land grant colleges, supported
+in large part by the proceeds of the nation's endowment of public lands,
+paying particular attention to agriculture and the mechanical arts, in
+all the states; (5) state universities, free or substantially so, in all
+the states south and west of Pennsylvania; (6) free public normal
+schools, for the professional training of teachers, in nearly every
+state; (7) free schools for the education of defectives in nearly all
+the states; and (8) the national academies at West Point and Annapolis
+for the professional training of military and naval officers
+respectively.
+
+
+  Kindergartens.
+
+Miss Susan E. Blow, herself the leading exponent of kindergarten
+principles in the United States, has pointed out that the history of the
+kindergarten movement reveals four distinct stages in its development:
+the pioneer stage, having Boston as its centre; the philanthropic stage,
+which began in the village of Florence, Mass., and reached its climax at
+San Francisco, California; the national or strictly educational stage,
+which began at St Louis; and the so-called maternal stage, which from
+Chicago as a centre is spreading over the entire country. During the
+first stage public attention was directed to a few of the most important
+aspects of Froebel's teaching. During the second stage the kindergarten
+was valued largely as a reformatory and redemptive influence. During the
+third stage the fundamental principles underlying kindergarten training
+were scientifically studied and expounded, and the kindergarten became
+part of the public school system of the country. The fourth stage,
+which, like the third, is fortunately still in existence, aims at making
+the kindergarten a link between the school and the home, and so to use
+it to strengthen the foundations and elevate the ideals of family life.
+By 1898 there were 4363 kindergartens in the United States (1365 of
+which were public), employing 9937 teachers (2532 in the public
+kindergartens) and enrolling 189,604 children (95,867 in the public
+kindergartens). Of the 164 public normal schools, 36 made provision for
+training kindergarten teachers. The scientific and literary activity of
+some of the private kindergarten training classes is very great, and
+they exert a beneficial and stimulating effect on teaching in the
+elementary schools. It is generally admitted that from the point of view
+of the children, of the teachers, of the schools, and of the community
+at large, the kindergarten has been and is an inspiration of
+incalculable value.
+
+
+  Elementary schools.
+
+The elementary school course is from six to nine years in length, the
+ordinary period being eight years. The pupils enter at about six years
+of age. In the cities the elementary schools are usually in session for
+five hours daily, except Saturday and Sunday, beginning at 9 A.M. There
+is an intermission, usually of an hour, at midday, and short recesses
+during the sessions. In the small rural schools the pupils are usually
+ungraded, and are taught singly or in varying groups. In the cities and
+towns there is a careful gradation of pupils, and promotions from grade
+to grade are made at intervals of a year or of a half-year. The best
+schools have the most elastic system of gradation and the most frequent
+promotions. In a number of states there are laws authorizing the
+conveyance of children to school at the public expense, when the
+schoolhouse is unduly distant from the homes of a portion of the school
+population. Co-education (q.v.) in the elementary school has been the
+salutary and almost uniform practice in the United States. The programme
+of studies in the elementary school includes English (reading, writing,
+spelling, grammar, composition), arithmetic (sometimes elementary
+algebra also, or plane geometry in the upper grades), geography, history
+of the United States, and elementary natural science, including human
+physiology and hygiene. Physical training, vocal music, drawing and
+manual training are often taught. Sometimes a foreign language (Latin,
+German or French) and the study of general history are begun. Formal
+instruction in manners and morals is not often found, but the discipline
+of the school offers the best possible training in the habits of
+truthfulness, honesty, obedience, regularity, punctuality and conformity
+to order. Religious teaching is not permitted, although the exercises of
+the day are often opened with reading from the Bible, the repetition of
+the Lord's Prayer and the singing of a hymn. Corporal punishment is not
+infrequent, but is forbidden by law in New Jersey, and in many states
+may be used only under restrictions. Text-books are used as the basis of
+the instruction given, and the pupils "recite" in class to the teacher,
+who, by use of illustration and comment, makes clear the subject-matter
+of the prescribed lesson. The purpose of the recitation method is to
+make the work of each pupil help that of his companion. Skilfully used,
+it is the most effectual instrument yet devised for elementary school
+instruction.
+
+
+  Secondary schools.
+
+The secondary school course is normally four years in length. The
+principal subjects studied are Latin, Greek, French, German, algebra,
+geometry, physics, chemistry, physical geography, physiology, rhetoric,
+English literature, civics and history. Although but 11.36% of the
+students in public high schools and 25.36% of those in private secondary
+schools are preparing for a college or scientific school, yet the
+conditions prescribed by the colleges for admission to their courses
+affect powerfully both the secondary school programme and the methods of
+teaching. Of late years no educational topic has been more widely
+discussed than that as to the proper relations of secondary schools and
+colleges. As a result, special examinations for admission to college are
+either greatly simplified or entirely abolished, and the secondary
+studies are much more substantial and better taught than formerly. An
+increasing proportion of secondary school teachers are college
+graduates. The most extraordinary characteristic of secondary education
+in recent years is the rapid increase in the number of students taking
+Latin as a school subject. Meanwhile the proportion of those studying
+physics and chemistry has fallen off slightly. The rate of increase in
+the number of pupils who study Latin is fully twice as great as the rate
+of increase in the number of secondary school students. Between 1890 and
+1896, while the number of students in private secondary schools
+increased 12%, the number of students in public secondary schools
+increased 87%. Since 1894 the number of students in private secondary
+schools has steadily declined.
+
+
+  The colleges.
+
+The American college, although it is the outgrowth of the English
+colleges of Oxford and of Cambridge, has developed into an institution
+which has no counterpart in Europe. The college course of study, at
+first three years in length, was soon extended to four years, and the
+classes are uniformly known as the freshman, the sophomore, the junior
+and the senior. The traditional degree which crowns the college course
+is that of Bachelor of Arts (A.B.). The studies ordinarily insisted on
+in the case of candidates for this degree are Latin, Greek, mathematics,
+English, philosophy, political economy, history, at least one modern
+European language (French or German), and at least one natural science.
+The degrees of Bachelor of Science (B.S.), Bachelor of Philosophy
+(Ph.B.), and Bachelor of Letters (B.L.) are often conferred by colleges
+upon students who have pursued systematic courses of study which do not
+include Greek or the amount of Latin required for the degree of Bachelor
+of Arts. The best colleges give instruction which is similar in
+character to that given in Germany in the three upper classes of the
+gymnasium and in the introductory courses at the universities, in France
+in the two upper classes of the lycée and in the first two years of
+university study, and in England in the upper form of the public schools
+and during the years of undergraduate residence at Oxford and Cambridge.
+Since 1870 the colleges have developed enormously. Their resources have
+multiplied, the number of their students has increased by leaps and
+bounds, the programme of studies has broadened and deepened, the
+standards have been raised, and the efficiency of the instruction has
+greatly increased. Rigidly prescribed courses of study have given way to
+elective courses, and a knowledge of Greek is no longer required for the
+degree of A.B. at such influential colleges as Harvard, Columbia,
+Cornell and Williams. A strong effort is being made to have the leading
+colleges give but one degree, that of Bachelor of Arts, and to confer
+that upon those who complete any substantial course of college studies.
+A marked change has taken place in the attitude of the college
+authorities toward the students. In 1870 the college president was a
+paterfamilias. He knew each student and came into direct personal
+contact with him. The president and the faculty had supervision not only
+of the studies of the students, but of their moral and religious life as
+well. The older type of college professor was not always a great
+scholar, but he was a student of human nature, with keen intuitions and
+shrewd insight. The new type, which had come into existence at the
+opening of the 20th century, was more scholarly in some special
+direction, often regarded teaching as a check upon opportunities for
+investigation, and disdained troubling himself with a student's personal
+concerns or intellectual and moral difficulties. The change was not
+altogether for the better, and a desirable reaction has been
+observable. Each college, however small or ill-equipped, exercises a
+helpful local influence. Ninety per cent of all college students attend
+an institution not more than one hundred miles from their own homes. Few
+colleges have a national constituency, and even in these cases an
+overwhelming preponderance of the students come from the immediate
+neighbourhood. This explains, in a measure, the powerful influence which
+the college has exercised in the life of the nation. While hardly more
+than one in a hundred of the white male youth of the country has had a
+college education, yet the college graduates have furnished one-half of
+all the presidents of the United States, most of the justices of the
+Supreme Court, about one-half of the cabinet officers and United States
+senators, and nearly one-third of the House of Representatives. Before
+the Revolution eleven colleges were founded. From 1776 to 1800, twelve
+more were added; from 1800 to 1830, thirty-three; from 1830 to 1865, one
+hundred and eighty; from 1865 to 1898, two hundred and thirty-six. Their
+standards, efficiency and equipment are very diverse, many of the
+so-called colleges being less effective than some of the better
+organized secondary schools. Except in New York and Pennsylvania, there
+is no statutory restriction upon the use of the name "college." This is
+an abuse to which public attention has in recent years been increasingly
+called.[4]
+
+
+  The universities.
+
+In the United States the title "university" is used indiscriminately of
+institutions which are in reality universities, of institutions which
+are colleges, and of institutions which are so ill-equipped as not to
+take rank with good secondary schools. Only time and a greatly increased
+capacity to distinguish the various types of higher schools will remedy
+this error. Putting aside tentative and unsuccessful attempts to develop
+genuine university instruction much earlier, it may safely be said that
+the opening of the Johns Hopkins University at Baltimore in 1876 began
+the present movement to organize carefully advanced study and research,
+requiring a college education of those who wish to enter upon it. This
+is university instruction properly so called, and though found
+elsewhere, it is given chiefly at fourteen institutions: California
+University, Catholic University of America, Chicago University, Clark
+University, Columbia University, Cornell University, Harvard University,
+Johns Hopkins University, Michigan University, Pennsylvania University,
+Princeton University, Leland Stanford Jr. University, Wisconsin
+University and Yale University. All of these institutions, except the
+Catholic University of America, are also colleges. The combination of
+collegiate and university instruction under one corporation and one
+executive administration is distinctive of higher education in the
+United States, and its chief source of strength. The crowning honour of
+the university student is the degree of Ph.D., although that of
+A.M.--obtainable in less time and much easier conditions--is also
+sought. The minimum period of study accepted for the degree of Ph.D. is
+two years after obtaining the bachelor's degree; but in practice, three,
+and even four, years of study are found necessary. In addition to
+carrying on an investigation in the field of his main subject of study,
+the candidate for the degree of Ph.D. is usually required to pass
+examinations on one or two subordinate subjects, to possess a reading
+knowledge of French and German (often of Latin as well), and to
+submit--usually in printed form--the dissertation which embodies the
+results of his researches. The methods of instruction in the
+universities are the lecture, discussion and work in laboratory or
+seminary--the latter transplanted from the German universities. The
+degree of Master of Arts is conferred upon students who, after one year
+of university residence and study, pass certain prescribed examinations.
+This degree, like those of D.D., S.T.D. and LL.D., is often conferred by
+colleges and universities as a purely honorary distinction. The degree
+of Ph.D. is not so conferred any longer by the best universities. Not a
+few of the universities maintain schools of law and medicine. Harvard
+and Yale universities maintain schools of theology as well. The learned
+publications issued by the universities, or under the direction of
+university professors, are of great importance, and constitute an
+imposing body of scientific literature. The national and state
+governments make increasing use of university officials for public
+service requiring special training or expert knowledge. In 1871-1872
+there were only 198 resident graduate (or university) students in the
+United States. In 1887 this number had risen to 1237, and in 1897 to
+4392. These figures are exclusive of professional students, and include
+only those who are studying in what would be called, in Germany, the
+philosophical faculty. (See also UNIVERSITIES.)
+
+Most extensive provision is made in America for professional, technical
+and special education of all kinds, and for the care and training of the
+dependent and defective classes (see BLINDNESS and DEAF AND DUMB), as
+well as for the education of the Indian (see INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN),
+and--in the Southern states--of the negro (q.v.). (N. M. B.)
+
+_Statistics._--Details as to education in each state of the American
+Union are given in the articles under state headings. But a more
+comprehensive view may be obtained here from the general statistics. The
+introduction to the statistical tables in vol. ii. of the Commissioner
+of Education's Report for 1907 may usefully be quoted. Mr Edward L.
+Thorndike, of the Teachers' College, Columbia University, there
+summarizes the national account as follows:--
+
+  "We use in formal school education a material plant valued at from
+  twelve to thirteen hundred million dollars, the labour of 550,000
+  teachers or other educational officers, and more or less of the time
+  of some eighteen million students.... We pay for the labour of these
+  teachers, many of whom work for only part of the normal city-school
+  year, about $300,000,000. We pay for fuel, light, janitorial services,
+  repairs, depreciation of books, school supplies, insurance and the
+  like, about $90,000,000. For depreciation of the plant not so charged
+  we should properly provide during the year a sinking fund of perhaps
+  $25,000,000. Adding an interest charge of 5% on the investment in the
+  plant, our annual bill for formal school education comes to over
+  $475,000,000. Additions to the plant were made [in 1906-1907] to the
+  extent of from ninety to a hundred million dollars. As a partial
+  estimate of the returns from this investment we may take the number of
+  students whose education has been carried to a specified standard of
+  accomplishment and power. Thus I estimate that, in 1907, 3000 students
+  reached the standard denoted by three years or more of academic,
+  technical or professional study in advance of a reputable college
+  degree; that 25,000 students reached the standard denoted by at least
+  three and not over four years of such study in advance of a four-year
+  high-school course; than an eighth of a million students reached the
+  standard denoted by at least three and not over four years of study in
+  advance of an eight-year elementary-school course; and that
+  three-quarters of a million students reached the standard of
+  completion of an elementary-school course of seven or eight years or
+  its equivalent.... Roughly, nine-tenths of elementary education and
+  the education of teachers, over two-thirds of secondary education, and
+  over a third of college and higher technical education are provided
+  and controlled by the public. Professional education, other than the
+  training of teachers and engineers, is still largely a function of
+  private provision and control.
+
+  "The following rough comparison may serve to define further the status
+  of education in the country at large. The plant used for formal
+  education is valued at 1% of our entire national wealth, or twice the
+  value of our telephone systems, or ten times the value of our Pullman
+  and private cars, or one-tenth the value of our railroads. The number
+  of teachers is approximately that of the clergymen, engineers, lawyers
+  and physicians together, five times that of the regular army and navy,
+  and about twice that of the saloon-keepers and bar-tenders and their
+  assistants. The annual expenditure for education, exclusive of
+  additions to the plant, is somewhat over twice the expenditure for the
+  war and navy departments of the national government. It is three and a
+  half times the expenditure of the national government in 1907 for
+  pensions. It is about one and a fourth times the cost (New York
+  wholesale prices) of the sugar and coffee we consume annually."
+
+The above comparison indicates perhaps, not inadequately, the "business"
+conception of the value of education prevailing in the United States,
+where its practical advantages are realized as in no other country, not
+even Germany.
+
+From the same report the following statistics may be cited for
+1906-1907.
+
+
+  _Common Schools (including Elementary and Secondary Public
+  Schools only)._
+
+    Total number of pupils of all ages             16,820,386[5]
+    Average number of days schools open            151.2
+    Average number of days attended by each pupil  106.2
+    Number of male teachers                        105,773
+    Number of female teachers                      369,465
+    Number of school houses                        259,115
+    Average monthly wage of male teachers          $56.10
+    Average monthly wage of female teachers        $43.67
+    Value of all school property                   $843,309,410
+    Income from permanent funds and rents           $16,579,551
+    Income from State taxes                         $46,281,501
+    Income from local taxes                        $230,424,554
+    Income from other sources                       $50,317,132
+    Expenditure on sites, buildings, furniture,
+       libraries and apparatus                      $65,817,870
+    Expenditure on salaries                        $196,980,919
+    Expenditure on other purposes                   $67,882,012
+    Expenditure per head of population             $3.90
+    Expenditure per pupil                          $27.98
+
+  The Bureau of Education in 1907 received reports from 606
+  universities, colleges and technological schools; they had a teaching
+  force of 24,679, and an enrolment of 293,343 students. The number of
+  public and private normal schools reporting was 259, with an enrolment
+  of 70,439 students in the regular training courses for teachers,
+  12,541 graduates and 3660 instructors. There were 148 manual and
+  industrial training schools (independently of the manual training
+  taught in the public schools and in 66 Indian schools), with 1692
+  teachers and an enrolment of 68,427 students; and 445 independent
+  commercial and business schools, with 2856 instructors and 137,364
+  students.     (X.)
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For the study of education as an aspect of religious,
+  social, moral and intellectual development, the material is
+  practically inexhaustible, and much of the most valuable does not
+  treat specifically of the education given in schools and colleges. The
+  most useful guide is E.P. Cubberley's _Syllabus of Lectures on the
+  History of Education_ (1902), which consists of an analytic outline of
+  topics with copious and detailed references to authorities. See also
+  W.S. Monroe's _Bibliography of Education_ (1897). The best general
+  history in English is P. Monroe's _Text-Book in the History of
+  Education_ (1905), which, like Davidson's much briefer _History of
+  Education_, treats the subject broadly and in relation to other
+  aspects of life. Williams's _History of Ancient, Medieval, and Modern
+  Education_ is a useful statement of the main facts of educational
+  progress taken somewhat by itself. In German the standard work is K.A.
+  Schmid's _Geschichte der Erziehung_, a comprehensive and detailed
+  treatment in which each period is dealt with by a specialist.
+  Ziegler's _Geschichte der Pädagogik_ is a good short history. In
+  French, Letourneau's _L'Évolution de l'éducation_ is especially good
+  on ancient and non-European education. Draper's _Intellectual
+  Development of Europe_ is vigorous and interesting, but marred by its
+  depreciation of the work of the Church. Guizot's _History of
+  Civilization_ is still of value, as are parts of Hallam's _Literary
+  History_. Lecky's _History of the Rise and Influence of the Spirit of
+  Rationalism in Europe_, and Buckle's _History of Civilization_ in
+  England, contain much that is of value. The best encyclopaedias are W.
+  Rein's _Encyklopädisches Handbuch der Pädagogik_, and F. Buisson's
+  _Dictionnaire de pédagogie, première partie_. Sir Henry Craik's _The
+  State and Education_ (1883) is an excellent text-book on national
+  education.
+
+  Of books dealing with special periods and topics, S. Laurie's
+  _Historical Sketch of Pre-Christian Education_, Freeman's _Schools of
+  Hellas_, Girard's _L'Éducation athénienne au V^e et au IV^e siècle
+  avant_ J.-C., Davidson's _Education of the Greek People_, Mahaffy's
+  _Old Greek Education_ and _Greek Life and Thought_, Nettleship's
+  article on "Education in Plato's Republic" in _Hellenica_, Capes's
+  _University Life in Athens_, Hobhouse's _Theory and Practice of
+  Ancient Education_, Grasberger's _Erziehung und Unterricht im
+  classischen Alterthum_, Wilkin's _Roman Education_, and Clarke's
+  _Education of Children at Rome_, are valuable for classical times.
+
+  For the somewhat obscure transition centuries there is much of value
+  in Taylor's _Classical Heritage of the Middle Ages_, Dill's _Roman
+  Society in the Last Century of the Western Empire_, especially the
+  chapter on "Culture in the 4th and 5th centuries," Boissier's _La Fin
+  du paganisme_, and Hatch's _Influence of Greek Thought upon the
+  Christian Church_.
+
+  The best general account of medieval education is in Drane's
+  _Christian Schools and Scholars_; and J.B. Mullinger's _Schools of
+  Charles the Great_ treats well of the Carolingian Revival. G.B.
+  Adams's _Civilization during the Middle Ages_ is excellent; and
+  Sandys's _History of Classical Scholarship_ is a valuable book of
+  reference. On the scholastic philosophy Turner's _History of
+  Philosophy_, and Hauréau's _Histoire de la philosophie scolastique_,
+  are useful. Medieval schools are described in Furnivall's preface to
+  _The Babees Book_, which deals with "Education in Early England," and
+  in Leach's _Old Yorkshire Schools_ and _History of Winchester
+  College_. The most important books on the universities are Rashdall's
+  _Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages_, Jourdain's _Histoire de
+  l'université de Paris aux XVII^e et XVIII^e siècles_, Lyte's _History
+  of the University of Oxford to 1530_, and Mullinger's _History of the
+  University of Cambridge to the Accession of Charles I._ Paulsen's
+  _Geschichte des gelehrten Unterrichts auf den deutschen Schulen und
+  Universitäten_ is the best history of education in Germany.
+
+  On the Renaissance in Italy, Villari's Introduction to his _Life and
+  Times of Machiavelli_, and Burckhardt's _Die Kultur der Renaissance in
+  Italien_ (translated into English), are of the first importance. Other
+  valuable books are the first volume of the _Cambridge Modern History_
+  and Symonds's great work on _The Renaissance in Italy_, especially the
+  volume on _The Revival of Learning_. Dealing more specifically with
+  education are Woodward's excellent monographs on _Education during the
+  Renaissance_, _Vittorino da Feltre_ and _Erasmus_. Janssen's
+  _Geschichte des deutschen Volkes_ (translated into English) gives a
+  good account of the social and intellectual condition of Germany in
+  the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries. Christie's _Life of Étienne Dolet_
+  is of value for the Renaissance in France. For the movement in England
+  Seebohm's _Oxford Reformers_, Gasquet's _Eve of the Reformation in
+  England_, Einstein's _The Italian Renaissance in England_, and Leach's
+  _English Schools at the Reformation, 1546-1548_, are particularly
+  important.
+
+  For later times the material is chiefly in the form of monographs, of
+  which the following, among others, are of value: Adamson's _Pioneers
+  of Modern Education_, Laas's _Die Pädagogik des Johannes Sturm_,
+  Beard's _Port Royal_, vol. ii., Kuno Fischer's _Fr. Bacon und seine
+  Nachfolger_, Laurie's _John Amos Comenius_, Morley's _Rousseau_,
+  Pinloche's _La Réforme de l'éducation en Allemagne au dix-huitième
+  siècle_, Biedermann's _Deutschlands geistige, sittliche, und gesellige
+  Zustände im XVIII. Jahrhundert_.
+
+  For the 19th century and after, the best sources of information are
+  the official Reports, such as those of the Royal Commissions on the
+  English Universities, the Public Schools, and the other English
+  secondary schools; the "Special Reports," issued by the English Board
+  of Education; the encyclopaedic annual Reports of the American
+  Commissioner of Education (dealing not only with the United States,
+  but with progress in other countries); monographs in the French _Musée
+  pédagogique_, and various German Reports.
+
+  For education in the United States, see also Boone's _History of
+  Education in U.S.A._ (1889); N.M. Butler (editor), _Education in the
+  U.S.A._ (1900), a series of monographs prepared for the Paris
+  Exposition; E.G. Dexter's _History of Education in the United States_
+  (1904); and the _Proceedings_ of the National Educational Association.
+
+  On the leading writers on education the monographs in the Great
+  Educator Series are useful, and editions and translations of the best
+  known of these writers are available. The greatest systematic
+  collection is the _Monumenta Germaniae paedagogica_. On the
+  development of the means of education, Montmorency's two books on
+  _State Intervention in English Education from the Earliest Times to
+  1833_, and _The Progress of Education in England_, Balfour's
+  _Educational Systems of Great Britain and Ireland_, Allain's
+  _L'Instruction primaire en France avant la Révolution_, Lantoine's
+  _Histoire de l'enseignement secondaire en France au XVIII^e et au
+  début du XVIII^e siècle_, and Konrad Fischer's _Geschichte des
+  deutschen Volkschullehrerstands_, may be mentioned.     (J. Wn.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] For the evolution of the school as such from early times see
+    SCHOOLS.
+
+  [2] See especially _Das öffentliche Unterrichtswesen Deutschlands_,
+    by Dr Paul Stötzner (Leipzig, 1901).
+
+  [3] A valuable bibliography of Mr Harris's contributions to
+    educational literature is given in the Report of the Commissioner of
+    Education for 1907 (Washington, 1908).
+
+  [4] See especially the second Annual Report of the President of the
+    Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching (pp. 76-80),
+    quoted in the Report for 1907 of the Commissioner of Education.
+
+  [5] In private schools there were also 1,304,547 pupils.
+
+
+
+
+EDWARD, "THE ELDER" (d. 924), king of the Angles and Saxons, was the
+second son of Alfred the Great, and with his sister Æthelflæd was
+carefully educated at the court of his father. During his father's
+lifetime he took an active part in the campaigns against the Danes,
+especially in that of 894, and as early as 898 he signs a charter as
+"rex," showing that he was definitely associated with his father in the
+kingship. He succeeded his father in October 899,[1] but not without
+opposition. The Ætheling Æthelwold, son of Alfred's elder brother
+Æthelred, seized Wimborne and Christchurch. Edward advanced against him,
+and Æthelwold took refuge among the Danes in Northumbria. In 904
+Æthelwold landed in Essex, and in the next year he enticed the East
+Anglian Danes to revolt. They ravaged all southern Mercia and, in spite
+of Edward's activity, returned home victorious, though Æthelwold fell in
+the battle of the Holme. In 905 or 906 Edward made a peace with the East
+Anglian and Northumbrian Danes at "Yttingaford," near Linslade in
+Buckinghamshire, perhaps the peace known as "the Laws of Edward and
+Guthrum." In 909 and 910 fresh campaigns took place owing to southerly
+raids by the Danes, and victories were won at Tettenhall and Wednesfield
+in Staffordshire.[2] From 907 onwards Edward and his sister Æthelflæd,
+the Lady of the Mercians, were busy strengthening their hold on Mercia
+and Wessex. Forts were built at Lincoln (907), "Bremesbyrig" (910),
+"Scergeat" and Bridgenorth (912), and when in the year 911 Æthelflæd's
+husband Æthelred died, Edward took over from Mercia the government of
+London and Oxford, with the lands belonging to them, i.e. probably
+Oxfordshire and Middlesex. The policy of constructing "burhs" or
+fortified towns was continued. Hertford was fortified in 911, Witham in
+912, while Æthelflæd fortified Cherbury in Shropshire, "Weardbyrig" and
+Runcorn (all in 915). In 913 the Danes in Eastern Mercia gave
+considerable trouble, and in 914 a fresh horde of pirates, coming from
+Brittany, sailed up the Severn. They raided southern Wales, but were
+hemmed in by the English forces and besieged until they promised to
+leave the king's territory. Edward watched the southern shores of the
+Bristol Channel so carefully that the Danes failed to secure a hold
+there, and were ultimately forced to sail to Ireland. In the same year
+Edward fortified Buckingham and received the submission of the jarls and
+chief men of Bedford. In 915 he fortified Bedford itself, Maldon in 916,
+and Towcester and "Wigingamere" in 917. In the last-mentioned year
+Edward captured and destroyed the Danish stronghold of Tempsford, and
+later in the year he took Colchester. An attack by the Danes on Maldon
+failed, and in 915 Edward went to Passenham and received the submission
+of the men of the "borough" of Northampton. The Danish strongholds of
+Huntingdon and Colchester were now restored and repaired, and Edward
+received the submission of the whole of the East Anglian Danes. Before
+midsummer of this year Edward had fortified Stamford, and on the death
+of his sister he received the submission of the Mercians at Tamworth.
+There also three kings of the North Welsh took Edward as their lord.
+Nottingham was now fortified; Thelwall in Cheshire (919) and Manchester
+soon followed; Nottingham was strengthened by a second fort; Bakewell
+was fortified and garrisoned, and then came the greatest triumph of
+Edward's reign. He was "chosen as father and lord" by the Scottish king
+and nation, by Rægenald, the Norwegian king of Northumbria, by Ealdred
+of Bamborough, and by the English, Danes or Norwegians in Northumbria,
+and by the Strathclyde Welsh.
+
+With the conclusion of his wars Edward's activity ceased, and we hear no
+more of him until in 924 he died at Farndon in Cheshire and was buried
+in the "New Minster" at Winchester. He was thrice married: (1) to
+Ecgwyn, a lady of rank, by whom he had a son Æthelstan, who succeeded
+him, and a daughter Eadgyth, who married Sihtric of Northumbria in 924.
+This marriage was probably an irregular one. (2) To Ælflæd, by whom he
+had two sons--Ælfweard, who died a fortnight after his father, and
+Eadwine, who was drowned in 933--and six daughters, Æthelflæd and
+Æthelhild nuns, and four others (see ÆTHELSTAN). (3) To Eadgifu, the
+mother of Kings Edmund and Edred, and of two daughters.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--_Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_ (ed. Plummer and Earle, Oxford);
+  Florence of Worcester (Mon. Hist. Brit.); William of Malmesbury,
+  _Gesta regum_ (Rolls Series); Simeon of Durham (Rolls Series);
+  Ethelweard (Mon. Hist. Brit.); Birch, _Cartularium Saxonicum_, Nos.
+  588-635; _D.N.B._, s.v.     (A. Mw.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See Stevenson's article in _Eng. Hist. Rev._ vol. xiii. pp.
+    71-77. The whole chronology of this reign is very difficult and
+    certainly is often impossible of attainment.
+
+  [2] It is possible that these battles are one and the same; the
+    places are within 2 to 3 m. of each other.
+
+
+
+
+EDWARD, "THE MARTYR" (c. 926-978), king of the English, was the son of
+Edgar by his wife Æthelflæd. Edward's brief reign was marked by an
+anti-monastic reaction. Ælfhere, earl of Mercia, once more expelled many
+of the monks whom Bishop Æthelwold had installed. There seems also to
+have been some change in administrative policy, perhaps with regard to
+the Danes, for Earl Oslac, whom Edgar had appointed to Northumbria, was
+driven from his province. In ecclesiastical matters there were two
+parties in the kingdom, the monastic, which had its chief hold in Essex
+and East Anglia, and the anti-monastic, led by Ælfhere of Mercia.
+Conferences were held at Kirtlington in Oxfordshire and at Calne in
+Wiltshire in 977 and 978, but nothing definite seems to have been
+decided. On the 18th of March 978 Edward's reign was suddenly cut short
+by his assassination at Corfe Castle in Dorsetshire. The crime was
+probably inspired by his stepmother, Ælfthryth, who was anxious to
+secure the succession of her son Ælthelred. The body was hastily
+interred at Wareham and remained there till 980, when Archbishop Dunstan
+and Ælfhere of Mercia united in transferring it with great ceremony to
+Shaftesbury. Edward seems to have been personally popular, and the poem
+on his death in the chronicle calls his murder the worst deed in English
+history. Very shortly after his death he was popularly esteemed to be
+both saint and martyr.
+
+  See _Saxon Chronicle_; _Vita S. Oswaldi_ (_Hist. of Ch. of York_,
+  Rolls Series); _Memorials of St Dunstan_ (ed. Stubbs, Rolls Series).
+       (A. Mw.)
+
+
+
+
+EDWARD, "THE CONFESSOR" (d. 1066), so called on account of his
+reputation for sanctity, king of the English, was the son of Æthelred
+II. and Emma, daughter of Richard, duke of Normandy, and was born at
+Islip in Oxfordshire. On the recognition of Sweyn as king of England in
+1013, Æthelred, with his wife and family, took refuge in Normandy, and
+Edward continued to reside at the Norman court until he was recalled in
+1041 by Hardicanute. He appears to have been formally recognized as heir
+to the throne, if not actually associated in the kingship, and on the
+death of Hardicanute in 1042 "all folk received him to be king," though
+his actual coronation was delayed until Easter 1043. A few months later
+Edward, in conjunction with the three great earls of the kingdom, made a
+raid on the queen-mother Ælfgifu, or Emma, seized all her possessions
+and compelled her to live in retirement.
+
+In the earlier years of the reign the influence of Earl Godwine was
+predominant, though not unopposed. His daughter Edith or Eadgyth became
+Edward's queen in 1045. But the king's personal tastes inclined much
+more to foreigners than to Englishmen, and he fell more and more into
+the hands of favourites from beyond the sea. Between Godwine,
+representing the spirit of nationalism, and these favourites (especially
+their leader Robert of Jumièges, successively bishop of London and
+archbishop of Canterbury) there was war to the knife. In 1046 Magnus,
+king of Norway, who had succeeded Hardicanute in Denmark and claimed to
+succeed him in England as well, threatened an invasion, but the
+necessity of defending Denmark against his rival Sweyn Estrithson
+prevented him from carrying it into effect. In 1049, Godwine's son
+Sweyn, who had been outlawed for the seduction of the abbess of
+Leominster, returned and demanded his restoration. This was refused and
+Sweyn returned into exile, but not before he had with foulest treachery
+murdered his young kinsman Beorn. He was, however, inlawed next year.
+The influence of Godwine, already shaken, received a severe blow in 1051
+in the appointment of Robert of Jumièges to the archbishopric of
+Canterbury, and the same year saw the triumph of the foreigners for the
+moment complete. Edward, indignant at the resistance offered by the men
+of Dover to the insolence of his brother-in-law Eustace of Boulogne and
+his French followers, ordered Godwine to punish the town. Godwine
+refused. The king at the prompting of the archbishop then summoned a
+meeting of the witan, at which the old charge against Godwine of
+complicity in the murder of the Ætheling Alfred was to be revived. About
+the same time came news of a fresh outrage by the foreigners. Godwine
+gathered his forces and demanded redress, while the earls Leofric of
+Mercia and Siward of Northumbria hastened to the side of the king. Civil
+war seemed imminent, but at length a compromise was effected by which
+the matter was referred to a meeting of the witan to be held at London.
+At the appointed time Godwine presented himself at Southwark. But his
+followers were rapidly deserting him, nor would the king give hostages
+for his security. Alarmed for his safety, he fled to Flanders, while his
+son Harold went to Ireland. But their exile was brief. The tale of
+Godwine excited universal sympathy, for it was realized that he
+represented the cause of national independence. Encouraged by assurances
+from England, he sailed thither, and joining forces with Harold sailed
+along the south coast and up the Thames. The king would have resisted
+but found no support. Yielding to circumstances, he allowed himself to
+be reconciled, and Godwine and his house were restored to their old
+position. The queen at the same time was brought back from the monastery
+of Wherwell, whither she had been despatched after her father's flight.
+The foreigners had already ignominiously fled the country, and
+henceforth the influence of Godwine, and, after his death, of Harold,
+was supreme. In 1063 Harold made a great expedition into Wales, in which
+he crushed the power of King Gruffyd, who was killed by his own people.
+But despite his prowess and his power, he was the minister of the king
+rather than his personal favourite. This latter position belonged to his
+younger brother Tostig, who on the death of Siward in 1055 was appointed
+earl of Northumbria. Here his severity and arbitrary temper rendered him
+intensely unpopular, and in 1065 his subjects broke into revolt. They
+elected Morkere as their earl, then marching south demanded Tostig's
+banishment. Edward desired to crush the revolt by force of arms, but he
+was overborne and forced to submit. The election of Morkere was
+recognized, and Tostig went into exile. Intensely mortified at this
+humiliation, the king fell sick, and henceforth his health failed
+rapidly. He was unable to gratify his intense desire to be present at
+the consecration of his new abbey of Westminster, the foundation of
+which had been the chief interest of his closing years, and on the 5th
+of January 1066 he died.
+
+The virtues of Edward were monkish rather than kingly. In the qualities
+of a ruler he was conspicuously deficient; always dependent on others,
+he ever inclined to the unworthier master. But the charm of his
+character for the monastic biographer, and the natural tendency to
+glorify the days before the Norman oppression began, combined to cast
+about his figure a halo which had not attached to it in life. Allowed to
+keep her property by William the Conqueror, his widow, Edith, passed the
+remainder of her life at Winchester, dying on the 19th of December 1075.
+
+  SOURCES.--A number of lives of Edward are brought together in a volume
+  of the Rolls Series entitled _Lives of Edward the Confessor_, and
+  edited by Dr H.R. Luard (London, 1858). Of these by far the most
+  valuable is the contemporary _Vita Edwardi_, which would appear from
+  internal evidence to have been written by an unknown writer soon after
+  the Norman Conquest--some time between 1066 and 1074. The other chief
+  authorities for the reign are (1) the _Saxon Chronicle_, (C. Plummer,
+  Oxford, 1892-1899); (2) _Florence of Worcester_, ed. B. Thorpe,
+  English Historical Society (London, 1848-1849). Reference may also be
+  made to J.M. Kemble, _Codex diplomaticus aevi Saxonici_ (London,
+  1839-1848).     (C. S. P.*)
+
+
+
+
+EDWARD I. (1239-1307), king of England, born at Westminster on the 17th
+of June 1239, was the eldest son of Henry III. and Eleanor of Provence.
+He was baptized Edward after Edward the Confessor, for whom Henry had
+special veneration, and among his godfathers was Simon de Montfort, earl
+of Leicester, his aunt Eleanor's husband. His political career begins
+when the conclusion of a treaty with Alphonso X. of Castile, by which he
+was to marry the Spanish king's half sister Eleanor, necessitated the
+conferring on him of an adequate establishment. His father granted him
+the duchy of Gascony, the earldom of Chester, the king's lands in Wales
+and much else. The provision made was so liberal that Henry's subjects
+declared he was left no better than a mutilated king. In May 1254 Edward
+went to Gascony to take possession of his inheritance. He then crossed
+the Pyrenees, and in October was dubbed knight by Alphonso and married
+to Eleanor at the Cistercian convent of Las Huelgas, near Burgos. He
+remained in Gascony till November 1255, but his father was too jealous
+to allow him a free hand in its administration. After his return, the
+attempts of his agents to establish English laws in his Welsh
+possessions brought Edward into hostile relations with the Welsh. Here
+also his father would give him no help, and his first campaign brought
+him little result. Edward became extremely unpopular through his
+association with his Lusignan kinsfolk, his pride and violence, and the
+disorders of his household. In 1258 his strenuous opposition to the
+Provisions of Oxford further weakened his position, but, after the
+banishment of the foreigners, he began to take up a wiser line. In 1259
+he led the young nobles who insisted that the triumphant oligarchy
+should carry out the reforms to which it was pledged. For a moment it
+looked as if Edward and Leicester might make common cause, but Edward
+remained an enemy of Montfort, though he strove to infuse his father's
+party with a more liberal and national spirit. He was the soul of the
+reconstituted royalist party formed about 1263. In 1264 he took a
+prominent part in the fighting between the king and the barons. At the
+battle of Lewes his rash pursuit of the Londoners contributed to his
+father's defeat. Two days later Edward surrendered to Leicester as a
+hostage for the good behaviour of his allies. He was forced to give up
+his earldom of Chester to Leicester, but at Whitsuntide 1265 he escaped
+from his custodians, and joined the lords of the Welsh march who were
+still in arms. With their aid he defeated and slew Leicester at Evesham
+on the 4th of August 1265.
+
+For the rest of Henry III.'s reign Edward controlled his father's policy
+and appropriated enough of Leicester's ideals to make the royalist
+restoration no mere reaction. So peaceful became the outlook of affairs
+that in 1268 Edward took the cross, hoping to join the new crusade of St
+Louis. Want of money delayed his departure till 1270, by which time St
+Louis was dead, and a truce concluded with the infidel. Refusing to be a
+party to such treason to Christendom, Edward went with his personal
+followers to Acre, where he abode from May 1271 to August 1272. Despite
+his energy and valour he could do little to prop up the decaying
+crusading kingdom and he narrowly escaped assassination. At last the
+declining health of his father induced him to return to the West. He
+learned in Sicily the death of Henry III. on the 16th of November 1272.
+On the 20th of November, the day of Henry's funeral, he was recognized
+as king by the English barons, and from that day his regnal years were
+subsequently computed. Affairs in England were so peaceful that Edward
+did not hurry home. After a slow journey through Italy and France he did
+homage to his cousin Philip III. at Paris, on the 26th of July 1273. He
+then went to Gascony, where he stayed nearly a year. At last he landed
+at Dover on the 2nd of August 1274, and was crowned at Westminster on
+the 18th of the same month.
+
+Edward was thirty-five years old when he became king, and the rude
+schooling of his youth had developed his character and suggested the
+main lines of the policy which he was to carry out as monarch. He was a
+tall, well-proportioned and handsome man, extravagantly devoted to
+military exercises, tournaments and the rougher and more dangerous forms
+of hunting. He had learned to restrain the hot temper of his youth, and
+was proud of his love of justice and strict regard to his plighted word.
+His domestic life was unstained, he was devoted to his friends, and
+loyal to his subordinates. Without any great originality either as
+soldier or statesman, he was competent enough to appropriate the best
+ideas of the time and make them his own. His defects were a hardness of
+disposition which sometimes approached cruelty and a narrow and pedantic
+temper, which caused him to regard the letter rather than the spirit of
+his promises. His effectiveness and love of strong government stand in
+strong contrast to his father's weakness. Though he loved power, and
+never willingly surrendered it, he saw that to be successful he must
+make his policy popular. Thus he continued the system which Montfort had
+formed with the object of restraining the monarchy, because he saw in a
+close alliance with his people the best means of consolidating the power
+of the crown.
+
+The first years of Edward's reign were mainly occupied by his efforts to
+establish a really effective administration. In carrying out this task
+he derived great help from his chancellor, Robert Burnell, bishop of
+Bath and Wells. Administrative reform soon involved legislation, and
+from 1275 to 1290 nearly every year was marked by an important law. Few
+of these contained anything that was very new or original. They rather
+illustrate that policy which caused Dr Stubbs to describe his reign as a
+"period of definition." Yet the results of his conservative legislation
+were almost revolutionary. In particular he left the impress of his
+policy on the land laws of England, notably by the clause _De Donis_ of
+the Westminster statute of 1285, and the statute _Quia Emptores_ of
+1290. The general effect of his work was to eliminate feudalism from
+political life. At first he aimed at abolishing all franchises whose
+holders could not produce written warranty for them. This was the policy
+of the statute of Gloucester of 1278, but the baronial opposition was so
+resolute that Edward was forced to permit many immunities to remain.
+Though the most orthodox of churchmen, his dislike of authority not
+emanating from himself threatened to involve him in constant conflict
+with the Church, and notably with John Peckham, the Franciscan friar,
+who was archbishop of Canterbury from 1279 to 1292. The statute of
+Mortmain of 1279, which forbade the further grant of lands to
+ecclesiastical corporations without the royal consent, and the writ
+_Circumspecte Agatis_ of 1285, which limited the church courts to
+strictly ecclesiastical business, both provoked strong clerical
+opposition. However, Peckham gave way to some extent, and Edward
+prudently acquiesced in many clerical assumptions which he disliked. He
+was strong enough to refuse to pay the tribute to Rome which John had
+promised, and his reign saw the end of that papal overlordship over
+England which had greatly complicated the situation under his father.
+
+Besides administration and legislation, the other great event of the
+first fifteen years of Edward's reign was the conquest of the
+principality of Wales. It was part of Edward's policy of reconciliation
+after the battle of Evesham that in the treaty of Shrewsbury of 1267 he
+had fully recognized the great position which Llewelyn ab Gruffyd,
+prince of Wales, had gained as the ally of Simon de Montfort. However,
+Llewelyn's early successes had blinded the Welsh prince to the
+limitations of his power, and he profited by Edward's early absences
+from England to delay in performing his feudal obligations to the new
+king. Even after Edward's return Llewelyn continued to evade doing
+homage. At last Edward lost patience, and in 1277 invaded north Wales.
+He conducted his campaign like a great siege, blocking all the avenues
+to Snowdon, and forcing Llewelyn to surrender from lack of supplies. He
+thereupon reduced the Welsh prince to the position of a petty north
+Welsh chieftain strictly dependent on the English. For the next five
+years Edward did his best to set up the English system of government in
+the ceded districts. The Welsh resentment of this soon gave Llewelyn
+another chance, and compelled Edward to devote the years 1282-1283 to
+completing his conquest. In 1284 he issued the statute of Wales, which
+provided for a scheme for the future government of the principality.
+Edward is often called the conqueror of Wales, but in truth he only
+effected the conquest of Llewelyn's dominions. The march of Wales was
+only indirectly affected by his legislation, and remained subject to its
+feudal marcher lords until the 16th century.
+
+Edward was very careful in his foreign policy. Though preserving nominal
+peace with his cousin Philip III. of France, his relations with that
+country were constantly strained. After Philip III.'s death in 1285,
+Edward crossed the Channel in 1286, to perform homage to his successor,
+Philip the Fair. He remained abroad till 1289, busied in attempts to
+improve the administration of Gascony, and making repeated and finally
+successful efforts to end by his mediation the still continuing struggle
+between the houses of Anjou and Aragon. His long absence threw the
+government of England into confusion, and on his return in 1289 he was
+compelled to dismiss most of his judges and ministers for corruption. In
+1290 he expelled all Jews from England.
+
+The affairs of Scotland furnished Edward with his chief preoccupation
+for the rest of his reign. After the death of Alexander III., in 1286,
+Scotland was governed in the name of his granddaughter Margaret, the
+Maid of Norway. The English king had suggested that Edward of Carnarvon,
+his eldest surviving son, should marry the little queen of Scots, and
+thus bring about the union of the two countries. Unluckily the death of
+Margaret in 1290 frustrated the scheme. The Scottish throne was now
+disputed by many claimants, and the Scots asked Edward to arbitrate
+between them. Edward accepted the position, but insisted that, before he
+acted, the Scots should recognize him as their overlord. The claimants
+set the example of submission, and soon the chief Scots nobles followed.
+Thereupon Edward undertook the arbitration, and in 1292 adjudged the
+throne to John Baliol. The new king did homage to Edward, but his
+subjects soon began to resent the claims of jurisdiction over Scotland,
+which Edward declared were the natural results of his feudal supremacy.
+At last the Scots deprived John of nearly all his power, repudiated
+Edward's claims, and made an alliance with the French. During the years
+of the Scottish arbitration Edward had slowly been drifting into war
+with France. The chronic difficulties caused by French attempts to
+confine Edward's power in Gascony were now accentuated by the quarrels
+between the sailors and merchants of the two countries. In 1293 Edward
+was persuaded by his brother, Edmund, earl of Lancaster, to yield up
+Gascony temporarily to Philip the Fair. But Philip refused to restore
+the duchy, and Edward, seeing that he had been tricked, declared war
+against France, at the very moment when the Scottish resistance gave the
+French a firm ally in Britain. To make matters worse, the Welsh rose in
+rebellion. It was therefore quite impossible for Edward to recover
+Gascony.
+
+The most critical years of Edward's reign now began. He saw that he
+could only meet his difficulties by throwing himself on the support of
+his own subjects, and convoked, in 1295, a representative parliament of
+the three estates, which has been called in later times the Model
+Parliament, because it first illustrated the type which was to be
+perpetuated in all subsequent parliaments. "What touches all," ran
+Edward's writ of summons, "should be approved of all, and it is also
+clear that common dangers should be met by measures agreed upon in
+common." The parliamentary constitution of England was established as
+the result of Edward's action.
+
+Secure of his subjects' allegiance, Edward put down the Welsh revolt,
+and conquered Scotland in 1296. When quiet was restored to Britain, he
+hoped to throw all his energy into the recovery of Gascony, but new
+troubles arose at home which once more diverted him from his supreme
+purpose. Led by Archbishop Winchelsea, Peckham's successor, the clergy
+refused to pay taxes in obedience to the bull of Pope Boniface VIII.,
+called _Clericis Laicos_. Edward declared that if the clergy would not
+contribute to support the state, the state could afford them no
+protection. But the clerical opposition was soon joined by a baronial
+opposition. Headed by the earls of Hereford and Norfolk, many of the
+barons declined to join in an expedition to Gascony, and Edward was
+forced to sail to the French war, leaving them behind. Thereupon the
+recalcitrant barons forced upon the regency a fresh confirmation of the
+charters, to which new articles were added, safeguarding the people from
+arbitrary taxation. Edward at Ghent reluctantly accepted this
+_Confirmatio Cariarum_, but even his submission did not end the crisis.
+In the same year (1297), all Scotland rose in revolt under the popular
+hero William Wallace, and next year (1298), Edward was forced to
+undertake its reconquest. The battle of Falkirk, won on the 22nd of
+July, was the greatest of Edward's military triumphs; but, though it
+destroyed the power of Wallace, it did not put an end to Scottish
+resistance. Bitter experience taught Edward that he could not fight the
+French and the Scots at the same time, and in 1299 he made peace with
+Philip, and, Eleanor having died in November 1290, he married the French
+king's sister Margaret (c. 1282-1318), and some years later obtained the
+restitution of Gascony. In the same spirit he strove to destroy the
+clerical and baronial opposition. He did not succeed in the former task
+until a complacent pope arose in his own subject, Clement V., who
+abandoned Winchelsea to his anger, and suffered the archbishop to be
+driven into exile. The baronial leaders could not be wholly overthrown
+by force, and Edward was compelled to make them fresh concessions.
+
+It was not until 1303 that Edward was able to undertake seriously the
+conquest of Scotland. By 1305 the land was subdued, and Wallace beheaded
+as a traitor. But Edward had hardly organized the government of his new
+conquest when a fresh revolt broke out under Robert Bruce, grandson of
+the chief rival of Baliol in 1290. Bruce was soon crowned king of Scots,
+and at the age of seventy Edward had to face the prospect of conquering
+Scotland for the third time. He resolved to take the field in person;
+but the effort was too great, and on the 7th of July 1307 he died at
+Burgh-on-Sands, near Carlisle. His death destroyed the last faint hope
+of conquering Scotland, and showed that the chief ambition of his life
+was a failure. Yet his conquest of Wales, his legislation, his triumph
+over his barons, his ecclesiastics, and the greatest of French medieval
+kings indicate the strength and permanence of his work. He was buried
+at Westminster under a plain slab on which was inscribed _Edwardus
+primus Scottorum malleus hic est. Pactum serva._
+
+By Eleanor of Castile Edward had four sons, his successor Edward II. and
+three who died young, and nine daughters, including Joan, or Joanna
+(1272-1307), the wife of Gilbert de Clare, earl of Gloucester (d. 1295),
+and then of Ralph de Monthermer; Margaret (1275-1318), the wife of John
+II., duke of Brabant; and Eleanor (1282-1316), who married John I.,
+count of Holland, and then Humphrey Bohun, earl of Hereford (d. 1322).
+By Margaret of France the king had two sons: Thomas of Brotherton, earl
+of Norfolk, and Edmund of Woodstock, earl of Kent.
+
+  The principal modern authorities for this reign are: W. Stubbs,
+  _Constitutional History of England_, vol. ii. chaps. xiv. and xv.
+  (1896); T.F. Tout, _Edward I._ (1893), and _Political History of
+  England, 1216-1377_, pp. 136-235 (1905); R.B. Seeley, _Life and Reign
+  of Edward I._ (1872); R. Pauli, _Geschichte von England_, iv. pp.
+  1-198 (Hamburg, 1864-1875); W. Hunt, article on "Edward I." in
+  _Dictionary of National Biography_; J.E. Morris, _Welsh Wars of Edward
+  I._ (Oxford, 1901); and C.V. Langlois's _Philippe le Hardi_ (Paris,
+  1887).     (T. F. T.)
+
+
+
+
+EDWARD II. (1284-1327), "of Carnarvon," king of England, the fourth son
+of Edward I. by his first wife Eleanor of Castile, was born at Carnarvon
+Castle on the 25th of April 1284. The story that the king presented the
+new-born child to the Welsh as their future native prince is quite
+unfounded, for Edward was only made prince of Wales in the Lincoln
+parliament of 1301. When a few months old, he became by his elder
+brother's death the heir to the throne, and Edward I. took great pains
+to train him in warfare and statecraft. He took part in several Scots
+campaigns, but all his father's efforts could not prevent his acquiring
+the habits of extravagance and frivolity which he retained all through
+his life. The old king attributed his son's defects to the bad influence
+of his friend, the Gascon knight Piers Gaveston, and drove the favourite
+into exile. When Edward I. died, on the 7th of July 1307, the first act
+of the prince, now Edward II., was to recall Gaveston. His next was to
+abandon the Scots campaign on which his father had set his heart.
+
+The new king was physically almost as fine a man as Edward I. He was,
+however, destitute of any serious purpose, and was, as Dr Stubbs says,
+"the first king after the Conquest who was not a man of business." He
+cared for nothing but amusing himself, and found his chief delight in
+athletics and in the practice of mechanical crafts. He was not so much
+vicious as foolish, and wanting in all serious interests. He had so
+little confidence in himself that he was always in the hands of some
+favourite who possessed a stronger will than his own. In the early years
+of his reign Gaveston held this role, acting as regent when Edward went
+to France--where, on the 25th of January 1308, he married Isabella, the
+daughter of Philip the Fair--and receiving the earldom of Cornwall with
+the hand of the king's niece, Margaret of Gloucester. The barons soon
+grew indignant at Edward's devotion to his "brother Piers," and twice
+insisted on his banishment. On each occasion Edward soon recalled his
+friend, whereupon the barons, headed by the king's cousin Thomas, earl
+of Lancaster, went to war against king and favourite, and in 1312
+treacherously put Gaveston to death. Edward was not strong enough even
+to avenge his loss. He was forced to stand aside and suffer the realm to
+be governed by the baronial committee of twenty-one lords ordainers,
+who, in 1311, had drawn up a series of ordinances, whose effect was to
+substitute ordainers for the king as the effective government of the
+country. But in all the ordinances nothing was said about the commons
+and lower clergy. Parliament meant to the new rulers an assembly of
+barons just as it had done to the opponents of Henry III. in 1258. The
+effect of their triumph was to change England from a monarchy to a
+narrow oligarchy.
+
+During the quarrels between Edward and the ordainers, Robert Bruce was
+steadily conquering Scotland. His progress was so great that he had
+occupied all the fortresses save Stirling, which he closely besieged.
+The danger of losing Stirling shamed Edward and the barons into an
+attempt to retrieve their lost ground. In June 1314 Edward led a great
+army into Scotland in the hope of relieving Stirling. On the 24th of
+June his ill-disciplined and badly led host was completely defeated by
+Robert Bruce at Bannockburn. Henceforth Bruce was sure of his position
+as king of Scots, and his pitiless devastation of the northern counties
+of England was his wild vengeance for the sufferings his land had
+previously experienced from the English. Edward's disgraceful defeat
+made him more dependent on his barons than ever. His kinsman, Thomas of
+Lancaster, had now an opportunity of saving England from the
+consequences of the king's incompetence. He had shown some capacity as a
+leader of opposition, but though he had great wealth, and was lord of
+five earldoms, he had small ability and no constructive power. In his
+desire to keep the king weak, he was suspected to have made a secret
+understanding with Robert Bruce. Before long the opposition split up
+under his incompetent guidance into fiercely contending factions. Under
+Aymer of Valence, earl of Pembroke, a middle party arose, which hated
+Lancaster so much that it supported the king to put an end to
+Lancaster's rule. After 1318 the effect of its influence was to restore
+Edward to some portion of his authority. However, the king hated
+Pembroke almost as much as Lancaster. He now found a competent adviser
+in Hugh le Despenser, a baron of great experience. What was more
+important to him, he had in Despenser's son, Hugh le Despenser the
+younger, a personal friend and favourite, who was able in some measure
+to replace Gaveston. The fierce hatred which the barons manifested to
+the Despensers showed that they could hate a deserter as bitterly as
+they had hated the Gascon adventurer. They were indignant at the favours
+which Edward lavished upon the favourite and his father, and were
+especially alarmed when the younger Despenser strove to procure for
+himself the earldom of Gloucester in right of his wife, Edward's niece.
+
+At last, in 1321, the barons met in parliament, and under Lancaster's
+guidance procured the banishment of the Despensers. The disasters of his
+friends inspired Edward to unwonted activity. In 1322 he recalled them
+from exile, and waged war against the barons on their behalf. Triumph
+crowned his exertions. Lancaster, defeated at Boroughbridge, was
+executed at Pontefract. For the next five years the Despensers ruled
+England. Unlike the ordainers, they took pains to get the Commons on
+their side, and a parliament held at York in 1322 revoked the ordinances
+because they trenched upon the rights of the crown, and were drawn up by
+the barons only. From this time no statute was technically valid unless
+the Commons had agreed to it. This marks the most important step forward
+in Edward II.'s reign. But the rule of the Despensers soon fell away
+from this wise beginning. They thought only of heaping up wealth for
+themselves, and soon stirred up universal indignation. In particular,
+they excited the ill-will of the queen, Isabella of France. Craftily
+dissembling her indignation, Isabella kept silence until 1325, when she
+went to France in company with her eldest son, Edward of Windsor, who
+was sent to do homage for Aquitaine to her brother, the new French king.
+When her business was over, Isabella declined to return to her husband
+as long as the Despensers remained his favourites. She formed a criminal
+connexion with Roger Mortimer of Wigmore, one of the baronial exiles,
+and in September 1326 landed in Essex accompanied by Mortimer and her
+son, declaring that she was come to avenge the murder of Lancaster, and
+to expel the Despensers. Edward's followers deserted him, and on the 2nd
+of October he fled from London to the west, where he took refuge in the
+younger Despenser's estates in Glamorgan. His wife followed him, put to
+death both the Despensers, and, after a futile effort to escape by sea,
+Edward was captured on the 16th of November. He was imprisoned at
+Kenilworth Castle, and a parliament met at Westminster in January 1327,
+which chose his son to be king as Edward III. It was thought prudent to
+compel the captive king to resign the crown, and on the 20th of January
+Edward was forced to renounce his office before a committee of the
+estates. The government of Isabella and Mortimer was so weakly
+established that it dared not leave the deposed king alive. On the 3rd
+of April he was secretly removed from Kenilworth and entrusted to the
+custody of two dependants of Mortimer. After various wanderings he was
+imprisoned at Berkeley Castle in Gloucestershire. Every indignity was
+inflicted upon him, and he was systematically ill-treated in the hope
+that he would die of disease. When his strong constitution seemed likely
+to prevail over the ill-treatment of his enemies he was cruelly put to
+death on the 21st of September. It was announced that he had died a
+natural death, and he was buried in St Peter's Abbey at Gloucester, now
+the cathedral, where his son afterwards erected a magnificent tomb.
+
+Edward's wife, Isabella (c. 1292-1358), bore him two sons, Edward III.
+and John of Eltham, earl of Cornwall (1316-1336), and two daughters,
+Isabella and Joanna (1321-1362), wife of David II., king of Scotland.
+After the execution of her paramour, Roger Mortimer, in 1330, Isabella
+retired from public life; she died at Hertford on the 23rd of August
+1358.
+
+  See R. Pauli, _Geschichte von England_, iv. pp. 199-306; T.F. Tout,
+  _Political History of England_, 1216-1307, pp. 236-304, and article in
+  _Dictionary of National Biography_; W. Stubbs, _Constitutional
+  History_, vol. ii. pp. 319-386, and _Introductions to Chronicles of
+  the Reigns of Edward I. and Edward II._ in Rolls series.
+       (T. F. T.)
+
+
+
+
+EDWARD III. (1312-1377), "of Windsor," king of England, eldest son of
+Edward II. and Isabella of France, was born at Windsor on the 13th of
+November 1312. In 1320 he was made earl of Chester, and in 1325 duke of
+Aquitaine, but he never received the title of prince of Wales.
+Immediately after his appointment to Aquitaine, he was sent to France to
+do homage to his uncle Charles IV., and remained abroad until he
+accompanied his mother and Mortimer in their expedition to England. To
+raise funds for this he was betrothed to Philippa, daughter of the count
+of Hainaut. On the 26th of October 1326, after the fall of Bristol, he
+was proclaimed warden of the kingdom during his father's absence. On the
+13th of January 1327 parliament recognized him as king, and he was
+crowned on the 29th of the same month.
+
+For the next four years Isabella and Mortimer governed in his name,
+though nominally his guardian was Henry, earl of Lancaster. In the
+summer he took part in an abortive campaign against the Scots, and was
+married to Philippa at York on the 24th of January 1328. On the 15th of
+June 1330 his eldest child, Edward, the Black Prince, was born. Soon
+after, Edward made a successful effort to throw off his degrading
+dependence on his mother and her paramour. In October 1330 he entered
+Nottingham Castle by night, through a subterranean passage, and took
+Mortimer prisoner. On the 29th of November the execution of the
+favourite at Tyburn completed the young king's emancipation. Edward
+discreetly drew a veil over his mother's relations with Mortimer, and
+treated her with every respect. There is no truth in the stories that
+henceforth he kept her in honourable confinement, but her political
+influence was at an end.
+
+Edward III.'s real reign now begins. Young, ardent and active, he strove
+with all his might to win back for England something of the position
+which it had acquired under Edward I. He bitterly resented the
+concession of independence to Scotland by the treaty of Northampton of
+1328, and the death of Robert Bruce in 1329 gave him a chance of
+retrieving his position. The new king of Scots, David, who was his
+brother-in-law, was a mere boy, and the Scottish barons, exiled for
+their support of Robert Bruce, took advantage of the weakness of his
+rule to invade Scotland in 1332. At their head was Edward Baliol, whose
+victory at Dupplin Moor established him for a brief time as king of
+Scots. After four months Baliol was driven out by the Scots, whereupon
+Edward for the first time openly took up his cause. In 1333 the king won
+in person the battle of Halidon Hill over the Scots, but his victory did
+not restore Baliol to power. The Scots despised him as a puppet of the
+English king, and after a few years David was finally established in
+Scotland. During these years England gradually drifted into hostility
+with France. The chief cause of this was the impossible situation which
+resulted from Edward's position as duke of Gascony. Contributing causes
+were Philip's support of the Scots and Edward's alliance with the
+Flemish cities, which were then on bad terms with their French overlord,
+and the revival of Edward's claim, first made in 1328, to the French
+crown. War broke out in 1337, and in 1338 Edward visited Coblenz, where
+he made an alliance with the emperor Louis the Bavarian. In 1339 and
+1340 Edward endeavoured to invade France from the north with the help of
+his German and Flemish allies, but the only result of his campaigns was
+to reduce him to bankruptcy.
+
+In 1340, however, he took personal part in the great naval battle off
+Sluys, in which he absolutely destroyed the French navy. In the same
+year he assumed the title of king of France. At first he did this to
+gratify the Flemings, whose scruples in fighting their overlord, the
+French king, disappeared when they persuaded themselves that Edward was
+the rightful king of France. However, his pretensions to the French
+crown gradually became more important. The persistence with which he and
+his successors urged them made stable peace impossible for more than a
+century, and this made the struggle famous in history as the Hundred
+Years' War. Till the days of George III. every English king also called
+himself king of France.
+
+Despite his victory at Sluys, Edward was so exhausted by his land
+campaign that he was forced before the end of 1340 to make a truce and
+return to England. He unfairly blamed his chief minister, Archbishop
+Stratford, for his financial distress, and immediately on his return
+vindictively attacked him. Before the truce expired a disputed
+succession to the duchy of Brittany gave Edward an excuse for renewing
+hostilities with France. In 1342 he went to Brittany and fought an
+indecisive campaign against the French. He was back in England in 1343.
+In the following years he spent much time and money in rebuilding
+Windsor Castle, and instituting the order of the Garter, which he did in
+order to fulfil a vow that he had taken to restore the Round Table of
+Arthur. His finances, therefore, remained embarrassed despite the
+comparative pause in the war, although in 1339 he had repudiated his
+debt to his Italian creditors, a default that brought about widespread
+misery in Florence.
+
+A new phase of the French war begins when in July 1346 Edward landed in
+Normandy, accompanied by his eldest son, Edward, prince of Wales, a
+youth of sixteen. In a memorable campaign Edward marched from La Hogue
+to Caen, and from Caen almost to the gates of Paris. It was a plundering
+expedition on a large scale, and like most of Edward's campaigns showed
+some want of strategic purpose. But Edward's decisive victory over the
+French at Crécy, in Ponthieu, on the 26th of August, where he scattered
+the army with which Philip VI. attempted to stay his retreat from Paris
+to the northern frontier, signally demonstrated the tactical superiority
+of Edward's army over the French. Next year Edward effected the
+reduction of Calais. This was the most solid and lasting of his
+conquests, and its execution compelled him to greater efforts than the
+Crécy campaign. Other victories in Gascony and Brittany further
+emphasized his power. In 1346, David, king of Scots, was also defeated
+and taken prisoner at Neville's Cross, near Durham. In the midst of his
+successes, however, want of money forced Edward to make a new truce in
+1347. He was as far from the conquest of France as ever.
+
+Edward returned to England in October 1347. He celebrated his triumph by
+a series of splendid tournaments, and completed his scheme for the
+establishment of the order of the Garter. In 1348 he rejected an offer
+of the imperial throne. In the same year the Black Death first appeared
+in England, and raged until 1349. Yet the horrors which it wrought
+hardly checked the magnificent revels of Edward's court, and neither the
+plague nor the truce stayed the course of the French war, though what
+fighting there was was indecisive and on a small scale. Edward's martial
+exploits during the next years were those of a gallant knight rather
+than those of a responsible general. Conspicuous among them were his
+famous combat with Eustace de Ribemont, near Calais, in 1349, and the
+hard-fought naval victory over the Spaniards off Winchelsea, in 1350.
+Efforts to make peace, initiated by Pope Innocent VI., came to nothing,
+though the English commons were now weary of the war. The result of this
+failure was the renewal of war on a large scale. In 1355 Edward led an
+unsuccessful raid out of Calais, and in January and February 1356
+harried the Lothians, in the expedition famous as the Burned Candlemas.
+His exploits sank into insignificance as compared with those of his son,
+whose victory at Poitiers, on the 19th of September 1356, resulted in
+the captivity of King John, and forced the French to accept a new truce.
+Edward entertained his royal captive very magnificently, and in 1359
+concluded with him the treaty of London, by which John surrendered so
+much that the French repudiated the treaty. Edward thereupon resolved to
+invade France afresh and compel its acceptance. On the 28th of October
+he landed at Calais, and advanced to Reims, where he hoped to be crowned
+king of France. The strenuous resistance of the citizens frustrated this
+scheme, and Edward marched into Burgundy, whence he made his way back
+towards Paris. Failing in an attack on the capital, he was glad to
+conclude, on the 8th of May 1360, preliminaries of peace at Brétigny,
+near Chartres. This treaty, less onerous to France than that of London,
+took its final form in the treaty of Calais, ratified by King John on
+the 9th of October. By it Edward renounced his claim to France in return
+for the whole of Aquitaine.
+
+The treaty of Calais did not bring rest or prosperity either to England
+or France. Fresh visitations of the Black Death, in 1362 and 1369,
+intensified the social and economic disturbances which had begun with
+the first outbreak in 1348. Desperate, but not very successful, efforts
+were made to enforce the statute of Labourers, of 1351, by which it was
+sought to maintain prices and wages as they had been before the
+pestilence. Another feature of these years was the anti-papal, or rather
+anti-clerical, legislation embodied in the statutes of Provisors and
+Praemunire. These measures were first passed in 1351 and 1353, but often
+repeated. In 1366 Edward formally repudiated the feudal supremacy over
+England, still claimed by the papacy by reason of John's submission.
+Another feature of the time was the strenuous effort made by Edward to
+establish his numerous family without too great expense. In the end the
+estates of the houses of Lancaster, Kent, Bohun, Burgh and Mortimer
+swelled the revenues of Edward's children and grandchildren, in whose
+favour also the new title of duke was introduced.
+
+In 1369 the French king, Charles V., repudiated the treaty of Calais and
+renewed the war. Edward's French dominions gladly reverted to their old
+allegiance, and Edward showed little of his former vigour in meeting
+this new trouble. He resumed the title and arms of king of France, but
+left most of the fighting and administration of his foreign kingdoms to
+his sons, Edward and John. While the latter were struggling with little
+success against the rising tide of French national feeling, Edward's
+want of money made him a willing participator in the attack on the
+wealth and privileges of the Church. In 1371 a clerical ministry was
+driven from office, and replaced by laymen, who proved, however, less
+effective administrators than their predecessors. Meanwhile Aquitaine
+was gradually lost; the defeat of Pembroke off La Rochelle deprived
+England of the command of the sea, and Sir Owen ap Thomas, a
+grand-nephew of Llewelyn ab Gruffyd, planned, with French help, an
+abortive invasion of Wales. In 1371 the Black Prince came back to
+England with broken health, and in 1373 John of Lancaster marched to
+little purpose through France, from Calais to Bordeaux. In 1372 Edward
+made his final effort to lead an army, but contrary winds prevented his
+even landing his troops in France. In 1375 he was glad to make a truce,
+which lasted until his death. By it the only important possessions
+remaining in English hands were Calais, Bordeaux, Bayonne and Brest.
+
+Edward was now sinking into his dotage. After the death of Queen
+Philippa he fell entirely under the influence of a greedy mistress named
+Alice Perrers, while the Black Prince and John of Gaunt became the
+leaders of sharply divided parties in the court and council of the king.
+With the help of Alice Perrers John of Gaunt obtained the chief
+influence with his father, but his administration was neither
+honourable nor successful. His chief enemies were the higher
+ecclesiastics, headed by William of Wykeham, bishop of Winchester, who
+had been excluded from power in 1371. John further irritated the clergy
+by making an alliance with John Wycliffe. The opposition to John was led
+by the Black Prince and Edmund Mortimer, earl of March, the husband of
+Edward's grand-daughter, Philippa of Clarence. At last popular
+indignation against the courtiers came to a head in the famous Good
+Parliament of 1376. Alice Perrers was removed from court, and Duke
+John's subordinate instruments were impeached. But in the midst of the
+parliament the death of the Black Prince robbed the commons of their
+strongest support. John of Gaunt regained power, and in 1377 a new
+parliament, carefully packed by the courtiers, reversed the acts of the
+Good Parliament. Not long after Edward III. died, on the 21st of June
+1377.
+
+Edward III. was not a great man like Edward I. He was, however, an
+admirable tactician, a consummate knight, and he possessed extraordinary
+vigour and energy of temperament. His court, described at length in
+Froissart's famous chronicle, was the most brilliant in Europe, and he
+was himself well fitted to be the head of the magnificent chivalry that
+obtained fame in the French wars. Though his main ambition was military
+glory, he was not a bad ruler of England. He was liberal, kindly,
+good-tempered and easy of access, and his yielding to his subjects'
+wishes in order to obtain supplies for carrying on the French war
+contributed to the consolidation of the constitution. His weak points
+were his wanton breaches of good faith, his extravagance, his frivolity
+and his self-indulgence. Like that of Edward I. his ambition transcended
+his resources, and before he died even his subjects were aware of his
+failure.
+
+Edward had twelve children, seven sons and five daughters. Five of his
+sons played some part in the history of their time, these being Edward
+the Black Prince, Lionel of Antwerp, duke of Clarence, John of Gaunt,
+duke of Lancaster, Edmund of Langley, afterwards duke of York, and
+Thomas of Woodstock, afterwards duke of Gloucester. John and Edmund are
+also important as the founders of the rival houses of Lancaster and
+York. Each of the last four was named from the place of his birth, and
+for the same reason the Black Prince is sometimes called Edward of
+Woodstock. The king's two other sons both died in infancy. Of his
+daughters, three died unmarried; the others were Isabella, who married
+into the family of Coucy, and Mary, who married into that of Montfort.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The two chief modern lives of Edward III. are W.
+  Longman's _Life and Times of Edward III._, and J. Mackinnon's _History
+  of Edward III._ Neither work can be regarded as adequate, and in some
+  ways J. Barnes's quaint _History of Edward III._ (1688) is less
+  unsatisfactory. The general history of the time can be read in W.
+  Stubbs's _Constitutional History of England_, vol. ii. chapters xvi.
+  and xvii.; in T.F. Tout's _Political History of England_, 1216-1377,
+  pp. 301-441; in R. Pauli's _Geschichte von England_, iv. pp. 307-504;
+  and in Edward's life by W. Hunt in the _Dictionary of National
+  Biography_. For the Hundred Years' War, see E. Déprez's _Les
+  Préliminaires de la guerre de cent ans, 1328-1342_, and H. Denifle's
+  _La Desolation des églises, monastères et hôpitaux en France pendant
+  la guerre de cent ans_. For economic and social history see W.J.
+  Ashley's _English Economic History_, and W. Cunningham's _Growth of
+  English Industry and Commerce during the Early and Middle Ages_. For
+  the end of the reign see S. Armitage Smith's _John of Gaunt_, J.
+  Lechler's _Wiclif und die Vorgeschichte der Reformation_, translated
+  as _Wycliffe and his English Precursors_, R.L. Poole's _Wycliffe and
+  Movements for Reform_, and G.M. Trevelyan's _England in the Age of
+  Wycliffe_.     (T. F. T.)
+
+
+
+
+EDWARD IV. (1442-1483), king of England, son of Richard, duke of York,
+by Cicely Neville, was born at Rouen on the 28th of April 1442. As a boy
+he was styled earl of March, and spent most of his time at Ludlow. After
+the Yorkist failure at Ludlow field in October 1459, Edward fled with
+the earls of Salisbury and Warwick, his uncle and cousin, to Calais.
+Thence in the following July he accompanied them in their successful
+invasion of England, to be welcomed in London, and to share in the
+victory over the Lancastrians at Northampton. After the acceptance of
+Richard of York as heir to the crown, Edward returned to the Welsh
+marches, where early in the new year he heard of his father's defeat
+and death at Wakefield. Hastily gathering an army he defeated the earls
+of Pembroke and Wiltshire at Mortimer's Cross on the 2nd of February
+1461, and then marched on London. He was acclaimed by the citizens in an
+assembly at Clerkenwell, declared king by a Yorkist council, and took
+possession of the regality on the 4th of March. Soon after the new king
+and the earl of Warwick went north, and on the 28th of March won a
+decisive victory at Towton.
+
+Edward owed his throne to his kinsmen the Nevilles, and he was content
+for the time to be guided by them. For himself he was young and fond of
+pleasure. Still he made frequent progresses, and took some part in the
+fighting that went on in the north during 1462 and 1463. But he was
+absent from the final victory at Hexham on the 14th of May 1464, and was
+at the very time engaged in contracting a secret marriage with
+Elizabeth, daughter of Richard Woodville, Lord Rivers, and widow of Sir
+John Grey of Groby (d. 1461). The marriage was disclosed at Michaelmas,
+much to the vexation of Warwick, who in pursuit of his foreign policy
+had projected a match with a French princess. Edward heaped favours on
+his new relatives; his father-in-law was made treasurer, and great
+marriages were found for his wife's sisters and brothers. In foreign
+affairs also Edward thwarted Warwick's plans by favouring an alliance
+with Burgundy rather than France. There was, however, no open breach
+till 1469, when Warwick, taking advantage of the unpopularity of the
+Woodvilles, and supported by the king's next brother George, duke of
+Clarence, appeared in arms. Edward was surprised and made prisoner at
+Middleham, and Rivers was beheaded. For six months Edward had to submit
+to Warwick's tutelage; then on the occasion of a rising in Lincolnshire
+he gathered an army of his own. Sir Robert Welles, the leader of this
+rebellion, made a confession implicating Warwick, who fled with Clarence
+to France. The king thought himself secure, but when Warwick and
+Clarence made terms with the Lancastrian exiles, Edward in his turn had
+to seek refuge in Holland (September 1470). His brother-in-law, Charles
+of Burgundy, at first refused him any assistance, but at last furnished
+him with money, and on the 14th of March 1471 Edward and his brother
+Richard landed with a small force at Ravenspur near Hull. Marching south
+he was welcomed at London on the 11th of April, defeated Warwick at
+Barnet three days later, and the Lancastrians at Tewkesbury on the 4th
+of May. From thenceforth Edward's possession of the crown was secure.
+His position was strengthened by the birth of a son (2nd of November
+1470, during his exile), and by the wealth which he acquired through the
+confiscation of the estates of his opponents. Clarence had made his
+peace with Edward, but was at enmity with his other brother Richard of
+Gloucester, who now married Warwick's second daughter and claimed a
+share in the Neville inheritance. Their rivalry and Clarence's continued
+intrigues furnished Edward with his chief domestic difficulty; the
+trouble was ended by the judicial murder of Clarence in 1478.
+
+The only serious enterprise of these latter years was the short French
+war of 1475, from which Edward was bought out by the treaty of
+Pecquigny. As foreign policy it was inglorious, and involved a departure
+from Edward's earlier plan of a Burgundian alliance. However, it shows a
+certain recognition of England's need to concentrate her energies on her
+own development. The annual subsidy which Louis XI. agreed to pay
+further served Edward's purposes by providing him with money for home
+government, and enabled him to avoid possible trouble through the
+necessity for too frequent parliaments and heavy taxation. So Edward's
+personal rule became in its character autocratic; but it was in the art
+of courting popularity and concealing despotism that he most shows
+himself as a type of tyranny. He lacked neither ambition nor capacity,
+but was indolent and only exerted himself spasmodically. He could be
+ruthless, but was not habitually cruel. His strongest weapons were the
+fine presence, the affable manners (even with citizens), and the love of
+pleasure and entertainments which secured his personal popularity. In
+his last years he was given to self-indulgence and scandalous excesses,
+which did not, however, alienate the London citizens, with whose wives
+he was too familiar. Most of the power at court was in the hands of the
+Woodvilles, in spite of their unpopularity; the more arduous work of
+administration in the north was left to Richard of Gloucester. If as a
+prince of the Renaissance Edward was the first to rule tyrannically in
+England, he also deserves credit as a patron of the new culture and
+friend of Caxton; he further resembles his Italian contemporaries in the
+commercial purposes to which he applied his wealth in partnership with
+London merchants.
+
+Edward died at Westminster on the 9th of April 1483, and was buried at
+Windsor. By Elizabeth Woodville, who died on the 8th of June 1492, he
+had two sons, Edward V. and Richard of York, who were murdered in the
+Tower; and five daughters, of whom the eldest, Elizabeth, married Henry
+VII. Of his numerous mistresses the most notorious was Jane Shore.
+Before his marriage he had been contracted to Lady Eleanor Butler, and
+this was alleged by Richard III. to have made his children by Elizabeth
+Woodville illegitimate.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Of original authorities for Edward's reign the chief
+  are the _Continuation of the Cropland Chronicle_ in Fulman's
+  _Scriptores_; the various London Chronicles, especially for the early
+  years _Gregory's Chronicle_; Warkworth's _Chronicle_, and the
+  _Arrivall of King Edward IV._ (a partisan account of events in
+  1470-1471), published by the Camden Society; the _Paston Letters_ with
+  Dr Gairdner's valuable Introduction; and for foreign affairs the
+  _Mémoires_ of Philippe de Comines; the collection called _Chronicles
+  of the White Rose_ is useful. For modern authors, consult Sir James
+  Ramsay's _Lancaster and York_ (1892), and the _Political History of
+  England_, vol. iv. (1906), by Prof. C. Oman.     (C. L. K.)
+
+
+
+
+EDWARD V. (1470-1483), king of England, was the elder son of Edward IV.
+by his wife Elizabeth Woodville, and was born, during his father's
+temporary exile, in the sanctuary of Westminster Abbey on the 2nd of
+November 1470. In June 1471 he was created prince of Wales. When Edward
+IV. died in April 1483 a struggle for power took place between the young
+king's paternal uncle, Richard, duke of Gloucester, who had been
+appointed as his guardian by Edward IV., and his maternal uncle, Richard
+Woodville, Earl Rivers. Gloucester obtained possession of the king's
+person, and, having arrested Rivers and some of his supporters, assumed
+the crown himself after a very slight and feigned reluctance, on the
+ground that the marriage of Edward and Elizabeth Woodville was invalid,
+and consequently its issue was illegitimate. At this time Edward and his
+brother Richard, duke of York, were living in the Tower of London.
+Shortly afterwards a movement was organized to free them from captivity,
+and then it became known that they were already dead; but, though it was
+the general conviction that they had been murdered, it was twenty years
+before the manner of this deed was discovered. According to the
+narrative of Sir Thomas More, Sir Robert Brackenbury, the constable of
+the Tower, refused to obey Richard's command to put the young princes to
+death; but he complied with a warrant ordering him to give up his keys
+for one night to Sir James Tyrell, who had arranged for the
+assassination. Two men, Miles Forest and John Dighton, then smothered
+the youths under pillows while they were asleep. The murder was
+committed most probably in August or September 1483. Horace Walpole has
+attempted to cast doubts upon the murder of the princes, and Sir C.R.
+Markham has argued that the deed was committed by order of Henry VII.
+Both these views, however, have been traversed by James Gairdner, and
+there seems little doubt that Sir Thomas More's story is substantially
+correct.
+
+  See RICHARD III.; and in addition, Sir Thomas More, _History of
+  Richard III._, edited by J.R. Lumby (Cambridge, 1883); Horace Walpole,
+  _Historic Doubts on the Life and Reign of Richard III._ (London,
+  1768); J. Gairdner, _Richard III._ (Cambridge, 1898); J. Gairdner and
+  C.R. Markham in the _English Historical Review_, vol. vi. (London,
+  1891); Sir C.R. Markham, _Richard III._ (1907).
+
+
+
+
+EDWARD VI. (1537-1553), king of England and Ireland, born at Greenwich
+on the 12th of October 1537, was the only child of Henry VIII. by his
+third wife, Jane Seymour, who died of puerperal fever twelve days later.
+The story that the mother's life was deliberately sacrificed by the
+performance of Caesarean section is unfounded, although Jane's death
+was little noticed amid the rejoicings which greeted the advent of a
+male heir to the throne. But in spite of Holbein's vivacious portrait of
+Edward at the age of two (now at Hanover), he was a frail child, and a
+short life was anticipated for him from his early years. This did not
+prevent a strenuous education; until the age of six he was naturally
+left in the charge of women, but when he was only seven his tutor Dr
+Coxe, afterwards bishop of Ely, writes that he could decline any Latin
+noun and conjugate any regular verb (_L. and P._, 1544, ii. 726); "every
+day in the mass-time he readeth a portion of Solomon's Proverbs, wherein
+he delighteth much." Sir John Cheke, Sir Anthony Cooke and Roger Ascham
+all helped to teach him Latin, Greek and French; and by the age of
+thirteen he had read Aristotle's _Ethics_ in the original and was
+himself translating Cicero's _De philosophia_ into Greek.
+
+Edward was duke of Cornwall from his birth, but he was never prince of
+Wales, and he was only nine when he succeeded his father as king of
+England and Ireland and supreme head of the church (28th of January
+1546/7). His nonage threw power into the hands of Somerset and then of
+Northumberland, and enabled Gardiner and Bonner to maintain that the
+royal supremacy over the church was, or should be, in abeyance. Projects
+for his marriage were hardly even the occasion, but only the excuse, for
+Somerset's war on Scotland and Northumberland's subsequent alliance with
+France. All factions sought to control his person, not because of his
+personality but because of his position; he was like the Great Seal,
+only more so, an indispensable adjunct to the wielder of authority. The
+Protector's brother tried to bribe him with pocket-money; Northumberland
+was more subtle and established a complete dominion over his mind, and
+then put him forward at the age of fourteen as entitled to all the power
+of Henry VIII. But he was only Northumberland's mask; of his individual
+influence on the course of history during his reign there is hardly a
+trace. A posthumous effort was made to give him the credit of a humane
+desire to save Joan Bocher from the flames; but he recorded with
+apparently cold-blooded indifference the execution of both his uncles,
+and he certainly made no attempt to mitigate the harassing attentions
+which the council paid his sister Mary. This passed for piety with the
+zealots, and the persecutions of Mary's reign reflected a halo on that
+of the Protestant Josiah. So strong was the regret that rumours of his
+survival persisted, and hare-brained youths were found to personate him
+throughout Mary's and even far into Elizabeth's reign.
+
+It was well that they were false, for Edward showed signs of all the
+Tudor obstinacy, and he was a fanatic into the bargain, as no other
+Tudor was except Mary. The combination would probably have involved
+England in disasters far greater than any that ensued upon his premature
+death; and it was much better that the Anglican settlement of religion
+should have been left to the compromising temper of Elizabeth. As it
+was, he bequeathed a legacy of woe; his health began to fail in 1552,
+and in May 1553 it was known that he was dying. But his will and the
+various drafts of it only betray the agitated and illogical efforts of
+Northumberland to contrive some means whereby he might continue to
+control the government and prevent the administration of justice. Mary
+and Elizabeth were to be excluded from the throne, as not sufficiently
+pliant instruments; Mary Stuart was ignored as being under Scottish,
+Catholic and French influence; the duchess of Suffolk, Lady Jane's
+mother, was excluded because she was married, and the duke her husband
+might claim the crown matrimonial. In fact, all females were excluded,
+except Jane, on the ground that no woman could reign; even she was
+excluded in the first draft, and the crown was left to "the Lady Jane's
+heirs male." But this draft was manipulated so as to read "the Lady Jane
+and her heirs male." That Edward himself was responsible for these
+delirious provisions is improbable. But he had been so impregnated with
+the divine right of kings and the divine truth of Protestantism that he
+thought he was entitled and bound to override the succession as
+established by law and exclude a Catholic from the throne; and his last
+recorded words were vehement injunctions to Cranmer to sign the will.
+He died at Greenwich on the 6th of July 1553, and was buried in Henry
+VII.'s chapel by Cranmer with Protestant rites on the 8th of August,
+while Mary had Mass said for his soul in the Tower.
+
+  J.G. Nichols collected almost all that is known of Edward VI. in his
+  excellent edition of the king's _Journal_. A few additional facts and
+  suggestions can be gleaned from the _Letters and Papers of Henry
+  VIII._ vols. xii.-xxi.; _Acts of the Privy Council_, ed. Dasent, vols.
+  i.-iv.; Domestic, Spanish, Venetian and Foreign _Calendars of State
+  Papers_; Froude's _History_; Dixon's _Hist. Church of England_; A.F.
+  Pollard's _England under Somerset_ and _Life of Cranmer_; and _English
+  Historical Review_, xxiii. 286, &c. Sir Clements Markham's _Edward
+  VI._ (1907) emphasizes his interest in geography.     (A. F. P.)
+
+
+
+
+EDWARD VII. (ALBERT EDWARD) (1841-1910), king of Great Britain and
+Ireland, and of the British Dominions beyond the Seas, emperor of India,
+the eldest son and second child of Queen Victoria and of Albert, prince
+consort, was born at Buckingham Palace on the 9th of November 1841. He
+was created prince of Wales and earl of Chester on the 4th of December
+following, and was baptized on the 25th of January 1842. In his
+childhood he was educated by the dowager Lady Lyttelton; and in his
+boyhood successively by the Rev. Henry Mildred Birch, Mr F.W. Gibbes,
+the Rev. C.F. Tarver and Mr Herbert W. Fisher. He afterwards resided at
+Edinburgh, studying chemistry in its industrial applications under
+Professor (afterwards Lord) Playfair at the university; at Christ
+Church, Oxford; and at Trinity College, Cambridge. In November 1858 he
+was made a knight of the Garter and a colonel in the army. In 1859 he
+travelled in Italy and Spain, and in 1860 paid a visit as "Lord Renfrew"
+to the United States and Canada.
+
+Upon the completion of his Cambridge course in June 1861 he joined the
+camp at the Curragh. The prince consort died on the 13th of December,
+and in 1862 the prince of Wales went for a tour in the Holy Land
+(February-June) under the guidance of Arthur Penrhyn Stanley, afterwards
+dean of Westminster. Early in 1863 he was sworn of the privy council,
+and took his seat in the House of Lords as duke of Cornwall. The estate
+of Sandringham, in Norfolk, was purchased for him out of the savings of
+his minority, and his town residence was fixed at Marlborough House.
+
+His impending marriage to the princess Alexandra, daughter of Christian
+IX., king of Denmark (b. December 1, 1844), had already been announced,
+and took place on the 10th of March at Windsor, the beauty and grace of
+the princess captivating the heart of the nation. Parliament granted the
+prince an income of £40,000 a year, exclusive of the revenues of the
+duchy of Cornwall, and he relinquished his right of succession to the
+duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. Prince Albert Victor, afterwards duke of
+Clarence, was the first offspring of the marriage, being born on the 8th
+of January 1864. The births followed of Prince George Frederick Ernest
+Albert, afterwards duke of York (see GEORGE V.), on the 3rd of June
+1865; Princess Louise Victoria Alexandra Dagmar, by marriage duchess of
+Fife, princess royal, on the 20th of February 1867; Princess Victoria
+Alexandra Olga Mary, on the 6th of July 1868; and Princess Maud
+Charlotte Mary Victoria, afterwards queen of Norway, on the 26th of
+November 1869.
+
+From the time of their marriage the prince and princess were prominently
+before the country. Queen Victoria remained in retirement, but they
+filled her place at important public functions. The prince's readiness
+to promote every worthy cause was most marked; no one was a more
+constant attendant at meetings for objects of public utility of a
+non-political nature, and his speeches were always characterized by
+excellent sense. The most important external event of these years was a
+tour to Egypt, undertaken in 1869 in company with the duke of
+Sutherland, Sir Samuel Baker and others, an account of which was
+published by Mrs William Grey. The prince also visited Ireland more than
+once, and opened the International Exhibition of 1871.
+
+On the 23rd of November 1871 it was announced that the prince would be
+prevented from paying a visit which had been arranged to the Maharajah
+Dhuleep Singh by a feverish attack. It soon appeared that the malady was
+typhoid, contracted as was supposed, on a visit to Scarborough. The
+case became so serious that on November 29 the queen and Princess Alice
+hurried to Sandringham. On the 1st of December there was a slight rally,
+but on the 8th so serious a relapse occurred that for some days the
+prince's life was despaired of. Under the skilful treatment of Sir
+William Jenner, Sir William Gull and Sir James Paget, however, the
+crisis was surmounted by December 16, and by Christmas day the danger
+was regarded as virtually over. On the 27th of February 1872 a
+thanksgiving was held at St Paul's, amid imposing demonstrations of
+public joy.
+
+In January 1874 the prince of Wales attended the marriage at St.
+Petersburg of his brother, the duke of Edinburgh, with the grand-duchess
+Marie of Russia. In the same year he paid a historic visit to
+Birmingham, where Mr Joseph Chamberlain, not yet a member of parliament,
+received him officially as mayor. In March 1875 it was officially
+announced that he would make a visit to India, carrying out an idea
+originally conceived by the first Indian viceroy, Earl Canning. He was
+supposed to travel as heir-apparent, not as representative of the queen;
+but the characters could not be kept apart, and in fact the prince's
+visit was a political event of great importance. Leaving England on
+October 11, he was received at Bombay by the viceroy, Lord Northbrook.
+Here he met a very large number of Indian feudatory princes, whose
+acquaintance he subsequently improved by visiting at their courts during
+the seventeen weeks which he spent in the country. During these four
+months the prince travelled nearly 8000 m. by land and 2500 m. by sea,
+became acquainted with more rajahs than had all the viceroys who had
+reigned over India, and saw more of the country than any living
+Englishman. The visit led up to the queen's assumption of the title of
+empress of India in the following year.
+
+The prince's life after this date was full of conspicuous public
+appearances. In 1885 he visited Ireland at a time of much political
+excitement, and was received enthusiastically in many quarters and
+without symptoms of ill-will in any. In 1886 he filled the presidency of
+the Indian and Colonial Exhibition, opened the Mersey Tunnel, and laid
+the first stone of the Tower Bridge. In 1887 a large share of the
+arrangements for the queen's Jubilee devolved upon him. On the 27th of
+July 1589 his eldest daughter, Princess Louise, was married to the duke
+of Fife. In the autumn he paid a semi-incognito visit to Paris, where he
+was always highly popular, viewed the Exhibition, and ascended the
+Eiffel Tower. In 1890 he opened the Forth Bridge. On the 14th of January
+1892, however, a heavy blow fell upon him and his house by the death of
+his eldest son, Prince Albert Victor, duke of Clarence, after a brief
+illness. The young prince, who with his brother George had made the tour
+of the world (1879-1882) in H.M.S. "Bacchante," and after a short career
+at Oxford and Cambridge was just settling down to play his part in
+public life, had recently become engaged to Princess Victoria Mary of
+Teck (b. May 26, 1867), and the popularity of the heir to the crown had
+been increased by the expression of his satisfaction at his son's bride
+being an English princess. On the 6th of July 1893 the broken thread was
+reunited by her marriage to Prince George, duke of York.
+
+The year 1894 was a busy one for the prince of Wales, who became a
+member of the royal commission on the housing of the poor, opened the
+Tower Bridge, attended the Welsh Eisteddfod and was duly initiated, and
+paid two visits to Russia--one for the marriage of the grand-duchess
+Xenia, the other for the funeral of the tsar, his brother-in-law. In
+1896 he became first chancellor of the university of Wales, and his
+first act after his installation at Aberystwyth was to confer an
+honorary degree upon the princess. He had already been for some years a
+trustee of the British Museum. On the 22nd of July 1896 his daughter.
+Princess Maud, was married to Prince Charles of Denmark, who in 1905 was
+offered and accepted the crown of the new kingdom of Norway. The
+arrangements for the queen's Jubilee of 1897 depended upon the prince
+even more than those of the corresponding celebration in 1887: he rode
+on the queen's right at the great procession to St Paul's, and as an
+admiral of the fleet presided at the naval review at Spithead. In July
+1898 the prince had the misfortune to fracture his knee-cap while on a
+visit to Baron Ferdinand de Rothschild, but completely recovered from
+the effects of the accident. In December 1899, while passing through
+Brussels on his way to St Petersburg, he was fired at by a miserable lad
+named Sipido, crazed by reading anarchist literature. Fortunately no
+injury was done.
+
+It was the especial distinction of Albert Edward, while prince of Wales,
+to have been a substantial support of the throne before he was called
+upon to fill it. This cannot be said of any of his predecessors except
+Edward the Black Prince. He was exemplary in the discharge of his public
+duties, and in his scrupulous detachment from party politics. He was a
+keen patron of the theatre, and his thoroughly British taste for sport
+was as pronounced as his inclination for most of the contemporary
+amusements of society. The "Tranby Croft Case" (1890), in which Sir
+William Gordon Cumming brought an unsuccessful libel action for having
+been accused of cheating at a game of baccarat, caused some comment in
+connexion with the prince's appearance in the witness-box on behalf of
+the defendants. But it did him no disservice with the people to have
+twice won the Derby with his horses Persimmon (1896) and Diamond Jubilee
+(1900)--his third victory, in 1909, with Minoru, being the first
+occasion on which the race had been won by a reigning sovereign; and his
+interest in yacht-racing was conspicuously shown at all the important
+fixtures, his yacht "Britannia" being one of the best of her day. His
+activity in the life of the nation may be illustrated by his
+establishment (1897) of the Prince of Wales's (afterwards King Edward's)
+Hospital Fund, his devotion to the cause of Masonry (he was first
+elected grand master of the Freemasons of England in 1874), and his
+position as a bencher of the Middle Temple, where he also became (1887)
+treasurer.
+
+On the death of Queen Victoria on the 22nd of January 1901, the question
+what title the new king would assume was speedily set at rest by the
+popular announcement that he would be called Edward the Seventh. The new
+reign began auspiciously by the holding of a privy council at St James's
+Palace, at which the king announced his intention to follow in his
+predecessor's footsteps and to govern as a constitutional sovereign, and
+received the oaths of allegiance. On the 14th of February the king and
+queen opened parliament in state. Shortly afterwards it was announced
+that the visit of the duke and duchess of York to Australia, in order to
+inaugurate the new Commonwealth, which had been sanctioned by Queen
+Victoria, would be proceeded with; and on the 16th of March they set out
+on board the "Ophir" with a brilliant suite. The tour lasted till
+November 1, the duke and duchess having visited Australia, New Zealand,
+the Cape and Canada; and on their return the king, on November 9,
+created the duke prince of Wales and earl of Chester. Meanwhile
+parliament had settled the new civil list at £470,000 a year, and the
+royal title had been enlarged to include the colonial empire by an act
+enabling the king to style himself "Edward VII., by the grace of God, of
+the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and of all the British
+Dominions beyond the Seas, King, Defender of the Faith, Emperor of
+India." At the end of May 1902 the long-drawn-out war in South Africa
+came at last to an end, and the coronation was fixed for the 26th of
+June. But on the 24th, amid general consternation, the king was
+announced to be suffering from perityphlitis, necessitating the
+immediate performance of an operation; and the coronation, for which
+unprecedented preparations had been made, had to be postponed. The
+operation--performed by Sir Frederick Treves--was, however, so
+marvellously successful, and the king's progress towards recovery so
+rapid and uninterrupted, that within a fortnight he was pronounced out
+of danger, and soon afterwards it was decided to hold the coronation
+service on August 9. Though shorn of much of the magnificence which
+would have been added to it in June by the presence of foreign royalties
+and the preparations for a great procession through London, the
+solemnity duly took place on that date in Westminster Abbey amid great
+rejoicings. The king spent several weeks (partly in a yachting trip
+round the coast and up to Stornoway) in recruiting his health, and on
+the 25th of October he went in procession through the main streets of
+south London, when he was most enthusiastically received. Next day the
+king and queen attended St Paul's cathedral in state to return thanks
+for his restoration to health. On New Year's day 1903 the coronation was
+proclaimed in India at a magnificent durbar at Delhi.
+
+At home the king opened parliament in person in February 1903, and on
+the 31st of March he sailed from Portsmouth to pay a visit to the king
+of Portugal at Lisbon, leaving Lisbon for Gibraltar on the 7th of April.
+On the 11th he held a review of the garrison troops and next day left
+for Malta, and the tour was continued to Naples (23rd of April). On the
+27th of April he was received at Rome by the king of Italy--the first
+time an English king as such had been there; and two days later he paid
+a visit to Leo XIII. at the Vatican. On May day he was received in Paris
+by President Loubet. Later in the year return visits were paid to
+England by President Loubet (July) and the king and queen of Italy
+(November). On the 11th of May His Majesty paid his first formal visit
+to Edinburgh, and held courts at Holyrood. In July the king and queen
+went to Ireland, and though the Dublin corporation refused to vote a
+loyal address the reception was generally cordial. In September the king
+took his annual "cure" at Marienbad, and paid a visit to Vienna, where
+he was received by the Austrian emperor. In 1904 again the king and
+queen went to Ireland; in June the king was cordially received by the
+German emperor at the yacht-races at Kiel, and he included a visit to
+Hamburg, where the welcome was hearty. In November the king and queen of
+Portugal were entertained at Windsor and at the Guildhall.
+
+The success of King Edward as a promoter of international friendliness,
+and the advantage of so efficient a type of kingship, attracted
+universal attention, and treaties of arbitration were concluded by Great
+Britain with France, Spain, Italy, Germany and Portugal in 1903 and
+1904. In his first two years the king had already earned the title of
+Edward the Peacemaker, and established his position as a source of new
+strength to the state. This reputation was confirmed in the years which
+followed, during which the royal hand was to be seen in the progress of
+foreign affairs in a manner somewhat new to old-fashioned politicians.
+The _entente_ with France was promoted by his influence, notably by his
+reception of President Fallières in England in 1908. It was noticed that
+the permanent under-secretary for foreign affairs, Sir Charles Hardinge,
+generally accompanied the king, as one of his suite, on his visits
+abroad: and the conclusion of the Anglo-Russian agreement (1907)--which
+was attributed with some reason to royal policy--was hotly criticized in
+Radical quarters. It was pointed out that neither the foreign secretary
+(Sir E. Grey) nor any other secretary of state accompanied the king on
+his foreign visits. These objections were, however, scouted by the
+government, and undeniably public opinion approved of the sovereign's
+personal activity in a sphere peculiarly his own. The strengthening of
+British influence in Europe, which was the marked result of the
+Anglo-French and Anglo-Russian _ententes_, and of the closer ties
+between England and countries like Portugal and Spain (whose young king
+Alfonso married Princess Ena of Battenberg, King Edward's niece), had,
+indeed, temporarily the effect of rousing German suspicion, the view
+taken being that the object of British foreign policy was to isolate
+Germany; and during 1907 and 1908 the political situation was coloured
+by the discussions in the press with regard to Anglo-German rivalry. But
+in February 1909 the king and queen paid a state visit to the Kaiser in
+Berlin, where the greatest cordiality was displayed on all sides; the
+event was prepared for, in both countries, as a means of dispelling the
+clouds which had gathered over the relations between England and
+Germany, and the success of the visit proved once more how powerful King
+Edward's personality could be as an agency for peace and international
+amity.
+
+During the year 1909, however, the political situation at home was
+developing into an acute constitutional crisis, which seemed likely to
+involve the Crown in serious difficulties. Mr Lloyd-George's budget
+convulsed the House of Commons and the country, and was eventually
+rejected by the House of Lords; and the Liberal government now put in
+the forefront of its programme the abolition of the Peers' "veto." As
+was hinted, not obscurely, later by the doctors, King Edward, although
+certainly not prejudiced against a Liberal ministry, was seriously
+disturbed in mind and health by the progress of events, which culminated
+in the return of Mr Asquith to office after the elections of January
+1910, and in his statement that, if necessary, guarantees would be
+sought from the Crown for the purpose of enforcing the will of the
+representative chamber. A remarkable sign of the king's discomfort was
+his insertion, in the official "King's Speech" at the opening of
+parliament, of the words "in the opinion of my advisers," in connexion
+with the passage dealing with the House of Lords. The king had been far
+from robust for some little time, and while he was taking change and
+rest at Biarritz in the early spring of 1910 he had a bronchial attack
+which caused some anxiety, although the public heard nothing of it. When
+he returned to England there is no doubt that he was acutely affected by
+the prospect of being forcibly dragged into the political conflict. In
+the country at large there was indeed considerable confidence that the
+king's tact and experience would help to bring order out of chaos; but
+this was not to be. Within two days the public heard with consternation
+that he was ill, and then was dead. On May 5 it was announced that he
+had bronchitis; and he died at 11.45 P.M. on the 6th, of heart failure.
+On May 17, 18 and 19 there was an impressive lying-in-state in
+Westminster Hall, attended by unprecedented crowds; and on May 20 the
+burial took place at Windsor, after a great funeral procession through
+London, the coffin being followed by the new king, George V., and by
+eight foreign sovereigns--the German emperor, the kings of Greece,
+Spain, Portugal, Denmark, Norway, Belgium and Bulgaria--besides the
+archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria (heir to the throne of
+Austria-Hungary), the prince consort of Holland and many other
+royalties, and a number of special ambassadors, including Mr Roosevelt
+as representative of the United States. Mourning was as sincere as it
+was universal; for not only England and the British Empire, but the
+world, had lost a king who was both a very human man and a tried and
+trusted statesman.
+
+Queen Victoria's long reign had solidly established the constitutional
+monarchy; it remained for her son to rehabilitate the idea of English
+kingship by showing how the sovereign could be no less constitutional
+but personally more monarchical. While prince of Wales he had had little
+real training in statecraft, but when he became king his genuine
+capacity for affairs was shown. Ably advised by such men as Lord Knollys
+and Lord Esher, he devoted himself to the work of removing the Throne
+from its former isolation, and bringing it into touch with all sections
+of the community for the promotion of social happiness and welfare. His
+own love of pageantry and his interest in the stately ordering of court
+functions responded, moreover, to a marked inclination on the part of
+the public and of "society" for such things. It was significant that
+even Radicals and Socialists began to advocate extensions of the
+prerogative, and to insist on the active part which the Crown should
+play in public life. The king won the genuine affection and confidence
+of the people; and in Queen Alexandra he had an ideal consort, to whom
+all hearts went out.     (H. Ch.)
+
+
+
+
+EDWARD, prince of Wales, known as "THE BLACK PRINCE" (1330-1376), the
+eldest son of Edward III. and Philippa of Hainaut, was born at Woodstock
+on the 15th of June 1330. Contemporaries called him Edward of Woodstock,
+and his surname of the Black Prince cannot be traced back earlier than
+the 16th century. It is supposed to have been derived from his wearing
+black armour. In 1333 he was made earl of Chester, and in 1337 duke of
+Cornwall, being the first duke ever created in England. Nominal warden
+of England during his father's absences abroad in 1338 and 1342, he was
+created prince of Wales in 1343, and in 1345 he first accompanied his
+father on a foreign expedition.
+
+His real career begins, however, with Edward III.'s Norman campaign of
+1346. On landing at La Hogue he was knighted by his father, and took a
+prominent part in the whole of the campaign. He commanded the right wing
+of the English forces at Crécy, and, though hard pressed for a time by
+the French, took his full share in gaining the victory. Next year he was
+at the siege of Calais, and returned to England in October 1347 with his
+father. He was one of the original knights of the Garter, and
+participated in his father's chivalrous adventures at Calais in 1349 and
+in the battle off Winchelsea in 1350. In September 1355 he was sent to
+Gascony at the head of an English army, having been appointed his
+father's lieutenant there in July. He was warmly welcomed by the
+Gascons, and at once led a foray through Armagnac and Languedoc. By
+November he had got as far as Narbonne, whence he returned to Bordeaux,
+where he kept his Christmas court. In August 1356 he started from
+Bergerac on another marauding expedition, this time in a northerly
+direction. He penetrated as far as the Loire, but was there compelled to
+retire before the superior forces of King John of France. On the 19th of
+September the two armies met in the battle of Poitiers, fought about 6
+m. south-east of the city. It was the hardest-fought and most important
+battle of the Hundred Years' War, and Edward's victory was due both to
+the excellence of his tactical disposition of his forces and to the
+superior fighting capacity of his army. The flank march of the Captal de
+Buch, which decided the fate of the day, was of Edward's own devising,
+and the captivity of King John attested the completeness of his triumph.
+He treated his prisoner with almost ostentatious magnanimity, and took
+him to Bordeaux, whence they sailed to England in May 1357. On the 24th
+of that month he led his prisoner in triumph through the streets of
+London. In 1359 he took part in his father's invasion of northern
+France, and had a large share in the negotiations at Brétigny and
+Calais.
+
+In October 1361 Edward married his cousin Joan, countess of Kent
+(1328-1385), the daughter and heiress of Edmund of Woodstock, earl of
+Kent, the younger son of Edward I. by his second wife Margaret of
+France. The lady, who enjoyed a great reputation for beauty, was in her
+thirty-third year, and the widow of Sir Thomas Holand, by whom she had
+had three children. Froissart says that the marriage was a love match,
+and that the king had no knowledge of it. However, Edward III. approved
+of his son's choice, and in July 1362 handed over to him all his
+dominions in southern France, with the title of prince of Aquitaine. In
+February 1363 Edward and Joan took ship for Gascony, which became his
+ordinary place of residence for the next eight years. He maintained a
+brilliant court at Bordeaux and Angoulême, and did his best to win the
+support of the Gascons. He was not, however, successful in winning over
+the greater nobles, who, with John, count of Armagnac, at their head,
+were dissatisfied with the separation from France, and looked with
+suspicion upon Edward's attempts to reform the administration as being
+likely to result in the curtailment of their feudal rights. Edward was
+better able to conciliate the towns, whose franchises he favoured and
+whose trade he fostered, hoping that they would prove a counterpoise to
+the aristocracy. He kept the chief posts of the administration mainly in
+English hands, and never really identified himself with the local life
+and traditions of his principality. He succeeded in clearing Aquitaine
+of the free companies, and kept good peace for nearly six years.
+
+In 1367 Peter the Cruel, the deposed king of Castile, visited Edward at
+Bordeaux, and persuaded him to restore him to his throne by force. In
+February 1367 Edward led an army into Spain over the pass of
+Roncesvalles. After a difficult and dangerous march Edward reached the
+Ebro, and on the 3rd of April defeated Bertrand du Guesclin at Nájera,
+the last of his great victories. He then proceeded to Burgos, and
+restored Peter to the throne of Castile. He remained in Castile for four
+months, living principally at Valladolid. His army wasted away during
+the hot Spanish summer, and Edward himself contracted the beginnings of
+a mortal disease. In August 1367 Edward led the remnant of his troops
+back through the pass of Roncesvalles, and returned to Bordeaux early in
+September. He had exhausted all his resources on the Spanish expedition,
+and was forced to seek from the estates of Aquitaine extraordinary
+sources of supply. A hearth tax for five years was willingly granted to
+him, and generally paid. The greater barons, however, found in this
+impost a pretext for revolt. The count of Armagnac, who had already made
+a secret understanding with Charles V., appealed against the hearth tax
+to the parlement of Paris. Cited before this body in January 1369,
+Edward declared that he would answer at Paris with sixty thousand men
+behind him. War broke out again, and Edward III. resumed the title of
+king of France. Thereupon Charles V. declared that all the English
+possessions in France were forfeited, and before the end of 1369 all
+Aquitaine was in full revolt. With weak health and impaired resources,
+the Black Prince showed little activity in dealing with his insurgent
+subjects, or in warding off French invasion. Though too ill to ride on
+horseback, he insisted upon commanding his troops, and on the 19th of
+September 1370 won his last barren success, by capturing the revolted
+city of Limoges and putting the population to the sword. Early in 1371
+he returned to England, leaving the impossible task of holding Gascony
+to his brother John of Gaunt. In August 1372 he joined his father in an
+abortive expedition to France, but contrary winds prevented their
+landing, and he now abandoned military life for good. In October he
+resigned his principality on the ground that he could not afford to
+retain any longer so expensive a charge. His health now rapidly
+declined, but he still followed politics with interest, and did what he
+could to support the constitutional opposition of the great
+ecclesiastics to the administration of John of Gaunt and the
+anti-clerical courtiers. His last public act was to inspire the attack
+on Lancaster's influence made by the Good Parliament in the spring of
+1376. The famous parliament was still in session when he died at
+Westminster on the 8th of July. He was buried in the east end of
+Canterbury cathedral on the 29th of September, where his magnificent
+tomb, erected in accordance with the instructions in his will, may still
+be seen. By Joan, "the fair maid of Kent," who died on the 7th of August
+1385, the Black Prince left an only son, afterwards King Richard II.
+
+  For authorities see EDWARD III. To these may be added W. Hunt's
+  article in the _Dict. Nat. Biog._; A. Collins's _Life of Edward,
+  Prince of Wales_ (1740); G.P.R. James's _Life of Edward the Black
+  Prince_ (1839); J. Moisant's _Le Prince Noir en Aquitaine_ (1894); and
+  R.P. Dunn-Pattison's _The Black Prince_ (1910).     (T. F. T.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
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+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 8, Slice 10, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 8, Slice 10
+       "Echinoderma" to "Edward"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: January 17, 2011 [EBook #34992]
+
+Language: English
+
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+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 8, SL 10 ***
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+</pre>
+
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note">
+<tr>
+<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top">
+Transcriber&rsquo;s note:
+</td>
+<td class="norm">
+A few typographical errors have been corrected. They
+appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the
+explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked
+passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration
+when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the
+Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will
+display an unaccented version. <br /><br />
+<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will
+be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<h2>THE ENCYCLOP&AElig;DIA BRITANNICA</h2>
+
+<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2>
+
+<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<h3>VOLUME VIII SLICE X<br /><br />
+Echinoderma to Edward</h3>
+<hr class="full" />
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p>
+<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">ECHINODERMA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">EDESSA</a> (Macedonia)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">ECHINUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">EDESSA</a> (Mesopotamia)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">ECHIUROIDEA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">EDFU</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">ECHMIADZIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">EDGAR</a> (king of the English)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">ECHO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">EDGAR</a> (son of Edward)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">ECHTERNACH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">EDGECUMBE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">ECHUCA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">EDGE HILL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">ÉCIJA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">EDGEWORTH, MARIA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">ECK, JOHANN MAIER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">EDGEWORTH, RICHARD LOVELL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">ECKERMANN, JOHANN PETER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">EDGEWORTH DE FIRMONT, HENRY ESSEX</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">ECKERNFÖRDE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">EDGREN-LEFFLER, ANNE CHARLOTTE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">ECKERSBERG, KRISTOFFER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">EDHEM PASHA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12a">ECKHART, JOHANNES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">EDICT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">ECKHEL, JOSEPH HILARIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">EDINBURGH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">ECKMÜHL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">EDINBURGHSHIRE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">ECLECTICISM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">EDISON, THOMAS ALVA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">ECLIPSE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">EDMONTON</a> (Alberta, Canada)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">ECLIPTIC</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">EDMONTON</a> (England)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">ECLOGITE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">EDMUND, SAINT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">ECLOGUE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">EDMUND</a> (king of East Anglia)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">EDMUND I.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">ECONOMICS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">EDMUND</a> (Ironside)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">ECONOMY</a> (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">EDMUND</a> (king of Sicily)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">ECONOMY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">EDMUNDS, GEORGE FRANKLIN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">ECSTASY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">EDOM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">ECTOSPORA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">EDRED</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">ECUADOR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">EDRIC, STREONA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">ECZEMA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">EDUCATION</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">EDAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">EDWARD</a> (The Elder)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">EDDA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">EDWARD</a> (The Martyr)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">EDDIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">EDWARD</a> (The Confessor)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">EDELINCK, GERARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">EDWARD I.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">EDELWEISS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">EDWARD II.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">EDEN, SIR ASHLEY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">EDWARD III.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">EDEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">EDWARD IV.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">EDENBRIDGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">EDWARD V.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">EDEN HALL, LUCK OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">EDWARD VI.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">EDENKOBEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">EDWARD VII.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">EDENTATA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">EDWARD</a> (prince of Wales)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">EDENTON</a></td> <td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page871" id="page871"></a>871</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">ECHINODERMA.<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span><a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The <span class="grk" title="echinoderma">&#7952;&#967;&#953;&#957;&#972;&#948;&#949;&#961;&#956;&#945;</span>, or &ldquo;urchin-skinned&rdquo;
+animals, have long been a favourite subject of study with the
+collectors of sea-animals or of fossils, since the lime deposited in
+their skins forms hard tests or shells readily preserved in the
+cabinet. These were described during the 18th and first half of
+the 19th centuries by many eminent naturalists, such as J.T.
+Klein, J.H. Linck, C. Linnaeus, N.G. Leske, J.S. Miller, L. v.
+Buch, E. Desor and L. Agassiz; but it was the researches of
+Johannes Müller (1840-1850) that formed the groundwork of
+scientific conceptions of the group, proving it one of the great
+phyla of the animal kingdom. The anatomists and embryologists
+of the next quarter of a century confirmed rather than
+expanded the views of Müller. Thus, about 1875, the distinction
+of Echinoderms from such radiate animals as jelly-fish and
+corals (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Coelentera</a></span>), by their possession of a body-cavity
+(&ldquo;coelom&rdquo;) distinct from the gut, was fully realized; while
+their severance from the worms (especially Gephyrea), with
+which some Echinoderrns were long confused, had been necessitated
+by the recognition in all of a radial symmetry, impressed on
+the original bilateral symmetry of the larva through the growth
+of a special division of the coelom, known as the &ldquo;hydrocoel,&rdquo;
+and giving rise to a set of water-bearing canals&mdash;the water-vascular
+or ambulacral system. There was also sufficient comprehension
+of the differences between the main classes of
+Echinoderms&mdash;the sea-urchins or Echinoidea, the starfish or
+Asteroidea, the brittle-stars and their allies known as Ophiuroidea,
+the worm-like Holothurians, the feather-stars and sea-lilies
+called Crinoidea, with their extinct relatives the sac-like Cystidea,
+the bud-formed Blastoidea, and the flattened Edrioasteroidea&mdash;while
+within the larger of these classes, such as Echinoidea and
+Crinoidea, fair working classifications had been established.
+But the study that should elucidate the fundamental similarities
+or homologies between the several classes, and should suggest
+the relations of the Echinoderma to other phyla, had scarcely
+begun. Indeed, the time was not ripe for such discussions,
+still less for the tracing of lines of descent and their embodiment
+in a genealogical classification. Since then exploring expeditions
+have made known a host of new genera, often exhibiting unfamiliar
+types of structure.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Among these the abyssal starfish and holothurians described by
+W.P. Sladen and H. Théel respectively, in the Report of the
+&ldquo;Challenger&rdquo; Expedition, are most notable. The sea-urchins,
+ophiuroids and crinoids also have yielded many important novelties
+to A. Agassiz (&ldquo;Challenger,&rdquo; &ldquo;Blake,&rdquo; and &ldquo;Albatross&rdquo; Expeditions),
+T. Lyman (&ldquo;Challenger&rdquo;), Sladen (&ldquo;Astrophiura,&rdquo; <i>Ann.
+Mag. Nat. Hist.</i>, 1879), F.J. Bell (numerous papers in <i>Ann. Mag.
+Nat. Hist.</i> and in <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i>), E. Perrier (&ldquo;Travailleur&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;Talisman,&rdquo; Cape Horn and Monaco Expeditions), P.H. Carpenter
+&ldquo;Challenger&rdquo; Reports), and others. The anatomical researches
+of these authors, as well as those of S. Lovén (&ldquo;On Pourtalesia&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;Echinologica,&rdquo; published by the Swedish Academy of Science),
+H. Ludwig (<i>Morphologische Studien</i>, Leipzig, 1877-1882), O. Hamann
+(<i>Histologie der Echinodermen</i>, Jena, 1883-1889), L. Cuénot (&ldquo;Études
+morphologiques,&rdquo; <i>Arch. Biol.</i>, 1891, and papers therein referred to),
+P.M. Duncan (&ldquo;Revision of the Echinoidea,&rdquo; <i>Journ. Linn. Soc.</i>,
+1890), H. Prouho (&ldquo;Sur Dorocidaris,&rdquo; <i>Arch. Zool. Exper.</i>, 1888),
+and many more, need only be mentioned to recall the great advance
+that has been made. In physiology may be instanced W.B. Carpenter&rsquo;s
+proof of the nervous nature of the chambered organ and
+axial cords of crinoids (<i>Proc. Roy. Soc.</i>, 1884), the researches of
+H. Durham (<i>Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.</i>, 1891) and others into the
+wandering cells of the body-cavity, and the study of the deposition
+of the skeletal substance (&ldquo;stereom&rdquo;) by Théel (in <i>Festskrift för
+Lilljeborg</i>, 1896). Knowledge of the development has been enormously
+extended by numerous embryologists, <i>e.g.</i> Ludwig (<i>op. cit.</i>),
+E.W. MacBride (&ldquo;Asterina gibbosa,&rdquo; <i>Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.</i>,
+1896), H. Bury (<i>Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.</i>, 1889, 1895), Seeliger (on
+&ldquo;Antedon,&rdquo; <i>Zool. Jahrb.</i>, 1893), S. Goto (&ldquo;Asterias pallida,&rdquo; <i>Journ.
+Coll. Sci. Japan</i>, 1896), C. Grave (&ldquo;Ophiura,&rdquo; <i>Mem. Johns Hopkins Univ.</i>,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page872" id="page872"></a>872</span>
+1899), Théel (&ldquo;Echinocyamus,&rdquo; <i>Nov. Act. Soc. Sci. Upsala</i>,
+1892), R. Semon (&ldquo;Synapta,&rdquo; <i>Jena. Zeitschr.</i>, 1888), and Lovén
+(<i>opp. citt.</i>); and though the theories based thereon may have been
+fantastic and contradictory, we are now near the time when the
+results can be co-ordinated and some agreement reached. But the
+scattered details of comparative anatomy are capable of manifold
+arrangement, while the palimpsest of individual development is not
+merely fragmentary, but often has the fragments misplaced. The
+morphologist may propose classifications, and the embryologist
+may erect genealogical trees, but all schemes which do not agree
+with the direct evidence of fossils must be abandoned; and it is
+this evidence, above all, that gained enormously in volume and
+in value during the last quarter of the 19th century. The Silurian
+crinoids and cystids of Sweden have been illustrated in N.P. Angelin&rsquo;s
+<i>Iconographia crinoideorum</i> (1878); the Palaeozoic crinoids and
+cystids of Bohemia are dealt with in J. Barrande&rsquo;s <i>Système silurien</i>
+(1887 and 1899); P.H. Carpenter published important papers on
+fossil crinoids in the <i>Journal</i> of the Geological Society, on Cystidea
+in that of the Linnean Society, 1891, and, together with R. Etheridge,
+jun., compiled the large <i>Catalogue of Blastoidea in the British Museum</i>,
+1886; O. Jaekel, in addition to valuable studies on crinoids and
+cystids appearing in the <i>Zeitschrift</i> of the German Geological Society,
+has published the first volume of <i>Die Stammesgeschichte der Pelmatozoen</i>
+(Berlin, 1899), a richly suggestive work; the Mesozoic Echinoderms
+of France, Switzerland and Portugal have been made known
+by P. de Loriol, G.H. Cotteau, J. Lambert, V. Gauthier and others
+(see <i>Paléontologie française</i>, <i>Mém. Soc. paléontol. de la Suisse</i>,
+<i>Trabalhos Comm. Geol. Portugal</i>, &amp;c.); a beautiful and interesting
+Devonian fauna from Bundenbach has been described by O. Follmann,
+Jaekel, and especially B. Stürtz (see <i>Verhandl. nat. Vereins
+preuss. Rheinlande, Paläont. Abhandl.</i>, and <i>Palaeontographica</i>);
+while the multitude of North American palaeozoic crinoids has been
+attacked by C. Wachsmuth and F. Springer in the <i>Proceedings</i>
+(1879, 1881, 1885, 1886), of the Philadelphia Academy and the
+<i>Memoirs</i> (1897) of the Harvard Museum.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The vast mass of material made known by these and many
+other distinguished writers has to be included in our classification,
+and that classification itself must be controlled by the story it
+reveals. Thus it is that a change, characteristic of modern
+systematic zoology, is affecting the subdivisions of the classes.
+It is not long since the main lines of division corresponded
+roughly to gaps in geological history: the orders were Palaeocrinoidea
+and Neocrinoidea, Palechinoidea and Euechinoidea,
+Palaeasteroidea and Euasteroidea, and so forth. Or divisions
+were based upon certain modifications of structure which,
+as we now see, affected assemblages of diverse affinity: thus
+both Blastoidea and Euechinoidea were divided into Regularia
+and Irregularia; the Holothuroidea into Pneumophora and
+Apneumona; and Crinoids were discussed under the heads
+&ldquo;stalked&rdquo; and &ldquo;unstalked.&rdquo; The barriers between these groups
+may be regarded as horizontal planes cutting across the branches
+of the ascending tree of life at levels determined chiefly by our
+ignorance; as knowledge increases, and as the conception of a
+genealogical classification gains acceptance, they are being
+replaced by vertical partitions which separate branch from
+branch. The changes may be appreciated by comparing the
+systematic synopses at the end of this article with the classification
+adopted in 1877 in the 9th edition of the <i>Ency. Brit.</i> (vol. vii.),
+or in any zoological text-book contemporary therewith. In the
+present stage of our knowledge these minor divisions are the really
+important ones. For, whereas to one brilliant suggestion of
+far-reaching homology another can always be opposed, by the
+detailed comparison of individual growth-stages in carefully
+selected series of fossils, and by the minute application to these
+of the principle that individual history repeats race history,
+it actually is possible to unfold lines of descent that do not admit
+of doubt. The gradual linking up of these will manifest the true
+genealogy of each class, and reconstruct its ancestral forms by
+proof instead of conjecture. The problem of the interrelations
+of the classes will thus be reduced to its simplest terms, and even
+questions as to the nature of the primitive Echinoderm and its
+affinity to the ancestors of other phyla may become more than
+exercises for the ingenuity of youth. Work has been and is being
+done by the laborious methods here alluded to, and though the
+diversity of opinion as to the broader groupings of classification
+is still restricted only by the number of writers, we can point
+to an ever-increasing body of assured knowledge on which all
+are agreed. Unfortunately such allusion to these disconnected
+certainties as alone might be introduced here would be too brief
+for comprehension, and we are forced to select a few of the
+broader hypotheses for a treatment that may seem dogmatic and
+prejudiced.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:468px; height:459px" src="images/img872a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Diagram of a simple form of Crinoid, with five arms,
+each forking once; the one nearest the observer is removed to expose
+the tegmen of five orals. This crinoid has only two circlets of plates
+in the cup, but the cup analysed in the adjoining diagram has in
+addition infrabasals and a centrale <i>C.</i></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 220px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:126px; height:222px" src="images/img872b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;An early stage in the development
+of <i>Antedon</i>, showing the foot-plate or
+&ldquo;dorso-central&rdquo; <i>fp</i> at the end of the stem
+<i>col.</i> Some of the thecal plates, infrabasals
+<i>I B</i>, basals <i>B</i>, and orals <i>O</i> are forming
+around the body-cavities <i>r.pc</i> and <i>l.pc</i>;
+<i>p</i> is the water-pore. (After Seeliger.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p class="pt2"><i>Calycinal Theory.</i>&mdash;The theory which had most influence on the
+conceptions of Echinoderms in the two concluding decades of the
+19th century was that of Lovén, elaborated by P.H. Carpenter,
+Sladen and others. This, which may be called the <i>calycinal</i> theory,
+will be appreciated by comparing the structure of a simple crinoid
+with that of some other types. A crinoid reduced to its simplest
+elements consists of three principal portions&mdash;(i.) a theca or test
+enclosing the viscera; (ii.) five arms stretching upwards or outwards
+from the theca, sometimes single, sometimes branching; (iii.) a
+stem stretching downwards from the theca and attaching it to the
+sea-floor (see fig. 1). That part of the theca below the origins of the
+free arms is called the &ldquo;dorsal cup&rdquo;; the ventral part above the
+origins of the arms, serving as cover to the cup, is known as the
+&ldquo;tegmen.&rdquo; All these parts are supported by plates or ossicles of
+crystalline carbonate of lime. The cup, in
+its simplest form, consists of two circlets of
+five plates. Each plate of the upper circlet
+supports an arm, and is called a &ldquo;radial&rdquo;;
+the plates of the lower circlet, the &ldquo;basals,&rdquo;
+rest on the stem and alternate with those
+of the upper circlet, <i>i.e.</i> are interradial in
+position. Some crinoids have yet another
+circlet below these, the constituent plates
+of which are called &ldquo;infrabasals,&rdquo; and are
+situated radially. The tegmen in most
+primitive forms, as well as in the embryonic
+stages of the living <i>Antedon</i> (fig. 2), consists
+of five large triangular plates, alternating
+with the radials, and called &ldquo;orals,&rdquo;
+because they roof over the mouth. In
+addition to these three or four circlets of
+plates, two other elements were once supposed
+essential to the ideal crinoid: the
+dorso-central and the oro-central. The
+former term was applied to a flattened plate
+observed in the embryonic stage of a single
+genus (<i>Antedon</i>) at that end of the stem
+attached to the sea-floor, and comparable to
+the foot of a wine-glass (fig. 2). In some
+crinoids which have no trace of a stem
+(<i>e.g.</i> <i>Marsupites</i>) a pentagonal plate is
+found at the bottom of the cup, where the
+stem would naturally have arisen (&ldquo;centrale&rdquo;
+in fig. 1); and since it was believed
+that the stem always grew by addition
+of ossicles immediately below the infrabasals, it was inferred
+that this pentagonal plate was the centro-dorsal in its primitive
+position, as though the wine-glass had been evolved from
+a tumbler by pulling the bottom out to form the foot. The oro-central
+was, it must be admitted, a theoretical conception due
+to a desire for symmetry, and was not confirmed by anything
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page873" id="page873"></a>873</span>
+better than some erroneous observations on certain fossils, which
+were supposed to show a plate at the oral pole between the five orals;
+but this plate, so far as it exists at all, is now known to be nothing
+but an oral shifted in position. The theory was that all the plates
+just described, and more particularly those of the cup, which were
+termed &ldquo;the calycinal system,&rdquo; could be traced, not merely in all
+crinoids, but in all Echinoderms, whether fixed forms such as cystids
+and blastoids, or free forms such as ophiuroids and echinoids, even&mdash;with
+the eye of faith&mdash;in holothurians. It was admitted that these
+elements might atrophy, or be displaced, or be otherwise obscured;
+but their complete and symmetrical disposition was regarded as
+typical and original. Thus the genera exhibiting it were regarded
+as primitive, and those orders and classes in which it was least
+obscured were supposed to approach most nearly the ancestral
+Echinoderm. Every one knows that an &ldquo;apical system,&rdquo; composed
+of two circlets known as &ldquo;genitals&rdquo; or basals and &ldquo;oculars&rdquo; or
+radials, occurs round the aboral pole of echinoids (fig. 3, A), and
+that a few genera (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Salenia</i>, fig. 3, B) possess a sub-central plate
+(the &ldquo;suranal&rdquo;), which might be identified with the centro-dorsal.
+It is also the case that many asterids (fig. 3, D) and ophiurids (fig. 3,
+C) have a similar arrangement of plates on the dorsal (<i>i.e.</i> aboral)
+surface of the disk. Accepting the homology of these apical systems
+with the calycinal system, the theory would regard the aboral pole
+of a sea-urchin or starfish as corresponding in everything, except its
+relations to the sea-floor, with the aboral pole of a fixed echinoderm.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:467px; height:546px" src="images/img873a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>-Supposed calycinal systems of free-moving Echinoderms.
+A, regular sea-urchin (<i>Cidaris</i>); B, sea-urchin with a suranal plate
+(<i>Salenia</i>); C, developing ophiurid (<i>Amphiura</i>); D, young starfish
+(<i>Zoroaster</i>).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The theory has been vigorously opposed, notably by Semon
+(<i>op. cit.</i>), who saw in the holothurians a nearer approach to the
+ancestral form than was furnished by any calyculate echinoderm,
+and by the Sarasins, who derived the echinoids from the holothurians
+through forms with flexible tests (<i>Echinothuridae</i>, which, however,
+are now known to be specialized in this respect). The support that
+appeared to be given to the theory by the presence of supposed
+calycinal plates in the embryo of echinoids and asteroids has been,
+in the opinion of many, undermined by E.W. MacBride (<i>op. cit.</i>),
+who has insisted that in the fixed stage of the developing starfish,
+<i>Asterina</i>, the relations of these plates to the stem are quite different
+from those which they bear in the developing and adult crinoid.
+But, however correct the observations and the homologies of
+MacBride may be, they do not, as Bury (<i>op. cit.</i>) has well pointed
+out, afford sufficient grounds for his inference that the abactinal
+(<i>i.e.</i> aboral) poles of starfish and crinoids are not comparable with
+one another, and that all conclusions based on the supposed homology
+of the dorso-central of echinoids and asteroids with that of
+crinoids are incorrect. Bury himself, however, has inflicted a
+severe blow on the theory by his proof that the so-called oculars of
+Echinoidea, which were supposed to represent the radials, are
+homologous with the &ldquo;terminals&rdquo; (<i>i.e.</i> the plates at the tips of
+the rays) in Asteroidea and Ophiuroidea, and therefore not homologous
+with the radially disposed plates often seen around the aboral
+pole of those animals. For, if these radial constituents of the supposed
+apical system in an ophiurid have really some other origin,
+why can we not say the same of the supposed basals? Indeed, Bury
+is constrained to admit that the view of Semon and others may be
+correct, and that these so-called calycinal systems may not be heirlooms
+from a calyculate ancestor, but may have been independently
+developed in the various classes owing to the action of similar
+causes. That this view must be correct is urged by students of
+fossils. Palaeontology lends no support to the idea that the dorso-central
+is a primitive element; it exists in none of the early echinoids,
+and the suranal of <i>Saleniidae</i> arises from the minor plates around
+the anus. There is no reason to suppose that the central apical plate
+of certain free-swimming crinoids has any more to do with the distal
+foot-plate of the larval <i>Antedon</i> stem than has the so-called centro-dorsal
+of <i>Antedon</i> itself, which is nothing but the compressed proximal
+end of the stem. As for the supposed basals of Echinoidea, Asteroidea
+and Ophiuroidea, they are scarcely to be distinguished among
+the ten or more small plates that surround the anus of <i>Bothriocidaris</i>,
+which is the oldest and probably the most ancestral of fossil sea-urchins
+(fig. 5). A calycinal system may be quite apparent in the
+later Ophiuroidea and in a few Asteroidea, but there is no trace of
+it in the older Palaeozoic types, unless we are to transfer the appellation
+to the terminals. Those plates are perhaps constant throughout
+sea-urchins and starfish (though it would puzzle any one to detect
+them in certain Silurian echinoids), and they may be traced in
+some of the fixed echinoderms; but there is no proof that they
+represent the radials of a simple crinoid, and there are certainly
+many cystids in which no such plates existed. Lovén and M.
+Neumayr adduced the Triassic sea-urchin <i>Tiarechinus</i>, in which
+the apical system forms half of the test, as an argument for the
+origin of Echinoidea from an ancestor in which the apical system
+was of great importance; but a genus appearing so late in time, in
+an isolated sea, under conditions that dwarfed the other echinoid
+dwellers therein, cannot seriously be thought to elucidate the origin
+of pre-Silurian Echinoidea, and the recent discovery of an intermediate
+form suggests that we have here nothing but degenerate
+descendants of a well-known Palaeozoic family (<i>Lepidocentridae</i>).
+But to pursue the tale of isolated instances would be wearisome.
+The calycinal theory is not merely an assertion of certain homologies,
+a few of which might be disputed without affecting the rest:
+it governs our whole conception of the echinoderms, because it
+implies their descent from a calyculate ancestor&mdash;not a &ldquo;crinoid-phantom,&rdquo;
+that bogey of the Sarasins, but a form with definite
+plates subject to a quinqueradiate arrangement, with which its
+internal organs must likewise have been correlated. To this ingenious
+and plausible theory the revelations of the rocks are more
+and more believed to be opposed.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 220px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:145px; height:181px" src="images/img873b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>&mdash;The <i>Pentactula</i> stage in the
+development of <i>Synapta</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">
+<p>T, The five interradial tentacles.</p>
+
+<p>M, The water-pore, leading by the stone-canal <i>stc</i>
+to the water-ring, from which hangs a Polian vesicle <i>pb</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>oc</i>, Supposed otocysts.</p>
+
+<p><i>m</i>, Longitudinal muscles.</p>
+
+<p><i>sk</i>, Calcareous spicules.</p>
+
+<p><i>st</i>, Stomach.</p>
+
+<p>(After Semon.)</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Pentactaea Theory.</i>&mdash;In opposition to the calycinal theory has
+been the <i>Pentactaea</i> theory of R. Semon. There have always been
+many zoologists prepared to ascribe an ancestral character to the
+holothurians. The absence of an apical system of plates; the fact
+that radial symmetry has not affected the generative organs, as it
+has in all other recent classes; the well-developed
+muscles of the body-wall, supposed
+to be directly inherited from some
+worm-like ancestor; the presence on the
+inner walls of the body in the family
+<i>Synaptidae</i> of ciliated funnels, which have
+been rashly compared to the excretory
+organs (nephridia) of many worms; the
+outgrowth from the rectum in other genera
+of caeca (Cuvierian organs and respiratory
+trees), which recall the anal glands of the
+Gephyrean worms; the absence of podia
+(tube-feet) in many genera, and even of the
+radial water-vessels in <i>Synaptidae</i>; the
+absence of that peculiar structure known
+in other echinoderms by the names &ldquo;axial
+organ,&rdquo; &ldquo;ovoid gland,&rdquo; &amp;c.; the simpler
+form of the larva&mdash;all these features have,
+for good reason or bad, been regarded as
+primitive. Some of the more striking of
+these features are confined to <i>Synaptidae</i>;
+in that family too the absence of the radial
+water-vessels from the adult is correlated
+with continuity of the circular muscle-layer,
+while the gut runs almost straight from the
+anterior mouth to the posterior anus. Early
+in the life-history of <i>Synapta</i> occurs a stage
+with five tentacles around the mouth, and
+into these pass canals from the water-ring,
+the radial canals to the body-wall making a
+subsequent, and only temporary, appearance
+(fig. 4). Semon called this stage the <i>Pentactula</i>,
+and supposed that, in its early
+history, the class had passed through a
+similar stage, which he called the <i>Pentactaea</i>,
+and regarded as the ancestor of all Echinoderms. It has since
+been proved that the five tentacles with their canals are interradial,
+so that one can scarcely look on the <i>Pentactula</i> as a primitive stage,
+while the apparent simplicity of the <i>Synaptidae</i>, at least as compared
+with other holothurians, is now believed to be the result of regressive
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page874" id="page874"></a>874</span>
+changes. The <i>Pentactaea</i>, at all events as it sprang from the brain
+of Semon, must pass to the limbo of mythological ancestors.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pelmatozoic Theory.</i>&mdash;The rejection of the calycinal and <i>Pentactaea</i>
+theories need not scatter our conceptions of Echinoderm structure
+back into the chaos from which they seemed to have emerged. The
+idea of a calyculate ancestor, though by no means connoting fixation,
+turned men&rsquo;s minds in the direction of the fixed forms, simply
+because in them the calyx was best developed. The <i>Pentactaea</i> again
+suggested a search for some primitive type in which quinqueradiate
+symmetry was exhibited in circumoral appendages, but had not
+affected the nervous, water-vascular, muscular or skeletal systems
+to any great extent, and the generative organs not at all. Study of
+the earliest larval stages has always led to the conclusion that the
+Echinoderms must have descended from some freely-moving form
+with a bilateral symmetry, and, connecting this with the ideas just
+mentioned, we reach the conception that this supposed bilateral
+ancestor (or <i>Dipleurula</i>) may have become fixed, and may have
+gradually acquired a radial symmetry in consequence of its sedentary
+mode of life. The different extent of quinqueradiate symmetry in the
+different classes would thus depend on the period at which they
+diverged from the sedentary stock. The tracing of this history, and
+the explanation of the general characters of Echinoderms and of the
+differentiating features of the classes in accordance therewith, constitutes
+the <i>Pelmatozoic</i> theory.</p>
+
+<p>The word &ldquo;Pelmatozoa&rdquo; literally means &ldquo;stalked animals,&rdquo; but
+the name is now used to denote all Cystidea, Blastoidea, Crinoidea
+and Edrioasteroidea, as opposed to the other classes, which may be
+called Eleutherozoa. Many Pelmatozoa have, it is true, no stalk,
+while some are freely-moving, but all agree in the possession of certain
+characters obviously connected with a fixed mode of life. Thus, the
+mouth is central and turned away from the sea-floor; the animal
+does not seize its food by tentacles, limbs or jaws, neither does it
+move in search of it, but a series of ciliated grooves which radiate
+from the mouth sweep along currents of water, in the eddies of which
+minute food-particles are caught up and carried down into the gullet;
+the undigested food is driven out through an anus which is on the
+upper or oral side of the theca, but as far distant as practicable from
+the mouth and ciliated grooves. Such characters are found in any
+primitive, sedentary group. More peculiarly Echinoderm features,
+in which the Pelmatozoan nature is manifest, are the enclosing of the
+viscera in a calcified and plated theca, for protection against those
+enemies from which a fixed animal cannot flee; the development, at
+the aboral pole of this theca, of a motor nerve-centre giving off
+branches to the stroma connecting the various plates of the theca
+and of its brachial, anal, and columnar extensions, and thus co-ordinating
+the movements of the whole skeleton; the absence of
+suckers from the podia, which, when present, are respiratory, not
+locomotor, in function. There are other features of most, if not
+all, Pelmatozoa that appear to be due to a fixed existence; but
+those are also found in the Eleutherozoa. The Pelmatozoic theory
+thus regards the Pelmatozoa as the more ancestral forms, and the
+Pelmatozoan stage as one that must have been passed through by
+all Echinoderms during their evolution from the <i>Dipleurula</i>. It
+might be possible to prove the origin of all classes from Pelmatozoa,
+without thereby explaining the origin of such fundamental features
+as radial symmetry, the developmental metamorphosis, and the
+torsion that affects both gut and body-cavities during that process;
+but the acceptance of a <i>Dipleurula</i> as the common ancestor necessitates
+an explanation of these features. Such explanation is an
+integral part of the Pelmatozoic theory, but is provided by no other.</p>
+
+<p>The evidence for the Pelmatozoic theory is supplied by palaeontology,
+embryology, the comparative anatomy of the classes, and a
+consideration of other phyla. Palaeontology, so far as it goes, is a
+sure guide, but some of the oldest fossiliferous rocks yield remains
+of distinctly differentiated crinoids, asteroids and echinoids, so
+that the problem is not solved merely by collecting fossils. Two
+lines of argument appear fruitful. First, a comparison of the
+relative numbers of the representatives of the various classes at
+different epochs; according to this they may be placed in the
+following order, with the oldest first: Cystidea, Crinoidea, Blastoidea,
+Asteroidea, Ophiuroidea, Echinoidea. As for Holothuroidea, the
+fossil evidence allows us to say no more than that the class existed
+in early Carboniferous times, if not before. The second method is to
+work out by slow and sure steps the lines of descent of the different
+families, orders, and classes, and so either to arrive at the ancestral
+form of each class, or to plot out the curve of evolution, which may
+then legitimately be projected into &ldquo;the dark backward and abysm
+of time.&rdquo; In this way the many highly modified orders of Cystidea
+may be traced back to a simple, many-plated ancestor with little or
+no radiate symmetry (see below). All the complicated structures of
+Blastoidea are evolved from a fairly simple type, which in its turn
+is linked on to one of the cystid orders. That the crinoids are all
+deducible from some such simple form as that above described under
+the head &ldquo;calycinal theory,&rdquo; is now generally admitted. Although,
+in the extreme correlation of the radial food-grooves, nerves, water-vessels,
+and so forth, with a radiate symmetry of the theca, such a
+type differs from the Cystidea, while in the possession of jointed
+processes from the radial plates, bearing the grooves and the various
+body-systems outwards from the theca, it differs from all other
+Echinoderms, nevertheless ancient forms are known which, if they
+are not themselves the actual links, suggest how the crinoid type
+may have been evolved from some of the more regular cystids.
+The fourth class of Pelmatozoa&mdash;the Edrioasteroidea&mdash;differs from
+the others in the structure of its ambulacra. As in all Pelmatozoa
+these seem to have borne ciliated food-grooves protected by movable
+covering-plates (fig. 11). Beneath each food-groove was a radial
+water-vessel and probably a nerve and blood-vessel, all which
+structures passed either between certain regularly arranged thecal
+plates, or along a furrow floored by those plates, which were then
+in two alternating series. The important and distinctive feature
+is the presence of pores between the flooring-plates, on either side
+of the groove; and these, we cannot doubt, served for the passage
+of podia. Thus in a highly developed edrioasteroid, such as <i>Edrioaster</i>
+itself (fig. 11), there was a true ambulacrum, apparently constructed
+like that of a starfish, but differing in the possession of a ciliated
+food-groove protected by covering-plates. The simpler forms of
+Edrioasteroidea, with their more sac-like body and undifferentiated
+plates, may well have been derived from early Cystidea of yet simpler
+structure, and there seems no reason to follow Jaekel in regarding
+the class as itself the more primitive. Turning to fossil Asteroidea,
+we find the earlier ophiurids scarcely distinguishable from the asterids,
+while in the alternation of the ambulacrals, which undoubtedly
+correspond to the flooring-plates of <i>Edrioaster</i>, both groups approach
+the Pelmatozoan type. These facts have been expressed by Sturtz
+in his names Encrinasteriae and Ophio-encrinasteriae. There is no
+difficulty in deducing the highly differentiated asterids and ophiurids
+of a later day from these simpler types. The evolution of the
+modern Echinoidea from their Palaeozoic ancestors is also well
+understood, but in this case the ancestral form to which the palaeontologist
+is led does not at first sight present many resemblances
+to the Pelmatozoa. It is, however, characterized by simplicity of
+structure, and a short description of it will serve to clear the problem
+from unnecessary difficulties. <i>Bothriocidaris</i> (fig. 5), a small echinoid
+from the Ordovician rocks of Esthonia, is in essential structure
+just the form demanded by comparative palaeontology to make a
+starting-point. It is spheroidal, with the mouth and anus at opposite
+poles; there are five ambulacra, and the ambulacral plates are
+large, simple and alternating, each being pierced by two podial
+pores which lie in a small oval depression; the ambulacrals next
+the mouth form a closed ring of ten plates; the interambulacrals
+lie in single columns between the ambulacra, and are separated
+from the mouth-area by the proximal ambulacrals just mentioned,
+and sometimes by the second set of ambulacrals also; the ambulacra
+end in the five oculars or terminals, which meet in a ring around
+the anal area and have no podial pores, but one of them serves as
+a madreporite; within this ring is a star-shaped area filled with
+minute irregular plates, none of which can safely be selected as the
+homologues of the so-called basals or genitals of later forms; within
+the ring of ambulacrals around the mouth are five somewhat pointed
+plates, which Jaekel regards as teeth, but which can scarcely be
+homologous with the interradially placed teeth of later echinoids,
+since they are radial in position; small spines are present, especially
+around the podial pores. The position of the pores near the centre of
+the ambulacrals in <i>Bothriocidaris</i> need not be regarded as primitive,
+since other early Palaeozoic genera, not to mention the young
+of living forms, show that the podia originally passed out between
+the plates, and were only gradually surrounded by their substance;
+thus the original structure of the echinoid ambulacra differed from
+that of the early asteroid in the position of the radial vessels and
+nerves, which here lie beneath the plates instead of outside them.
+To this point we shall recur; palaeontology, though it suggests a
+clue, does not furnish an actual link either between Echinoidea and
+Asteroidea, or between those classes and Pelmatozoa.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:464px; height:223px" src="images/img874.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>&mdash;<i>Bothriocidaris globulus.</i> A, from the side; B, the plates
+around the aboral pole. (After Jaekel.) The short spines which
+were attached to the tubercles are not drawn.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The argument from embryology leads further back. First, as
+already mentioned, it outlines the general features of the <i>Dipleurula</i>;
+secondly, it indicates the way in which this free-moving form
+became fixed, and how its internal organs were modified in consequence;
+but when we seek, thirdly, for light on the relations of the
+classes, we find the features of the adult coming in so rapidly that
+such intermediate stages as may have existed are either squeezed out
+or profoundly modified. The difficulty of rearing the larvae in an
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page875" id="page875"></a>875</span>
+aquarium towards the close of the metamorphosis may account for
+the slight information available concerning the stages that immediately
+follow the embryonic. Another difficulty is due to the fact
+that the types studied, and especially the crinoid <i>Antedon</i>, are highly
+specialized, so that some of the embryonic features are not really
+primitive as regards the class, but only as regards each particular
+genus. Thus inferences from embryonic development need to be
+checked by palaeontology, and supplemented by comparison of the
+anatomy of other living genera.</p>
+
+<p>Minute anatomical research has also aided to establish the Pelmatozoic
+theory by the gradual recognition in other classes of features
+formerly supposed to be confined to Pelmatozoa. Thus the elements
+of the Pelmatozoan ventral groove are now detected in so different
+a structure as the echinoid ambulacrum, while an aboral nervous
+system, the diminished representative of that in crinoids, has been
+traced in all Eleutherozoa except Holothurians. The broader theories
+of modern zoology might seem to have little bearing on the Echinoderma,
+for it is not long since the study of these animals was compared
+to a landlocked sea undisturbed by such storms as rage
+around the origin of the Vertebrata. This, however, is no more the
+case. The conception of the <i>Dipleurula</i> derives its chief weight
+from the fact that it is comparable to the early larval forms of
+other primitive coelomate animals, such as <i>Balanoglossus</i>, <i>Phoronis</i>,
+Chaetognatha, Brachiopoda and Bryozoa. So too the explanation
+of radial symmetry and torsion of organs as due to a Pelmatozoic
+mode of life finds confirmation in many other phyla. Instead of
+discussing all these questions separately, with the details necessary
+for an adequate presentation of the argument, we shall now sketch
+the history of the Echinoderms in accordance with the Pelmatozoic
+theory. Such a sketch must pass lightly over debatable ground,
+and must consist largely of suggestions still in need of confirmation;
+but if it serves as a frame into which more precise and more detailed
+statements may be fitted as they come to the ken of the reader, its
+object will be attained.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Evolution of the Echinoderms.</i>&mdash;It is reasonable to suppose that
+the Coelomata&mdash;animals in which the body-cavity is divided
+into a gut passing from mouth to anus and a hollow (coelom)
+surrounding it&mdash;were derived from the simpler Coelentera, in
+which the primitive body-cavity (archenteron) is not so divided,
+and has only one aperture serving as both mouth and anus.
+We may, with Sedgwick, suppose the coelom to have originated
+by the enlargement and separation of pouches that pressed
+outwards from the archenteron into the thickened body-wall
+(such structures as the genital pouches of some Coelentera,
+not yet shut off from the rest of the cavity), and they would
+probably have been four in number and radially disposed about
+the central cavity. The evolution of this cavity into a gut is
+foreshadowed in some Coelentera by the elliptical shape of the
+aperture, and by the development at its ends of a ciliated channel
+along which food is swept; we have only to suppose the approximation
+of the sides of the ellipse and their eventual fusion, to
+complete the transformation of the radially symmetrical Coelenterate
+into a bilaterally symmetrical Coelomate with mouth and
+anus at opposite ends of the long axis. We further suppose that
+of the four coelomic pouches one was in front of the mouth,
+one behind the anus, and one on each side. Such an animal,
+if it ever existed, probably lived near the surface of the sea, and
+even here it may have changed its medusoid mode of locomotion
+for one in the direction of its mouth. Thus the bilateral symmetry
+would have been accentuated, and the organism shaped more
+definitely into three segments, namely (1) a preoral segment
+or lobe, containing the anterior coelomic cavity; (2) a middle
+segment, containing the gut, and the two middle coelomic
+cavities; (3) a posterior segment, containing the posterior
+coelomic cavity, which, however, owing to the backward prolongation
+of the anus, became divided into two&mdash;a right and left
+posterior coelom. Each of these cavities presumably excreted
+waste products to the exterior by a pore. There was probably
+a nervous area, with a tuft of cilia, at the anterior end; while,
+at all events in forms that remained pelagic, the ciliated nervous
+tracts of the rest of the body may be supposed to have become
+arranged in bands around the body-segments. Such a form as
+this is roughly represented to-day by the <i>Actinotrocha</i> larva
+of <i>Phoronis</i>, the importance of which has been brought out
+by Masterman. But only slight modifications are required to
+produce the <i>Tornaria</i> larva of the Enteropneusta and other
+larvae, including the special type that is inferred from the
+<i>Dipleurula</i> larval stages of recent forms to have characterized
+the ancestor of the Echinoderms. We cannot enter here into
+all the details of comparison between these larval forms; amid
+much that is hypothetical a few homologies are widely accepted,
+and the preceding account will show the kind of relation that the
+Echinoderms bear to other animals, including what are now
+usually regarded as the ancestors of the Chordata (to which
+back-boned animals belong), as well as the nature of the evidence
+that their study has been, or may be, made to yield. How the
+hypothetical <i>Dipleurula</i> became an Echinoderm, and how the
+primitive Echinoderms diverged in structure so as to form the
+various classes, are questions to which an answer is attempted
+in the following paragraphs:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:460px; height:185px" src="images/img875a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>&mdash;Diagrammatic reconstruction of <i>Dipleurula</i>. The creature
+is represented crawling on the sea-floor, but it may equally well have
+been a floating animal. The ciliated bands are not drawn.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Confining our attention to that form of Dipleurula (fig. 6) which,
+it is supposed, gave rise to the Echinoderma, we infer from embryological
+data that its special features were as follow:&mdash;The anterior
+coelomic cavity was wholly or partially divided, and from each half
+a duct led to the exterior, opening at a pore near the middle line of
+the back. The middle cavities were smaller, and the ducts from them
+came to unite with those from the anterior cavities, and no longer
+opened directly to the exterior; whether these cavities were already
+specialized as water-sacs cannot be asserted, but they certainly had
+become so at a slightly later stage. The posterior cavities were the
+largest, but what had become of their original opening to the exterior
+is uncertain. The genital products were derived from the lining of
+the coelomic cavities, but it would not be safe to say that any
+particular region was as yet specialized for generation. The epithelium
+of the outer surface was probably ciliated, and a portion
+of it in the preoral lobe differentiated as a sense-organ, with longer
+cilia and underlying nerve-centre, from which two nerves ran back
+below the ventral surface. Into the space between the walls of the
+coelom and the outer body-wall, originally filled with jelly, definite
+cells now wandered, chiefly derived from the coelomic walls. Some
+of these cells produced muscles and connective tissue; others
+absorbed and removed waste products, iron salts, calcium carbonate
+and the like, and so were ready to be utilized for the deposition of
+pigment or of skeletal substance. In some of these respects the
+<i>Dipleurula</i> may have diverged from the ancestor of Enteropneusta
+and of other animals, but it could not as yet have been recognized as
+echinodermal by a zoologist, for it presented none of the structural
+peculiarities of the modern adult echinoderm.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:446px; height:334px" src="images/img875b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>&mdash;Diagrammatic reconstruction of primitive Pelmatozoön,
+seen from the side. The plates of the test are not drawn; their
+probable appearance may be gathered from fig. 8.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 330px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:279px; height:291px" src="images/img876a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>&mdash;<i>Aristocystis bohemicus</i>;
+side-view of the theca. The internal
+structure may be gathered from fig.
+7.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:228px; height:180px" src="images/img876b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span>&mdash;<i>Fungocystis rarissima</i>,
+one of the Diploporita,
+in which the thecal plates
+bordering the food-grooves are
+not yet regularly arranged.
+The brachioles are not drawn.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Now ensued the great event that originated the phylum&mdash;the
+discovery of the sea-floor. This being apprehended by the sensory
+anterior end, it was by that end that the <i>Dipleurula</i> attached
+itself; not, however, by the pole, since that would have interfered
+at once with the sensory organ, but a little to one side, the right
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page876" id="page876"></a>876</span>
+side being the one chosen for a reason we cannot now fathom; it
+may be that fixation was facilitated by the presence of the pore on
+that side, and by the utilization of the excretion from it as a cement.
+The first result was that which is always seen to follow in such cases&mdash;the
+passage of the mouth towards the upper surface (fig. 7).
+As it passed up along the left side, the gut caught hold of the left
+water-sac and pulled it upwards, curving it in the process; this
+being attached to the left duct from the anterior body-cavity, this
+structure with its water-pore was also pulled up, and the pore came
+to lie between mouth and anus. The forward portion of the anterior
+coelom shared in the constriction and elongation of the preoral lobe;
+but its hinder portion was dragged up along with the water-pore
+and formed a canal lying
+along the outer wall (the
+parietal canal). As the gut
+coiled, it pressed inwards the
+middle of the left posterior
+coelom of the <i>Dipleurula</i>, and
+drew the whole towards the
+mouth, while the corresponding
+cavity on the right was
+pressed down by the stomach
+towards the fixed end of the
+animal and became involved
+in the elongation of that
+region. These changes, which
+may still be traced in the
+development of <i>Antedon</i>, resulted
+in the primitive Pelmatozoön
+(fig. 7), represented in
+the rocks by such a genus
+as <i>Aritocystis</i> (fig. 8). The
+pear-shaped body is encased
+in a theca formed by a
+number of polygonal plates,
+and is attached by its
+narrow end. On the broad upper surface are four openings, that
+nearest the centre being the mouth, which is slit-like, and that nearest
+the periphery being the anus. The two other openings are minute,
+and placed between those two; one close to the mouth is almost
+certainly the water-pore, while that nearer the anus is regarded as a
+genital aperture. Which of the coelomic cavities this last is connected
+with is uncertain, for there is considerable doubt as to the origin of
+the genital glands in the embryonic development of recent echinoderms.
+It seems clear, however, that there was but a single duct and
+a single bunch of reproductive cells, as in the holothurians, though
+perhaps bifurcate, as in some of those animals. The line between
+mouth and anus, along which these openings are situate, corresponds
+with the plane of union between the two horns of the curved left
+posterior coelom, the united walls of which form the &ldquo;dorsal mesentery.&rdquo;
+Since this must have, on our theory, enclosed the parietal
+canal from the anterior coelom, it is possible that the genital products
+were developed from the lining cells of that cavity, and that the
+genital pore was nothing but its original pore not yet united with
+that from the water-sac. The concrescence of these pores can be
+traced in other cystids; but as the genital organs became affected
+by radial symmetry the original function of the duct was lost, and
+the reproductive elements escaped to the exterior in another way.
+<i>Aristocystis</i> may have had ciliated
+food-grooves leading to its mouth,
+but these have left no traces on the
+structure of the test. Traces, however,
+are perceptible in genera believed
+to be descended from such a simple
+type, and the majority may be
+grouped under two heads. One group
+includes those in which the grooves
+wander outwards from the mouth
+over the thecal plates, which gradually
+become arranged regularly on either
+side of the grooves, while further
+extensions ascend from the grooves
+on small jointed processes called
+&ldquo;brachioles&rdquo; (fig. 9). In the other
+group the grooves do not tend so
+much to stretch over the theca as to
+be raised away from it on relatively larger brachioles, arising close
+around the mouth (fig. 10).</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:303px; height:511px" src="images/img876c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span>&mdash;<i>Chirocrinus-alter</i>, one of
+the Rhombifera, showing the reduced
+number and regular arrangement of the
+thecal plates, and the concentration of
+the brachioles. (Adapted from Jaekel.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>These two types are, in the main, correlated with two gradual
+differentiations in the minute structure of the thecal plates. Originally
+the calcareous substance of the plates (stereom) was pierced
+by irregular canals, more or less vertical, and containing strands
+of the soft tissue (stroma) that deposited the stereom, as well as
+spaces filled with fluid. In the former group (fig. 9) these canals
+became connected in pairs (diplopores) still perpendicular to the
+surface, and this structure, combined with that of the grooves,
+characterizes the order&mdash;Diploporita. In the latter group (fig. 10)
+the canals, that is to say, the stroma-strands, came to lie parallel
+to the surface and to cross the sutures between the plates, which
+were thus more flexibly and more strongly united: since the canals
+crossing each suture naturally occupy a rhombic area, the order is
+called Rhombifera. At first the grooves were three, one proceeding
+from each end of the mouth-slit, and the third in a direction opposed
+to the anus; with reference to the Pelmatozoan structure, the anal
+side may be termed posterior, and this groove anterior. Eventually
+each lateral groove forked, so that there were five grooves. These
+gradually impressed themselves on the theca and influenced the
+arrangement of the internal organs: it is fairly safe to assume that
+nerves, blood-vessels and branches from the water-sac stretched
+out along with these grooves, each system starting from a ring
+around the gullet. At last a quinqueradiate symmetry influenced
+the plates of the theca, partly through the development of a plate
+at the end of each groove (terminal), partly through plates at the
+aboral pole of the theca (basals and infrabasals) arising in response
+to mechanical pressure, but soon intimately connected with the cords
+of an aboral nervous system. Before the latter plates arose, the
+stem had developed by the elongation and constriction of the fixed
+end of the theca, the gradual regularization of the plates involved,
+and their coalescence into rings. The crinoid type was differentiated
+by the extension of the food-grooves and associated organs along
+radial outgrowths from the theca itself. These constituted the arms
+(brachia), and five definite radial plates of the theca were specialized
+for their support. These radials may be homologous with the
+terminals already mentioned, but this is neither necessary nor certain.
+In this development of brachial extensions of the theca the genital
+organs were involved, and their ripe products formed at the ends
+of the brachia or in the
+branches therefrom. The
+remains of the original
+genital gland within the
+theca became the &ldquo;axial
+organ&rdquo; surrounded by the
+&ldquo;axial sinus&rdquo; derived from
+the anterior coelom, and
+this again by structures
+derived from the right
+posterior coelom, which,
+as explained above, had
+been depressed to the
+aboral pole. These last
+structures formed a nervous
+sheath around the
+axial sinus with its blood-vessels,
+and became
+divided into five lobes
+correlated with the five
+basals (the &ldquo;chambered
+organ&rdquo;) and forming the
+aboral nerve-centre. Before
+these changes were
+complete the Holothurioidea
+must have diverged,
+by the assumption of a
+crawling existence. Thus
+in them the mouth and
+anus reverted to opposite
+poles, and only the torsion
+of the gut and coelom,
+and the radial extensions
+of the nervous, water-vascular
+and blood-vascular
+systems, testified
+to their Pelmatozoan
+ancestry. The ciliated
+grooves, no longer needed for the collection of food, closed over,
+and are still traceable as ciliated canals overlying the radial nerves.
+At the same time the thecal plates degenerated into spicules. The
+Edrioasteroidea followed a different line from that of the cystids above
+mentioned and their descendants. The theca became sessile, and in
+its later developments much flattened (fig. 11). Mouth, water-pore
+and anus remained as in <i>Aristocystis</i>, but the five ciliated grooves
+radiated from the mouth between the thecal plates rather than
+over them, and were, as usual, protected by covering-plates. The
+important feature was the extension of radial canals from the
+water-sac along these grooves, with branches passing between the
+flooring-plates of the grooves (fig. 12, A). The resemblance of the
+flooring-plates to the ambulacral ossicles of a starfish is so exact
+that one can explain it only by supposing similar relations of the
+water-canals and their branches (podia). On the thinly plated under
+surface of well-preserved specimens of <i>Edrioaster</i> are seen five
+interradial swellings (fig. 11, B). These are likely to have been
+produced by the ripe genital glands, which may have extruded
+their products directly through the membranous integument of the
+under side. No other way out for them is apparent, and it is clear
+that <i>Edrioaster</i> was not permanently and solidly fixed to the sea-floor.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:482px; height:287px" src="images/img877a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span>&mdash;<i>Edrioaster.</i> A, upper or oral surface of <i>E. Bigsbyi</i>,
+with the covering-plates on the anterior and left posterior food-grooves,
+but removed from the others, which show only the flooring-plates,
+between which are pores; B, under surface of <i>E. Buchianus</i>,
+with covering-plates on right posterior and right anterior food-grooves
+(left hand in the drawing). The * denotes the position of the anal
+interradius.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">Now comes a great change, unfortunately difficult to follow
+whether in the fossils or in the modern embryos. We suppose
+some such form as <i>Edrioaster</i>, which appears to have lived near
+the shore, to have been repeatedly overturned by waves. Those
+that were able to accommodate themselves to this topsy-turvy
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page877" id="page877"></a>877</span>
+existence, by taking food in directly through the mouth, survived,
+and their podia gradually specialized as sucking feet. Such a form
+as this, when once its covering-plates had atrophied, would be a
+starfish without more ado (fig. 12, B); but the sea-urchins present
+a more difficult problem, on which <i>Bothriocidaris</i> sheds no light.
+An Upper Silurian echinoid, however, <i>Palaeodiscus</i>, is believed by
+W.J. Sollas and W.K. Spencer to have had in its ambulacra an
+inner as well as an outer series of plates. If this be correct, the only
+change from <i>Edrioaster</i>, as regards the ambulacra, was that in
+<i>Palaeodiscus</i> the covering-plates could no longer open, but closed
+permanently over the whole groove, while the podia issued through
+slits between them. In more typical echinoids the covering-plates
+alone remained to form the ordinary ambulacral plates, while the
+flooring-plates disappeared, the canals and other organs remaining
+as before. In any case we have to admit a closure of the integument
+over the ciliated groove (fig. 12, D, <i>e</i>) just as in holothurians, since
+this is necessitated by anatomical evidence. The genital organs
+in both Asteroidea and Echinoidea would retain the interradial
+position they first assumed in <i>Edrioaster</i>; and in Echinoidea their
+primitive temporary openings to the exterior were converted into
+definite pores, correlated with five interradially placed plates at the
+aboral pole. The anus also naturally moved to this superior and
+aboral position. In the Echinoidea the water-canals and associated
+structures, ending in the terminal plates, stretched right up to these
+genital plates; but in the Asteroidea they never reached the aboral
+surface, so that the terminals have always been separated from the
+aboral pole by a number of plates.</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:476px; height:443px" src="images/img877b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span>-Diagrammatic sections across the ambulacra of A, C,
+<span class="sc">Pelmatozoa</span>, and B, D, <span class="sc">Eleutherozoa</span>, placed in the same position
+for comparison. <i>S</i>, Blood-spaces, of which the homology is still
+uncertain.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2"><i>Analysis of Echinoderm Characters.</i>&mdash;Regarding the Echinoderms
+as a whole in the light of the foregoing account, we may
+give the following analytic summary of the characters that
+distinguish them from other coelomate animals:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>They live in salt or brackish water; a primitive bilateral symmetry
+is still manifest in the right and left divisions of the coelom;
+the middle coelomic cavities are primitively transformed into two
+hydrocoels communicating with the exterior indirectly through a
+duct or ducts of the anterior coelom; stereom, composed of crystalline
+carbonate of lime, is, with few exceptions, deposited by special
+amoebocytes in the meshes of a mesodermal stroma, chiefly in the
+integument; reproductive cells are derived from the endothelium,
+apparently of the anterior coelom; total segmentation of the ovum
+produces a coeloblastula and gastrula by invagination; mesenchyme
+is formed in the segmentation cavity by migration of cells, chiefly
+from the hypoblast. Known Echinoderms show the following
+features, imagined to be due to an ancestral pelmatozoic stage:&mdash;Increase
+in the coelomic cavities of the left side, and atrophy of
+those on the right; the dextral coil of the gut, recognizable in all
+classes, though often obscured; an incomplete secondary bilateralism
+about the plane including the main axis and the water-pore
+or its successor, the madreporite, often obscured by one or other of
+various tertiary bilateralisms; the change of the hydrocoel into a
+circumoral, arcuate or ring canal; development through a free-swimming,
+bilaterally symmetrical, ciliated larva, of which in
+many cases only a portion is transformed into the adult Echinoderm
+(where care of the brood has secondarily arisen, this larva is not
+developed). All living, and most extinct, Echinoderms show the
+following features, almost certainly due to an ancestral pelmatozoic
+stage:&mdash;An incomplete radial symmetry, of which five is usually the
+dominant number, is superimposed on the secondary bilateralism,
+owing to the outgrowth from the mouth region of one unpaired and
+two paired ciliated grooves; these have a floor of nervous epithelium,
+and are accompanied by subjacent radial canals from the water-ring,
+giving off lateral podia and thus forming ambulacra, and by a
+perihaemal system of canals apparently growing out from coelomic
+cavities. All living Echinoderms have a lacunar, haemal system
+of diverse origin; this, the ambulacral system, and the coelomic
+cavities, contain a fluid holding albumen in solution and carrying
+numerous amoebocytes, which are developed in special lymph-glands
+and are capable of wandering through all tissues. The Echinoderms
+may be divided into seven classes, whose probable relations are
+thus indicated:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:526px; height:134px" src="images/img877c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Brief systematic accounts of these classes follow:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>Grade A. PELMATOZOA.&mdash;Echinoderma with the viscera enclosed
+in a calcified and plated theca, of which the oral surface is
+uppermost, and which is usually attached, either temporarily or
+permanently, by the aboral surface. Food brought to the mouth
+by a subvective system of ciliated grooves, radiating from the mouth
+either between the plates of the theca (endothecal), or over the theca
+(epithecal), or along processes from the theca (exothecal: arms,
+pinnules, &amp;c.), or, in part, and as a secondary development, below
+the theca (hypothecal). Anus usually in the upper or oral half of
+the theca, and never aboral. An aborally-placed motor nerve-centre
+gives off branches to the stroma connecting the various plates of the
+theca and of its brachial, anal and columnar extensions, and thus
+co-ordinates the movements of the whole skeleton. The circumoesophageal
+water-ring communicates indirectly with the exterior;
+the podia, when present, are respiratory, not locomotor, in function.</p>
+
+<p>Class I. <span class="sc">Cystidea.</span>&mdash;Pelmatozoa in which radial polymeric
+symmetry of the theca is developed either not at all or not in complete
+correlation with the radial symmetry of the ambulacra (such
+as obtains in Blastoidea and Crinoidea); in which extensions of
+the food-grooves are exothecal or epithecal or both combined, but
+neither endothecal nor pierced by podia (as in some Edrioasteroidea)
+All Palaeozoic.</p>
+
+<p>This class shows much greater diversity of organization than any
+other, and the classifications proposed by recent writers, such as
+E. Haeckel, O. Jaekel and F.A. Bather, start from such different
+points of view that no discussion of them can be attempted here.
+Following the narrative given above, we recognize a primitive
+group&mdash;Amphoridea&mdash;represented by <i>Aristocystis</i> (fig. 8). From
+this are derived the orders Diploporita (fig. 9) and Rhombifera (fig.
+10) and the class Edrioasteroidea, all which have already been
+described as steps in the evolution of the phylum. But there were
+also side-branches leading nowhere, and therefore placed in separate
+orders&mdash;Aporita and Carpoidea.</p>
+
+<p>Order 1. <i>Amphoridea.</i>&mdash;Radial symmetry has affected neither
+food-grooves nor thecal plates; nor, probably, nerves, ambulacral
+vessels, nor gonads. Canals or folds when present in the stereom
+are irregular. Families: Aristocystidae (fig. 8); Eocystidae.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page878" id="page878"></a>878</span></p>
+
+<p>Order 2. <i>Carpoidea.</i>&mdash;Theca compressed in the oro-anal plane
+and a bilateral symmetry thus induced, affecting the food-grooves
+and, usually, the thecal plates and stem. Food-grooves in part
+epithecal and may be continued on one or two exothecal processes.
+No pores or folds in the stereom. Families: Anomalocystidae,
+Dendrocystidae. These correspond to Jaekel&rsquo;s Carpoidea Heterostelea;
+he also includes, as Eustelea, our Comarocystidae and
+Malocystidae.</p>
+
+<p>Order 3. <i>Rhombifera.</i>&mdash;Radial symmetry affects the food-grooves
+and, in the more advanced families, the thecal plates; probably
+also the nerves and ambulacral vessels, but not the gonads. The
+food-grooves are exothecal, <i>i.e.</i> are stretched out from the theca on
+jointed skeletal processes (brachioles). These either are close to the
+mouth or are removed from it upon a series of ambulacral or sub-ambulacral
+plates not derived immediately from thecal plates, or are
+separated from the oral centre by hypothecal passages passing
+beneath terminal plates. The stereom and stroma become arranged
+in folds and strands at right angles to the sutures of the thecal
+plates; in higher forms the stereom-folds are in part specialized as
+pectini-rhombs. Families: Echinosphaeridae; Comarocystidae;
+Macrocystellidae; Tiaracrinidae; Malocystidae; Glyptocystidae,
+with sub-famm. Echinoencrininae, Callocystinae, Glyptocystinae, of
+which examples are <i>Cheirocrinus</i> (fig. 10) and <i>Cystoblastus</i> from
+which Jaekel deduces the blastoids; Caryocrinidae.</p>
+
+<p>Order 4. <i>Aporita.</i>&mdash;Pentamerous symmetry affects the food-grooves
+and thecal plates; probably also the nerves and ambulacral
+vessels, but not the gonads. Food-grooves exothecal and circumoral.
+The stereom shows no trace of canals, folds, rhombs or diplopores.
+Family: Cryptocrinidae.</p>
+
+<p>Order 5. <i>Diploporita.</i>&mdash;Radial symmetry affects the food-grooves,
+and by degrees the thecal plates connected therewith, but not the
+interradial thecal plates; probably also the nerves and ambulacral
+vessels, but not the gonads. The food-grooves are epithecal, <i>i.e.</i>
+are extended over the thecal plates themselves without intermediate
+flooring; they are also prolonged on exothecal brachioles, which line
+the epithecal grooves. The stereom of the thecal plates may be
+thrown into folds, but the mesostroma does not so much tend to lie
+in strands traversing the sutures, nor are pectini-rhombs or pore-rhombs
+developed; diplopores are always present in the mesostereom,
+but often restricted to definite tracts or plates, especially
+in higher forms. Families: Sphaeronidae; Glyptosphaeridae, <i>e.g.</i>
+<i>Fungocystis</i> (fig. 9); Protocrinidae; Mesocystidae; Gomphocystidae.</p>
+
+<p>The Protocrinidae lead up to <i>Proteroblastus</i>, in which the theca is
+ovoid, sometimes prolonged into a stem, the plates differentiated
+into (<i>a</i>) smooth, irregular, depressed interambulacrals, (<i>b</i>) transversely
+elongate brachioliferous adambulacrals, to which the diplopores,
+which lie at right angles to the main food-groove, are confined.
+This leads almost without a break to the Protoblastoidea.</p>
+
+<p>Class II. <span class="sc">Blastoidea.</span>&mdash;Pelmatozoa in which five (by atrophy
+four) epithecal ciliated grooves, lying on a lancet-shaped plate
+(? always), radiate from a central peristome between five interradial
+deltoid plates, and are edged by alternating side-plates bearing
+brachioles, to which side-branches pass from the grooves. Grooves
+and peristome protected by small plates, which can open over the
+grooves. The generative organs and coelom probably did not send
+extensions along the rays into the brachioles; but apparently nerves
+from the aboral centre, after passing through the thecal plates, met
+in a circumoral ring, from which branches passed into the plate
+under each main food-groove, and thence supplied the brachioles.
+The thecal plates, however irregular in some species, always show
+defined basals and a distinct plate (&ldquo;radial&rdquo;) at the end of each
+ambulacrum; they are in all cases so far affected by pentamerous
+symmetry that their sutures never cross the ambulacra. All
+Palaeozoic.</p>
+
+<p>Division A. <span class="ls"><i>Protoblastoidea.</i></span>&mdash;Blastoidea without interambulacral
+groups of hydrospire-folds hanging into the thecal
+cavity. Families: Asteroblastidae, Blastoidocrinidae. The former
+might be placed with Diploporita, were it not for a greater intimacy
+of correlation between ambulacral and thecal structures than is
+found in Cystidea as here defined. They form a link between the
+Protocrinidae and&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 140px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:78px; height:77px" src="images/img878.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span>&mdash;A Eublastoid, <i>Pentremites</i>.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Division B. <span class="ls"><i>Eublastoidea.</i></span>&mdash;Blastoidea in which the thecal
+plates have assumed a definite number and position in 3 circlets,
+as follows: 3 basals, 2 large and 1 small; 5 radials, often fork-shaped,
+forming a closed circlet; 5 deltoids, interradial
+in position, supported on the shoulders or
+processes of the radials, and often surrounding the
+peristome with their oral ends. The stereom of the
+radials and deltoids on each side of the ambulacra is
+thrown into folds, running across the radio-deltoid
+suture, and hanging down into the thecal cavity as
+respiratory organs (hydrospires).</p>
+
+<p>These are the forms to which the name Blastoidea
+is usually restricted. They have been divided into
+Regulares and Irregulares, but it seems possible to group them
+according to three series or lines of descent, thus:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>Series <i>a. Codonoblastida.</i>&mdash;Families: Codasteridae, Pentremitidae
+(fig. 13).</p>
+
+<p>Series <i>b. Troostoblastida.</i>&mdash;Families: Troostocrinidae, Eleutherocrinidae.</p>
+
+<p>Series <i>c. Granatoblastida.</i>&mdash;Families: Nucleocrinidae, Orbitremitidae,
+Pentephyllidae, Zygocrinidae.</p>
+
+<p>Class III. <span class="sc">Crinoidea.</span>&mdash;Pelmatozoa in which epithecal extensions
+of the food-grooves, ambulacrals, superficial oral nervous system,
+blood-vascular and water-vascular systems, coelom and genital
+system are continued exothecally upon jointed outgrowths of the
+abactinal thecal plates (<i>brachia</i>), carrying with them extensions of
+the abactinal nerve-system. The number of these processes is
+primitively and normally five, but may become less by atrophy.
+The brachia rise from a corresponding number of thecal plates,
+&ldquo;radials (RR).&rdquo; Below these is always a circlet, or traces of a circlet,
+of plates alternating with the radials, <i>i.e.</i> interradial, and called
+&ldquo;basals (BB).&rdquo; Through all modifications, which are numerous
+and vastly divergent, these elements persist. A circlet of radially
+situate infrabasals (IBB) may also be present. Below BB or IBB
+there follows a stem, which, however, may be atrophied or totally
+lost (see fig. 1).</p>
+
+<p>The classification here adopted is that of F.A. Bather (1899),
+which departs from that of Wachsmuth and Springer mainly in the
+separation of forms with infrabasals or traces thereof from those in
+which basals only are present. These two series also differ from
+each other in the relations of the abactinal nerve-system. O. Jaekel
+(1894) has divided the crinoids into the orders Cladocrinoidea and
+Pentacrinoidea, the former being the Camerata of Wachsmuth and
+Springer (Monocyclica Camerata, Adunata and Dicyclica Camerata
+of the present classification), and the latter comprising all the rest,
+in which the arms are either free or only loosely incorporated in the
+dorsal cup. In minor points there is fair agreement between the
+American, German and British authors. The families are extinct,
+except when the contrary is stated.</p>
+
+<p>Sub-class I. <i>Monocyclica.</i>&mdash;Crinoidea in which the base consists
+of BB only, the aboral prolongations of the chambered organ being
+interradial; new columnals are introduced at the extreme proximal
+end of the stem.</p>
+
+<p>Order 1. <i>Monocyclica Inadunata.</i>&mdash;Monocyclica in which the
+dorsal cup is confined to the patina and occasional intercalated anals;
+such ambulacrals or interambulacrals as enter the tegmen remain
+supra-tegminal and not rigidly united. Families: Hybocrinidae,
+Stephanocrinidae, Heterocrinidae, Calceocrinidae, Pisocrinidae,
+Zophocrinidae, Haplocrinidae, Allagecrinidae, Symbathocrinidae,
+Belemnocrinidae, Plicatocrinidae, Hyocrinidae (recent), Saccocomidae.</p>
+
+<p>Order 2. <i>Adunata.</i>&mdash;Monocyclica with dorsal cup primitively
+confined to the patina and an occasional single anal; tegmen solid;
+portions of the proximal brachials and their ambulacrals tend to be
+rigidly incorporated in the theca. Arms fork once to thrice, and bear
+pinnules on each or on every other brachial. BB fused to 3, 2 or 1.
+(Eucladocrinus and Acrocrinidae offer peculiar exceptions to this
+diagnosis.) Families: Platycrinidae, Hexacrinidae, Acrocrinidae.</p>
+
+<p>Order 3. <i>Monocyclica Camerata.</i>&mdash;Monocyclica in which the first,
+and often the succeeding, orders of brachials are incorporated by
+interbrachials in the dorsal cup, while the corresponding ambulacrals
+are either incorporated in, or pressed below, the tegmen by interambulacrals;
+all thecal plates united by suture, somewhat loose in
+the earliest forms, but speedily becoming close, and producing a rigid
+theca; mouth and tegminal food-grooves closed; arms pinnulate.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>Sub-order i. <i>Melocrinoidea.</i>&mdash;RR in contact all round; first brachial
+usually quadrangular. Families: Glyptocrinidae, Melocrinidae,
+Patelliocrinidae, Clonocrinidae, Eucalyptocrinidae, Dolatocrinidae.</p>
+
+<p>Sub-order ii. <i>Batocrinoidea.</i>&mdash;RR separated by a heptagonal anal;
+first brachial usually quadrangular. Families: Tanaocrinidae,
+Xenocrinidae, Carpocrinidae, Barrandeocrinidae, Coelocrinidae,
+Batocrinidae, Periechocrinidae.</p>
+
+<p>Sub-order iii. <i>Actinocrinoidea.</i>&mdash;RR separated by a hexagonal
+anal; first brachial usually hexagonal. Families: Actinocrinidae,
+Amphoracrinidae.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Sub-class II. <i>Dicyclica.</i>&mdash;Crinoidea in which the base consists of
+BB and IBB, the latter being liable to atrophy or fusion with the
+proximale, but the aboral prolongations of the chambered organ
+are always radial; new columnals may or may not be introduced at
+the proximal end of the stem.</p>
+
+<p>Order 1. <i>Dicyclica Inadunata.</i>&mdash;Dicyclica in which the dorsal cup
+primitively is confined to the patina and occasional intercalated
+anals, and no other plates ever occur between RR (Grade: Distincta);
+Br may be incorporated in the cup, with or without iBr,
+but never rigidly, and their corresponding ambulacrals remain
+supra-tegminal (Grade: Articulata); new columnals are introduced
+at the extreme proximal end of the stem.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>Sub-order i. <i>Cyathocrinoidea.</i>&mdash;Tegmen stout with conspicuous
+orals. Families: Carabocrinidae, Palaeocrinidae. Euspirocrinidae,
+Sphaerocrinidae, Cyathocrinidae, Petalocrinidae,
+Crotalocrinidae, Codiacrinidae, Cupressocrinidae, Gasterocomidae.</p>
+
+<p>Sub-order ii. <i>Dendrocrinoidea.</i>&mdash;Tegmen thin, flexible, with inconspicuous
+orals. Families: Dendrocrinidae, Botryocrinidae,
+Lophocrinidae, Scaphiocrinidae, Scytalecrinidae, Graphiocrinidae,
+Cromyocrinidae, Encrinidae (preceding families are
+Distincta; the rest Articulata), Pentacrinidae, including the
+recent <i>Isocrinus</i> (fig. 14), Uintacrinidae, Marsupitidae, Bathycrinidae
+(recent).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page879" id="page879"></a>879</span></p>
+
+<p>Order 2. <i>Flexibilia.</i>&mdash;Dicyclica in which proximal brachials are
+incorporated in the dorsal cup, either by their own sides, or by
+interbrachials, or by a finely plated skin, but never rigidly; plates
+may occur between RR. Tegmen flexible, with distinct ambulacrals
+and numerous small interambulacrals; mouth and food-grooves
+remain supra-tegminal and open. Top columnal a persistent
+proximale, often fusing with IBB, which are frequently atrophied
+in the adult.</p>
+
+<p>All the Palaeozoic representatives have non-pinnulate arms,
+while the Mesozoic and later forms have them pinnulate. There are
+other points of difference, so that it is not certain whether the latter
+really descended from the former. But assuming such a relationship
+we arrange them in two grades.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>Grade <i>a. Impinnata.</i>&mdash;Families: Ichthyocrinidae, Sagenocrinidae,
+and Taxocrinidae, perhaps capable of further division.</p>
+
+<p>Grade <i>b. Pinnata.</i>&mdash;Families: Apiocrinidae with the recent <i>Calamocrinus</i>,
+Bourgueticrinidae with recent <i>Rhizocrinus</i>, Antedonidae,
+Atelecrinidae, Actinometridae, Thaumatocrinidae (these four
+recent families include free-moving forms with atrophied stem,
+probably derived from different ancestors), Eugeniacrinidae,
+Holopodidae (recent), Eudesicrinidae.</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 370px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:324px; height:649px" src="images/img879a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 14.</span>&mdash;A living Pentacrinid, <i>Isocrinus asteria</i>;
+the first specimen found, after Guettard&rsquo;s figure published in 1761.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Order 3. <i>Dicyclica Camerata.</i>&mdash;Dicyclica in which the first, and
+usually the second, orders of brachials are incorporated in the dorsal
+cup by interbrachials, at
+first loosely, but afterwards
+by close suture.
+IBB always the primitive
+5. An anal plate
+always rests on the
+posterior basal; mouth
+and tegminal food-grooves
+closed; arms
+pinnulate. Families:
+Reteocrinidae, Dimerocrinidae,
+Lampterocrinidae,
+Rhodocrinidae,
+Cleiocrinidae.</p>
+
+<p>Class IV. <span class="sc">Edrioasteroidea.</span>&mdash;Pelmatozoa
+in which the theca is
+composed of an indefinite
+number of irregular
+plates, some of which are
+variously differentiated
+in different genera; with
+no subvective skeletal
+appendages, but with
+central mouth, from
+which there radiate
+through the theca five
+unbranched ambulacra,
+composed of a double
+series of alternating
+plates (covering-plates),
+sometimes supported by
+an outer series of larger
+alternating plates (side-plates
+or flooring-plates).
+In some forms at least,
+pores between (not
+through) the ambulacral
+elements, or between
+them and the thecal
+plates, seem to have
+permitted the passage
+of extensions from the
+perradial water-vessels.
+Anus in posterior interradius,
+on oral surface, closed by valvular pyramid. Hydropore
+(usually, if not always, present) between mouth and anus. Families:
+Agelacrinidae, Cyathocystidae, Edrioasteridae, Steganoblastidae.
+All Palaeozoic. The structure and importance of <i>Edrioaster</i> have
+been discussed above (figs. 11, 12).</p>
+
+<p>Grade B. ELEUTHEROZOA&mdash;Echinoderma in which the theca,
+which may be but slightly or not at all calcified, is not attached by
+any portion of its surface, but is usually placed with the oral surface
+downwards or in the direction of forward locomotion. Food is not
+conveyed by a subvective system of ciliated grooves, but is taken in
+directly by the mouth. The anus when present is typically aboral,
+and approaches the mouth only in a few specialized forms. The
+aboral nervous system, if indeed it be present at all, is very slightly
+developed. The circumoesophageal water-ring may lose its connexion
+with the exterior medium; the podia (absent only in some
+exceptional forms) may be locomotor, respiratory or sensory in
+function, but usually are locomotor tube-feet.</p>
+
+<p>The classes of the Eleutherozoa probably arose independently
+from different branches of the Pelmatozoan stem. The precise
+relation is not clear, but the order in which they are here placed is
+believed to be from the more primitive to the more specialized.</p>
+
+<p>Class I. <span class="sc">Holothurioidea.</span>&mdash;Eleutherozoa normally elongate along
+the oro-anal axis, which axis and the dorsal hydropore lie in the
+sagittal plane of a secondary bilateral symmetry. The calcareous
+skeleton, which may be entirely absent, is usually in the form of
+minute spicules, sometimes of small irregular plates with no trace
+of a calycinal or apical system; to these is added a ring of pieces
+radiately arranged round the oesophagus. Ambulacral appendages
+take the form of: (1) circumoral tentacles, (2) sucking-feet, (3)
+papillae; of these (1) alone is always present. The gonads are not
+radiately disposed.</p>
+
+<p>The comparative anatomy of living forms, combined with the
+evolutionary hypothesis sketched above, suggests that the early
+holothurians possessed the following characters: subvective grooves
+entirely closed; 5 radial canals, proceeding from the water-ring,
+gave off branches furnished with ampullae to the podia on each side
+of them, the 10 anterior podia being changed into cylindrical tentacles;
+the transverse muscles of the body-wall formed a circular
+layer, probably interrupted at the radii (though Ludwig believes the
+contrary); longitudinal muscles as paired radial bands, without
+those special retractors for withdrawing the anterior part of the body
+which occur in many recent forms; a hydropore connected with the
+water-ring by a canal in the dorsal mesentery; a gonopore behind
+the hydropore connected by a single duct with a bunch of genital
+pouches on each side of the mesentery; gut dextrally coiled, with a
+simple blood-vascular system, and with an enlargement at the anus
+for respiration, this eventually producing branched caeca called
+&ldquo;respiratory trees&rdquo;; skeleton reduced to a ring of 5 radial and
+5 interradial plates round the gullet, and small plates, with a hexagonally
+meshed network, dispersed through the integument. Such
+a form gave rise to descendants differing <i>inter se</i> as regards the
+suppression of the radial canals and of the podia, the form of the
+tentacles, and the development of respiratory trees. These anatomical
+facts are represented in the following classification by
+H. Ludwig:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>Order 1. <i>Actinopoda.</i>&mdash;Radial canals supplying tentacles and
+podia.</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">A. With respiratory trees.</td> <td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tclm" rowspan="3">&emsp;&emsp; (<i>a</i>) With podia <span style="font-size: 4em; font-family: 'Courier New'; color: #a8a8a8;">{</span></td> <td class="tcl">Fam. 1, Holothuriidae.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Fam. 4, Cucumariidae.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Fam. 5, Molpadiidae.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;&emsp; (<i>b</i>) Without podia</td> <td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">B. Without respiratory trees.</td> <td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;&emsp; (<i>a</i>) With podia</td> <td class="tcl">Fam. 2, Elpidiidae.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;&emsp; (<i>b</i>) Without podia</td> <td class="tcl">Fam. 3, Pelagothuriidae.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Order 2. <i>Paractinopoda.</i>&mdash;Neither radial canals nor podia.
+Tentacles supplied from circular canal. Fam. Synaptidae.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 250px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:205px; height:458px" src="images/img879b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 15.</span>&mdash;An Aspidochirote
+Holothurian of the
+family <i>Holothuriidae</i>, showing
+the mouth surrounded
+by tentacles, the anus at
+the other end of the body,
+and three of the rows of
+podia.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>It is admitted, however, that this scheme does not represent the
+probable descent or relationship of the families. Consideration of
+the views of Ludwig himself, of H.
+Östergren, and especially of R. Perrier,
+suggests the following as a more natural
+if less obvious arrangement.</p>
+
+<p>Order 1. <i>Aspidochirota.</i>&mdash;Tentacles
+more or less peltate; calcareous ring
+when present simple and radially symmetrical;
+no retractors; stone-canal
+often opens to exterior; genital tubes
+sometimes restricted to left side in consequence
+of altered position of gut (Fig.
+15.) Families: Elpidiidae (deep-sea
+forms, with sub-famm. Synallactinae,
+Deimatinae, Elpidiinae, Psychropotinae),
+Holothuriidae (shallow water),
+Pelagothuriidae (pelagic).</p>
+
+<p>Order 2. <i>Dendrochirota.</i>&mdash;Tentacles
+simple or branched, never peltate;
+calcareous ring well developed, often
+bilaterally symmetrical; retractor
+muscles usually present; stone-canal
+opens internally; genital tubes in right
+and left tufts.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>Sub-order i. <i>Apoda.</i>&mdash;No tube-feet or
+papillae, but tentacular ampullae
+more or less developed. Mostly
+burrowers. Families: Synaptidae
+(sub-famm. Synaptinae, Chirodotinae,
+Myriotrochinae), Molpadiidae.</p>
+
+<p>Sub-order ii. <i>Eupoda.</i>&mdash;Tube-feet
+present, but tentacular ampullae
+rudimentary or absent. Families:
+Cucumariidae (climbers and
+crawlers), Rhopalodinidae (burrowers).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Class II. <span class="sc">Stelliformia</span> (= <span class="sc">Asteroidea</span>
+<i>sensu lato</i>).&mdash;Eleutherozoa with
+a depressed stellate body composed of a central disk, whence
+radiate five or more rays; this radiate symmetry affects all the
+systems of organs, including the genital. The radial water-vessels
+lie in grooves on the ventral side of flooring-plates (usually called
+&ldquo;ambulacrals&rdquo;); they and their podia are limited to the oral
+surface of the body and their extremities are separated from the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page880" id="page880"></a>880</span>
+apical plates by a stretch of dorsal integument containing skeletal
+elements; the opening of the water-vascular system (madreporite)
+is not connected with a definite apical plate or system of plates.</p>
+
+<p>The starfish, brittle-stars and their allies (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Starfish</a></span>) have for
+the last fifty years usually been divided into two classes&mdash;Asteroidea
+and Ophiuroidea, each equivalent to the Holothurioidea or Echinoidea.
+Recently, however, some authors, <i>e.g.</i> Gregory, have attempted
+to show that these classes cannot be distinguished. It is true that
+some specialized forms, such as the <i>Brisingidae</i> among starfish,
+<i>Astrophiura</i> and <i>Ophioteresis</i> among ophiurans, contravene the usual
+diagnoses; but this neither obscures their systematic position, nor
+does it alter the fact that since early Palaeozoic times these two
+great groups of stellate echinoderms have evolved along separate
+lines. If then we place these groups in a single class, it is not on
+account of a few anomalous genera, but because the characters set
+forth above sharply distinguish them from all other echinoderms,
+and because we have good reason to believe that the ophiurans did
+not arise independently but have descended from primitive starfish.
+For that class Bell&rsquo;s name Stelliformia is selected since it avoids
+both confusion and barbarism.</p>
+
+<p>Sub-class I. <span class="ls"><i>Asterida.</i></span>&mdash;Stelliformia in which the ambulacral
+groove always remains open and the podia serve as tube-feet (fig. 12,
+B); the rays as a rule pass gradually into the disk, and contain both
+genital glands and caecal extensions of the digestive system; an
+anus usually present; respiration is by tubular extensions from
+the body-cavity (papulae); skeletal appendages, in addition to
+small spines, are either small grasping organs (pedicellariae), or
+clumped spines (paxillae), or branched spines bearing a membrane.</p>
+
+<p>No existing classification of the Asterida is satisfactory even for
+the recent forms, still less when the older fossils are considered.
+A separation of the latter as Palasterida, because of their alternating
+ambulacrals, from the recent Euasterida with opposite ambulacrals,
+is now discarded and an attempt made to arrange the Palasterida
+in divisions originally established for Euasterida. Those divisions
+fall under three schemes. C. Viguier has divided the starfish into:
+<i>Astéries ambulacraires</i>, with plates of ambulacral origin prominent
+in the mouth-skeleton, pedicellariae stalked, and straight or crossed,
+podial pores usually quadriserial; <i>Astéries adambulacraires</i>, with
+adambulacrals prominent in the mouth-skeleton, pedicellariae sessile,
+and forcipiform or valvular, podial pores usually biserial. Perrier,
+at first laying greater stress on the nature of the pedicellariae and
+afterwards on the form of the mouth-skeleton, has gradually perfected
+a scheme of five orders: (1) <i>Forcipulata</i>, with pedicellariae stalked,
+and straight or crossed; (2) <i>Spinulosa</i>, with pedicellariae sessile and
+forcipiform; (3) <i>Velata</i>, with membraniferous spines; (4) <i>Paxillosa</i>,
+pedicellariae represented by an ossicle of the test and the spines
+covering it, the whole forming a paxilla; (5) <i>Valvata</i> or <i>Granulosa</i>,
+with pedicellariae sessile and valvular or salt-cellar shaped. A
+more widely accepted scheme is that of W.P. Sladen, who divided
+the Euasterida into two orders; (1) <i>Phanerozonia</i>, with marginals
+large and highly developed, the supero-marginals and infero-marginals
+contiguous, with papulae confined to the dorsal surface,
+with ambulacrals well spaced and usually broad, adambulacrals
+prominent in the mouth-skeleton, with pedicellariae sessile; (2)
+<i>Cryptozonia</i>, with marginals inconspicuous and somewhat atrophied
+in the adult, the supero-marginals separated from the infero-marginals
+by intercalated plates, with papulae distributed over the
+whole body, with ambulacrals crowded and narrow, either ambulacrals
+or adambulacrals prominent in the mouth-skeleton, with
+pedicellariae stalked or sessile.</p>
+
+<p>We give here a list of the families separated into Sladen&rsquo;s
+orders and grouped under Perrier&rsquo;s divisions, extinct families being
+marked &dagger;.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 335px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:284px; height:179px" src="images/img880a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 16.</span>&mdash;Section across the arm-skeleton
+of a Phanerozonate Asterid, <i>Astropecten</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><p><i>a</i>, Ambulacral plates.</p>
+
+<p><i>b</i>, Adambulacral plates.</p>
+
+<p><i>c</i> and <i>d</i>, Inferior and superior lateral plates.</p>
+
+<p><i>e</i>, Dorsal plates with paxillae. Certain supra-ambulacral plates, which
+also exist, are not shown.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>1. <span class="ls"><i>Phanerozonia.</i></span>&mdash;<i>Unclassed Famm.</i>, &dagger; Palaeasteridae, &dagger; Palasterinidae,
+&dagger; Taeniasteridae, &dagger; Aspidosomatidae. <i>Paxillosa</i>,
+Luidiidae, Astropectinidae
+(fig. 16), Archasteridae restr.
+Verrill, Porcellanasteridae,
+Chaetasteridae. <i>Valvata</i>,
+Benthopectinidae, Goniopectinidae,
+Plutonasteridae,
+Odontasteridae, Pentagonasteridae,
+Antheneidae, Pentacerotidae,
+Gymnasteriidae.
+<i>Spinulosa</i>, Poraniidae, Asterinidae.</p>
+
+<p>2. <span class="ls"><i>Cryptozonia.</i></span>&mdash;<i>Unclassed
+Famm.</i>, &dagger; Sturtzasteridae
+(= Palaeocomidae
+Greg.), &dagger; Lepidasteridae,
+&dagger; Tropidasteridae. <i>Valvata</i>,
+Linckiidae restr. Perr.
+<i>Spinulosa</i>, Echinasteridae,
+Solasteridae (fig. 17), Korethrasteridae.
+<i>Velata</i>, &dagger; Palasteriscidae,
+Pterasteridae,
+Pythonasteridae, Myxasteridae.
+<i>Forcipulata</i>, Stichasteridae,
+Zoroasteridae (fig. 3, D), Heliasteridae, Pedicellasteridae,
+Asteriidae, Brisingidae.</p>
+
+<p>Sub-class II. <span class="ls"><i>Ophiurida.</i></span>&mdash;Stelliformia in which the ambulacral
+groove, though open in the oldest forms, soon becomes closed, while
+the podia cease to serve as tube-feet; the rays as a rule spring
+abruptly from the disk and contain neither genital glands nor digestive
+caeca; no anus; respiration may be through clefts at the bases
+of the rays, but not by papulae; skeletal appendages confined to
+spines, usually of simple structure.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:406px; height:401px" src="images/img880b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 17.</span>&mdash;A Cryptozonate Asterid, <i>Solaster papposus</i>, from the
+upper or dorsal surface.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>There is as yet no satisfactory classification of the Ophiurida
+into orders expressing lines of descent; even as regards families,
+leading writers are at variance. The following scheme is based on
+the attempts of E. Haeckel, F.J. Bell, J.W. Gregory, B. Stürtz,
+J.O.E. Perrier, and A.E. Verrill. Extinct families marked &dagger;.</p>
+
+<p>Grade A. <i>Palophiurae.</i>&mdash;Ambulacrals not yet forming complete
+vertebrae; plates of disk not yet specialized into mouth, radial or
+genital shields.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>Stage <i>a. Allostichia</i> (= Lysophiurae).&mdash;Ambulacrals alternating and
+unfused, groove uncovered by ventral arm-plates. Families:
+&dagger; Protasteridae, &dagger; Protophiuridae.</p>
+
+<p>Stage <i>b. Zygostichia.</i>&mdash;Ambulacrals opposite and, except in Ophiurinidae,
+fused; ventral arm-plates developed in some.
+Families: &dagger; Ophiurinidae, &dagger; Lapworthuridae, &dagger; Furcasteridae,
+&dagger; Palastropectinidae, &dagger; Eoluididae, &dagger; Palaeophiomyxidae.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Grade B. <i>Colophiurae.</i>&mdash;Ambulacral pairs fused to form vertebrae
+with definite articular surfaces; mouth, radial and genital shields
+developed, though not all need be present in any one form.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 220px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:150px; height:204px" src="images/img880c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 18.</span>&mdash;A vertebral arm-ossicle (fused ambulacrals)
+of a Zygophiuran, <i>Ophiolepis</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><p>A, Proximal joint-face.</p>
+
+<p>B, Distal joint-face.</p>
+
+<p><i>c</i>, Ventral groove, where lies the water-vessel, from which
+branches pass through the ossicle, emerging as podia at <i>e</i> and <i>e</i>.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Order 1. <i>Streptophiurae.</i>&mdash;Rays simple and capable of coiling,
+since the vertebrae articulate by a ball-and-socket joint; arm-plates
+incompletely developed. Families: &dagger; Onychasteridae,
+Ophiohelidae, Ophioscolecidae, Ophiomyxidae,
+Hemieuryalidae, Astrophiuridae; unclassified
+genera, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Ophioteresis</i>, <i>Ophiosciasma</i>,
+<i>Ophiogeron</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Order 2. <i>Zygophiurae.</i>&mdash;Rays simple and prevented
+from coiling by processes on the vertebral
+joints (fig. 18); dorsal, ventral and lateral arm-plates
+present.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>Sub-order i. <i>Brachyophiurae.</i>&mdash;Spines short,
+simple, pointing towards the end of the
+arm. Families: Pectinuridae (= Ophiodermatidae),
+Ophiolepididae.</p>
+
+<p>Sub-order ii. <i>Nectophiurae.</i>&mdash;Spines may be
+variously elaborated and are set more at
+right angles to the arm-axis. Families:
+Amphiuridae, Ophiacanthidae, Ophiocomidae,
+Ophiothrichidae.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Order 3. <i>Cladophiurae</i> (= Euryalae). Rays
+simple or branched, capable of coiling, since the
+vertebrae articulate by surfaces of hour-glass
+shape; ventral arm-plates, and often the others,
+much reduced; spines reduced or absent. Families:
+Euryalidae, Gorgonocephalidae, Astrochelidae,
+Astroschemidae, Astronycidae.</p>
+
+<p>The Silurian genera <i>Eucladia</i> and <i>Euthemon</i>
+have the rays greatly reduced and merged in the
+disk, so that the ambulacrals are unseen. There
+are a few large dorsal, lateral and ventral arm-plates,
+and at the angles of the latter emerge
+huge podia with a granular or plated skin.
+There are five prominent mouth-shields and a
+separate madreporite on the ventral surface. These genera attained
+the Colophiuran grade in respect of external plating, but it is unlikely
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page881" id="page881"></a>881</span>
+that they or their ancestors had acquired even the Streptophiuran
+type of vertebra. Sollas has separated them as an order <i>Ophiocistia</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Class III. <span class="sc">Echinoidea.</span>&mdash;Eleutherozoa with a test of roughly
+circular, subpentagonal or elliptical outline, spheroidal, domed or
+flattened, of primary pentameric symmetry affecting all systems of
+organs except the gut. The radial water-vessels lie within the test
+through which their podia pass (fig. 12, D); the ambulacra thus
+formed are continuous from the peristome to the apical system of
+plates; the hydropore is connected with a definite plate of that
+system, and thus marks a secondary bilateral symmetry. An anus is
+present either within the apical system (endocyclic, fig. 3, A and B),
+or outside it in an interradius (exocyclic, fig. 19, 7), thus initiating
+yet another bilateral symmetry. Skeletal appendages are spines
+(radioles), pedicellariae, and, in some forms, minute sense-organs
+called sphaeridia.</p>
+
+<p>The echinoids or sea-archins (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sea-Urchin</a></span>) may be grouped
+under the following orders, here named in the sequence of their
+appearance in the rocks.</p>
+
+<p>Order 1. <i>Bothriocidaroida.</i>&mdash;Ambulacrals simple, each with two
+pores vertically superposed, 2 columns to each ambulacrum; interambulacrals
+multi-tuberculate, in 1 column, none passing on to
+or resorbed by the peristome; mouth central, jaws unknown, no
+external gills or sphaeridia; anus aboral, endocyclic. Sole genus
+<i>Bothriocidaris</i> (fig. 5), Ordovician.</p>
+
+<p>Order 2. <i>Melonitoida.</i>&mdash;Ambulacrals simple, each with two pores
+horizontally juxtaposed, in 2 to 18 columns; interambulacrals granulate
+with occasional tubercles, in 3 to 11 columns, not more than one
+row passing on to the peristome; mouth central, with jaws, no
+external gills or sphaeridia; anus aboral, endocyclic. Families:
+Palechinidae (fig. 19, 1), Melonitidae and Lepidesthidae, Silurian to
+Carboniferous.</p>
+
+<p>Order 3. <i>Cystocidaroida.</i>&mdash;Ambulacrals simple, each with one or
+two pores, which sometimes pass between rather than through the
+plates, in 2 columns; interambulacrals, uni- or multi-tuberculate, in
+numerous (say 10 or more) columns, none passing on to peristome;
+mouth central with jaws, no external gills or sphaeridia; position of
+anus doubtful, acyclic, <i>i.e.</i> no apical system so far as known. Include
+only <i>Echinocystis</i>, <i>Palaeodiscus</i> and (?) <i>Myriastiches</i>, all Upper
+Silurian.</p>
+
+<p>Order 4. <i>Cidaroida.</i>&mdash;Ambulacrals simple, each with two pores
+horizontally juxtaposed, in 2 columns; interambulacrals unituberculate,
+in 2 to 11 columns, some rows may pass on to the peristome;
+mouth central, with jaws, no external gills or sphaeridia;
+anus aboral, endocyclic. Families: Lepidocentridae and Archaeocidaridae
+(fig. 19, 2), Devonian and Carboniferous; Cidaridae (fig. 19,
+3, 4). Permian to present; Diplocidaridae and Tiarechinidae, Mesozoic.</p>
+
+<p>Order 5. <i>Diademoida.</i>&mdash;Ambulacrals generally compound, with
+two pores obliquely juxtaposed, in 2 columns as in all subsequent
+orders; interambulacrals usually with large radioles surrounded by
+smaller ones, as in Cidaroida, in 2 columns as in all subsequent
+orders, only one plate resorbed; mouth central, with jaws and
+external gills, sphaeridia present; anus aboral endocyclic. J.W.
+Gregory divides this into four suborders, each representing a
+distinct evolutionary series; i. <i>Calycina</i>, Saleniidae (fig. 19, 5) and
+Acrosaleniidae; ii. <i>Arbacina</i>, Hemicidaridae and Arbaciidae; iii.
+<i>Diademina</i>, Orthopsidae, Diadematidae, Diplopodiidae, Pedinidae,
+Cyphosomatidae, and Echinothuridae; iv. <i>Echinina</i>, Temnopleuridae,
+Triplechinidae, Strongylocentrotidae and Echinometridae. The
+order is Triassic to Recent.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:485px; height:284px" src="images/img881a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 19.</span>&mdash;Denuded tests of some fossil Echinoids.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p>1, <i>Palaeechinus</i>; Carboniferous.</p>
+<p>2, A plate and radiole of <i>Archaeocidaris</i>;<br />Carboniferous.</p>
+<p>3, A radiole of <i>Cidaris</i>; Jurassic.</p>
+<p>4, <i>Hemicidaris</i>; Mid. Jurassic.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p>5, <i>Salenia</i>; Cretaceous.</p>
+<p>6, <i>Dysaster</i>; Jurassic.</p>
+<p>7, <i>Enallaster</i>: Cretaceous.</p>
+<p>8, <i>Catopygus</i>; Cretaceous.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">Order 6. <i>Holectypoida.</i>&mdash;Ambulacrals sometimes compound, with
+one or two pores to a plate, some dorsal podia begin to assume
+respiratory function; interambulacrals multi-tuberculate, none
+resorbed; mouth central, with jaws weak or wanting, with external
+gills and sphaeridia; anus exocyclic. Families: Pygasteridae,
+Discoidiidae, Galeritidae, Conoclypeidae; Jurassic to Recent.</p>
+
+<p>Order 7. <i>Spatangoida.</i>&mdash;Ambulacrals simple, with two pores
+juxtaposed, dorsal podia respiratory; interambulacrals bearing
+numerous small spines, none resorbed; mouth central or shifted
+forwards, with no jaws or external gills, sphaeridia numerous; anus
+exocyclic. As the mouth moves forward and the anus downward,
+the posterior interambulacrals between them are enlarged and
+strengthened so as to form a sternum. The order may therefore be
+divided into: (i.) <i>Asternata</i>, Famm. Echinoneidae, Nucleolitidae
+and Cassidulidae (fig. 19, 8); (ii.) <i>Sternata</i>, Famm. Collyritidae (fig.
+19, 6), Echinocorytidae, Spatangidae (fig. 19, 7), Palaeostomidae,
+and Pourtalesiidae; Jurassic to Recent.</p>
+
+<p>Order 8. <i>Clypeastroida.</i>&mdash;Ambulacrals simple or compound, with
+two pores juxtaposed, dorsal podia respiratory; interambulacrals
+multi-tuberculate, none resorbed; mouth central with flattened
+unequal jaws, reduced external gills, and few sphaeridia; anus
+exocyclic. Families: Fibulariidae, Laganidae, Scutellidae, Clypeastridae;
+Cretaceous to Recent.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:503px; height:524px" src="images/img881b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 20.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The probable relationship of these orders is shown in the annexed
+table. Here the Cystocidaroida occupy an isolated position. It is,
+however, quite possible that <i>Echinocystis</i> may some day be referred
+to the Cidaroida, and <i>Palaeodiscus</i> to the Melonitoida. This would
+leave the Echinoid scheme remarkably simple, with the Melonitoida
+and Cidaroida as divergent branches from an ancestor like <i>Bothriocidaris</i>;
+but while the former branch soon decayed, the latter
+continues to flourish at the present day. To take the Echinoidea
+now living, and to divide them into Endocyclica and Exocyclica,
+Branchiate and Abranchiate, Gnathostomata and Atelostomata, is
+easy and convenient; or again to distinguish as Palechinoidea
+those pre-Jurassic genera which do not conform to the fixed type of
+twenty vertical columns found in the later Euechinoidea, is to
+express an interesting fact; but all such divisions obscure the true
+relationships, and the corresponding terms should be recognized as
+descriptive rather than classificatory.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;In addition to the works referred to at the beginning
+of the article, the following deal with the general subject:
+Bather, Gregory and Goodrich, &ldquo;Echinoderma,&rdquo; in Lankester&rsquo;s
+<i>Treatise on Zoology</i> (London, 1900); F.J. Bell, <i>Catalogue of the
+British Echinoderms in the British Museum</i> (London, 1892); P.H.
+Carpenter, &ldquo;Notes on Echinoderm Morphology,&rdquo; <i>Quart. Journ.
+Micr. Sci.</i>, 1878-1887; Y. Delage and E. Hérouard, <i>Traité de
+zoologie concrète, iii., Échinodermes</i> (Paris, 1904); A. Lang, <i>Text-Book
+of Comparative Anatomy</i>, transl., part ii. (London, 1896);
+Ludwig and Hamann, &ldquo;Echinodermen,&rdquo; in Bronn&rsquo;s <i>Klassen und
+Ordnungen des Tierreichs</i> (Leipzig, 1889), in progress; M. Neumayr,
+<i>Die Stämme des Tierreiches</i> (Wien, 1889); P.B. and C.F. Sarasin,
+&ldquo;Über die Anatomie der Echinothuriden und die Phylogenie der
+Echinodermen,&rdquo; <i>Ergebnisse naturw. Forsch. auf Ceylon</i>, Bd. i Heft 3
+(Wiesbaden, 1888); R. Semon, &ldquo;Die Homologien innerhalb des
+Echinodermenstammes,&rdquo; <i>Morph. Jahrb.</i> (1889); W.P. Sladen,
+&ldquo;Homologies of the Primary Larval Plates in the Test of Brachiate
+Echinoderms,&rdquo; <i>Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.</i>, 1884; K.A. v. Zittel,
+<i>Handbuch der ... Paläozoologie</i>, i. pp. 308-560 (München, 1879);
+also Grundzüge, translated and revised by C.R. Eastman as <i>Text-Book of Palaeontology</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page882" id="page882"></a>882</span>
+(New York and London, 1899). The larger
+treatises here mentioned contain very full bibliographies, and a
+complete analytical index to the annual literature of the Echinoderma
+has for many years been published in the <i>Zoological Record</i>
+(London).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(F. A. B.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Sometimes called &ldquo;Echinodermata,&rdquo; a Greek name meaning
+&ldquo;sea-urchin-skins,&rdquo; which was invented by J.T. Klein (1734) to
+denote the tests of the Echini or sea-urchins; its later use for the
+animals themselves, or for the whole phylum, was an error in both
+history and etymology.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ECHINUS<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> (Gr. for &ldquo;hedge-hog&rdquo; or &ldquo;sea-urchin&rdquo;), in architecture,
+the convex moulding which supports the abacus of the
+Doric column. The term is sometimes given to the <i>ovolo</i> of the
+Ionic capital, especially when curved with the egg-and-tongue
+enrichment. The origin of this use of the word in architecture,
+which comes down from ancient times, is uncertain.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ECHIUROIDEA<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="echis">&#7956;&#967;&#953;&#962;</span>, adder, and <span class="grk" title="oura">&#959;&#8016;&#961;&#940;</span>, tail), the zoological
+name for a small group of marine animals which show
+in their larval life-history a certain degree of segmentation, and
+are therefore grouped by some authorities as Annelids. Formerly,
+together with the Sipunculoidea and Priapuloidea, they made up
+the class Gephyrea, but on the ground that they retain in the
+adult a large preoral lobe (the proboscis), that they have anal
+vesicles, that their anus is terminal, that setae are found, and
+finally that they are segmented in the larval stage, they have
+been removed from the class, which by the proposed further
+separation of the Priapuloidea on account of their unique renal
+and reproductive organs, has practically ceased to exist.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 410px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:358px; height:502px" src="images/img882a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;A, <i>Bonellia viridis</i>, Rol., &#9792;; B, <i>B</i>.
+<i>fuliginosa</i>. Both natural size. <i>a</i>, grooved
+proboscis; <i>b</i>, mouth; <i>c</i>, ventral hooks; <i>d</i>, anus.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Echiuroids are animals of moderate size, varying roughly
+from one to six or seven centimetres in length, exclusive of
+the proboscis. This organ is capable of very considerable extension,
+and may attain a length in <i>Bonellia viridis</i> of about a
+metre and a half (fig. 1). It is grooved ventrally and ciliated.
+At its attachment
+to the body the
+groove sinks into
+the mouth. In
+<i>Bonellia</i> the proboscis
+is forked at
+its free end, but in
+the other genera it
+is short and unforked.
+The body is
+somewhat sausage-shaped,
+with the
+anus at the posterior
+extremity,
+surrounded in
+<i>Echiurus</i> by a single
+or double ring of
+setae. The skin is
+usually wrinkled,
+and in <i>B. viridis</i>,
+<i>Thalassema lankesteri</i>,
+<i>Th. baronii</i>,
+<i>Hamingia arctica</i>,
+and in the larva
+of many species, is
+of a lively green
+colour. A pair of
+curved bristles,
+formed in true setal
+sacs as in Chaetopoda,
+project from the body a short distance behind the
+mouth, and are moved by special muscles; they are of use in
+helping the animal to move slowly about, and they take a large
+share in the burrowing movements (C.B. Wilson, <i>Biol. Bull.</i>,
+1900), for some species tunnel in the mud and sand and form more
+or less permanent burrows, the walls of which are strengthened
+by mucus secreted from the skin. The openings of the burrows
+become silted up, leaving, however, a small aperture through
+which the proboscis is extruded. This organ carefully searches
+the neighbourhood for particles of food. When these are found
+the grooved proboscis folds its walls inwards, and the cilia pass
+the particles down the tube thus formed to the mouth. Echiuroids
+also move by extending the proboscis, which takes hold of
+some fixed object, and, then contracting, draws the body forwards.
+Recently it has been shown that <i>Echiurus</i> swims freely
+at night-time, using for locomotion both the proboscis and the
+contraction of the muscles of its body-wall. The motion is
+described as &ldquo;gyratory,&rdquo; and the anterior end is always carried
+foremost. Those species which do not burrow usually conceal
+themselves in crevices of the rocks or under stones, or at times in
+empty Mollusc or Echinid shells. They are occasionally used by
+fishermen for bait.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:435px; height:707px" src="images/img882b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Female <i>Bonellia viridis</i>, Rol. Opened along the
+left side.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>a</i>, Proboscis cut short.</p>
+<p><i>b</i>, Bristle passing through the mouth into the pharynx.</p>
+<p><i>c</i>, Coiled intestine.</p>
+<p><i>d</i>, Anal tufts or vesicles.</p>
+<p><i>e</i>, Ventral nerve cord.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>f</i>, Ovary borne on ventral vessel running parallel with e.</p>
+<p><i>g</i>, Position of anus.</p>
+<p><i>h</i>, Position of external opening of nephridium.</p>
+<p><i>i</i>, Nephridium&mdash;the line points towards, but does not reach,
+the internal opening.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 380px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:327px; height:703px" src="images/img883.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;Adult male, <i>Bonellia viridis</i>,
+Rol. The original was 1.5 mm. long. The
+nervous system is not shown. (After Selenka.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><p><i>a</i>, Generative pore with spermatozoa coming out.</p>
+<p><i>b</i>, Anterior blind end of intestine attached
+to the parenchymatous tissue by muscular strands.</p>
+<p><i>c</i>, Green wandering cells containing chlorophyll.</p>
+<p><i>d</i>, Parenchymatous connective tissue.</p>
+<p><i>e</i>, Epidermis.</p>
+<p><i>i</i>, Intestine.</p>
+<p><i>j</i>, Vas deferens.</p>
+<p><i>l</i>, Internal opening of vas deferens.</p>
+<p><i>m</i>, The left anal vesicle.</p>
+<p><i>n</i>, Spermatozoa in the body-cavity.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p class="pt2"><i>Anatomy</i> (fig. 2).&mdash;A thin cuticle covers the epidermis, which
+contains mucus-secreting glands. Beneath the epidermis is a layer
+of circular muscles, then a layer of longitudinal, and finally in some
+cases a layer of oblique muscle-fibres. The inner face of this muscular
+skin is lined by a layer of epithelium. The coelomic body-cavity is
+spacious. It does not extend into the proboscis, which is a solid
+organ traversed by the nervous and vascular rings, but otherwise
+largely built up of muscle fibres and connective tissue. Many sense-cells
+lie in the epidermis. The ciliated ventral groove of the proboscis
+leads at its base into the simple mouth, which gives access to the
+thin-walled alimentary canal. This is longer than the body, and to
+tuck it away it is looped from side to side. The loops are supported
+by strands of connective tissue, which in some species are united so
+as to form a dorsal mesentery, whilst traces of a ventral mesentery
+are met with anteriorly and posteriorly (H.L. Jameson, <i>Zool. Jahrb.
+Anat.</i>, 1899). The alimentary canal is divisible into fore-gut,
+mid-gut and hind-gut, and the first-named can be further divided
+into pharynx, oesophagus, gizzard and crop, mainly on histological
+grounds. The mid-gut is characterized by the presence of a ciliated
+groove, from which arises the collateral intestine or siphon, a second
+tube which rejoins the alimentary canal lower down. Similar
+collateral intestines are familiar in the Echinids and certain Polychaets
+(Capitellidae). The rectum receives the openings of a pair of very
+characteristic organs, the anal vesicles. Each consists of a branching
+tube, the tips of whose twigs terminate in minute ciliated funnels.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page883" id="page883"></a>883</span>
+The anal vesicles are thought to be excretory; whether this be so or
+not, they undoubtedly have some influence on the amount of fluid
+found in the coelom. The coelomic fluid contains as a rule both
+amoeboid and rounded corpuscles, and, when ripe, the products of
+the gonads. A closed system of vessels, usually called the vascular
+system, is present. There are, however, no capillaries connected
+with this, and it is confined to certain portions of the body. It can
+possess few of the functions usually associated with a vascular
+system, and its main use is probably to assist in the expansion of the
+proboscis. The system consists of the following parts:&mdash;A dorsal
+vessel applied to the alimentary canal is continued anteriorly into
+a median vessel, which traverses the proboscis to its tip. Here the
+vessel splits, and each
+half returns along the
+lateral edge of the proboscis;
+they reunite
+around the oesophagus
+and form a single ventral
+vessel, which lies above
+the ventral nerve-cord.
+The ventral vessel,
+which ends solidly behind,
+sends off a branch
+which forms a ring
+around the intestine
+and opens into the
+posterior extremity of
+the dorsal vessel. In
+<i>Echiurus</i> and <i>Thalassema</i>
+the same vessel
+forms a ring round a
+stout muscle, which connects
+the bases of the
+two ventral setae before
+passing to surround the
+intestine. Amoeboid
+corpuscles float in the
+fluid contents. The
+nephridia vary in number
+from a single one in
+<i>Bonellia</i> to three pairs
+in many species of
+<i>Thalassema</i>. Their external
+openings are ventral,
+and on the same
+level as the ciliated
+funnel-shaped nephrostomes.
+The posterior
+wall of the organ is
+produced into a long
+blind sac, which is lined
+by secretory cells. The
+nervous system is a single
+ventral cord, which
+starts from a circumoesophageal
+ring. This
+ring is involved in the
+growth of the proboscis,
+and is drawn out with
+it. Thus there is a
+lateral nerve near each
+edge of the proboscis
+which unites with its
+fellow dorsally above
+the oesophagus at the
+tip of the proboscis,
+and ventrally beneath
+the oesophagus, where
+they fuse to form the
+ventral nerve-cord.
+There are no specialized
+ganglia, but ganglion-cells
+are scattered uniformly
+along the nerve-cords.
+The ventral cord
+gives off rings, which
+run into the skin at regular intervals. The reproductive cells
+are modified coelomic cells, which lie on the ventral vessel.
+They escape into the coelomic fluid and there develop. When
+mature they leave the body through the nephridia. <i>Bonellia</i> and
+<i>Hamingia</i> are very interesting examples of sexual dimorphism.
+The female has the normal Echiuroid structure, but the male is
+reduced to a minute, flattened, planarian-like organism, which
+passes its life usually in the company of two or three others in a
+special recess of the nephridia of the female. Its structure may be
+gathered by a reference to fig. 3.</p>
+
+<p><i>Larva.</i>&mdash;The larva is a typical trochosphere, which, although of a
+temporary character, shows a distinct segmentation of the mesoblast,
+of the nervous system, and of the ciliated and pigmented structures
+in the skin, resembling that of Chaetopods. The preoral lobe persists
+as the proboscis. The sexes of the larvae are not determinable in the
+early stages, but when a certain growth has been reached in Bonellia
+the males seek the proboscis of the adult females, and passing into
+the mouth undergo there the transformation into the planarian-like
+parasite which is the fully-formed male. This now creeps along the
+body of the female and takes up its home in her nephridia.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Classification and Distribution.</i>&mdash;The Echiuroidea consists of
+the following genera:&mdash;(1) <i>Bonellia</i> (Rol.), with four species,
+widely distributed, but inhabiting the temperate and warmer
+waters of each hemisphere. (2) <i>Echiurus</i> (Guérin-Méneville),
+with four species. This genus reaches from the Arctic waters
+of both hemispheres into the cooler temperate regions. (3)
+<i>Hamingia</i> (Kor. and Dan.), with one species, which has been
+taken in the Arctic Sea and the Hardanger Fjord. (4) <i>Saccosoma</i>
+(Kor. and Dan.) was described from a single specimen dredged
+about half-way between Iceland and Norway. (5) <i>Thalassema</i>
+(Gaertner, Lamarck), with twenty-one species. This genus is
+in the main a denizen of the warmer waters of the globe. Sixteen
+species are found only in tropical or subtropical seas, three
+species are Mediterranean (<i>Mt. Stat. Neapel</i>, 1899), whilst three
+species are from the eastern Atlantic, where the temperature
+is modified by the Gulf Stream (Shipley; see Willey&rsquo;s <i>Zoological
+Results</i>, part iii. 1899; <i>Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond.</i>, 1898, 1899; and
+<i>Cambridge Natural History</i>, ii.). The following are found in the
+British area:&mdash;<i>E. pallasii</i> (Guérin-Méneville), <i>Th. neptuni</i>
+(Gaertner), and <i>Th. lankesteri</i> (Herdman, <i>Q.J.M.S.</i>, 1898).</p>
+
+<p><i>Affinities.</i>&mdash;The occurrence of trochosphere larva and the
+temporary segmentation of the body have led to the belief that
+the Echiuroids are more nearly allied to the Annelids than
+to any other phylum. This view is strengthened by certain
+anatomical and histological resemblances to the genus <i>Sternaspis</i>,
+which in one species, <i>S. spinosa</i>, is said to carry a bifid proboscis
+resembling that of the Echiuroids.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. E. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ECHMIADZIN,<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Itsmiadsin</span>, a monastery of Russian
+Transcaucasia, in the government of Erivan, the seat of the
+Catholicus or primate of the Armenian church. It is situated
+close to the village of Vagarshapat, in the plain of the Aras,
+2840 ft. above the sea, 12 m. W. of Erivan and 40 N. of Mount
+Ararat. The monastery comprises a pretty extensive complex
+of buildings, and is surrounded by brick walls 30 ft. high, which
+with their loopholes and towers present the appearance of a
+fortress. Its architectural character has been considerably
+impaired by additions and alterations in modern Russian
+style. On the western side of the quadrangle is the residence
+of the primate, on the south the refectory (1730-1735), on the
+east the lodgings for the monks, and on the north the cells. The
+cathedral is a small but fine cruciform building with a Byzantine
+cupola at the intersection. Its foundation is ascribed to St
+Gregory the Illuminator in 302. Of special interest is the porch,
+built of red porphyry, and profusely adorned with sculptured
+designs somewhat of a Gothic character. The interior is
+decorated with Persian frescoes of flowers, birds and scroll-work.
+It is here that the Catholicus confers episcopal consecration by
+the sacred hand (relic) of St Gregory; and here every seven
+years he prepares with great solemnity the holy oil which is to
+be used throughout the churches of the Armenian communion.
+Outside of the main entrance are the alabaster tombs of the
+primates Alexander I. (1714), Alexander II. (1755), Daniel (1806)
+and Narses (1857), and a white marble monument, erected by
+the English East India Company to mark the resting-place of
+Sir John Macdonald Kinneir, who died at Tabriz in 1830, while
+on an embassy to the Persian court. The library of the monastery
+is a rich storehouse of Armenian literature (see Brosset&rsquo;s
+<i>Catalogue de la bibliothèque d&rsquo;Etchmiadzin</i>, St Petersburg, 1840).
+Among the more remarkable manuscripts are a copy of the
+gospels dating from the 10th or 11th century, and three bibles
+of the 13th century. A type-foundry, a printing-press and a
+bookbinding establishment are maintained by the monks who
+supply religious and educational works for their co-religionists.</p>
+
+<p>To the east of the monastery is a modern college and seminary.
+Half a mile to the east stand the churches of St Ripsime and
+St Gaiana, two of the early martyrs of Armenian Christianity;
+the latter is the burial-place of those primates who are not
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page884" id="page884"></a>884</span>
+deemed worthy of interment beside the cathedral. From a
+distance the three churches form a fairly striking group, and
+accordingly the Turkish name for Echmiadzin is Uch-Kilissi,
+or the Three Churches. The town of Vagarshapat dates from
+the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; it takes its name from King Vagarsh
+(Vologaeses), who in the 2nd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> chose it as his residence
+and surrounded it with walls. Here the apostle of Armenia,
+St Gregory the Illuminator, erected a church in 309 and with
+it the primacy was associated. In 344 Vagarshapat ceased to
+be the Armenian capital, and in the 5th century the patriarchal
+seat was removed to Dvin, and then to Ani. The monastery
+was founded by Narses II., who ruled 524-533; and a restoration
+was effected in 618. The present name of the monastery
+was adopted instead of Vagarshapat in the 10th century. At
+length in 1441 the primate George brought back the see to the
+original site.</p>
+<div class="author">(P. A. K.; J. T. Be.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ECHO<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="êchô">&#7968;&#967;&#974;</span>), in Greek mythology, one of the Oreades or
+mountain nymphs, the personification of the acoustical phenomenon
+known by this name. She was beloved by Pan, but
+rejected his advances. Thereupon the angry god drove the
+shepherds of the district mad; they tore Echo in pieces, and
+scattered her limbs broadcast, which still retained the gift of
+song (Longus iii. 23). According to Ovid (<i>Metam.</i> iii. 356-401),
+Echo by her incessant talking having prevented Juno from
+surprising Jupiter with the Nymphs, Juno changed her into an
+&ldquo;echo&rdquo;&mdash;a being who could not speak till she was spoken to,
+and then could only repeat the last words of the speaker. While
+in this condition she fell in love with Narcissus, and in grief at
+her unrequited affection wasted away until nothing remained
+but her voice and bones, which were changed into rocks. The
+legends of Echo are of late, probably Alexandrian, origin, and
+she is first personified in Euripides.</p>
+
+<p>In acoustics an &ldquo;echo&rdquo; is a return of sound from a reflecting
+surface (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sound</a></span>: <i>Reflection</i>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See F. Wieseler, <i>Die Nymphe Echo</i> (1854), and <i>Narkissos</i> (1856);
+P. Decharme in Daremberg and Saglio&rsquo;s <i>Dictionnaire des antiquités</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ECHTERNACH,<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> a town in the grand duchy of Luxemburg,
+on the Sûre, close to the Prussian frontier. Pop. (1905) 3484.
+It is the oldest town in Luxemburg, and was the centre from
+which the English Saint Willibrord converted the people to
+Christianity in the 7th century. There are the Benedictine
+abbey, the hospital almshouse, which is said to be the oldest
+hospital in Europe except the Hôtel-Dieu in Paris, and the
+church of St Peter and St Paul. The Benedictine abbey has been
+greatly shorn of its original dimensions, but the basilica remains
+a fair monument of Romano-Gothic art. The church of St Peter
+and St Paul stands on an isolated mound, and for the ascent
+sixty steps have been built in the side, and these are well worn
+by the tread of numerous pilgrims who come in each succeeding
+year. The interior of the church is curious more than imposing,
+and is specially noteworthy only for its gloom. Under the altar,
+and below a white marble effigy of himself, lies Saint Willibrord.</p>
+
+<p>Echternach is famous, however, in particular for the dancing
+procession held on Whit-Tuesday every year. The origin of this
+festival is uncertain, but it dates at least from the 13th century
+and was probably instituted during <span class="correction" title="amended from on">an</span> outbreak of cholera.
+Nowadays it is an occasion of pilgrimage, among Germans and
+Belgians as well as Luxemburgers, for all sick persons, but
+especially for the epileptic and those suffering from St Vitus&rsquo;
+dance. The ceremony is interesting, and the Roman Catholic
+Church lends all its ritual to make it more imposing. The
+archbishop of Trier attends to represent Germany, and the
+bishop of Luxemburg figures for the grand duchy. There is a
+religious ceremony on the Prussian side of the bridge over the
+Sûre, and when it is over the congregation cross into the duchy
+to join the procession, partly religious, partly popular, through
+the streets of the town. The religious procession, carrying
+cross and banners and attended by three hundred singers, comes
+first, chanting St Willibrord&rsquo;s hymn. Next comes a band of
+miscellaneous instruments playing as a rule the old German air
+&ldquo;Adam had seven sons,&rdquo; and then follow the dancers. Many
+of these are young and full of life and health and dance for
+amusement, but many others are old or feeble and dance in the
+hope of recovery or of escaping from some trouble, but on all
+alike the conditions of the dance are incumbent. There are
+three steps forward and two back; five steps are thus taken to
+make one in advance. This becomes especially trying at the
+flight of steps mounting to the little church where the procession
+ends in front of the shrine of the great saint. There are sixty
+steps, but it takes three hundred to reach the top for the final
+time. It is said that those who fall from age or weariness have
+to be dragged out of the way by onlookers or they would be
+trampled to death by the succeeding waves of dancers. The
+procession, although it covers a distance of less than a mile, is
+said to take as much as five hours in its accomplishment. In
+olden days the abbey was the goal of the procession, and King
+William I. of the Netherlands&mdash;great-grandfather of Queen
+Wilhelmina&mdash;changed the day from Tuesday to Sunday so that
+a working day should not be lost. This reform did not answer,
+and the ancient order was restored. Some critics see in the
+dancing procession of Echternach merely the survival of the
+spring dance of the heathen races, but at any rate it invests the
+little town with an interest and importance that would otherwise
+be lacking.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ECHUCA,<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> a borough of the county of Rodney, Victoria,
+Australia, 156 m. by rail N. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901) 4075.
+It is situated on the river Murray, across which it is connected
+by bridge with Moama, on the New South Wales side, whence
+a railway runs to Deniliquin. The town is the terminus of the
+Murray River railway and the entrepot of the overland intercolonial
+trade; it has large wool stores, saw-mills, coach factories,
+breweries and soap-works. The rich agricultural district is
+noted for its vineyards.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ÉCIJA,<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> a town of southern Spain, in the province of Seville;
+on the Cadiz-Cordova railway and the left bank of the river
+Genil. Pop. (1900) 24,372. The river, thus far navigable, is
+here crossed by a fine old bridge; and the antiquity of the town
+betrays itself by the irregularity of its arrangement, by its walls
+and gateways, and by its numerous inscriptions and other relics.
+Its chief buildings include no fewer than twenty convents, mostly
+secularized. The principal square is surrounded with pillared
+porticoes, and has a fountain in the centre; and along the river
+bank there runs a fine promenade, planted with poplar trees
+and adorned with statues. From an early period the shoemakers
+of Écija have been in high repute throughout Spain; woollen
+cloth, flannel, linen and silks are also manufactured. The
+vicinity is fertile in corn and wine, and cotton is cultivated.
+The heat is so great that the spot has acquired the sobriquet
+of <i>El Sarten</i>, or the &ldquo;Frying-pan&rdquo; of Andalusia. Écija, called
+<i>Estija</i> by the Arabs, is the ancient <i>Astigis</i>, which was raised to the
+rank of a Roman colony with the title of <i>Augusta Firma</i>. According
+to Pliny and Pomponius Mela, who both wrote in the 1st
+century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, it was the rival of Cordova and Seville. If local
+tradition may be believed, it was visited by the apostle Paul,
+who converted his hostess Santa Xantippa; and, according to
+one version of his life, it was the see of the famous St Crispin
+(<i>q.v.</i>) in the 3rd century.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ECK, JOHANN MAIER<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> (1486-1543), German theologian,
+the most indefatigable and important opponent of Martin
+Luther, was born on the 13th of November 1486 at Eck in
+Swabia, from which place he derived his additional surname,
+which he himself, after 1505, always modified into Eckius or
+Eccius, <i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;of Eck.&rdquo; His father, Michael Maier, was a peasant
+and bailiff (<i>Amtmann</i>) of the village. The boy&rsquo;s education was
+undertaken by his uncle Martin Maier, parish priest at Rothenburg
+on the Neckar, who sent him at the age of twelve to the
+university of Heidelberg, and subsequently to those of Tübingen,
+Cologne and Freiburg in the Breisgau. His academic career
+was so rapidly successful that at the age of twenty-four he
+was already doctor and professor of theology. During this
+period he was distinguished for his opposition to the scholastic
+philosophy; and, though he did not go to all lengths with the
+&ldquo;modernists&rdquo; (<i>Moderni</i>) of his day, his first work&mdash;<i>Logices
+exercitamenta</i> (1507)&mdash;was distinctly on their side. This attitude
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page885" id="page885"></a>885</span>
+brought him into conflict with the senate of the university,
+a conflict which Eck&rsquo;s masterful temper, increased by an extreme
+self-confidence perhaps natural in one so young and so successful,
+did not serve to allay. His position in Freiburg becoming
+intolerable, he accepted in 1510 an invitation from the duke
+of Bavaria to fill the theological chair at Ingolstadt, where he
+was destined for thirty years to exercise a profound influence
+as teacher and vice-chancellor (<i>Prokanzler</i>).</p>
+
+<p>A ducal commission, appointed to find a means for ending the
+interminable strife between the rival academic parties, entrusted
+Eck with the preparation of fresh commentaries on Aristotle and
+Petrus Hispanus. He had a marvellous capacity for work, and
+between 1516 and 1520, in addition to all his other duties, he
+published commentaries on the <i>Summulae</i> of Petrus Hispanus,
+and on the <i>Dialectics</i>, <i>Physics</i> and lesser scientific works of
+Aristotle, which became the text-books of the university.
+During these early years Eck was still reckoned among the
+&ldquo;modernists,&rdquo; and his commentaries are inspired with much
+of the scientific spirit of the New Learning. His aim, however,
+had been to find a <i>via media</i> between the old and new; his
+temper was essentially conservative, his imagination held captive
+by the splendid traditions of the medieval church, and he had
+no sympathy with the revolutionary attitude of the Reformers.
+Personal ambition, too, a desire to be conspicuous in the great
+world of affairs, may have helped to throw him into public
+opposition to Luther. He had won laurels in a public disputation
+at Augsburg in 1514, when he had defended the lawfulness
+of putting out capital at interest; again at Bologna in 1515, on
+the same subject and on the question of predestination; and these
+triumphs had been repeated at Vienna in 1516. By these
+successes he gained the patronage of the Fuggers, and found
+himself fairly launched as the recognized apologist of the established
+order in church and state. Distinguished humanists might
+sneer at him as &ldquo;a garrulous sophist&rdquo;; but from this time his
+ambition was not only to be the greatest scientific authority
+in Germany but also the champion of the papacy and of the
+traditional church order. The first-fruits of this new resolve
+were a quite gratuitous attack on his old friend, the distinguished
+humanist and jurist Ulrich Zasius (1461-1536), for a doctrine
+proclaimed ten years before, and a simultaneous assault on
+Erasmus&rsquo;s <i>Annotationes in Novum Testamentum</i>.</p>
+
+<p>It is, however, by his controversy with Luther and the other
+reformers that Eck is best remembered. Luther, who had some
+personal acquaintance with Eck, sent him in 1517 copies of his
+celebrated 95 theses. Eck made no public reply; but in 1518
+he circulated, privately at first, his <i>Obelisci</i>, in which Luther
+was branded as a Hussite. Luther entrusted his defence to
+Carlstadt, who, besides answering the insinuations of Eck in 400
+distinct theses, declared his readiness to meet him in a public
+disputation. The challenge was accepted, and the disputation
+took place at Leipzig in June and July 1519. On June 27 and
+28 and on July 1 and 3 Eck disputed with Carlstadt on the
+subjects of grace, free will and good works, ably defending
+the Roman Semipelagian standpoint. From July 4 to 14 he
+engaged with Luther on the absolute supremacy of the papacy,
+purgatory, penance, &amp;c., showing a brilliant display of patristic
+and conciliar learning against the reformer&rsquo;s appeals to Scripture.
+The arbitrators declined to give a verdict, but the general impression
+was that victory rested with Eck. He did, indeed, succeed
+in making Luther admit that there was some truth in the Hussite
+opinions and declare himself against the pope, but this success
+only embittered his animosity against his opponents, and from
+that time his whole efforts were devoted to Luther&rsquo;s overthrow.
+He induced the universities of Cologne and Louvain to condemn
+the reformer&rsquo;s writings, but failed to enlist the German princes,
+and in January 1520 went to Rome to obtain strict regulations
+against those whom he called &ldquo;Lutherans.&rdquo; He was created a
+protonotary apostolic, and in July returned to Germany, as
+papal nuncio, with the celebrated bull <i>Exsurge Domine</i> directed
+against Luther&rsquo;s writings. He now believed himself in a position
+to crush not only the Lutheran heretics, but also his humanist
+critics. The effect of the publication of the bull, however,
+soon undeceived him. Bishops, universities and humanists were
+at one in denunciation of the outrage; and as for the attitude
+of the people, Eck was glad to escape from Saxony with a whole
+skin. In his wrath he appealed to force, and his <i>Epistola ad
+Carolum V.</i> (February 18, 1521) called on the emperor to take
+measures against Luther, a demand soon to be responded to in
+the edict of Worms. In 1521 and 1522 Eck was again in Rome,
+reporting on the results of his nunciature. On his return from
+his second visit he was the prime mover in the promulgation
+of the Bavarian religious edict of 1522, which practically
+established the senate of the university of Ingolstadt as a
+tribunal of the Inquisition, and led to years of persecution. In
+return for this action of the duke, who had at first been opposed
+to the policy of repression, Eck obtained for him, during a third
+visit to Rome in 1523, valuable ecclesiastical concessions. Meanwhile
+he continued unabated in his zeal against the reformers,
+publishing eight considerable works between 1522 and 1526.</p>
+
+<p>His controversial ardour was, indeed, somewhat damped by
+Luther&rsquo;s refusal to answer his arguments, and with a view to
+earning fresh laurels he turned his attention to Switzerland
+and the Zwinglians. At Baden-in-Aargau in May and June 1526
+a public disputation on the doctrine of transubstantiation was
+held, in which Eck and Thomas Murner were pitted against
+Johann Oecolampadius. Though Eck claimed the victory in
+argument, the only result was to strengthen the Swiss in their
+memorial view of the Lord&rsquo;s Supper, and so to diverge them
+further from Luther. At the Augsburg diet in 1530 Eck was
+charged by Charles V. to draw up, in concert with twenty other
+theologians, the refutation of the Protestant Confession, but
+was obliged to rewrite it five times before it suited the emperor.
+He was at the colloquy of Worms in 1540 and at the diet of
+Regensburg (Ratisbon) in 1541. At Worms he showed some
+signs of a willingness to compromise, but at Regensburg his old
+violence reasserted itself in opposing all efforts at reconciliation
+and persuading the Catholic princes to reject the Interim.</p>
+
+<p>Eck died at Ingolstadt on the 10th of February 1543, fighting
+to the last and worn out before his time. He was undoubtedly
+the most conspicuous champion produced by the old religion in
+the age of the Reformation, but his great gifts were marred by
+greater faults. His vast learning was the result of a powerful
+memory and unwearied industry, and he lacked the creative
+imagination necessary to mould this material into new forms.
+He was a powerful debater, but his victories were those of a
+dialectician rather than a convincing reasoner, and in him depth
+of insight and conviction were ill replaced by the controversial
+violence characteristic of the age. Moreover, even after discounting
+the bias of his enemies, there is evidence to prove that
+his championship of the Church was not the outcome of his zeal
+for Christianity; for he was notoriously drunken, unchaste,
+avaricious and almost insanely ambitious. His chief work was
+<i>De primatu Petri</i> (1519); his <i>Enchiridion locorum communium
+adversus Lutherum</i> ran through 46 editions between 1525 and
+1576. In 1530-1535 he published a collection of his writings
+against Luther, <i>Opera contra Ludderum</i>, in 4 vols.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See T. Wiedemann, <i>Dr Johann Eck</i> (Regensburg, 1865).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ECKERMANN, JOHANN PETER<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> (1792-1854), German poet
+and author, best known owing to his association with Goethe,
+was born at Winsen in Hanover on the 21st of September 1792, of
+humble parentage, and was brought up in penury and privation.
+After serving as a volunteer in the War of Liberation (1813-1814),
+he obtained a secretarial appointment under the war
+department at Hanover. In 1817, although twenty-five years of
+age, he was enabled to attend the gymnasium of Hanover and
+afterwards the university of Göttingen, which, however, after one
+year&rsquo;s residence as a student of law, he left in 1822. His acquaintance
+with Goethe began in the following year, when he sent to him
+the manuscript of his <i>Beiträge zur Poesie</i> (1823). Soon afterwards
+he went to Weimar, where he supported himself as a private
+tutor. For several years he also instructed the son of the grand
+duke. In 1830 he travelled in Italy with Goethe&rsquo;s son. In 1838
+he was given the title of grand-ducal councillor and appointed
+librarian to the grand-duchess. Eckermann is chiefly remembered
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page886" id="page886"></a>886</span>
+for his important contributions to the knowledge of the great poet
+contained in his <i>Conversations with Goethe</i> (1836-1848). To
+Eckermann Goethe entrusted the publication of his <i>Nachgelassene
+Schriften</i> (posthumous works) (1832-1833). He was also joint-editor
+with Friedrich Wilhelm Riemer (1774-1845) of the complete
+edition of Goethe&rsquo;s works in 40 vols. (1839-1840). He died
+at Weimar on the 3rd of December 1854.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Eckermann&rsquo;s <i>Gespräche mit Goethe</i> (vols. i. and ii. 1836; vol. iii.
+1848; 7th ed., Leipzig, 1899; best edition by L. Geiger, Leipzig,
+1902) have been translated into almost all the European languages,
+not excepting Turkish. (English translations by Margaret Fuller,
+Boston, 1839, and John Oxenford, London, 1850.) Besides this
+work and the <i>Beiträge zur Poesie</i>, Eckermann published a volume of
+poems (<i>Gedichte</i>, 1838), which are of little value. See <i>J.P. Eckermanns
+Nachlass</i>, herausgegeben von F. Tewes, vol. i. (1905), and an
+article by R.M. Meyer in the <i>Goethe-Jahrbuch</i>, xvii. (1896).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ECKERNFÖRDE,<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
+of Schleswig-Holstein, on a fjord of the Baltic, 20 m. by rail N.W.
+from Kiel. Pop. (1905) 7088. It has a good harbour, fishing,
+trade in agricultural products, and manufactures of tobacco, salt
+and iron goods. There are a technical school of building and
+a Protestant teachers&rsquo; seminary. Eckernförde is mentioned as
+far back as 1197. It was taken by Christian IV. of Denmark in
+1628 from the Imperial troops. In 1813 the Danes were defeated
+here, while in 1849 the harbour was the scene of the blowing up
+of the Danish line-of-battle ship &ldquo;Christian VIII.&rdquo; and of the
+surrender of the frigate &ldquo;Gefion&rdquo; after an engagement with the
+German shore batteries. The place lost most of its trade after
+the union with Germany in 1864, and suffered severely from
+a sea-flood in 1872. In the immediate neighbourhood is the
+village of Borby, much frequented for sea-bathing.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ECKERSBERG, KRISTOFFER<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> (1783-1853), Danish painter,
+was born in south Jutland. He became successively the pupil of
+Nikolaj Abildgaard and of J.L. David. From 1810 to 1813 he
+lived at Paris under the direction of the latter, and then proceeded,
+as an independent artist, to Rome, where he worked until
+1816 in close fellowship with Thorwaldsen. His paintings from
+this period&mdash;&ldquo;The Spartan Boy,&rdquo; &ldquo;Bacchus and Ariadne&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;Ulysses&rdquo;&mdash;testify to the influence of the great sculptor over the
+art of Eckersberg. Returning to Copenhagen, he found himself
+easily able to take the first place among the Danish painters of
+his time, and his portraits especially were in extreme popularity.
+It is claimed for Eckersberg by the native critics that &ldquo;he created
+a Danish colour,&rdquo; that is to say, he was the first painter who threw
+off conventional tones and the pseudo-classical landscape, in
+exchange for the clear atmosphere and natural outlines of Danish
+scenery. But Denmark has no heroic landscape, and Eckersberg
+in losing the golden commonplaces scarcely succeeds in being
+delightful. His landscapes, however, are pure and true, while in
+his figure-pieces he is almost invariably conventional and old-fashioned.
+He was president of the Danish Academy of Fine Arts
+in Charlottenburg.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ECKHART,<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> JOHANNES<a name="ar12a" id="ar12a"></a></span> [&rdquo;Meister Eckhart&rdquo;] (?1260-?1327),
+German philosopher, the first of the great speculative mystics.
+Extremely little is known of his life; the date and place of his
+birth are equally uncertain. According to some accounts, he was
+a native of Strassburg, with which he was afterwards closely
+connected; according to others, he was born in Saxony, or at
+Hochheim near Gotha. Trithemius, one of the best authorities,
+speaks of him merely as &ldquo;Teutonicus.&rdquo; 1260 has frequently
+been given as the date of his birth; it was in all probability some
+years earlier, for we know that he was advanced in age at the time
+of his death, about 1327. He appears to have entered the
+Dominican order, and to have acted for some time as professor at
+one of the colleges in Paris. His reputation for learning was very
+high, and in 1302 he was summoned to Rome by Boniface VIII.,
+to assist in the controversy then being carried on with Philip of
+France. From Boniface he received the degree of doctor. In
+1304 he became provincial of his order for Saxony, and in 1307
+was vicar-general for Bohemia. In both provinces he was
+distinguished for his practical reforms and for his power in preaching.
+Towards 1325 we hear of him as preaching with great effect
+at Cologne, where he gathered round him a numerous band of
+followers. Before this time, and in all probability at Strassburg,
+where he appears to have been for some years, he had come in
+contact with the Beghards (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Beguines</a></span>) and Brethren of the
+Free Spirit, whose fundamental notions he may, indeed, be said to
+have systematized and expounded in the highest form to which
+they could attain. In 1327 the opponents of the Beghards laid
+hold of certain propositions contained in Eckhart&rsquo;s works, and he
+was summoned before the Inquisition at Cologne. The history of
+this accusation is by no means clear. Eckhart appears, however,
+to have made a conditional recantation&mdash;that is, he professed to
+disavow whatever in his writings could be shown to be erroneous.
+Further appeal, perhaps at his own request, was made to
+Pope John XXII., and in 1329 a bill was published condemning
+certain propositions extracted from Eckhart&rsquo;s works. But before
+its publication Eckhart was dead. The exact date of his death
+is unknown. Of his writings, several of which are enumerated by
+Trithemius, there remain only the sermons and a few tractates.
+Till the middle of the 19th century the majority of these were
+attributed to Johann Tauler, and it is only from Pfeiffer&rsquo;s careful
+edition (<i>Deutsche Mystiker d. XIV. Jahrhunderts</i>, vol. ii., 1857)
+that one has been able to gather a true idea of Eckhart&rsquo;s activity.
+From his works it is evident that he was deeply learned in all the
+philosophy of the time. He was a thorough Aristotelian, but by
+preference appears to have been drawn towards the mystical
+writings of the Neoplatonists and the pseudo-Dionysius. His
+style is unsystematic, brief and abounding in symbolical expression.
+His manner of thinking is clear, calm and logical, and
+he has certainly given the most complete exposition of what may
+be called Christian pantheism.</p>
+
+<p>Eckhart has been called the first of the speculative mystics.
+In his theories the element of mystical speculation for the first
+time comes to the front as all-important. By its means the church
+doctrines are made intelligible to the many, and from it the church
+dogmas receive their true significance. It was but natural that
+he should diverge more and more widely from the traditional
+doctrine, so that at length the relation between his teaching and
+that of the church appeared to be one of opposition rather than of
+reconciliation. Eckhart is in truth the first who attempted with
+perfect freedom and logical consistency to give a speculative
+basis to religious doctrines. The two most important points in
+his, as in all mystical theories, are first, his doctrine of the divine
+nature, and second, his explanation of the relation between God
+and human thought. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mysticism</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For the German writings of Eckhart see F. Pfeiffer, <i>Deutsche
+Mystiker</i>, vol. ii. (Leipzig, 1857), and F. Jostes, <i>Meister Eckhart und
+seine Jünger</i> (Freiburg, 1895); for the Latin works, H. Denifle in
+<i>Archiv f. Litt- und Kirchengeschichte d. Mittelalters</i>, ii. (1886), pp.
+417-652, and v. (1889), pp. 349-364; German translations by
+G. Landauer, <i>Meister Eckarts mystische Schriften</i> (Berlin, 1903),
+and Büttner (Leipzig, 1903 foll.). See also A. Lasson, <i>Meister
+Eckhart der Mystiker</i> (1868); H.L. Martensen, <i>Meister Eckhart</i>
+(1842); J. Bach, <i>Meister Eckhart der Vater der deutschen Speculation</i>
+(1864); C. Ullmann, <i>Reformatoren vor der Reformation</i> (1842);
+W. Preger, <i>Geschichte d. deutschen Mystik</i>, i. (1874); and &ldquo;Ein neuer
+Traktat M. Eckharts und d. Grundzüge der Eckhartischen Theosophie&rdquo;
+in <i>Zeitschr. f. hist. Phil.</i> (1864), pp. 163 foll.; A. Bullinger,
+<i>Das Christenthum im Lichte der deutschen Philos.</i> (Dillingen, 1895);
+H. Delacroix, <i>Le Mysticisme spéculatif en Allemagne au XIV<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>
+(Paris, 1900); E. Kramm, <i>Meister Eckhart im Lichte der Denifleschen
+Funde</i> (Bonn, 1889); R. Langenberg, <i>Über die Verhältnisse Meister
+Eckharts zur niederdeutschen Mystik</i> (Göttingen, 1896); W. Schopff,
+<i>Meister Eckhart</i> (Leipzig, 1889); A. Jundt, <i>Hist. du panthéisme
+populaire au moyen âge</i> (Paris, 1875); art. in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i>
+(S.M. Deutsch); R.M. Jones, <i>Mystical Religion</i> (1909).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The name is variously spelled: Eckehart, Eckart, Eckhard.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ECKHEL, JOSEPH HILARIUS<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> (1737-1798), Austrian numismatist,
+was born at Enzersfeld in lower Austria, 1737. His
+father was farm-steward to Count Zinzendorf, and he received
+his early education at the Jesuits&rsquo; College, Vienna, where at the
+age of fourteen he was admitted into the order. He devoted
+himself to antiquities and numismatics. After being engaged as
+professor of poetry and rhetoric, first at Steyer and afterwards at
+Vienna, he was appointed in 1772 keeper of the cabinet of coins
+at the Jesuits&rsquo; College, and in the same year he went to Italy for
+the purpose of personal inspection and study of antiquities and
+coins. At Florence he was employed to arrange the collection of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page887" id="page887"></a>887</span>
+the grand duke of Tuscany; and the first-fruits of his study of this
+and other collections appeared in his <i>Numi veteres anecdoti</i>, published
+in 1775. On the dissolution of the order of Jesuits in 1773,
+Eckhel was appointed by the empress Maria Theresa professor of
+antiquities and numismatics at the university of Vienna, and this
+post he held for twenty-four years. He was in the following year
+made keeper of the imperial cabinet of coins, and in 1779 appeared
+his <i>Catalogus Vindobonensis numorum veterum</i>. Eckhel&rsquo;s great
+work is the <i>Doctrina numorum veterum</i>, in 8 vols., the first of
+which was published in 1792, and the last in 1798. The author&rsquo;s
+rich learning, comprehensive grasp of his subject, admirable order
+and precision of statement in this masterpiece drew from Heyne
+enthusiastic praise, and the acknowledgment that Eckhel, as the
+Coryphaeus of numismatists, had, out of the mass of previously
+loose and confused facts, constituted a true science. A volume of
+<i>Addenda</i>, prepared by Steinbüchel from Eckhel&rsquo;s papers after his
+death, was published in 1826. Among his other works are&mdash;<i>Choix
+de pierres gravées du Cabinet Impérial des Antiques</i> (1788),
+a useful school-book on coins entitled <i>Kurzgefasste Anfangsgrunde
+zur alten Numismatik</i> (1787), of which a French version enlarged
+by Jacob appeared in 1825, &amp;c. Eckhel died at Vienna on the
+16th of May 1798.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ECKMÜHL,<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Eggmühl</span>, a village of Germany, in the kingdom
+of Bavaria, on the Grosse Laaber, 13 m. S.E. of Regensburg by
+the railway to Munich. It is famous as the scene of a battle
+fought here on the 22nd of April 1809, between the French,
+Bavarians and Wurttembergers under Napoleon, and the
+Austrians under the Archduke Charles, which resulted in the
+defeat of the latter. Napoleon, in recognition of Marshal
+Davout&rsquo;s great share in the victory, conferred on him the title
+of prince of Eckmuhl. For an account of this action and those
+of Abensberg and Landshut see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Napoleonic Campaigns</a></span>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ECLECTICISM<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="eklegô">&#7952;&#954;&#955;&#941;&#947;&#969;</span>, I select), a term used specially
+in philosophy and theology for a composite system of thought
+made up of views borrowed from various other systems. Where
+the characteristic doctrines of a philosophy are not thus merely
+adopted, but are the modified products of a blending of the
+systems from which it takes its rise, the philosophy is not
+properly eclectic. Eclecticism always tends to spring up after
+a period of vigorous constructive speculation, especially in the
+later stages of a controversy between thinkers of pre-eminent
+ability. Their respective followers, and more especially cultured
+laymen, lacking the capacity for original work, seeking for a
+solution in some kind of compromise, and possibly failing to
+grasp the essentials of the controversy, take refuge in a combination
+of those elements in the opposing systems which seem
+to afford a sound practical theory. Since these combinations
+have often been as illogical as facile, &ldquo;eclecticism&rdquo; has generally
+acquired a somewhat contemptuous significance. At the same
+time, the essence of eclecticism is the refusal to follow blindly
+one set of formulae and conventions, coupled with a determination
+to recognize and select from all sources those elements which
+are good or true in the abstract, or in practical affairs most useful
+<i>ad hoc</i>. Theoretically, therefore, eclecticism is a perfectly sound
+method, and the contemptuous significance which the word
+has acquired is due partly to the fact that many eclectics have
+been intellectual trimmers, sceptics or dilettanti, and partly to
+mere partisanship. On the other hand, eclecticism in the sphere
+of abstract thought is open to this main objection that, in so
+far as every philosophic system is, at least in theory, an integral
+whole, the combination of principles from hostile theories must
+result in an incoherent patchwork. Thus it might be argued
+that there can be no logical combination of elements from
+Christian ethics, with its divine sanction, and purely intuitional
+or evolutionary ethical theories, where the sanction is essentially
+different in quality. It is in practical affairs that the eclectic
+or undogmatic spirit is most valuable, and also least dangerous.</p>
+
+<p>In the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> a remarkable tendency toward
+eclecticism began to manifest itself. The longing to arrive at
+the one explanation of all things, which had inspired the older
+philosophers, became less earnest; the belief, indeed, that any
+such explanation was attainable began to fail. Thus men came
+to adopt from all systems the doctrines which best pleased them.
+In Panaetius we find one of the earliest examples of the modification
+of Stoicism by the eclectic spirit; about the same time
+the same spirit displayed itself among the Peripatetics. In
+Rome philosophy never became more than a secondary pursuit;
+naturally, therefore, the Roman thinkers were for the most part
+eclectic. Of this tendency Cicero is the most striking illustration&mdash;his
+philosophical works consisting of an aggregation, with
+little or no blending, of doctrines borrowed from Stoicism, Peripateticism,
+and the scepticism of the Middle Academy.</p>
+
+<p>In the last stage of Greek philosophy the eclectic spirit produced
+remarkable results outside the philosophies of those
+properly called eclectics. Thinkers chose their doctrines from
+many sources&mdash;from the venerated teaching of Aristotle and
+Plato, from that of the Pythagoreans and of the Stoics, from
+the old Greek mythology, and from the Jewish and other Oriental
+systems. Yet it must be observed that Neoplatonism, Gnosticism,
+and the other systems which are grouped under the name
+Alexandrian, were not truly eclectic, consisting, as they did,
+not of a mere syncretism of Greek and Oriental thought, but of a
+mutual modification of the two. It is true that several of the
+Neoplatonists professed to accept all the teaching both of Plato
+and of Aristotle, whereas, in fact, they arbitrarily interpreted
+Aristotle so as to make him agree with Plato, and Plato so as to
+make his teachings consistent with the Oriental doctrines which
+they had adopted, in the same manner as the schoolmen
+attempted to reconcile Aristotle with the doctrines of the
+church. Among the early Christians, Clement of Alexandria,
+Origen and Synesius were eclectics in philosophy.</p>
+
+<p>The eclectics of modern philosophy are too numerous to name.
+Of Italian philosophers the eclectics form a large proportion.
+Among the German we may mention Wolf and his followers,
+as well as Mendelssohn, J.A. Eberhard, Ernst Platner, and to
+some extent Schelling, whom, however, it would be incorrect
+to describe as merely an eclectic. In the first place, his speculations
+were largely original; and in the second place, it is not so
+much that his views of any time were borrowed from a number
+of philosophers, as that his thinking was influenced first by one
+philosopher, then by another.</p>
+
+<p>In the 19th century the term &ldquo;eclectic&rdquo; came to be applied
+specially to a number of French philosophers who differed
+considerably from one another. Of these the earliest were Pierre
+Paul Royer-Collard, who was mainly a follower of Thomas Reid,
+and Maine de Biran; but the name is still more appropriately
+given to the school of which the most distinguished members are
+Victor Cousin, Théodore Jouffroy, J.P. Damiron, Barthélemy
+St Hilaire, C.F.M. de Rémusat, Adolphe Garnier and
+Ravaisson-Mollien. Cousin, whose views varied considerably
+at different periods of his life, not only adopted freely what
+pleased him in the doctrines of Pierre Laromiguière, Royer-Collard
+and Maine de Biran, of Kant, Schelling and Hegel, and
+of the ancient philosophies, but expressly maintained that the
+eclectic is the only method now open to the philosopher, whose
+function thus resolves itself into critical selection and nothing
+more. &ldquo;Each system,&rdquo; he asserted, &ldquo;is not false, but incomplete,
+and in reuniting all incomplete systems, we should have a complete
+philosophy, adequate to the totality of consciousness.&rdquo;
+This assumes that every philosophical truth is already contained
+somewhere in the existing systems. If, however, as it would
+surely be rash to deny, there still remains philosophical truth
+undiscovered, but discoverable by human intelligence, it is
+evident that eclecticism is not the only philosophy. Eclecticism
+gained great popularity, and, partly owing to Cousin&rsquo;s position
+as minister of public instruction, became the authorized system
+in the chief seats of learning in France, where it has given a most
+remarkable impulse to the study of the history of philosophy.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ECLIPSE<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="ekleipsis">&#7956;&#954;&#955;&#949;&#953;&#968;&#953;&#962;</span>, falling out of place, failing), the
+complete or partial obscuration of one heavenly body by the
+shadow of another, or of the disk of the sun by the interposition
+of the moon; then called an eclipse of the sun.
+Eclipses are of three classes: those of the sun, as just defined;
+those of the moon, produced by its passage through the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page888" id="page888"></a>888</span>
+shadow of the earth, and those of the satellites of other planets,
+produced by their passage through the shadow of their primary.
+Jupiter (<i>q.v.</i>) is the only planet of whose satellites the eclipses
+can be observed, unless under very rare circumstances.</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:830px; height:94px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img888a.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p class="pt1">The geometrical conditions of an eclipse of the sun or moon are
+shown in fig. 1, which represents the earth E as casting its shadow
+towards C, and the moon M between the earth and sun as throwing
+its shadow towards some part of the earth and eclipsing the sun.
+The dark conical regions are those within which the sun is entirely
+hidden from sight. This portion of the shadow is called the
+<i>umbra</i>. Around the umbra is an enveloping shaded cone with its
+vertices directly towards the sun. To an observer within this
+region the sun is partly hidden from view. As the apparent path
+of the moon may pass to the north or south of the line joining the
+earth and sun, the axis of its shadow may pass to the north or
+south of the earth, and not meet it at all. An eclipse of the sun
+is called <i>central</i> when the shadow axis strikes any part of the
+earth; partial when only the penumbra falls upon the earth.
+It is evident that an eclipse can be seen as central only at those
+points of the earth&rsquo;s surface over which the axis of the shadow
+passes.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:622px; height:79px" src="images/img888b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:622px; height:76px" src="images/img888c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>A central eclipse is <i>total</i> when the umbra actually reaches the
+earth; <i>annular</i> when it does not. These two cases are shown in
+figs. 2 and 3. In the first of these the sun is entirely hidden
+within the region uu&prime;. In fig. 3 within the region aa&rsquo; the
+apparent diameter of the sun is slightly greater than that of the
+moon, and at the moment of greatest eclipse a narrow ring of
+sunlight is seen surrounding the dark body of the moon.</p>
+
+<p>We shall treat the subject in the following sections:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>I. Phenomena of Eclipses of the Sun and conclusions derived
+from their observation.</p>
+
+<p>II. Eclipses of the Moon.</p>
+
+<p>III. The Laws and Cycles of recurrences of Eclipses of the Sun
+and Moon.</p>
+
+<p>IV. Chronological list of remarkable eclipses of the Sun, past
+and future, to the end of the 20th century.</p>
+
+<p>V. Description of the methods of computing eclipses.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center">I. <i>Phenomena of Eclipses of the Sun.</i></p>
+
+<p>While an eclipse of the sun, whether partial, annular or total,
+is in progress, no striking phenomena are to be noted until, in the
+case of total eclipses, the moment of the total phase approaches.
+It will, however, be noticed that as the moon advances on the
+solar disk the sharply defined and ragged edge of the moon&rsquo;s
+disk contrasts strongly with the soft and uniform outline of the
+sun&rsquo;s limb. As the total phase approaches, the phenomenon
+known as <i>shadow bands</i> may sometimes be seen. These consist
+of seeming vague and rapidly moving wave-like alternations of
+light and shade flitting over any white surface illuminated by the
+sun&rsquo;s rays immediately before and after the total phase. They
+are probably due to a flickering of the light from the thin crescent,
+produced by the undulations of the air, in the same way that the
+twinkling of the stars is produced. The rapid progressive motion
+sometimes assigned to them may be regarded as the natural
+result of an optical illusion. A few seconds before the commencement
+of the total phase the red light of the chromosphere becomes
+visible, and will be seen most distinctly as continuations of the
+solar crescent at its two ends. Owing to the inequalities of the
+lunar surface, the diminution of the solar crescent does not go on
+with perfect uniformity, but, just before the last moment, what
+remains of it is generally broken up into separate portions of light,
+which, magnified and diffused by the irradiation of the telescope,
+present the phenomenon
+long celebrated under the
+name of &ldquo;Baily&rsquo;s beads.&rdquo;
+These were so called
+because minutely and
+vividly described by
+Francis Baily as he observed them during the annular eclipse
+of May 15, 1836, when he compared them to a string of
+bright beads, irregular in size and distance from each other.
+The disappearance of the last bead is commonly taken as the
+beginning of totality. An arc of the chromosphere will then
+be visible for a few seconds at and on each side of the point of
+disappearance, the length and duration of which will depend on
+the apparent diameter of the moon as compared with that of the
+sun, being greater in length and longer seen as the excess of
+diameter of the moon is less. The red prominences may now
+generally be seen here and there around the whole disk of the
+moon, while the effulgence of soft light called the corona surrounds
+it on all sides. Before the invention of the spectroscope, observers
+of total eclipses could do little more than describe in detail the
+varying phenomena presented by the prominences and the
+corona. Drawings of the latter showed it to have the appearance
+of rays surrounding the dark disk of the moon, quite similar to the
+glory depicted by the old painters around the
+head of a saint. The discrepancies between the
+outlines as thus pictured, not only at different
+times, but by different observers at the same time
+and place, are such as to show that little reliance
+can be placed on the details represented by hand
+drawings.</p>
+
+<p>During the eclipse of July 8, 1842, the shadow of
+the moon passed from Perpignan, France, through
+Milan and Vienna, over Russia and Central Asia, to
+the Pacific Ocean. Very detailed physical observations
+were made, but none which need be specially mentioned
+in the present connexion.</p>
+
+<p>The eclipse of July 28, 1851, was total in Scandinavia and
+Russia. It was observed in the former region by many astronomers,
+among them Sir George B. Airy and W.R. Dawes. It
+was specially noteworthy for the first attempt to photograph
+such a phenomenon. A daguerreotype clearly showing the
+protuberances was taken by Berkowski at the Observatory of
+Königsberg. An attempt by G.A. Majocchi to daguerreotype
+the corona was a failure. Photographs of the eclipse of July 18,
+1860, were taken by Padre Angelo Secchi and Warren De La Rue,
+which showed the prominences well, and proved that they were
+progressively obscured by the edge of the advancing moon. It
+was thus shown that they were solar appendages, and did not
+belong to the moon, as had sometimes been supposed. The corona
+was barely visible on De La Rue&rsquo;s plates, but those of Secchi
+showed it, with its rifts and the bases of the tall coronal wings, to
+about 15&rsquo; from the sun&rsquo;s limb. The sketches taken at this
+eclipse proved that the corona extended in some regions 1° from
+the sun&rsquo;s limb. As the sensitiveness of photographic plates has
+increased, they have gradually been wholly relied upon for
+information respecting the corona, so that at the present time
+naked-eye descriptions are regarded as of little or no scientific
+value. Owing to the great contrast between the brilliancy of the
+coronal light at its base and its increasing faintness as it extends
+farther from the sun, no one photograph will bring out all the
+corona. An exposure of one or two seconds is ample to show the
+details of inner corona to the best advantage, while longer exposures
+give greater extent of the brighter portions. The most
+extended streamers are very little brighter than the sky, and must
+be photographed with long exposures.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page889" id="page889"></a>889</span></p>
+
+<p>The first application of the spectroscope to the phenomenon
+was made during the total solar eclipse of August 18, 1868,
+by P.J.C. Janssen and other observers in India. By them was
+made the capital discovery that the red solar prominences give
+a spectrum of bright lines, and are therefore immense masses
+of incandescent gases, chiefly hydrogen and the vapours of calcium
+and helium. Janssen also found that this bright-line spectrum
+could be followed after the eclipse was over, and, in fact, could
+be observed at any time when the air was sufficiently transparent.
+By one of those remarkable coincidences which frequently occur
+in the history of science, this last discovery was made independently
+by Sir Norman Lockyer in England before the news of
+Janssen&rsquo;s success had reached him. It was afterwards found
+that, by giving great dispersing power to the spectroscope, the
+prominences could be observed in a wide slit, in their true form.
+At this eclipse the spectrum of the corona was also observed,
+and was supposed to be continuous, while polariscopic observation
+by Lieutenant Campbell showed it polarized in planes
+passing through the sun&rsquo;s centre. The conclusion from these
+two observations was that the light was composed, at least in
+great part, of reflected sunlight.</p>
+
+<p>At the total eclipse of August 7, 1869, it was independently
+found by Professors C.A. Young of Princeton and W. Harkness
+of Washington that the continuous spectrum of the corona was
+crossed by a bright line in the green, which was long supposed
+to be coincident with 1474 of Kirchhoff&rsquo;s scale. This coincidence
+is, however, now found not to be real, and the line cannot be
+identified with that of any terrestrial substance. The name
+&ldquo;coronium&rdquo; has therefore been given to the supposed gas
+which forms it. It is now known that 1474 is a double line,
+one component of which is produced by iron, while the other
+is of unknown origin. The wave-length of the principal component
+is 5317, while that of the coronal line was found at the
+eclipses of 1896 and 1898 to be 5303.</p>
+
+<p>The eclipse of December 28, 1870, passed over the south-western
+corner of Spain, Gibraltar, Oran and Sicily. It is
+memorable for the discovery by Young of the &ldquo;reversing layer&rdquo;
+of the solar atmosphere. This term is now applied to a shallow
+stratum resting immediately upon the photosphere, the absorption
+of which produces the principal dark lines of the solar
+spectrum, but which, being incandescent, gives a spectrum of
+bright lines by its own light when the light of the sun is cut off.
+This layer is much thinner than the chromosphere, and may
+be considered to form the base of the latter. Owing to its thinness,
+the phenomenon of the reversed bright lines is almost
+instantaneous in its nature, and can be observed for a period
+exceeding one or two seconds only near the edge of the shadow-path,
+where the moon advances but little beyond the solar limb.
+Near the central line it is little more than a flash, thus giving rise
+to the term &ldquo;flash-spectrum.&rdquo; Young also at this eclipse saw
+bright hydrogen lines when his spectroscope was directed to
+the centre of the dark disk of the moon. This can only be attributed
+to the reflection of the light of the prominences and
+chromosphere from the atmosphere between us and the moon.
+The coronal light as observed in the spectroscope may thus be
+regarded as a mixture of true coronal light with chromospheric
+light reflected from the air, and it is therefore probable that the
+H and K (calcium) lines of the coronal spectrum are not true
+coronal lines, but chromospheric.</p>
+
+<p>At the eclipse of December 12, 1871, visible in India and
+Australia, Janssen observed, as he supposed, some of the dark
+lines of the solar spectrum in the continuous spectrum of the
+corona, especially D, <i>b</i> and G. This would show that an important
+part of the coronal light is due to reflected sunshine.
+This feature of the spectrum, however, is doubtful in the most
+recent photographs under the best conditions. At this eclipse
+the remarkable observation was also made by Colonel John
+Herschel and Colonel J.F. Tennant that the characteristic line
+of the coronal spectrum is as bright in the dark rifts of the corona
+as elsewhere. This would show that the gas coronium does not
+form the streamers of the corona, but is spherical in form and
+distributed uniformly about the sun. Photographs were also
+taken on wet plates by a party in Java and by the parties of
+Lord Lindsay (at Baikul, India) and of Colonel Tennant (at
+Dodabetta). The Baikul and Dodabetta photographs were of
+small size (moon&rsquo;s diameter = <span class="spp">3</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">10</span> in.), but of excellent definition.
+A searching study was made of them by A. C Ranyard and
+W.H. Wesley (<i>Memoirs R.A.S.</i> vol. xli., 1879), and for the first
+time a satisfactory representation of the corona was obtained.
+The drawings in the volume quoted show its polar rays, wings,
+interlacing filaments and rifts as they are now known to be, as
+well as the forms and details of the prominences.</p>
+
+<p>The eclipse of April 16, 1874, was observed in South Africa
+by E.J. Stone, H.M. astronomer at the Cape, who traced the
+coronal line about 30&rsquo; (430,000 m.) from the sun&rsquo;s limb. The
+visual corona was seen to extend in places some 90&prime; from the
+limb.</p>
+
+<p>The eclipse of April 6, 1875, was observed in Siam by Sir
+J. Norman Lockyer and Professor Arthur Schuster. Their
+photographs showed the calcium and hydrogen lines in the
+prominence spectrum.</p>
+
+<p>The eclipse of July 29, 1878, was observed by many astronomers
+in the United States along a line extending from Wyoming to
+Texas. A number of the stations were at high altitudes (up to
+14,000 ft.), and the sky was generally very clear. The visible
+corona extended on both sides of the sun along the ecliptic for
+immense distances&mdash;at least twelve lunar diameters, about eleven
+million miles. Photographs taken by the parties of Professors
+A. Hall and W. Harkness gave the details of the inner corona
+and of the polar rays, showing the filamentous character of the
+corona, especially at its base in the polar regions. A photograph
+taken by the party of Professor E.S. Holden showed the outer
+corona to a distance of 50&prime; from the moon&rsquo;s limb. The bright-line
+spectrum of the corona was excessively faint and, as the solar
+activity (measured by sun-spot frequency) was near a minimum,
+it was concluded that the brilliancy of the coronium line varied
+in the sun-spot period, a conclusion which subsequent eclipse
+observations seem to have verified. It is not yet certain that
+the other coronal spectrum lines vary in the same way.</p>
+
+<p>The eclipse of May 17, 1882, was observed in Egypt. On the
+photographs of the corona the image of a bright comet was found,
+the first instance of the sort. (A faint comet was found on the
+plates of the Lick Observatory eclipse expedition to Chile in
+1893.) The slitless spectroscope showed the green line (coronium)
+and D<span class="su">3</span> (helium) in the coronal spectrum.</p>
+
+<p>The eclipse of May 6, 1883, was observed from a small coral
+atoll in the South Pacific Ocean by parties from America, England,
+France, Austria and Italy. A thorough search was made by
+Holden (with a 6 in. telescope) for an intra-Mercurial planet,
+without success, during an unusually long totality (5 m. 23 s.).
+J. Palisa also searched for such a planet. Janssen again reported
+the presence of dark lines in the coronal spectrum. &ldquo;White&rdquo;
+prominences were seen by P. Tacchini.</p>
+
+<p>The eclipse of August 29, 1886, was observed in the West
+Indies. The English photographs of the corona, taken with a
+slitless spectroscope, show the hydrogen lines as well as K and f.
+Tacchini devoted his attention to the spectra of the prominences,
+and showed that their upper portions contained no hydrogen
+lines, but only the H and K lines of calcium. He also observed a
+very extensive &ldquo;white&rdquo; prominence. It was shown on the photographs
+of the corona, but could not be seen in the H&alpha; line with
+the spectroscope. It has been suggested by Professor G.E. Hale
+that the colour of a &ldquo;white&rdquo; prominence may be due to the fact
+that the H and K lines (calcium) are of their normal intensity,
+while the less refrangible prominence lines are, from some unknown
+cause, comparatively faint. It is known that the intensity
+of such lines does, in fact, vary, though it is not yet certain that
+the &ldquo;white&rdquo; prominences are produced in this way. The subject
+is one demanding further observation. High prominences are
+generally &ldquo;white&rdquo; at their summits, &ldquo;red&rdquo; at their bases.
+The Harvard College Observatory photographs show the corona
+out to 90&prime; from the moon&rsquo;s limb, though no detail is visible
+beyond 60&prime;. W.H. Pickering made a series of photographic
+photometric measures of the corona, some of which are given
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page890" id="page890"></a>890</span>
+below, together with results deduced by Holden from the eclipses
+of January and December 1889:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tccm allb">August<br />1886.</td> <td class="tccm allb">January<br />1889.</td> <td class="tccm allb">December<br />1889.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Intrinsic actinic brilliancy of the brightest parts of the corona</td> <td class="tcl rb">0.031</td> <td class="tcl rb">0.079</td> <td class="tcl rb">0.029</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> &emsp;&emsp; Do. of the polar rays</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcl rb">0.053</td> <td class="tcl rb">0.016</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> &emsp;&emsp; Do. of the sky near the sun</td> <td class="tcl rb">0.0007</td> <td class="tcl rb">0.0050</td> <td class="tcl rb">0.0009</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Ratio of intrinsic brilliancy of the brightest parts of the corona<br /> &emsp; to that of the sky (actinic)</td> <td class="tclb rb">44 to 1</td> <td class="tclb rb">16 to 1</td> <td class="tclb rb">32 to 1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Magnitude of the faintest star shown on the eclipse negatives</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">· ·</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">2.3</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">· ·</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The results in the first and third columns are derived from plates
+taken in a very humid climate, and are not very different.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt1">The eclipse of August 19, 1887, was total in Japan and Russia,
+but cloudy weather prevented successful observations except in
+Siberia and eastern Russia.</p>
+
+<p>The eclipse of January 1, 1889, was observed in California and
+Nevada by many American astronomers. The photographs of
+the corona, especially those by Charoppin and E.E. Barnard,
+show a wealth of detail. Those of Barnard, of the Lick Observatory
+party, were studied by Holden, and exhibited the fact
+that rays, like the &ldquo;polar-rays,&rdquo; extended all round the sun,
+instead of being confined to the polar regions only. The outer
+corona was registered out to 100&prime; from the moon&rsquo;s limb on
+Charoppin&rsquo;s negatives, to 130&prime; on those of Lowden and Ireland.
+On other plates the outline of the moon is visible projected on the
+corona before totality began. The spectrum of the corona showed
+few bright lines besides those of coronium and hydrogen.</p>
+
+<p>The eclipse of December 22, 1889, was observed in Cayenne,
+S. America, by a party from the Lick Observatory under rather
+unfavourable conditions. Expeditions sent to Africa were baffled
+by cloudy weather. Father Stephen Joseph Perry observed at
+Salute Islands, French Guiana, and obtained some photographs
+of value. The effort cost him his life, for he died of malarial fever
+five days after the eclipse.</p>
+
+<p>The eclipse of April 16, 1893, was observed by British and
+French parties in Africa and Brazil, and by Professor J.M.
+Schaeberle of the Lick Observatory in Chile. The Chile photographs
+of the corona were taken with a lens of 40 ft. focus, and are
+extremely fine. They show a faint comet near the sun. No great
+extensions to the corona were shown on any of the negatives, or
+seen visually, though they were specially looked for by British
+parties. The neighbourhood of the sun was carefully examined
+by G. Bigourdan without finding any planet. The spectrum of
+the corona was the usual one. The following lines were photographed
+in slitless spectroscopes, and undoubtedly belong to the
+corona: W. L. 3987; 4086; 4217; 4231; 4240; 4280; 4486;
+5303 (the last number is the wave-length of the green coronium
+line). All of these have been seen in slit spectroscopes also. It is
+possible that two lines observed by Young in 1869, namely, W. L.
+(Ångstrom) 5450 and 5570, should be added to the list of undoubted
+coronal lines. It is not likely that helium or hydrogen
+or calcium vapour forms part of the corona. The wave-lengths
+of some 700 lines belonging to the chromosphere and prominences
+were determined by the British parties.</p>
+
+<p>The eclipse of August 9, 1896, was total in Norway, Novaya
+Zemlya and Japan. The day was very unfavourable as to
+weather, but good photographs of the corona were obtained by
+Russian parties in Siberia and Lapland. Shackelton, in Novaya
+Zemlya, with a prismatic camera obtained a photograph of the
+reversing-layer at the beginning of totality. This photograph
+completely confirms Young&rsquo;s discovery, and shows the prominent
+Fraunhofer lines bright, the bright lines of the chromosphere
+spectrum being especially conspicuous.</p>
+
+<p>At the solar eclipse of January 22, 1898, the shadow of the
+moon traversed India from the western coast to the Himalaya.
+The duration of totality was about 2 m. The eclipse was very
+fully observed, more than 100 negatives of the corona being
+secured. The equatorial extension of the visible corona was short
+and faint, and the invisible (spectroscopic) corona was also very
+faint. The spectrum of the reversing-layer was successfully
+photographed; one set of negatives shows the polarization of one
+of the longest streamers of the corona, and proves the presence of
+dust particles reflecting solar light. The bright-line spectrum of
+hydrogen in the chromosphere was followed to the thirtieth point
+of the series, and the wave-lengths were shown to agree closely
+with Balmer&rsquo;s formula (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Spectroscopy</a></span>). The wave-length of
+coronium was found to be 5303 (not 5317 as previously supposed),
+and the brightness of the corona was measured. E.W. Maunder
+made the curious observation of coronal matter enveloping a
+prominence in the form of a hood.</p>
+
+<p>Observations of the eclipse of May 28, 1900, were favoured in a
+remarkable degree by the absence of clouds. The photographs of
+the corona obtained by W.W. Campbell extended four diameters
+of the sun on the west side. The sun&rsquo;s edge was photographed
+with an objective-prism spectrograph composed of two 60°
+prisms in front of a telescope of 2 in. aperture and 60 in. focus.
+A fine photograph, 6 in. long, of the bright- and dark-line spectra
+of the sun&rsquo;s edge at the end of totality was thus obtained. It
+shows 600 bright lines sharply in focus besides the dark-line
+spectrum, to which the bright lines gave way as the sun reappeared.
+The coronal material radiating the green light was
+found to be markedly heaped up in the sun-spot regions. No
+dark lines were found in the spectrum of the inner corona. G.E.
+Hale and E.B. Frost also photographed the combined bright-
+and dark-line spectra of the solar cusps at the instants before and
+after totality. On one photograph showing no dark lines 70
+bright lines could be measured between 4070 and 4340. On
+another were 70 bright lines between H<i>b</i> and H<i>s</i>. On a third
+were 266 bright lines between 4026 and 4381, and some dark
+lines. These lines show a marked dissimilarity from the solar
+spectrum.</p>
+<div class="author">(S. N.)</div>
+
+<p>The eclipse of May 18, 1901, was observable in Mauritius with
+3½ minutes of totality, and in Sumatra with 6½ minutes. Unfortunately
+there was cloudy weather in Sumatra, which at some
+stations prevented observations entirely and at others neutralized
+the advantages promised by the long duration of totality. Thus
+spectroscopic observations for the detection of motion of the
+corona, for which the long totality gave a special opportunity,
+failed owing to cloud; and the search for intra-Mercurial planets
+had only a negative result, though stars down to magnitude 8.8
+were photographed on the plates. But though no particular step
+in advance was taken, successful records of the eclipse were
+obtained, which will enable comparison to be made with other
+eclipses and will contribute their share to the discussion of the
+whole series. These include photographs of the corona, showing
+that it was of the sun-spot minimum type, and available for
+measures of its brightness; photographs of the spectra of the
+chromosphere and corona which are of the same general character
+as those obtained at previous eclipses; photographs showing the
+polarization of the corona, available for quantitative measures of
+polarization at different points. Photographs of the spectrum
+of the outer corona taken by the Lick Observatory party show a
+strong Fraunhofer dark-line spectrum, consistent with the view
+that the light is reflected sunlight. At Mauritius there was no
+cloud, but the definition was poor. Successful photographs of
+the corona were obtained for comparison with those taken in
+Sumatra one and a half hours later, but nothing of great interest
+was revealed by the comparison.</p>
+
+<p>The eclipse of August 30, 1905, offered a duration of 3½ minutes
+in Spain, the track running from Labrador through Spain to
+North Africa, and affording excellent opportunities for observers,
+who flocked to the central line in great numbers. Unfortunately
+it was cloudy in Labrador, so that the special advantages of the
+long line of possible stations were lost. Exceptionally good
+weather conditions were enjoyed in Algeria and Tunisia, and full
+advantage was taken of them by H.F. Newall, C. Trépied and
+others at Guelma, by the party from Greenwich and G. Bigourdan
+at Sfax. That G. Newall&rsquo;s spectroscopic photographs for rotation
+of the corona again gave no result is a clear indication of the
+faintness of the corona at 3&prime; from the limb; but F.W. Dyson at
+Sfax obtained two new lines at 5536 and 5117 in the spectrum
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page891" id="page891"></a>891</span>
+of the corona; and a very large number of photographs of the
+corona (including many in polarized light on several different
+plans), of its spectrum, and of the spectrum of the chromosphere,
+were obtained by the various parties, which will afford copious
+material for discussion. Newall also obtained a polarized
+spectrum of the corona. Altogether no less than eighty stations
+were occupied. There were English, American, Russian and
+German observers in Egypt; English and French in Algeria and
+Tunisia; English in Majorca; observers of almost all nationalities
+in Spain; and English and American in Labrador. In
+Egypt the weather was bright, though the sun was low; in
+Majorca and Spain there were local clouds. Consequently many
+observations, in addition to those in Labrador, were lost, notably
+the special spectroscopic observations undertaken by Evershed
+on the northern limit of totality, and the observations of radiation
+undertaken by H.L. Callendar. A search for intra-Mercurial
+planets was conducted on an elaborate plan, with similar batteries
+of telescopes, in Egypt, Spain and Labrador, by three parties
+from the Lick Observatory, but the examination of the plates
+showed nothing noteworthy. Pending discussion of the greater
+part of the material, some interesting preliminary results were
+published in 1906 by the French observers. C.E.H. Bourget
+and Montangerand conclude that there is a marked division of
+the chromosphere into two regions or shells, a lower or &ldquo;reversing-layer,&rdquo;
+extending only 1&Prime; from the limb, and a chromospheric
+layer extending to 3&Prime; or 4&Prime;; and that the coronal light contains
+less blue and violet, but more green and yellow, than sunlight;
+while Fabry, by visual methods, obtained measures of the total
+and intrinsic intensity of the light from the corona closely confirming
+recent photographic observations, finding the total
+brightness about equal to that of the full moon, and the intrinsic
+brightness at 5&prime; from the limb about one quarter of that of the
+full moon.</p>
+<div class="author">(H. H. T.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center">II. <i>Eclipses of the Moon.</i></p>
+
+<p>The physical phenomena attending eclipses of the moon are no
+longer of a high order of interest either to the layman or scientific
+observer. A brief statement of them and their causes will therefore
+be sufficient. An observer watching such an eclipse from
+the moon would see the earth, which has nearly four times the
+apparent diameter of the sun, impinging on the sun&rsquo;s disk and
+slowly hiding it. The phenomenon would be quite similar to
+that of an eclipse of the sun seen from the earth, until the sun was
+completely covered. During the progress of this partial eclipse
+the moon would be passing into the earth&rsquo;s penumbra. As the
+moment of total obscuration approached, a red band of light
+would rapidly form in the neighbourhood of the disappearing
+limb of the sun, and gradually extend around the earth. This
+would arise from the refraction of the sun&rsquo;s light by the earth&rsquo;s
+atmosphere, and the absorption of its blue rays. When the light
+of the sun was completely hidden, a reddish ring of great brilliancy
+would, owing to this cause, surround the entire dark body of the
+earth during the period of the total eclipse.</p>
+
+<p>The aspect of the moon, as seen from the earth, corresponds to
+this view from the moon. The fading of the moon&rsquo;s light, due to
+its entrance into the penumbra, is scarcely noticeable without
+direct photometric determination until near the beginning of the
+total phase. Then, as the limb of the moon approaches the
+earth&rsquo;s shadow, it begins to darken. When only a small portion
+has entered into the shadow, that portion is completely hidden.
+But, as the total phase approaches, the part of the moon&rsquo;s disk
+immersed in the penumbra becomes visible by a reddish coppery
+light&mdash;that of the sun refracted through the lower parts of the
+earth&rsquo;s atmosphere. The brightness of this illumination is
+different in different eclipses, a circumstance which may be
+attributed to the greater or less degree of cloudiness in those
+regions of the earth&rsquo;s atmosphere through which the light of the
+sun passes in order to reach the moon. Its colour is due to absorption
+in passing through the earth&rsquo;s atmosphere.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center">III. <i>Laws and Cycles of Recurrences of Eclipses of the Sun
+and Moon.</i></p>
+
+<p>It has been known since remote antiquity that eclipses occur
+in cycles. These cycles are known now to be determined
+principally by the motion of the moon&rsquo;s node and the relations
+between the revolutions of the earth round the sun and the moon
+round the earth.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 290px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:237px; height:154px" src="images/img891.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Owing to the inclination of the moon&rsquo;s orbit to the plane of the
+ecliptic, an eclipse of the sun can occur only when the conjunction
+of the sun and moon takes place within about
+16° of one of the nodes of the moon&rsquo;s orbit. The
+<span class="sidenote">Eclipse seasons.</span>
+eclipse can be total only within about 11° of the node.
+An eclipse of the moon can occur only when the line sun-moon-earth
+makes an angle less than about 11° with the line of nodes;
+and the eclipse can be total only within about 8° of the node,
+the average limiting distances varying 1° or 2° according to the
+circumstances. These conditions being understood, the cycles
+of recurrence of eclipses of either kind can be worked out geometrically
+from the mean motions of the sun, moon, node and
+perigee by the aid of geometric conceptions shown in their
+simplest form in fig. 4. Here E is the earth, at the centre of
+a circle representing the mean orbit of the moon around it.
+MN is the line of nodes which is
+moving in the retrograde direction
+from N towards S<span class="su">1</span>, at a rate of
+about 19.3° in a year, making a
+complete revolution in 18.6 years.
+Let the sun at the moment of
+some new moon be in the line
+ES<span class="su">1</span>, continued. If the angle
+NES<span class="su">1</span> is less than 16° there will
+probably be an eclipse of the sun,
+which may be central if the angle is less than 11°. Let the next
+new moon take place in the line ES<span class="su">2</span> a month later. The mean
+value of the angle S<span class="su">1</span>ES<span class="su">2</span> is about 29°; but as the node N has
+moved towards S<span class="su">1</span> about 1.4° during the interval, the sum of the
+angles NES<span class="su">1</span> and NES<span class="su">2</span> will be somewhat greater than S<span class="su">1</span>ES<span class="su">2</span>
+by about 1.6°. The result is that if these two angles are nearly
+equal there may be two small partial eclipses of the sun, after
+which no more can occur until, by the annual revolution of the
+earth, the direction of the sun approaches the opposite line of
+nodes EM, nearly six months later. The result is that there
+are in the course of any one year two &ldquo;eclipse seasons&rdquo; each of
+about one month in duration, in which at least one eclipse of
+the sun, or possibly two small partial eclipses, may occur. One
+eclipse of the moon will generally, but not always, occur during
+a season.</p>
+
+<p>Owing to the retrograde motion of the node the direction ES
+of the sun returns to the node at the end of about 347 days,
+so that a third eclipse season may commence before the end of a
+year. In this way there is a possible but very rare maximum
+of five eclipses of the sun in a year. Owing to the motion of the
+line of nodes each eclipse season occurs about 19 days earlier in
+the year than it did the year before. Another conclusion from
+the greater eclipse limit for the sun than for the moon is that in
+the long run eclipses of the sun, as regards the earth generally,
+occur oftener than those of the moon. But as any eclipse of the
+sun is visible only from a limited region of the earth&rsquo;s surface,
+while one of the moon may be seen from an entire hemisphere, more
+eclipses of the moon are visible at any one place than of the sun.</p>
+
+<p>If, starting with a conjunction along some line ES<span class="su">1</span>, we mark
+by radial lines from E the successive conjunctions year after
+year, we shall find that at the end of 18 years and about 11 days
+the 223rd conjunction will fall once more very near the line ES<span class="su">1</span>,
+the angle NES<span class="su">1</span> being about 24&prime; greater than before. Successive
+eclipses will then occur very nearly in the same order as they
+did 18 years and 11 days before. This period of recurrence
+has been known from remote antiquity and is called the <i>Saros</i>.
+What is most remarkable in this period is that in addition to
+the distance from the node being nearly the same as before,
+the longitude of the sun increases by only 11° and the distance
+of the moon from its perigee has changed less than 3°. The result
+of this approach to coincidence is that the recurring eclipse will
+generally be of the same kind&mdash;total, annular or partial&mdash;through
+a number of successive periods.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page892" id="page892"></a>892</span></p>
+
+<p>To see the law of recurrence of corresponding eclipses in the
+successive periods let us suppose the line of conjunction ES<span class="su">1</span> to
+be that at which there is a very small eclipse, visible only in high
+northern or southern latitudes. At the end of 18 years 11 days
+a second eclipse will occur along a line nearly half a degree nearer
+EN, the line of nodes. The successive eclipses will occur at the
+same interval through about ten periods, or 180 years, when the
+line of conjunction will pass within 11° of EN. Then the eclipse
+will be central, whether annular or total depending on circumstances:
+in the first one the central lines will pass only over
+the polar regions; but in successive eclipses of the series it will
+pass nearer and nearer to the equator until the conjunction line
+coincides with the node. The path of centrality will then cross
+in the equatorial region. During 22 or 23 more recurrences the
+path will continually approach to the opposite pole and finally
+leave the earth entirely. The entire number of central eclipses
+in any one series will generally be about forty-five. Then a
+series of continually diminishing partial eclipses will go on for
+about ten periods more. The whole series of eclipses will therefore
+extend through about sixty-five periods; and interval of
+time of about twelve hundred years.</p>
+
+<p>Another remarkable eclipse period recurs at the end of 358
+lunations. At the end of this period the line of mean conjunction
+ES<span class="su">1</span> falls so near its former position relative to the node that we
+find each central eclipse visible in our time to be one of an
+unbroken series extending from the earliest historic times to
+the present, at intervals equal to the length of the period. The
+recurring eclipses in this period do not, however, have the
+remarkable similarity of those belonging to the Saros, but may
+differ to any extent, owing to the different positions of the line
+of conjunction with respect to the moon&rsquo;s perigee. Moreover,
+they recur alternately at the ascending and descending node.
+The length of the period is 10,571.95 days, or 29 Julian years
+less 20.3 days. Hence 18 periods make 521 years, so that at the
+end of this time each eclipse recurs on or about the same day of
+the year. As an example of this series, starting from the eclipse
+of Nineveh, June 15, 763 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, recorded on the Assyrian tablets,
+we find eclipses on May 27, 734 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, May 7, 705 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and so on
+in an unbroken series to 1843, 1872 and 1901, the last being the
+93rd of the series. Those at the ends of the 521-year intervals
+occurred on June 15, O.S., of each of the years 763, 242 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>,
+<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 280, 801, 1322 and 1843. As the lunar perigee moves
+through 242.4° in a period, the eclipses will vary from total to
+annular, but at the end of 3 periods the perigee is only 7.1°
+in advance of its original position relative to the node. Hence
+in a series including every third eclipse the eclipses will be of the
+same character through a thousand years or more. Thus the
+eclipses of 1467, 1554, 1640, 1727, 1814, 1901, 1988, &amp;c., are total.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center">IV. <i>Chronological Lists of Eclipses of the Sun.</i></p>
+
+<p>The following is a brief chronological enumeration of those
+total eclipses of the sun which are of interest, either from their
+historic celebrity or the nature of the conclusions
+<span class="sidenote">Notable eclipses.</span>
+derived from them. In numbering the years before
+the Christian era the astronomical nomenclature is
+used, in which the number of the year is one less than that used
+by the chronologists. The Chinese eclipses are passed over,
+owing to the generally doubtful character of the records pertaining
+to them.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&mdash;1069 June 20 and &mdash;1062 July 31; total eclipses recorded at
+Babylon.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;762, June 14; a total eclipse recorded at Nineveh. Computation
+from the modern tables shows that the path of totality passed
+about 100 m. or more north of Nineveh.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;647, April 6; total eclipse at or near Thasos, mentioned by
+Archilochus.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;584, May 28; the celebrated eclipse of Thales. For an account
+of this eclipse see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Thales</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;556, May 19, the eclipse of Larissa. The modern tables show
+that the eclipse was not total at Larissa, and the connexion of the
+classical record with the eclipse is doubtful.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;430, August 3; eclipse mentioned by Thucydides, but not total
+by the tables.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;399, June 21; eclipse of Ennius. Totality occurred immediately
+after sunset at Rome. The identity of this eclipse is doubtful.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;309, August 14; eclipse of Agathocles. This eclipse would be
+one of the most valuable for testing the tables of the moon, but for
+an uncertainty as to the location of Agathocles, who, at the time of
+the occurrence, was at sea on a voyage from Syracuse to Carthage.</p>
+
+<p>F.K. Ginzel (<i>Spezieller Kanon der Finsternisse</i>) has collected a
+great number of passages from classical authors supposed to refer to
+eclipses of the sun or moon, but the difficulty of identifying the
+phenomenon is frequently such as to justify great doubt as to the
+conclusions. In a few cases no eclipse corresponding to the description
+can be found by our modern table to have occurred, and in
+others the latitude of interpretation and the uncertainty of the date
+are so wide that the eclipse cannot be identified.</p>
+
+<p>Of medieval eclipses we mention only the dates of those visible in
+England, referring for details to the works mentioned in the bibliography.
+The letter C following a date shows that the eclipse is
+mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles. The dates in question
+are:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl rb"><span class="scs">A.D.</span> 538, February 15, C. (partial).</td> <td class="tcl"><span class="scs">A.D.</span> &ensp;878, October 29, C.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rb"> &emsp;&emsp; 540, June 12, C. (partial).</td> <td class="tcl"> &emsp;&emsp; &ensp;885, June 15.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rb"> &emsp;&emsp; 594, July 23.</td> <td class="tcl"> &emsp;&emsp; 1023, January 24.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rb"> &emsp;&emsp; 603, August 12.</td> <td class="tcl"> &emsp;&emsp; 1133, August 1, C.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rb"> &emsp;&emsp; 639, September 3.</td> <td class="tcl"> &emsp;&emsp; 1140, March 20, C.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rb"> &emsp;&emsp; 664, May 1, C. </td> <td class="tcl"> &emsp;&emsp; 1185, May 1, C.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rb"> &emsp;&emsp; 733, August 14 (annular).</td> <td class="tcl"> &emsp;&emsp; 1191, June 23, C. (annular).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rb"> &emsp;&emsp; 764, June 4 (annular).</td> <td class="tcl"> &emsp;&emsp; 1330, July 16.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Besides these, the tables show that the shadow of the moon
+passed over some part of the British Islands on 1424, June 26;
+1433, June 17; 1598, March 6; 1652, April 8; 1715, May 2;
+1724, May 22. Of these the eclipse of 1715 is notable for the careful
+observations made in England, and published by Halley in the
+<i>Philosophical Transactions</i>. The next dates are 1927, June 29, when
+a barely total eclipse will be seen soon after sunrise in the northern
+counties near the Scottish border, and 1999, August 11, when the
+moon&rsquo;s shadow will graze England at Land&rsquo;s End.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>We give below, in tabular form, a list of the principal total
+eclipses during the 19th and 20th centuries, omitting a few visible
+only in the extreme polar regions, and some others of which the
+duration is very short. The first column gives the civil date of the
+point on the earth&rsquo;s surface at which the eclipse is central at noon.
+The next two columns give the position of this point to the nearest
+degree. The fourth column shows the Greenwich astronomical
+time of conjunction in longitude. The next column gives the
+duration of the total phase at the noon-point; this is sometimes
+0.1&prime; less than the absolutely greatest duration at any point.
+Next is given the node near which the eclipse occurs; and then
+the number in the Saros. Corresponding eclipses at intervals
+of 18 y. 11 d. have the same number, and occur near the same
+node of the noon, which is indicated in the next column.</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2" colspan="2">Date at<br />Noon-Point.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Point where<br />Central at Noon.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="3">Greenwich M.T. of<br />conjunction in<br />Longitude.
+</td> <td class="tccm allb">Duration<br />of<br />Totality.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Node</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Series.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Regions Swept by Shadow.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">Lat.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Long.</td> <td class="tcc bb">d.</td> <td class="tcc bb">h.</td> <td class="tcc bb">m.</td> <td class="tcc allb">m.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1803, Feb.</td> <td class="tcr rb">21</td> <td class="tcr rb">11 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">136 W.</td> <td class="tcr">21</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">20</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.2</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcl rb">Pacific Ocean, Mexico.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1804, Aug.</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">38 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">66 W.</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.2</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcl rb">Pacific Ocean, Chile, Argentina.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1806, June</td> <td class="tcr rb">16</td> <td class="tcr rb">42 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">66 W.</td> <td class="tcr">16</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">22</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.6</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">3</td> <td class="tcl rb">New England, Atlantic, Africa.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1807, Nov.</td> <td class="tcr rb">29</td> <td class="tcr rb">11 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">2 E.</td> <td class="tcr">28</td> <td class="tcr">23</td> <td class="tcr rb">48</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.4</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">4</td> <td class="tcl rb">Central Africa, Areolia.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1810, April</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">12 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">154 E.</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr">13</td> <td class="tcr rb">41</td> <td class="tcc rb">Ann.</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">5</td> <td class="tcl rb">Pacific Ocean, Borneo.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1811, Mar,</td> <td class="tcr rb">24</td> <td class="tcr rb">39 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">26 W.</td> <td class="tcr">24</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">19</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.4</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">6</td> <td class="tcl rb">South Atlantic to and across South Africa.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1814, July</td> <td class="tcr rb">17</td> <td class="tcr rb">31 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">84 E.</td> <td class="tcr">16</td> <td class="tcr">18</td> <td class="tcr rb">33</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.6</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">7</td> <td class="tcl rb">Africa, Central Asia, China.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1815, July</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">88 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">175 W.</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">52</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.2</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">8</td> <td class="tcl rb">Polar Regions, Western Siberia.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1816, Nov.</td> <td class="tcr rb">19</td> <td class="tcr rb">43 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">30 E.</td> <td class="tcr">18</td> <td class="tcr">22</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.8</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">9</td> <td class="tcl rb">Eastern Europe, Central Asia.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1817, Nov.</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">7 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">149 E.</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr">13</td> <td class="tcr rb">53</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.7</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">10</td> <td class="tcl rb">Burma, Pacific Ocean.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page893" id="page893"></a>893</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1821, Mar.</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">8 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">96 E.</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr">17</td> <td class="tcr rb">50</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.3</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcl rb">Indian and Pacific Oceans.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1822, Aug.</td> <td class="tcr rb">16</td> <td class="tcr rb">36 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">176 W.</td> <td class="tcr">16</td> <td class="tcr">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">22</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.4</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcl rb">Australia, Pacific Ocean.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1824, June</td> <td class="tcr rb">26</td> <td class="tcr rb">47 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">175 W.</td> <td class="tcr">26</td> <td class="tcr">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">43</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.4</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">3</td> <td class="tcl rb">Pacific Ocean, Japan, China.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1825, Dec.</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">9 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">127 W.</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">27</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.5</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">4</td> <td class="tcl rb">Pacific Ocean, Mexico.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1828, April</td> <td class="tcr rb">14</td> <td class="tcr rb">18 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">39 E.</td> <td class="tcr">13</td> <td class="tcr">21</td> <td class="tcr rb">18</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.3</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">5</td> <td class="tcl rb">Northern Africa, India.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1829, April</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">32 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">149 W.</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">24</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.1</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">6</td> <td class="tcl rb">South Pacific Ocean.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1832, July</td> <td class="tcr rb">27</td> <td class="tcr rb">24 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">28 W.</td> <td class="tcr">27</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.8</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">7</td> <td class="tcl rb">West Indies and across Central Africa.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1833, July</td> <td class="tcr rb">17</td> <td class="tcr rb">78 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">76 E.</td> <td class="tcr">16</td> <td class="tcr">19</td> <td class="tcr rb">16</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.5</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">8</td> <td class="tcl rb">North-eastern Asia and Polar Regions.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1834, Nov.</td> <td class="tcr rb">30</td> <td class="tcr rb">40 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">101 W.</td> <td class="tcr">30</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">48</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.9</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">9</td> <td class="tcl rb">Southern and Western United States.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1835, Nov.</td> <td class="tcr rb">20</td> <td class="tcr rb">10 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">20 E.</td> <td class="tcr">19</td> <td class="tcr">22</td> <td class="tcr rb">31</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.6</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">10</td> <td class="tcl rb">Central Africa, Madagascar.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1839, Mar.</td> <td class="tcr rb">15</td> <td class="tcr rb">6 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">31 W.</td> <td class="tcr">15</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">14</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.4</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcl rb">South America, Africa, Egypt.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1840, Aug.</td> <td class="tcr rb">27</td> <td class="tcr rb">34 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">72 E.</td> <td class="tcr">26</td> <td class="tcr">18</td> <td class="tcr rb">45</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.6</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcl rb">Africa, Madagascar, Indian Ocean.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1842, July</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">51 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">77 E.</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr">19</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.1</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">3</td> <td class="tcl rb">Spain, France, Russia to China, and Pacific Ocean.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1843, Dec.</td> <td class="tcr rb">21</td> <td class="tcr rb">8 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">102 E.</td> <td class="tcr">20</td> <td class="tcr">17</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.6</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">4</td> <td class="tcl rb">Indian and North Pacific Oceans and India.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1846, April</td> <td class="tcr rb">25</td> <td class="tcr rb">25 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">75 W.</td> <td class="tcr">25</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">49</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.9</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">5</td> <td class="tcl rb">Mexico, West Indies, Africa.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1847, April</td> <td class="tcr rb">15</td> <td class="tcr rb">24 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">90 E.</td> <td class="tcr">14</td> <td class="tcr">18</td> <td class="tcr rb">22</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.7</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">6</td> <td class="tcl rb">Indian Ocean, Australia.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1850, Aug.</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">18 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">142 W.</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">34</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.8</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">7</td> <td class="tcl rb">Pacific Ocean.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1851, July</td> <td class="tcr rb">28</td> <td class="tcr rb">70 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">34 W.</td> <td class="tcr">28</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">41</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.7</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">8</td> <td class="tcl rb">Scandinavia, Russia and North America.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1852, Dec.</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">37 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">127 E.</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr">15</td> <td class="tcr rb">32</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.0</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">9</td> <td class="tcl rb">China, Pacific Ocean.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1857, Mar.</td> <td class="tcr rb">25</td> <td class="tcr rb">4 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">155 W.</td> <td class="tcr">25</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">30</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.5</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcl rb">Pacific Ocean, Mexico.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1858, Sept.</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">33 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">41 W.</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">16</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.7</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcl rb">Peru, South Brazil, Uruguay.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1860, July</td> <td class="tcr rb">18</td> <td class="tcr rb">56 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">31 W.</td> <td class="tcr">18</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">21</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.7</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">3</td> <td class="tcl rb">British America, France, Egypt.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1861, Dec.</td> <td class="tcr rb">31</td> <td class="tcr rb">9 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">29 W.</td> <td class="tcr">31</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">55</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.8</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">4</td> <td class="tcl rb">Caribbean Sea to North Africa.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1864, May</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">32 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">173 E.</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr">12</td> <td class="tcr rb">14</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.4</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">5</td> <td class="tcl rb">Pacific Ocean.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1865, April</td> <td class="tcr rb">25</td> <td class="tcr rb">16 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb"> 30 W.</td> <td class="tcr">25</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">13</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.3</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">6</td> <td class="tcl rb">Brazil to Central Africa.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1868, Aug.</td> <td class="tcr rb">18</td> <td class="tcr rb">10 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">103 E.</td> <td class="tcr">17</td> <td class="tcr">17</td> <td class="tcr rb">12</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.8</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">7</td> <td class="tcl rb">India to Pacific Ocean.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1869, Aug.</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">61 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">145 W.</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.8</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">8</td> <td class="tcl rb">United States and Alaska.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1870, Dec.</td> <td class="tcr rb">22</td> <td class="tcr rb">36 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">5 W.</td> <td class="tcr">22</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">19</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.1</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">9</td> <td class="tcl rb">Gibraltar, Northern Africa, Sicily.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1871, Dec.</td> <td class="tcr rb">12</td> <td class="tcr rb">12 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">118 E.</td> <td class="tcr">11</td> <td class="tcr">16</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.4</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">10</td> <td class="tcl rb">Southern India, Northern Australia.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1875, April</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">2 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">83 E.</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr">18</td> <td class="tcr rb">36</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.7</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcl rb">Indian Ocean, Siam, Pacific.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1876, Sept.</td> <td class="tcr rb">17</td> <td class="tcr rb">33 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">156 W.</td> <td class="tcr">17</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">54</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.8</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcl rb">Pacific Ocean.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1878, July</td> <td class="tcr rb">29</td> <td class="tcr rb">60 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">139 W.</td> <td class="tcr">29</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">40</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.2</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">3</td> <td class="tcl rb">United States and Canada.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1880, Jan.</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">10 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">160 W.</td> <td class="tcr">11</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">40</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.1</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">4</td> <td class="tcl rb">Pacific Ocean, California.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1882, May</td> <td class="tcr rb">17</td> <td class="tcr rb">39 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">63 E.</td> <td class="tcr">16</td> <td class="tcr">19</td> <td class="tcr rb">34</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.8</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">5</td> <td class="tcl rb">Egypt, Central Asia, China.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1883, May</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">9 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">147 W.</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">58</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.0</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">6</td> <td class="tcl rb">Pacific Ocean, Caroline Islands.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1886, Aug.</td> <td class="tcr rb">29</td> <td class="tcr rb">3 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">14 W.</td> <td class="tcr">29</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">54</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.6</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">7</td> <td class="tcl rb">South America, Central Africa.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1887, Aug.</td> <td class="tcr rb">19</td> <td class="tcr rb">53 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">102 E.</td> <td class="tcr">18</td> <td class="tcr">17</td> <td class="tcr rb">39</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.8</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">8</td> <td class="tcl rb">Northern Europe, Siberia, Japan.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1889, Jan.</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">37 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">138 W.</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.2</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">9</td> <td class="tcl rb">California, Oregon, British America.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1889, Dec.</td> <td class="tcr rb">22</td> <td class="tcr rb">12 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">13 W.</td> <td class="tcr">22</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">52</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.2</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">10</td> <td class="tcl rb">Central Africa and South America.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1893, April</td> <td class="tcr rb">16</td> <td class="tcr rb">1 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">37 W.</td> <td class="tcr">16</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">35</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.8</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcl rb">Venezuela to West Africa.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1894, Sept.</td> <td class="tcr rb">29</td> <td class="tcr rb">34 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">86 E.</td> <td class="tcr">28</td> <td class="tcr">17</td> <td class="tcr rb">43</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.8</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcl rb">East Africa, Indian Ocean.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1896, Aug.</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">65 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">112 E.</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr">17</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.7</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">3</td> <td class="tcl rb">North Europe, Siberia, Japan.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1898, Jan.</td> <td class="tcr rb">22</td> <td class="tcr rb">13 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">69 E.</td> <td class="tcr">21</td> <td class="tcr">19</td> <td class="tcr rb">24</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.3</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">4</td> <td class="tcl rb">East Africa, India, China.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1900, May</td> <td class="tcr rb">28</td> <td class="tcr rb">45 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">45 W.</td> <td class="tcr">28</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">50</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.1</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">5</td> <td class="tcl rb">United States, Spain, North Africa.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1901, May</td> <td class="tcr rb">18</td> <td class="tcr rb">2 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">97 E.</td> <td class="tcr">17</td> <td class="tcr">17</td> <td class="tcr rb">38</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.5</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">6</td> <td class="tcl rb">Sumatra, Borneo.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1904, Sept.</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">5 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">133 W.</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">43</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.4</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">7</td> <td class="tcl rb">Pacific Ocean.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1905, Aug.</td> <td class="tcr rb">30</td> <td class="tcr rb">45 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">12 W.</td> <td class="tcr">30</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">13</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.8</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">8</td> <td class="tcl rb">Canada, Spain, North Africa.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1907, Jan. </td> <td class="tcr rb">14</td> <td class="tcr rb">39 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">89 E.</td> <td class="tcr">13</td> <td class="tcr">17</td> <td class="tcr rb">57</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.3</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">9</td> <td class="tcl rb">Russia, Central Asia.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1908, Jan.</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">12 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">145 W.</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">44</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.2</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">10</td> <td class="tcl rb">Pacific Ocean.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1911, April</td> <td class="tcr rb">28</td> <td class="tcr rb">1 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">155 W.</td> <td class="tcr">28</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">26</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.0</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcl rb">Australia, Polynesia.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1912, Oct.</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">35 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">33 W.</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">41</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.8</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcl rb">Colombia, Ecuador, Brazil.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1914, Aug.</td> <td class="tcr rb">21</td> <td class="tcr rb">71 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">2 E.</td> <td class="tcr">21</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">27</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.1</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">3</td> <td class="tcl rb">Scandinavia, Russia, Asia Minor.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1916, Feb.</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">16 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">62 W.</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.5</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">4</td> <td class="tcl rb">Pacific Ocean, Venezuela, West Indies.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1918, June</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">51 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">152 W.</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.4</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">5</td> <td class="tcl rb">British Columbia, United States.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1919, May</td> <td class="tcr rb">29</td> <td class="tcr rb">4 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">18 W.</td> <td class="tcr">29</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">12</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.9</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">6</td> <td class="tcl rb">Peru, Brazil, Central Africa.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1922, Sept.</td> <td class="tcr rb">21</td> <td class="tcr rb">12 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">106 E.</td> <td class="tcr">20</td> <td class="tcr">16</td> <td class="tcr rb">38</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.1</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">7</td> <td class="tcl rb">East Africa, Australia.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1923, Sept.</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">38 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">128 W.</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">53</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.6</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">8</td> <td class="tcl rb">California, Mexico, Central America.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1925, Jan.</td> <td class="tcr rb">24</td> <td class="tcr rb">42 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">44 W.</td> <td class="tcr">24</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">46</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.4</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">9</td> <td class="tcl rb">United States.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1926, Jan.</td> <td class="tcr rb">14</td> <td class="tcr rb">10 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">82 E.</td> <td class="tcr">13</td> <td class="tcr">18</td> <td class="tcr rb">35</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.2</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">10</td> <td class="tcl rb">East Africa, Sumatra, Philippines.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1927, June</td> <td class="tcr rb">29</td> <td class="tcr rb">78 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">84 E.</td> <td class="tcr">28</td> <td class="tcr">18</td> <td class="tcr rb">32</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.7</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">11</td> <td class="tcl rb">England, Scotland, Scandinavia.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1929, May</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">1 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">89 E.</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr">18</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.1</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcl rb">Sumatra, Malacca, Philippines.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1930, Oct.</td> <td class="tcr rb">21</td> <td class="tcr rb">36 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">155 W.</td> <td class="tcr">21</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">47</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.9</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcl rb">Pacific Ocean, Patagonia.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1932, Aug.</td> <td class="tcr rb">31</td> <td class="tcr rb">78 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">109 W.</td> <td class="tcr">31</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">55</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.5</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">3</td> <td class="tcl rb">Canada.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1934, Feb.</td> <td class="tcr rb">14</td> <td class="tcr rb">19 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">168 E.</td> <td class="tcr">13</td> <td class="tcr">12</td> <td class="tcr rb">44</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.7</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">4</td> <td class="tcl rb">Borneo, Celebes.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1936, June</td> <td class="tcr rb">19</td> <td class="tcr rb">56 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">101 E.</td> <td class="tcr">18</td> <td class="tcr">17</td> <td class="tcr rb">15</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.5</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">5</td> <td class="tcl rb">Greece to Central Asia and Japan.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1937, June</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">10 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">131 W.</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">43</td> <td class="tcc rb">7.1</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">6</td> <td class="tcl rb">Pacific Ocean, Peru.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1940, Oct.</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">19 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">16 W.</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">42</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.7</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">7</td> <td class="tcl rb">Colombia, Brazil, South Africa.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1941, Sept.</td> <td class="tcr rb">21</td> <td class="tcr rb">30 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">114 E.</td> <td class="tcr">20</td> <td class="tcr">16</td> <td class="tcr rb">39</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.3</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">8</td> <td class="tcl rb">Central Asia, China, Pacific Ocean.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1943, Feb.</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">47 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">176 W.</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">31</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.5</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">9</td> <td class="tcl rb">China, Alaska.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1947, May</td> <td class="tcr rb">20</td> <td class="tcr rb">2 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">25 W.</td> <td class="tcr">20</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">44</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.2</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcl rb">Argentina, Paraguay, Central Africa.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1948, Nov.</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">37 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">82 E.</td> <td class="tcr">31</td> <td class="tcr">18</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.9</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcl rb">Central Africa, Congo.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1952, Feb.</td> <td class="tcr rb">25</td> <td class="tcr rb">22 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">39 E.</td> <td class="tcr">24</td> <td class="tcr">21</td> <td class="tcr rb">17</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.0</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">4</td> <td class="tcl rb">Nubia, Persia, Siberia.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1954, June</td> <td class="tcr rb">30</td> <td class="tcr rb">62 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">5 W.</td> <td class="tcr">30</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">27</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.5</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">5</td> <td class="tcl rb">Canada, Scandinavia, Russia, Persia.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1955, June</td> <td class="tcr rb">20</td> <td class="tcr rb">15 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">117 E.</td> <td class="tcr">19</td> <td class="tcr">16</td> <td class="tcr rb">12</td> <td class="tcc rb">7.2</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">6</td> <td class="tcl rb">Ceylon, Siam, Philippines.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1958, Oct.</td> <td class="tcr rb">12</td> <td class="tcr rb">26 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">139 W.</td> <td class="tcr">12</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">52</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.2</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">7</td> <td class="tcl rb">Chile, Argentina.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1959, Oct.</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">23 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">6 W.</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">32</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.0</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">8</td> <td class="tcl rb">Canaries, Central Africa.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1961, Feb.</td> <td class="tcr rb">15</td> <td class="tcr rb">53 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">53 E.</td> <td class="tcr">14</td> <td class="tcr">20</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.6</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">9</td> <td class="tcl rb">France, Italy, Austria, Siberia.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1962, Feb.</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">4 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">179 E.</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr">12</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.1</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">10</td> <td class="tcl rb">New Guinea.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1963, July</td> <td class="tcr rb">20</td> <td class="tcr rb">62 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">126 W.</td> <td class="tcr">20</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">43</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.5</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">11</td> <td class="tcl rb">Alaska, Hudson&rsquo;s Bay Territory.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1965, May</td> <td class="tcr rb">30</td> <td class="tcr rb">4 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">137 W.</td> <td class="tcr">30</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">14</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.3</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcl rb">Pacific Ocean.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1966, Nov.</td> <td class="tcr rb">12</td> <td class="tcr rb">38 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">43 W.</td> <td class="tcr">12</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">27</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.9</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcl rb">Bolivia, Argentina, Brazil.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1970, Mar.</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">25 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">88 W.</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">43</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.3</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">4</td> <td class="tcl rb">Mexico, Georgia, ? Florida.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page894" id="page894"></a>894</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1972, July</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">67 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">111 W.</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">40</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.7</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">5</td> <td class="tcl rb">North-East Asia, North-East America and Atlantic Ocean.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1973, June</td> <td class="tcr rb">30</td> <td class="tcr rb">19 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">6 E.</td> <td class="tcr">29</td> <td class="tcr">23</td> <td class="tcr rb">39</td> <td class="tcc rb">7.2</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">6</td> <td class="tcl rb">South America, Africa and Atlantic Ocean.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1974, June</td> <td class="tcr rb">20</td> <td class="tcr rb">32 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">107 E.</td> <td class="tcr">19</td> <td class="tcr">16</td> <td class="tcr rb">56</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.3</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">12</td> <td class="tcl rb">South-West Australia and Indian Ocean.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1976, Oct.</td> <td class="tcr rb">23</td> <td class="tcr rb">31 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">95 E.</td> <td class="tcr">22</td> <td class="tcr">17</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.9</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">7</td> <td class="tcl rb">Africa, Australia, Indian and Pacific Oceans.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1977, Oct.</td> <td class="tcr rb">12</td> <td class="tcr rb">16 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">127 W.</td> <td class="tcr">12</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">31</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.8</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">8</td> <td class="tcl rb">Venezuela, Pacific Ocean.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1979, Feb.</td> <td class="tcr rb">26</td> <td class="tcr rb">61 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">77 W.</td> <td class="tcr">26</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">47</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.7</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">9</td> <td class="tcl rb">United States, British America, Pacific Ocean, N. Polar Sea.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1980, Feb.</td> <td class="tcr rb">16</td> <td class="tcr rb">1 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">48 E.</td> <td class="tcr">15</td> <td class="tcr">20</td> <td class="tcr rb">52</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.3</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">10</td> <td class="tcl rb">Africa, Atlantic and Indian Oceans, and India.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1981, July</td> <td class="tcr rb">31</td> <td class="tcr rb">54 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">127 E.</td> <td class="tcr">30</td> <td class="tcr">15</td> <td class="tcr rb">53</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.2</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">11</td> <td class="tcl rb">Pacific Ocean, Asia.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1983, June</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">7 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">111 E.</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr">16</td> <td class="tcr rb">38</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.4</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcl rb">Java, Atlantic Ocean.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1984, Nov.</td> <td class="tcr rb">22</td> <td class="tcr rb">39 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">170 W.</td> <td class="tcr">22</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">58</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.1</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcl rb">Pacific Ocean, Patagonia.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1987, Mar.</td> <td class="tcr rb">29</td> <td class="tcr rb">17 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">6 W.</td> <td class="tcr">29</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">45</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.3</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">13</td> <td class="tcl rb">Atlantic, Equatorial Africa.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1988, Mar.</td> <td class="tcr rb">18</td> <td class="tcr rb">28 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">146 E.</td> <td class="tcr">17</td> <td class="tcr">14</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.0</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">4</td> <td class="tcl rb">Indian and Pacific Oceans, Sumatra.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1990, July</td> <td class="tcr rb">22</td> <td class="tcr rb">72 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">142 E.</td> <td class="tcr">21</td> <td class="tcr">14</td> <td class="tcr rb">54</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.6</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">5</td> <td class="tcl rb">Finland, North Atlantic.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1991, July</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">22 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">105 W.</td> <td class="tcr">11</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcc rb">7.1</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">6</td> <td class="tcl rb">Pacific Ocean, Hawaii, Central America.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1992, June</td> <td class="tcr rb">30</td> <td class="tcr rb">26 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">5 W.</td> <td class="tcr">30</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">19</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.4</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">12</td> <td class="tcl rb">South Atlantic.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1994, Nov.</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">36 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">31 W.</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">36</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.6</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">7</td> <td class="tcl rb">Pacific Ocean, South America.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1995, Oct.</td> <td class="tcr rb">24</td> <td class="tcr rb">10 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">110 E.</td> <td class="tcr">23</td> <td class="tcr">16</td> <td class="tcr rb">37</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.4</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">8</td> <td class="tcl rb">Pacific and Indian Oceans.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1997, Mar.</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">71 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">154 E.</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr">13</td> <td class="tcr rb">16</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.8</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">9</td> <td class="tcl rb">North-East Asia, Arctic Sea.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">1998, Feb.</td> <td class="tcr rb">26</td> <td class="tcr rb">6 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">81 W.</td> <td class="tcr">26</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">27</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.4</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">10</td> <td class="tcl rb">Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, Central America.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb bb">1999, Aug.</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">11</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">46 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">18 E.</td> <td class="tcr bb">10</td> <td class="tcr bb">23</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">8</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2.6</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">11</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">Central and Southern Europe touching England.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Recurrence of Remarkable Eclipses.</i></p>
+
+<p>From the property of the Saros it follows that eclipses remarkable
+for their duration, or other circumstances depending on the
+relative positions of the sun and moon, occur at intervals of one
+saros (18 y. 11 d.). Of interest in this connexion is the recurrence
+of total eclipses remarkable for their duration. The absolute
+maximum duration of a total eclipse is about 7&prime; 30&Prime;; but no
+actual eclipse can be expected to reach this duration. Those
+which will come nearest to the maximum during the next 500
+years belong to the series numbered 4 and 6 and in the list which
+precedes. These occurring in the years 1937, 1955, &amp;c., will
+ultimately fall little more than 20&Prime; below the maximum. But
+the series 4, though not now remarkable in this respect, will
+become so in the future, reaching in the eclipse of June 25, 2150,
+a duration of about 7&prime; 15&Prime; and on July 5, 2168, a duration of
+7&prime; 28&Prime;, the longest in human history. The first of these will pass
+over the Pacific Ocean; the second over the southern part of the
+Indian Ocean near Madras.</p>
+
+<p>All the national annual Ephemerides contain elements of the
+eclipses of the sun occurring during the year. Those of England,
+America and France also give maps showing the path of the
+central line, if any, over the earth&rsquo;s surface; the lines of eclipse
+beginning and ending at sunrise, &amp;c., and the outlines of the
+shadow from hour to hour. By the aid of the latter the time
+at which an eclipse begins or ends at any point can be determined
+by inspection or measurement within a few minutes.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center">V. <i>Methods of computing Eclipses of the Sun.</i></p>
+
+<p>The complete computation of the circumstances of an eclipse ab
+initio requires three distinct processes. The geocentric positions
+of the sun and moon have first to be computed from
+the tables of the motions of those bodies. The second
+<span class="sidenote">Elements of eclipses.</span>
+step is to compute certain elements of the eclipse from
+these geocentric positions. The third step is from these elements
+to compute the circumstances of the eclipse for the earth generally
+or for any given place on its surface. The national Astronomical
+Ephemerides, or &ldquo;Nautical Almanacs,&rdquo; give in full the geocentric
+positions of the sun and moon from at least the early part of the
+19th century to an epoch three years in advance of the date of
+publication. It is therefore unnecessary to undertake the first
+part of the computation except for dates outside the limits of the
+published ephemerides, and for many years to come even this
+computation will be unnecessary, because tables giving the
+elements of eclipses from the earliest historic periods up to the
+22nd century have been published by T. Ritter von Oppolzer
+and by Simon Newcomb. We shall therefore confine ourselves
+to a statement of the eclipse problem and of the principles on
+which such tables rest.</p>
+
+<p>Two systems of eclipse elements are now adopted in the
+ephemerides and tables; the one, that of F.W. Bessel, is used
+in the English, American and French ephemerides, the other&mdash;P.
+A. Hansen&rsquo;s&mdash;in the German and in the eclipse tables of
+T. Ritter von Oppolzer. The two have in common certain
+geometric constructions. The fundamental axis of reference
+in both systems is the line passing through the centres of the sun
+and moon; this is the common axis of the shadow cones, which
+envelop simultaneously the sun and moon as shown in figs. 1, 2, 3.
+The surface of one of these cones, that of the umbra, is tangent
+to both bodies externally. This cone comes to a point at a
+distance from the moon nearly equal to that of the earth. Within
+it the sun is wholly hidden by the moon. Outside the umbral
+cone is that of the penumbra, within which the sun is partially
+hidden by the moon. The geometric condition that the two
+bodies shall appear in contact, or that the eclipse shall begin or
+end at a certain moment, is that the surface of one of these
+cones shall pass through the place of the observer at that moment.
+Let a plane, which we call the fundamental plane, pass through
+the centre of the earth perpendicular to the shadow axis. On
+this plane the centre of the earth is taken as an origin of rectangular
+co-ordinates. The axis of Z is perpendicular to the
+plane, and therefore parallel to the shadow axis; that of Y and X
+lie in the plane. In these fundamental constructions the two
+methods coincide. They differ in the direction of the axis of Y
+and X in the fundamental plane. In Bessel&rsquo;s method, which
+we shall first describe, the intersection of the plane of the earth&rsquo;s
+equator with the fundamental plane is taken as the axis of X.
+The axis of Y is perpendicular to it, the positive direction being
+towards the north. The Besselian elements of an eclipse are
+then:&mdash;x, y, the co-ordinates of the shadow axis on the fundamental
+plane; d, the declination of that point in which the
+shadow axis intersects the celestial sphere; &mu;, the Greenwich
+hour angle of this point; l, the radius of the circle, in which the
+penumbral or outer cone intersects the fundamental plane;
+and l&rsquo;, the radius of the circle, in which the inner or umbral cone
+intersects this plane, taken positively when the vertex of the
+cone does not reach the plane, so that the axis must be produced,
+and negatively when the vertex is beyond the plane.</p>
+
+<p>Hansen&rsquo;s method differs from that of Bessel in that the
+ecliptic is taken as the fundamental plane instead of the equator.
+The axis of X on the fundamental plane is parallel to the plane
+of the ecliptic; that of Y perpendicular to it. The other elements
+are nearly the same in the two theories. As to their relative
+advantages, it may be remarked that Hansen&rsquo;s co-ordinates
+follow most simply from the data of the tables, and are necessarily
+used in eclipse tables, but that the subsequent computation is
+simpler by Bessel&rsquo;s method.</p>
+
+<p>Several problems are involved in the complete computation
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page895" id="page895"></a>895</span>
+of an eclipse from the elements. First, from the values of the
+latter at a given moment to determine the point, if any, at which
+the shadow-axis intersects the surface of the earth, and the
+respective outlines of the umbra and penumbra on that surface.
+Within the umbral curve the eclipse is annular or total; outside
+of it and within the penumbral curve the eclipse is partial at
+the given moment. The penumbral line is marked from hour to
+hour on the maps given annually in the American Ephemeris.
+Second, a series of positions of the central point through the
+course of an eclipse gives us the path of the central point along
+the surface of the earth, and the envelopes of the penumbral and
+umbral curves just described are boundaries within which a
+total, annular or partial eclipse will be visible. In particular,
+we have a certain definite point on the earth&rsquo;s surface on which
+the edge of the shadow first impinges; this impingement
+necessarily takes place at sunrise. Then passing from this point,
+we have a series of points on the surface at which the elements
+of the shadow-cone are in succession tangent to the earth&rsquo;s
+surface. At all these points the eclipse begins at sunrise until a
+certain limit is reached, after which, following the successive
+elements, it ends at sunrise. At the limiting point the rim of
+the moon merely grazes that of the sun at sunrise, so that we
+may say that the eclipse both begins and ends at that time.
+Of course the points we have described are also found at the
+ending of the eclipse. There is a certain moment at which the
+shadow-axis leaves the earth at a certain point, and a series of
+moments when, the elements of the penumbral cone being tangent
+to the earth&rsquo;s surface, the eclipse is ending at sunset. Three
+cases may arise in studying the passage of the outlines of the
+shadow over the earth. It may be that all the elements of the
+penumbral cone intersect the earth. In this case we shall have
+both a northern and a southern limit of partial eclipse. In the
+second case there will be no limit on the one side except that of
+the eclipse beginning or ending at sunrise or sunset. Or it may
+happen, as the third case, that the shadow-axis does not intersect
+the earth at all; the eclipse will then not be central at any
+point, but at most only partial.</p>
+
+<p>The third problem is, from the same data, to find the circumstances
+of an eclipse at a given place&mdash;especially the times of
+beginning and ending, or the relative positions of the sun and
+moon at a given moment. Reference to the formulae for all
+these problems will be given in the bibliography of the subject.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;The richest mine of information respecting eclipses
+of the sun and moon is T.R. von Oppolzer&rsquo;s &ldquo;Kanon der Finsternisse,&rdquo;
+published by the Vienna Academy of Sciences in the 52nd
+volume of its <i>Denkschriften</i> (Vienna, 1887). It contains elements of
+all eclipses both of the sun and moon, from 1207 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> to <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 2161, a
+period of more than thirty centuries. Appended to the tables is
+a series of charts showing the paths of all central eclipses visible
+in the northern hemisphere during the period covered by the table.
+The points of the path at which the eclipse occurs, at sunrise, noon
+and sunset, are laid down with precision, but the intermediate
+points are frequently in error by several hundred miles, as they
+were not calculated, but projected simply by drawing a circle
+through the three points just mentioned. For this reason we cannot
+infer from them that an eclipse was total at any given place. The
+correct path can, however, be readily computed from the tables
+given in the work. Eduard Mahler&rsquo;s memoir, &ldquo;Die centralen
+Sonnenfinsternisse des 20. Jahrhunderts&rdquo; (<i>Denkschriften</i>, Vienna
+Academy, vol. xlix.), gives more exact paths of the central eclipses
+of the 20th century, but no maps. General tables for computing
+eclipses are Oppolzer&rsquo;s &ldquo;Syzygientafeln für den Mond&rdquo; (Publications
+of the <i>Astronomische Gesellschaft</i>, xvi.), and Newcomb&rsquo;s, in <i>Publications
+of the American Ephemeris</i>, vol. i. part i. Of these, Oppolzer&rsquo;s are
+constructed with greater numerical accuracy and detail, while Newcomb&rsquo;s
+are founded on more recent astronomical data, and are preferable
+for computing ancient eclipses. F.K. Ginzel&rsquo;s <i>Spezieller Kanon
+der Sonnen- und Mondfinsternisse</i> (Berlin, 1899) contains, besides
+the historical researches already mentioned, maps of the paths of
+central eclipses visible in the lands of classical antiquity from 900
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span> to <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 500, but computed with imperfect astronomical data.
+Maguire, &ldquo;Monthly Notices,&rdquo; <i>R.A.S.</i> xlv. and xlvi., has mapped the
+total solar eclipses visible in the British Islands from 878 to 1724.
+General papers of interest on the same subject have been published
+by Rev. S.J. Johnson. A résumé of all the observations on the
+physical phenomena of total solar eclipses up to 1878, by A.C.
+Ranyard, is to be found in <i>Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical
+Society</i>, vol. xli. A very copious development of the computation
+of eclipses by Bessel&rsquo;s method is found in W. Chauvenet&rsquo;s <i>Spherical
+and Practical Astronomy</i>, vol. i. <i>The Theory of Eclipses</i>, by R.
+Buchanan (Philadelphia, 1904), treats the subject yet more fully.
+Hansen&rsquo;s method is developed in the <i>Abhandlungen</i> of the Leipzig
+Academy of Sciences, vol. vi. (Math.-Phys. Classe, vol. iv.). The
+formulae of computation by this method are found in the introductions
+to Oppolzer&rsquo;s two works cited above.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(S. N.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ECLIPTIC,<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> in astronomy. The plane of the ecliptic is that
+plane in or near which the centre of gravity of the earth and moon
+revolves round the sun. The ecliptic itself is the great circle in
+which this plane meets the celestial sphere. It is also defined,
+but not with absolute rigour, as the apparent path described by
+the sun around the celestial sphere as the earth performs its
+annual revolution. Owing to the action of the moon on the earth,
+as it performs its monthly revolution in an orbit slightly inclined
+to the ecliptic, the centre of the earth itself deviates from the plane
+of the ecliptic in a period equal to that of the nodal revolution
+of the moon. The deviation is extremely slight, its maximum
+amount ranging between 0.5&prime; and 0.6&Prime;. Owing to the action of
+the planets, especially Venus and Jupiter, on the earth, the
+centre of gravity of the earth and moon deviates by a yet minuter
+amount, generally one or two tenths of a second, from the plane
+of the ecliptic proper. Owing to the action of the planets, the
+position of the ecliptic is subject to a slow secular variation
+amounting, during our time, to nearly 47&Prime; per century. The rate
+of this motion is slowly diminishing.</p>
+
+<p>The obliquity of the ecliptic is the angle which its plane makes
+with that of the equator. Its mean value is now about 23° 27&prime;.
+The motion of the ecliptic produces a secular variation in the
+obliquity which is now diminishing by an amount nearly equal
+to the entire motion of the ecliptic itself. The laws of motion of
+the ecliptic and equator are stated in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Precession of
+the Equinoxes</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>Attempts have been made by Laplace and his successors to fix
+certain limits within which the obliquity of the ecliptic shall
+always be confined. The results thus derived are, however,
+based on imperfect formulae. When the problem is considered
+in a rigorous form, it is found that no absolute limits can be set.
+It can, however, be shown that the obliquity cannot vary more
+than two or three degrees within a million of years of our epoch.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The formula for the obliquity of the ecliptic, as derived from the
+laws of motion of it and of the equator, may be developed in a series
+proceeding according to the ascending powers of the time as follows:
+we put T, the time from 1900, reckoned in solar centuries as a unit.
+Then,</p>
+
+<p class="center">Obliquity = 23° 27&prime; 31.68&Prime; &minus; 46.837&Prime; T &minus; 0.0085&Prime; T² + 0.0017&Prime; T³.</p>
+
+<p>From this expression is derived the value of the obliquity at various
+epochs given in the following table. The left-hand portion of this
+table gives the values for intervals of 500 years from 2000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> to
+<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 2500 as computed from modern data. For dates more than
+three or four centuries before or after 1850 the result is necessarily
+uncertain by one or more tenths of a minute, and is therefore only
+given to 0.1&prime;.</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcr"><span class="scs">B.C.</span></td> <td class="tcr">2000;</td> <td class="tcc">obl.</td> <td class="tcl">= 23°</td> <td class="tcc">55.5&Prime;</td> <td class="tcr"> &emsp;&emsp; <span class="scs">A.D.</span></td> <td class="tcr">1700;</td> <td class="tcc">obl.</td> <td class="tcl">= 23°</td> <td class="tcc">28&prime;</td> <td class="tcl">41.91&Prime;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr" colspan="2">1500</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">= 23</td> <td class="tcc">52.3</td> <td class="tcr" colspan="2">1750</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">= 23</td> <td class="tcc">28</td> <td class="tcl">18.51</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr" colspan="2">1000</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">= 23</td> <td class="tcc">48.9</td> <td class="tcr" colspan="2">1800</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">= 23</td> <td class="tcc">27</td> <td class="tcl">55.10</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr" colspan="2">&ensp;500</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">= 23</td> <td class="tcc">45.4</td> <td class="tcr" colspan="2">1850</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">= 23</td> <td class="tcc">27</td> <td class="tcl">31.68</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr" colspan="2">&ensp;&emsp;0</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">= 23</td> <td class="tcc">41.7</td> <td class="tcr" colspan="2">1900</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">= 23</td> <td class="tcc">27</td> <td class="tcl">&ensp;8.26</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr"><span class="scs">A.D.</span></td> <td class="tcr">&ensp;500</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">= 23</td> <td class="tcc">38.0</td> <td class="tcr" colspan="2">1950</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">= 23</td> <td class="tcc">26</td> <td class="tcl">44.84</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr" colspan="2">1000</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">= 23</td> <td class="tcc">34.1</td> <td class="tcr" colspan="2">2000</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">= 23</td> <td class="tcc">26</td> <td class="tcl">21.41</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr" colspan="2">1500</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">= 23</td> <td class="tcc">30.3</td> <td class="tcr" colspan="2">2050</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">= 23</td> <td class="tcc">25</td> <td class="tcl">57.99</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr" colspan="2">2000</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">= 23</td> <td class="tcc">26.4</td> <td class="tcr" colspan="2">2100</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">= 23</td> <td class="tcc">25</td> <td class="tcl">34.56</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr" colspan="2">2500</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">= 23</td> <td class="tcc">22.5</td> <td class="tcr" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+</div>
+<div class="author">(S. N.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ECLOGITE<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="eklogê">&#7952;&#954;&#955;&#959;&#947;&#942;</span>, a selection), in petrology, a
+typical member of a small group of metamorphic rocks of special
+interest on account of the variety of minerals they contain and
+their microscopic structures and geological relationships. Typically
+they consist of pale green or nearly colourless augite (omphacite),
+green hornblende and pink garnet. Quartz also is usually
+present in these rocks, but felspar is rare. The augite is mostly
+a variety of diopside and is only occasionally idiomorphic. The
+garnet sometimes forms good dodecahedra, but may occur as
+rounded grains, and encloses quartz, rutile, kyanite, and other
+minerals very frequently. The hornblende is usually pale green
+and feebly dichroic, but, in some eclogites which are allied to
+garnet-amphibolites, it is of dark brown colour. Among the
+commoner accessory minerals are kyanite (of blue or greyish-blue
+tints), rutile, biotite, epidote and zoisite, sphene, iron oxides, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page896" id="page896"></a>896</span>
+pyrites. The rutile is invariably in small brown prisms; the
+kyanite forms bladed crystals, with perfect cleavage; felspar, if
+present, belongs to basic varieties rich in lime. Other minerals
+which have been found in eclogites are bronzite, olivine and
+glaucophane. The last mentioned is a bright blue variety of
+hornblende with striking pleochroism. The eclogites in their
+chemical composition show close affinities to gabbros; they often
+exhibit relationships in the field which show that they were
+primarily intrusive rocks of igneous origin, and occasionally contact
+alteration can be traced in the adjacent schists. Examples
+are known in Saxony, Bavaria, Carinthia, Austria, Norway. A
+few eclogites also occur in the north-west highlands of Scotland.
+Glaucophane-eclogites have been met with in Italy and the
+Pennine Alps. Specimens of rock allied to eclogite have been
+found in the diamantiferous peridotite breccias of South Africa
+(the so-called &ldquo;blue ground&rdquo;), and this has given rise to the
+theory that these are the parent masses from which the Kimberley
+diamonds have come.</p>
+<div class="author">(J. S. F.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ECLOGUE,<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> a short pastoral dialogue in verse. The word is
+conjectured to be derived from the Greek verb <span class="grk" title="eklegein">&#7952;&#954;&#955;&#941;&#947;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to choose.
+An eclogue, perhaps, in its primary signification was a selected
+piece. Another more fantastic derivation traces it to <span class="grk" title="aix">&#945;&#7988;&#958;</span>, goat,
+and <span class="grk" title="logos">&#955;&#972;&#947;&#959;&#962;</span>, speech, and makes it a conversation of shepherds.
+The idea of dialogue, however, is not necessary for an eclogue,
+which is often not to be distinguished from the idyll. The
+grammarians, in giving this title to Virgil&rsquo;s pastoral conversations
+(<i>Bucolica</i>), tended to make the term &ldquo;eclogue&rdquo; apply exclusively
+to dialogue, and this has in fact been the result of the success
+of Virgil&rsquo;s work. Latin eclogues were also written by Calpurnius
+Siculus and by Nemesianus. In modern literature the term has
+lost any distinctive character which it may have possessed among
+the Romans; it is merged in the general notion of pastoral
+poetry. The French &ldquo;Églogues&rdquo; of J.R. de Segrais (1624-1701)
+were long famous, and those of the Spanish poet Garcilasso
+de La Vega (1503-1536) are still admired.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bucolics</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pastoral</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY,<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> the name given to the study of
+insects based on their relation to man, his domestic animals and
+his crops, and, in the case of those that are injurious, of the practical
+methods by which they can be prevented from doing harm,
+or be destroyed when present. In Great Britain little attention
+is paid to this important branch of agricultural science, but in
+America and the British colonies the case is different. Nearly
+every state in America has its official economic entomologists,
+and nearly every one of the British crown colonies is provided
+with one or more able men who help the agricultural community
+to battle against the insect pests. Most, if not all, of the important
+knowledge of remedies comes from America, where this
+subject reaches the highest perfection; even the life-histories of
+some of the British pests have been traced out in the United
+States and British colonies more completely than at home, from
+the creatures that have been introduced from Europe.</p>
+
+<p>Some idea of the importance of this subject may be gained
+from the following figures. The estimated loss by the vine
+<i>Phylloxera</i> in the Gironde alone was £32,000,000; for all the
+French wine districts £100,000,000 would not cover the damage.
+It has been stated on good evidence that a loss of £7,000,000 per
+annum was caused by the attack of the ox warble fly on cattle in
+England alone. In a single season Aberdeenshire suffered nearly
+£90,000 worth of damage owing to the ravages of the diamond
+back moth on the root crops; in New York state the codling
+moth caused a loss of $3,000,000 to apple-growers. Yet these
+figures are nothing compared to the losses due to scale insects,
+locusts and other pests.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The most able exponent of this subject in Great Britain was John
+Curtis, whose treatise on <i>Farm Insects</i>, published in 1860, is still
+the standard British work dealing with the insect foes of corn,
+roots, grass and stored corn. The most important works dealing
+with fruit and other pests come from the pens of Saunders, Lintner,
+Riley, Slingerland and others in America and Canada, from Taschenberg,
+Lampa, Reuter and Kollar in Europe, and from French,
+Froggatt and Tryon in Australia. It was not until the last quarter
+of the 19th century that any real advance was made in the study of
+economic entomology. Among the early writings, besides the book
+of Curtis, there may also be mentioned a still useful little publication
+by Pohl and Kollar, entitled <i>Insects Injurious to Gardeners, Foresters
+and Farmers</i>, published in 1837, and Taschenberg&rsquo;s <i>Praktische
+Insecktenkunde</i>. American literature began as far back as 1788,
+when a report on the Hessian fly was issued by Sir Joseph Banks;
+in 1817 Say began his writings; while in 1856 Asa Fitch started his
+report on the &ldquo;Noxious Insects of New York.&rdquo; Since that date the
+literature has largely increased. Among the most important reports,
+&amp;c., may be mentioned those of C.V. Riley, published by the U.S.
+Department of Agriculture, extending from 1878 to his death, in
+which is embodied an enormous amount of valuable matter. At his
+death the work fell to Professor L.O. Howard, who constantly issues
+brochures of equal value in the form of Bulletins of the U.S. Department
+of Agriculture. The chief writings of J.A. Lintner extend
+from 1882 to 1898, in yearly parts, under the title of <i>Reports on
+the Injurious Insects of the State of New York</i>. Another author
+whose writings rank high on this subject is M.V. Slingerland,
+whose investigations are published by Cornell University. Among
+other Americans who have largely increased the literature and
+knowledge must be mentioned F.M. Webster and E.P. Felt. In
+1883 appeared a work on fruit pests by William Saunders, which
+mainly applies to the American continent; and another small book
+on the same subject was published in 1898 by Miss Ormerod,
+dealing with the British pests. In Australia Tryon published a
+work on the <i>Insect and Fungus Enemies of Queensland</i> in 1889.
+Many other papers and reports are being issued from Australia,
+notably by Froggatt in New South Wales. At the Cape excellent
+works and papers are prepared and issued by the government
+entomologist, Dr Lounsbury, under the auspices of the Agricultural
+Department; while from India we have Cotes&rsquo;s <i>Notes on Economic
+Entomology</i>, published by the Indian Museum in 1888, and other
+works, especially on tea pests.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Injurious insects occur among the following orders: <i>Coleoptera</i>,
+<i>Hymenoptera</i>, <i>Lepidoptera</i>, <i>Diptera</i>, <i>Hemiptera</i> (both <i>heteroptera</i>
+and <i>homoptera</i>), <i>Orthoptera</i>, <i>Neuroptera</i> and <i>Thysanoptera</i>. The
+order <i>Aptera</i> also contains a few injurious species.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:472px; height:299px" src="images/img896.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;A, Wireworm; B, pupa of Click Beetle; C, adult Click
+Beetle (<i>Agriotes lineatum</i>).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Among the <i>Coleoptera</i> or <span class="correction" title="amended from bettles">beetles</span> there is a group of world-wide
+pests, the <i>Elateridae</i> or click beetles, the adults of the various
+&ldquo;wireworms.&rdquo; The insects in the larval or wireworm stage
+attack the roots of plants, eating them away below the ground.
+The eggs deposited by the beetle in the ground develop into
+yellowish-brown wire-like grubs with six legs on the first three
+segments and a ventral prominence on the anal segment. The
+life of these subterranean pests differs in the various species;
+some undoubtedly (<i>Agriotes lineatum</i>) live for three or four years,
+during the greater part of which time they gnaw away at the
+roots of plants, carrying wholesale destruction before them.
+When mature they pass deep into the ground and pupate, appearing
+after a few months as the click beetles (fig. 1). Most crops are
+attacked by them, but they are particularly destructive to wheat
+and other cereals. With such subterranean pests little can be
+done beyond rolling the land to keep it firm, and thus preventing
+them from moving rapidly from plant to plant. A few crops,
+such as mustard, seem deleterious to them. By growing mustard
+and ploughing it in green the ground is made obnoxious to the
+wireworms, and may even be cleared of them. For root-feeders,
+bisulphide of carbon injected into the soil is of particular value.
+One ounce injected about 2 ft. from an apple tree on two sides has
+been found to destroy all the ground form of the woolly aphis.
+In garden cultivation it is most useful for wireworm, used at the
+rate of 1 ounce to every 4 sq. yds. It kills all root pests.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page897" id="page897"></a>897</span></p>
+
+<p>In Great Britain the flea beetles (<i>Halticidae</i>) are one of the
+most serious enemies; one of these, the turnip flea (<i>Phyllotreta
+nemorum</i>), has in some years, notably 1881, caused more than
+£500,000 loss in England and Scotland alone by eating the young
+seedling turnips, cabbage and other <i>Cruciferae</i>. In some years
+three or four sowings have to be made before a &ldquo;plant&rdquo; is
+produced, enormous loss in labour and cost of seed alone being
+thus involved. These beetles, characterized by their skipping
+movements and enlarged hind femora, also attack the hop
+(<i>Haltica concinna</i>), the vine in America (<i>Graptodera chalybea</i>,
+Illig.), and numerous other species of plants, being specially
+harmful to seedlings and young growth. Soaking the seed in
+strong-smelling substances, such as paraffin and turpentine, has
+been found efficacious, and in some districts paraffin sprayed
+over the seedlings has been practised with decided success. This
+oil generally acts as an excellent preventive of this and other
+insect attacks.</p>
+
+<p>In all climates fruit and forest trees suffer from weevils or
+<i>Curculionidae</i>. The plum curculio (<i>Conotrachelus nenuphar</i>,
+Herbst) in America causes endless harm in plum orchards;
+curculios in Australia ravage the vines and fruit trees (<i>Orthorrhinus
+klugii</i>, Schon, and <i>Leptops hopei</i>, Bohm, &amp;c.). In Europe
+a number of &ldquo;long-snouted&rdquo; beetles, such as the raspberry
+weevils (<i>Otiorhynchus picipes</i>), the apple blossom weevil (<i>Anthonomus
+pomorum</i>), attack fruit; others, as the &ldquo;corn weevils&rdquo;
+(<i>Calandra oryzae</i> and <i>C. granaria</i>), attack stored rice and corn;
+while others produce swollen patches on roots (<i>Ceutorhynchus
+sulcicollis</i>), &amp;c. All these <i>Curculionidae</i> are very timid creatures,
+falling to the ground at the least shock. This habit can be used
+as a means of killing them, by placing boards or sacks covered
+with tar below the trees, which are then gently shaken. As many
+of these beetles are nocturnal, this trapping should take place
+at night. Larval &ldquo;weevils&rdquo; mostly feed on the roots of plants,
+but some, such as the nut weevil (<i>Balaninus nucum</i>), live as
+larvae inside fruit. Seeds of various plants are also attacked
+by weevils of the family <i>Bruchidae</i>, especially beans and peas.
+These seed-feeders may be killed in the seeds by subjecting them
+to the fumes of bisulphide of carbon. The corn weevils (<i>Calandra
+granaria</i> and <i>C. oryzae</i>) are now found all over the world, in many
+cases rendering whole cargoes of corn useless.</p>
+
+<p>The most important Hymenopterous pests are the sawflies or
+<i>Tenthredinidae</i>, which in their larval stage attack almost all
+vegetation. The larvae of these are usually spoken of as &ldquo;false
+caterpillars,&rdquo; on account of their resemblance to the larvae of a
+moth. They are most ravenous feeders, stripping bushes and
+trees completely of their foliage, and even fruit. Sawfly larvae
+can at once be recognized by the curious positions they assume,
+and by the number of pro-legs, which exceeds ten. The female
+lays her eggs in a slit made by means of her &ldquo;saw-like&rdquo; ovipositor
+in the leaf or fruit of a tree. The pupae in most of these pests
+are found in an earthen cocoon beneath the ground, or in some
+cases above ground (<i>Lophyrus pini</i>). One species, the slugworm
+(<i>Eriocampa limacina</i>), is common to Europe and America; the
+larva is a curious slug-like creature, found on the upper surface
+of the leaves of the pear and cherry, which secretes a slimy coating
+from its skin. Currant and gooseberry are also attacked by
+sawfly larvae (<i>Nematus ribesii</i> and <i>N. ventricosus</i>) both in Europe
+and America. Other species attack the stalks of grasses and corn
+(<i>Cephus pygmaeus</i>). Forest trees also suffer from their ravages,
+especially the conifers (<i>Lophyrus pini</i>). Another group of
+Hymenoptera occasionally causes much harm in fir plantations,
+namely, the <i>Siricidae</i> or wood-wasps, whose larvae burrow into
+the trunks of the trees and thus kill them. For all exposed
+sawfly larvae hellebore washes are most fatal, but they must not
+be used over ripe or ripening fruit, as the hellebore is poisonous.</p>
+
+<p>The order Diptera contains a host of serious pests. These
+two-winged insects attack all kinds of plants, and also animals
+in their larval stage. Many of the adults are bloodsuckers
+(<i>Tabanidae</i>, <i>Culicidae</i>, &amp;c.); others are parasitic in their larval
+stage (<i>Oestridae</i>, &amp;c.). The best-known dipterous pests are the
+Hessian fly (<i>Cecidomyia destructor</i>), the pear midge (<i>Diplosis
+pyrivora</i>), the fruit flies (<i>Tephritis Tyroni</i> of Queensland and
+<i>Halterophora capitata</i> or the Mediterranean fruit fly), the onion
+fly (<i>Phorbia cepetorum</i>), and numerous corn pests, such as the
+gout fly (<i>Chloropstaeniopus</i>) and the frit fly (<i>Oscinis frit</i>).
+Animals suffer from the ravages of bot flies (<i>Oestridae</i>) and gad
+flies (<i>Tabanidae</i>); while the tsetse disease is due to the tsetse
+fly (<i>Glossina morsitans</i>), carrying the protozoa that cause the
+disease from one horse to another. Other flies act as disease-carriers,
+including the mosquitoes (<i>Anopheles</i>), which not only
+carry malarial germs, but also form a secondary host for these
+parasites. Hundreds of acres of wheat are lost annually in
+America by the ravages of the Hessian fly; the fruit flies of
+Australia and South Africa cause much loss to orange and
+citron growers, often making it necessary to cover the trees in
+muslin tents for protection. Of animal pests the ox warbles
+(<i>Hypoderma lineata</i> and <i>H. bovis</i>) are the most important (see
+fig. 2). The &ldquo;bots&rdquo; or larvae of these flies live under the skin
+of cattle, producing large swollen lumps&mdash;&ldquo;warbles&rdquo;&mdash;in which
+the &ldquo;bots&rdquo; mature (fig. 2). These parasites damage the hide,
+set up inflammation, and cause immense loss to farmers, herdsmen
+and butchers. The universal attack that has been made
+upon this pest has, however, largely decreased its numbers. In
+America cattle suffer much from the horn fly (<i>Haematobia
+serrata</i>). The dipterous garden pests, such as the onion fly,
+carrot fly and celery fly, can best be kept in check by the use
+of paraffin emulsions and the treatment of the soil with gas-lime
+after the crop is lifted. Cereal pests can only be treated by
+general cleanliness and good farming, and of course they are
+largely kept down by the rotation of crops.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:479px; height:306px" src="images/img897a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;A, Ox Bot Maggot; B, puparium; C, Ox Warble Fly
+(<i>Hypoderma bovis</i>).</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 190px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:136px; height:199px" src="images/img897b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;Looper-larva
+of Winter
+Moth (<i>Cheimatobia
+brumata</i>).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Lepidopterous enemies are numerous all over the world.
+Fruit suffers much from the larvae of the <i>Geometridae</i>, the so-called
+&ldquo;looper-larvae&rdquo; or &ldquo;canker-worms.&rdquo; Of these geometers
+the winter moth (<i>Cheimatobia brumata</i>) is one of the chief culprits
+in Europe (fig. 3). The females in this moth and in others allied
+to it are wingless. These insects pass the pupal stage in the
+ground, and reach the boughs to lay their eggs by crawling up
+the trunks of the trees. To check them, &ldquo;grease-banding&rdquo;
+round the trees has been adopted; but as
+many other pests eat the leafage, it is best to
+kill all at once by spraying with arsenical
+poisons. Among other notable Lepidopterous
+pests are the &ldquo;surface larvae&rdquo; or cutworms
+(<i>Agrotis spp.</i>), the caterpillars of various
+Noctuae; the codling moth (<i>Carpocapsa
+pomonella</i>), which causes the maggot in
+apples, has now become a universal pest,
+having spread from Europe to America and
+to most of the British Colonies. In many
+years quite half the apple crop is lost in
+England owing to the larvae destroying the
+fruit. Sugar-canes suffer from the sugar-cane
+borer (<i>Diatioca sacchari</i>) in the West Indies; tobacco
+from the larvae of hawk moths (<i>Sphingidae</i>) in America; corn
+and grass from various Lepidopterous pests all over the world.
+Nor are stored goods exempt, for much loss annually takes
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page898" id="page898"></a>898</span>
+place in corn and flour from the presence of the larvae of the
+Mediterranean flour moth (<i>Ephestia kuniella</i>); while furs and
+clothes are often ruined by the clothes moth (<i>Tinea trapezella</i>).</p>
+
+<p>By far the most destructive insects in warm climates belong
+to the Hemiptera, especially to the <i>Coccidae</i> or scale insects.
+All fruit and forest trees suffer from these curious insects, which
+in the female sex always remain apterous and apodal and
+live attached to the bark, leaf and fruit, hidden beneath
+variously formed scale-like coverings. The male scales
+differ in form from the female; the adult male is winged,
+and is rarely seen. The female lays her eggs beneath
+the scaly covering, from which hatch out little active
+six-legged larvae, which wander about and soon begin to
+form a new scale. The <i>Coccidae</i> can, and mainly do,
+breed asexually (parthenogenetically). One of the most
+important is the San José scale (<i>Aspidiotus perniciosus</i>),
+which in warm climates attacks all fruit and many other
+trees, which, if unmolested, it will soon kill (fig. 4).
+These scales breed very rapidly; Howard states one
+may give rise to a progeny of 3,216,080,400 in one
+year. Other scale insects of note are the cosmopolitan
+mussel scale (<i>Mytilaspis pomorum</i>) and the Australian
+<i>Icerya purchasi</i>. The former attacks apple and pear;
+the latter, which selects orange and citron, was introduced
+into America from Australia, and carried ruin before it
+in some orange districts until its natural enemy, the
+lady-bird beetle, <i>Vedalia cardinalis</i>, was also imported.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:590px; height:346px" src="images/img898a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>&mdash;San José Scale (<i>Aspidiotus perniciosus</i>). A, Male scale insect;
+B, female; C, larva; D, female scale; E, male scale.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>After the <i>Coccidae</i> the next most important insects
+economically are the plant lice or <i>Aphididae</i>. These breed
+with great rapidity under favourable conditions: one by the end of
+the year will be accountable, according to Linnaeus, for the enormous
+number of a quintillion of its species. Aphides are born, as
+a rule, alive, and the young soon commence to reproduce again.
+Their food consists mainly of the sap obtained from the leaves
+and blossom of plants, but some also live on the roots of plants
+(<i>Phylloxera vastatrix</i> and <i>Schizoneura lanigera</i>). Aphides often
+ruin whole crops of fruit, corn, hops, &amp;c., by sucking out the sap,
+and not only check growth, but may even entail the death of the
+plant. Reproduction is mainly asexual, the females producing
+living young without the agency of a male. Males in nearly all
+species appear once a year, when the last female generation, the
+ovigerous generation, is fertilized, and a few large ova are produced
+to carry on the continuity of the species over the winter.
+Some aphides live only on one species of plant, others on two or
+more plants. An example of the latter is seen in the hop aphis
+(<i>Phorodon humuli</i>), which passes the winter and lives on the
+sloe and damson in the egg stage until the middle of May or later,
+and then flies off to the hops, where it causes endless harm all
+the summer (fig. 5); it flies back to the prunes to lay its eggs
+when the hops are ripe. Another aphis of importance is the
+woolly aphis (<i>Schizoneura lanigera</i>) of the apple and pear: it
+secretes tufts of white flocculent wool often to be seen hanging
+in patches from old apple trees, where the insects live in the
+rough bark and form cankered growths both above and below
+ground. Aphides are provided with a mealy skin, which does
+not allow water to be attached to it, and thus insecticides for
+destroying them contain soft soap, which fixes the solution
+to the skin; paraffin is added to corrode the skin, and the
+soft soap blocks up the breathing pores and so produces
+asphyxiation.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:598px; height:386px" src="images/img898b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>&mdash;The Hop Aphis (<i>Phorodon humuli</i>). A, Winged female; B, winged
+male; C, ovigerous wingless female; D, viviparous wingless female from
+plum; E, pupal stage.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Amongst <i>Orthoptera</i> we find many noxious insects, notably
+the locusts, which travel in vast cloud-like armies, clearing the
+whole country before them of all vegetable life. The most
+destructive locust is the migratory locust (<i>Locusta migratoria</i>),
+which causes wholesale destruction in the East. Large pits are
+dug across the line of advance of these great insect armies to
+stop them when in the larval or wingless stage, and even huge
+bonfires are lighted to check their flight when adult. So dense are
+these &ldquo;locust clouds&rdquo; that they sometimes quite darken the
+air. The commonest and most widely distributed migratory
+locust is <i>Pachytylus cinerascens</i>. The mole cricket (<i>Gryllotalpa
+vulgaris</i>) and various cockroaches (<i>Blattidae</i>) are also amongst
+the pests found in this order.</p>
+
+<p>Of <i>Neuroptera</i> there are but few injurious species, and
+many, such as the lace wing flies (<i>Hemerobiidae</i>), are
+beneficial.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Treatment of Insect Pests.</i>&mdash;One of the most important
+ways of keeping insect pests in check is by
+&ldquo;spraying&rdquo; or &ldquo;washing.&rdquo; This method has made great
+advances in recent years. All the pioneer work has been
+done in America; in fact, until the South-Eastern
+Agricultural College undertook the elucidation of this
+subject, little was known of it in England except by a
+few growers. The results and history of this essential
+method of treatment are embodied in Professor Lodemann&rsquo;s
+work on the <i>Spraying of Plants</i>, 1896. In this
+treatment we have to bear in mind what the entomologist
+teaches us, that is, the nature, habits and structure
+of the pest.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For insects provided with a biting mouth, which take
+nourishment from the whole leaf, shoot or fruit, the
+poisonous washes used are chiefly arsenical. The two most
+useful arsenical sprays are Paris green and arsenate of lead.
+To make the former, mix 1 oz. of the Paris green with 15
+gallons of soft water, and add 2 oz. of lime and a small
+quantity of agricultural treacle; the latter is prepared by dissolving
+3 oz. of acetate of lead in a little water, then 1 oz. of
+arsenate of soda in water and mixing the two well together, and
+adding the whole to 16 gallons of soft water; to this is added a small
+quantity of coarse treacle. For piercing-mouthed pests like <i>Aphides</i>
+no wash is of use unless it contains a basis of soft soap. This soft-soap
+wash kills by contact, and may be prepared in the following
+way:&mdash;Dissolve 6 to 8 &#8468; of the best soft soap in boiling soft water
+and while still hot (but of course taken off the fire) add 1 gallon of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page899" id="page899"></a>899</span>
+paraffin oil and churn well together with a force-pump; the whole
+may then be mixed with 100 gallons of soft water. The oil readily
+separates from the water, and thus a perfect emulsion is not obtained:
+this difficulty has been solved by Mr Cousin&rsquo;s paraffin naphthalene
+wash, which is patented, but can be made for private use. It is
+prepared as follows:&mdash;Soft soap, 6 &#8468; dissolved in 1 quart of water;
+naphthalene, 10 oz. mixed with 1½ pint of paraffin; the whole is
+mixed together. When required for use, 1 &#8468; of the compound is
+dissolved in 5 to 10 gallons of warm water.</p>
+
+<p>These two washes are essential to the well-being of every orchard
+in all climates. Not only can we now destroy larval and adult
+insects, but we can also attack them in the egg stage by the use of
+a caustic alkali wash during the winter; besides destroying the
+eggs of such pests as the <i>Psyllidae</i>, red spider, and some aphides,
+this also removes the vegetal encumbrances which shelter numerous
+other insect pests during the cold part of the year. Caustic alkali
+wash is prepared by dissolving 1 &#8468; of crude potash and 1 &#8468; of
+caustic soda in soft water, mixing the two solutions together, adding
+to them ¾ &#8468; of soft soap, and diluting with 10 gallons of soft water
+when required for use. Another approved insecticide for scale
+insects is resin wash, which acts in two ways: first, corroding the
+soft scales, and second, fixing the harder scales to stop the egress of
+the hexapod larvae. It is prepared as follows:&mdash;First crush 8 &#8468; of
+resin in a sack, and then place the resin in warm water and boil in a
+cauldron until thoroughly dissolved; then melt 10 &#8468; of caustic soda
+in enough warm water to keep it liquid, and mix with the dissolved
+resin; keep stirring until the mixture assumes a clear coffee-colour,
+and for ten minutes afterwards; then add enough warm water to
+bring the whole up to 25 gallons, and well stir. Bottle this off, and
+when required for use dilute with three times its bulk of warm soft
+water, and spray over the trees in the early spring just before the
+buds burst. For mites (<i>Acari</i>) sulphur is the essential ingredient of a
+spray. Liver of sulphur has been found to be the best form, especially
+when mixed with a paraffin emulsion. Bud mites (<i>Phytoptidae</i>,
+fig. 6) are of course not affected. Sulphur wash is made by adding to
+every 10 gallons of warm paraffin emulsion or paraffin-naphthalene-emulsion
+7 oz. of liver of sulphur, and stirring until the sulphur is
+well mixed. This is applied as an ordinary spray. Nursery stock
+should always be treated, to kill scale, aphis and other pests which
+it may carry, by the gas treatment, particularly in the case of stock
+imported from a foreign climate. This treatment, both out of doors
+and under glass, is carried out as follows:&mdash;Cover the plants in bulk
+with a light gas-tight cloth, or put them in a special fumigating
+house, and then place 1 oz. of cyanide of potassium in lumps in a dish
+with water beneath the covering, and then pour 1 oz. of sulphuric
+acid over it (being careful not to inhale the poisonous fumes) for
+every 1000 cub. ft. of space beneath the cover. The gas generated,
+prussic acid, should be left to work for at least an hour before the
+stock is removed, when all forms of animal life will be destroyed.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:429px; height:368px" src="images/img899a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>&mdash;Bud Mites (<i>Phytoptidae</i>). A, Currant Bud Mite (<i>Phytoptus
+ribis</i>); B, Nut Bud Mite (<i>P. avellanae</i>).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>For spraying, proper instruments must be used, by means of
+which the liquid is sent out over the plants in as fine a mist as
+possible. Numerous pumps and nozzles are now made by which
+this end is attained. Both horse and hand machines are employed,
+the former for hops and large orchards, the latter for bush fruit
+and gardens. In America, where trees in parks as well as orchards
+and gardens are treated, steam-power is sometimes used. Among
+the most important sprayers are the Strawson horse sprayers and
+the smaller Eclair and Notus knapsack pumps, carried on the back
+(fig. 7). The nozzles for &ldquo;mistifying&rdquo; the wash most in use are
+known as the Vermorel and Riley&rsquo;s, which can be fitted to any
+length of tubing, so as to reach any height, and can be turned in
+any direction. The pumps in the machine keep the insecticide
+constantly mixed, and at the same time force the wash with great
+strength through the nozzle, and so to the exterior, as a fine mist;
+every part of the plant is thus affected.</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:449px; height:321px" src="images/img899b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>&mdash;Knapsack Sprayer for Liquid Insecticides.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Beneficial Insects</i> have also to be considered in economic
+entomology. They are of two kinds&mdash;(1) those that help to
+keep down an excess of other insects by acting either as parasites
+or by being insectivorous in habit; and (2) insects of economic
+value, such as the bee and silkworm. Amongst the most important
+friends to the farmer and gardener are the Hymenopterous
+families of ichneumon flies (<i>Ichneumonidae</i> and
+<i>Braconidae</i>); the Dipterous families <i>Syrphidae</i> and <i>Tachinidae</i>;
+the Coleopterous families <i>Coccinellidae</i> and <i>Carabidae</i>; and the
+Neuropterous <i>Hemerobiidae</i>, or lace-wing flies. Ichneumon flies
+lay their eggs either in the larvae or ova of other insects, and the
+parasites destroy their host. In this way the Hessian fly is
+doubtless kept in check in Europe, and the aphides meet with
+serious hindrance to their increase. If a number of plant-lice
+are examined, a few will be found looking like little pearls;
+these are the dried skins of those that have been killed by
+<i>Ichneumonidae</i>. The <i>Syrphidae</i>, or hover flies, are almost
+exclusively aphis-feeders in their larval stage. <i>Tachina</i> flies
+attack lepidopterous larvae. One of the most notable examples
+of the use of insect allies is the case of the Australian lady-bird,
+<i>Vedalia cardinalis</i>, which, in common with all lady-birds, feeds
+off <i>Aphidae</i> and <i>Coccidae</i>. The Icerya scale (<i>Icerya purchasi</i>)
+imported into America ruined the orange groves, but its enemy,
+the <i>Vedalia</i>, was also imported from Australia, and counteracted
+its abnormal increase with such great results that the crippled
+orange groves are now once more profitable.</p>
+<div class="author">(F. V. T.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ECONOMICS<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="oikonomikê">&#959;&#7984;&#954;&#959;&#957;&#959;&#956;&#953;&#954;&#942;</span>, sc. <span class="grk" title="technê">&#964;&#941;&#967;&#957;&#951;</span>, from
+<span class="grk" title="oikos">&#959;&#7990;&#954;&#959;&#962;</span>, a house, and <span class="grk" title="nomos">&#957;&#972;&#956;&#959;&#962;</span>, rule,&mdash;the &ldquo;art of household
+management&rdquo;), the general term, with its synonym &ldquo;political
+economy,&rdquo; for the science or study of wealth (welfare)
+and its production, applicable either to the individual, the
+family, the State, or in the widest sense, the world. How far
+the same considerations apply to all these spheres is one of the
+problems of economic thought in its widest sense. The term
+&ldquo;economy&rdquo; (<i>q.v.</i>) by itself, which should strictly mean the art
+of applying money (or wealth) wisely, has commonly come to
+mean the art of saving money, or spending as little as possible.
+In practice the study of &ldquo;political&rdquo; economy is mainly devoted
+to the sphere of the State; the welfare of the individual as a
+member of the State, and of the State in its relation to the world,
+being internal aspects of the prosperity of the State itself.
+Economics thus includes the discussion of all the numerous
+factors which make life profitable, whether to the nation or to
+the business, or to the individual man. It may be conceived
+either as an historical science (What principles have in fact paid?),
+or as an abstract science (What are the true principles which
+must pay, presupposing an ideal?). Economists at different
+times have studied both aspects, according to their lights, and
+influenced by historical conditions of philosophic thought. A
+text-book on economics necessarily deals, therefore, with the
+whole subject in a manner which need not here be followed,
+since separate articles are devoted in this work to the biographies
+of writers on economics, and also to the principal economic
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page900" id="page900"></a>900</span>
+questions involved, under their own headings. In this article
+we propose therefore to confine ourselves to discussing the
+character and subject-matter of the science, indicating its
+relation to other sciences, and explaining the methods by which
+economists reach their conclusions.</p>
+
+<p>We understand by economics the science which investigates
+the manner in which nations or other larger or smaller communities,
+and their individual members, obtain food, clothing,
+shelter and whatever else is considered desirable or necessary
+for the maintenance and improvement of the conditions of life.
+It is thus the study of the life of communities with special
+reference to one side of their activity. It necessarily involves the
+scientific examination of the structure and organization of the
+community or communities in question; their history, their
+customs, laws and institutions; and the relations between
+their members, in so far as they affect or are affected by this
+department of their activity.</p>
+
+<p>At the root of all economic investigation lies the conception
+of the standard of life of the community. By this expression
+we do not mean an ideal mode of living, but the habits and
+requirements of life generally current in a community or grade
+of society at a given period. The standard of life of the ordinary
+well-to-do middle class in England, for example, includes not
+only food, clothing and shelter of a kind different in many
+respects from that of a similar class in other countries and of
+other classes in England, but a highly complicated mechanism,
+both public and private, for ministering to these primary needs,
+habits of social intercourse, educational and sanitary organization,
+recreative arrangements and many other elements. Many
+influences operating for a long period of time on the character
+and the environment of a class go to determine its standard of
+life. In a modern industrial community it is possible to express
+this standard fairly accurately for the purposes of economic
+investigation in terms of money (<i>q.v.</i>). But it is doubtful whether
+the most complete investigation would ever enable us to include
+all the elements of the standard of life in a money estimate. The
+character, tastes and capacity for management of different
+individuals and groups differ so widely that equal incomes do
+not necessarily imply identity of standard. In the investigation
+of past times, the incommensurate elements of well-being are so
+numerous that merely money estimates are frequently misleading.
+The conception of the standard of life involves also some estimate
+of the efforts and sacrifices people are prepared to make to
+obtain it; of their ideals and character; of the relative strength
+of the different motives which usually determine their conduct.
+But no carefully devised calculus can take the place of insight,
+observation and experience. The economist should be a man
+of wide sympathies and practical sagacity, in close touch with
+men of different grades, and, if possible, experienced in affairs.</p>
+
+<p>It is evident that no permanent classification is possible of
+what is or is not of economic significance. No general rules,
+applicable to all times, can be laid down as to what
+phenomena must be examined or what may be neglected
+<span class="sidenote">Character of subject-matter.</span>
+in economic inquiry. The different departments of
+human activity are organically connected, and all
+facts relating to the life of a community have a near or remote
+economic significance. For short historical periods, indeed,
+many phenomena are so remotely connected with the ordinary
+business of life that we may ignore them. But at any moment
+special causes may bring into the field of economic inquiry
+whole departments of life which have hitherto been legitimately
+ignored. In times past, biblical exegesis, religious ideals, and
+ecclesiastical organization, the purely political aims of statesmen,
+chance combinations of party politics and the intrigues of
+diplomatists, class prejudice, social conventions, apparently
+sudden changes of economic policy, capricious changes of fashion&mdash;all
+these causes and many others have exerted a direct and
+immediate influence on the economic life of the community.
+In our own day we have had many illustrations of the manner
+in which special circumstances may at once bring an almost
+unnoticed series of scientific investigations into direct and vital
+relation with the business world. The economist must, therefore,
+not only be prepared to take account of the physical features of
+the world, the general structure and organization of the industry
+and commerce of different states, the character of their administration
+and other important causes of economic change. He must be
+in touch with the actual life of the community he is studying,
+and cultivate &ldquo;that openness and alertness of the mind, that
+sensitiveness of the judgment, which can rapidly grasp the
+significance of at first sight unrelated discoveries or events.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Some people are of opinion that the factors to be taken account
+of in economic investigation are so numerous that progress on
+these lines is impossible. It would certainly be impossible if we
+had to begin <i>de novo</i> to construct the whole fabric of economic
+science. But, as we shall see, it is no more necessary to do this
+in the world of science than it is in the world of business or politics.
+There is in existence a vast store of accumulated knowledge, and
+few, if any, departments of economics have been left quite unilluminated
+by the researches of former generations. Progress is
+the result of adaptation rather than reconstruction. It must be
+remembered also that economic work in modern times is carried
+on by consciously or unconsciously associated effort, and although
+it must always require high qualities of judgment, capacity and
+energy, many of the difficulties which at first sight appear so
+insuperable give way when they are attacked. In some ways
+also the study of highly developed organizations like the modern
+industrial state is simpler than that of earlier forms of society.</p>
+
+<p>In the earliest times for which we have abundant material
+the economic life of England had already reached in certain
+directions a high degree of complexity. Even in the rural
+districts, manorial records reveal the existence of a great variety
+of classes and groups of persons engaged in the performance of
+economic functions. The lord of the manor with his officials
+and retainers, the peasantry bound to him by ties of personal
+dependence and mutual rights and obligations, constituted a
+little world, in which we can watch the play of motives and
+passions not so dissimilar as we are sometimes led to believe
+<span class="sidenote">Ancient and modern conditions in England.</span>
+from those of the great modern world. In many a
+country district the gradations of social rank were
+more continuous, the opportunities of intercourse
+more frequent, and the capacity for organization
+greater than in modern times. The manorial accounts
+were kept with precision and detail, and we are told
+that a skilled official could estimate to the utmost farthing the
+value of the services due from the villein to his lord. The manor
+was indeed self-sufficient and independent in the sense that it
+could furnish everything required by the majority of the inhabitants,
+and that over the greater part of rural England
+production was not carried on with a view to a distant market.
+But in the earliest times the manor was subjected to external
+influences of great importance. Vast areas of the country were
+in fact under the single control of a territorial lord or an ecclesiastical
+foundation. Every manor composing these great fiefs
+was likely to be affected by the policy or the character of the
+administration of the feudal lord, and he, again, by the policy
+or the difficulties, the strength or the weakness, of the central
+government. Foreign trade and foreign intercourse were
+undeveloped, but their influence was in historical times never
+entirely absent, while the influence of Roman law and the
+Christian Church constantly tended to modify the manorial
+organization. In the towns the division of labour had proceeded
+much further than in the rural districts, and there were in
+existence organized bodies, such as the Gild Merchant and the
+crafts, whose functions were primarily economic. But one of
+the most striking characteristics of town life in the middle ages
+was the manner in which municipal and industrial privileges
+and responsibilities were interwoven. In modern times the
+artisan, however well trained, efficient and painstaking he may
+be, does not, in virtue of these qualities, enjoy any municipal
+or political privileges. By means of his trade union, co-operative
+society or club he may gain some experience in the management
+of men and business, and in so far as the want of a sufficient
+income does not constitute an insuperable difficulty, he may
+share in the public life of the country. But in his character as
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page901" id="page901"></a>901</span>
+artisan he enjoys no municipal or political privileges. In the
+middle ages this differentiation of the industrial, municipal and
+political life had not taken place, and in order to understand the
+working of at first sight purely economic regulations it is
+necessary to make a close study of the functions of local government.
+But this, after all, does not carry us very far. From the
+very nature of the records in which we study the town life of
+the middle ages, it follows that we obtain from them only a one-sided
+view. No one knows what proportion of the industrial
+population was included in the organized gilds, or how complete
+was the control exercised by these bodies over their members.
+Elaborate regulations were in force, but no one knows how elastic
+they were in practice. Medieval Englishmen were particularly
+apt to put their aspirations into a legal form, and then rest
+satisfied with their achievement. The number of regulations is
+scarcely to be regarded as a test of their administrative success.
+Further, as the country became more consolidated and the
+central government extended its authority over economic affairs,
+new regulations came into force, new organs of government
+appeared, which were sometimes in conflict, sometimes in harmony,
+with the existing system, and it becomes for a time far
+more difficult to obtain a clear view of the actual working of
+economic institutions. Thus the study of the economic life of
+the middle ages is one of the most complicated subjects which
+can engage the attention of man. It is impossible to carry the
+process of isolation very far. The different threads of social
+activity are so closely interwoven that we cannot follow any one
+for very long without forming wrong impressions, and it becomes
+necessary to turn back and study others which seemed at first
+sight unrelated to the subject of our investigations. Under an
+apparently uniform and stable system of social regulation there
+was much variation and movement, the significance of which
+it is impossible to estimate. Materials for forming such an
+estimate no doubt exist, but before doing so we have to study in
+infinite detail a vast number of separate manors, municipalities
+or other separate economic areas. This involves great industry
+on the part of many scientific workers. Meanwhile we can
+<i>illustrate</i> the economic life of the middle ages, describe its main
+features, indicate the more important measures of public policy
+and draw attention to some of the main lines of development.</p>
+
+<p>It is only as we approach more modern times that the conditions
+of economic study are realized and economic science,
+as we understand it, becomes possible. Those conditions
+are: (i.) the life of the state or other community
+<span class="sidenote">Conditions of economic science.</span>
+or communities we are studying must be so differentiated
+that we can isolate those functions which are
+wholly or predominantly economic. The &ldquo;separation of employments&rdquo;
+is not only a condition of economic efficiency; it was
+necessary before we could have an economic science. (ii.) We
+must be in a position so far to understand and estimate the
+character and motives of different classes and groups in these
+communities that we can rightly interpret their action. This
+condition cannot be realized without great difficulty, for
+&ldquo;economic motives&rdquo; are very different in different periods,
+nations and classes, and even for short periods of time in the
+same country are modified by the influence of other motives of
+an entirely different order. In studying the economic history
+of the 18th century, for example, it is not enough to assume with
+Defoe that &ldquo;gain is the design of merchandise.&rdquo; We have to be
+saturated, as it were, with 18th-century influences, so that we
+can realize the conditions in which industry and trade were
+carried on, before we can rightly explain the course of development.
+In our own day labour disputes, to take another example,
+can scarcely ever be resolved into a question of merely pecuniary
+gain or loss. The significance of the amount of money involved
+varies greatly for different trades, and can only be understood
+by reference to the character and habits of the people concerned.
+But questions of sentiment, shop-feeling and trade customs
+invariably play an important part. (iii.) Economics can never
+lead to anything but hypothetical results unless we not only
+realize that we must &ldquo;take account of&rdquo; other than the purely
+economic factors, but also give due weight and significance to
+these factors. No explanation of the industrial situation in
+Germany, for example, would be intelligible or satisfactory even
+from the economic point of view which ignored the significance
+of the political conditions which Germans have to deal with.
+So, again, it is impossible to make a useful comparative estimate
+of the advantages and disadvantages of the transport systems
+of England, the United States and Germany, unless we keep
+constantly in view the very different geographical, military and
+political conditions which these systems have to satisfy. (iv.)
+Sufficient information must be available to enable us to test
+the validity of our hypotheses and conclusions. Whatever
+&ldquo;method&rdquo; of economic investigation we employ, we must at
+every stage see how far our reasoning is borne out by the actual
+experience of life. This obvious condition of scientific inquiry is
+very far from being completely realized even at the present time.
+It implies the existence of a well-trained class engaged in the
+work of collecting information, and much organization both by
+the state and private bodies. These four conditions can be
+reduced to two. The community we are studying must have
+reached such a stage of development that its economic functions
+and those immediately cognate to them form a well-defined
+group, and adequate means must be available so that we can, as
+it were, watch the performance of these functions and test our
+hypotheses and conclusions by observation and experience.</p>
+
+<p>It is easy to understand, therefore, why we trace the beginnings
+of economics, so far as England is concerned, in the 16th century,
+and why the application of strict scientific tests in this subject
+of human study has become possible only in comparatively
+recent times. Medieval economics was little more than a
+casuistical system of elaborate and somewhat artificial rules of
+conduct. From the close of the middle ages until the middle of
+the 18th century thousands of pamphlets and other works on
+economic questions were published, but the vast majority of
+the writers have little or no scientific importance. Their works
+frequently contain information given nowhere else, and throw
+much light on the state of opinion in the age in which they wrote.
+It is also possible to find in them many anticipations of the views
+of the economists of later times; but such statements were as
+a rule generated merely by the heat of controversy on some
+measure or event of practical importance, and when the controversy
+died down were seldom regarded or incorporated in a
+scientific system. Trade bias, personal impressions and guesswork
+took the place of scientific method. This was inevitable
+in the absence of trustworthy information on an adequate scale,
+and from the immediately practical aims of the writers. But
+from the end of the 17th century economics has been definitely
+recognized as a subject of scientific study.</p>
+
+<p>In modern times the conditions which have made economic
+science possible have also made it necessary. While it is impossible
+to give a strictly economic interpretation
+of the earlier history of nations, economic interests
+<span class="sidenote">Necessity of economic science.</span>
+so govern the life and determine the policy of modern
+states that other forces, like those of religion and
+politics, seem to play only a subsidiary part, modifying here and
+there the view which is taken of particular questions, but not
+changing in any important degree the general course of their
+development. This may be, in the historical sense, merely a
+passing phase of human progress, due to the rapid extension of
+the industrial revolution to all the civilized and many of the
+uncivilized nations of the world, bringing in its train the consolidation
+of large areas, a similarity of conditions within them,
+and amongst peoples and governments a great increase in the
+strength of economic motives. When the world has settled
+down to the new conditions, if it ever does so, we may be confronted
+with problems similar to those which our forefathers
+had to solve. But, for the time, if we know the economic interests
+of nations, classes and individuals, we can tell with more
+accuracy than ever before how in the long run they will act.
+Public policy therefore requires the closest possible study of the
+economic forces which are moulding the destinies of the great
+nations of the world. In most civilized countries except England
+this is recognized, and adequate provision is made for the study
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page902" id="page902"></a>902</span>
+of economic science. But the subject is not only of immediate
+concern to the state in its corporate and public capacity. The
+neglect of it in the domain of private business can now only lead
+to disastrous results. To quote from a useful work (<i>National
+Education: a Symposium</i>, 1901), &ldquo;the commercial supremacy
+of England was due to a variety of causes, of which superior
+intelligence, in the ordinary business sense, was not the most
+important. Her insular position, continuity of political development
+and freedom from domestic broils played an important
+part in bringing about a steady and continuous growth of industry
+and manufactures for several generations before the modern era.
+The great wars of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century,
+which arrested the growth of continental nations, gave England
+the control of the markets of the world. When peace was restored,
+England enjoyed something in the nature of a monopoly. The
+competition of France ceased for a time to be an important
+factor. What is now the German empire was a mere congeries
+of small states, waging perpetual tariff wars upon each other.
+In the old Prussian provinces alone there were fifty-three different
+customs frontiers, and German manufactures could not develop
+until the growth of the Zollverein brought with it commercial
+consolidation, internal freedom and greater homogeneity of
+economic conditions. The industries of the United States were
+in their infancy. Thus the productive power of England was
+unrivalled, and her manufactures and business men, under a
+régime rapidly approximating to complete freedom of trade,
+could reap the full advantages to be derived from the possession
+of great national resources and production by machinery.
+Commercial supremacy required not so much highly trained
+intelligence amongst manufacturers and merchants as keen
+business instinct and a certain rude energy. In the last generation
+all that has changed, and the change is of a permanent
+character. The struggle of the future must inevitably be
+between a number of great nations, more or less equally well
+equipped, carrying on production by the same general methods,
+each one trying to strengthen its industrial and commercial
+position by the adoption of the most highly developed machinery,
+and all the methods suggested by scientific research, policy or
+experience. Under these conditions, it is no longer possible for
+the individual merchant, or for small groups of merchants, to
+acquaint themselves, by personal experience alone, with more
+than a fractional part of the causes which affect the business in
+which they are engaged. The spread of the modern industrial
+system has brought with it the modern state, with its millions
+of consumers, its vast area, its innumerable activities, its complicated
+code of industrial and commercial law. At the same
+time, the revolution in the means of transport and communication
+has destroyed, or is tending to destroy, local markets, and closely
+interwoven all the business of the world. Events in the most
+distant countries, industrial and commercial movements at
+first sight unrelated to the concerns of the individual merchant,
+now exert a direct and immediate influence upon his interests.
+The technical training of the factory or the office, the experience
+of business, the discharge of practical duties, necessary as they
+are, do not infallibly open the mind to the large issues of the
+modern business world, and can never confer the detailed
+acquaintance with facts and principles which lie outside the
+daily routine of the individual, but are none the less of vital
+importance.&rdquo; Economics, therefore, under modern conditions,
+is not only a subject which may usefully occupy the attention
+of a leisured class of scientific men. It should form part of the
+training of educated men of all classes, on grounds of public
+policy and administrative and business efficiency.</p>
+
+<p>The relations between economics and other sciences cannot
+be stated in a very general form. They vary for different
+periods, and are not the same for all branches of
+economics. There is no subject of human study which
+<span class="sidenote">Relations between economics and other sciences.</span>
+may not be at some time or other of economic significance,
+and anything which affects the character, the
+ideals or the environment of man may make it
+necessary to modify our assumptions and our reasoning with
+regard to his conduct in economic affairs. But if the economist,
+while studying one side of man&rsquo;s activities, must also cultivate
+all other branches of human learning, it is obvious that no
+substantial progress can be made. The economist frankly
+assumes the reality of the existing world and takes men as they
+are, or as they have been if he is studying past times. His
+assumptions are based upon ordinary observation and experience,
+and are usually accurate in proportion to his practical shrewdness
+and sagacity, so that he is not interested in the speculative
+flights of philosophy, except in so far as they influence or have
+influenced conduct. In times past, and to a less extent in our
+own day, philosophical conceptions have formed the basis of
+great systems of politics and economics. The historical relations
+between philosophy and economics are of great importance in
+tracing the development of the latter, and have done much to
+determine its present form. But the modern conception of
+society or the state owes more to biology than philosophy, and
+actual research has destroyed more frequently than it has
+justified the assumptions of the older philosophical school.
+Experimental psychology may in course of time have an important
+bearing on economics, but the older science cannot be said to
+be of much significance except in its historical aspects. Ethics
+is in much the same position. That is, it is possible to conceive
+of an ethical science which would extend considerably our
+knowledge of economic affairs, but no important new principle
+or original discovery, relevant to economic investigation, has
+come from that quarter in recent years, and at present ethics
+has more to learn from economics than the latter has from ethics.
+It is in the adaptation of biological conceptions and methods,
+in the positive contributions of jurisprudence, law and history,
+in the rigorous application, where possible, of quantitative tests,
+that the explanation of the present position of economics is
+to be found. Mathematics has influenced the form and the
+terminology of the science, and has sometimes been useful
+in analysis; but mathematical methods of reasoning, in their
+application to economics, while possessing a certain fascination,
+are of very doubtful utility.</p>
+
+<p>There is no method of investigation which is peculiarly
+economic or of which economics has the monopoly. In every
+age economists have applied the methods ordinarily
+in use amongst scientific men. There would probably
+<span class="sidenote">Method of economic investigation.</span>
+have been no controversy at all on this subject but for
+the fact that economics was elaborated into systematic
+form, and made the basis of practical measures of the greatest
+importance, long before the remarkable development in the 19th
+century of historical research, experimental science and biology.
+The application of the <i>a priori</i> method in economics was an
+accident, due to its association with other subjects and the
+general backwardness of other sciences rather than any exceptional
+and peculiar character in the subject-matter of the science itself.
+The methods applied to economics in the 18th and the early part
+of the 19th century were no more invented with a special view
+to that subject than the principles of early railway legislation,
+in the domain of practical policy, were devised with a special
+view to what was then a new means of transport. As a matter
+of fact, discussions of method and the criticism of hypotheses
+and assumptions are very rarely found in early economic works.
+It is only by reference to the prevailing ideas in philosophy and
+politics that we can discover what was in the minds of their
+authors. The growth of a science is much like the growth of a
+constitution. It proceeds by adaptation and precedent. The
+scientific and historical movement of the 19th century was
+revolutionary in character. When it began to affect economics,
+many people were afraid that the whole fabric of science
+would be destroyed and the practical gains it had achieved,
+jeopardized. These fears were justified, in so far as those who
+entertained them shut their eyes to everything new and assumed
+an attitude of no compromise. Where the newer methods were
+assimilated, the position of economics was strengthened and
+its practical utility increased. General discussion of method,
+however, is rarely profitable. In all branches of economics,
+even in what is called the pure theory, there is an implied reference
+to certain historical or existing conditions of a more or less
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page903" id="page903"></a>903</span>
+definite character; to the established order of an organized
+state or other community, at a stage of development which in
+its main features can be recognized. In all economic investigation
+assumptions must be made, but we must see that they are
+legitimate in view of the actual life and character of the community
+or communities which are the subject of investigation. In
+common with other sciences, economics makes use of &ldquo;abstractions&rdquo;;
+but if for some problems we employ symbolic processes
+of reasoning, we must keep clearly in view the limits of their
+significance, and neither endow the symbols with attributes
+they can never possess, nor lose sight of the realities behind them.
+Every hypothesis must be tested by an appeal to the facts of life,
+and modified or abandoned if it will not bear examination, unless
+we are convinced on genuine evidence that it may for a time be
+employed as a useful approximation, without prejudice to the
+later stages of the investigation we are conducting.</p>
+
+<p>We shall best illustrate the character and method of economic
+reasoning by examples, and for that purpose let us take first of
+all a purely historical problem, namely, the effect on
+the wage-earners of the wages clauses of the Statute of
+<span class="sidenote">An illustration of economic method.</span>
+Apprenticeship (1563). It is at once obvious that we
+are dealing not with an abstract scheme of regulation
+in a hypothetical world, but with an act of parliament nominally
+in force for two hundred and fifty years, and applicable to a
+great variety of trades whose organization and history can be
+ascertained. The conclusions we reach may or may not modify
+any opinions we have formed as to the manner in which wages
+are determined under modern conditions. For the time being
+such opinions are irrelevant to the question we are investigating,
+and the less they are in our minds the better. There is no reason
+why we should apply to this particular act a different method of
+inquiry from that we should apply to any other of the numerous
+acts, of more or less economic importance, passed in the same
+session of parliament. The first step is to see whether there is a
+<i>prima facie</i> case for inquiry, for many acts of parliament have
+been passed which have never come into operation at all, or have
+been administered only for a short time on too limited a scale to
+have important or lasting results. The justices were authorized
+to fix wages at the Easter quarter sessions. Did they exercise
+their powers? To answer this question we must collect the
+wages assessments sanctioned by the magistrates. This is a
+perfectly simple and straightforward operation, involving nothing
+more than familiarity with records and industry in going through
+them. Without having recourse to any elaborate process of
+economic reasoning, by confining our attention to one simple
+question, namely, what happened, we can establish conclusions
+of the greatest interest to economic historians and, further,
+define the problem we have to investigate. We can show, for
+example: (1) that the Statute of Apprenticeship did not stand
+alone; it was one of a long series of similar measures, beginning
+more than two centuries before, which in their turn join on to
+the municipal and gild regulations of the middle ages; one of an
+important group of statutes, more or less closely interwoven
+throughout their history, administered by local authorities
+whose functions had grown largely in connexion with this
+legislation and the gradual differentiation of the trades and
+callings to which it related. (2) That wages were regulated with
+much greater frequency during the reigns of Elizabeth, James I.
+and Charles I. than at any later period. (3) That they were
+regulated in some counties and not in others. (4) That in the
+counties and towns where they were regulated the action of the
+magistrates was in general spasmodic, and rarely continuous
+for a long series of years. (5) That the magistrates used their
+powers sometimes to raise wages, sometimes to force them down.
+(6) That the local variations of wages and prices were what we
+should call excessive, so that the standard of comfort in one
+district was very different from that of others. (7) That the
+wages assessments group themselves round certain short periods,
+coincident in many instances with high prices, increase of poverty,
+and other causes of exceptional action. (8) That what we may
+call, with the above limitations, the effective period of the act
+terminates with the outbreak of the Civil War. (9) That
+subsequent to that period organic changes in the industries
+affected, coupled with the incompetence of parliament to adapt
+the old legislation to new conditions, and the growing acceptance
+of the doctrine of <i>laissez faire</i>, brought about a general disuse of
+the statute, though isolated attempts to enforce it were made
+and new acts applicable to certain trades were passed in the 18th
+century. (10) For more than one hundred years before the
+repeal of the act, trade unions and other forms of voluntary
+association amongst wage-earners, combinations amongst employers,
+collective agreements, customary regulations, were
+established in many of the important trades of the country.
+But these conclusions, after all, suggest more difficulties than
+they remove, for they show that our inquiry, instead of presenting
+certain well-marked features which can be readily dealt with,
+has to be split up into a number of highly specialized studies:
+the investigation of rates of wages, prices and the standard
+of comfort in different localities, bye-industries, regularity of
+employment, the organization of particular trades, the economic
+functions of local authorities, apprenticeship and a host of
+other subjects. Moreover, all these subjects hang together, so
+that it seems impossible to come to a decision about one of them
+without knowing all about the others.</p>
+
+<p>It is a comparatively simple thing to state the question to
+which we want an answer, but extremely difficult to define the
+exact nature of the evidence which will constitute a good answer;
+easy enough to say we must try hypothesis after hypothesis, and
+test each one by an appeal to the facts, but a man may easily
+spend his life in this sort of thing and still leave to his descendants
+nothing more than a legacy of rejected hypotheses. Every
+volume of records we look through contains a mass of detailed
+information on the economic life of England in the period we
+are studying. How much of it is relevant to the subject of
+inquiry? What is to be the principle of selection? How shall
+we determine the relative weight and importance of different
+kinds of relevant evidence? As in modern problems, so in those
+of past times, a man requires for success qualities quite distinct
+from those conferred by merely academic training and the use
+of scientific methods. A correct sense of proportion and the
+faculty of seizing upon the dominant factors in an historical
+problem are the result partly of the possession of certain natural
+gifts in which many individuals and some nations are conspicuously
+wanting, partly of general knowledge of the working
+of the economic and political institutions of the period we are
+studying, partly of what takes the place of practical experience
+in relation to modern problems, namely, detailed acquaintance
+with different kinds of original sources and the historical imagination
+by which we can realize the life and the ideals of past
+generations. These qualities are required all the more because,
+in order to make any further progress with such an inquiry as
+we have suggested, we have deliberately to make use of
+abstraction as an instrument of investigation.</p>
+
+<p>Let us see how this will work out. Suppose we have selected
+one of the numerous subsidiary problems suggested by the
+general inquiry, and obtained such full and complete
+information about one particular industry that we
+<span class="sidenote">The plan of a general theory.</span>
+can tabulate the wages of the workers for a long series
+of years. We may do the same for other industries,
+some of them coming under the Statute of Apprenticeship, others
+not. If all the industries belong to one economic area over which,
+so far as we can tell from general statistics of wages and prices,
+and other information, fairly homogeneous conditions prevailed,
+we may be able to reach some useful conclusions as to the
+operation of the act. But it would be absurd to suppose that
+we could reach those conclusions by simple reference to the trades
+themselves. We cannot assume that the fluctuations in wages
+were due to the action or inaction of magistrates without the
+most careful examination of the other influences affecting the
+trades. In economic affairs the argument <i>post hoc propter hoc</i>
+never leads to the whole truth, and is frequently quite misleading.
+We cannot suppose that the policy of the Merchant Adventurers&rsquo;
+Company had nothing to do with the woollen industry; that the
+export trade in woollen cloth was quite independent of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page904" id="page904"></a>904</span>
+foreign exchanges and international trade relations in those
+times; that the effect on wages of the state of the currency,
+the influx of new silver, the character of the harvests, and many
+other influences can be conveniently ignored. In studying,
+therefore, such an apparently simple question as the effect of an
+act of parliament on wages in a small group of trades we want a
+general theory which we can use as a kind of index of the factors
+we have to consider.</p>
+
+<p>Assuming that we have in our minds this safeguard against
+loose thinking and neglect of important factors, the investigation
+of the special problems arising out of the general
+inquiry resolves itself into a careful definition of each
+<span class="sidenote">Difficulties due to want of evidence.</span>
+problem we wish to deal with, and the collection,
+tabulation and interpretation of the evidence. In
+most cases the interpretation of the facts is far from obvious,
+and we have to try several hypotheses before we reach one
+which will bear the strain of a critical examination in the light
+of further evidence. But at this stage in historical investigation
+it is generally the want of evidence of a sufficiently complete
+and continuous character, rather than difficulties of method,
+which forces us to leave the problem unsolved. It is, for instance,
+practically impossible to obtain reliable evidence as to the
+regularity of employment in any industry in the 17th century,
+and the best approximations and devices we can invent are very
+poor substitutes for what we really want. For this reason guesswork
+must continue to play an important part in economic
+history. But every genuine attempt to overcome its difficulties
+brings us into closer touch with the period we are examining;
+and though we may not be able to throw our conclusions into
+the form of large generalizations, we shall get to know something
+of the operation of the forces which determined the economic
+future of England; understand more clearly than our forefathers
+did, for we have more information than they could
+command, and a fuller appreciation of the issues, the broad
+features of English development, and be in a position to judge
+fairly well of the measures they adopted in their time. By
+comparing England with other countries we may be able in the
+distant future to reach conclusions of some generality as to the
+laws of growth, maturity and decay of industrial nations. But
+like the early statisticians of the 17th century, economic historians
+are the &ldquo;beginners of an art not yet polished, which time may
+bring to more perfection.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>When we come to exclusively modern questions, there is no
+reason or necessity for a fundamental change of method. We
+cannot suppose that there occurred, at or about the
+commencement of the 19th century, a breach of
+<span class="sidenote">The investigation of modern questions.</span>
+historical continuity of such a character that institutions,
+customs, laws and social conventions were
+suddenly swept away, the bonds of society loosened, and the
+state and people of England dissolved into an aggregate of
+competing individuals. The adoption of machinery gradually
+revolutionized the methods of production; but in the first
+instance only certain industries were affected, and those not at
+the same time or in the same degree; old laws grown obsolete
+were repealed, but other laws affecting wage-earners and employers
+took their place, more complicated and elaborate than
+the Elizabethan code. Trade unions, so far from disappearing,
+were legalized, gathered strength from the changes in industrial
+organization, and nowhere became so powerful as in the most
+progressive industries; while other forms of combination
+appeared, incomparably stronger, for good or evil, than those
+of earlier times. But while we recognize these facts, we must
+not suppose that we have to study the action of men as though
+they were all enrolled in organized associations, or covered by
+stringent laws which were always obeyed. There has never
+been in the history of English industry such licence as we find
+in certain directions in the earlier part of the 19th century.</p>
+
+<p>It is not in the decay of combination and monopoly or in the
+growth of competition that we must look for the distinctive
+characteristics of modern problems. A 17th-century monopoly
+was a very weak and ineffective instrument compared
+<span class="sidenote">The distinctive features of modern problems.</span>
+with a modern syndicate; the Statute of Apprenticeship was
+certainly not so widely enforced as the &ldquo;common rules&rdquo; of trade
+unions; and many of the regulations of past times, which look
+so complicated to modern eyes, were conditions of free
+enterprise rather than restraints upon it. It is due
+to the influence of the <i>laisser faire</i> doctrine that we
+regard law and regulation as a restraint on liberty.
+As a maxim for guidance in public affairs, <i>laisser faire</i>
+was genuinely relevant at the end of the 18th and the beginning
+of the 19th century, when the Statute Book was cumbered with
+vexatious and obsolete laws. As an explanation of what has
+taken place in later years, or of the actual economic life of the
+present day, it is ludicrously inadequate. Competition, in the
+sense in which the word is still used in many economic works,
+is merely a special case of the struggle for survival, and, from its
+limitation, does not go far towards explaining the actual working
+of modern institutions. To buy in the cheapest market and sell
+in the dearest; to secure cheapness by lowering the expenses
+of production; to adopt the less expensive rather than the more
+expensive method of obtaining a given result&mdash;these and other
+maxims are as old as human society. Competition, in the
+Darwinian sense, is characteristic not only of modern industrial
+states, but of all living organisms; and in the narrower sense
+of the &ldquo;higgling of the market&rdquo; is found on the Stock Exchange,
+in the markets of old towns, in medieval fairs and Oriental
+bazaars. In modern countries it takes myriads of forms, from
+the sweating of parasitic trades to the organization of scientific
+research. Economic motives, again, are as varied as the forms
+of competition, and their development is coeval with that of
+human society. They have to be interpreted in every age in
+relation to the state of society, the other motives or ideals with
+which they are associated, the kind of action they inspire, and
+the means through which they operate. Apparently the same
+economic motives have led in the same age and in the same
+nation to monopoly and individual enterprise, protection and
+free trade, law and anarchy. In our own time they have inspired
+both the formation of trade combinations and attempts to break
+them up, hostility to all forms of state interference and a belief
+in collectivism.</p>
+
+<p>The conditions which are peculiar to the modern world
+are the large numbers we have to deal with, the vast and fairly
+homogeneous areas in which justice is administered and property
+secured, and the enormously increased facilities for transport
+and communication. These conditions are of course not
+independent of each other, and they have brought in their train
+many consequences, some good and some bad. But they supply
+the bases for that general theory which, as we have seen, is
+indispensable in economic investigation. From the standpoint
+of general theory economic movements assume an impersonal
+character and economic forces operate like the forces of nature.
+Although economic motives have become more complex, they
+have just as much and no more to do with general economic
+reasoning and analysis than the causes of death with the normal
+expectation of life, or domestic ideals with the birth-rate. So
+far as we have anything to do with psychology at all, it is the
+psychology of crowds and not of individuals which we have to
+consider. If we study the economy of a village, the idiosyncrasies
+of every individual in it are of importance. If the village
+is replaced by a large area, inhabited by millions, with modern
+facilities of communication, it is a matter of observation and
+experience that for the purposes of general reasoning the idiosyncrasies
+of individuals may be neglected. Whether such large
+numbers have the character of the &ldquo;economic man&rdquo; of the
+early economists matters very little. All the assumptions we
+require are furnished by observation of people in the mass and the
+larger generalizations of statistics. Thus we can construct a
+kind of envelope of theory, which, by careful testing as we proceed,
+can be made to indicate in a general manner the reactions
+of one part of the activities of the economic world upon the others,
+and the interdependence of the several parts. From its very
+nature this general theory can never correspond strictly to the
+actual life and movement of any given state. It is useful and
+necessary, and plays somewhat the same part in economic
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page905" id="page905"></a>905</span>
+investigation as ton-mile statistics do in the administration of a
+railway. To express in any language or to illustrate by any
+images, from a purely objective standpoint, the infinitely complicated
+movements of the actual world, is a task far beyond
+human capacity.</p>
+
+<p>With the aid of this general theory the methods we have
+sketched in relation to historical problems apply with greater
+force to the special problems of modern times, and are
+rewarded with results more accurate, more fruitful,
+<span class="sidenote">Application to modern problems.</span>
+more relevant to difficulties which all civilized nations
+have to face, than those of historical research. To
+many minds the interest and usefulness of economics depend
+entirely on the application of these methods, for it is the actual
+working of economic institutions about which the statesman,
+the publicist, the business man and the artisan wish to know.
+Under the conditions we have described, many of the most
+interesting problems of our own time, when they are once
+defined, resolve themselves into statistical inquiries. But in
+most cases such an inquiry cannot be successfully carried out
+by a mere statistician. Definite economic problems can very
+rarely be dealt with by merely quantitative methods. In the
+tabulation and interpretation of statistical evidence, as in its
+collection, it is scarcely possible to overrate the importance of
+wide knowledge and experience. There is another very important
+instrument of investigation which can be used in our own time,
+but cannot be employed in historical research. Historical
+documents, however detailed, rarely show all the factors we have
+to deal with or fully explain a given situation. No sane person
+would suppose that the minutes of a modern legislative body
+explain the steps by which legislation has been passed, or the
+issues really involved. The ostensible cause of a modern labour
+dispute is frequently not the real or the most important cause.
+In modern problems we can watch the economic machine actually
+at work, cross-examine our witnesses, see that delicate interplay
+of passions and interests which cannot be set down or described
+in a document, and acquire a certain sense of touch in relation to
+the questions at issue which manuscripts and records cannot
+impart. We can therefore substitute sound diagnosis for guesswork
+more frequently in modern than in historical problems.</p>
+
+<p>What then, it may be asked, becomes of the &ldquo;old Political
+Economy&rdquo;? Of what possible use are the works of the so-called
+classical writers, except in relation to the history of economics
+and the practical influence of theory in past times? If we take
+the mere popular view of what is meant by the &ldquo;old Political
+Economy,&rdquo; that is, that a generation or so ago economics was
+comprised in a neatly rounded set of general propositions,
+<span class="sidenote">The &ldquo;old political economy.&rdquo;</span>
+universally accepted, which could be set forth in a
+text-book and learnt like the multiplication table, it
+is not incumbent on the present generation to define
+its attitude at all. In this sense of the words, there
+was no faith delivered to our fathers which we are under any
+obligation to guard or even explain. If by the &ldquo;old Political
+Economy&rdquo; we mean the methods and conclusions of certain
+great writers, who stood head and shoulders above their contemporaries
+and determined the general character of economic
+science, we are still under no obligation to define the attitude
+of the present generation with regard to them. The fact that
+Adam Smith, with the meagre materials of the 18th century
+at his disposal, saw his way to important generalizations which
+later research has established on a firm basis, may enhance
+greatly the reputation of Adam Smith, but does not strengthen
+the generalizations. They stand or fall by the strength of the
+evidence for or against them. In the history of economics or
+the biography of Ricardo it is of interest to show that he anticipated
+later writers, or that his analysis bears the test of modern
+criticism; but no economist is under any obligation to defend
+Ricardo&rsquo;s reputation, nor is the fact that a doctrine is included
+in his works to be taken as a demonstration of its truth. The
+appeal to authority cannot be permitted in economics any more
+than in chemistry, physics or astronomy. But the cases stated
+above suggest more or less false issues. There has been no
+revolution in economic science, and is not likely to be any. The
+question we have really to determine is how we can make the
+best use of the accumulated knowledge of past generations, and
+to do that we must look more closely into the economic science of
+the 19th century.</p>
+
+<p>Any one who has taken the trouble to trace the history of one
+of the modern schools of economists, or of any branch of economic
+science, knows how difficult it is to say when it began. &ldquo;Anticipations&rdquo;
+of method and doctrine can generally be found by the
+diligent investigator in the economic literature of his own or a
+foreign country. So that cross-sections of the stream of economic
+thought will reveal the existence, at different times, in varying
+proportions and at different stages of development, of most of
+the modern &ldquo;schools.&rdquo; Again, the classification of an economic
+bibliography at once shows how varied has been the character
+of economic investigation, ranging from the most abstract
+speculation on the one hand to almost technical studies of
+particular trades on the other. Of the great army of writers who
+flourished in the first half of the 19th century some were
+closely identified with the utilitarian school, and the majority
+were influenced in a greater or less degree by the prevailing
+ideas of that school. Others, however, were hostile to it. In
+many works, such as those of a statistical or historical character,
+there are frequently to be found passages which could have been
+written in no other period, but are only of the nature of ejaculations
+and do not affect the argument. In stating the position of
+economics during this time we cannot ignore all writers, except
+these who belonged to one group, however eminent that group
+may have been, simply because they did not represent the
+dominant ideas of the period, and exercised no immediate and
+direct influence on the movement of economic thought. We
+must include the pioneers of the historical school, the economic
+historians, the socialists, the statisticians, and others whose
+contributions to economics are now appreciated, and without
+whose labours the science as we know it now would have been
+impossible. If we take this broadly historical view of the progress
+of economics, it is obvious that even in England there was no
+general agreement, during the 19th century, as to the methods
+most appropriate to economic investigation.</p>
+
+<p>Suppose, now, we ignore the writers who were inaugurating
+new methods, investigating special problems or laboriously
+collecting facts, and concentrate attention on the dominant
+school, with its long series of writers from Adam Smith to John
+Stuart Mill. It is the work of these writers which people have
+in mind when they speak of the &ldquo;old Political Economy.&rdquo; There
+are several quite distinct questions we can ask with regard to
+them. That they must be studied closely by every one who
+wishes to follow the history of economics goes without saying.
+That they must be studied by the economic historian is equally
+clear, owing to their practical influence and the fact that they
+furnished the theoretical bases of much of the economic policy
+of the 19th century. This is true whether their method is good
+or bad, whether their conclusions are true or false. It is not so
+easy to determine their relevance and usefulness in relation to
+distinctively modern problems, or to indicate within what limits
+their work is of permanent value, and we can only deal with these
+questions in their more general aspects.</p>
+
+<p>It must be clear to every observer that the economists of the
+classical period, with the one exception of Adam Smith, will
+speedily share the fate of nearly all scientific writers. They will
+be forgotten, and their books will not be read. Adams Smith&rsquo;s
+<i>Wealth of Nations</i>, if it has ever been, has long ceased to be a
+scientific text-book. Whether a modern economist accepts his
+views or not is of no importance. There is probably not a single
+chapter in the <i>Wealth of Nations</i> which would be thoroughly
+endorsed by any living economist. But the reputation of the
+book and its author is quite independent of considerations of this
+kind. The <i>Wealth of Nations</i> is one of the great books of the
+world, many of the sayings of which are likely to be more frequently
+quoted in the future than they have been in the 19th
+century. Malthus is already an author whose name is probably
+more widely known than that of any other economist, but whose
+works are rarely read, and studied only by a small proportion of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page906" id="page906"></a>906</span>
+the few people who write books on the history of economic
+theory. Of economic students, many are unaware of the fact
+that he wrote any other book than the <i>Essay on the Principle
+of Population</i>, and what is of permanent importance in that work
+is contained in the generalization which it suggested to Darwin.
+Moreover, modern economists, while accepting in the main the
+general tenor of Malthus&rsquo;s theory of population, would not agree
+with his statement of it. Like Malthus, Ricardo owes his reputation
+very largely to the theory associated with his name, though
+it has long ceased to be stated precisely in the terms he employed.
+But there are very few people in the world who have made a
+careful study of his works; and although his theory of rent has
+a wide and increasing application in economics, it is not comparable
+in general scientific importance with Malthus&rsquo;s theory of
+population. It is already impossible to take J.S. Mill&rsquo;s <i>Principles
+of Political Economy</i> as a text-book. Important as it was for
+thirty or forty years, it will soon be as little read as M&rsquo;Culloch&rsquo;s
+<i>Principles</i>. For the rest of the economists of this period, it is
+difficult to see how they can escape oblivion. When the generation
+whose economic training was based upon J.S. Mill has died out,
+the relevance of the &ldquo;old Political Economy&rdquo; is not likely to
+be a question of any interest to ordinary educated men and
+women, or even to the great mass of economic students.</p>
+
+<p>The explanation of this decay of interest does not lie upon the
+surface. It is frequently supposed that the influence of the &ldquo;old
+Political Economy&rdquo; has been gradually undermined by the
+attacks of the historical school. But great as the achievements
+of this school have been, it has not developed any scientific
+machinery which can take the place of theory in economic
+investigation. If our view is correct that, broadly speaking,
+the two ways of regarding economic questions are complementary
+rather than mutually exclusive, there does not seem to be any
+reason why the growth of the historical school should have been
+destructive of the &ldquo;old Political Economy&rdquo; if it had been well
+founded. The use of the historical method has, in fact, raised
+more reputations than it has destroyed, because by keeping
+carefully in view the conditions in which economic works have
+been written, it has shown that many theories hastily condemned
+as unsound by <i>a priori</i> critics had much to be said for them at the
+time when they were propounded. This observation is true not
+only of old-world writers like the Mercantilists, but also of
+Ricardian economics. No one is concerned to prove that the
+Ricardian economics applies to the manorial system, and it is
+generally supposed at any rate that the world has been approximating
+more and more nearly during the last century to the
+conditions assumed in most of the reasoning of that school. On
+the principles we have explained, therefore, the Ricardian
+economics should supply just that body of general theory which
+is required in the investigation of modern economic problems,
+and the reputation of at any rate the leading writers should be
+as great as ever. It would be of immense advantage from a
+scientific point of view if this could be taken for granted, if for
+a time the work of the classical economists could be considered
+final so far as it goes, and for the purposes of investigation regarded
+as the theoretical counterpart of the modern industrial
+system. This assumption, however, has been made quite impossible,
+not by the historical school, but by the criticism and
+analysis of economists in the direct line of the Ricardian succession.</p>
+
+<p>Modern economic criticism and analysis has destroyed the
+authority of the &ldquo;old Political Economy&rdquo; as a scientific system.
+The assumptions, the definitions, the reasoning, the conclusions
+of the classical writers have been ruthlessly overhauled. Defects
+in their arguments have been exposed to view by those who are
+most concerned to defend their reputation. Writers with none
+of the prejudices of the historical school, but with the cold and
+remorseless regard for logic of the purely objective critic, have
+pointed out serious inconsistencies here, the omission of important
+factors there, until very little of the &ldquo;old Political Economy&rdquo;
+is left unscathed. In fact, there never was a scientific system
+at all. What was mistaken for it was fashioned in the heat of
+controversy by men whose interests were practical rather than
+scientific, who could not write correct English, and revealed in
+their reasoning the usual fallacies of the merely practical man.
+So the &ldquo;old Political Economy&rdquo; lies shattered. It is useless
+to suppose that this destructive criticism from within can be
+neutralized by generously sprinkling the pages of the classical
+writers with interpretation clauses. This may serve to show
+that the ideals of our youth were not without justification; but
+the younger generation, which does not care about our ideals,
+and looks to the future rather than the past, will not read
+annotated editions of old books, however eminent their authors.
+If the Ricardian school of economists had been merely philosophers,
+or even a group like the French physiocrats, this
+state of things might be regarded with equanimity. We might
+assume that criticism and analysis had separated the wheat from
+the chaff in their writings, that everything of permanent value
+had probably been preserved and incorporated in the works of
+later economists. But the character of much of their work
+makes this assumption impossible. It is, in fact, quite true that
+many of them were more interested in practical aims than in the
+<span class="sidenote">Ricardo&rsquo;s limitations.</span>
+advancement of economic science. We may talk of
+the assumptions implicitly involved in Ricardo&rsquo;s
+works. In reality we do not know what those assumptions
+were; we only know what assumptions we should
+make in order to reach the same conclusions, and they may be
+very different from &ldquo;the mind of Ricardo.&rdquo; Ricardo&rsquo;s works,
+in fact, do not explain a theoretical system, but contain the
+matured reflections, more or less closely reasoned, of a man of
+great mental power looking out on the world as it appeared to a
+business man experienced in affairs. The conclusions of such a
+work are of wider significance than the assumptions we attribute
+to the author would warrant. They are not expressed in terms
+which satisfy our canons of scientific accuracy. Dissected
+sentence by sentence, the book may be shown to be a mass of
+inconsistencies. If it has the misfortune to be systematized by
+an enthusiastic but dull and incompetent disciple, it may appear
+even absurd. But after all the misinterpretation of contemporaries
+and the destructive criticism of later times, the book as
+a whole leaves upon us an impression of peculiar strength and
+charm, and imparts a sense of the relations of things truer,
+because less mechanical, than the laboured reasoning of smaller
+men. Such is the character of much of the work of Ricardo and
+some of his contemporaries. We think that the decay of interest
+in these writers involves a real loss, and that students of modern
+problems may do worse than read Ricardo and his school. Some
+of the criticism of their works, necessary and useful as it has been,
+will probably be corrected later on by that breadth of view and
+sense of proportion which has enabled us to appreciate justly
+the achievements of lesser men in more remote times. But
+rehabilitation in accordance with the canons of historical justice
+will not restore the lost influence of the Ricardian school. Their
+achievements in the 19th century will be fully acknowledged,
+but the relevance of their work to the problems of the 20th
+century will be admitted less than at the present time.</p>
+
+<p>In a subject like economics it must always be very difficult
+to decide how far a departure from the traditional form and
+expression of its main doctrines is necessary or desirable.
+No one who is really experienced in economic
+<span class="sidenote">Economics a conservative science.</span>
+investigation cares to emphasize the originality, still
+less the revolutionary character of his own work. It
+is much more likely than not that some principle which for the
+moment seems new, some distinction which we may flatter ourselves
+has not been observed before, has been pointed out over
+and over again by previous writers, although, owing to special
+circumstances, it may not have received the notice it deserved.
+Economics is therefore, on the whole, an intensely conservative
+science, in which new truths are cautiously admitted or incorporated
+merely as extensions or qualifications of those enunciated
+by previous writers. This procedure has its advantages, but it
+may easily become dangerous by destroying the influence of the
+science it is meant to preserve. It is not unlike the procedure
+of the canonists and casuists of the middle ages with regard to
+the doctrine of usury, by which the doctrine was to all appearances
+preserved intact while in reality it was stripped of all its
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page907" id="page907"></a>907</span>
+original meaning by innumerable distinctions &ldquo;over-curious
+and precise.&rdquo; In the same way the doctrines of the classical
+economists may be adapted by interpretation clauses and
+qualifications the exact force of which cannot be tested or explained,
+so that we do not know whether the original proposition
+is to be considered substantially correct or not. The result will
+be that while the doctrines are apparently being brought into
+closer correspondence with the facts of life, they will in reality
+be made quite useless for practical purposes or economic investigation.
+It is easier to point out the danger than to suggest
+how it should be met. The position we have described is no
+doubt partly due to the unsettlement of economic opinion
+and the hostile criticism of old-established doctrines which
+has characterized the last generation. Or it may be the
+result of economic agnosticism, combined with unwillingness
+to cut adrift from old moorings. Whatever the cause, the complete
+restatement of economic theory, which some heroic persons
+demand, is clearly impossible, except on conditions not likely
+to be realized in the immediate future. The span of life is limited;
+the work requires an extensive knowledge of the economic
+literature of several countries and the general features of all the
+important departments of modern economic activity. In general
+theory special studies by other men cannot play the same part
+as they do in historical and statistical work. In historical and
+statistical investigation, or in special studies of particular subjects,
+it is possible, given the pecuniary means, to organize a
+whole army of skilled assistants, and with ordinary care to
+combine the results of their separate efforts. In general theory
+the inverse rule seems to prevail. There the unity of conception
+and aim, the firm grip of all the different lines of argument and
+their relation to each other, which are required, can only be
+given by a single brain. But no one individual can do original
+work over the whole field. He is lucky if he can throw new light
+on a few old propositions. For the rest, he can only, with the
+utmost caution, adopt the suggestions of other minds as qualifications
+of old doctrines, never feeling quite sure that he is right in
+doing so. A complete restatement could only be undertaken
+by a group of men, trained in much the same conditions, accustomed
+to think and work together, each one engaged on a special
+department, but all acting under the control of one master-mind.
+This is largely a question of the organization of economic studies,
+and it is of the greatest importance that, if possible, such an effort
+should be made to present in a connected form the best results
+of modern criticism and analysis.</p>
+
+<p>Economics is unlike many other sciences in the fact that its
+claim to recognition must be based upon its practical utility,
+on its relevance to the actual life of the economic
+world, on its ability to unravel the social and economic
+<span class="sidenote">Some recent developments of economic theory.</span>
+difficulties of each generation, and to contribute to the
+progress of nations. The very effectiveness of modern
+criticism and analysis, which has brought great gains in
+almost all branches of economic theory, has made the
+science more difficult as a subject of ordinary study. The
+extensions, the changes or the qualifications, of old doctrines,
+which at any rate in the works of responsible writers are rarely
+made without good if not always sufficient reason, have modified
+very considerably the whole science, and weakened the confidence
+of ordinary educated men in its conclusions. In the case of many
+subjects this would matter very little, but in that of economics,
+which touches the ordinary life of the community at so many
+points, it is of great importance, especially at a time like the
+present, when economic questions determine the policy of great
+nations. The &ldquo;economic man&rdquo; of the earlier writers, with his
+aversion from labour and his desire of the present enjoyment
+of costly indulgences, has been abandoned by their successors,
+with the result that in the opinion of many good people altruistic
+sentiment may be allowed to run wild over the whole domain
+of economics. The &ldquo;economic man&rdquo; has, on the other hand,
+been succeeded by another creation almost as monstrous, if his
+lineaments are to be supposed to be those of the ordinary
+individual&mdash;a man, that is, who regulates his life in accordance
+with Gossen&rsquo;s Law of Satiety, and whose main passion is to
+discover a money measure of his motives. It is extremely important
+to consider how far the economic conceptions based upon
+this view of the action of men in the ordinary business of life&mdash;such,
+for example, as the doctrine of marginal utility&mdash;depend
+for their truth and relevance on the fact that in economics we
+are dealing with large aggregates. The earlier writers generally
+assumed perfect mobility of labour and capital. No economist
+would deliberately make that assumption now unless he were
+dealing with some purely theoretical problem, for the solution
+of which it was legitimate at some stage in the reasoning. Many
+of the questions of the greatest practical importance at the present
+time, such as the competition between old and new methods
+of manufacturing commodities substantially the same in kind,
+and equally useful to the great body of consumers, arise largely
+from the immobility of capital or labour, or both of them. But
+it is obvious that if the assumption of perfect mobility is invalid,
+there is scarcely any economic doctrine identified with the
+earlier writers which may not require modification, in what
+degree it is impossible to say without very careful investigation.
+Much suggestive work on this subject of a general character is
+incorporated in economic books of the present day, but there is
+room for a whole series of careful monographs on a question of
+such fundamental importance. The same may be said of another
+subject, too frequently neglected by earlier writers, to which
+due significance has been given in the best recent work, namely,
+time in relation to value. It would perhaps be too much to say
+that the full consideration of this point has revolutionized the
+theory of value, but it has certainly created what seems almost
+a new science in close contact with the actual life of the modern
+world.</p>
+
+<p>Some doctrines of the earlier economists, such as the Wages
+Fund Theory, are now practically abandoned, though it may be
+said that they contained a certain amount of truth. Others,
+which were considered of fundamental importance, owe their
+position in modern economics and the form in which they are
+stated to the &ldquo;tradition of the elders.&rdquo; If they could, by some
+happy chance, have been left for discovery by modern economists,
+they would without doubt have received different treatment,
+to the great advantage of economic science. Such a doctrine
+is the so-called Law of Diminishing Returns, which Mill considered
+&ldquo;the most important proposition in Political Economy.&rdquo;
+&ldquo;Unless this one matter,&rdquo; he says, &ldquo;be thoroughly understood,
+it is to no purpose proceeding any further in our inquiry.&rdquo;
+&ldquo;Were the law different, nearly all the phenomena of the production
+and distribution of wealth would be other than they are.&rdquo;
+On the other hand, Thorold Rogers, not to speak of earlier
+objectors, described the law as a &ldquo;dismal and absurd theorem.&rdquo;
+The opinions of present-day economists appear to fluctuate
+between these two extremes. The law may apparently be &ldquo;a
+general rule&rdquo; or &ldquo;a tendency&rdquo; which is liable to be &ldquo;checked,&rdquo;
+or a particular case of the law of the conservation of energy.
+If we go to Mill to discover what it is, we find that &ldquo;it is not
+pretended that the law of diminishing return was operative from
+the beginning of society; and though some political economists
+may have believed it to come into operation earlier than it does,
+it begins quite early enough to support the conclusions they
+founded on it.&rdquo; &ldquo;It comes into operation at a certain and not
+very advanced stage in the progress of agriculture.&rdquo; But this
+very important stage in the history of a nation is not defined or
+clearly illustrated. We are told that we can see &ldquo;the law at
+work underneath the more superficial agencies on which attention
+fixes itself&rdquo;; it &ldquo;undergoes temporary suspension,&rdquo; which may
+last indefinitely; and &ldquo;there is another agency, in habitual
+antagonism&rdquo; to it, namely, &ldquo;the progress of civilization,&rdquo;
+which may include every kind of human improvement. Mill
+apparently is not content with the confusion between &ldquo;law&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;agency&rdquo; or &ldquo;force,&rdquo; but opposes the one to the other.
+He is constantly speaking in terms which imply the conquering
+of one law by another, a habit from which his successors have not
+freed themselves; and the theory of natural processes which
+appears to have satisfied him, was that when two forces come into
+operation there is a partial or complete suspension of one by the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page908" id="page908"></a>908</span>
+other. In modern economics &ldquo;fertility&rdquo; has no very definite
+meaning. It may mean what is ordinarily understood by the
+word&mdash;climate, rainfall, railway rates or anything else except
+&ldquo;indestructible powers of the soil.&rdquo; To speak of &ldquo;additional
+labour and capital&rdquo; without reference to the kind and quality
+of the labour and capital, and the manner in which they are
+employed, organized and directed, throws very little light on
+agriculture. Every improvement involves, from a quantitative
+point of view, more or less of capital or of labour, so that it is the
+&ldquo;antagonizing&rdquo; influences, which are nearly all qualitative,
+which appear to be really important. It is therefore extraordinarily
+difficult at present to know what happens, or rather what
+would happen if it were not prevented, when a country reaches
+&ldquo;the stage of diminishing returns&rdquo;; what precisely it is which
+comes into operation, for obviously the diminishing returns are
+the results, not the cause; or how commodities &ldquo;obey&rdquo; a law
+which is always &ldquo;suspended.&rdquo; Possibly the present generation
+of English industrial history will furnish many illustrations of
+the law of diminishing returns. We can only say that it requires
+investigation and restatement.</p>
+
+<p>Closely related to the law of diminishing returns is the Theory
+of Rent. No economic doctrine so well illustrates the achievements
+and the defects of modern economic analysis. Ricardo&rsquo;s
+statement of the theory left upon the world an impression, not
+wholly just, of singular clearness. He employed the theory
+with wonderful success in unravelling the problems of his time.
+Its importance has not been seriously, or at any rate successfully,
+called in question. Treated at first as a doctrine peculiarly
+applicable to land, with a certain controverted relevance to other
+natural agents, it has been so extended that there is scarcely
+any subject of economic study in which we may not expect to
+find adaptations or analogies, so that Ricardo seemed to have
+discovered the key of economic knowledge. But it was discovered
+that there were no &ldquo;indestructible powers of the soil&rdquo;; that
+the fertility of land in a country like England is almost entirely
+the result of improvement at some time or other; that &ldquo;advantage
+of situation&rdquo; includes very much more than the words in
+their literal sense imply; that both &ldquo;fertility&rdquo; and &ldquo;advantage
+of situation&rdquo; include many kinds of differential advantage;
+that in some circumstances rent does not enter into the price
+of agricultural and other produce, and that in others it does.
+Moreover, the study of the theory of rent has had a very great
+influence on all branches of economics by destroying the notion
+that it is possible to draw sharp lines of distinction, or deal with
+economic conceptions as though they were entirely independent
+categories. That modern economic analysis is incomparably
+more accurate than that of earlier times there can be no question.
+But the net result of the development of the doctrine of rent is
+that all problems in which this factor appears, and they embrace
+the whole range of economic theory, must apparently be treated
+on their merits. In its modern form the doctrine is far too
+general to be serviceable without the closest scrutiny of all the
+facts relating to the particular case to which it is applied. To
+deal adequately with the numerous extensions or qualifications
+of these and other doctrines in the hands of modern economists
+would involve us in an attempt to do what we have already said
+is impossible except on conditions not at present realized. It is
+clear that in the interests of general economic theory we require
+a vast number of special studies before an adequate restatement
+can be undertaken.</p>
+
+<p>It must be clearly recognized that the functions of economic
+science in the present requirements of the world cannot possibly;
+be discharged by treatises on economic theory. The
+relations between general theory and special studies
+<span class="sidenote">Relations between general economics and special studies.</span>
+conducted on the lines we have indicated have completely
+changed. General theory never has been, and
+in the nature of things never can be, the actual reflex
+of the life and movement of the economic world. It
+never has been, and never can be, more than an indication
+of the kind of thing which might be expected in a purely
+hypothetical world. When the aim of the man of affairs and the
+hypothesis of the economist was unrestricted competition, and
+measures were being adopted to realize it, general theory such as
+the classical economists provided was perhaps a sufficiently
+trustworthy guide for practical statesmen and men of business.
+If only people can be got to believe in them, a few abstract
+principles are quite enough to destroy an institution which it has
+taken centuries to create. But a new institution cannot be
+made on the same terms. The modern industrial system has
+brought with it an immense variety of practical problems which
+nations must solve on pain of industrial and commercial ruin.
+For these problems we want, not a few old-established general
+principles which no one seriously calls in question, but genuine
+constructive and organizing capacity, aided by scientific and
+detailed knowledge of particular institutions, industries and
+classes. Just as the historical school grew up along with the
+greatest constructive achievement of the 19th century, namely,
+the consolidation of Germany, so the application to modern
+problems of the methods of that school has been called forth by
+the constructive needs of the present generation. We have
+already shown how these methods, in their turn, require the aid
+of general theory, but not of a general theory which tries to do
+their work. In fact, every attempt to make it do so must inevitably
+fail. How can such a huge mass of general propositions
+as are necessarily included in a system of economics ever be
+thoroughly tested by an appeal to facts? If they are not so tested,
+the general theory will remain a general theory, of no practical
+use in itself, until the end of time. It they are to be tested, an
+indefinitely large number of special studies must be made, for
+which the original materials must be collected and examined.
+That is, original investigation of special problems has to be
+carried out on a more gigantic scale than any economist of the
+historical school ever dreamt of or the world requires, with the
+certain knowledge that at the end of it all the general theory will
+not correspond with the facts of life. For there is all the difference
+in the world between using a body of general theory as an
+indication of the factors to be considered in the study of a special
+problem, and undertaking special studies with a view to testing
+the general theory. If the necessary limitations of general
+economic theory are recognized, most of the difficulties we have
+noticed disappear. Now that the &ldquo;industrial revolution&rdquo; has
+extended practically all over the world, so that we have several
+countries carrying on production by modern methods, it is easily
+possible to sketch the main features of industrial and commercial
+organization at the present time, to describe the banking and
+currency systems of the principal nations, their means of transport
+and communication, their systems of commercial law and
+finance, and their commercial policy. It is true that at present
+very little work of this kind has been done in England, but
+innumerable books, many of them about England, have been
+written by thoroughly competent economists, in French, German
+and other languages. So that no great amount of original work
+is required for a reliable account of those general features of the
+modern system which should form the introduction to economics.
+The general theory which we require should be sketched in firm
+and clear outline, leaving the detailed qualifications of broad
+principles to special studies, where they can be dealt with if it is
+necessary or desirable, and examined by statistical and other
+tests. For such a general theory there is ample material in the
+economic literature of all civilized countries. It is of the utmost
+importance that the economic terms, which are also, though in
+many cases with an entirely different meaning, the terms of
+business and commerce, should as far as possible be used in their
+common and ordinary English sense: that they should correspond
+in meaning with the same words when used in description,
+in law, accountancy and ordinary business. This is no doubt
+a difficult matter. But some change in this direction is necessary
+both in the interests of the science itself and of its practical
+utility. All the materials for investigation, all the facts and
+figures from which illustrations are drawn, all methods of keeping
+accounts in England, assume the ordinary English tongue.
+There are few if any conceptions in economics which cannot be
+expressed in it without depleting the ordinary vocabulary. At
+present the language of economics is for the ordinary Englishman
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page909" id="page909"></a>909</span>
+like a foreign language of exceptional difficulty, because he is
+constantly meeting with words which suggest to his mind a whole
+world of associations quite different from those with which
+economic theory has clothed them. The refinements of economic
+analysis, as distinguished from its broader achievements, should
+be reserved for special studies, in which a technical scientific
+terminology, specially devised, can be used without danger of
+misconception. But in a subject like economics obscurity and
+an awkward terminology are not marks of scientific merit.</p>
+
+<p>Economic studies should be as relevant to existing needs as
+those of engineering and other applied sciences. The scientific
+study of practical problems and difficulties is (generally speaking,
+and with honourable exceptions) far more advanced in almost
+every civilized country than it is in England, where the limited
+scale upon which such work is carried on, the indifference of
+statesmen, officials and business men, and the incapacity of the
+public to understand the close relation between scientific study
+and practical success, contrast very unfavourably with the state
+of affairs in Germany or the United States. The backwardness
+of economic science has been an index of the danger threatening
+the industrial and commercial supremacy of the United Kingdom.
+There are very few questions of public or commercial importance
+upon which the best and most recent investigations are to be
+found amongst English works. This would matter very little,
+perhaps, if Englishmen had a firm belief, established by actual
+experience, in the soundness of their policy, the present security
+of their position, and the sufficiency of their methods to strengthen
+or maintain it. But this is very far from being the case. If we
+take, for example, the corner-stone of the British commercial
+system in the 19th century, namely, the policy of &ldquo;free trade&rdquo;
+(<i>q.v.</i>), the public do not now read the economic works which
+supplied the theoretical basis of that policy, and, indeed, would
+<span class="sidenote">Economic problems in Great Britain.</span>
+not be convinced by them. The great men of the period,
+Cobden and Bright, are merely historical figures.
+Long before his death, Bright&rsquo;s references in public
+speeches to the achievements of the Anti-Corn Law
+League were received with respectful impatience, and Peel&rsquo;s
+famous speech on the repeal of the corn laws would not convince
+the German Reichstag or a modern House of Commons. The
+result is that free trade had become by the end of the 19th century
+in the main an old habit, for which the ordinary English manufacturer
+could give no very reasonable explanation, whatever may
+be its influence in commerce and public affairs. The doctrine of
+free trade only prevailed in so far as it could be restated in terms
+which had a direct relevance to the existing position of England
+and existing conditions of international trade. And it was
+directly challenged by the representatives of Mr Chamberlain&rsquo;s
+school of Imperialist thought (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chamberlain, Joseph</a></span>). It
+thus became the work of economic science ruthlessly to analyse the
+existing situation, explain the issues involved in the commercial
+policy of different countries, and point out the alternative methods
+of dealing with present difficulties, with their probable results.</p>
+
+<p>The commercial policy of a state is merely the reflex of its
+system of public finance (see <i>e.g.</i> <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">English Finance</a></span>). The absence
+of conviction in regard to British commercial policy naturally had
+its counterpart in the attitude of many men to the financial
+system of the country. The eulogies showered upon it in the
+past were no longer considered adequate. The great increase in
+recent years in British military and naval expenditure, made
+necessary by the exceptional demands of a state of war and the
+great development of foreign powers, was partly responsible for
+the new difficulties; partly it was due to the great extension of
+the functions of the state during the latter part of the 19th
+century. The former causes may be considered partly permanent,
+partly temporary; but those of a permanent character are likely
+to increase in force, and those of a temporary character will leave
+<span class="sidenote">Commerce and finance.</span>
+a deposit in the shape of an addition to the normal
+expenditure of the central government. The extension
+of government functions appeared much more likely
+to continue than to be checked. Normal expenditure
+might therefore be calculated to rise rather than fall. In spite
+of the vast increase in national wealth, it was found a matter of
+increasing difficulty to meet a comparatively slight strain without
+recourse to measures of a highly controversial character; and
+the search for new sources of revenue (as in 1909) at once raised,
+in an acute form, questions of national commercial policy and
+the relations between the United Kingdom and the colonies.</p>
+
+<p>The development of the powers of the central government has
+been less than that of the functions of local governing authorities.
+This, again, is a movement much more likely to extend than to be
+checked. Local governing authorities now discharge economic
+functions of enormous importance and complexity, involving
+sums of money larger than sufficed to run important states a
+generation ago. The scientific study of the economics of local
+administration is, however, in its infancy, and requires to be
+taken up in earnest by economists. These questions of commercial
+policy and local government are closely bound up with
+the scientific study of the transport system. Although the
+British Empire contains within itself every known species of
+railway enterprise, the study of railways and other means of
+transport, and their relation to the business, the commerce and
+the social life of the country, is deplorably backward. It is
+obvious that no inquiry into commercial policy, or into such
+social questions as the housing of the poor, can be effective unless
+this deficiency is remedied.</p>
+
+<p>The whole social and political fabric of the British Empire
+depends upon the efficiency of its industrial system. On this
+subject many monographs and larger works have been published
+in recent years, but dealing rather with such questions
+as trade unionism, co-operation and factory legislation, than the
+structure and organization of particular industries, or the causes
+and the results of the formation of the great combinations,
+peculiarly characteristic of the United States, but not wanting
+in England, which are amongst the most striking economic
+phenomena of modern times.</p>
+
+<p>These are some of the questions which must absorb the energies
+of the rising generation of economists. The claim of economics
+for recognition as a science and as a subject of study must be
+based on its relevance to the actual life of the economic world,
+on its ability to unravel the practical difficulties of each generation,
+and so contribute to the progress of nations.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Literature.</span>&mdash;See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Free Trade</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Protection</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tariff</a></span>;
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Commercial Treaties</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Trusts</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Money</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Finance</a></span>; &amp;c. The
+bibliography of economics as a whole would include a history of all
+the writers on the subject, and is beyond our scope here; see the
+numerous articles on economic subjects throughout this work.
+The article by Dr J.K. Ingram in the ninth edition of the <i>Encyclopaedia
+Britannica</i> is still a valuable historical account. It is only
+possible to mention here a few of the more recent text-books. The
+most important general work published in English is Marshall&rsquo;s
+<i>Principles of Economics</i>, vol. i. (1st edition, 1890; 4th edition, 1898).
+J. Shield Nicholson&rsquo;s <i>Principles of Political Economy</i> (3 vols.) not
+only gives a survey of economic principles since Mill&rsquo;s time, but
+contains much suggestive and original work. The writer of this
+article is much indebted to the works of Schmoller, particularly his
+<i>Grundris der allgemeinen Volkswirtschaftslehre</i> (1900), and Adolph
+Wagner, particularly his <i>Grundlegung der politischen Ökonomie</i>.
+On the history of economic theory, Cannan&rsquo;s <i>History of the Theories
+of Production and Distribution</i> (1776-1848) is an admirable criticism,
+from a purely objective standpoint, of the works of the English
+classical writers. The most important English works published in
+recent years on general English economic history are W. Cunningham&rsquo;s
+<i>Growth of Industry and Commerce</i>, and W.J. Ashley&rsquo;s <i>Economic
+History</i>, while Vinogradoff&rsquo;s <i>Villenage in England</i> and <i>The Growth of
+the Manor</i>, as well as Maitland&rsquo;s <i>Domesday Studies</i>, are of great
+importance to the student of early economic institutions. D&rsquo;Avenel&rsquo;s
+<i>Histoire économique de la propriété, &amp;c.</i> (<i>1200-1800</i>), is a monumental
+work on the history of prices in France. Other books dealing
+with special subjects are likely to take a very high place in economic
+literature. We may mention particularly Charles Booth&rsquo;s <i>Life and
+Labour of the People in London</i>, B.S. Rowntree&rsquo;s <i>Poverty</i>, Sidney
+and Beatrice Webb&rsquo;s <i>History of Trade Unionism</i> and <i>Industrial
+Democracy</i>, and Dr Arthur Shadwell&rsquo;s <i>Industrial Efficiency</i> (1906).
+These books are generally regarded as typical of the best English
+work of recent years in economic investigation. We may also
+mention Schloss&rsquo;s <i>Methods of Industrial Remuneration</i>, a most important
+contribution to the study of the wages question; C.F.
+Bastable&rsquo;s works on <i>International Trade</i> and <i>Public Finance</i>; George
+Clare on the <i>Money Market</i> and the <i>Foreign Exchanges</i>; and A.T.
+Hadley&rsquo;s <i>Economics: An Account of the Relations between Private
+Property and Public Welfare</i> (1896). Studies of particular questions,
+both concrete and theoretical, in foreign languages are too numerous
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page910" id="page910"></a>910</span>
+to specify, and much of the best modern work is to be found in
+economic periodicals.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. A. S. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ECONOMY,<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> a township and a village of Beaver county,
+Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the E. bank of the Ohio river, 17 m.
+N.W. of Pittsburg. Pop. of township (1900) 1062; (1910) 860.
+The village is served by the Pennsylvania system. It was owned
+until 1904, when it was sold to a land company, by the Harmony
+Society (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Communism</a></span>), commonly called the Economites,
+Harmonists or Rappists. The founder, George Rapp, after
+living with his would-be primitive Christian followers at Harmony,
+Butler county, Pennsylvania, in 1803-1814, and in 1815-1824 in
+New Harmony (<i>q.v.</i>), Indiana, which he then sold to Robert
+Owen, settled here in 1824 and rapidly built up a village, in which
+each family received a house and garden. The culture of silk,
+flax, grapes (for wine-making) and fruits and cereals in general,
+and the manufacture of flour and of woollen, flannel and cotton
+fabrics, were carried on under a rule requiring every adult to
+labour 12 or 14 hours each day in field or mill. Celibacy had
+been adopted in 1807 as the rule of the community. New
+members were received after a half-year&rsquo;s probation, and
+members who left received their original investment. Three
+hundred thus separated from Rapp in 1833, with $105,000 as
+their share of the communal property, to build the millennial
+kingdom of New Jerusalem at Phillipsburg (now Monaca),
+Beaver county, Pennsylvania, under the lead of Bernhard
+Müller, who had come to Economy in 1831 as a fellow religionist,
+and was called Count Maximilian de Leon (or Proli); in 1833
+Leon went, with his followers, to Louisiana, and established a
+religious colony 6 m. from Natchitoches. After his death his
+wife until 1871 was head of a similar community at Germantown
+in Webster parish. The Harmonists at Economy flourished
+under the rule of a tradesman, R.L. Baker, or Romelius
+Langenbacher, after the death of Rapp in 1847, and during the
+Civil War had about $500,000 buried away. Their numbers
+were for a time kept up by the addition of fresh converts, but the
+employés who were not Harmonists soon greatly outnumbered
+the members of the community, the basis of which was
+always religious. Baker died in 1868, and his successor, John
+Henrici, in 1892, when John S. Duss became first trustee. In
+1907 there were only two or three members in the society. In
+1851 the township of Harmony was set apart from Economy.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Morris Hillquit, <i>History of Socialism in the United States</i>
+(New York, 1903); William A. Hinds, <i>American Communities</i>
+(revised edition, Chicago, 1902); John L. Bole, <i>The Harmony
+Society</i> (Philadelphia, 1904); Charles Nordhoff, <i>The Communistic
+Societies of the United States</i> (New York, 1875); and among several
+excellent monographs in German, Karl Knortz, <i>Die christlichkommunistische
+Kolonie der Rappisten</i> (Leipzig, 1892), and J. Hanno
+Deiler, <i>Eine vergessene deutsche Colonie: eine Stimme zur Verteidigung
+des Grafen de Leon</i> (New Orleans, 1900).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ECONOMY,<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> a word ranging in application from the careful
+thrift of an individual to the systematic arrangement of an
+organization. It is derived from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="oikonomia">&#959;&#7984;&#954;&#959;&#957;&#959;&#956;&#943;&#945;</span>, the management
+(<span class="grk" title="nemein">&#957;&#941;&#956;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to control) of an <span class="grk" title="oikos">&#959;&#7990;&#954;&#959;&#962;</span> or house, extended in
+meaning to the administration of a state. Of its original sense,
+the art or science of managing a household, the expression
+&ldquo;domestic economy&rdquo; survives, but the principal use in this
+sense is confined to the thrifty management of the financial
+resources of a household or of an individual. It is thus used as
+equivalent to &ldquo;saving,&rdquo; not only of money, but of time, labour
+or effort, and, generally, of the least expenditure of means to
+attain a required end. It is on the principle of &ldquo;economy&rdquo;
+that many phonetic changes occur in the development of
+languages, and, in aesthetics, the name has been applied to a
+principle or law that effects are pleasant in proportion to the
+smallness of the effort made, and of the means taken to produce
+the result. The phrase &ldquo;economy of truth&rdquo; is due to an invidious
+application of the use, in patristic theology, of the word
+<span class="grk" title="oikonomia">&#959;&#7984;&#954;&#959;&#957;&#959;&#956;&#943;&#945;</span> for the careful presentation of such doctrine as would
+be applicable to the hearer (see J.H. Newman, <i>History of the
+Arians of the 4th Century</i>). &ldquo;Economy&rdquo; is also used in theology
+in such expressions as &ldquo;Mosaic&rdquo; or &ldquo;Christian economy&rdquo; as a
+synonym of &ldquo;dispensation,&rdquo; for the administration of the world
+by God at particular times or for particular races. From the
+meaning of organization or administration of a house or state the
+word is applied more widely to the ordered arrangement of any
+organized body, and is equivalent almost to &ldquo;system&rdquo;; thus
+the &ldquo;economy&rdquo; of nature or of animal or plant life may be
+spoken of. The most common use, however, of the word is that
+of &ldquo;political economy,&rdquo; the science dealing with the production,
+distribution and consumption of wealth (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Economics</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ECSTASY<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="ekstasis">&#7956;&#954;&#963;&#964;&#945;&#963;&#953;&#962;</span>, from <span class="grk" title="existêmi">&#7952;&#958;&#943;&#963;&#964;&#951;&#956;&#953;</span>, put out of its place,
+alter), a term applied to a morbid mental condition, in which
+the mind is entirely absorbed in the contemplation of one
+dominant idea or object, and loses for the time its normal self-control.
+With this there is commonly associated the prevalence
+of some strong emotion, which manifests itself in various ways,
+and with varying degrees of intensity. This state resembles in
+many points that of catalepsy (<i>q.v.</i>), but differs from it sufficiently
+to constitute it a separate affection. The patient in ecstasy may
+lie in a fixed position like the cataleptic, apparently quite unconscious,
+yet, on awaking, there is a distinct recollection of
+visions perceived during this period. More frequently there is
+violent emotional excitement which may find expression in
+impassioned utterances, and in extravagant bodily movements
+and gesticulations. Ecstasy usually presents itself as a kind of
+temporary religious insanity, and has frequently appeared as an
+epidemic. It is well illustrated in the celebrated examples of the
+dancing epidemics of Germany and Italy in the middle ages, and
+the <i>Convulsionnaires</i> of St Medard at the grave of the Abbé Paris
+in the early part of the 18th century, and in more recent times
+has been witnessed during periods of religious revivalism. (See
+also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Insanity</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Neuropathology</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ECTOSPORA,<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> a homogeneous and natural division of Protozoan
+parasites included under the Sporozoa; they comprise the three
+orders, Gregarines, Coccidia and Haemosporidia. The defining
+character of the Ectospora is that the spore-mother-cells (sporoblasts)
+are formed at the periphery of the parent-individual
+(sporont); we may, however, go further, and say that the formation
+of all the different reproductive elements is uniformly
+peripheral or exogenous. Two other very general features are (<i>a</i>)
+that the individual trophozoite is uninuclear, and (<i>b</i>) that growth
+and trophic activity are finished before the multiplicative or
+reproductive phase sets in.</p>
+
+<p>There is now little doubt that the Ectospora possess a flagellate
+ancestry. The principal facts in favour of this view are as follows:
+the actual ontogenetic connexion known to exist between
+certain Haemoflagellates and certain Haemosporidia (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Trypanosomes</a></span>);
+the possession by many Coccidia of biflagellar
+microgametes (male elements), whose general structure greatly
+resembles that of a Heteromastigine Flagellate; the possession
+by various parasitic Flagellates (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Herpetomonas</i>) of an attached,
+resting phase, when the parasites become gregariniform, which
+strongly suggests the attached phase of many young, growing
+Gregarines; the typical gregarinoid and euglenoid movements
+of Gregarines and of the germs or other stages of Coccidia and
+Haemosporidia, which are quite comparable with the contractile
+and metabolic movements of Flagellates; and, lastly, the
+exogenous type of reproduction, which is easily derivable from
+the multiple division of certain Haemoflagellates, and this, in
+turn, from the typical binary longitudinal fission of a Flagellate.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ECUADOR<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> (officially <i>La Republica del Ecuador</i>), a republic of
+South America, bounded N. and N.E. by Colombia, S.E. and S.
+by Peru, and W. by the Pacific Ocean. Its boundary
+lines with Colombia and Peru were in 1909 still unsettled,
+<span class="sidenote">Boundaries.</span>
+large areas of territory being claimed by all
+three republics. Under an agreement of the 15th of December
+1894, the disputes were to be decided by the Spanish sovereign
+as arbitrator, but nothing was accomplished. On the 5th of
+November 1904, Colombia and Ecuador agreed to submit their
+dispute to the German emperor, and a convention of the 12th of
+September 1905 between Colombia and Peru established a
+<i>modus vivendi</i> for the settlement of their conflicting claims, in
+which Ecuador is likewise interested. The maps of Ecuador,
+which are very defective, usually describe its territory as
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page911" id="page911"></a>911</span>
+extending eastward to the Brazilian frontier, but as Peru is in
+actual occupation of the region east of Huiririma-chico, on the
+Napo river, 3½ degrees west of that frontier, those maps cannot
+be considered correct. The Trans-Andine territory occupied by
+Ecuador is a wedge-shaped area between the Coca and Napo,
+the provisional boundary line with Colombia, and a line running
+nearly west-south-west from Huiririma-chico (about lat. 2° 50&prime;
+S., long. 73° 20&prime; W.) to a point on the Santiago river in about
+lat. 4° 12&prime; S., long. 78° W., which forms the provisional boundary
+with Peru. The eastern part of this territory is also claimed by
+Peru, which would have the effect, if allowed, of restricting
+Ecuador to a comparatively small area covered by the Andes
+and western Cordillera and the narrow plain on the Pacific coast.
+From the Santiago river, a western affluent of the Marañon, the
+boundary line runs south-west and west across the Andes to the
+head waters of the Macara, down that stream to the Chira, or
+Achira, whose channel marks the frontier down to about 80° 17&prime; W.,
+where a small stream (the Rio Alamo) enters from the north.
+The line then runs almost due north to the south shore of the
+Gulf of Guayaquil, following the western water parting of the
+lower Tumbez valley. A small district in the valley of the Chira
+is claimed by Peru. The northern boundary line is described
+elsewhere (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Colombia</a></span>). A small section of this line terminating
+on the Pacific coast is also in dispute, Ecuador claiming the
+main channel of the Mira as the dividing line, and Colombia
+claiming a small district south of that channel, the line running
+due west from the mouth of the most southern outlet of the Mira
+opening into Panguapi Bay, to a point of intersection with
+that river.</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:756px; height:592px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img911.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p class="pt2"><i>Physical Geography.</i>&mdash;The surface of Ecuador may be divided into
+three distinct regions: the Cis-Andine lying between the Western
+Cordillera and the coast; the Inter-Andine, which includes the two
+great mountain chains crossing the republic with the elevated plateau
+lying between; and the Trans-Andine, lying east of the Andes in
+the great Amazon valley. The first part consists of an alluvial,
+low-lying plain formed in great part by the detritus brought down
+by the mountain streams. It is irregular in form and is broken by
+isolated elevations and spurs from the Cordillera. Large areas are
+still subject to annual inundations in the rainy season, and the lower
+river courses are bordered with swamps. This is the most fertile
+and productive part of Ecuador, especially on the higher lands near
+the Cordillera. The Trans-Andine region is similar to the neighbouring
+territories of the upper Amazon basin occupied by Colombia,
+Brazil and Peru&mdash;a great forest-covered plain descending gently
+toward the east, broken on its western margin by short spurs from
+the Andes enclosing highly fertile valleys, and by low, isolated
+ranges between the larger river courses, and traversed by large
+rivers flowing into the Napo and Marañon. This region has been
+only partially explored, and but little is known of the large areas
+lying between the navigable rivers.</p>
+
+<p>The Inter-Andine or plateau region lies in and between the two
+great mountain chains which cross the
+greater part of the republic
+between and almost parallel
+with the 78th and 79th
+meridians. The eastern chain is known
+as the Andes of Ecuador, or the Cordillera
+Oriental, and the western as
+<span class="sidenote">Mountains.</span>
+the Cordillera Occidental (Western Cordillera).
+Starting from the confused
+grouping on the southern frontier of
+the two great chains and some transverse
+ranges, they run nearly north by
+east to the Colombian frontier where
+another &ldquo;knot&rdquo; or junction occurs.
+The summits of the western range form
+a line of noteworthy regularity, but
+those of the eastern form a broken
+irregular line of varying distances from
+the first. The elevated plateau between
+the two great chains, which is
+about 300 m. long and 20 to 30 m.
+wide, is divided into three great shallow
+basins or plains by the transverse ridges
+or <i>paramos</i> of Tiupullo and Azuay.
+These are known as the Quito, Ambato
+and Cuenca basins. South of the latter
+is the irregular and deeply broken Loja
+basin, which can hardly be considered
+a part of the great Ecuador plateau.
+The three great basins, which are broken
+and subdivided by mountainous spurs
+and ridges, descend gradually toward
+the south, the Quito plain having an
+average elevation of 9500 ft. above the
+sea, Ambato 8500, and Cuenca 7800.
+They are also characterized by the increasing
+aridity of the plateau from
+north to south, the Quito plain being
+fertile and well covered with vegetation, and the Ambato and Cuenca
+plains being barren and desolate except in some favoured localities.
+The volcanic character of the region is likewise responsible for large
+areas of barren surfaces. Rising from this elevated plateau, along
+its eastern and western margins, are the Cordilleras with their
+principal summits culminating far above the line of perpetual snow,
+which in this region is about 15,750 ft. above the sea. These summits
+are remarkable, not only for their great height, but also for their
+apparent symmetrical arrangement in parallel lines, sometimes in
+pairs facing each other across this cyclopean passage. Nowhere in
+the world can there be found another such assemblage of snow-clad
+peaks, several of which are active volcanoes. There are 22 of them
+grouped around these central plains almost within sight of each other.
+The western chain has the distinction of having the highest summit,
+the eastern the greatest number of high summits and the highest
+average elevation. From the time of Humboldt&rsquo;s visit to this remarkable
+region down to the present time there have been many
+diverse calculations of the height of these peaks, but with a considerable
+variation. It is estimated that there was a considerable
+decrease in the elevation of this part of the Andes during the past
+century, Quito having sunk 26 ft. in 122 years, Pichincha 218 ft.
+in the same time, and the farm of Antisana, where Humboldt
+resided for a time, 165 ft. in 64 years. At the same time Cotopaxi
+and Sangay, the two active volcanoes, have actually increased in
+elevation since the measurement of La Condamine in 1742. These
+changes in elevation, if correct, are due to seismic disturbances, a
+cause that may be partially responsible for the varying computations
+of the heights of these well-known peaks. Among modern investigators
+are W. Reiss and A. Stübel (1871-1873), and Edward Whymper
+(1880), whose measurements of the principal summits were:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="3"><i>Eastern Cordillera.</i></td> <td class="tcc" colspan="3"><i>Western Cordillera.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc tb bb rb2">Ft.</td> <td class="tcc tb bb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb">Ft.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">Cayambe</td> <td class="tcc rb">(W.)</td> <td class="tcc rb2">19,186</td> <td class="tcl">Cotocachi</td> <td class="tcc rb">(W.)</td> <td class="tcc rb">16,301</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">Sara-Urcu</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb2">15,502</td> <td class="tcl">Mojanda</td> <td class="tcc rb">(R. &amp; S.)</td> <td class="tcc rb">14,088</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">Antisana</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb2">19,335</td> <td class="tcl">Pichincha</td> <td class="tcc rb">(W.)</td> <td class="tcc rb">15,918</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">Sincholagua</td> <td class="tcc rb">(R. &amp; S.)</td> <td class="tcc rb2">16,365</td> <td class="tcl">Atacatzo</td> <td class="tcc rb">(R. &amp; S.)</td> <td class="tcc rb">14,892</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">Rumiñagui</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb2">15,607</td> <td class="tcl">El Corazon (Chamalari)</td> <td class="tcc rb">(W.)</td> <td class="tcc rb">15,871</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">Cotopaxi</td> <td class="tcc rb">(W.)</td> <td class="tcc rb2">19,613</td> <td class="tcl">Iliniza</td> <td class="tcc rb">(R. &amp; S.)</td> <td class="tcc rb">17,405</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">Tunguragua</td> <td class="tcc rb">(R. &amp; S.)</td> <td class="tcc rb2">16,690</td> <td class="tcl">Carahuairazo</td> <td class="tcc rb">(W.)</td> <td class="tcc rb">16,515</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">Altar (Capac-Urcu)</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb2">17,730</td> <td class="tcl">Chimborazo</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb">20,498</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb bb">Sangay</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb2 bb">17,464</td> <td class="tcl bb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page912" id="page912"></a>912</span></p>
+
+<p>The Imbabura volcano, celebrated for its destructive eruptions of
+mud and water, stands midway between the two ranges at the
+northern end of the plateau, and belongs to the transverse ridge of
+knot (<i>nudo</i>) which unites them. It is the most northern of the higher
+peaks of Ecuador, with the exception of Cotocachi, and possibly
+of Chiles on the Colombian frontier, and reaches the elevation of
+15,033 ft. Ibarra on the northern flanks of the volcano has suffered
+severely from its eruptions. The name is derived from <i>imba</i>, fish,
+and <i>bura</i>, mother, and is said to have originated from the quantities
+of a fish called &ldquo;preñadilla&rdquo; (<i>Pimelodus cyclopum</i>) discharged from
+its crater during one of its eruptions&mdash;a phenomenon which, after a
+searching investigation, was discredited by Wagner. Cayambe, or
+Cayembi, the second highest peak of the Ecuadorean Andes, has the
+noteworthy distinction of standing very nearly on the equator.
+Its base covers a large area, and its square top, rising far above the
+snow-line, is one of the sights of Quito. Antisana is crowned with
+a double dome, and is described as an extinct volcano, though
+Humboldt saw smoke issuing from it in 1802. On its western side
+is the famous <i>hacienda</i> (farm) of Antisana, 13,306 ft. above the sea,
+where Humboldt resided for several months in 1802. Sara-Urcu
+stands south-east of Antisana in a densely forested region, drenched
+with rain and only slightly explored. Sincholagua and Rumiñagui
+are the next two peaks, going southward, and then the unrivalled
+cone of Cotopaxi (<i>q.v.</i>)&mdash;the highest active volcano in the world&mdash;from
+whose summit smoke curls upward unceasingly.</p>
+
+<p>Llanganati or Cerro Hermoso is chiefly known through the tradition
+that the treasures of the Incas were buried in a lake on its slopes.
+It consists of a group of summits, the highest being credited with
+17,843 ft. Tunguragua, or Tungurahua, has a cone-shaped summit
+like that of Cotopaxi, with a slope of 38°. It rises from a plain
+somewhat lower than the neighbouring central plateau and stands
+free from the surrounding elevations, except on the south, which give
+it an exceptionally imposing appearance. Among its characteristic
+features is a cataract fed by melting snows, which descends 1500 ft.
+in three leaps, and an enormous basaltic lava-stream, which crosses
+the face of the mountain in a north-easterly direction. Its most
+notable eruption was in 1777. It has been sometimes classed
+among the extinct volcanoes, but smoke has been seen issuing from
+it at different dates, and a violent eruption occurred on January 12,
+1886. The fertile cultivated valley of Baños, with its thermal
+springs, lies at the base of Tunguragua, which F. Hassaurek describes
+as &ldquo;the most beautiful of all the snow peaks in the country.&rdquo; The
+next in line is El Altar, which the natives call Capac-Urcu (&ldquo;king
+mountain&rdquo;), whose broken cone and impressive outlines make it one
+of the most attractive mountains of Ecuador. Its summit comprises
+a group of eight snow-clad peaks, and its crater is surrounded by a
+steep and jagged wall of rocks. There is a tradition that this mountain
+was once higher than Chimborazo, but a series of eruptions
+caused the cone to fall in and reduced its summit to its present
+altitude and broken appearance. Altar has shown no signs of activity
+since the discovery of America. Sangay, or Sangai, the next and
+last large volcano to the south, is in a state of frequent eruption,
+however, and is known as one of the most restless volcanoes of the
+world. Since the Spanish conquest it has been in a state of uninterrupted
+activity, but no damage has been done, because there are
+no civilized settlements in its immediate vicinity. Though of great
+interest to scientific investigators because of this unceasing activity,
+and of its peculiar position in the Andean system, and because of the
+difficult and dangerous country by which it is surrounded, Sangay
+has been but rarely visited by European travellers. Its eruptions
+are not on a grand scale, but small outbursts of lava and explosions
+of steam occur at frequent intervals, and at longer intervals more
+violent explosions in which the molten rock is thrown 2000 ft.
+above its summit, and ashes are carried away as far as the streets of
+Guayaquil.</p>
+
+<p>Turning to the Cordillera Occidental and taking the principal
+peaks in order from south to north, the first to claim attention is
+Chimborazo (from <i>Chimpu-raza</i>, &ldquo;mountain of snow&rdquo;), the highest
+summit of Ecuador, and once believed to be the culminating point
+of the Andes. Humboldt, who unsuccessfully attempted its ascent
+in 1802, gives its elevation as 21,425 ft., Reiss and Stubel as 20,703,
+and Whymper as 20,498. It stands 76 m. north-east of Guayaquil,
+and, according to Spruce, rises majestically from the valley of the
+Guayas, on the west, without a &ldquo;positive break from the summit
+down to the plain.&rdquo; This, however, is erroneous, for Whymper
+located a detached range running parallel with the Cordillera on the
+west, for a distance of 65 m. with the Chimbo valley between them.
+The magnificence of its mass is imposing from almost any point of
+view, but it can be most fully appreciated from its western or
+Pacific side, where its base is covered with forest up to the snow-line,
+above which its pure white cone rises another 5000 ft. An unobstructed
+view of the great mountain is rarely obtained, however,
+because of the mists and clouds which cover its cone. Its summits
+were reached for the first time in 1880 by Edward Whymper, all
+previous attempts having failed. It is considered to be an extinct
+volcano because it makes the plumb-line deviate only 7&Prime; to 8&Prime;,
+from which it is deduced that the mountain is hollow. Moreover, the
+calcined matter resembling white sand which covers its sides below
+the snow-line, extensive beds of lava, and the issue of streams of hot
+water from its northern side, seem to confirm the deduction that
+Chimborazo is an extinct volcano. Immediately north of Chimborazo,
+and separated from it by only a narrow valley, are the lower
+triple summits of Carahuairazo, or Carguairazo (which the natives
+call <i>Chimborazo-embra</i>, &ldquo;Chimborazo&rsquo;s wife&rdquo;), whose hollow cone
+collapsed in 1698 during a great earthquake, and left the jagged rim
+which adds so much to its present picturesque appearance. Mr
+Whymper&rsquo;s measurement is for the middle peak. Quirotoa, still
+farther north, is supposed to have suffered a similar catastrophe.
+Its hollow summit, 13,510 ft. above sea-level, now contains a large
+lake. Iliniza, which stands west by north of Cotopaxi, has two
+pyramidal peaks, and is one of the most interesting mountains of
+the Ecuadorean group. It stands at the western end of the Tiupullo
+ridge, and overlooks the Quito basin to the north-east. The French
+academician Bouger, who was chief of the scientific commission
+sent to Ecuador in 1736 to measure a degree of the meridian on the
+equator, made a trigonometrical measurement of Iliniza, and Wagner
+ascended to within 800 ft. of its summit in 1859. The geological
+structure of the mountain furnishes no evidence of volcanic activity.
+Chamalari, which the Spaniards called El Corazon from its heart-shaped
+appearance, is similarly destitute of a crater. It overlooks
+the Quito basin and has been ascended many times. Among the
+earlier explorers to reach its summit were Bouger and La Condamine,
+Humboldt and Bonpland, and José Cáldas, the Granadian naturalist.
+Atacatzo is an extinct volcano, with nothing noteworthy in its
+appearance and history. Pichincha, its famous neighbour, is
+apparently of later origin, according to Wagner, and of slightly
+lower elevation. Perhaps no Ecuadorean volcano is better known
+than Pichincha, the &ldquo;boiling mountain,&rdquo; because of its destructive
+eruptions and its proximity to the city of Quito. Its summit comprises
+three groups of rocky peaks, of which the most westerly,
+Rucu-Pichincha (Old Pichincha), contains the crater, a funnel-shaped
+basin 2460 ft. deep and about 1500 ft. wide at the bottom,
+whose walls in places rise perpendicularly and in others at an angle
+of 20°. The exterior of the cone has an angle of 30°. Bouger and
+La Condamine were the first to reach its brink in 1742, after which
+Humboldt made the ascent in 1802, Boussingault and Hall in 1831,
+Garcia Moreno and Sebastian Wisse in 1844 and 1845 (descending
+into the crater for the first time), Garcia Moreno and Jameson in
+1857, Farrand and Hassaurek in 1862, Orton in 1867, and Whymper
+in 1880. Farrand spent more than a week in the crater trying to
+get some good photographic views, and Orton has given a graphic
+description of his experiences in the same place. He found that the
+real cone of eruption was an irregular heap 250 ft. in height and
+800 ft. in diameter, containing about 70 vents. The temperature
+of the vapour within the fumarole was 184°, and water boiled at
+189°. There have been five eruptions of Pichincha since the Spanish
+conquest&mdash;in 1539, 1566, 1575, 1587 and 1660. The second covered
+Quito 3 ft. deep with ashes and stones, but the last three were considered
+as the most destructive to that city. The last happily broke
+down the western side of the crater, which, it is believed, will ensure
+the city against harm in any subsequent eruption. Since the earthquake
+of August 1867 Pichincha has sent forth dense masses of
+black smoke and great quantities of fine sand. Cotocachi is a double-peaked
+mountain, rising from an extremely rough country. It was
+ascended by Whymper in 1880. All the higher summits of Ecuador
+have true glaciers, the largest being found on Antisana, Cayambe
+and Chimborazo. Whymper located and named no less than eleven
+on Chimborazo, and counted twelve on Cayambe.</p>
+
+<p>There are two distinct hydrographic systems in Ecuador&mdash;the
+streams that flow south-eastward to the Marañon, or Amazon, and
+those which flow westward to the Pacific. The southern
+part of the great central plateau is arid and has a very
+<span class="sidenote">Rivers.</span>
+light rainfall; it has no streams, therefore, except from melting
+snows, and the higher elevations which receive the impact of the
+easterly winds. Farther north the rainfall becomes heavier, the
+plateau is covered with vegetation, and a considerable number of
+small rivers flow westward through the Cordillera to the Pacific.
+The Eastern Cordillera, or Andes, forms the water-parting between
+the two systems. The largest of the eastward-flowing rivers is the
+Napo, which rises in the eastern defiles of Cotopaxi and Sincholagua&mdash;the
+principal source being the Rio del Valle, which traverses the
+Valle Vicioso. It at first flows south by east, and at the village of
+Napo is 1450 ft. above sea-level, at the mouth of the Coca 858 ft.,
+at the mouth of the Aguarico 586 ft., 500 at the mouth of the
+Curaray, and 385 at its junction with the Marañon. Orton estimates
+its current at Napo in the month of November as 6 m. an hour;
+in the next 80 m. the river falls 350 ft. and produces a fine series of
+rapids; and from Santa Rosa downwards the rate is not less than
+4 m. an hour. Its breadth at Napo is only 120 ft., but at Coca it has
+widened to 1500 ft., and at its mouth to nearly 1 m. Like most of
+the large Amazon tributaries, its discharge into the Marañon is
+through several distinct channels. The Napo is navigable for steam-boats
+for some distance above the mouth of the Coca, and thence for
+canoes as far as the Cando cataract, 3332 ft. above the sea. Its total
+length is 920 m. The principal tributaries of the Napo are the Coca
+and Aguarico from the north, and the Curaray from the south.
+The Coca rises on the eastern slopes of the Andes near Cayambe
+and the Guamani range, and flows eastward near the equator to
+San Rafael (about 76° 30&prime; W. long.), where it turns sharply southward
+to a junction with the Napo in about lat. 1° S., long. 76° W. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page913" id="page913"></a>913</span>
+Coca forms the provisional boundary line between Ecuador and
+Colombia from its source to the Napo. The Aguarico also rises on
+the eastern slopes of the Andes north of Cayambe and flows south-eastward
+to a junction with the Napo in about long. 75° W., its
+length being roughly estimated at 420 m. Little is known of its
+course, or of the country through which it flows, which is provisionally
+occupied by Colombia. The Curaray has its sources in the
+defiles of the Cerros de Llanganati, and flows south-eastward to the
+Napo, its length being estimated at 490 m. Its lower course is
+sluggish, where its waters are made unpalatable by a reddish slime.
+The Napo and its tributaries are celebrated in the early history of
+South America as the route by which Gonzalo Pizarro and Orellana
+first reached the Amazon, and it was afterwards the principal route
+by which the early expeditions across the continent at this point
+connected the Andean Plateau with the Amazon. The other rivers
+which flow through the Oriente territory of Ecuador into the Marañon
+are the Tigre, Pastaza, Morona and Santiago. The Tigre, of which
+little was known until a recent date, is formed by the confluence of
+the Cunambo and Huiviyacu, whose sources are on the eastern
+slopes of the Andes near those of the Curaray. Its length below this
+confluence is 416 m., into which are received 109 tributaries, the
+largest of which are the Pucacuro and Corrientes. The Tigre is
+navigable at all stages up to the Cunambo confluence, and promises
+to afford one of the most valuable river routes in Ecuador. It enters
+the Marañon very near the 74th meridian. The Pastaza, or Pastassa,
+unlike the rivers already described, has its source on the central
+plateau west of the principal chain of the Andes, within the shadow
+of Cotopaxi, and breaks through the Cordillera to the north of
+Tunguragua. After flowing southward along the base of the high
+Andes for a short distance and receiving a number of torrents from
+the snowclad heights, it turns south-eastward across the plain and
+enters the Marañon about 70 m. above the mouth of the Huallaga.
+The stream is known as the Patate down to its junction with the
+Chambo, near Baños, and is not called Pastaza until the Agoyan
+falls are passed. It was navigated by Don Pedro Maldonado as
+early as 1741, and is navigable for steamboats of 2 to 4 ft. draft
+up to the mouth of the Huasaga (about 124 m.) in times of high
+water, and for canoes nearly 200 m. farther. The Pastaza, however,
+is subject to irresistible floods caused by the sudden rising of the
+mountain torrents on its upper course, especially the Toro, which
+sweep down with such fury that navigation on the river is practically
+impossible. The shallowness of the lower stream, where the current
+is sluggish, is probably due to the great quantities of silt brought
+down by these floods. Many of the rivers of eastern Ecuador are
+subject to similar floods from the Andean slopes, which have cut
+away broad, deep channels, through the adjacent plains, leaving
+long, narrow ridges between their courses which the natives call
+<i>cuchillas</i>. The Morona is formed by the confluence of the Manhuasisa
+and Cangaima about 310 m. above its mouth, and is freely navigable
+for small steamboats to that point. The two confluents just mentioned
+have their sources in the Andes, and flow for some distance
+across the plain before uniting to form the Morona. Both are
+navigable for considerable distances. The Morona follows a very
+tortuous course before entering the Marañon, at long. 70° W., and
+receives a large number of affluents, one of which serves as the
+outlet for Lake Rimachuma, in Peruvian territory. Very little is
+definitely known of the affluents of the Morona, Pastaza and Tigre,
+as the territory through which they run has been but slightly explored.
+The Santiago, which enters the Marañon near the Pongo de
+Manseriche, is formed by the confluence of the Paute, which rises
+in the province of Azuay, and the Zamora, which has its source
+among the mountains of Loja. According to Alexander Garland
+(<i>Peru in 1906</i>), the rivers of eastern Ecuador are navigable at low
+water for steamers of 2 to 4 ft. draft for an aggregate distance of
+1503 m., as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc">Miles.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Napo, to the mouth of the Aguarico</td> <td class="tcc">559</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Curaray, up to Canonaco</td> <td class="tcc">286</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Tigre, up to Cunambo-Huiviyacu confluence</td> <td class="tcc">416</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Pastaza</td> <td class="tcc">&ensp;31</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Morona, up to the Rarayacu</td> <td class="tcc">211</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">These same rivers are navigable at high water for steamers of
+19½ ft. draft for an aggregate distance of 1330 m., including 68 m.
+of the Aguarico, and for steamers of 2 to 4 ft. draft for an additional
+733 m. The last aggregate includes an extension of 93 m. on the
+Pastaza, 99 on the Morona, 186 on the Napo, and the balance on
+the Manhuasisa, Cangaima, Pucacuro, Corrientes, Cunambo and
+Huiviyacu.</p>
+
+<p>On the western versant of the Andes of Ecuador there are three
+river systems of considerable size&mdash;the Mira, the Esmeraldas and
+the Guayas. The sources of the first&mdash;the Rioblanco, Pisco and
+Puntal&mdash;are to be found on the northern slopes of the transverse
+ridge which culminates in the Imbabura volcano. Its course is
+north and north-west to the Colombian frontier, thence westward
+and north-west to the Pacific, breaking through the Western Cordillera
+on its way. It forms the boundary line for some distance
+between Ecuador and Colombia, but near its mouth where the river
+turns northward Colombia has taken possession of the left bank
+and all the territory covered by its large delta. Its principal tributaries
+on the left are the San Pedro, Paramba, Cachiyacu, Chachavi
+and Canumbi, and on the right the San Juan, Caiquer and Nulpe.
+The delta channels of the Mira are navigable, being tributary to the
+Colombian port of Tumaco. The Esmeraldas drains all that part
+of the central plateau lying between the transverse ridge of Tiupullo
+on the south, and the Imbabura ridge on the north, together with
+the western slopes of the Cordillera between Iliniza and Cotocachi,
+and a considerable part of the lower plain. It is formed by the
+confluence of the Quininde and Toachi with the Guaillabamba
+between 40 and 50 m. above its mouth, and discharges into the
+Pacific in lat. 1° N., long. 79° 40&prime; W., through a narrow and precipitous
+gorge. The volume and current of the river is sufficient to
+freshen the sea 2 m. from the coast. The Guaillabamba is the larger
+and more important tributary, and should be considered the main
+stream. It rises in the Chillo valley in the vicinity of Cayambe,
+and flows across the northern end of the central plateau, breaking
+through the Western Cordillera between Cotocachi and Pichincha.
+One of its plateau tributaries, Rio Pedregal, rises on the slopes of
+Cotopaxi and is celebrated for its three beautiful cascades, the highest
+of which is about 220 ft. The Toachi and Quininde have their
+sources on the western slopes of the Cordillera. The Guayas or
+Guayaquil river is in part an estuary extending northward from the
+Gulf of Guayaquil, bordered by mangrove swamps and mud banks
+formed by the silt brought down from the neighbouring mountains.
+All the bordering country on both sides is of the same description,
+and for a long distance inland extensive areas of swampy country
+are submerged during the rainy season. Above the mouth of the
+Daule the river is known as the Bodegas, which in turn is formed by
+the confluence of the Babahoyo and the Vinces. The Guayas also
+receives a large tributary from the east called the Yaguachi. All
+these streams are navigable on their lower courses, regular steamboat
+communication being maintained on the Guayas and Bodegas to a
+river port of the latter name, 80 m. above Guayaquil, and for 40 m.
+on the Daule. The navigable channels of all the rivers are computed
+at 200 m. The drainage basin of the Guayas, according to Theodor
+Wolf, covers an area of 14,000 sq. m., and includes the greater part
+of the lower plain and the western slopes of the Cordillera Occidental
+as far north as Iliniza. The Babahoyo, which is the main stream,
+has its sources on the slopes of Chimborazo, the Daule on the Sandomo
+ridge in the latitude of Pichincha, the Yaguachi on the south-eastern
+slopes of Chimborazo, whence it flows southward for a considerable
+distance before breaking through the Cordillera to the western plain.
+The Guayas is one of the most interesting and varied of the South
+American river systems, and is of great economic importance to
+Ecuador. In addition to these three river systems, there are a large
+number of short streams on the coast flowing into the Pacific and
+Gulf of Guayaquil, only two of which have any special importance
+in the present undeveloped state of the country. These are the
+Santiago, which drains several fertile valleys in northern Esmeraldas
+and western Carchi, and whose outlet is connected with some
+navigable tide-water channels, including the Pailon basin and the
+Caráquez, or Caracas, on which is located the village of Bahia de
+Caráquez (lat. 0° 34&prime; S.), the nearest port to the city of Quito.</p>
+
+<p>There are a considerable number of small lakes in Ecuador, but
+no large ones. These are of two classes&mdash;those of the bowl-like
+valleys and extinct craters of the mountainous region,
+and the reservoir lakes of the lowland plains caused by
+<span class="sidenote">Lakes.</span>
+the annual overflow of the rivers. It is impossible to say how many
+of the latter there may be, for much of the territory where they
+are found is unexplored. They are usually shallow and malarial.
+Among the upland lakes, there are some of special interest because
+of their position and historical association. The Yaguar-cocha
+(&ldquo;lake of blood&rdquo;), in the province of Imbabura, near Ibarra, which
+is only 1½ m. in circumference, is celebrated for the tradition that
+Huayna-Capac, one of the great conquerors of the Inca dynasty,
+defeated an army of rebellious Carranquis on its shores, and threw
+so many of their bleeding corpses into it as to turn its waters to the
+colour of blood. On the south-east skirt of Cotocachi, 10,200 ft.
+above the sea, is the beautiful little Cuy-cocha, which originated,
+it is believed, through the falling in of the mountain&rsquo;s sides. There
+are two others of apparently the same origin on the north-west slopes
+of the Mojanda volcano, but they are less attractive because of their
+gloomy surroundings. In the deep valley between the mountains of
+Imbabura and Mojanda is the lake of San Pablo, 8848 ft. above the
+sea. It is one of the largest of its class, being about 5 m. in circumference,
+and is situated in an exceptionally fertile region. It
+drains through the Peguchi into the Rio Blanco, a tributary of the
+Mira. Other well-known lakes of the plateau region are Quirotoa,
+about 4600 ft. in diameter; Colta, east of Riobamba, and Colay,
+south of the same place. Among the many thermal springs throughout
+the Andean districts, the best known are at Belermos and San
+Pedro del Tingo, north-east of Quito; at Cachillacta, in the district
+of Nanegal; at Timbugpoyo, near Latacunga; at Baños (5906 ft.
+elevation), near the foot of Tunguragua; and on the slopes of
+Rumiñagui and Chimborazo.</p>
+
+<p>The coast of Ecuador extends from about lat. 1° 20&prime; N. to the
+vicinity of the Boca Jambeli on the southern shore of the Gulf of
+Guayaquil, in lat. 3° 14&prime; S., and has an outward curve.
+Its more prominent headlands are Punta Galera, Cabo
+<span class="sidenote">Coast.</span>
+Pasado, Cabo de San Lorenzo and La Puntilla, or Santa Élena
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page914" id="page914"></a>914</span>
+Point. The bays on this coast are commonly broad indentations,
+and the rivers discharging into them are generally obstructed by
+bars. The small ports along the coast, therefore, do not afford
+much protection to shipping. The most northern of these bays is
+the Ancon de Sardinas, lying south of the Mira delta. The head of
+the bay is fringed with islands and reefs, behind which is the mouth
+of the Santiago river, Poza Harbour, San Lorenzo Bay, Pailon basin
+and a network of navigable channels, all of which are difficult of
+access. The small ports of La Tola and Pailon are located on these
+waters. The port of Esmeraldas, near the mouth of the Esmeraldas
+river, is located near the southern entrance to this bay. As the
+mouth of the river is obstructed by a bar and its current is swift,
+the anchorage is outside in an open roadstead, only slightly protected
+on the south. Farther south is the broad Bay of Manta, with a small
+port of the same name at its southern extremity. The most frequented
+port on this part of the coast is that of Bahia de Caráquez, at
+the mouth of the Caráquez, or Caracas river, which is also obstructed
+by a bar. There is a fertile, productive country back of this port,
+and it is the objective point of a road from Quito. Immediately north
+of the Gulf of Guayaquil is the Bay of Santa Élena, with a small port
+of the same name, which has a good, well-sheltered anchorage and is
+the landing-place of the West Coast cable. The Gulf of Guayaquil,
+which lies between the Ecuadorean and Peruvian coasts, is the
+largest gulf on the Pacific coast of South America between Panama
+and Chiloe. Its mouth is 140 m. wide between La Puntilla on the
+north and Cabo Blanco on the south, and it penetrates the land
+eastward, with a slight curve northward at its head, for a distance
+of about 100 m., terminating in the Guayas estuary or river, on
+which is located the port of Guayaquil. The upper end of the bay
+and its northern shores are fringed with swamps through which
+numerous estuaries penetrate for some distance inland. Immediately
+west of the Guayas river the Estero Salado, which comprises a great
+many shallow tide-water channels, or bayous, penetrates as far
+inland as Guayaquil, but is used only by canoes. The upper end
+of the gulf is filling up with the silt brought down from the Cordillera.
+It is divided midway by the large island of Puna, at the eastern
+end of which is the anchorage for steamers too large to ascend the
+Guayas. The steamship channel passes between this island and the
+Peruvian coast, and is known as the Jambeli channel. The passage
+north of Puna Island is known as the Morro channel, but its entrance
+is obstructed by shoals and it is considered dangerous for shipping.
+A small port in the Jambeli channel, on the south-east shore of the
+gulf, is that of Puerto Bolivar, or Puerto Huaila, the shipping port
+for the town of Machala and the Zaruma mining region.</p>
+
+<p>There are few islands off the coast of Ecuador, and only one of any
+considerable size&mdash;that of Puna in the Gulf of Guayaquil, which
+is 29 m. long from north-east to south-west and 8 to 14 m.
+wide. It lies in the north-east part of the gulf, and is
+<span class="sidenote">Islands.</span>
+separated from the Ecuadorean mainland by the Morro channel,
+and from the southern mainland by the wider and deeper Jambeli
+channel. There is a low, mountainous ridge, called the Zampo Palo,
+running through it, and its eastern shores have some moderately
+high bluffs; otherwise the island is low and swampy, and its shores,
+except the eastern end, are fringed with mud banks. The island is
+densely wooded (in marked contrast with the opposite Peruvian
+shore), and is considered unhealthy throughout the greater part.
+It has a population of 200, chiefly centred in the village of Puna,
+at its north-east extremity, which is a shipping port and health
+resort for the city of Guayaquil. Puna island is celebrated for its
+connexion with Pizarro&rsquo;s invasion of Peru in 1531. It is said that it
+had a considerable population at that time, and that the natives
+resisted the invaders so vigorously that it cost six months to reduce
+them. Midway in the outer part of the Gulf of Guayaquil is Amortajada
+or Santa Clara island, whose resemblance to a shrouded corpse
+suggested the name which it bears. It lies 12 m. south-west of Puna
+island and 80 m. from Guayaquil. It rises to a considerable elevation,
+and carries a light 256 ft. above sea-level. There are some low,
+swampy islands, or mud flats, covered with mangrove thickets, in
+the lower Guayas river, but they are uninhabited and of no importance.
+North of the Gulf of Guayaquil there are only two small
+islands on the coast of more than local interest. The first of these
+is Salango, in lat. 1° 25&prime; S., which is 2 m. in circumference and rises
+to a height of 524 ft. It is richly wooded, and has a well-sheltered
+anchorage much frequented by whalers in search of water and fresh
+provisions. The next is La Plata, in lat. 1° 16&prime; S., which rises to a
+height of 790 ft., and has a deep anchorage on its eastern side where
+Drake is said to have anchored in 1579 to divide the spoils of the
+Spanish treasure ship &ldquo;Cacafuego.&rdquo; The Galapagos Islands (<i>q.v.</i>)
+belong to the republic of Ecuador, and form a part of the province
+of Guayas.</p>
+
+<p><i>Geology.</i><a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a>&mdash;The great longitudinal depression which lies between
+the eastern and the western branches of the Andes is also the
+boundary between the ancient rocks of the east and the Mesozoic
+beds which form the greater part of the west of the country. The
+Eastern Cordillera is composed of gneiss, mica and chlorite schist
+and other crystalline rocks of ancient date; the Western Cordillera,
+on the other hand, is formed of porphyritic eruptive rocks of Mesozoic
+age, together with sedimentary deposits containing Cretaceous
+fossils. Most of the country between the Andes and the sea is
+covered by Tertiary and Quaternary beds; but the range of hills
+which runs north-west from Guayaquil is formed of Cretaceous and
+porphyritic rocks similar to those of the Andes. In the intra-andine
+depression, between the East and West Cordilleras, recent deposits
+with plant remains occur near Loja, and to the north-east of Cuenca
+is a sandstone containing mercury ores, somewhat similar to that of
+Peru. Farther north nearly the whole of the depression is filled
+with lavas, tuffs and agglomerates, derived from the Tertiary and
+recent volcanoes which form the most striking feature of the Andes
+of Ecuador. These volcanoes are most numerous in the northern
+half of the country, and they stand indifferently upon the folded
+Mesozoic beds of the Western Cordillera (<i>e.g.</i> Chimborazo, Iliniza,
+Pichincha), the ancient rocks of the Eastern Cordillera (Altar,
+Tunguragua, Cotopaxi, Antisana), or the floor of the great depression
+between. The lavas and ashes are for the most part
+andesitic.</p>
+
+<p><i>Climate.</i>&mdash;Climatic conditions in Ecuador are very largely contingent
+on altitude, and the transition from one climate to another
+is a matter of only a few hours&rsquo; journey. Although the equator
+crosses the northern part of the republic, only 15 m. north of the city
+Of Quito, a very considerable part of its area has the temperature of
+the temperate zone, and snow-crowned summits are to be seen
+every day in the year from its great central plateau. In addition
+to the climatic changes due to altitude, there are others caused by
+local arid conditions, by volcanic influences and by the influence of
+mountain ranges on the temperature and rainfall of certain districts.
+These influences are not general; on the contrary, they often affect
+very limited areas. For instance, Guayaquil has a hot humid climate
+and mangrove swamps line the shores of Guayas down to the gulf;
+at Santa Élena, about 60 m. due west, arid conditions prevail and
+vegetation is scanty and dwarfed; at Salango island, 50 m. north of
+Santa Élena, there is an abundance of moisture and vegetation is
+luxuriant; 33 m. farther north, at Manta, the country is a desert;
+and at Atacames bay, 135 m. north of Manta, the rainfall and
+vegetation are again favourable. On the plateau similar conditions
+prevail. There is no great display of arboreal vegetation anywhere
+except in the valleys and lower passes where the rainfall is abundant,
+but in general terms it may be said that the rainfall and vegetation
+which characterize the Quito basin soon disappear as one proceeds
+southward, and are substituted by arid conditions. Even here there
+are local modifications, as at Ambato, where a shallow depression,
+surrounded by barren, dust-covered ridges exposed to cold winds,
+is celebrated for its warm, equable climate and its fruit. It is to be
+noted that the Gulf of Guayaquil separates the humid, forest-covered
+coastal plain of Ecuador from the arid, barren coast of
+Peru, the two regions being widely dissimilar. The mean annual
+temperature, on this plain, according to an official publication, is
+82.4° F., and the range is from 66° to 95°. The heat is modified at
+many points on the coast, however, by the cold Humboldt current
+which sweeps up the west coast of South America from the Antarctic
+seas. The year is divided into a wet and dry season&mdash;the former
+running from December to June, and the latter from July to December.
+The rainy season, or <i>invierno</i>, is broken by a short period
+of dry weather, called the <i>veranillo</i> (little summer), shortly after the
+December solstice; otherwise it rains every day, the streams overflow,
+land traffic is suspended, and the air is drenched with moisture
+and becomes oppressive and pestiferous. The dry season, which is
+called the <i>verano</i>, or summer, is also broken by a short rainy spell
+called the <i>inviernillo</i> (little winter) or &ldquo;cordonazo de San Francisco,&rdquo;
+which follows the September equinox. Apart from these the two
+seasons are sometimes broken by cloudless skies in winter, and a
+drizzling mist, called the <i>garua</i>, in summer. In the inter-andine
+region the variations in temperature are frequent and the averages
+comparatively low. An official estimate gives the mean annual
+temperature as 64° to 68° between 6000 and 11,000 ft. In Quito the
+mean annual temperature is 58.8°, the diurnal variation 10°, the
+annual maximum 70°, and the annual minimum 45°. Other returns
+give the mean annual temperature at 55°. It is said that pulmonary
+tuberculosis is unknown in these altitudes, though it is common
+in the coast districts. Catarrhal complaints are common, however,
+and leprosy is widely prevalent, it being necessary to maintain three
+large hospitals for lepers. In the higher altitudes there are wide
+variations in the snow-fall and intensity of the cold even on the
+same mountain. The line of permanent snow is much higher on the
+plateau side in both ranges, the precipitation being greater on the
+outer sides&mdash;those facing the forested lowlands&mdash;and the terrestrial
+radiation being greater from the barren surfaces of the plateau. In
+some instances the difference in the elevation of the snow-line has
+been found to be fully 1000 ft. Moreover, no two summits seem to
+retain the snow permanently at the same altitude. For instance, in
+1880 Whymper found permanent snow on Cotocachi at 14,500 ft.,
+while near by Imbabura was bare to its summit (15,033 ft.); Antisana
+was permanently covered at 16,000 ft., and near by Sara-Urcu,
+which is drenched with rains and mists from the Amazon valley
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page915" id="page915"></a>915</span>
+all the year round, at 14,000 ft.; Sincholagua had large beds of
+permanent snow at 15,300 ft., Cotopaxi was permanently covered at
+15,500 ft. on its western side, Corazon had daily snowstorms down
+to 14,500 ft., but no permanent beds of snow on its east side (elevation
+15,871 ft.); and Chimborazo had deep snow at 15,600 ft. on its
+north-east and south sides in June&mdash;July. The eastern range was
+found to receive the heaviest snowfall. The elevation at which
+human residence is possible seems to be unusually high in Ecuador.
+Many of the towns and villages of central Ecuador lie at altitudes
+ranging from 8606 ft. (Ambato) to 9839 ft. (Machachi). The capital
+city of Quito is 9343 ft. above the sea, and is celebrated for its
+agreeable temperature, and also for its healthiness in spite of prevailing
+unsanitary conditions. Above these towns are a number of
+farms and herdsmen&rsquo;s habitations, where men live the whole or a
+part of the year with less discomfort from low temperature than is
+experienced in northern Europe and northern United States.
+According to Whymper, the <i>tambo</i> of Chuquipoquio, at the foot
+of Chimborazo, is 11,704 ft., and the <i>hacienda</i> of Pedregal, near
+Iliniza, 11,629 ft., both being permanently occupied. The <i>hacienda</i>
+of Antisana, 13,306 ft., and the herdsmen&rsquo;s hut of Cunayaco on
+Chimborazo, 13,396 ft., are occupied only for a part of the year.
+The highest elevations are generally covered with ice and snow,
+and glaciers, according to Whymper, are to be found upon no less
+than nine of the culminating peaks, and possibly upon two or three
+more. These serve to modify the temperatures of the plateau,
+which is swept by cold winds at all seasons of the year. The prevailing
+wind is that of the north-east and south-east trade winds,
+broken and modified on the plateau and western lowlands by
+mountain barriers. Westerly and north-west winds are sometimes
+experienced, but are not permanent.</p>
+
+<p><i>Flora.</i>&mdash;The flora of the Quito basin has been well studied by
+various European botanists, more especially by Dr William Jameson
+(1796-1873) of the university of Quito, who began the preparation
+of a synopsis of the Ecuadorean flora in 1864-1865 (<i>Synopsis plantarum
+Quitensium</i>, 2 vols., Quito, 1865). The flora of the forested
+lowlands on both sides of the Andes has not been studied and
+described so fully. From the Pacific coast upward to a height of
+about 3000 to 4000 ft. the vegetation is distinctively tropical,
+including among its economic products cacao, cotton, sugar, tobacco,
+rice, maize, yucca (also known as cassava and mandioca), peanuts,
+bananas, sweet potatoes, yams, arracacha (<i>Conium moschatum</i>,
+H.B.K., or <i>Arracacha esculenta</i>), indigo, rubber (<i>Castilloa</i>), ivory-nuts,
+cinchona and bread-fruit. Most of these become rare at 3000
+ft., but a few, like sugar-cane, are cultivated as high as 8000 ft. The
+alluvial valley of the Guayas, above Guayaquil, is celebrated for
+the richness of its vegetation, which, in fruit alone, includes cacao,
+coffee, coco-nuts, pine-apples, oranges, lemons, guayavas (<i>Psidium
+pomiferum</i>), guavas (<i>Inga spectabilis</i>), shaddocks (or grape-fruit),
+pomegranates, apricots, chirimoyas (<i>Anona Chirimolia</i>), granadillas
+(<i>Passiflora quadrangularis</i>), paltas (<i>Persea gratissima</i>, otherwise
+known as &ldquo;alligator pears&rdquo;), tunas (<i>Cactus</i>), mangoes (<i>Mangifera
+Indica</i>), pacays (<i>Prosopis dulcis</i>), aji (Chile pepper), and many
+others of less importance. Besides rubber, the forests produce a
+great variety of cabinet and construction woods, ivory-nuts (from
+the &ldquo;tagua&rdquo; palm, <i>Phytelephas macrocarpa</i>), &ldquo;toquilla&rdquo; fibre
+(<i>Carludovica palmata</i>) for the manufacture of so-called Panama hats,
+cabbage palms, several species of cinchona, vanilla and dyewoods.
+Among the large trees which are valued for their timber are redwood
+(<i>Humiria balsamifera</i>), Brazil-wood, algarrobo, palo de cruz
+(<i>Jacquinea ruscifolia</i>), guaiacum or holy wood, rosewood, cedar and
+walnut. From 6000 to 10,000 ft. above the sea, the indigenous
+species include the potato, maize, oca (<i>Oxalis tuberosa</i>), and quinua
+(<i>Chenopodium quinoa</i>), and the exotic species, wheat, barley, oats,
+alfalfa (<i>Medicago sativa</i>), and most of the fruits and vegetables of the
+northern temperate zone. Wheat does not form a head below
+4500 ft., nor ripen above 10,500. The larger forest trees are rarely
+seen above 10,000 ft., and even there only on the outer slopes of the
+Cordilleras. The <i>Escallonia myrtalloides</i>, however, is found at an
+elevation of 13,000 ft., and the shrubby <i>Befarias</i> 400 or 500 ft. higher.
+A characteristic growth of the open plateau and upland valleys is the
+cabulla, cabaya or maguey (<i>Agave americana</i>), whose fibre is much
+used by the natives in the manufacture of cordage, sandals (<i>alpargatas</i>)
+and other useful articles. In the treeless region lying between
+11,600 and 13,800, or in other places between 12,000 and 14,000 ft.,
+the similarity of the vegetation to that of the corresponding European
+region, according to Wagner, is especially striking. On the <i>paramos</i>
+of Chimborazo, Pichincha, Iliniza, &amp;c., the relation of characteristic
+genera to those identical with genera in the Alpine flora of Europe
+is as 5 to 4; and the botanist might almost suppose himself in the
+Upper Engadine. Of the flora of the highest Andes, Whymper found
+42 species, of various orders, above 16,000 ft., almost all of which
+were from Antisana and Chimborazo; 12 genera of mosses were
+found above 15,000 ft., and 59 species of flowering plants above
+14,000 ft., of which 35 species came from above 15,000 and 20
+species from above 16,000 ft. The highest specimen obtained was a
+lichen (<i>Lecanora subfusca</i>, L.) on the south side of Chimborazo,
+18,400 ft. above sea-level. Mosses (<i>Grimmia</i>) were found on Chimborazo
+at 16,660 ft., ferns (<i>Polypodium pycnolepis</i>, Kze.) at 14,900,
+and specimens of <i>Gentiana rupicola</i>, H. B. K., <i>Achyrophorus quitensis</i>,
+Sz. Bip., <i>Culcitium nivale</i>, H. B. K., at 16,300; <i>Phyllactis inconspicua</i>,
+Wedd., at 16,600, <i>Astragalus geminiflorus</i>, H. B. K., at 14-15,000,
+<i>Geranium diffusum</i>, H. B. K., at 16,000, <i>Malvastrum phyllanthos</i>,
+Asa Gray, at 16,500, <i>Draba obovata</i>, Benth., at 16,660, and <i>Ranunculus
+praemorsus</i>, Kth., at 16,500&mdash;all on Chimborazo. <i>Fuchsia
+loxensis</i>, H. B. K., was found on the slope of Sara-Urcu at 12,779 ft.,
+and currant bushes (<i>Ribes glandulosum</i>, R. &amp; P.), on Chimborazo, at
+14,000. On the eastern slopes of the Andes, where the rainfall is
+continuous throughout the year and the atmosphere is surcharged
+with moisture, the forest growth is phenomenal. It is similar to
+that of the Colombian and Peruvian <i>montanas</i>, modified, if at all,
+by the excessive humidity which prevails in this region.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fauna.</i>&mdash;The fauna of Ecuador is comparatively poor in mammalia,
+but the birds and still more the insects are very numerous. The
+Quadrumana are represented by a large number of species, the eastern
+forests being very much like the other parts of the great Amazonian
+basin in this respect. The Carnivora include the puma (<i>Felis
+concolor</i>), jaguar (<i>F. onca</i>), ocelot (<i>F. grisea</i>), bear (<i>Ursus ornatus</i>),
+fox, weasel and otter. A small deer and, in southern Ecuador,
+the llama (<i>Auchenia</i>) with its allied species, the alpaca, guanaco and
+vicuña, represent the ruminants. The rodents are numerous and
+include most, if not all, of the Amazonian species&mdash;the capybara
+(<i>Hydrochoerus capybara</i>), cavia (<i>C. aperea</i>), paca (<i>Coelogenys paca</i>)
+and cutia (<i>Dasyprocta aguti</i>), all amphibious and having an extensive
+range. Tapirs are to be found in the eastern forests, the peccary
+in more open woodlands, and the opossum in nearly every part of the
+country. Cattle, horses, asses, sheep and swine were introduced by
+the Spaniards, and thrive well in some of the provinces. Excellent
+horses are reared in the uplands, as well as mules and cattle, the
+pasturage on the mountain slopes being good, and alfalfa being grown
+in abundance in many districts. The Reptilia include countless
+numbers of alligators in the Guayas and its tributaries and in the
+tide-water channels of many of the smaller rivers; many species of
+lizards, of which Mr Whymper found three in the Quito basin;
+snakes of every description from the huge anaconda of the Amazon
+region down to the beautifully marked coral snake; and a great
+variety of frogs and toads. Bats also are very numerous, especially
+in the eastern forest region, where the vampire bat is a serious
+obstacle to permanent settlement. The avifauna of Ecuador is
+distinguished for the great variety of its genera and species, among
+which are many peculiar to the Amazon valley, and others to the
+colder uplands. Among the Amazon species may be mentioned the
+parrot, macaw (<i>Macrocercus</i>), toucan (<i>Ramphastos</i>), curassow (<i>Crax</i>),
+penelope, trogon, and horned screamer (<i>Palamedea cornuta</i>). There
+are also herons, ibises, storks and cranes, including the great black-headed
+white crane, <i>Mycteria americana</i>, which ranges from northern
+Argentina to Colombia. One species of ibis, the <i>Theristicus caudatus</i>,
+is to be found, it is said, only on the slopes of Antisana. Species of
+the pheasant and partridge are not uncommon, and the &ldquo;guácharo&rdquo;
+(<i>Steatornis caripensis</i>), once believed to inhabit Venezuela only, is
+found in Ecuador also. The Raptores are well represented by a
+large number of genera and species, which include the condor, eagle,
+vulture, falcon, hawk and owl. The condor (<i>Sarcorhamphus
+gryphus</i>) is commonly found between the elevations of 6000 and
+16,000 ft., rarely, if ever, descending to the lowland plains or rising
+above the lower peaks. It preys upon the smaller animals and inflicts
+much loss upon stock farmers through the destruction of calves,
+lambs, &amp;c., but it very rarely ventures to attack man or any of the
+larger animals. The eagle common to Ecuador is the <i>Morphnus
+taeniatus</i>, and possibly the <i>M. guaianensis</i> on the eastern slopes
+of the Andes. The harrier-eagle (<i>Herpetotheres cachinnans</i>) is also to
+be found throughout this part of the continent. An eagle with
+buzzard-like habits, the <i>Leucopternis plumbea</i>, is likewise common in
+Ecuador. Among the vultures the turkey-buzzard group (<i>Rhinogryphus</i>
+or <i>Cathartes</i>), including the <i>R. aurus</i>, <i>burrovianus</i> and
+<i>perniger</i>, is common everywhere. The carrion crow, or black
+vulture (<i>Catharista atrata</i>), is also common to every part of the
+country, and is the general scavenger. The carrion hawks are
+represented by the <i>Polyborus tharus</i>, popularly called the &ldquo;caracara,&rdquo;
+and the <i>Phalcobaenus carunculatus</i>; the falcons by the
+<i>Aesalon columbarius</i>; and the kites by the <i>Gampsonyx swainsoni</i>.
+The Ecuadorean owl is the <i>Bubo nigrescens</i>. An interesting species
+of the song birds is popularly known as the &ldquo;flautero&rdquo; (flute-bird),
+which inhabits the eastern forests. Its notes are marvellous imitations
+of &ldquo;the most mellow, sweet-sounding flute,&rdquo; but the singer
+itself, according to Mr Simson, is &ldquo;a very insignificant-looking
+little, greyish-coloured bird,&rdquo; which &ldquo;always dies in captivity.&rdquo; The
+most interesting group of the smaller birds is that of the hummingbirds,
+of which the number and variety is astonishing. Some of
+these have a very wide range, while others are apparently limited
+to a small district, or to a certain altitude. The best-known fish of
+Ecuador is the insignificant <i>Pimelodus cyclopum</i>, the only fish found
+in the streams and lakes of the plateau region. Its fame rests on
+Humboldt&rsquo;s publication of the tradition that great numbers of this
+tiny fish had been thrown out during the eruptions of Imbabura and
+other volcanoes. Mr Whymper&rsquo;s explanation of the phenomenon
+is that the fish are scattered over the land by the sudden overflow
+during volcanic eruptions of the rivers and lakes which they inhabit.
+The rivers of the eastern plains are probably stocked with the fish
+found in the Amazon. On the coast, the Ancon de Sardinas bay is so
+named from the multitude of small fish (<i>sardinas</i>) which inhabit its
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page916" id="page916"></a>916</span>
+waters. Elsewhere there are no fisheries of importance, except those
+of the Galapagos Islands.</p>
+
+<p>The insect inhabitants of Ecuador, like the birds, include a large
+number of genera and species, but no complete entomological survey
+of the country has ever been made, and our knowledge in this respect
+is insufficient to warrant a detailed description. In one ascent of
+Pichincha in 1880, Mr Whymper collected 21 species of beetles, all
+new to science, between 12,000 and 15,600 ft. elevation. On
+Cotopaxi, at elevations of 13,000 to 15,800 ft., 18 species of the genus
+<i>Colpodes</i> were collected, of which 16 were new. This may be considered
+a fair illustration of the situation in Ecuador so far as natural
+history exploration is concerned. Of the Machachi basin, near
+Quito, which he calls a &ldquo;zoologist&rsquo;s paradise,&rdquo; Mr Whymper writes
+(<i>Travels amongst the Great Andes of the Equator</i>): &ldquo;Butterflies above,
+below and around; now here, now there, by many turns and twists
+displaying the brilliant tessellation of their under-sides.... May-flies
+and dragon-flies danced in the sunlight; lizards darted across
+the paths; and legions of spiders pervaded the grass, many very
+beautiful&mdash;frosted&mdash;silver backs, or curious, like the saltigrades,
+who took a few steps and then gave a leap. There were crickets in
+infinite numbers; and flies innumerable, from slim daddy-long-legs
+to ponderous, black, hairy fellows known to science as <i>Dejeaniae</i>;
+hymenopterous insects in profusion, including our old friend the
+bishop of Ambato (possibly <i>Dielis</i>), in company with another
+formidable stinger, with chrome antennae, called by the natives
+&rsquo;the Devil&rsquo;; and occasional <i>Phasmas</i> (caballo de palo) crawling
+painfully about, like animated twigs.&rdquo; This description refers to a
+fertile sub-tropical oasis on the partially barren plateau; below in
+the forested lowlands, where tropical conditions prevail, the numbers
+and varieties are many times greater. The Coleoptera are especially
+numerous; Mr Whymper took home with him 206 species which
+had been identified and described up to 1892, most of them from the
+uplands and most of them new to science. The total number of
+species in Ecuador is roughly estimated to be 8000. The Hymenoptera
+are also numerous, but less so than the Lepidoptera, with
+which the mountain slopes and sunny, open spaces seem to be
+literally covered. Of moths alone Mr Whymper took away with him
+specimens representing no less than 23 genera, with a probable
+addition of 13 genera more among his undescribed specimens, the
+largest of which (an <i>Erebus odora</i>) was 7¼ in. across the wings.
+Among the Diptera, which includes a very wide range of genera and
+species, are some of a highly troublesome character, though on the
+whole, Mr Whymper did not find the flies and mosquitoes so. His
+explorations, however, did not extend to the eastern region, where
+the mosquitoes are usually described by travellers as extremely
+troublesome. Sand-flies are common, and in the eastern forests the
+tiny <i>piúm</i> fly (<i>Trombidium</i>, sp.?) is a veritable pest. Of the insects
+which infest dwellings and prey upon their human inmates, such
+as fleas, bed-bugs, roaches, &amp;c., Ecuador has more than a bountiful
+supply. Lice-eating is a widely prevalent habit among the Indians
+and mestizos, and demonstrates how numerous these parasites are
+among the people. A good illustration of the prevalence of house-infesting
+animals and insects is given by Mr Whymper (<i>op. cit.</i>
+p. 391), who made a collection of 50 different specimens of the
+vermin which infested his bedroom in Guayaquil.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Population.</i>&mdash;The indigenous population of Ecuador was
+originally composed of two distinct races&mdash;the Quitus and Caras,
+the former being the older, and the latter presumably of Quichua
+origin. The Caras, according to tradition, entered the country
+from the coast, and had thoroughly established themselves there
+long before the conquest by the Inca rulers Tupac-Yupanqui and
+his son Huayna-Capac. This conquest was comparatively easy
+because the Caras spoke a dialect of the same language, and were
+not greatly unlike their conquerors in manners and customs.
+The present Indian population of Ecuador, excepting those of
+the trans-Andean region, may be considered as descendants of
+these two races. They are subjected to incredible abuses under
+Spanish colonial rule, their numbers being reduced to a fraction
+of the former population, and even yet they are subjected to a
+kind of debt-bondage which is slavery in all but the name.
+Notwithstanding all this they still represent from two-thirds to
+three-fourths of the actual population of Ecuador. East of the
+Andes the forests are inhabited by tribes of what are termed
+&ldquo;aucas&rdquo; or &ldquo;infieles&rdquo; (infidels)&mdash;Indians who are independent
+of both church and political control. Missions have been established
+among some of the tribes, but their influence reaches only
+a small part of the wild inhabitants of this extensive region.</p>
+
+<p>The principal tribes are the Quijos or Canelos, who are settled
+about the headwaters of the Napo, on the eastern slopes of the
+Andes, and are in great part grouped about the missions; the
+Jivaros who inhabit the valley of the Pastaza; the Zaparos
+who occupy the forest region between the Pastaza and
+Napo; the Piojes of the middle Napo, and eastward to the
+Putumayo; and the Iquitos and Mazanes of the lower Napo and
+Tigre, chiefly in territory occupied by Peru. The Jivaros are the
+best known of these tribes because of their successful resistance
+to the Spanish invaders. They are still independent of political
+control, live in permanent settlements, till the soil (producing
+Indian corn, beans, yucca and plantains), and have developed
+some rude manufactures. The Zaparos are less homogeneous,
+some of their hordes living in a state of complete savagery. They
+are classified with the Guaranis of Brazil, whom they resemble
+in many particulars. The Piojes live in permanent communities
+and cultivate the soil. The total number of &ldquo;aucas&rdquo; or uncivilized
+Indians in the republic has been estimated at about
+200,000, but this estimate covered a larger area than Ecuador
+actually occupies and is evidently too high. Their settlements
+are usually small and very much scattered, and their aggregate
+number is evidently much under the earlier estimates. An
+official estimate given to Mr Whymper in 1880, however, places
+the population of Oriente (the eastern territory) at 80,000, which
+is probably more nearly correct.</p>
+
+<p>No general census has ever been taken in Ecuador, and
+estimates are little better than vague conjectures. One of these
+estimates, that published by P.F. Cevallos for 1889, which has
+been generally accepted, gave the total population as 1,272,161,
+and these figures have been used with but slight changes for
+various later estimates. A later official estimate appeared in
+1900 in <i>La République de l&rsquo;Équateur et sa participation à l&rsquo;Exposition
+Universelle de 1900</i>, which gives for the provinces
+practically the same figures as those of Cevallos, and at the same
+time assumes the total for the whole republic to be 1,500,000.
+The white population is estimated at 100,000 to 120,000, which
+probably includes many of mixed ancestry, and the mixed bloods
+at 300,000 to 450,000. The tendency is for the <i>mestizo</i> who
+dwells in Indian communities to revert to the Indian type, and
+it is probable that the larger estimate is nearer the truth. On
+the other hand <i>mestizos</i> who live among the whites and form new
+alliances with them eventually class themselves as whites wherever
+their social condition has been improved. As a rule, the
+<i>mestizos</i> of Ecuador are ignorant, indolent and non-progressive.
+As in Colombia they are the artizans and small traders and the
+Indians are the farm labourers. The land is held by a few proprietors,
+and caste sentiment is strong among those who claim
+unmixed European descent; consequently the <i>mestizos</i> have
+limited opportunities to improve their condition.</p>
+
+<p>The whites form an exclusive governing caste, as in Chile.
+The territory of the republic is divided among a very few of
+them, and its government is in their hands.</p>
+
+<p>In the hot seaboard districts there are a small number of
+negroes, and a somewhat larger number of their crosses with the
+other two races. The majority of these are to be found in the
+northern provinces. There are comparatively few negroes and
+mulattoes on the colder plateaus. Villavicencio estimated their
+numbers at 7831 pure negroes and 36,592 mixed bloods, which is
+probably not far from the correct totals.</p>
+
+<p>The foreign population is small, the total being estimated at
+about 6000, of which 5000 are natives of the neighbouring Latin
+republics, 700 Europeans and Americans, and 300 Chinese.</p>
+
+<p><i>Territorial Divisions and Towns.</i>&mdash;The republic is divided into
+15 provinces and one territory. The Galapagos Islands were
+declared a dependency of the province of Guayas in 1885, but are
+practically independent and constitute a second territory under
+the administration of <i>jefe territorial</i> appointed by the national
+executive.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The official estimate (<i>La République de l&rsquo;Équateur et sa participation
+à l&rsquo;Exposition Universelle de 1900</i>) gives the data for the provinces
+and their capitals, which are shown on the next page.</p>
+
+<p>These population figures are very nearly the same as those given
+by Cevállos for 1889. If the population of the Oriente be taken as
+80,000, the aggretate is very nearly the same. The population of
+the provincial capitals is in some cases over-estimated, especially
+for Guayaquil and Quito, neither of which could have had 50,000 at
+the date of this estimate. The population of Quito in May 1906 was
+50,841, of which 1365 were foreigners. As for the areas of the
+provinces the figures need not be questioned except those for the
+Oriente territory, which are much too large for the region actually
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page917" id="page917"></a>917</span>
+occupied by Ecuador, and for the Galapagos Islands which are
+described by competent authorities as 2400 sq. m. The population
+of these islands was 400 (principally convicts) on Chatham Island
+in 1901, about 115 on Albemarle and 3 on Charles Island in 1903.
+Besides the provincial capitals already noted, there are no large
+and important towns in the country. The largest of the smaller
+towns is probably Jipijapa, in the province of Manabi, which is
+the centre of the Panama hat industry and had in 1900 an estimated
+population of 6000, nearly all Indians.</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">Provinces.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Area.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Population.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Capital.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Population.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">sq. m.</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Carchi</td> <td class="tcc rb">1495</td> <td class="tcr rb">40,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">Tulcan</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Imbabura</td> <td class="tcc rb">2416</td> <td class="tcr rb">68,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">Ibarra</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Pichincha</td> <td class="tcc rb">6219</td> <td class="tcr rb">205,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">Quito</td> <td class="tcr rb">80,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Léon</td> <td class="tcc rb">2595</td> <td class="tcr rb">109,600</td> <td class="tcl rb">Latacunga</td> <td class="tcr rb">12,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Tunguragua</td> <td class="tcc rb">1686</td> <td class="tcr rb">103,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">Ambato</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Chimborazo</td> <td class="tcc rb">2990</td> <td class="tcr rb">122,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">Riobamba</td> <td class="tcr rb">12,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Bolivar</td> <td class="tcc rb">1260</td> <td class="tcr rb">43,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">Guaranda</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cañar</td> <td class="tcc rb">1519</td> <td class="tcr rb">64,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">Azogues</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Azuay</td> <td class="tcc rb">3874</td> <td class="tcr rb">132,400</td> <td class="tcl rb">Cuenca</td> <td class="tcr rb">30,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Loja</td> <td class="tcc rb">3707</td> <td class="tcr rb">66,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">Loja</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">El Oro</td> <td class="tcc rb">2340</td> <td class="tcr rb">32,600</td> <td class="tcl rb">Machala</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,200</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Guayas</td> <td class="tcc rb">8216</td> <td class="tcr rb">98,100</td> <td class="tcl rb">Guayaquil</td> <td class="tcr rb">60,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Los Rios</td> <td class="tcc rb">2296</td> <td class="tcr rb">32,800</td> <td class="tcl rb">Babahoyo</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Manabi</td> <td class="tcc rb">7893</td> <td class="tcr rb">64,100</td> <td class="tcl rb">Portoviejo</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Esmeraldas</td> <td class="tcc rb">5465</td> <td class="tcr rb">14,600</td> <td class="tcl rb">Esmeraldas</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Oriente (ter.)</td> <td class="tcc rb">unknown</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Galapagos Is.</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2865</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2,000</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">· ·</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><i>Communications.</i>&mdash;The first railway to be completed in Ecuador
+was the line between Guayaquil and Quito, 290 m. in length, the
+last section of which was formally opened at Quito on the 25th of
+June 1908. It belongs to an American company, and had been under
+construction for many years. Lines from Puerto Bolívar to Machala,
+province of El Oro, and another from Bahia de Caráquez to Chone,
+were under construction in 1908. Several lines were also projected,
+two to penetrate the Ecuadorean <i>montana</i>. There is only one
+highway in the country on which vehicles can be used, the paved
+road extending southward from Quito 115 m. on the Guayaquil
+route, which was begun by Garcia Moreno but has been allowed to
+fall into neglect. Other roads have been projected to the coast
+and one to the eastern territory. The ordinary roads are rough mule-tracks.
+These are difficult at all times, and in the rainy season are
+quite impassable. On the Pacific lowlands the rivers Guayas, Daule,
+Vinces and Yaguachi have about 200 m. of navigable channels in
+the rainy season, and are used for the transportation of produce and
+merchandise. There are also several short river channels along
+the coast which are used by planters for the same purpose. A great
+part of the country, however, is still compelled to use the most
+primitive means of communication&mdash;mule paths, fords in the smaller
+streams in the dry season, and rude suspension bridges across deep
+gorges and swift mountain torrents. The latter are usually constructed
+from the tough fibre of the <i>Agave americana</i> and consist
+of one or more cables. When of one cable, called the <i>taravita</i>, the
+passenger and his luggage are drawn across in a rude kind of basket
+suspended from it; but when two or more cables are used, transverse
+sticks of bamboo and reeds are laid upon them, forming a rude
+prototype of the regular suspension bridge. Such a bridge is called
+a <i>chimba-chaca</i>, and is very hazardous for an unpractised foot. In
+1907 there were 2564 m. of telegraph lines in operation, connecting
+Quito with all the principal towns. The national capital is connected
+with the submarine cable at Santa Elena (via Guayaquil) and at
+Tumaco, in Colombia. Guayaquil is provided with tramway and
+telephone lines. These public services are under the general supervision
+of the Minister of Public Instruction, Posts and Telegraphs.</p>
+
+<p><i>Commerce.</i>&mdash;Ecuador has no merchant marine beyond a few small
+vessels engaged in the coastwise traffic, some eighteen or twenty river
+steamers on the Guayas and its tributaries, and a number of steam
+launches, towboats and various descriptions of barges engaged in
+the transportation of produce and goods on the rivers. The ocean-going
+foreign trade of the country is carried wholly in foreign vessels,
+for the regular lines of which Guayaquil is a principal port of call.
+Less frequent calls are made at Esmeraldas and some of the other
+small ports on the coast, of which there are nine in all. Most of these
+are difficult of access and their trade is unimportant. The total trade
+of the republic in 1905, according to returns published by the
+Guayaquil Chamber of Commerce, amounted to only £3,429,955, of
+which £1,573,389 (15,733,891 sucrés) were credited to imports, and
+£1,856,566 (18,565,668 sucrés) to exports. Of these totals, all but
+£127,532 of the imports and £441,679 of the exports passed through
+the port of Guayaquil. The great poverty of the people has been a
+serious obstacle to the development of a larger commerce.</p>
+
+<p><i>Agriculture.</i>&mdash;The agricultural industries on which the export
+trade depends are almost wholly restricted to the western lowlands,
+and include cacao, coffee, cotton, sugar, tobacco, rice, yucca and
+sweet potatoes. The Guayas basin and the district about Machala
+are celebrated for their cacao, and produce about one-third of the
+world&rsquo;s supply. It is the staple product of the country. Coffee is
+produced on the lower slopes of the Cordilleras and is of excellent
+quality. The production is small, but would be increased at remunerative
+prices. During the American civil war the planters of
+Ecuador entered largely into the production of cotton, which at
+that time yielded large profits, but the industry has declined to very
+insignificant proportions since then because of inability to compete
+with the lower cost of production in the United States. The output
+of sugar and tobacco is small, but could be largely increased, as the
+conditions of soil and climate are favourable. Much of the sugar-cane
+produced is turned into rum, which is consumed in the country.
+The tobacco grown is of excellent quality. Efforts have been made
+to promote the cultivation of indigo, but without much success.
+On the uplands, wheat, Indian corn, oats, barley, potatoes and
+vegetables of many kinds are successfully cultivated, but wholly for
+home consumption. The vine is successfully grown in the warm
+upland valleys, both for its fruit and for the production of wine.
+The staple foods for the common people are potatoes on the plateau
+(which are chiefly consumed in the form of <i>locro</i>, or potato-soup)
+and yucca- or cassava-meal in the warmer regions. Although cattle
+and horses were not known before the Spanish conquest, they have
+become since then important products of the country. The best
+grazing lands are on the lower elevations west of the Cordilleras in
+certain districts of the plateau and on the slopes of some of the
+higher Andes, as on Chimborazo and Antisana. Horses and mules
+are reared for export on a small scale, and sheep for their wool,
+which is used in home manufactures.</p>
+
+<p><i>Forest Products.</i>&mdash;The forest and other natural products include
+rubber, cinchona bark, ivory-nuts, mocora and toquilla fibre for
+the manufacture of hats, hammocks, &amp;c., cabaya fibre for shoes
+and cordage, vegetable wool (<i>Bombax ceiba</i>), sarsaparilla, vanilla,
+cochineal, cabinet woods, fruit, resins, &amp;c. The original source of
+the Peruvian bark of commerce, the <i>Cinchona calisaya</i>, is completely
+exhausted, and the &ldquo;red bark&rdquo; derived from <i>C. succirubra</i>, is now
+the principal source of supply from Ecuador. Guaranda is the centre
+of the industry, but bark gatherers are to be found everywhere in the
+forest regions. The rubber-gathering industry is comparatively new.
+The product is derived from the <i>Castilloa elastica</i>, the <i>Heveas</i> not
+being found west of the Andes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Minerals.</i>&mdash;The mineral resources are much inferior to those of
+Colombia and Peru. Gold is found in the province of El Oro, where
+the great Zaruma and other companies have opened a number of
+mines. It is also found in the provinces of Loja, Esmeraldas, and in
+the river-beds along the eastern slopes of the Andes. Quicksilver
+has been mined at Azogues, in the province of Cañar, and is also to
+be found in Azuay. Iron ores and lead are credited to several
+provinces, and platinum has been found in Esmeraldas, where
+emerald mines have been worked ever since the Spanish conquest.
+Coal of good quality has been found in Azuay and at other points,
+and petroleum is known to exist in several localities. Salt springs
+near Riobamba and at Salinas, in Imbabura, have long been used
+by the natives in the manufacture of salt.</p>
+
+<p><i>Manufactures.</i>&mdash;The manufacturing industries are chiefly of a
+primitive character and have been developed to meet local necessities.
+There are some cotton factories and sugar mills provided with modern
+machinery, but the cotton and woollen cloths of the country are
+commonly coarse and manufactured in the most primitive manner.
+Some of these goods are sent into southern Colombia, but they are
+chiefly made for the local market. Hats and hammocks are made
+from the fibres of the mocora and toquilla palms, and sandals from
+the fibre of the <i>Agave americana</i>. The hats are an article of export,
+and are known abroad as Panama hats. Hand-made laces of
+admirable workmanship are made in some localities, especially on
+the plateau about Quito. Among other manufactories, all for the
+home market, may be mentioned: flour-mills, sugar refineries, rum
+distilleries, breweries, chocolate factories, a candle factory, saw-mills
+and tanneries.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Government.</i>&mdash;Constitutionally, the government of Ecuador is
+that of a centralized republic, whose powers are defined by a
+written constitution and whose chief organs are an executive
+consisting of a president and vice-president, and a national
+congress consisting of two houses, a senate and a chamber of
+deputies. Revolutionary changes, however, have been very
+frequent in Ecuador, and no less than eleven constitutions were
+adopted between 1830 and 1909.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The constitution adopted in 1906 succeeded that of 1884 (amended
+in 1887 and 1897), and its terms may be given here, subject to what
+may be regarded as the extra-constitutional powers vested in the
+executive. Executive power is vested in a president and vice-president
+elected for periods of four years by a direct vote of the
+people. (Under the constitution of 1884 the official terms of these
+two officers were not wholly synchronous, the vice-president&rsquo;s term
+beginning with the president&rsquo;s third year.) These officials cannot be
+re-elected to succeed themselves. The president, whose salary is
+12,000 sucrés per annum, has a limited veto power, and may convene
+extraordinary sessions of Congress for a specified purpose, but he
+has no further authority over that body. He appoints the diplomatic
+and consular representatives of the republic and the governors of the
+provinces, exercises a limited control over the administration of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page918" id="page918"></a>918</span>
+justice and public instruction through the appointment of officials,
+and is chief of the small military force maintained by the republic.
+The construction of railways with public funds and under government
+supervision also places him at the head of a very important public
+service. The president is assisted by a cabinet of five ministers:&mdash;foreign
+relations and justice; interior and public works; finance;
+war; public instruction, posts and telegraphs&mdash;all of whom may be
+impeached by congress. The executive authority is also partially
+exercised by a council of state composed of 15 members, including
+the five cabinet ministers, of which the vice-president is <i>ex-officio</i>
+president. The council has important advisory functions, and must
+be consulted by the president on every important measure or
+appointment. The provinces are administered by governors chosen
+by the national executive; the departments by <i>jefes politicos</i>
+(political chiefs); and the municipalities by <i>tenientes politicos</i>
+(political lieutenants). The Galapagos Islands are under a <i>jefe
+territorial</i> (territorial chief), Chatham Island being a penal colony
+and governed by special laws.</p>
+
+<p>The congressional organization is similar to that of the majority
+of South American states. The senate is composed of 32 members
+(2 from each province) elected for two years, one-half the number
+being renewed each two years. The chamber is composed of 42
+deputies, who are elected by the provinces for a period of two
+years, on a basis of one representative for each 30,000 inhabitants
+and one supplementary representative for an additional 15,000. A
+senator must be at least 35 years of age, and a deputy 25.
+The elections are direct, and members of both houses may be re-elected.
+The immunities of legislators begin 30 days before the
+opening session of congress, and terminate 30 days after its dissolution.
+Congress meets at Quito on the 10th of August, and
+remains in session for a period of 60 days, but its sessions may be
+extended or extraordinary sessions called for specified purposes.
+The right of suffrage is restricted to literate male adults.</p>
+
+<p>The judicial branch of the government is composed of a supreme
+court, located at Quito, consisting of 5 judges and a fiscal (public
+prosecutor) appointed by the executive; six superior courts (in
+Quito, Guayaquil, Cuenca, Riobamba, Loja and Portoviejo) with a
+total of 9 judges; <i>a Tribunal de Cuentas</i> of seven members at
+Quito; and various municipal courts, or <i>alcaldes</i>, in the chief towns
+of the departments. There are civil courts of first and second
+instance in the larger towns, and consular courts in Quito, Guayaquil
+and Cuenca with jurisdiction in commercial cases. There are also
+police commissaries in the departments and justices of the peace
+in the municipalities, the latter having jurisdiction in civil cases
+where the amount involved does not exceed 200 sucrés. The laws of
+Ecuador are based on the old Spanish laws and procedure, and include
+civil, criminal and commercial codes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Army.</i>&mdash;The army, according to an official report of 1900, consisted
+of 4 battalions of infantry (about 3690 strong), 3 brigades of artillery
+(1362), and 2 regiments of cavalry (468), in all, about 5520 men,
+rank and file. In 1908 this force was reported to comprise 4350 men.
+The national guard is composed of three classes: actives&mdash;all enrolled
+citizens of 20 to 38 years; auxiliaries&mdash;enrolled citizens of
+38 to 44 years; and passives&mdash;enrolled citizens of 44 to 50 years.
+These were estimated at 95,329 men. There is a military school
+at Quito and a naval school at Guayaquil.</p>
+
+<p><i>Education.</i>&mdash;Although primary instruction is free, and is obligatory
+for children of 6 to 12 years, a considerable part Of the population
+is unprovided with schools and is indifferent in regard to them.
+An official report for 1900 gives the number of primary schools as
+1297, and the number of pupils in attendance as about 80,000.
+The secondary schools numbered 37, with 371 teachers and about
+4500 pupils. Higher instruction includes the technical and professional
+schools with the three universities of Quito, Guayaquil and Cuenca,
+and 6 schools of &ldquo;trades and professions&rdquo; (<i>artes y oficios</i>) in as many
+provinces. The old University of Quito has a staff of 32 professors
+divided into 5 faculties: Philosophy and Belles-Lettres, Law,
+Medicine, Physical and Natural Sciences and Mathematics. There
+are also in Quito a school of agriculture, astronomical observatory,
+botanical garden, museum and national printing office, all
+apparently under the supervision of the University.</p>
+
+<p><i>Church.</i>&mdash;According to the constitution of 1884, &ldquo;the religion
+of the Republic is the Roman Catholic Apostolic, and all others
+are excluded.&rdquo; The only opposition which the Church has ever had
+to encounter has been from the &ldquo;liberal&rdquo; element within itself,
+and thus has arisen, seemingly from political motives, a desire to
+restrict clerical influence in political affairs. This influence has been
+exercised to an extreme in Ecuador, so much so, in fact, that its
+government at times was more nearly a theocracy than a republic.
+The growth of liberalism finally began to produce results. In 1889
+the tithes from which the Church revenues had been derived were
+abolished, and a tax of 3 per mil. on real estate was substituted.
+In 1902 a signal victory was won in a law permitting civil marriage,
+but in 1904 a social revolution was effected by legislation, which
+placed the Church under State control, forbade the foundation of
+new religious orders and admission into the country of new religious
+communities, and provided that the members of the episcopate must
+be citizens of Ecuador. The higher dignitaries of the Church are an
+archbishop at Quito, and six suffragan bishops at Cuenca, Loja,
+Ibarra, Riobamba, Guayaquil and Manabi.</p>
+
+<p><i>Finance.</i>&mdash;The revenues of the republic are derived from import
+and export duties, liquor, tobacco and stamp taxes, inheritance
+tax, salt, gunpowder and playing cards monopolies, consular charges,
+and sundry miscellaneous receipts, including those from posts,
+telegraphs and railways. Up to 1907 the customs duties were
+increased by surtaxes amounting at that time to 100%. The
+minister of finance proposed to abolish these surtaxes and double
+all the rates of duties involved. On exports, however, all the duties
+were to be abolished except those on cacao, coffee, hides, rubber,
+tagua (ivory nuts), hat fibre, hammock fibre and tobacco. For 1907
+the revenues were £1,424,770 and the expenditures £1,383,122.</p>
+
+<p>On the 10th of October 1906, when the report of the provisional
+government created by the revolution of the preceding January
+presented its financial report to a national assembly, the total
+obligations of the country were stated to be:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">Sucrés.&ensp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Railway bonds, 12,282,000 sucrés gold at 107% premium</td> <td class="tcr">25,423,740</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Banco del Ecuador, advances</td> <td class="tcr">3,000,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Banco Comercial y Agrocola, idem</td> <td class="tcr">2,400,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Internal debt</td> <td class="tcr">739,575</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Condor bonds</td> <td class="tcr">757,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">French Finance Corporation</td> <td class="tcr">887,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">Total</td> <td class="tcr">33,207,315</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;&emsp; In £ sterling at 10 sucrés per £</td> <td class="tcr">3,320,731</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">The foreign debt of the republic, which in 1898 stood at £693,160 in
+bonds, was assumed by the Guayaquil &amp; Quito Railway Co. under
+contracts of 1897, 1898, 1899 and 1900, the government guaranteeing
+interest on the sum of £2,520,000 railway mortgage bonds for 33
+years and recognizing the external debt at 35% of its face value.
+This debt originated in 1830, when Ecuador seceded from the Colombian
+confederacy and was charged with 21½% of the indebtedness
+of the three states. In 1855 the amount was fixed at £1,824,000,
+and in 1892 it was converted into a new consolidated debt of £750,000.
+Payments of interest and amortization had been very irregular, and
+its transfer to a foreign company as the price of a railway concession
+put an end to a transaction which had been a serious discredit to
+the country. The amount outstanding on the 31st of December
+1907 was 10,808,000 sucrés (£1,080,800). It should be said that the
+difficulties in regard to this debt arose from a feeling in Ecuador that
+the part assigned to it in 1830 was much too large, and that it was
+contracted almost wholly for the benefit of the two northern
+republics, Colombia and Venezuela.</p>
+
+<p><i>Money and Measures.</i>&mdash;Under the law of 1898, which came into
+effect on the 4th of June 1900, gold is made the monetary standard
+in Ecuador, the legal tender of silver being limited to 10 sucrés,
+and banks of issue being required to hold at least one-half their
+metallic reserves in gold coin. Previously there had been much
+confusion in the circulating medium because of the depreciated
+value of the Quito currency in comparison with that of Guayaquil,
+but the new law has corrected the anomaly and has given a simple
+and uniform medium for the whole country. The coinage under
+the law of 1898 consists of the gold <i>condor</i>, of 10 <i>sucrés</i>, which weighs
+8.136 grams, contains 7.3224 grams of fine gold, and is equal to the
+English pound sterling in value; the silver <i>sucré</i>, of 100 centavos,
+equivalent to 24d. in value; and smaller coins of silver, nickel and
+copper, the denominations being decimal parts of the sucré. The
+sucré received its name from the portrait of General Sucré engraved
+on the coin, and is legal tender up to 10 sucrés. The paper money
+circulation consists of the issues of two Guayaquil banks&mdash;the
+Banco del Ecuador, and the Banco Comercial y Agricola, whose
+united issues on June 30th, 1906, amounted to 7,414,140 sucrés
+(£741,414). The Bank of Quito at one time issued notes which,
+according to Whymper, were not current at and south of Riobamba,
+but it does not appear that this bank is authorized to issue
+its notes under the new law. The metallic money nominally in
+circulation on the 30th of June 1906, amounted to 2,587,667 sucrés
+gold and 2,522,802 sucrés silver. Although the metric system was
+adopted in 1856, the old Spanish weights and measures&mdash;the quintal,
+libra, vara and fanega&mdash;are still in use, the quintal being equivalent
+to about 101 &#8468;</p>
+
+<p><i>Antiquities.</i>&mdash;Throughout Ecuador there are still considerable
+remains of the architectural and artistic skill of the ante-European
+period. At Cañar, to the north-east of Cuenca, stands the Incapirca,
+a circular rampart of finely hewn stone, enclosing an open area with
+a roofless but well-preserved building in the centre; not far off is the
+Inca-chungana, a very much smaller enclosure, probably the remains
+of a pavilion; and in the same neighbourhood the image of the sun
+and a small cabinet are carved on the face of a rock called Intihuaicu.
+On one of the hills running from Pichincha to the Esmeraldas
+there are remains at Paltatamba of a temple and a conical tower,
+the buttresses of a bridge composed of stone and bitumen, portions
+of a great causeway, and numerous tombs from which mummies
+and plates of silver have been obtained. At Hantuntaqui similar
+sepulchral mounds, called <i>tolas</i>, may be seen, as well as traces of
+military structures. On the plain of Callo, near Cotopaxi, at a
+height of 8658 ft., the ruins of an Incarial palace, Pachusala, are
+utilized by the <i>hacienda</i>; and a conical hill at its side is supposed to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page919" id="page919"></a>919</span>
+be of artificial construction. The remains of another fortress and
+palace are preserved at Pomallacta, and in the neighbouring
+pueblo of Achupallas an ancient temple of the sun now serves as
+parish church. In many localities, especially in Imbabura, pottery
+and various objects are found belonging to the pre-Colombian
+period, among which five and six rayed stars (<i>casse-têtes</i>) are very
+numerous.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. J. L.)</div>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;The territory of the republic of Ecuador, when first
+it becomes dimly visible in the grey dawn of American history,
+appears to be inhabited by upwards of fifty independent tribes,
+among which the Quitus seem to hold the most important
+position. About <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 280 a foreign tribe is said to have forced
+their way inland up the valley of the Esmeraldas; and the
+kingdom which they founded at Quito lasted for about 1200
+years, and was gradually extended, both by war and alliance,
+over many of the neighbouring dominions. In 1460, during the
+reign of the fourteenth <i>Caran Shyri</i>, or king of the Cara nation,
+Hualcopo Duchisela, the conquest of Quito was undertaken by
+Tupac Yupanqui, the Inca of Peru; and his ambitious schemes
+were, not long after his death, successfully carried out by his son
+Huayna-Capac, who inflicted a decisive defeat on the Quitonians
+in the battle of Hatuntaqui, and secured his position by marrying
+Pacha, the daughter of the late Shyri. By his will the conqueror
+left the kingdom of Quito to Atahuallpa, his son by this alliance;
+while the Peruvian throne was assigned to Huascar, an elder son
+by his Peruvian consort. War soon broke out between the two
+kingdoms, owing to Huascar&rsquo;s pretensions to supremacy over his
+brother; but it ended in the defeat and imprisonment of the
+usurper, and the establishment of Atahuallpa as master both of
+Quito and Cuzco. The fortunate monarch, however, had not
+long to enjoy his success; for Pizarro and his Spaniards were
+already at the door, and by 1533 the fate of the country was
+sealed. As soon as the confusions and rivalries of the first
+occupation were suppressed, the recent kingdom of Quito was
+made a presidency of the Spanish viceroyalty of Peru, and no
+change of importance took place till 1710. In that year it was
+attached to the viceroyalty of Santa Fé; but it was restored to
+Peru in 1722. When, towards the close of the century, the desire
+for independence began to manifest itself throughout the Spanish
+colonies of South America, Quito did not remain altogether
+indifferent. The Quitonian doctor Eugenio Espejo, and his
+fellow-citizen Don Juan Pio Montufar, entered into hearty co-operation
+with Nariño and Zea, the leaders of the revolutionary
+movement at Santa Fé; and it was at Espejo&rsquo;s suggestion that
+the political association called the <i>Escuela de Concordia</i> was
+instituted at Quito. It was not till 1809, however, that the
+Quitonians made a real attempt to throw off the Spanish yoke;
+and both on that occasion and in 1812 the royal general succeeded
+in crushing the insurrection. In 1820 the people of Guayaquil
+took up the cry of liberty; and in spite of several defeats they
+continued the contest, till at length, under Antonio José de
+Sucré, who had been sent to their assistance by Bolivar, and
+reinforced by a Peruvian contingent under Andres de Santa
+Cruz, they gained a complete victory on May 22, 1822, in a battle
+fought on the side of Mount Pichincha, at a height of 10,200 ft.
+above the sea. Two days after, the Spanish president of Quito,
+Don Melchor de Aymeric, capitulated, and the independence of
+the country was secured. A political union was at once effected
+with New Granada and Venezuela on the basis of the republican
+constitution instituted at Cucuta in July 1821&mdash;the triple confederation
+taking the name of Colombia.</p>
+
+<p>A disagreement with Peru in 1828 resulted in the invasion of
+Ecuador and the temporary occupation of Cuenca and Guayaquil
+by Peruvian forces; but peace was restored in the following
+year after the Ecuadorian victory at Tarqui. In the early part of
+1830 a separation was effected from the Colombian federation,
+and the country was proclaimed an independent republic.
+General Juan José Flores was the first president, and in spite of
+many difficulties, both domestic and foreign, he managed to
+maintain a powerful position in the state for about 15 years.
+Succeeded in 1835 by Vicente Rocafuerte, he regained the presidency
+in 1839, and was elected for the third time in 1843; but
+shortly afterwards he accepted the title of generalissimo and a
+sum of 20,000 pesos, and left the country to his rivals. One of
+the most important measures of his second presidency was the
+establishment of peace and friendship with Spain. Roca, who
+next attained to power, effected a temporary settlement with
+Colombia, concluded a convention with England against the
+slave trade, and made a commercial treaty with Belgium. Diego
+Noboa, elected in 1850 after a period of great confusion, recalled
+the Jesuits, produced a rupture with New Granada by receiving
+conservative refugees, and thus brought about his own deposition
+and exile. The democratic Urbina now became practically
+dictator, and as the attempt of Flores to reinstate Noboa proved
+a total failure, he was quickly succeeded in 1856 by General
+Francisco Robles, who, among other progressive measures,
+secured the adoption of the French system of coinage, weights
+and measures. He abdicated in 1859 and left the country, after
+refusing to ratify the treaty with Peru, by which the defender
+of Guayaquil had obtained the raising of the siege. Dr Gabriel
+Garcia Moreno, professor of chemistry, the recognized leader
+of the conservative party at Quito, was ultimately elected by the
+national convention of 1861. Distrust in his policy, however, was
+excited by the publication of some of his private correspondence,
+in which he spoke favourably of a French protectorate, and the
+army which he sent under Flores to resist the encroachments of
+Mosquera, the president of New Granada, was completely routed.
+His first resignation in 1864 was refused; but the despotic acts
+by which he sought to establish a dictatorship only embittered
+his opponents, and in September 1865 he retired from office.
+While he had endeavoured to develop the material resources of
+the country, he had at the same time introduced retrograde
+measures in regard to religion and education. The principal
+event in the short presidency of his successor, Gerónimo Carrion
+(May 1865-Nov. 1867), was the alliance with Chile and Peru
+against Spain, and the banishment of all Spanish subjects.
+Several important changes were made by congress in the period
+between his resignation and the election of Xavier Espinosa,
+January 1868: the power of the president to imprison persons
+regarded as dangerous to public order was annulled; and the
+immediate naturalization of Bolivians, Chilians, Peruvians and
+Colombians was authorized. Espinosa had hardly entered on his
+office when, in August 1868, the country was visited by an earthquake,
+in which 30,000 people are said to have perished throughout
+South America. The public buildings of Quito were laid in
+ruins; and Ibarra, Otavalo, Cotacachi and several other towns
+were completely destroyed. Next year a revolution at Quito,
+under Moreno, brought Espinosa&rsquo;s presidency to a close; and
+though the national convention appointed Carvajal to the vacant
+office, Moreno succeeded in securing his own election in 1870 for
+a term of six years. His policy had undergone no alteration since
+1865: the same persistent endeavour was made to establish a
+religious despotism, in which the supremacy of the president
+should be subordinate only to the higher supremacy of the clergy.</p>
+
+<p>President Moreno was eventually assassinated at Quito, in
+August 1875, and Dr Borrero was elected to the presidency, but
+his tenure of power was short. A revolution headed by General
+Veintemilla, the Radical leader, then military commandant at
+Guayaquil, broke out in 1876, and on the 14th of December of
+that year the government forces under General Aparicio were
+completely routed at Galte. Veintemilla was proclaimed president,
+and in 1877 was duly elected by the cortes. He altered
+the constitution in a more Liberal direction, and struck various
+blows at the Clerical party, among other things abolishing the
+concordat with Rome. In 1878 Veintemilla caused himself to be
+declared elected as president for a term of four years. At the
+expiration of this period the president assumed dictatorial powers
+and remained in office as chief of the executive. This action on
+the part of General Veintemilla led to a union between the
+Clericals and Moderate Liberals, and resulted in a popular rising
+throughout the republic, ending in his defeat and overthrow.
+His power was first restricted to Guayaquil and Esmeraldas, and
+finally General Rinaldo Flores drove him from Guayaquil, and
+Veintemilla fled (July 1883) to Peru. Dr Placido Caamaño was
+then called upon to take charge temporarily, and on the 17th of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page920" id="page920"></a>920</span>
+February 1884 was definitely elected for the presidential period
+terminating in 1888. Several revolutionary outbreaks occurred
+during the Caamaño administration, but were successfully
+suppressed. In 1888 Dr Antonio Flores succeeded Caamaño, the
+four years following being passed in peaceful conditions. In
+1892 Dr Luis Cordero was elected, his administration again
+plunging the country into an epoch of internal disturbance.</p>
+
+<p>The cause of the troubles under President Cordero was the
+assistance lent by Ecuador to Chile in the matter of the sale of the
+cruiser <i>Esmeralda</i> to the Japanese government in 1894, in the
+middle of the Japanese-Chinese War. The government of Chile
+arranged the sale of the <i>Esmeralda</i>, but wished to be free from all
+danger of international complications in the affair. To this end
+the transfer of the vessel was made to Ecuador, and she proceeded
+to Ecuadorian waters. On arriving at the Galapagos Islands the
+flag of Ecuador was replaced by that of Japan and the vessel
+handed over to the representatives of that nation sent for the
+purpose. When the part played by President Cordero in this
+transaction became known, an outburst of popular indignation
+occurred. An insurrection, headed by General Eloy Alfaro,
+followed; and after desultory skirmishing extending over a
+period of nearly a year the government forces were finally
+routed, President Cordero abandoning his office and escaping
+from the country.</p>
+
+<p>General Alfaro then assumed dictatorial powers as supreme
+chief of the nation, continuing in this capacity until the 6th of
+February 1897, on which date he was declared to be elected
+president of the republic. A series of revolutionary movements
+against the administration of President Alfaro occurred in the
+course of the next few years. Many of these risings were due to
+the intrigues of the Church party, and in view of these circumstances
+President Alfaro curtailed the influence of the clergy in
+several directions. On the 31st of August 1901 General Alfaro
+peacefully handed over the presidency to his elected successor,
+General Leonidas Plaza.</p>
+
+<p>General Plaza continued the anticlerical policy of his predecessor.
+Civil marriage and divorce were introduced, and in
+1904 all religions were placed on a position of equality in the eye
+of the law, and the foundation of new monasteries and convents
+was forbidden. The final year of Plaza&rsquo;s tenure of office was
+marked by a still stronger measure, all the property of the church
+being declared to be national property, and let to the highest
+bidders. In 1905 the Opposition made an effort to effect a change
+of policy, and were successful in obtaining the election of Lizaro
+Garcia, a well-to-do merchant and a director of the Banco commercial
+y Agricola. General Alfaro, however, appealed to arms,
+ejected Garcia from office, and made himself ruler with practically
+dictatorial powers.</p>
+
+<p>The more recent history of Ecuador would not be complete
+without a reference to the work of Mr Archer Harman (b. 1860),
+an American railway builder and financier whose connexion with
+the construction of the Guayaquil and Quito railway began in
+1897. To his personal energy and enterprise, as manager of the
+railway company, was largely due the continued prosecution of
+this difficult engineering undertaking, in connexion with which
+he was responsible for a thorough reconstruction of Ecuador
+finance. He thus came to exercise a powerful influence on the
+internal progress of the country.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See C.E. Akers, <i>History of South America, 1854-1904</i> (London,
+1904); H.W. Bates, <i>Central and South America</i> (London, 1882);
+Pedro F. Cevallos, <i>Resumen de la historia del Ecuador</i> (Guayaquil,
+1886); Hans Meyer, <i>In den Hoch-Anden von Ecuador</i> (Berlin 1907);
+A.H. Keane, <i>Stanford&rsquo;s Compendium</i>, vol. i. (1904); W. Reiss and
+A. Stübel, <i>Das Hochgebirge der Republik Ecuador</i> (Berlin, 1892-1898);
+Edward Whymper, <i>Travels amongst the Great Andes of the
+Equator</i> (London, 1892); T. Wolf, <i>Geografia y geologia del Ecuador</i>
+(Leipzig, 1892); A. Stübel, <i>Skizzen aus Ecuador</i> (Berlin, 1886); <i>Die
+Vulkanberge von Ecuador</i> (Berlin, 1897); <i>Handbook of Ecuador</i>
+(Bureau of the American Republics, Washington, 1892); <i>The
+World&rsquo;s Work</i>, vol. ii. pp. 1271-1277; <i>Engineering News</i> (New York),
+vol. 52, pp. 117-119; <i>Bulletin of Internat. Bureau of American
+Republics</i> for July 1900, p. 26, and for August 1908, pp. 280-282;
+<i>Thirty-fifth Annual Report of the Council of Foreign Bondholders</i>,
+pp. 115, 117.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See J. Siemiradzki, &ldquo;Geologische Reisenotizen aus Ecuador,&rdquo;
+<i>Neues Jahrb. f. Min.</i>, Beil. Band iv. (1886, pp. 195-227, pl. vii.);
+Th. Wolf, <i>Geografia y geologia del Ecuador, publicada por orden del
+Supremo Gobierno de la Republica</i> (Leipzig, 1892); W. Reiss and
+A. Stübel, <i>Reisen in Sud-America. Das Hochgebirge der Republik
+Ecuador</i> (Berlin, 1892-1902).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ECZEMA<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="ekzema">&#7956;&#954;&#950;&#949;&#956;&#945;</span>, a cutaneous eruption), one of the most
+common and important of all skin diseases, consisting of a
+catarrhal inflammation of the skin originating without visible
+external irritation, and characterized in some stage of its
+evolution by a serous exudation. This definition excludes all
+those forms of inflammation of the skin (dermatitis), which though
+they may be identical in course and manifestation are yet caused
+by chemical or mechanical irritants. For an attack of eczema
+two conditions are necessary: a predisposition or special irritability
+of the skin, and a directly exciting cause. The first of these
+conditions is usually inherited or depends on some underlying
+constitutional state. Thus any organic lesion which may produce
+oedema and malnutrition of the cutis and epidermis as in kidney
+diseases, any condition of imperfect metabolism as in dyspepsia
+or malnutrition, or seborrhoea, may be the predisposing cause.
+Another influence that has received increasing attention from
+skin specialists is that of any nervous shock or prolonged mental
+strain. A &ldquo;chill&rdquo; is followed in most people by an ordinary
+cold, but in some by an attack of eczema. Again, it may be caused
+by reflex nervous irritation from the uterus, stomach, &amp;c. In
+some women it always accompanies menstruation, and in others
+pregnancy. It is of common occurrence in infancy, being
+attributed by some specialists to dentition, but by others to
+seborrhoea. Also there is an undoubted relationship between
+eczema and certain forms of functional neurosis, of which perhaps
+asthma is the most striking illustration, some physicians considering
+the latter trouble to be eczema of the bronchial tubes.
+Sufferers from rheumatism and gout are also specially prone to
+eczema, though the exact relationship is a much disputed point.
+There are yet other cases that are undoubtedly microbic, but the
+micro-organism cannot produce the lesion unless the soil is
+suitable. As a rule it is not contagious, though when complicated
+by micro-organisms it may be auto-inoculable, or more rarely
+inoculable from one patient to another. Except between the
+ages of ten and twenty years when menstruation is becoming
+established, and again at the menopause, males are more liable
+to be attacked than females. In old age the sex influence is lost.</p>
+
+<p>An attack of eczema is usually described as acute or chronic,
+but the only distinction lies in the greater or less intensity of the
+inflammation at the time of description: it has nothing to do
+with the length of time that the disease has lasted. The illness
+usually begins with a feeling of itching and burning at the site of
+the lesion. The skin becomes covered with an erythematous blush,
+on which numerous tiny vesicles form. Swelling, heat, redness
+and tension are all present. The vesicles grow larger, run
+together, and either burst or are broken by the patient&rsquo;s scratching,
+a clear fluid exuding which stiffens linen. The discharge
+does not dry up at once, but continues to exude&mdash;hence the name
+of &ldquo;weeping eczema&rdquo; when this is a prominent symptom. In
+mild cases the symptoms begin to subside in a few days, the
+exudation growing less and scales and scabs forming, under
+which new skin is formed. But where the attack is more acute
+fresh crops of vesicles spring up and the process repeats itself.
+In some cases papules are the predominant lesions, but in others,
+especially when the face is attacked, the erythematous condition
+is more marked. A severe attack of eczema is usually
+accompanied by some slight constitutional disturbance, but the
+general health seldom suffers appreciably, unless, as occasionally,
+the itching is so bad as to make sleep impossible. The irritation
+and local heat may be out of all proportion to visible changes in
+the skin, and in neurotic patients the nervous excitement may
+be extreme. The attack may centre itself on any part of the
+body, but there are certain places where it more usually begins,
+such as the bends of the elbows, the backs of the knees and the
+groins; the groove behind the ears, the scalp, the palms or the
+soles, and the breasts of women. According to its position the
+form of the eczema is somewhat modified. On the front of
+the legs and arms, from the uniform redness it exhibits in these
+positions, it is known as eczema rubrum. On the scalp it is
+generally of the seborrhoeic type, and in children, especially
+when pediculi are present, it will become pustular from microbic
+infection. On the palms and soles it brings about a thickening
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page921" id="page921"></a>921</span>
+of the epidermis which leads to the formation of cracks, and is
+hence called eczema rimosum.</p>
+
+<p>The disease can best be treated by a combination of internal and
+external remedies. Internally, when the inflammation is acute,
+nothing is so good as antimony, since this relieves the arterial
+tension and thus reduces the local inflammation. But this must
+never be given when the patient is suffering from depression.
+In other cases, especially for babies and children, small doses of
+calomel are very beneficial; strychnine, phosphorus and ergot
+are all useful at times. When nervous excitement is marked it
+must be treated with sedatives. Arsenic and iron are both contra-indicated
+in this disease, since they increase blood formation and
+hence stimulate the eczematous process. Internal treatment is
+always best when combined with local treatment, but as a
+preliminary to this all crusts and scales must first be removed to
+allow the remedy free access to the disease. Locally the aim is
+(1) to overcome any source of irritation, (2) to protect the inflamed
+surface from the air and from microbic infection, and (3) to relieve
+the itching. The diet should be simple but nourishing, and all
+hygienic precautions must be taken.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDAM,<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> a town of Holland in the province of North Holland,
+close to the Zuider Zee, about 13 m. N.N.E. of Amsterdam by
+steam tramway. It is connected with the Zuider Zee by a fine
+canal protected by a large sea-lock (1828), and has regular
+steam-boat communication in various directions. Pop. (1900)
+6444. The many quaint old brick houses form the chief feature
+of interest in the town. The façades are frequently adorned
+with carvings and inscriptions, one of which records the
+legend of the capture of a siren in 1403, who lived for some
+time among the people of Edam, but escaped again to the sea.
+The Great Church of St Nicholas, probably founded in the 14th
+century, was largely rebuilt after a fire in 1602, which, originating
+in the church, destroyed nearly the whole town. It contains
+some fine stained glass and carved woodwork of this period.
+The Little Church (15th century) was demolished in 1883,
+except for a portion of the nave and the old tower and steeple,
+from which the bells curiously project. The town hall dates
+from 1737, and there is a museum founded in 1895. Edam has
+some trade in timber, while shipbuilding, rope-spinning and
+salt-boiling are also carried on. It gives its name to the description
+of &ldquo;sweet-milk cheese&rdquo; (<i>zoetemelks kaas</i>) made throughout
+North Holland, which is familiar on account of its round shape
+and red rind.</p>
+
+<p>Edam took its name and origin from the dam built on the
+little river Ye which joined the great Purmer lake close by.
+Free access to the Zuider Zee was obtained by the construction
+of a new dock in 1357, in which year the town also received civic
+rights from William V. of Bavaria, count of Holland. Owing
+to the danger of the extension of the Purmer and Beemster lakes,
+Philip II. of Spain caused a sluice to be built into the dock in
+1567. In the next century Edam was a great shipbuilding centre,
+and nearly the whole of Admiral de Ruyter&rsquo;s fleet was built here;
+but in the same century the harbour began to get blocked up, and
+the importance and industrial activity of the city slowly waned.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDDA,<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> the title given to two very remarkable collections of
+old Icelandic literature. Of these only one bears that title from
+antiquity; the other is called <i>Edda</i> by a comparatively modern
+misnomer. The word is unknown to any ancient northern
+language, and is first met with in <i>Rigspula</i>, a fragmentary poem
+at the end of Codex Wormianus, dated about 1200, where it is
+introduced as the name or title of a great-grandmother. From
+the 14th to the 17th century, this word&mdash;but no one has formed
+a reasonable conjecture why&mdash;was used to signify the technical
+laws of Icelandic court metre, <i>Eddu regla</i>, and &ldquo;Never to have
+seen Edda&rdquo; was a modest apology for ignorance of the highest
+poetic art. The only work known by this name to the ancients
+was the miscellaneous group of writings put together by Snorri
+Sturlason (<i>q.v.</i>; 1178-1241), the greatest name in old Scandinavian
+literature. It is believed that the <i>Edda</i>, as he left it,
+was completed about 1222. Whether he gave this name to the
+work is doubtful; the title first occurs in the Upsala Codex,
+transcribed about fifty years after his death. The collection
+of Snorri is now known as the <i>Prose or Younger Edda</i>, the title
+of the <i>Elder Edda</i> being given to a book of ancient mythological
+poems, discovered by the Icelandic bishop of Skálaholt, Brynjulf
+Sveinsson, in 1643, and erroneously named by him the <i>Edda of
+Saemund</i>.</p>
+
+<p>1. The Prose <i>Edda</i>, properly known as <i>Edda Snorra Sturlusonar</i>,
+was arranged and modified by Snorri, but actually composed,
+as has been conjectured, between the years 1140 and 1160.
+It is divided into five parts, the Preface or <i>Formáli</i>, <i>Gylfaginning</i>,
+<i>Bragaraeður</i>, <i>Skáldskaparmál</i> and <i>Háttatal</i>. The preface bears
+a very modern character, and simply gives a history of the world
+from Adam and Eve, in accordance with the Christian tradition.
+<i>Gylfaginning</i>, or the Delusion of Gylfi, on the other hand, is the
+most precious compendium which we possess of the mythological
+system of the ancient inhabitants of Scandinavia. Commencing
+with the adventures of a mythical king Gylfi and the giantess
+Gefion, and the miraculous formation of the island of Zealand,
+it tells us that the Aesir, led by Odin, invaded Svithjod or Sweden,
+the land of Gylfi, and settled there. It is from the <i>Ynglingasaga</i>
+and from the <i>Gylfaginning</i> that we gain all the information we
+possess about the conquering deities or heroes who set their
+stamp upon the religion of the North. Advancing from the
+Black Sea northwards through Russia, and westward through
+Esthonia, the Aesir seem to have overrun the south lands of
+Scandinavia, not as a horde but as an immigrant aristocracy.
+The Eddaic version, however, of the history of the gods is not so
+circumstantial as that in the <i>Ynglingasaga</i>; it is, on the other
+hand, distinguished by an exquisite simplicity and archaic force
+of style, which give an entirely classical character to its mythical
+legends of Odin and of Loki. The <i>Gylfaginning</i> is written in
+prose, with brief poetic insertions. The <i>Bragaraeður</i>, or sayings
+of Bragi, are further legends of the deities, attributed to Bragi,
+the god of poetry, or to a poet of the same name. The <i>Skáldskaparmál</i>,
+or Art of Poetry, commonly called <i>Skálda</i>, contains the
+instructions given by Bragi to Aegir, and consists of the rules
+and theories of ancient verse, exemplified in copious extracts
+from Eyvindr Skáldaspillir and other eminent Icelandic poets.
+The word <i>Skáldskapr</i> refers to the form rather than the substance
+of verse, and this treatise is almost solely technical in character.
+It is by far the largest of the sections of the <i>Edda</i> of Snorri, and
+comprises not only extracts but some long poems, notably the
+<i>Thorsdrapa</i> of Eilifr Guðrúnarson and the <i>Haustlaung</i> of Thjóðólfr.
+The fifth section of the <i>Edda</i>, the <i>Háttatal</i>, or Number of Metres,
+is a running technical commentary on the text of Snorri&rsquo;s three
+poems written in honour of Haakon, king of Norway. Affixed
+to some MS. of the <i>Younger Edda</i> are a list of poets, and a number
+of philological treatises and grammatical studies. These belong,
+however, to a later period than the life of Snorri Sturlason.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The three oldest MSS. of the prose <i>Edda</i> all belong to the beginning
+of the 14th century. The Wurm MS. was sent to Ole Wurm in
+1628; the Codex Regius was discovered by the indefatigable bishop
+Brynjulf Sveinsson in 1640. The most important, however, of these
+MSS. is the Upsala Codex, an octavo volume written probably about
+the year 1300. There have been several good editions of the <i>Edda
+Snorra Sturlusonar</i>, of which perhaps the best is that published by
+the Arne-Magnaean Society in Copenhagen in 1848-1852, in two vols.,
+edited by a group of scholars under the direction of Jón Sigurdsson.
+There are English translations by T. Percy, <i>Northern Antiquities</i>,
+from the French by P.H. Mallet (1770); by G. Webbe Dasent
+(Stockholm, 1842); by R.B. Anderson (Chicago, 1880).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>2. The Elder <i>Edda</i>, Poetic <i>Edda</i> or <i>Saemundar Edda hins
+froða</i> was entirely unknown until about 1643, when it came into
+the hands of Brynjulf Sveinsson, who, puzzled to classify it,
+gave it the title of <i>Edda Saemundi multiscii</i>. Saemund Sigfusson,
+who was thus credited with the collection of these poems, was a
+scion of the royal house of Norway, and lived from about 1055
+to 1132 in Iceland. The poems themselves date in all probability
+from the 10th and 11th centuries, and are many of them only
+fragments of longer heroic chants now otherwise entirely lost.
+They treat of mythical and religious legends of an early Scandinavian
+civilization, and are composed in the simplest and most
+archaic forms of Icelandic verse. The author of no one of them
+is mentioned. It is evident that they were collected from oral
+tradition; and the fact that the same story is occasionally
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page922" id="page922"></a>922</span>
+repeated, in varied form, and that some of the poems themselves
+bear internal evidence of being more ancient than others, proves
+that the present collection is only a gathering made early in the
+middle ages, long after the composition of the pieces, and in
+no critical spirit. Sophus Bugge, indeed, one of the greatest
+authorities, absolutely rejects the name of Saemund, and is of
+opinion that the poetic <i>Edda</i>, as we at present hold it, dates
+from about 1240. There is no doubt that it was collected in
+Iceland, and by an Icelander.</p>
+
+<p>The most remarkable and the most ancient of the poems in this
+priceless collection is that with which it commences, the <i>Völuspá</i>,
+or prophecy of the Völva or Sibyl. In this chant we listen to an
+inspired prophetess, &ldquo;seated on her high seat, and addressing
+Odin, while the gods listen to her words.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>She sings of the world before the gods were made, of the
+coming and the meeting of the Aesir, of the origin of the giants,
+dwarfs and men, of the happy beginning of all things, and the
+sad ending that shall be in the chaos of Ragnarök. The latter
+part of the poem is understood to be a kind of necromancy&mdash;according
+to Vigfusson, &ldquo;the raising of a dead völva&rdquo;; but
+the mystical language of the whole, its abrupt transitions and
+terse condensations, and above all the extinct and mysterious
+cosmology, an acquaintance with which it presupposes, make
+the exact interpretation of the <i>Völuspá</i> extremely difficult.
+The charm and solemn beauty of the style, however, are irresistible,
+and we are constrained to listen and revere as if we were
+the auditors of some fugual music devised in honour of a primal
+and long-buried deity. The melodies of this earliest Icelandic
+verse, elaborate in their extreme and severe simplicity, are
+wholly rhythmical and alliterative, and return upon themselves
+like a solemn incantation. <i>Hávamál</i>, the Lesson of the High
+One, or Odin, follows next; this contains proverbs and wise
+saws, and a series of stories, some of them comical, told by Odin
+against himself. The <i>Vafprúðnismál</i>, or Lesson of Vafprúðnir,
+is written in the same mystical vein as <i>Völuspá</i>; in it the giant
+who gives his name to the poem is visited by Odin in disguise,
+and is questioned by him about the cosmogony and chronology
+of the Norse religion. <i>Grimnismál</i>, or the Sayings of The
+Hooded One, which is partly in prose, is a story of Odin&rsquo;s imprisonment
+and torture by King Geirr&#333;d. <i>För Skirnis</i>, or the
+Journey of Skirnir, <i>Harbarðslióð</i>, or the Lay of Hoarbeard,
+<i>Hymiskviða</i>, or the Song of Hymir, and <i>Aegisdrekka</i>, or the
+Brewing of Aegir, are poems, frequently composed as dialogue,
+containing legends of the gods, some of which are so ludicrous
+that it has been suggested that they were intentionally burlesque.
+<i>Thrymskviða</i>, or the Song of Thrym, possesses far more poetic
+interest; it recounts in language of singular force and directness
+how Thor lost his hammer, stolen by Thrym the giant, how the
+latter refused to give it up unless the goddess Freyia was given
+him in marriage, and how Thor, dressed in women&rsquo;s raiment,
+personated Freyia, and, slaying Thrym, recovered his hammer.
+<i>Alvíssmál</i>, or the Wisdom of Allwise, is actually a philological
+exercise under the semblance of a dialogue between Thor and
+Alvis the dwarf. In <i>Vegtamskviða</i>, or the Song of Vegtam,
+Odin questions a völva with regard to the meaning of the sinister
+dreams of Balder. <i>Rígsmál</i>, or more properly <i>Rígspula</i>, records
+how the god Heimdall, disguised as a man called Rig, wandered
+by the sea-shore, where he met the original dwarf pair, Ai and
+Edda, to whom he gave the power of child-bearing, and thence
+sprung the whole race of thralls; then he went on and met with
+Afi and Amma, and made them the parents of the race of churls;
+then he proceeded until he came to Faðir and Moðir, to whom
+he gave Jarl, the first of free men, whom he himself brought up,
+teaching him to shoot and snare, and to use the sword and runes.
+It is much to be lamented that of this most characteristic and
+picturesque poem we possess only a fragment. In <i>Hyndluljóð</i>,
+the Lay of Hyndla, the goddess Freyia rides to question the
+völva Hyndla with regard to the ancestry of her young paramour
+Ottar; a very fine quarrel ensues between the prophetess and
+her visitor. With this poem, the first or wholly mythological
+portion of the collection closes. What follows is heroic and
+pseudo-historic. The <i>Völundarkviða</i>, or Song of Völundr, is
+engaged with the adventures of Völundr, the smith-king,
+during his stay with Nidud, king of Sweden. Völundr, identical
+with the Anglo-Saxon Wêland and the German Wieland (O.H.G.
+<i>Wiolant</i>), is sometimes confused with Odin, the master-smith. This
+poem contains the beautiful figure of Svanhvít, the swan-maiden,
+who stays seven winters with Völundr, and then, yearning for
+her fatherland, flies away home through the dark forest. <i>Helgakviða,
+Hiörvarðs sonar</i>, the Song of Helgi, the Son of Hiörvarð,
+which is largely in prose, celebrates the wooing by Helgi of
+Svava, who, like Atalanta, ends by loving the man with whom
+she has fought in battle. Two Songs of Helgi the Hunding&rsquo;s
+Bane, <i>Helgakviða Hundingsbana</i>, open the long and very important
+series of lays relating to the two heroic families of the
+Völsungs and the Niblungs. Including the poems just mentioned,
+there are about twenty distinct pieces in the poetic <i>Edda</i>
+which deal more or less directly with this chain of stories. It
+is hardly necessary to give the titles of these poems here in detail,
+especially as they are, in their present form, manifestly only
+fragments of a great poetic saga, possibly the earliest coherent
+form of the story so universal among the Teutonic peoples.
+We happily possess a somewhat later prose version of this lost
+poem in the <i>Völsungasaga</i>, where the story is completely worked
+out. In many places the prose of the <i>Völsungasaga</i> follows
+the verse of the Eddaic fragments with the greatest precision,
+often making use of the very same expressions. At the same
+time there are poems in the <i>Edda</i> which the author of the saga
+does not seem to have seen. But if we compare the central
+portions of the myth, namely Sigurd&rsquo;s conversation with Fafnir,
+the death of Regin, the speech of the birds and the meeting with
+the Valkyrje, we are struck with the extreme fidelity of the prose
+romancer to his poetic precursors in the <i>Sigurðarkviða Fafnisbana</i>;
+in passing on to the death of Sigurd, we perceive that the
+version in the <i>Völsungasaga</i> must be based upon a poem now
+entirely lost. Of the origin of the myth and its independent
+development in medieval Germany, this is not the place for discussion
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nibelungenlied</a></span>). Suffice to say that in no modernized
+or Germanized form does the legend attain such an exquisite
+colouring of heroic poetry as in these earliest fragments of Icelandic
+song. A very curious poem, in some MSS. attributed
+directly to Saemund, is the Song of the Sun, <i>Sólarlióð</i>, which
+forms a kind of appendix to the poetic <i>Edda</i>. In this the spirit
+of a dead father addresses his living son, and exhorts him, with
+maxims that resemble those of <i>Hávamál</i>, to righteousness of
+life. The tone of the poem is strangely confused between
+Christianity and Paganism, and it has been assumed to be the
+composition of a writer in the act of transition between the old
+creed and the new. It may, however, not impossibly, be altogether
+spurious as a poem of great antiquity, and may merely
+be the production of some Icelandic monk, anxious to imitate the
+Eddaic form and spirit. Finally <i>Forspjallsljóð</i>, or the Preamble,
+formerly known as the Song of Odin&rsquo;s Raven, is an extremely
+obscure fragment, of which little is understood, although infinite
+scholarship has been expended on it. With this the poetic
+<i>Edda</i> closes.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The principal MS. of this <i>Edda</i> is the Codex Regius in the royal
+library at Copenhagen, written continuously, without regard to
+prose or verse, on 45 vellum leaves. This is that found by Bishop
+Brynjulf. Another valuable fragment exists in the Arne-Magnaean
+collection in the University of Copenhagen, consisting of four sheets,
+22 leaves in all. These are the only MSS. older than the 17th century
+which contain a collection of the ancient mythico-heroic lays, but
+fragments occur in various other works, and especially in the <i>Edda</i>
+of Snorri. It is believed to have been written between 1260 and 1280.
+The poetic <i>Edda</i> was translated into English verse by Amos Cottle
+in 1797; the poet Gray produced a version of the <i>Vegtamskviða</i>;
+but the first good translation of the whole was that published by
+Benjamin Thorpe in 1866. An excellent edition of the Icelandic
+text has been prepared by Th. Möbius, but the standard of the
+original orthography will be found in the admirable edition of
+Sophus Bugge, <i>Norroen Fornkvaeði</i>, published at Christiania in 1867.</p>
+
+<p>The Eddaic poems were rearranged, on a system of their own
+which differs entirely from that of the early MSS., by Gudbrand
+Vigfusson and F. York Powell, in their <i>Corpus poeticum boreale</i>
+(Oxford, 1883). This is a collection, not of <i>Edda</i> only but of all
+existing fragments of the vast lyrical literature of ancient Iceland.
+It supplies a prose translation.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. G.)</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page923" id="page923"></a>923</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDDIUS<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Aeddi</span>), a Kentish choirmaster, summoned by
+Wilfrid (<i>c.</i> 634-709), bishop of York, to help in organizing church
+services in Northumbria. He wrote the <i>Life</i> of his patron, and
+this biography of St Wilfrid is the earliest extant historical work
+compiled by an Anglo-Saxon author. He is a strong partisan
+and very credulous, but the <i>Vita Wilfridi</i> is nevertheless invaluable
+for the period it treats. Its date is little after the first
+decade of the 8th century, and it was used by Bede in compiling
+his <i>Historia</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Eddius, <i>Vita Wilfridi</i> (Raine, <i>Historians of Church of York</i>,
+London, 1879-1894), 14; Bede, <i>Hist. Eccl.</i> (Plummer, Oxford, 1896),
+iii. 2.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDELINCK, GERARD<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (1649-1707), Flemish copper-plate
+engraver, was born at Antwerp. The rudiments of the art,
+which he was to carry to a higher pitch of excellence than it had
+previously reached, he acquired in his native town under the
+engraver Cornelisz Galle. But he was not long in reaching the
+limits of his master&rsquo;s attainments; and then he went to Paris
+to improve himself under the teaching of De Poilly. This master
+likewise had soon done all he could to help him onwards, and
+Edelinck ultimately took the first rank among line engravers.
+His excellence was generally acknowledged; and having become
+known to Louis XIV. he was appointed, on the recommendation
+of Le Brun, teacher at the academy established at the Gobelins
+for the training of workers in tapestry. He was also entrusted
+with the execution of several important works. In 1677 he was
+admitted member of the Paris Academy of Painting and Sculpture.
+The work of this great engraver constitutes an epoch in the
+art. His prints number more than four hundred.</p>
+
+<p>Edelinck stands above and apart from his predecessors and
+contemporaries in that he excelled, not in some one respect, but
+in all respects,&mdash;that while one engraver attained excellence
+in correct form, and another in rendering light and shade, and
+others in giving colour to their prints and the texture of surfaces,
+he, as supreme master of the burin, possessed and displayed all
+these separate qualities, in so complete a harmony that the eye
+is not attracted by any one of them in particular, but rests in
+the satisfying whole. Edelinck was the first to break through
+the custom of making prints square, and to execute them in
+the lozenge shape. Among his most famous works are a &ldquo;Holy
+Family,&rdquo; after Raphael; a &ldquo;Penitent Magdalene,&rdquo; after
+Charles le Brun; &ldquo;Alexander at the Tent of Darius,&rdquo; after
+Le Brun; a &ldquo;Combat of Four Knights,&rdquo; after Leonardo da
+Vinci; &ldquo;Christ surrounded with Angels&rdquo;; &ldquo;St Louis praying&rdquo;;
+and &ldquo;St Charles Borromeo before a crucifix,&rdquo;&mdash;the last three
+after Le Brun. Edelinck was especially good as an engraver
+of portraits, and executed prints of many of the most eminent
+persons of his time. Among these are those of Le Brun, Rigaud,
+Philippe de Champagne (which the engraver thought his best),
+Santeuil, La Fontaine, Colbert, John Dryden, Descartes, &amp;c.
+He died at Paris in 1707. His younger brother John, and his
+son Nicholas, were also engravers, but did not attain to his
+excellence.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDELWEISS,<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> known botanically as <i>Leontopodium alpinum</i>,
+a member of the family <i>Compositae</i>, a native of the Alps of
+Central Europe. It is a small herb reaching about 6 in. high,
+with narrow white woolly leaves, and terminal flower-heads
+enveloped in woolly bracts. The woolly covering enables the
+plant to thrive in the exposed situations in which it is found,
+by protecting it from cold and from drying up through
+excessive loss of moisture. It is grown in Britain as a rock-plant.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDEN, SIR ASHLEY<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> (1831-1887), Anglo-Indian official and
+diplomatist, third son of Robert John Eden, third Lord Auckland
+and bishop of Bath and Wells, was born on the 13th of November
+1831, and was educated at Rugby, Winchester and the East
+India Company&rsquo;s college at Haileybury, entering the Indian
+civil service in 1852. In 1855 he gained distinction as assistant
+to the special commissioner for the suppression of the Santal
+rising, and in 1860 was appointed secretary to the Bengal
+government with an <i>ex officio</i> seat on the legislative council, a
+position he held for eleven years. In 1861 he negotiated, as
+political agent, a treaty with the raja of Sikkim. His success
+led to his being sent on a similar mission to Bhutan in 1863;
+but, being unaccompanied by any armed force, his demands
+were rejected and he was forced under circumstances of personal
+insult to come to an arrangement highly favourable to the
+Bhutias. The result was the repudiation of the treaty by the
+Indian government and the declaration of war against Bhutan.
+In 1871 Eden became the first civilian governor of British
+Burma, which post he held until his appointment in 1877 as
+lieutenant-governor of Bengal. In 1878 he was made a K.C.S.I.,
+and in 1882 resigned the lieutenant-governorship and returned
+to England on his appointment to the council of the secretary
+of state for India, of which he remained a member till his death
+on the 8th of July 1887. The success of his administration of
+Bengal was attested by the statue erected in his honour at
+Calcutta after his retirement.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDEN,<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> the name of the region in which, according to the
+Hebrew paradise-tradition in its present form, God planted a
+garden (or park), wherein he put the man whom he had formed
+(Gen. ii. 8). Research into primitive beliefs, guided by the
+comparative method, leads to the view that the &ldquo;garden&rdquo; was
+originally a celestial locality (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Paradise</a></span>), and we cannot
+therefore be surprised if, now that paradise has been brought
+down to earth, the geographical details given in the Bible are
+rather difficult to work into a consistent picture. The fantastic
+geography of the (Indian) <i>Vishnu Purana</i> and the (Iranian)
+<i>Bundahish</i> will, in this case, be a striking parallel.</p>
+
+<p>Let us now take the details of Eden as they occur. In Gen. ii.
+8 we read that the garden lay &ldquo;in Eden eastward,&rdquo; where
+&ldquo;eastward&rdquo; is generally taken to mean &ldquo;in the east of the earth.&rdquo;
+This, however, seems inconsistent with Isa. xiv. 13, where the
+&ldquo;mountain of God,&rdquo; which corresponds (see Ezek. xxviii.
+13, 14 and the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Adam</a></span>) to the &ldquo;garden in Eden,&rdquo; is said
+to have been &ldquo;in the uttermost parts of the north&rdquo; (so R.V.).
+The former statement (&ldquo;eastward&rdquo;) suits Babylonia, where
+Friedrich Delitzsch<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> places Eden; the latter does not. We are
+further told (v. 10) that &ldquo;a river went out from Eden to water
+the garden,&rdquo; and that &ldquo;from thence it parted itself (?), and
+became four heads (?),&rdquo; which is commonly understood to mean
+that the river was so large that, soon after leaving the garden
+(&ldquo;from thence&rdquo; is all that the text says), it could still supply
+four considerable streams (the text says, not &ldquo;streams,&rdquo; but
+&ldquo;heads,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> perhaps &ldquo;beginnings&rdquo; or &ldquo;starting-points&rdquo;).
+In <i>vv.</i> 11-14 the names of four rivers are given, but in spite of
+the descriptive supplements attached to three of them, only
+that one which has no supplement can be identified with much
+probability. In fact, P&#277;r&#257;th may without any obvious difficulty
+be &ldquo;Euphrates,&rdquo; except in Jer. xiii., where a more southerly
+stream seems indicated, but to the identification of &ldquo;Hiddekel&rdquo;
+with &ldquo;Tigris&rdquo; (Babylonian Diglat) the presence of the initial
+<i>Hi</i> in the Hebrew is an objection. Now as to &ldquo;Pishon&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;Gihon.&rdquo; If a moderately early tradition may be trusted,
+the &ldquo;Gihon&rdquo; is another name for the &ldquo;Shihor,&rdquo; which was
+either in or beside &ldquo;Mizraim&rdquo; (= Egypt) or Mizrim (= the
+North Arabian Mu&#7779;ri), and indeed according to most scholars
+means the Nile in Jer. ii. 18, where the Septuagint substitutes
+for it G&#275;&#333;n, <i>i.e.</i> Gihon. For &ldquo;Pishon&rdquo; few plausible suggestions
+have been made; it is not, however, a hopeless problem from
+the point of view which recognizes Eden in Arabia.</p>
+
+<p>For details of the interesting descriptive supplements of the
+names Pishon, Gi&#7717;on, and &#7716;idde&#7731;el, on which there is much
+difference of opinion, it must suffice to refer to the <i>Encyclopaedia
+Biblica</i> and Hasting&rsquo;s <i>Dictionary of the Bible</i>. We must, however,
+mention a widely held explanation of the name <i>Eden</i>. Plausible
+as it is to interpret this name as &ldquo;delight&rdquo;&mdash;indeed, the Septuagint
+translates in Gen. iii. 23 f. <span class="grk" title="ho paradeisos tês tryphês">&#8001; &#960;&#945;&#961;&#940;&#948;&#949;&#953;&#963;&#959;&#962; &#964;&#8134;&#962; &#964;&#961;&#965;&#966;&#8134;&#962;</span>&mdash;this cannot
+have been the original meaning. Hence Delitzsch (<i>Wo lag das
+Paradies?</i> p. 79) suggested that &ldquo;Eden&rdquo; might be a Hebraized
+form of the Babylonian <i>&#275;dinu</i>, &ldquo;field, plain, desert.&rdquo; But
+whereas Delitzsch takes &ldquo;Eden&rdquo; to be the entire plain of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page924" id="page924"></a>924</span>
+Babylonia, Hommel thinks that it is rather the plain about the
+sacred city of Eridu. It is the latter scholar to whom the
+&ldquo;Arabian theory&rdquo; of Paradise in its best-known form is due.
+The rivers (apart from P&#277;r&#257;th, &ldquo;Euphrates&rdquo;) he locates in
+northern and central Arabia, the &ldquo;Cush&rdquo; and &ldquo;Asshur&rdquo; of
+Genesis being, according to him, central Arabia and Edom
+respectively (<i>Ancient Hebrew Traditions</i>, pp. 314-316; <i>Aufsätze
+u. Abhandlungen</i>, iii. 281-284, 335-339). These rivers, in short,
+become Arabian wadis, on which see Hast. <i>D.B.</i> i. 132a (foot).
+Cheyne, on the other hand, rejects the Babylonian explanation
+of Eden as = &ldquo;field, plain,&rdquo; on the ground that &ldquo;Eden&rdquo; was
+originally regarded as a mountainous tract.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See further Driver, <i>Book of Genesis</i> (1904), pp. 57-60; <i>Ency. Bib.</i>
+&ldquo;Paradise&rdquo;; and the commentaries of Gunkel (2nd ed., 1902), and
+Cheyne (1907).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. K. C.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Wo lag das Paradies?</i> p. 66. A Sumerian name of Babylon
+was Tin-ter, &ldquo;dwelling of life.&rdquo; Cf. B&#257;b&#299;lu, B&#257;b&#299;li, &ldquo;gate of God.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDENBRIDGE,<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> a market town in the south-western parliamentary
+division of Kent, England, 26 m. S.S.E. of London,
+on the South-Eastern &amp; Chatham, and the London, Brighton
+&amp; South Coast railways. Pop. (1901) 2546. It is pleasantly
+situated on the river Eden, an affluent of the Medway, in a
+valley between the Ragstone Hills and the Forest Ridges. The
+church of St Peter and St Paul is principally Perpendicular. The
+town, which has considerable agricultural trade, possesses a
+chalybeate spring, but this is little used. Two miles from the
+town is Hever Castle, a beautiful moated mansion dating from
+the 15th and 16th centuries, but occupying the site of an earlier
+structure. This was rebuilt by Sir Geoffrey Boleyn, whose
+grandson, Sir Thomas, was father of Anne, second wife of
+Henry VIII., who here spent much of her life before her marriage,
+and was visited several times by the king. There is a chapel of
+her family in the fine parish church of Hever. Not far distant
+is the modern Chiddingstone Castle, on an ancient site. A block
+of sandstone in the park is called the &ldquo;chiding stone,&rdquo; tradition
+asserting it to be a prehistoric seat of judgment.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDEN HALL, LUCK OF,<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> an old painted drinking goblet preserved
+at Eden Hall, Cumberland, the seat of the Musgrave family.
+It is of enamelled or painted glass and is believed to date from
+the 10th century. It is of fair size and has the letters I.H.S.
+on the top. Round the vase is the famous verse given below.
+A legend involving the fortunes of the Musgraves attaches to
+this cup. In the grounds of Eden Hall is a spring called St
+Cuthbert&rsquo;s Well, and the story is that one of the earliest of the
+Musgraves surprised the fairies feasting and making merry round
+the well. He snatched at the goblet from which the Fairy King
+was drinking and made off with it. The fairies pursued him
+to his castle, but failed to catch him. The Fairy King acknowledged
+his defeat and gave the cup as a prize to Musgrave, but
+warned him that the gift carried with it a condition:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;When this cup shall break or fall.</p>
+<p class="i05">Farewell the luck of Eden Hall.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">There are variants of this legend, but substantially they agree.
+Possessed of the lucky cup the knight of Musgrave is said to have
+at once prospered in a love-suit which had till then gone against
+him. There is a curious poem on the cup called &ldquo;The Drinking
+Match at Eden Hall,&rdquo; by Philip, duke of Wharton, a parody on
+the ballad of Chevy Chase. This is reprinted in full in Edward
+Walford&rsquo;s <i>Tales of Great Families</i> (1877, vol. 11), under the
+heading, &ldquo;The witty Duke of Wharton.&rdquo; In Longfellow&rsquo;s
+famous poem the goblet is represented as having been broken.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDENKOBEN,<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Bavarian Palatinate,
+6 m. N. from Landau, on the railway to Weissenburg. Pop.
+5300. It has a Roman Catholic and a Protestant church, several
+high-grade schools and a sulphur-spring. Its industries comprise
+linen- and damask-weaving, ironworks, and the manufacture
+of machinery, furniture and cigars. It has also a
+considerable trade in wine.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDENTATA,<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> the name assigned by Cuvier to an order of
+placental mammals apparently typified by the South American
+anteater, but likewise including the sloths and armadillos of the
+same country, and the Old World aard-varks and pangolins.
+Only the anteaters and pangolins are absolutely without teeth
+(Lat. <i>e</i>, out, <i>dens</i>, tooth), and the name is strictly applicable
+only to those two groups; but in all the existing representatives
+of the order teeth are absent from the front of the jaws, while
+the cheek-teeth are devoid of roots and of enamel, and only very
+exceptionally have deciduous predecessors. Practically this is
+all the definition that can be given to the assemblage, which is
+possibly an artificial one. It may be mentioned, however, that
+there is not unfrequently a separate coracoid bone.</p>
+
+<p>Edentates may be divided into three distinct sections or
+suborders, firstly the Xenarthra, or Edentata Vera, of America,
+secondly the Tubulidenta, represented by the African aard-varks,
+and thirdly the Pholidota, which includes only the pangolins
+common to Africa and Asia. The Xenarthra are essentially
+a South and Central American group, some of the members of
+which have effected an entrance into North America. The three
+families by which they are now represented are widely sundered,
+both as regards habits and structure; but two of them&mdash;the
+sloths and the anteaters&mdash;are intimately connected by means of
+the extinct ground-sloths. As regards the presumed relationship
+of the Old World to the New World types, it is noteworthy that
+in the early Tertiary deposits of France and Germany are found
+certain fossil remains apparently referable to armadillos, aard-varks
+and pangolins, some of the armadillos coming very close
+to South American forms. This assemblage of three groups of
+edentates in the countries fringing northern Africa is suggestive
+that the latter continent may have been the original home of
+the group, which reached South America by means of a direct
+land connexion.</p>
+
+<p><i>Xenarthra.</i>&mdash;The typical American edentates, or Xenarthra,
+are characterized by the circumstance that the last dorsal and
+all the lumbar vertebrae carry additional articular facets, or
+abnormal articulations (xenarthral). Teeth may be absent or
+present, and when developed either all similar (homaeodont)
+or to some extent differentiated. The bodily covering may take
+the form either of coarse hairs, or of bony plates, with a larger
+or smaller intermixture of hairs.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:405px; height:307px" src="images/img924.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Skull of Unau or Two-toed Sloth (<i>Choloepus didactylus</i>).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Of the three existing families of this group, the first is that of
+the <i>Bradypodidae</i>, or sloths, characterized by the presence of
+five pairs of upper and four of lower teeth, the normally-formed
+tongue and the rudimentary tail. The species are arboreal and
+feed on leaves; all being confined to the forests of tropical
+America. Externally sloths are clothed with long coarse, crisp
+hair; the head is short and rounded, and the external ears
+inconspicuous. The teeth are subcylindrical, of persistent
+growth, consisting of a central axis of vasodentine, with a thin
+investment of hard dentine, and a thick outer coating of cement;
+without any succession. Fore-limbs greatly longer than the
+hind-limbs; the extremities terminating in narrow, curved feet;
+with the digits never exceeding three in number, and encased
+for nearly their whole length in a common integument, and
+armed with long, strong claws. Stomach complex. No caecum.
+Placenta deciduate and dome-like, composed of an aggregation of
+numerous discoidal lobes.</p>
+
+<p>A remarkable feature connected with sloths is the development
+of a green colour in their hair, due to the growth of an alga.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page925" id="page925"></a>925</span>
+According to Dr W.G. Ridewood, in the three-toed sloth the
+hair is invested with a thick extra-cortical layer. &ldquo;The hair
+has a tendency to crack in a transverse direction, and in the
+cracks there come to lodge unicellular algae, to which Kühn
+has given the name <i>Pleurococcus bradypi</i>. The moisture of the
+climate in which <i>Bradypus</i> lives enables the alga to live and
+propagate in this curious position, and the sloth acquires a
+general green tint which must render it very difficult to distinguish
+as it hangs among the green foliage.&rdquo; In the two-toed sloth,
+on the other hand, the bulk of the hair is composed of an outer
+coat, or cortex, which is longitudinally fluted or grooved, the
+grooves being filled with strands of extra-cortex in which
+flourishes an alga (<i>Pleurococcus choloepi</i>) distinct from the one
+infesting the hairs of the three-toed species. Of quite a different
+type are the hairs of the extinct ground-sloths (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mylodon</a></span>),
+which are smooth and solid, Dr Ridewood rejecting the idea that
+they were originally coated with a cortex that has disappeared.</p>
+
+<p>The typical genus <i>Bradypus</i> is represented by the various
+species of ai, or three-toed sloth, in which none of the teeth
+project greatly beyond the others; the first in the upper jaw
+is much smaller than any of the others, while the first in the
+lower jaw is broad and compressed, and the grinding surfaces of
+all are much cupped. Vertebrae: C 9, D and L 20 (of which
+15 to 17 bear ribs), S 6, Ca 11. All the species present the
+peculiarity of possessing nine cervical vertebrae; but the ninth,
+and sometimes the eighth, bears a pair of short movable ribs.
+The fore-limbs are considerably longer than the hind-legs, and
+the bones of the fore-arm are complete, free and capable of
+pronation and supination. The fore-feet are long, very narrow,
+habitually curved and terminate in three pointed curved claws,
+in close apposition to each other; they are, in fact, incapable
+of being divaricated, so that the foot is reduced to the condition
+of a triple hook, fit only for the function of suspension from the
+boughs of trees. The hind-foot closely resembles the fore-foot
+in general structure and mode of use, and has the sole habitually
+turned inwards so that it cannot be applied to the ground in
+walking. The tongue is short and soft, and the stomach large
+and complex, bearing some resemblance to that of ruminants.
+The windpipe or trachea has the remarkable peculiarity&mdash;not
+unfrequent among birds and reptiles&mdash;of being folded on itself
+before it reaches the lungs. The two teats are pectoral in
+position. The premaxilla is rudimentary and loosely attached
+to the maxilla. Except in <i>B. torquatus</i>, there is no perforation
+in the lower end of the humerus. Some of the species are covered
+uniformly with a grey or greyish-brown coat; others have a
+dark collar of elongated hairs around the shoulders (<i>B. torquatus</i>);
+some have the hair of the face shorter than that of the rest of
+the head and neck; and others have a remarkable-looking patch
+of soft, short hair on the back between the shoulders, consisting,
+when best marked, of a median stripe of glossy black, bordered
+on each side by bright orange, yellow or white. There are also
+structural differences in the skulls, as in the amount of inflation
+of the pterygoid bones. The habits of all are apparently alike.
+They are natives of Guiana, Brazil and Peru, and two species
+(<i>B. infuscatus</i> and <i>B. castaneiceps</i>) extend north of the Isthmus
+of Panama as far as Nicaragua. Of the former of these a specimen
+in captivity uttered a shrill sound like a monkey when forcibly
+pulled away from the tree to which it was holding.</p>
+
+<p>In the species of unau, or two-toed sloths, <i>Choloepus</i>, the front
+tooth in both jaws is separated by an interval from the others,
+and is large and caniniform, wearing to a sharp bevelled edge
+against the opposing tooth, the upper shutting in front of the
+lower when the mouth is closed, unlike true canines. Vertebrae:
+C 6 or 7, D 23-24, L 3, S 7-8, Ca 4-6. One species (<i>C. didactylus</i>)
+has the ordinary number of vertebrae in the neck; but an otherwise
+closely allied form (<i>C. hoffmanni</i>) has but six. The tail is
+very rudimentary. The fore-feet generally resemble those of
+<i>Bradypus</i>, but there are only two functional digits, with claws;
+these answering to the second and third of the typical five-toed
+limb. The structure of the hind-limb generally resembles that
+of <i>Bradypus</i>, the appellation &ldquo;two-toed&rdquo; referring only to the
+anterior limb, for in the foot the three middle toes are functionally
+developed and of nearly equal size. The premaxilla is well
+developed, and firmly attached to the maxilla; and there is
+always a perforation, or foramen, on the inner side of the lower
+end of the humerus. <i>C. didactylus</i>, which has been longest known,
+and is commonly called by the native name of unau, inhabits
+the forests of Brazil. <i>C. hoffmanni</i> has a more northern
+geographical range, extending from Ecuador through Panama
+to Costa Rica. Its voice, which is seldom heard, is like the bleat
+of a sheep, and if the animal is seized it snorts violently. Both
+species are very variable in external coloration (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sloth</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>The second family is that of the anteaters, <i>Myrmecophagidae</i>,
+distinguished from the last by the absence of teeth, the elongated
+tongue and the long tail. The long and slender head has a
+tubular mouth, with a small terminal aperture through which
+the worm-like tongue, covered with the sticky secretion of the
+enormous submaxillary salivary glands, is rapidly protruded in
+feeding, and withdrawn again with the adhering particles of
+food which are then sucked into the gullet. In the foot the third
+toe is greatly developed, and has a long sickle-like claw; the
+others are reduced or suppressed. The hind-foot has four or five
+subequal digits with claws. The long tail is sometimes prehensile.
+Placenta dome-like or discoidal. Externally the body
+is covered with hair. Anteaters feed exclusively on animal
+substances, mostly insects. One species is terrestrial, the others
+arboreal; none burrow in the ground. They are all inhabitants
+of tropical America. In the typical genus <i>Myrmecophaga</i> the
+skull is remarkably elongated and narrow, with its upper surface
+smooth and cylindriform. Anteriorly the face is produced into
+a long tubular rostrum, rounded above and flattened below,
+with terminal nostrils, and composed of the mesethmoid (ossified
+for more than half its length), the vomer, the maxillae, and the
+long and narrow nasal bones, the premaxillae being extremely
+short and confined to the margin of the nostrils. The zygomatic
+arch is incomplete, the rod-like jugal only articulating with the
+maxilla in front, and not reaching the short zygomatic process
+of the squamosal. The lachrymal foramen is in front of the
+margin of the orbit. There are no post-orbital processes to the
+frontals or any other demarcation between the orbits and the
+temporal fossae. Palate extremely elongated, and produced
+backwards as far as the level of the external auditory meatus
+by the meeting in the middle line of the largely developed
+pterygoids. The glenoid fossa for the lower jaw, a shallow oval
+facet, with its long diameter from before backwards. Lower
+jaw long and slender, with an exceedingly short symphysis, no
+distinct coronoid process, and a slightly elevated, elongated,
+flattened, condylar articular surface. Vertebrae: C 7, D 15-16,
+L 3-2, S 6, Ca 31. Clavicles rudimentary. In the fore-foot the
+first digit is very slender, the second also slender, with compressed
+phalanges of nearly equal length, but the third is immensely
+developed, though its first phalanx is extremely short, while
+the terminal one is so long that the entire length of the
+digit exceeds that of the second. The fourth has a long and
+rather slender metacarpal, and three phalanges diminishing in
+size, the terminal phalange being very small. The fifth has the
+metacarpal nearly as long, but not so stout as the fourth, and
+followed by two small phalanges, the last rudimentary and
+conical. Claws are developed upon all but the fifth. In walking
+the toes are kept bent, with their points turned upwards and
+inwards, the weight being supported on a pad over the end of the
+fifth digit, and the upper surfaces of the third and fourth digits.
+The hind feet are short and rather broad, with five subequal
+claws, the fourth rather longest, the first shortest; the whole
+sole is placed on the ground in walking. Body rather compressed,
+clothed with long, coarse hair. Tail about as long as the body,
+and covered with very long hair; not prehensile. Ears small,
+oval, erect. Eyes very small. Stomach consisting of a sub-globular,
+thin-walled, cardiac portion, and a muscular pyloric
+gizzard with dense epithelial lining. No ileocolic valve; but a
+short, wide, ill-defined caecum. The two teats are pectoral.</p>
+
+<p>The tamandua anteaters (<i>Tamandua</i>, or <i>Uroleptes</i>), of which
+several species (or races) are now recognized, are smaller animals
+than the last, in which the head is much less elongated, the fur
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page926" id="page926"></a>926</span>
+short and bristly, and the tail, tapering, prehensile, with the under
+side throughout, and the whole of the terminal portion naked
+and scaly. The stomach is similar to that of <i>Myrmecophaga</i>,
+but with the muscular pyloric gizzard less strongly developed.
+There is a distinct ileocolic valve and short globular caecum.
+The fore-foot has a very large claw on the third toe, moderate-sized
+claws on the second and fourth, a minute one on the first,
+and none on the fifth, which is entirely concealed within the
+skin. The hind-foot has five subequal claws. Vertebrae: C 7,
+D 17, L 2, S 5, Ca 37. There are very rudimentary clavicles.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:445px; height:294px" src="images/img926.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Tamandua Anteater (<i>Tamandua tetradactyla</i>).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The last representative of the family is the tiny golden-haired
+pigmy or two-toed anteater, <i>Cyclopes</i> (or <i>Cycloturus</i>) <i>didactylus</i>,
+in which the skull is much shorter even than in the preceding
+genus, and arched considerably in the longitudinal direction.
+It differs from that of the other members of the family mainly in
+the long canal for the posterior nostrils not being closed by bone
+below, as the greater part of the palatines and the pterygoids
+do not meet in the middle line. The lower jaw has a prominent,
+narrow, recurved coronoid, and a well-developed angular process,
+and is strongly decurved in front. Vertebrae: C 7, D 16, L 2,
+S 4, Ca 40. Ribs remarkably broad and flat. Clavicles well
+developed. Fore-foot remarkably modified, having the third
+digit greatly developed at the expense of all the others; it has
+a short stout metacarpal and but two phalanges, of which the
+terminal one is large, compressed, pointed and much curved,
+with a strong hook-like claw. The second digit has the same
+number of phalanges, and bears a claw, but is much more
+slender than the third. The fourth is represented only by the
+metacarpal, and one nailless phalange, the first and fifth only
+by rudimentary metacarpals. The hind-foot is also modified
+into a climbing organ, the first toe being rudimentary and consisting
+of a metatarsal and one phalange concealed beneath
+the skin, but the other four toes subequal and much curved,
+with long, pointed, compressed claws. The tuberosity of the heel-bone
+or calcaneum is directed towards the sole, and parallel
+with it and extending to about double its length is a greatly
+elongated sesamoid ossicle. These together support a prominent
+cushion to which the nails are opposed in climbing. Stomach
+pyriform, with muscular walls, but no distinct gizzard-like
+portion. The commencement of the colon provided with two
+small caeca, narrow at the base, but rather dilated at their
+terminal blind ends, and communicating with the general cavity
+by very minute apertures. Tail longer than the body, tapering,
+bare on the under surface and prehensile. Fur soft and silky.</p>
+
+<p>The third and last existing family of the Xenarthra is that
+of the armadillos, or <i>Dasypodidae</i>, in which there are at least
+seven pairs of teeth in each jaw, while the tongue is normal,
+the tail generally long, and the body covered with an armour of
+bony plates overlain by horny scales. All the species are terrestrial,
+and insectivorous or more or less omnivorous.</p>
+
+<p>The union of the numerous polygonal bony shields on the
+back and sides forms a hard shield, usually consisting of an
+anterior (scapular) and posterior (pelvic) solid portion (which
+overhang on each side the parts of the body they respectively
+cover, forming chambers into which the limbs are withdrawn),
+and a variable number of rings between, connected by soft
+flexible skin so as to allow of curvature of the body. The top of
+the head has also a similar shield, and the tail is usually encased
+in bony rings or plates. The outer or exposed surfaces of the
+limbs are protected by irregular bony plates, not united at their
+margins; but the skin of the inner surface of the limbs and under
+side of the body is soft and more or less clothed with hair. Hairs
+also in many species project through apertures between the
+bony plates of the back. The bony plates are covered by a
+layer of horny epidermis. Teeth numerous, simple, of persistent
+growth and usually without milk predecessors. Zygomatic
+arch of skull complete. Cervical vertebrae with extremely short,
+broad and depressed bodies; the first free, but the second and
+third, and often several of the others united together both by
+their bodies and arches. Clavicles well developed. A third
+trochanter on the femur. Tibia and fibula united at their lower
+extremities. Fore-feet with strongly developed, curved claws,
+adapted for digging and scratching, three, four or five in number.
+Hind-feet plantigrade, with five toes, all provided with nails.
+Tongue long, pointed and extensile, though to a less degree
+than in the anteaters. Submaxillary glands largely developed.
+Stomach simple. Placenta discoidal and deciduate.</p>
+
+<p>The typical genus <i>Dasypus</i>, with several others, represents
+the subfamily <i>Dasypodinae</i>, which usually have all five toes
+developed and with nails, though the first and fifth may be suppressed.
+The first and second are long and slender, with the
+normal number and relative length of phalanges, the others stout,
+with short broad metacarpals, and the phalanges reduced in
+length and generally in number by coalescence; the terminal
+phalange of the third being large, that of the others gradually
+diminishing to the fifth. <i>Dasypus</i> has the most normal form
+of fore-foot, but the modifications developed in all the others
+(culminating in <i>Tolypeutes</i>) are foreshadowed. Ears wide apart.
+Teats, one pair, pectoral. In <i>Dasypus</i> the teeth are <span class="spp">9</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">10</span> or <span class="spp">8</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">9</span>,
+of which the first in the upper jaw is usually implanted in the
+premaxillary bone. The series extends posteriorly some distance
+behind the anterior root of the zygoma, almost level with the
+hind edge of the palate. The teeth are large, subcylindrical,
+slightly compressed, diminishing in size towards each end of the
+series; the anterior two in the lower jaw smaller and more
+compressed than the others. Cranial portion of the skull broad
+and depressed, facial portion triangular, broad in front and
+depressed. Auditory bulla completely ossified, perforated on
+the inner side by the carotid canal, and continued externally
+into an elongated bony meatus auditorius, with its aperture
+directed upwards and backwards. (In all the other genera of
+<i>Dasypodinae</i> the tympanic bone is a mere half-ring, loosely
+attached to the cranium.) Lower jaw with a high ascending
+branch, broad transversely placed condyle, and high slender
+coronoid process. Vertebrae: C 7, D 11-12, L 3, S 8, Ca 17-18.
+Head broad and flat above, with the muzzle obtusely pointed.
+Ears of moderate size or rather small, placed laterally far apart.
+Body broad and depressed. Armour with six or seven movable
+bands between the scapular and pelvic shields. Tail shorter
+than the body, tapering, covered with plates forming distinct
+rings near the base. Fore-feet with five toes; the first much
+more slender than the others, and with a smaller ungual phalange
+and nail; the second, though the longest, also slender. The third,
+fourth and fifth gradually diminishing in length, all armed with
+strong, slightly curved compressed claws, sloping from an elevated,
+rounded inner border to a sharp, outer and inferior edge. The
+hind-foot is rather short, and has all five toes armed with stout,
+compressed, slightly curved, obtusely pointed claws&mdash;the third
+the longest, the second nearly equal to it, the fourth the next,
+the first and fifth shorter and nearly equal.</p>
+
+<p>To this genus belongs one of the best-known species of the
+group, the six-banded armadillo or encoubert (<i>D. sexcinctus</i>)
+of Brazil and Paraguay; a very similar species, <i>D. villosus</i>,
+the hairy armadillo, replacing it south of the Rio Plata. There
+are also two small species, <i>D. vellerosus</i> and <i>D. minutus</i>, from the
+Argentine Republic and North Patagonia; the latter, which
+differs from the other three in having no tooth implanted in the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page927" id="page927"></a>927</span>
+premaxillary bone and is often referred to a genus apart, as
+<i>Zäedius</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In <i>Tatoua</i> (<i>Cabassous</i> or <i>Lysiurus</i>) the teeth are <span class="spp">9</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">9</span> or <span class="spp">8</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span>, of
+moderate size and subcylindrical: the most posterior placed a
+little way behind the anterior root of the zygoma, but far from
+the hinder margin of the palate. Skull somewhat elongated,
+much constricted behind the orbits, and immediately in front of
+the constriction considerably dilated. Lower jaw slender, with
+the coronoid process small and sharp pointed, sometimes obsolete.
+Vertebrae: C 7, D 12-13, L 5, S 10, Ca 18. Head broad behind.
+Ears rather large and rounded, wide apart. Movable bands of
+armour 12-13. Tail considerably shorter than the body, and
+slender, covered with nearly naked skin, with a few small,
+scattered, bony plates, chiefly on the under surface and near the
+apex. On the fore-feet the first and second toes are long and
+slender, with small claws and the normal number of phalanges.
+The other toes have but two phalanges; the third has an immense
+sickle-like claw; the fourth and fifth similar but smaller claws.
+The hind-feet are comparatively small, with five toes, and small,
+triangular, blunt nails; the third longest, the first shortest.
+The best-known species of this genus, the tatouay or cabassou,
+<i>T. unicinctus</i>, is, after <i>Priodon gigas</i>, the largest of the group.
+It is found, though not abundantly, in Surinam, Brazil and
+Paraguay. Others, such as <i>T. hispidus</i> and <i>T. lugubris</i>, have
+been described.</p>
+
+<p>In the giant armadillo (<i>Priodon gigas</i>) the teeth are variable
+in number, and generally differ on the two sides of each jaw,
+being usually from 20 to 25 on each side above and below, so
+that as many as a hundred may be present altogether; but as
+life advances the anterior teeth fall out, and all traces of their
+sockets disappear. The series extends as far back as the hinder
+edge of the anterior root of the zygoma. They are all very small,
+in the anterior half of each series strongly compressed, with flat
+sides and a straight free edge, but posteriorly more cylindrical,
+with flat, truncated, free surfaces. Vertebrae: C 7, D 12, L 3,
+S 10, Ca 23. Head small, elongated, conical. Ears moderate,
+ovate. Armour with 12-13 movable bands. Tail nearly equal
+to the body in length, gradually tapering, closely covered with
+quadrangular scales, arranged in a quincunx pattern. Fore-feet
+with five toes, formed on the same plan as those of <i>Tatoua</i>, but
+with the claw of the third of still greater size, and that of the
+others, especially the fifth, proportionally reduced. Hind-foot
+short and rounded, with five very short toes, and short, broad,
+flat obtuse nails. The giant armadillo is by far the largest
+existing member of the family, measuring rather more than 3 ft.
+from the tip of the nose to the root of the tail, the tail being
+about 20 in. long. It inhabits the forest of Surinam and Brazil.
+The powerful claws of its fore-feet enable it to dig with great
+facility; and its food consists chiefly of termites and other
+insects, although it is said to attack and uproot newly-made
+graves for the purpose of devouring the flesh of the bodies
+contained in them.</p>
+
+<p>The apar (<i>Tolypeutes tricinctus</i>) typifies a genus in which the
+teeth are <span class="spp">9</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">9</span> or <span class="spp">8</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">9</span>, and are rather large in proportion to the size
+of the skull, with the hinder end of the series reaching nearly to
+the posterior margin of the palate. Vertebrae: C 7, D 11, L 3, S 12,
+Ca 13. Ears placed low on the sides of the head, rather large,
+broadly ovate. Armour with its scapular and pelvic shields
+very free at the sides of the body, forming large chambers into
+which the limbs can be readily withdrawn, and only three
+movable bands. Tail short, conical, covered with large bony
+tubercles. The fore-feet formed on the same type as in the last
+genus, but the peculiarities carried to a still greater extent. The
+claw of the third toe is very long, while those of the first and
+fifth are greatly reduced and sometimes wanting. On the hind-foot
+the three middle toes have broad, flat, subequal nails,
+forming together a kind of tripartite hoof; the first and fifth
+much shorter, with more compressed nails.</p>
+
+<p>The armadillos of this genus have the power of rolling themselves
+up into a ball, the shield on the top of the head and the
+tuberculated dorsal surface of the tail exactly fitting into and
+filling up the apertures left by the notches at either end of the
+body-armour. This appears to be their usual means of defence
+when frightened or surprised, as they do not burrow like the
+other species. They run very quickly, with a very peculiar
+gait, only the tips of the claws of the fore-feet touching the
+ground. In addition to the apar, there are the Argentine and
+Bolivian <i>T. conurus</i>, and <i>T. muriei</i> from Argentina or Patagonia.</p>
+
+<p>The last group of existing armadillos forms the genus <i>Tatusia</i>
+and the subfamily <i>Tatusiinae</i>; the subfamily rank being based
+on the fact that of the seven or eight pairs of small subcylindrical
+teeth, all but the last, which is considerably smaller than the
+rest, are preceded by milk-teeth not changed until the animal
+has nearly attained full size. Vertebrae: C 7, D 9-11, L 5, S 8,
+Ca 20-27. Head narrow, with a long, narrow, subcylindrical
+obliquely truncated snout. Ears rather large, ovate and erect,
+placed close together on the occiput. Armour with seven to nine
+distinct movable bands. Body generally elongated and narrow.
+Tail moderate, or long, gradually tapering; its plates forming
+distinct rings for the greater part of its length. Fore-feet with
+four visible toes, and a concealed clawless rudiment of the fifth;
+the claws long, slightly curved, and slender, the third and fourth
+subequal and alike, the first and fourth much shorter. Hind-feet
+with five toes, armed with strong, slightly curved, conical,
+obtusely pointed nails, and the third longest, then the second
+and fourth, and the first and fifth much shorter than the others.
+This genus differs from all the other armadillos in having a pair
+of inguinal teats in addition to the usual pectoral pair, and in
+producing a large number (4 to 10) of young at a birth, all the
+others having usually but one or two. The peba armadillo,
+<i>T. septemcincta</i>, is a well-known species, having an extensive
+range from Texas to Paraguay. It is replaced in the more
+southern regions of South America by a smaller species, with
+shorter tail, the mulita (<i>T. hybrida</i>) so called from the resemblance
+of its head and ears to those of a mule. <i>T. kappleri</i> is a large
+species from Guiana.</p>
+
+<p>Finally we have the pichiciago, or fairy armadillo, <i>Chlamydophorus
+truncatus</i>, typifying the subfamily <i>Chlamydophorinae</i>.
+In most anatomical characters, especially the structure of the
+fore-foot, this group resembles the <i>Dasypodinae</i>, but it differs
+remarkably from all other known armadillos, living or extinct,
+in the peculiar modification of the armour.</p>
+
+<p>The teeth, which number <span class="spp">8</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8-9</span>, are subcylindrical, somewhat
+compressed, moderate in size, and smaller at each end (especially
+in front) than at the middle of the series. Skull broad and
+rounded behind, pointed in front. Muzzle subcylindrical and
+depressed. A conspicuous rounded rough prominence on the
+frontal bone, just before each orbit. Tympanic prolonged into a
+tubular auditory meatus, curving upwards round the base of the
+zygoma. Vertebrae: C 7, D 11, L 3, S 10, Ca 15. Upper part of
+head and trunk covered with four-sided horny plates (with small
+thin ossifications beneath), forming a shield, free and overhanging
+the sides of the trunk, and attached only along the middle line
+of the back. The plates are arranged in a series of distinct
+transverse bands, about twenty in number between the occiput
+and the posterior truncated end, and not divided into solid
+scapular and pelvic shields with movable bands between. The
+hinder end of the body is abruptly truncated and covered by a
+vertically placed, strong, solid, bony shield, of an oval (transversely
+extended) form, covered by thin horny plates. This
+shield is firmly welded by five bony processes to the hinder part
+of the pelvis. Through a notch in the middle of its lower border
+the tail passes out. The latter is rather short, cylindrical in its
+proximal half, and expanded and depressed or spatulate in its
+terminal portion, and covered with horny plates. The dorsal
+surfaces of the fore and hind-feet are also covered with horny
+plates. The remainder of the limbs and under surface and sides
+of the body beneath the overlapping lateral parts of the back
+shield are clothed with rather long, soft silky hair. Eyes and
+ears very small, and concealed by the hair. Extremities short.
+Feet large, each with five well-developed claws, those on the
+fore-feet very long, stout and subcompressed, the structure
+of the digits being essentially the same as those of <i>Tatoua</i>
+and <i>Priodon</i>. Teats two, pectoral. Visceral anatomy closely
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page928" id="page928"></a>928</span>
+resembling that of <i>Dasypus</i>, the caecum being broad, short and
+bifid. The pichiciago, a burrowing animal, about 5 in. long,
+inhabits the sandy plains of western Argentina, especially the
+vicinity of Mendoza. Its horny covering is pinkish, and its silky
+hair white. A second species, <i>C. retusus</i>, from Bolivia is rather
+larger and has the dorsal shield attached to the skin of the back
+as far as its edge, instead of only along the median line. (See
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Armadillo</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Tubulidentata.</i>&mdash;The second suborder of edentates, namely
+the Tubulidentata, is represented at the present day only by
+the aard-varks, or ant-bears, of Africa, constituting the family
+<i>Orycteropodidae</i> and the genus <i>Orycteropus</i>. Together with the
+following group, they differ from the Xenarthra in the absence
+of additional articular facets to the lumbar vertebrae; for
+which reason the term Nomarthra has been proposed for the
+Tubulidentata and Pholidota as collectively distinct from the
+Xenarthra. In the present group the external surface is scantily
+covered with bristle-like hairs. The teeth are numerous, and
+traversed by a number of parallel vertical pulp-canals. Femur
+with a third trochanter. Fore-feet without the first toe, but all
+the other digits well developed, with strong moderate-sized nails,
+suited to digging, the plantar surfaces of which rest on the ground
+in walking. Hind-feet with five subequal toes. Placenta
+broadly zonular. The brain is very like that of the Ungulata;
+and there are two pairs of teats, one abdominal, and the other
+inguinal. Aard-varks feed on animal substances; and are
+terrestrial and fossorial in habits. The total number of teeth
+is from eight to ten in each side of the upper, and eight in the
+lower jaw; but they are never all in place at one time, as the
+small anterior ones are shed before the series is completed behind.
+In the adult they number usually five on each side above and
+below, of which the first two are simple and compressed, the next
+two larger and longitudinally grooved at the sides, the most
+posterior simple and cylindrical. Their summits are rounded
+before they are worn; their bases do not taper to a root, but are
+evenly truncated and continually growing. Each tooth is made
+up of an aggregation of parallel dental systems, having a slender
+pulp cavity in the centre, from which the dentinal tubes radiate
+outwards, and being closely packed together each system assumes
+a polygonal outline as seen in transverse section. A series of
+milk-teeth is developed. Skull moderately elongated with the
+facial portion subcylindrical and slightly tapering, and the
+zygoma complete and slender. The palate ends posteriorly in
+the thickened transverse border of the palatines, and is not
+continued back by the pterygoids. The tympanic is annular,
+and not welded to the surrounding bones. The lower jaw is
+slender anteriorly, but rises high posteriorly, with a slender
+recurved coronoid, and an ascending pointed process on the
+hinder edge below the condyle, which is small, oval, and looks
+forward as much as upwards. Vertebrae: C 7, D 13, L 8, S 6,
+Ca 25. The large number of lumbar vertebrae is peculiar among
+Edentates. The tongue is less worm-like than in <i>Myrmecophaga</i>,
+being thick and fleshy at the base and gradually tapering to the
+apex. The salivary apparatus is developed much in the same
+manner as in that genus, but the duct of the submaxillary gland
+has no reservoir. The stomach consists of a large subglobular
+cardaic portion, with a thick, soft, and corrugated lining membrane,
+and a smaller muscular, pyloric part, with a comparatively
+thin and smooth lining. There is a distinct ileocaecal valve
+and a considerable sized caecum; also a gall-bladder. Head
+elongated, with a tubular snout, terminal nostrils and small
+mouth-opening. Ears large, pointed, erect. Tall nearly as
+long as the body, cylindrical, thick at the base, tapering to the
+extremity.</p>
+
+<p>According to the researches of Dr E. Lönnberg, the teeth of
+the aard-varks correspond only to the roots of those of other
+mammals, the crowns being unrepresented, except to a very
+small degree when the teeth first cut the gum. This explanation
+renders the peculiar internal structure of these teeth much less
+difficult to understand than if they represented both crown and
+root. In Dr Lönnberg&rsquo;s opinion, the teeth indicate the descent
+of the aard-vark from an ungulate stock,&mdash;a view in harmony
+with the evidence of the brain. If this idea prove well founded,
+and if the aard-varks are rightly classed with the Edentata, the
+whole order must apparently be regarded as an offshoot from
+primitive Ungulata. The fact of the frequent distinctness of the
+coracoid bone requires, however, explanation in connexion with
+such a descent (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aard-Vark</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Pholidota.</i>&mdash;The Pholidota, constituting the third and last
+group of the Edentata, are represented by the pangolins, or
+scaly anteaters, of Asia and Africa, all of which are included
+in the family <i>Manidae</i> and the genus <i>Manis</i>. Pangolins differ
+from all other mammals by the armour of overlapping horny
+scales (often with hairs growing between them) which invests
+the whole animal, with the exception of the under surface of
+the body, and sometimes a small patch near the tip of the under
+side of the tail. There are no teeth; and although the tongue is
+long and worm-like, it is not extensile. The scaphoid and lunar
+bones of the carpus are united. The uterus is bicornuate, and
+the placenta diffused and non-deciduate. The skull has somewhat
+the form of an elongated cone, with the small end turned
+forwards, and is smooth and free from crests and ridges. No
+distinction between the orbits and temporal fossae. The zygomatic
+arch usually incomplete, owing to the absence of the jugal
+bone; no distinct lacrymal bone; and the palate long and
+narrow. The pterygoids extend backwards as far as the tympanics,
+but do not meet in the middle line below. Tympanic
+welded to the surrounding bones, and more or less bladder-like,
+but not produced into a tubular auditory meatus. Two halves
+of lower jaw very slender and straight, without any angle or
+coronoid process, on the anterior extremity of the upper edge a
+sharp, conical, tooth-like process projecting upwards and outwards.
+No clavicles. No third trochanter to the femur. Terminal
+phalanges cleft at the tip. Caudal vertebrae with very
+long transverse processes and numerous chevron-bones. Stomach
+with thick muscular walls and lining membrane, and a special
+gland near the middle of the great curvature, consisting of a
+mass of complex secreting follicles, the ducts of which terminate
+in a common orifice. No caecum, but a gall-bladder. Head
+small, depressed, narrow, and pointed in front, with a very
+small mouth-opening. Eyes and ears very small. Body elongated,
+narrow. Tail more or less elongated, convex above, flat underneath.
+Limbs short, and in walking the surface and outer
+sides of the phalanges of the two outer digits of the front feet
+alone rest on the ground, with the points of the nails turning
+upwards and inwards. The third toe the longest, with a powerful
+compressed curved claw, the second and fourth with similar
+but smaller claws, but that of the first toe often almost rudimentary.
+Hind-feet plantigrade with the first toe very short,
+and the four other toes subequal, and carrying moderate, curved,
+compressed nails. Pangolins are of small or moderate size,
+terrestrial and burrowing, and feed mainly on termites or white
+ants; some of the species being more or less arboreal. They
+can roll themselves up in a ball when in danger. Their peculiar
+elongated form, short limbs, long tapering tail, and scaly covering
+give them on a superficial inspection more the appearance of
+reptiles than of mammals. The species are not numerous and
+may be divided into two sections, one comprising the Asiatic
+species, such as <i>M. javanica</i>, <i>M. aurita</i> of China, and the Indian
+<i>M. pentadactyla</i>, and the other the African, as represented by
+the large <i>M. gigantea</i>, <i>M. temminchi</i>, the long-tailed <i>M. macrura</i>,
+and the small arboreal <i>M. tricuspis</i>. In the Asiatic group the
+middle series of scales continues to the tip of the tail; but in
+the African forms this row splits into two a few inches from the
+tail-tip. The latter have also no hairs between the scales and
+no external ears. The climbing species have a small bare patch
+on the under side of the tail near the tip (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pangolin</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Extinct Edentates.</i></p>
+
+<p>Beyond remains of species closely allied to or identical with
+the existing forms, the sloths and anteaters appear to be unknown
+in a fossil state. On the other hand the extinct family of ground
+sloths, or <i>Megatheriidae</i>, which includes the largest of all edentates,
+is an exceedingly large one, and extends in South America from
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page929" id="page929"></a>929</span>
+the Miocene to the Pleistocene, and was also represented during
+the latter epoch in North America. It serves to connect the
+<i>Bradypodidae</i> with <i>Myrmecophagidae</i>. The alleged occurrence
+of an allied form in Madagascar is somewhat doubtful (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Megatherium</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mylodon</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>Of <i>Dasypodidae</i> numerous representatives occur in the South
+American Tertiaries. From the higher beds many of the species
+are referable to existing genera, such as <i>Dasypus</i> and <i>Tatusia</i>,
+although some are much larger than any living forms, the skull
+in one case being nearly a foot in length. In other instances,
+when lower formations are reached, the genera are also distinct,
+<i>Eutatus</i> having the whole armour divided into movable bands,
+and the allied <i>Stegotherium</i> representing the group in the Santa
+Cruz formation of Patagonia. Even in the Argentine Pleistocene
+there is an extinct genus, <i>Chlamydotherium</i>, represented by a
+species of the size of a rhinoceros, with grooved teeth approximating
+to those of the glyptodonts. The latter represent a family
+(<i>Glyptodontidae</i>) by themselves, and typically may be described
+as giant solid-shelled armadillos, although some of their smaller
+Santa Cruz representatives (<i>Propalaeohoplophorus</i>) approximate
+in some degree to true armadillos (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Glyptodon</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>A very remarkable Santa Cruz armadillo, <i>Peltephilus</i>, has an
+altogether peculiar type of head-shield, developed into horns
+in front of the eyes; and, what is still more noteworthy, teeth
+in the front of the jaws, thereby rendering the ordinary definition
+of the order Edentata incorrect. It has been made the type of
+a distinct family, <i>Peltephilidae</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The past history of the armadillo group does not, however,
+by any means end here. True armadillos, it should be observed,
+are known in North America as far north as Texas, from
+the Pleistocene onwards; but in formations of middle Tertiary
+age are unrepresented. Recent discoveries apparently indicate,
+however, the occurrence of armadillos of a primitive type in the
+lower Tertiary or Eocene formations of Wyoming. The first
+evidence of these Eocene armadillos was afforded by portions
+of the jaws, which, together with a leg-bone of a totally different
+animal, were believed to indicate creatures nearly allied to the
+aye-aye (<i>Chiromys</i>) of Madagascar, and for which the name
+<i>Metachiromys</i> was consequently proposed. According to modern
+usage, this name, in spite of its inappropriate nature, is retained
+for the armadillos, although in the writer&rsquo;s opinion it ought to be
+replaced. According to Professor H.F. Osborn, by whom their
+remains have been described, the North American fossil armadillos
+were closely related to the existing members of the group,
+from which they differ chiefly by the armour, or shield, having
+probably been formed of tough leathery skin instead of bony
+plates, by the presence of a single pair of large enamel-capped
+tusk-like teeth in each jaw, and by the degeneration of the other
+teeth. If these determinations are trustworthy, the question
+arises whether we should regard the armadillos of South America
+as the descendants of North American forms which migrated
+southwards before that separation of the two continents was
+established, which lasted for a large portion of the Tertiary
+period, or whether a migration took place at the same early epoch
+in the opposite direction.</p>
+
+<p>More interesting still is the occurrence of remains of reputed
+armadillos (<i>Necrodasypus</i>) from the Oligocene of France and
+Germany. In the opinion of Dr F. Ameghino these Oligocene
+armadillos, which had bony shields on both the head and body,
+were near akin to some of the modern South American forms.</p>
+
+<p>Passing on to the aard-varks (<i>Orycteropodidae</i>), we find these
+represented by a species closely allied to the existing ones in the
+Lower Pliocene formations of Spain, France, Hungary, Samos
+and Asia Minor. A single tibia from the French Oligocene is
+identified by Dr Ameghino with the present family, and the genus
+<i>Archaeorycteropus</i> established for its reception; this genus, in
+its founder&rsquo;s opinion, being also represented in the Santa Cruz
+beds of Patagonia. As regards the pangolins, the only fossils
+referred to this group (apart from a few discovered in a cave in
+India) appear to be certain limb-bones from the Oligocene of
+France and Germany, for which the names <i>Necromanis</i> and
+<i>Teutomanis</i> have been proposed. The occurrence of the characteristic
+cleft terminal toe-bones among these remains seems to
+leave little doubt as to the correctness of the determination.</p>
+
+<p>The alleged occurrence of remains of giant pangolins in the
+upper Tertiary of Europe is due to misidentification (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ancylopoda</a></span>). By some authorities the Eocene group of
+Ganodonta has been affiliated to the Edentata, but this reference
+is not accepted by Prof. W.B. Scott.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;The above article is to some extent based on the
+articles by Sir W.H. Flower in the 9th edition of this work. See
+also O. Thomas, &ldquo;A Milk-dentition in <i>Orycteropus</i>,&rdquo; <i>Proc. Royal Soc.</i>
+vol. xlvii. (1890); R. Lydekker, &ldquo;The Extinct Edentates of Argentina,&rdquo;
+<i>Palaeont. Argentina</i>, vol. iii., An. Mus. (La Plata, 1894);
+C.W. Andrews, &ldquo;On a Skull of <i>Orycteropus gaudryi</i> from Samos,&rdquo;
+<i>Proc. Zool. Soc. London</i> (1896); G.E. Smith, &ldquo;The Brain in the
+Edentata,&rdquo; <i>Trans. Linn. Soc. London</i>, vol. vii. (1899); W.B. Scott,
+&ldquo;Mammalia of the Santa Cruz Beds&mdash;<i>Dasypoda</i>,&rdquo; <i>Rep. Princeton
+Exped. to Patagonia</i>, vol. v. (1903); H.F. Osborn, &ldquo;An Armadillo
+from the Middle Eocene of North America,&rdquo; <i>Bull. Amer. Mus.</i> vol.
+xx. art. 12 (1904); J.A. Allen, &ldquo;The Tamandua Anteaters,&rdquo; <i>T.C.</i>,
+art. 33 (1904); F. Ameghino, &ldquo;Les Édentes fossiles de
+France et d&rsquo;Allemagne,&rdquo; <i>Ann. Mus. Buenos Aires</i>, vol. xiii. (1905);
+E. Lönnberg, &ldquo;On a new <i>Orycteropus</i>,&rdquo; and &ldquo;Remarks on the
+dentition of the Tubulidentata,&rdquo; <i>Archiv für Zoologie</i>, vol. iii.
+No. 3 (1906).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDENTON,<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> a town and the county-seat of Chowan county,
+North Carolina, U.S.A., on Edenton Bay, an estuary of Albemarle
+sound, near the mouth of Chowan river, in the N.E. part of
+the state. Pop. (1890) 2205; (1900) 3046 (2090 negroes); (1910)
+2789. It is served by the Norfolk &amp; Southern railway, and
+by the Albemarle Steam Navigation Co. In 1907 the former
+projected a great bridge across Albemarle sound near the city.
+Edenton is an old and interesting town, has a number of fine
+old homesteads, and has broad and well-shaded streets. Lumbering
+and the shad and herring fisheries are the most important
+industrial interests, and the town is a shipping point for fish,
+truck and other farm products, cotton and peanuts. There is a
+Fish Cultural Station here, established by the Federal government.
+The court-house was built about 1750.</p>
+
+<p>Edenton was settled about 1658, and was for some time known
+as the &ldquo;Towne on Queen Anne&rsquo;s Creek&rdquo; or the &ldquo;Port of
+Roanoke&rdquo;; in 1722 the present name was adopted in honour
+of Governor Charles Eden (1673-1722), whose grave is in St
+Paul&rsquo;s churchyard here. Throughout the 18th century Edenton
+was a place of considerable social and political importance; the
+legislative assembly of North Carolina met here occasionally,
+and here lived the royal governors and various well-known
+citizens of the province, among them: Joseph Hewes (1730-1779),
+a signer of the Declaration of Independence; James
+Iredell, Sr. (1750-1799), a Federalist leader and after 1790 a
+justice of the United States Supreme Court, and his son James
+Iredell, Jr. (1788-1853), a prominent lawyer, for many years a
+member of the state legislature, governor of North Carolina in
+1827-1828, and a member of the United States Senate in 1828-1831.
+Near Edenton lived Samuel Johnston (1733-1816), a
+prominent leader of the American Whigs preceding and during
+the War of American Independence, a member of the Continental
+Congress in 1780-1782, governor of North Carolina in 1787-1789,
+and a Federalist member of the United States Senate in 1790-1793.
+In 1907 the Hewes, Iredell and Johnston homesteads
+were still standing. In a house facing the court-house green the
+famous &ldquo;Edenton Tea Party&rdquo; of fifty-one ladies met on the
+24th of October 1774 and signed resolutions that they would
+not conform &ldquo;to that Pernicious Custom of Drinking Tea&rdquo; and
+would not &ldquo;promote the wear of any manufacture from England&rdquo;
+until the tax on tea should be repealed. Near Edenton the
+Confederate ram &ldquo;Albemarle,&rdquo; on emerging from the Roanoke
+river, was met by the Union &ldquo;double-enders,&rdquo; &ldquo;Sassacus,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;Mattabesett,&rdquo; and &ldquo;Miami,&rdquo; on the 5th of May 1864; the
+battle, which resulted in favour of the Confederates, was a duel
+between the Confederate ironclad and the Union wooden side-wheeler,
+the &ldquo;Sassacus,&rdquo; which rammed the &ldquo;Albemarle&rdquo; and
+had her bows, fitted with a three-ton bronze beak, twisted off
+and carried away.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDESSA<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> (mod. <i>Vodena</i>), the ancient capital of Macedonia,
+previously known as Aegae, situated 46 m. W. of Thessalonica
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page930" id="page930"></a>930</span>
+on the banks of a beautiful stream in the very centre of the
+kingdom, and at the head of a defile commanding the approaches
+from the coast to the interior. It was the original residence of
+the Macedonian kings; and even after the seat of government
+was removed by Philip II. to the more accessible Pella, it
+continued to be the burial-place of the royal family. At the
+celebration of his daughter&rsquo;s marriage here, Philip II. was
+murdered by Pausanias in 336 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> His son Alexander was
+buried at Memphis through the contrivance of Ptolemy; but
+the bodies of his granddaughter Eurydice and her husband
+Arrhidaeus were removed by Cassander to the ancestral sepulchre.
+On the occupation of the town by Pyrrhus the royal tombs were
+plundered by the Gallic mercenaries. Owing to its position
+commanding the Via Egnatia, the town retained its importance
+during the Roman and Byzantine periods. For its present
+condition, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vodena</a></span>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDESSA,<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> the Greek name of an ancient city of N.W. Mesopotamia
+(in 37° 21&prime; N. lat. and 39° 6&prime; E. long.), suggested perhaps
+by a comparison of its site, or its water supply,<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> with that of its
+Macedonian namesake. It still bears its earlier name, modified
+since the 15th century (by the Turks?) to Urfa.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The oldest certain form is the Aramaic <i>Urh&#257;i</i> (&ldquo;Western&rdquo;
+pronunciation <i>Urh&#333;i</i>), which appears in Greek as an adjective as
+<span class="grk" title="Horrhoênhê">&#8008;&#961;&#961;&#959;&#951;&#957;&#942;</span><a name="fa2e" id="fa2e" href="#ft2e"><span class="sp">2</span></a>, <span class="grk" title="-noi">-&#957;&#959;&#943;</span><a name="fa3e" id="fa3e" href="#ft3e"><span class="sp">3</span></a> (perhaps also as a fortress with spring, as <span class="grk" title="Orrha">&#8008;&#961;&#961;&#940;</span>),<a name="fa4e" id="fa4e" href="#ft4e"><span class="sp">4</span></a>
+and in Latin as Orr(<i>h</i>)ei,<a name="fa5e" id="fa5e" href="#ft5e"><span class="sp">5</span></a> and (in the inscription on Abgar&rsquo;s grave)
+<i>Orrhenoru</i>(<i>m</i>).<a name="fa6e" id="fa6e" href="#ft6e"><span class="sp">6</span></a> The Syriac Chronicle ascribed to Dionysius of
+Tell-ma&#7717;r&#275; derives the name from a first king Urh&#257;i, son of Hewy&#257;,
+whom Procopius (<i>De bello persico</i>, i. 17) calls Osroes (cf. below),
+connected by Bayer<a name="fa7e" id="fa7e" href="#ft7e"><span class="sp">7</span></a> with Chosroes,<a name="fa8e" id="fa8e" href="#ft8e"><span class="sp">8</span></a> from which G. Hoffmann
+would also derive the Syriac Urh&#257;i (<i>Z.D.M.G.</i> xxxii. 742). The Syriac
+town name has, however, the form of an ethnic, and we may therefore
+with Duval leave it unexplained (<i>Hist.</i> 22). The fact that the
+Arabic name is Ruhä supports the hint of the Graeco-Latin forms
+that there was a vowel between the R and the H. There is little
+plausibility in the suggestion of Assemani and others that Ruh&#257;
+comes from <span class="grk" title="rhoê">&#961;&#959;&#951;</span> of Callirrhoe. A gentilic of the form Ru-u-ai occurs
+in a letter (of an Assyrian king?) to chiefs in a (Babylonian?) town
+as the designation of three captives (Harper, <i>Ass. and Bab. Letters</i>,
+No. 287 [= K 94], line 6; cf. Bezold, <i>Die Achämenideninschriften</i>,
+p. xii.), who have Semitic names; and Ru-&lsquo;-u-a is the name of
+an Aramaic people mentioned with other Aramaeans by Tiglath-pileser
+IV., Sargon and Sennacherib. It is not impossible that some
+such people may have settled at Urh&#257;i and given it their name,
+although the Ru-&lsquo;-u-a are always mentioned in connexions that
+imply seats near the Persian Gulf.<a name="fa9e" id="fa9e" href="#ft9e"><span class="sp">9</span></a> The district name Osro&#275;n&#275; for
+<span class="grk" title="Orrhoênhê">&#8008;&#961;&#961;&#959;&#951;&#957;&#942;</span>, is Greek, perhaps due to analogy of Chosroes. It occurs
+but rarely in Syriac (Uzroina); <i>e.g.</i> Chronicle of Edessa. § 35;<a name="fa10e" id="fa10e" href="#ft10e"><span class="sp">10</span></a>
+elsewhere B&#275;th-Urh&#257;y&#275; (<i>e.g.</i> Cureton, <i>Spicileg. Syr.</i> 20). In the
+time of Tiglath-pileser I. (<i>c.</i> 1100 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) the name seems to have been
+&ldquo;District of (not Edessa, but) &#7716;arr&#257;n&rdquo; (Annals, vi. 71). The Arabs
+pronounced the name er-Ruh&#257; (see above), and that form prevailed
+till it gave place to Urfa in the 15th century.</p>
+
+<p>The Greek name Edessa appears in the Jerusalem Targum to
+Gen. x. 10 as H&#259;das (<span title="hadas">&#1492;&#1491;&#1505;</span>, myrtle); it has been proposed (cf. Duval,
+<i>Hist. d&rsquo;Édesse</i>, 23) to derive Edessa from Aram. <span title="hadat">&#1492;&#1491;&#1514;</span>, as though
+= Carthage, New Town; but Syriac writers, when they occasionally <a name="fa11e" id="fa11e" href="#ft11e"><span class="sp">11</span></a>
+use the name (Edessa, <span title="adasa">&#1488;&#1491;&#1505;&#1488;</span>; so Y&#257;q&#363;t, Ad&#257;s&#257;), show no
+suspicion of its being Semitic. According to Pliny, v. 86, Edessa
+was also called Antioch, and coins of Antiochus IV. Epiphanes with
+the legend &ldquo;Antioch on the Callirrhoe&rdquo; may imply that he rebuilt
+and renamed the place (so Ed. Meyer in Pauly-Wissowa, <i>Realencyclopädie</i>,
+col. 1933, 66; otherwise Duval, <i>Hist.</i> 23; cf. art.
+<span class="sc">Osroene</span>). Pliny indeed seems to call the city itself Callirrhoe, and
+S. Funk finds it so named in the Talmud (<i>Bab. Mez.</i>, 18a <span title="raal raham bahara shuiar meta">&#1512;&#1506;&#1500; &#1512;&#1499;&#1501; &#1504;&#1492;&#1512;&#1488; &#1513;&#1493;&#1497;&#1512; &#1502;&#1514;&#1488;</span>:
+<i>Die Juden in Babylonien 200-500</i>, ii. 148; 1908);
+but K. Regling (<i>Klio</i>, i. 459 n. 1) may be right in his emendation
+which applies the title in Pliny to the sacred spring.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>History: Pre-Hellenistic.</i>&mdash;Until excavation gives us more
+definite data we can only infer from its position on one of the
+main thoroughfares between the Mediterranean and the East
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mesopotamia</a></span>) that Urh&#257;i-Edessa, possibly bearing some
+other name, was already a town of some importance in the early
+Babylonian-Assyrian age. Whatever may have been the
+ethnographical type of the early inhabitants, it must by the
+beginning of the second last millennium <span class="scs">B.C.</span> have included
+Hittites in the large sense of the term, probably Aryans, and
+certainly Semites of some of the types characteristic of early
+Assyrian history. Most probably its people belonged to the
+domain of the then more famous &#7716;arr&#257;n-Carrhae, between
+which and Samosata (on the Euphrates) Urh&#257;i lies midway
+(some 25-30 m. distant from each) in the district watered by the
+Bal&#299;h. Although at Edessa itself no cuneiform documents have
+yet been found, a little more than four hours journey eastwards,
+at Anaz (= Gull&#257;b?) = D&#363;r of Tiglath-pileser IV. was found in
+1901 a slab with a bas-relief and an inscription; and 15-20 min.
+W. of Eski-&#7716;arr&#257;n, in 1906 a very interesting 6th-century
+Assyrian inscription (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mesopotamia</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>In the later Assyrian empire the population was largely
+Aramaic-speaking; but S. Schiffer&rsquo;s theory (Beiheft I. zur
+<i>Orientalistischen Litteratur-Zeitung</i>) finds contemporary evidence
+of Israelites settled in the neighbourhood of Edessa in the second
+half of the 7th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> At the fall of Nineveh many towns in
+Mesopotamia suffered severely at the hands of the Medes. The
+period remains dark, notwithstanding the obscure light that has
+been thrown on it lately (Pognon, <i>Inscriptions</i>). When Aramaic
+began to take the place of Assyrian in written documents is not
+known; but just across the Euphrates the change had occurred
+as early as the 8th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (Zeng&#299;rli, Hamath; see also
+Pognon). Certain it is that the earliest documents that have
+survived in Syriac, or Edessene Aramaic, do not represent an
+experimental stage. Moreover, although the Syriac of the
+Story of A&#7717;&#299;q&#257;r is of a late type, the sources of the story, traces
+of which are to be found in the Hebrew Tobit (<i>q.v.</i>), go back to
+the pre-Hellenistic period.</p>
+
+<p><i>Graeco-Roman Times.</i>&mdash;According to a credible tradition
+found in Eusebius (<i>Excerpta</i>, 179), the Syriac Chronicle ascribed
+to Dionysius of Tell-ma&#7717;r&#275; (Tullberg, 61), and elsewhere, Urh&#257;i
+was renovated, like other Mesopotamian sites, in 304 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> by
+Seleucus I. Nicator, who gave it its Greek name.<a name="fa12e" id="fa12e" href="#ft12e"><span class="sp">12</span></a> It would share
+in the Hellenistic culture of Syria, although the language of the
+common people would continue to be Aramaic (E.R. Bevan,
+<i>House of Seleucus</i>, i. 227 f. with reff.). With the decay of the
+Seleucid power, weakened by Rome and Parthia, the old influx
+from the desert would recommence, and an Arabic element
+begin to show. Von Gutschmid (<i>Untersuch.</i>, cf. Duval, ch. iii.
+end) argues plausibly that it was in 132 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, in the reign of
+Antiochus VII. Sidetes, that Edessa became the seat of a dynasty
+of some thirty local kings, whose succession has been preserved
+in native sources. The name of the first king, however, appears
+in different forms (cf. above), and one (Osroës-Orhai) is so
+like that of the town that Ed. Meyer suspects the historicity
+of the first reign, of five years. The names of the other kings&mdash;Abgar,
+Ma&rsquo;nu, Bekr, &amp;c.&mdash;are for the most part Arabic, as the
+people (in whose inscriptions the same mixture of names occurs)
+are called by classical authors; but the rulers, among whom
+an occasional Iranian name betrays the influence of the dominant
+Parthians,<a name="fa13e" id="fa13e" href="#ft13e"><span class="sp">13</span></a> would hardly maintain their distinctness from the
+Aramaic populace. This state which lasted for three centuries
+and a half, naturally varied in extent.<a name="fa14e" id="fa14e" href="#ft14e"><span class="sp">14</span></a> Bounded on the W. and
+the N. by the Euphrates, it reached at its widest as far as the
+Tigris. At such times, therefore, it included such towns as
+&#7716;arr&#257;n (Carrhae), Nisibis, Sar&#363;g, Zeugma-Birejik, Resaena,
+Singara, Tigranocerta, Samos&#257;ta, Melitene. Its position &ldquo;on
+the dangerous verge of two contending empires,&rdquo; Parthia and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page931" id="page931"></a>931</span>
+Rome, determined its changeful fortunes. Parthian predominance
+yielded for a time to Armenian (Tigranes, 88-86 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).
+Then, at the time of the expeditions of Lucullus, Pompey and
+Crassus, Edessa was an ally of Rome, though Abgar II. Ariamnes
+(68-53) played an ambiguous part. In <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 114 Abgar VII.
+entertained Trajan on his way back to Syria (Dio Cass. xviii. 21);
+but in 116, in consequence of a general rising, his consul L.
+Quietus sacked the city, Abgar perhaps dying in the flames,
+and made the state tributary. Hadrian, however, abandoning
+Trajan&rsquo;s forward policy in favour of a Euphrates boundary,
+restored it as a dependency of Rome. When L. Verus (163-165)
+recovered Mesopotamia from Parthia, it was not Edessa but
+&#7716;arr&#257;n that was chosen as the site of a Roman colony, and
+made the metropolis by Marcus Aurelius (172).</p>
+
+<p>To one of the native kings doubtless is to be ascribed the
+Syriac inscription<a name="fa15e" id="fa15e" href="#ft15e"><span class="sp">15</span></a> on one of the pair of pillars, 50 ft. high,
+which stood, no doubt, in front of a temple connected with some
+local cult. Trustworthy data for determining its nature are
+lacking. One or both of the pools below the citadel containing
+sacred fish may have been sacred to Atargatis (<i>q.v.</i>), an Ishtar-Venus
+deity; and according to the <i>Doctrine of Addai</i>, alongside
+of Venus were worshipped the sun and the moon.<a name="fa16e" id="fa16e" href="#ft16e"><span class="sp">16</span></a> Nergal and
+Sin were known as &ldquo;twins,&rdquo; and connected with the sign Gemini,
+under the name <i>ellamme</i>, &ldquo;the youths&rdquo; (cf. Zimmern, <i>K.A.T.</i>
+363). This makes more plausible than it otherwise would be
+the suggestion of J. Rendel Harris that the great twin pillars
+were connected with the cult of the Dioscuri, and that in the
+Acts of Thomas is to be seen a later attempt to substitute other
+&ldquo;twins,&rdquo; viz. Jesus and Judas-Thomas (Addai), whom legend
+buried &ldquo;in Britio Edessenorum&rdquo; (explained by Harnack as
+the Edessan citadel: Aram. <i>birtha</i>).<a name="fa17e" id="fa17e" href="#ft17e"><span class="sp">17</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Whether it was at Edessa that a Jewish translation of the
+Old Testament into Syriac was made,<a name="fa18e" id="fa18e" href="#ft18e"><span class="sp">18</span></a> under the encouragement
+perhaps of the favour of the royal house of Adiabene (Josephus,
+<i>Bell. Jud.</i> ii. 19. 4), or whether that work was done <i>in</i> Adiabene,<a name="fa19e" id="fa19e" href="#ft19e"><span class="sp">19</span></a>
+cannot be discussed here. That the translation did not share
+the fate of the other non-Christian Syriac writings, which did
+not survive the 13th century (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Syriac Literature</a></span>), is
+due to the fact that it was adopted (after being revised) by
+the Christians, and thus rescued. Although the beginnings of
+Christianity at Edessa are enshrouded in the mists of legend,
+and the first mention of Christian communities in Osrhoëne and
+the towns there is connected with the part they played in the
+paschal controversy (<i>c.</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 192), it has been reasonably urged
+that the legends imply a fact, namely that Christianity began
+in the Jewish colony, perhaps by the middle of the 2nd century,
+although the earliest seat of the Syrian church may have been
+farther east, in Adiabene.<a name="fa20e" id="fa20e" href="#ft20e"><span class="sp">20</span></a> Parts of the New Testament were
+certainly translated into Syriac in the 2nd century, although
+whether the &ldquo;Old Syriac&rdquo; (so <i>e.g.</i> Hjelt) or the Diatessaron (so
+Burkitt) came first is uncertain. About the end of the 2nd
+century Edessene Christianity seems to have made a fresh
+beginning: the ordination of Pal&#363;&#7789; by Serapion of Antioch may
+mean that things ecclesiastical took a westward trend, and it
+is possible (so Burkitt) that the &ldquo;Old Syriac&rdquo; New Testament
+version was now introduced. A strong man offered himself in
+Bardai&#7779;&#257;n (<i>q.v.</i>; Bardesanes), to whom perhaps we owe the finest
+Syriac poem extant, the &ldquo;Hymn of the Soul,&rdquo; though orthodoxy
+rejected him. He was a contemporary of Abgar IX., at whose
+court Julius Africanus stayed for a while. A Syrian official
+record from this reign, preserved in the <i>Edessene Chronicle</i>,
+gives a somewhat detailed account of a violent flood (autumn,
+201) of the Dai&#7779;&#257;n river which did much damage, destroying
+amongst other things &ldquo;the palace of Abgar the Great,&rdquo; rebuilt
+as a summer palace by Abgar IX., and &ldquo;the temple of the church
+of the Christians.&rdquo; The form of this last statement shows that
+at the time of writing (206) the rulers had not adopted Christianity
+themselves. Abgar IX. is now commonly supposed to be the
+ruler to whom the famous legend was first attached (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Abgar</a></span>);
+but though he visited Rome there is no proof that he ever became
+a Christian (Gomperz, in <i>Archäologisch-epigraphische Mitteilungen
+aus Österreich-Ungarn</i>, xix. 154-157). It was at Edessa that
+Caracalla, who made it a military colony under the style of
+Colonia Marcia Edessenorum, spent the winter of 216-217, and
+near there that he was murdered. The religious philosophical
+treatise preserved under the title of <i>Book of the Laws of the Lands</i>
+was probably produced at this time by a pupil of Bardesanes,
+and the <i>Acts of Thomas</i> in its original form may have followed
+not long after.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sassanian Period.</i>&mdash;In 226 the Parthian empire gave place
+to the new kingdom of the Sassanidae, whose claim to the ancient
+Achaemenian empire led to constant struggle with Rome in
+which Edessa naturally suffered. The native state was restored
+by Gordian in 242; but in 244 it became again directly subject
+to Rome. The Edessan martyrs Sharb&#275;l and Barsamy&#257;, whose
+&ldquo;Acts&rdquo; in legendary form have come down to us, may have
+perished in the Decian persecution. In 260 the city was besieged
+by the Persians under Shapur I., and Valerian was
+defeated and made prisoner by its gates. Odaenathus of Palmyra
+(d. 267), however, wrested Mesopotamia from the Persians;
+but Aurelian defeated his successor Zenobia at Emesa (273),
+and Carus, who died in 283 in an expedition against the Persians,
+and Galerius (297) carried the frontier again to the Tigris.
+Diocletian&rsquo;s persecution secured the martyr&rsquo;s crown for the
+Edessenes Sham&#333;na, Guria (297), and &#7716;abb&#299;b (309), and shortly
+thereafter Lucian &ldquo;the martyr,&rdquo; who though born at Samosata
+received his training at Edessa; but the bishop Q&#333;na, who laid
+the foundations of &ldquo;the great church&rdquo; by the sacred pool,
+somehow escaped. Edessa can claim no share in &ldquo;the Persian
+Sage&rdquo; Aphraha&#7789; or Afraha&#7789; (Aphraates); but Ephraem, after
+bewailing in Nisibis the sufferings of the great Persian war under
+Constantius and Julian, when Jovian in 363 ceded most of
+Mesopotamia to Shapur II., the persecutor of the Christians,
+settled in Edessa, which as the seat of his famous school (called
+&ldquo;the Persian&rdquo;) grew greatly in importance, and attracted
+scholars from all directions. He taught and wrote vigorously
+against the Arians and other heretics, and although just after his
+death (373) the emperor Valens banished the orthodox from
+Edessa, they returned on the emperor&rsquo;s death in 378. Under
+Zenobius, disciple of Ephraem, studied the voluminous writer,
+Isaac of Antioch (d. circ. 460). Rabb&#363;la perhaps owed his
+elevation to the see of Edessa (411-435), in the year which produced
+the oldest dated Syriac MS., to his asceticism, and it
+was to his time that the sojourn there of the &ldquo;Man of God&rdquo;
+(Alexis) was assigned; but he won from the Nestorians the
+title of the Tyrant of Edessa. In particular he exerted himself
+to stamp out the use of the Diatessaron in favour of the four
+Gospels, the Syriac version of which probably now took the form
+known as the Peshitta. When the popular Nestorianism of the
+Syrians was condemned at Ephesus (431) it began to gravitate
+eastwards, Nisibis becoming its eventual headquarters; but
+Edessa and the western Syrians refused to bow to the Council
+of Chalcedon (451) when it condemned Monophysitism. In
+and around Edessa the theological strife raged hotly.<a name="fa21e" id="fa21e" href="#ft21e"><span class="sp">21</span></a> When,
+however, Zeno&rsquo;s edict (489) ordered the closing of the school of
+the Persians at Edessa, East and West drifted apart more and
+more; the ecclesiastical writer Narsai, &ldquo;the Harp of the Holy
+Spirit,&rdquo; fled to Nisibis about 489. Till about this time Syriac
+influence was strong in Armenia, and some Syriac works have
+survived only in Armenian translations. In the opening years
+of the 6th century the Persian-Roman War (502-506) found a
+chronicler in the anonymous Edessene history known till recently
+as the Chronicle of Joshua Stylites. Whether Edessa received
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page932" id="page932"></a>932</span>
+from the emperor Justin I. the additional name of Justinopolis
+may be uncertain (see Hallier, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 128); but it seems to
+have been renewed and fortified after the &ldquo;fourth&rdquo; flood in
+525 (Procop. <i>Pers.</i> ii. 27; <i>De aedific.</i> ii. 7). About this time,
+according to Nöldeke, an anonymous Edessene wrote the
+Romance of Julian the Apostate, which so many Arab writers
+use as a history. Chosroes I. Anushirw&#257;n succeeded in 540,
+according to the last entry in the Edessene Chronicle, in exacting
+a large tribute from Edessa; but in 544 he besieged it in vain.
+A few years later Jacob Baradaeus, with Edessa as centre of
+his bishopric, was carrying on the propaganda of Monophysitism
+which won for the adherents of that creed the name of Jacobites
+(<i>q.v.</i>). The valuable Syriac Chronicle just referred to probably
+was compiled in the latter half of this century.</p>
+
+<p><i>Islam.</i>&mdash;In the first decade of the next century Edessa was
+taken by Chosroes II., and a large part of the population transported
+to eastern Persia. Within a score of years it was recovered
+by the emperor Heraclius, who reviewed a large army under
+its walls. The prophet of Islam was now, however, building up
+his power in Arabia, and although Heraclius paid no heed to
+the letter demanding his adhesion which he received from
+Medina (628), and the deputation of fifteen Rah&#257;wiy&#299;n who
+paid homage in 630 were not Edessenes but South Arabians,
+a few years later (636?) Heraclius&rsquo;s attempts, from Edessa
+as a centre, to effect an organized opposition to the victorious
+Arabs were defeated by Sa&rsquo;d, and he fell back on Samos&#257;ta.
+The terms on which Edessa definitely passed into the hands of the
+Moslems (638) under Riy&#257;d are not certain (Bal&#257;dhur&#299;). As it
+now ceased to be a frontier city it lost in importance. In 668
+occurred another destructive flood (Theophanes, p. 537), and
+in 678 an earthquake which destroyed part of the &ldquo;old church,&rdquo;
+which the caliph Mo&lsquo;&#257;wiya I. is said to have repaired. To the
+latter part of the century belongs the activity of Edessa&rsquo;s bishop
+Jacob, whose chronicle is unfortunately lost. It may have been
+the impulse given by the final supremacy of the caliphate to
+the long process which eventually substituted a new branch
+of Semitic speech for the Aramaic (which had now prevailed
+for a millennium and a half), that led Jacob to adopt the Greek
+vowel signs for use in Syriac. A century later Theophilus of
+Edessa (d. 785), author of a lost history, translated into Syriac
+&ldquo;the two books of the poet Homer on the Conquest of the city
+of Ilion.&rdquo; When the Bagd&#257;d caliphs lost control of their
+dominions, Edessa shared the fortunes of western Mesopotamia,
+changing with the rise and fall of Egyptian dynasties and Arab
+chieftains. In the 10th century al-Mas&rsquo;&#363;d&#299;, writing in the very
+year in which it happened, tells how the Mahommedan ruler
+of Edessa, with the permission of the caliph, purchased peace
+of the emperor Romanus Lecapenus by surrendering to him the
+napkin of Jesus of Nazareth, wherewith he had dried himself after
+his baptism. The translation of the Holy Icon of Christ from
+Edessa is commemorated on the 16th of August (Cal. Byzant).
+A few years later Ibn &#7716;au&#7731;al (978) estimates the number of
+churches in the city at more than 300, and al-Mo&#7731;addas&#299; (985)
+describes its cathedral, with vaulted ceiling covered with mosaics,
+as one of the four wonders of the world. In 1031 the emperor
+recovered Edessa; but in 1040 it fell into the hands of the
+Seljuks, whose progress had added a large element of Armenian
+refugees to the population of Osrhoëne. There is no reason,
+therefore, to discredit Maqr&#299;z&#299;&rsquo;s statement that it was three
+brother architects from Edessa that the Armenian minister
+Badr al-Gam&#257;li employed to build three of the fine city gates of
+Cairo (1087-1091). The empire soon recovered Edessa, but the
+resident made himself independent. Thoros applied for help
+to Baldwin, brother and successor of Godfrey of Bouillon in the
+First Crusade, who in 1098 took possession of the town and
+made it the capital of a Burgundian countship, which included
+Samosata and Sar&#363;g&rsquo;, and was for half a century the eastern
+bulwark of the kingdom of Jerusalem.<a name="fa22e" id="fa22e" href="#ft22e"><span class="sp">22</span></a> The local Armenian
+historian, however, Matthew of Edessa, tells of oppression,
+decrease of population, ruin of churches, neglect of agriculture.
+With the campaign of Maudud in 1110 fortune began to favour
+the Moslems. Edessa had to endure siege after siege. Finally,
+in 1144 it was stormed, Matthew being among the slain, by
+&lsquo;Im&#257;d ud-D&#299;n Zeng&#299;, ruler of Mosul, under Joscelin II., an
+achievement celebrated as &ldquo;the conquest of conquests,&rdquo; for
+laying the responsibility of which not on God but on the absence
+of the Frankish troops, an Edessan monk, John, bishop of
+&#7716;arr&#257;n (d. 1165), brought down upon himself the whole bench
+of bishops. Edessa suffered still more in 1146 after an attempt
+to recover it. Churches were now turned into mosques. The
+consternation produced in Europe by the news of its fate led
+to &ldquo;the Second Crusade.&rdquo; In 1182 it fell to Saladin, whose
+nephew recovered it when it had temporarily passed (1234)
+to the sultan of R&#363;m; but the &ldquo;Eye of Mesopotamia&rdquo; never
+recovered the brilliance of earlier days. The names it contributed
+to Arabic literature are unimportant. By timely surrender
+(1268) it escaped the sufferings inflicted by H&#363;l&#257;k&#363; and
+his Monguls on Sar&#363;&rsquo;g (Barhebraeus, <i>Chron. Arab.</i>, Beir&#363;t ed.,
+486). Mostauf&#299; describes a great cupola of finely worked stone
+still standing by a court over a hundred yards square (1340).
+Ali b. Yazd in his account of the campaigns of T&#299;m&#363;r, who
+reduced Mesopotamia in 1393, still calls the city (1425) Ruh&#257;.
+In 1637, when Amurath IV. conquered Bagd&#257;d and annexed
+Mesopotamia, it passed finally into the hands of the Turks, by
+whom it is called Urfa.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Modern Town.</i>&mdash;Urfa lies north-east of the Nimrud Dagh.
+It is surrounded by a wall, strengthened by square towers at
+distances of 18-20 steps, probably dating in its present condition
+from medieval Mahommedan times. On a height in a corner
+towards the west, overtopping the town by 100-200 ft., are the
+remains of the old citadel, and the two famous Corinthian
+columns<a name="fa23e" id="fa23e" href="#ft23e"><span class="sp">23</span></a> known as &ldquo;the Throne of Nimr&#363;d.&rdquo; In the hollow
+between this height and the town rise two springs which form
+ponds, the farther removed of which from the citadel is known
+as Birket al-Khal&#299;l, doubtless the Callirrhoe of the classical
+writers, and contains the sacred fish, estimated by J.S. Buckingham
+at 20,000, and the nearer as &lsquo;Ain Zalkha (<i>i.e.</i> Zuleikha, the
+wife of Potiphar). On the north edge of the Birket al-Khal&#299;l
+(see plan in Sachau, p. 197) is the great mosque of Abraham,
+the interior of which is described by J.S. Buckingham (<i>Travels</i>,
+pp. 108-110). Diagonally opposite the mosque is a house with a
+square tower, which is locally believed to occupy the place of the
+famous ancient school. The waters of the two pools make their
+way in a single stream southwards out of the town. The once
+dangerous stream Dai&#7779;&#257;n (<span class="grk" title="Skirtos">&#931;&#954;&#953;&#961;&#964;&#972;&#962;</span>) no longer flows southwards
+through the town, but encircles it on the north and east in the
+channel of the old moat. This stream, now called Kara Kuyun,
+and the other are exhausted in the irrigation of the gardens
+lying south-east of the town, except when fuller than usual,
+when they reach the Bal&#299;h. Not far east of the sacred pool is
+the largest building in the town, the recent Armenian Gregorian
+cathedral, whose American bells were first heard during Sachau&rsquo;s
+visit in 1879. About the middle of the town is the largest mosque,
+Ulu &rsquo;Gam&#299; (parts of it probably pre-Islamic), which probably
+occupies the site of the Christian church reckoned by the early
+Mahommedan writers as one of the wonders of the world. In
+the bazaar, which lies between the chief mosque and the sacred
+pool, and contains several streets, are displayed not only the
+native woollen stuffs, pottery and silver work, but also a considerable
+variety of European goods, especially cloth stuffs. The
+principal manufactures are fine cotton stuffs and yellow leather.
+The streets are of course narrow and winding; but the houses
+are well built of stone. The outskirts are occupied by melon
+gardens, vineyards and mulberry plantations. The fertile plain
+south of the town is noted for its wheat and fine pasture. The
+climate is healthy except in summer; the &ldquo;Aleppo button&rdquo;
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bagdad</a></span>, vilayet), a painful boil, is common. The rocky
+heights south and west of the town, whence the building material
+is largely obtained, are full of natural and artificial caverns, once
+used as dwellings, cloisters and graves, where are most of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page933" id="page933"></a>933</span>
+inscriptions published by Sachau, who also visited and describes
+(pp. 204-206) the D&#275;r Ya&lsquo;q&#363;b, nearly two hours distant.</p>
+
+<p>Urfa is the capital of a sanjak of the same name, in the vil&#257;yet
+of Aleppo. The population was estimated by Olivier in 1796
+at 20,000 to 24,000, by Buckingham at 50,000, by Chernik in
+1873 at 40,000, by Sachau in 1879 at 50,000, in Baedeker&rsquo;s
+Handbook in 1906 at 30,000. Vice-Consul Fitzmaurice said
+that before December 1895 it was close on 65,000, of whom about
+20,000 were Armenian, 3000 or 4000 Jacobites, Syrian-Catholic,
+Greek-Catholic, Maronites and Jews, and the remaining 40,000
+Turkish, Kurdian and Arab Mahommedans. Two barbarous
+massacres occurred on the 28th and 29th of October and the
+28th and 29th of December 1895; 126 Armenian families were
+absolutely wiped out. He believes that 8000 Armenians perished
+in the second massacre. The Deutsche Orient-Mission has its
+chief seat in Urfa, and there have for years been American and
+French missions. The Germans have an orphanage with 300
+Armenian children, a carpet factory and a medical station. The
+American school had some years ago 250 pupils.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;Inscriptional: H. Pognon, <i>Inscriptions sémitiques
+de la Syrie, de la Mésopotamie et de la région de Mossoul</i> (1907, 1908);
+Sachau, &ldquo;Edessenische Inschriften,&rdquo; in <i>Z.D.M.G.</i> xxxvi. 142-167;
+F.C. Burkitt, &ldquo;The Throne of Nimrod,&rdquo; in <i>P.S.B.A.</i> xxviii. 149-155
+(1906); J. Rendel Harris, <i>The Cult of the Heavenly Twins</i> (1906);
+Nöldeke, &ldquo;Syrische Inschriften,&rdquo; in <i>Z.A.</i> xxi. 151-161, 375-388
+(1908). Literary: Ludwig Hallier, <i>Untersuchungen über die Edessenische
+Chronik mit dem Syrischen Text</i> (1892); F. Nau, <i>Analyse des
+parties inédites de la chronique attribuée à Denys de Tell-ma&#7717;ré</i> (1898);
+J.-B. Chabot, <i>Chronique de Denys de Tell-Ma&#7717;ré, quatrième partie</i>
+(1895); W. Wright, <i>The Chronicle of Joshua the Stylite</i> (1882); Bayer,
+<i>Historia Osrhoena et Edessena</i> (St Petersburg, 1784), collects the references
+in classical authors; for the coinage see references in von Gutschmid
+(see below). Discussions: A. von Gutschmid, &ldquo;Untersuchungen
+über die Geschichte des Königreichs Osroëne&rdquo; (in <i>Mémoires
+de l&rsquo;acad. imper. des sciences de St-Pétersb.</i> vii. sér. tome 35, No. 1,
+1887); L.-J. Tixeront, <i>Les Origines de l&rsquo;église d&rsquo;Édesse et la légende
+d&rsquo;Abgar</i> (1888); R.A. Lipsius, <i>Die Edessenische Abgarsage kritisch
+untersucht</i> (1880); K.C.A. Matthes, <i>Die Edess. Abgarsage auf ihre
+Fortbildung untersucht</i> (1882); F. Nau, <i>Une Biographie inédite de
+Bardesane l&rsquo;astrologue</i> (1897); <i>Bardesane l&rsquo;astrologue: le livre des
+Lois des Pays</i> (1899); A. Hilgenfeld, <i>Bardesanes, der letzte Gnostiker</i>
+(1864); A.A. Bevan, &ldquo;The Hymn of the Soul&rdquo; (in <i>Texts and Studies</i>,
+1897); F.C. Burkitt, <i>Early Eastern Christianity</i> (1904); J.R.
+Harris, <i>The Dioscuri in Christian Legend</i> (1903), and <i>The Cult of the
+Heavenly Twins</i> (1906); the histories of Rome, Persia, Crusades,
+Mongols, &amp;c.; Rubens Duval, <i>Histoire politique, religieuse et
+littéraire d&rsquo;Édesse jusqu&rsquo;à la première croisade</i> (1892), a useful compilation
+reprinted from the <i>Journ. As.</i>; the excellent article by E.
+Meyer in Pauly-Wissowa, <i>Realencyclopädie</i>, 1933-1938. Topography:
+J.S. Buckingham, <i>Travels in Mesopotamia</i> (1827); E.
+Sachau, <i>Reise in Syrien u. Mesopotamien</i> (1883), 189-210; cf. Duval,
+<i>op. cit.</i> chap, i.; C. Ritter, <i>Erdkunde</i>, xi. 315-356. Map of town in
+Niebuhr, <i>Voyage en Arabie</i>, reproduced with modifications in Wright,
+<i>Chron. Josh. Styl.</i>; also a map in Reclus, <i>Univ. Geog.</i> ix. 232. Four
+pictures of the town in Burkitt, <i>Early East. Christ.</i></p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. W. H.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> So Appian, <i>Syr.</i> 57; cp. Steph. Byz., s.v. <span class="grk" title="Edessa: dia tên tôn
+hudatôn rhumên.">&#917;&#948;&#949;&#963;&#963;&#945;: &#948;&#953;&#8048; &#964;&#8052;&#957; &#964;&#8182;&#957; &#8017;&#948;&#940;&#964;&#969;&#957; &#8165;&#973;&#956;&#951;&#957;.</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2e" id="ft2e" href="#fa2e"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Steph. Byz., s.v. <span class="grk" title="Batnai">&#914;&#945;&#964;&#957;&#945;&#953;</span>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3e" id="ft3e" href="#fa3e"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Dio, <i>passim.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4e" id="ft4e" href="#fa4e"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Isidore Charac. 1 (Müller, <i>Geog. Gr. Min.</i>, i. 246).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5e" id="ft5e" href="#fa5e"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Several times in Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6e" id="ft6e" href="#fa6e"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>CIL.</i> vi. 1797.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7e" id="ft7e" href="#fa7e"><span class="fn">7</span></a> <i>Hist. Osrhoena et Edessena</i>, p. 33.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8e" id="ft8e" href="#fa8e"><span class="fn">8</span></a> Written <span class="grk" title="Osroês">&#8008;&#963;&#961;&#972;&#951;&#962;</span> in Dio Cassius, <i>Excerpta</i>, lxviii. 22.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft9e" id="ft9e" href="#fa9e"><span class="fn">9</span></a> See the reff. collected by M. Streck, <i>M.V.G.</i>, 1906. The name
+occurs in the same company in the fragmentary tablet K. 1904.
+The mountain Ru-u-[a], mentioned thrice by Tiglath-pileser IV.,
+is placed by Billerbeck near Hamad&#257;n (<i>Sandschak Suleimania</i>, 82,
+86, and map, 1898).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft10e" id="ft10e" href="#fa10e"><span class="fn">10</span></a> See further Payne Smith, <i>Thesaurus</i> 110 <i>b</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft11e" id="ft11e" href="#fa11e"><span class="fn">11</span></a> In translating from the Greek; also in Ephraim (Duval, <i>Hist.</i>
+22, n. 4) and the Acts of Sharb&#299;l (Cureton, <i>Anc. Syr. Doc.</i> 41).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft12e" id="ft12e" href="#fa12e"><span class="fn">12</span></a> On a possible restoration under the name of &ldquo;Antioch on the
+Callirrho&#279;&rdquo; see above.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft13e" id="ft13e" href="#fa13e"><span class="fn">13</span></a> The Edessans used to call their town &ldquo;the city,&rdquo; or &ldquo;the
+daughter,&rdquo; &ldquo;of the Parthians&rdquo; (Cureton, <i>Anc. Syr. Doc.</i>, 41 ult.,
+97 l. 7; 106 l. 12).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft14e" id="ft14e" href="#fa14e"><span class="fn">14</span></a> The portion of the Mesopotamian steppe under Osrhoënic
+influence was, according to Nöldeke (<i>Zeitsch. Ass.</i> xxi. 153, 1908),
+called &lsquo;Ar&#257;bh in Syriac.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft15e" id="ft15e" href="#fa15e"><span class="fn">15</span></a> The inscription, which is difficult to read, connects the structure
+with Shalmat the queen, daughter of Ma&rsquo;nu, who cannot be identified
+with certainty, and refers to some image(<i>s</i>), which probably excited
+the pious vandalism of the Arabs.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft16e" id="ft16e" href="#fa16e"><span class="fn">16</span></a> Nebo and Bel (<i>Doctr. Addai</i>, 31) may come from the Old Testament
+(Burkitt).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft17e" id="ft17e" href="#fa17e"><span class="fn">17</span></a> <i>S.B.A.W.</i>, 1904, 910 ff.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft18e" id="ft18e" href="#fa18e"><span class="fn">18</span></a> So, <i>e.g.</i> F.C. Burkitt, <i>Early Eastern Christianity</i>, 72.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft19e" id="ft19e" href="#fa19e"><span class="fn">19</span></a> Marquart, <i>Ostasiat. und osteurop. Streitzüge</i>, 292 ff.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft20e" id="ft20e" href="#fa20e"><span class="fn">20</span></a> Marquart, <i>op. cit.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft21e" id="ft21e" href="#fa21e"><span class="fn">21</span></a> Some one found time, however, to produce the oldest <i>dated</i> MS.
+of a portion of the Bible in any language.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft22e" id="ft22e" href="#fa22e"><span class="fn">22</span></a> The counts were: Baldwin I. (1098), Baldwin II. (1100),
+Joscelin I. (1119), Joscelin II. (1131-1147).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft23e" id="ft23e" href="#fa23e"><span class="fn">23</span></a> Pictures in Burkitt, <i>Early East. Christ.</i>, frontispiece; <i>P.S.B.A.</i>
+xxviii. 151 f.; J.R. Harris, <i>The Heavenly Twins</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDFU,<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> in Coptic <i>Atb&#333;</i>, a town of Upper Egypt, 484 m. S.S.E.
+of Cairo by rail, on the W. bank of the Nile, the railway station
+being on the opposite side of the river. Pop. (1907) 19,262.
+The inhabitants manufacture earthenware, which finds ready
+sale all through Egypt. The ancient Atb&#333; (<i>Apollinopolis Magna</i>)
+was capital of the second nome of Upper Egypt. The great
+sandstone temple is practically complete (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Architecture</a></span>:
+<i>Egypt</i>). It was built on the site of an earlier structure entirely
+in the time of the Ptolemies. The central part of the building,
+begun by Ptolemy III. Euergetes in 237 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, was finished by
+his successor in 212; the portico, court, pylons and surrounding
+wall were added by Ptolemy Euergetes II., Soter II. and
+Alexander I.; but the decoration was not finished till 57 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+in the reign of Ptolemy XIII. Neos Dionysus. The god of Atb&#333;
+was a form of Horus (Apollo) as the sun-god; his most characteristic
+representation is as the disk of the sun with outspread
+wings, so often seen over the doors of shrines, at the top of
+stelae, &amp;c. In the temple, where he is often figured as a falcon-headed
+man, he is associated with Hathor of Dendera and the
+child Harsemteus.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Baedeker&rsquo;s <i>Egypt</i>; Ed. Naville, <i>Textes relatifs au mythe d&rsquo;Horus
+recueillis dans le temple d&rsquo;Edfou</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(F. Ll. G.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDGAR<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Eadgar</span>), king of the English (944-975), was the
+younger son of Edmund the Magnificent and Ælfgifu. As early
+as 955 he signed a charter of his uncle Eadred, and in 957 the
+Mercian nobles, discontented with the rule of his elder brother
+Eadwig, made him king of England north of the Thames. On
+the death of his brother in October 959 Edgar became king of
+a united England. Immediately on his accession to the throne
+of Mercia Edgar recalled St Dunstan from exile and bestowed
+on him first the bishopric of Worcester, and then that of
+London. In 961 Dunstan was translated to Canterbury, and
+throughout Edgar&rsquo;s reign he was his chief adviser, and to
+him must be attributed much of the peace and prosperity of
+this time.</p>
+
+<p>The reign of Edgar was somewhat uneventful, but two things
+stand out clearly: his ecclesiastical policy and his imperial
+position in Britain. Edgar and Dunstan were alike determined
+to reform the great monastic houses, and to secure that they
+should be restored once more to their true owners and not remain
+in the hands of the secular priests or <i>canonici</i>, whose life and
+discipline alike seem to have been extremely lax. In this reform
+Edgar was helped not only by St Dunstan but also by Oswald
+of Worcester and Æthelwold of Winchester. The priests of the
+old and new monasteries at Winchester, at Chertsey and at
+Milton Abbas were replaced by monks, and in monastic discipline
+the old rule of St Benedict was restored in all its strictness.</p>
+
+<p>The coronation of Edgar was, for some unexplained reason,
+delayed till the Whitsunday of 973. It took place with much
+ceremony at Bath, and was followed shortly after by a general
+submission to Edgar at Chester. Six, or (according to later
+chroniclers) eight kings, including the kings of Scotland and
+Strathclyde, plighted their faith that they would be the king&rsquo;s
+fellow-workers on sea and land. The historical truth of this
+story has been much questioned; there seems to be little doubt
+that it is true in its main outlines, though we need not accept
+the details about Edgar&rsquo;s having been rowed on the Dee by
+eight kings.</p>
+
+<p>Two isolated and unexplained incidents are also recorded in
+the chronicle: first, the ravaging of Westmorland by the
+Scandinavian Thored, son of Gunnere, in 967; and second, the
+ravaging of Thanet by Edgar&rsquo;s own command in 970.</p>
+
+<p>Edgar&rsquo;s death took place in the year 975, and he was buried at
+Glastonbury. By his vigorous rule and his statesmanlike policy
+Edgar won the approval of his people, and in the Saxon chronicle
+we have poems commemorating his coronation and death, and
+describing his general character. The only fault ascribed to him
+is a too great love for foreigners and for foreign customs. Edgar
+strengthened the hands of the provincial administration, and to
+him has been attributed the reorganization of the English fleet.
+The characteristic feature of his rule was his love of peace, and
+by efficient administration he secured it.</p>
+
+<p>Edgar formed an irregular union in 961 with Wulfthryth, an
+inmate of the convent at Wilton, who bore him a daughter
+Eadgyth. He next married Æthelflæd, &ldquo;the white duck,&rdquo;
+daughter of Earl Ordmær, who bore him a son, afterwards
+known as Edward the Martyr. Finally he was united to
+Ælfthryth, daughter of Earl Ordgar, who became the mother
+of the Ætheling Edmund (d. 971) and of Æthelred the
+Unready.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;<i>Saxon Chronicle</i> (ed. Plummer and Earle, Oxford),
+<i>sub. ann.</i>; <i>Vita Sancti Oswaldi</i> (<i>Historians of the Church of York</i>, ed.
+Raine, Rolls Series); William of Malmesbury, <i>Gesta regum</i> (ed.
+Stubbs, Rolls Series); Birch, <i>Cartularium Saxonicum</i>, vol. iii. Nos.
+1047-1319; F. Liebermann, <i>A.-S. Laws</i>, i. 192-216; &ldquo;Florence of
+Worcester&rdquo; (<i>Mon. Hist. Brit.</i>); E.W. Robertson, <i>Historical Essays</i>,
+pp. 189-215.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. Mw.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDGAR,<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Eadgar</span> (<i>c.</i> 1050-<i>c.</i> 1130), called the Ætheling,
+was the son of Edward, a son of the English king Edmund
+Ironside, by his wife Agatha, a kinswoman of the emperor
+Henry II., and was born probably in Hungary some time before
+1057, the year of his father&rsquo;s death. After the death of Harold
+in 1066, Archbishop Aldred and the citizens of London desired
+to make him king, but on the advance of William, Edgar and
+his supporters made their submission. In 1068, after the failure
+of the first rising of the north, Edgar retired to Scotland, when
+his sister Margaret married the Scottish king, Malcolm Canmore.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page934" id="page934"></a>934</span>
+Next year he returned to take part in the second rising, but,
+this proving no more successful than the first, he again took
+refuge in Scotland. In 1074 he went to Normandy and made
+peace with William. In the struggle between Henry I. and
+Robert of Normandy, Edgar sided with the latter. He was
+taken prisoner at the battle of Tinchebrai in 1106, but was
+subsequently released. The date of his death is uncertain, but
+he was certainly alive about 1125.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDGECUMBE,<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Edgecombe</span>, the name of a celebrated west
+of England family, taken from the manor of Edgecumbe in
+Cornwall. One of its earlier members was Sir Richard Edgecumbe
+(d. 1489), who was descended from a Richard Edgecumbe who
+flourished during the reign of Edward I. Richard was a member
+of parliament in 1467; afterwards he joined Henry, earl of Richmond,
+in Brittany, returned with the earl to England, and fought
+at Bosworth, where he was knighted. He received rich rewards
+from Henry, now King Henry VII., who also sent him on errands
+to Scotland, to Ireland and to Brittany, and he died at Morlaix
+on the 8th of September 1489. His son and successor, Sir Piers
+Edgecumbe, went to France with Henry VIII. in 1513, and when
+he died on the 14th of August 1539 he left with other issue a son,
+Sir Richard Edgecumbe (1499-1562), a cultured and hospitable
+man, who is celebrated through Richard Carew&rsquo;s <i>Friendly
+Remembrance of Sir Richard Edgecumbe</i>. Sir Richard&rsquo;s eldest
+son, Piers or Peter Edgecumbe (1536-1607), was a member of
+parliament under Elizabeth for about thirty years.</p>
+
+<p>Another famous member of this family was Richard, 1st baron
+Edgecumbe (1680-1758), a son of Sir Richard Edgecumbe.
+Educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, he was successively
+member of parliament for St Germans, Plympton and Lostwithiel
+from 1701 to 1742; on two occasions he served as a lord of the
+treasury; and from 1724 to 1742 he was paymaster-general for
+Ireland, becoming chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster in 1743.
+Edgecumbe was a faithful follower of Sir Robert Walpole, in
+whose interests he managed the elections for the Cornish
+boroughs, and his elevation to the peerage, which took place in
+1742, was designed to prevent him from giving evidence about
+Walpole&rsquo;s expenditure of the secret service money. He died on
+the 22nd of November 1758. His son and successor, Richard,
+the 2nd baron (1716-1761), was comptroller of the royal household,
+a member of parliament, and a major-general in the army.
+A wit, a writer of verse, a gambler and an intimate friend of
+Horace Walpole, &ldquo;Dick Edgecumbe&rdquo; died unmarried on the
+10th of May 1761.</p>
+
+<p>Edgecumbe&rsquo;s brother, George, 1st earl of Mount Edgecumbe
+(1721-1795), was a naval officer who saw a great deal of service
+during the Seven Years&rsquo; War. Succeeding to the barony on the
+1st baron&rsquo;s death in 1761 he became an admiral and treasurer
+of the royal household; he was created Viscount Mount-Edgecumbe
+in 1781 and earl of Mount-Edgecumbe in 1789. He died
+on the 4th of February 1795, his only son being his successor,
+Richard, the 2nd earl (1764-1839), the ancestor of the present
+earl and the author of <i>Musical Reminiscences of an Old Amateur</i>.
+He died on the 26th of September 1839. His son, Ernest
+Augustus, the 3rd earl (1797-1861), wrote <i>Extracts from Journals
+kept during the Revolutions at Rome and Palermo</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDGE HILL,<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> an elevated ridge in Warwickshire, England,
+near the border of Oxfordshire. The north-western face is an
+abrupt escarpment of the lias, and the summit of the ridge is
+almost level for nearly 2 m., at a height somewhat exceeding
+700 ft. The escarpment overlooks a rich lowland watered by
+streams tributary to the Avon; the gentle eastern slope sends
+its waters to the Cherwell, and the ridge thus forms part of the
+divide between the basins of the Severn and the Thames. Edge
+Hill gave name to the first battle of the Great Rebellion (<i>q.v.</i>),
+fought on the 23rd of October 1642. Charles I., marching on
+London from the north-west, was here met by the parliamentary
+forces under Robert Devereux, earl of Essex. The royalists
+were posted on the hill while the enemy was in the plain before
+Kineton. But the rash advice of Prince Rupert determined the
+king to give up the advantage of position; he descended to the
+attack, and though Rupert himself was successful against the
+opposing cavalry, he was checked by the arrival of a regiment
+with artillery under Hampden, and, in the meantime, the
+royalist infantry was driven back. The parliamentarians,
+however, lost the more heavily, and though both sides claimed
+the advantage, the king was able to advance and occupy
+Banbury.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDGEWORTH, MARIA<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> (1767-1849), Irish novelist, second
+child and eldest daughter of Richard Lovell Edgeworth (<i>q.v.</i>)
+and his first wife, Anna Maria Elers, was born in the house of
+her maternal grandparents at Black Bourton, Oxfordshire, on
+the 1st of January 1767. Her early efforts in fiction were of a
+sufficiently melodramatic character; for she recollected one of
+her schoolgirl compositions, in which the hero wore a mask made
+of the dried skin taken from a dead man&rsquo;s face. Her holidays
+were often spent in the house of the eccentric Thomas Day, for
+whom she entertained a genuine respect. She had ample
+opportunities for society among her father&rsquo;s neighbours in
+Ireland, among whom were the second Lord Longford, whose
+daughter, &ldquo;Kitty&rdquo; Pakenham, became later duchess of
+Wellington, Lady Moira at Castle Forbes, and Maria&rsquo;s aunt,
+Margaret Ruxton, at Black Castle. She gained a first-hand
+experience of the Irish peasantry by acting as her father&rsquo;s
+assistant in the management of the estate. The Edgeworths
+were in Ireland from 1793 onwards through that dangerous
+period, and Maria&rsquo;s letters, always gay and natural, make very
+light of their anxieties and their real perils.</p>
+
+<p>Mr Edgeworth encouraged his daughter&rsquo;s literary instincts.
+It has been the fashion to regard his influence over Maria&rsquo;s
+work as altogether deplorable, but against the disadvantages
+arising from his interference must be weighed the stimulus she
+undoubtedly derived from his powerful mind. Her first publication
+was a plea for female education, <i>Letters to Literary Ladies</i>
+(1795), and in 1796 appeared the collection of stories known as
+<i>The Parent&rsquo;s Assistant</i> (2nd ed., 6 vols., 1800), an unpromising
+title which was not chosen by the author. The stories had been
+submitted as they were written to the juvenile critics of the
+Edgeworth nursery. They were therefore children&rsquo;s stories
+for children, even though the morals were Mr Edgeworth&rsquo;s.
+In 1798 Mr Edgeworth&rsquo;s fourth marriage threatened the family
+harmony, but Maria soon became a close friend of her stepmother.
+<i>Practical Education</i> (2 vols., 1798) was written in conjunction
+with her father, who also collaborated with her in the
+<i>Essay on Irish Bulls</i> (1802). Miss Edgeworth&rsquo;s first novel,
+<i>Castle Rackrent, an Hibernian Tale taken from Facts, and from
+the Manners of the Irish Squires before the year 1782</i>, was written
+without her father&rsquo;s supervision, and appeared anonymously
+in 1800. It is the story of an Irish estate and its owners, the
+Rackrents, as told by Thady, the steward. Its success was
+immediate, and a second edition soon appeared with the author&rsquo;s
+name. Perhaps because of the absence of Richard Lovell
+Edgeworth&rsquo;s co-operation, the book is the most natural and
+vigorous of her novels. The course of the story is not altered
+to suit any moral, and the personages appear to be drawn
+immediately from the natives of Edgeworthstown, though
+Miss Edgeworth asserts that only Thady himself was an actual
+portrait. In her realistic pictures of Irish peasant life she
+opened up a new vein in fiction, and even if the unquestionable
+excellences of <i>Castle Rackrent</i> were less, it would still be a noteworthy
+book. In the &ldquo;General Preface&rdquo; to the 1829 edition of
+his novels Sir Walter Scott, writing of the publication of <i>Waverley</i>,
+says: &ldquo;I felt that something might be attempted for my own
+country, of the same kind with that which Miss Edgeworth so
+fortunately achieved for Ireland,&rdquo; and in the &ldquo;Postscript,
+which should have been a preface,&rdquo; in the original edition of
+<i>Waverley</i>, he describes his aim as being &ldquo;in some distant degree to
+emulate the admirable Irish portraits of Miss Edgeworth, so
+different from the &lsquo;Teagues&rsquo; and &lsquo;dear joys&rsquo; who so long,
+with the most perfect family resemblance to each other, occupied
+the drama and the novel.&rdquo; <i>Belinda</i> (1801) is a society novel,
+and one of her best books. Mr Saintsbury thinks that Miss
+Austen&rsquo;s heroines owe something of their naturalness to Belinda,
+who was one of the earliest to break with the tradition of fainting
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page935" id="page935"></a>935</span>
+and blushing. <i>Moral Tales for Young People</i> (5 vols.) and
+<i>Early Lessons</i>, which included &ldquo;Harry and Lucy,&rdquo; &ldquo;Rosamond&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;Frank,&rdquo; appeared in 1801.</p>
+
+<p>In 1802 the Edgeworths went abroad, first to Brussels and
+then to Paris. They had already connexions in Paris through
+their kinsman, the abbé Henri Allen Edgeworth de Firmont,
+who was, however, then in exile. They met all the notabilities
+in Paris, and Maria refused an offer of marriage from a Swedish
+count named Edelcrantz. Although <i>Leonora</i>, not published
+until four years later, is said to have been written to meet his
+taste, she apparently remained then and always heart-whole; but
+her stepmother thought otherwise, and maintained that she
+suffered severely for her decision (<i>Memoir</i>, i. 144). Returning
+to Edgeworthstown, Miss Edgeworth resumed her writing,
+which was always done in the rooms commonly used by the whole
+family. <i>Popular Tales</i> was published in 1804, and <i>The Modern
+Griselda</i> in the same year; <i>Leonora</i> in 1806; and in 1809 the
+first series of <i>Tales of Fashionable Life</i>, three volumes containing
+&ldquo;Ennui,&rdquo; &ldquo;Madame de Fleury,&rdquo; &ldquo;Almeria,&rdquo; &ldquo;The Dun&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;Man&oelig;uvring&rdquo;; the second series (3 vols., 1812) included
+&ldquo;The Absentee,&rdquo; one of her best tales, which was originally
+designed as a play, &ldquo;Vivian&rdquo; and &ldquo;Émilie de Coulanges.&rdquo;
+In 1813 Maria and her parents spent a considerable time in
+London, and her society was much sought after. When <i>Waverley</i>
+was published, Miss Edgeworth received a copy from the publishers,
+and at once recognized the authorship. She wrote a
+long letter of appreciation (23rd of October 1814) to &ldquo;the author
+of <i>Waverley</i>,&rdquo; which she began with the phrase <i>aut Scotus, aut
+diabolus</i>, but the letter was merely acknowledged by the publishers.
+<i>Patronage</i> (4 vols., 1814), the longest of her novels,
+and <i>Harrington, a tale</i>, and <i>Ormond, a tale</i> (3 vols., 1817) complete
+the list of the works which received what her father called his
+<i>imprimatur</i>.</p>
+
+<p>After his death in 1817 Miss Edgeworth occupied herself with
+completing his <i>Memoirs</i>, which were published in 1820. The
+book was the excuse for an attack on Mr Edgeworth&rsquo;s reputation
+in the July number of the <i>Quarterly Review</i>, which Miss Edgeworth
+had the courage to leave unread. Her life at Edgeworthstown
+was varied by visits to London, to Lord Lansdowne at
+Bowood, Wiltshire, to the Misses Sneyd in Staffordshire, and to
+many other friends. In 1820 she was again in Paris, and in 1823
+she spent a happy fortnight with the Scotts at Abbotsford.
+In 1825 Scott went to Edgeworthstown, and their relations were
+always cordial.</p>
+
+<p>Miss Edgeworth&rsquo;s production was less after her father&rsquo;s
+death. Sequels to &ldquo;Rosamond,&rdquo; &ldquo;Frank,&rdquo; &ldquo;Harry and Lucy&rdquo;
+in the <i>Early Lessons</i> were published in 1822-1825. <i>Comic
+Dramas</i> appeared in 1817, and <i>Helen</i> in 1834. She worked to
+the last, and in 1846 laboured strenuously for the relief of the
+famine-stricken Irish peasants. She died on the 22nd of May
+1849.</p>
+
+<p>Miss Edgeworth&rsquo;s novels are distinguished by good sense,
+humour and an easy flowing style. As the construction of a
+plot is not her strong point, she is generally more successful
+in tales than in lengthy novels. The vivacity of her dialogues
+is extraordinary; and in them her characters reveal themselves
+in the most natural way possible. Her books are character-studies
+rather than intensely interesting narratives. Sobriety
+of judgment is seen throughout; and passion, romance and
+poetry rarely, if ever, shed their lustre on her pages. Three
+of her aims were to paint national manners, to enforce morality,
+and to teach fashionable society by satirizing the lives of the
+idle and worldly. She expressly calls some of her stories &ldquo;Moral
+Tales&rdquo;; but they all fall under this category. In her pages
+the heroic virtues give place to prudence, industry, kindness
+and sweetness of temper. There are few instances of overwhelming
+emotions or tumultuous passions in her works; and
+it is remarkable how little the love of nature appears. She never
+uses material which does not yield some direct moral lesson.
+But the freshness of her stories, her insight into character,
+lively dialogues, originality of invention, and delightfully clear
+style render it quite possible to read her works in succession
+without any sense of weariness. Among the many sweet
+memories her unsullied pages have bequeathed to the world,
+not the least precious is her own noble character, which ever
+responded to all that is best and most enduring in human nature.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>A Memoir of Maria Edgeworth, with a Selection from her Letters</i>
+(1867), by her stepmother, F.A. Edgeworth, privately printed. A
+selection from this was made by Augustus J.C. Hare, and printed
+under the title of <i>The Life and Letters of Maria Edgeworth</i> (2 vols.,
+1894). See also <i>Maria Edgeworth</i> (1883), by Helen Zimmern, in the
+&ldquo;Eminent Women&rdquo; series; Grace A. Oliver, <i>A Study of Maria
+Edgeworth</i> ... (3rd ed., Boston, U.S.A., 1882); and <i>Maria Edgeworth</i>
+(1904), by the Hon. Emily Lawless in the &ldquo;English Men of
+Letters&rdquo; series. Among the numerous shorter articles dealing with
+Maria Edgeworth and the family circle at Edgeworthstown may be
+mentioned a friendly appreciation of Miss Edgeworth&rsquo;s novels by
+George Saintsbury in <i>Macmillan&rsquo;s Magazine</i> (July 1895), and a
+charming description of her family circle and surroundings in the
+preface supplied by Lady Thackeray Ritchie to Macmillan&rsquo;s edition
+of the novels (1895).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDGEWORTH, RICHARD LOVELL<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> (1744-1817), British
+writer, was born at Bath on the 31st of May 1744. The greater
+part of his life, however, was spent at Edgeworthtown, or
+Edgeworthstown, in the county of Longford, Ireland, where the
+Edgeworth family had been settled for upwards of 150 years.
+He was of gentle blood&mdash;his father being the son of Colonel
+Francis Edgeworth, and his mother, Jane Lovell, being the
+daughter of Samuel Lovell, a Welsh judge. Richard&rsquo;s mother
+taught him to read at a very early age; and from childhood he
+had a strong love for mechanical science. The Rev. Patrick
+Hughes initiated him in Lilye&rsquo;s <i>Latin Grammar</i>&mdash;an office he
+also performed for Goldsmith, who was born on the property
+of the Edgeworths&mdash;and his public education began, in August
+1752, in a school at Warwick. He subsequently attended
+Drogheda school, then reputed the best in Ireland; and, after
+spending two years at a school in Longford, entered Trinity
+College, Dublin, in April 1761, but was transferred to Corpus
+Christi College, Oxford, in October of the same year. While
+still at college, he made a runaway match, marrying at Gretna
+Green, Anna Maria, one of the daughters of Paul Elers of Black
+Bourton, Oxfordshire, an old friend of his father. His eldest
+son was born before Edgeworth reached his twentieth birthday,
+and his daughter Maria in 1767.</p>
+
+<p>Shortly after the birth of his son, he and his wife went to
+Edgeworthstown, but in 1765 they took a house at Hare Hatch,
+near Maidenhead. Edgeworth devoted much time to scientific
+reading and experiments; and he made an attempt to establish
+telegraphic communication (<i>Memoirs</i>, 2nd edition, i. 144). He
+also invented a turnip-cutter, a one-wheeled chaise and other
+contrivances. In the pursuit of his mechanical inventions he
+visited Erasmus Darwin at Lichfield, where he met Anna Seward,
+and her cousin, Honora Sneyd. His home was now at Hare
+Hatch, in Berkshire, where he endeavoured to educate his son
+according to the method explained in Rousseau&rsquo;s <i>Émile</i>. In
+later life, however, the ill-success of this experiment led him to
+doubt many of Rousseau&rsquo;s views (<i>Memoirs</i>, ii. 374). At the
+same time he kept terms at the Temple, and formed the greatest
+friendship of his life with Thomas Day, the author of <i>Sandford
+and Merton</i>, which was written at Edgeworth&rsquo;s suggestion. In
+1769, on the death of his father, he gave up the idea of being a
+barrister; but, instead of immediately settling on his Irish
+estate, he spent a considerable time in England and France,
+mainly in Day&rsquo;s company. In Lyons, where he resided for about
+two years, he took an active part in the management of public
+works intended to turn the course of the Rhone. He was
+summoned to England by the death of his wife (March 1773),
+with whom he was far from happy. Edgeworth hurried to
+Lichfield, to Dr Erasmus Darwin&rsquo;s, and at once declared his
+passion for Honora Sneyd, which had been the cause of his flight
+to France two years before. Miss Sneyd had been the object
+of attention from Thomas Day, but her views on marriage were
+not submissive enough to please him. She had other suitors,
+among them the unfortunate Major André. She married
+Edgeworth (July 1773), and after residing at Edgeworthstown
+for three years, they settled at Northchurch, in Hertfordshire.
+After six years of domestic happiness, Honora Edgeworth died
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page936" id="page936"></a>936</span>
+(April 1780), recommending her husband to marry her sister
+Elizabeth; and they were actually married on Christmas Day,
+1780.</p>
+
+<p>In 1782 Edgeworth returned to Ireland, determined to improve
+his estate, educate his seven children, and ameliorate the
+condition of the tenants. Up to this point Edgeworth has told
+his own story in his <i>Memoirs</i>. The rest of his life is written by
+his daughter, who opens with a lengthy panegyric on her father
+as a model landlord (<i>Memoirs</i>, ii. 12-36). In 1785 he was
+associated with others in founding the Royal Irish Academy;
+and, during the two succeeding years, mechanics and agriculture
+occupied most of his time. In October 1789 his friend Day was
+killed by a fall from his horse, and this trial was soon followed
+by the loss of his daughter Honora, who had just reached her
+fifteenth year. In 1792 the health of one of Edgeworth&rsquo;s sons
+took him to Clifton, where he remained with his family for about
+two years, returning in 1794 to Edgeworthstown. Ireland was,
+at that time, harassed by internal disturbances, and threats of a
+French invasion, and Edgeworth offered to establish telegraphic
+communication of his own invention throughout the country.
+This offer was declined. A full account of the matter is given in
+Edgeworth&rsquo;s <i>Letter to Lord Charlemont on the Telegraph</i>; and his
+apparatus is explained in an &ldquo;Essay on the art of Conveying
+Swift and Secret Intelligence,&rdquo; published in the sixth volume
+of the <i>Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy</i>. In the autumn
+of 1797 the third Mrs Edgeworth died.</p>
+
+<p><i>Practical Education</i> (1798) was written in collaboration with
+his daughter Maria, and embodied the experience of the authors
+in dealing with children. &ldquo;So commenced,&rdquo; says Miss Edgeworth,
+&ldquo;that literary partnership which, for so many years, was
+the pride and joy of my life&rdquo; (<i>Memoirs</i>, ii. 170). This book,
+generally regarded as old-fashioned, has a real value in the history
+of education. Mr Edgeworth&rsquo;s interest in the subject had been
+inspired by the study of Rousseau and by his friendship with
+Thomas Day. But he went beyond Rousseau, who developed
+his theories from his own ingenious mind and related an imaginary
+process. The Edgeworths brought a scientific method to their
+work. The second Mrs Edgeworth (Honora Sneyd) began the
+collection of actual examples of conversations between the
+children and their elders. This was continued patiently by the
+writers of the book; and their reasonings were thus founded
+on an accurate record of childish methods of thought. They
+deprecated especially any measures that interrupted the child&rsquo;s
+own chain of reasoning. The chapters on special subjects of
+study, chronology, geometry, &amp;c., were written by Richard
+Lovell Edgeworth; those on toys, on rewards and punishments,
+on temper, &amp;c., by his daughter.<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p>
+
+<p>In 1798 Edgeworth married Miss Beaufort, and was elected
+M.P. for the borough of St John&rsquo;s Town, Longford. The same
+year, too, saw a hostile landing of the French and a formidable
+rebellion; and for a short time the Edgeworths took refuge in
+Longford. The winter of 1802 they spent in Paris. In 1804
+the government accepted his telegraphic apparatus, but the
+installation was left incomplete when the fear of invasion was
+past. In 1802 appeared the <i>Essay on Irish Bulls</i> by Mr and Miss
+Edgeworth; and in 1806 Edgeworth was elected a member of
+the board of commissioners to inquire into Irish education. From
+1807 till 1809 much of his time was spent on mechanical experiments
+and in writing the story of his life. In 1808 appeared
+<i>Professional Education</i>, and in 1813 his <i>Essay on the Construction
+of Roads and Carriages</i>. He died on the 13th of June 1817,
+and was buried in the family vault in Edgeworthstown churchyard.</p>
+
+<p>Many of Edgeworth&rsquo;s works were suggested by his zeal for the
+education of his own children. Such were <i>Poetry Explained for
+Young People</i> (1802), <i>Readings in Poetry</i> (1816), <i>A Rational
+Primer</i> (unpublished), and the parts of <i>Early Lessons</i> contributed
+by him. His speeches in the Irish parliament have also been
+published; and numerous essays, mostly on scientific subjects,
+have appeared in the <i>Philosophical Transactions</i>, the <i>Transactions
+of the Royal Irish Academy</i>, the <i>Monthly Magazine</i> and <i>Nicholson&rsquo;s
+Journal</i>. The story of his early life, told by himself, is fully as
+entertaining as the continuation by Maria, as it contains less
+dissertation and more incident. One of his daughters by his
+first marriage, Anna Maria, married Dr Beddoes and became
+the mother of T.L. Beddoes, the poet.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Memoirs of Richard Lovell Edgeworth, Esq.</i>, begun by himself
+and concluded by his daughter, Maria Edgeworth (2 vols., 1820,
+3rd and revised ed. 1844). A selection from this, giving an optimistic
+view of him, <i>Richard Lovell Edgeworth</i> (1896), was edited by
+Mrs Lionel Tollemache.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For an appreciation of the two Edgeworths from the teacher&rsquo;s
+point of view, see Prof. L.C. Miall in the <i>Journal of Education</i>
+(August 1, 1894).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDGEWORTH DE FIRMONT, HENRY ESSEX<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> (1745-1807),
+last confessor to Louis XVI., was the son of Robert Edgeworth,
+rector of Edgeworthstown in Ireland, his mother being a granddaughter
+of Archbishop Ussher. When he was three years old
+his father became a Roman Catholic, resigned his living and
+emigrated to Toulouse, where the boy was brought up by the
+Jesuits. In 1769, after his father&rsquo;s death, he went to Paris to be
+trained for the priesthood. On taking orders he assumed the
+additional surname of de Firmont, from the family estate of
+Firmount near Edgeworthstown. Though originally studying
+with a view to becoming a missionary, he decided to remain
+in Paris, devoting himself especially to the Irish and English
+Roman Catholics. In 1791 he became confessor to the princess
+Elizabeth, sister of Louis XVI., and earned the respect even of the
+<i>sans-culottes</i> by his courage and devotion. By Madame Elizabeth
+he was recommended to the king when his trial was impending;
+and after Louis&rsquo; condemnation to death he was able to obtain
+permission to celebrate mass for him and attend him on the
+scaffold, where he recommended the king to allow his hands
+to be tied, with the words: &ldquo;Sire, in this new outrage I see only
+the last trait of resemblance between your Majesty and the God
+who will be your reward.&rdquo; It is said that at the moment of the
+execution, the confessor uttered the celebrated words: &ldquo;Son
+of St Louis, ascend to heaven.&rdquo; But it is certain that the
+phrase was never spoken. The abbé himself does not quote it,
+either in his memoirs or in a letter written in 1796 to his brother,
+in which he describes the death of the king. Moreover,
+Edgeworth declared to several persons who asked him about
+it, that the words were not his. In spite of the danger
+he now ran, Edgeworth refused to leave France so long as he
+could be of any service to Madame Elizabeth, with whom he
+still managed to correspond. At length, in 1795, his mother
+having meanwhile died in prison, where his sister was also
+confined, he succeeded in escaping to England, carrying with him
+Elizabeth&rsquo;s last message to her brother, the future King Charles X.
+whom he found in Edinburgh. He afterwards went with some
+papers to Monsieur (Louis XVIII.) at Blankenburg in Brunswick,
+by whom he was induced to accompany him to Mittau, where,
+on the 22nd of May 1807, he died of a fever contracted while
+attending some French prisoners.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Edgeworth&rsquo;s <i>Memories</i>, edited by C.S. Edgeworth, were first
+published in English (London, 1815), and a French translation (really
+the letters and some miscellaneous notes, &amp;c.) was published in
+Paris in 1816. A translation of the <i>Lettres de l&rsquo;abbé Edgeworth avec des
+mémoires sur sa vie</i> was published by Madame Elizabeth de Bow in
+Paris in 1818, and <i>Letters from the Abbé Edgeworth to his Friends, with
+Memoirs of his Life</i>, edited by T.B. England, in London in 1818.
+See J.B.A. Hanet-Cléry, <i>Journal de ce qui s&rsquo;est passé, &amp;c.</i> (Paris,
+1825); A.H. du D. de Beauchesne, <i>Vie de Madame Elisabeth</i> (Paris,
+1869); J.C.D. de Lacretelle, <i>Précis historique de la Révolution
+française</i> (Paris, 1801-1806).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDGREN-LEFFLER, ANNE CHARLOTTE,<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> duchess of
+Cajanello (1849-1892), Swedish author, daughter of the mathematician
+Prof. C.O. Leffler, was born on the 1st of October 1849.
+Her first volume of stories appeared in 1869, but the first to which
+she attached her name was <i>Ur Lifvet</i> (&ldquo;From Life,&rdquo; 1882), a
+series of realistic sketches of the upper circles of Swedish society,
+followed by three other collections with the same title. Her
+earliest plays, <i>Skådespelerskan</i> (&ldquo;The Actress,&rdquo; 1873), and its
+successors, were produced anonymously in Stockholm, but in
+1883 her reputation was established by the success of <i>Sanna
+Kvinnor</i> (&ldquo;True Women&rdquo;), and <i>En Räddande engel</i> (&ldquo;An Angel
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page937" id="page937"></a>937</span>
+of Deliverance&rdquo;). <i>Sanna Kvinnor</i> is directed against false
+femininity, and was well received in Germany as well as in
+Sweden. Anne Leffler had married in 1872 G. Edgren, but about
+1884 she was separated from her husband, who did not share her
+advanced views. She spent some time in England, and in 1885
+produced her <i>Hur man gör godt</i> (&ldquo;How men do good&rdquo;), followed
+in 1888 by <i>Kampen för lyckan</i> (&ldquo;The Struggle for Happiness&rdquo;),
+in which she had the help of Sophie Kovalevsky. Another
+volume of the <i>Ur Lisvet</i> series appeared in 1889; and <i>Familjelycka</i>
+(&ldquo;Domestic Happiness,&rdquo; 1891) was produced in the year
+after her second marriage, with the Italian mathematician,
+Pasquale del Pezzo, duca di Cajanello. She died at Naples on
+the 21st of October 1892. Her dramatic method forms a connecting
+link between Ibsen and Strindberg, and its masculine
+directness, freedom from prejudice, and frankness gave her work
+a high estimation in Sweden. Her last book was a biography
+(1892) of her friend Sophie (Sonya) Kovalevsky, by way of
+introduction to Sonya&rsquo;s autobiography. An English translation
+(1895) by A. de Furnhjelm and A.M. Clive Bayley contains a
+biographical note on Fru Edgren-Leffler by Lily Wolffsohn,
+based on private sources.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also Ellen Key, <i>Anne Charlotte Leffler</i> (Stockholm, 1893).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDHEM PASHA<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1815-1893), Turkish statesman, was of
+Greek origin, and is said to have been taken into a Turkish
+household at the time of the Chio massacre in 1822, and to have
+been brought up as a Mussulman. He entered the Turkish
+government service and rose to high office, being successively
+minister of public works, grand vizier for eleven months (1878),
+ambassador at Vienna (1879) and minister of the interior. He
+was quick-tempered, but of kindly disposition, intelligent and
+patriotic, and he left a reputation of unblemished honesty and
+uprightness.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDICT<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> (Lat. <i>edictum</i>, from <i>e</i>, out, and <i>dicere</i>, to say, speak),
+an order or proclamation issued under authority and having the
+force of law. The word is especially used of the promulgations
+of the Roman praetor (<i>q.v.</i>), of the Roman emperors, and also
+of the kings of France (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Roman Law</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDINBURGH,<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> a city and royal burgh, and county of itself,
+the capital of Scotland, and county town of Edinburghshire or
+Midlothian, situated to the south of the Firth of Forth, 396 m.
+by rail N. of London. The old Royal Observatory on Calton
+Hill stands in 55° 57&prime; 23&Prime; N. and 12° 43&prime; 05&Prime; W. Edinburgh
+occupies a group of hills of moderate height and the valleys
+between. In the centre is a bold rock, crowned by the castle,
+between which and the new town lies a ravine that once contained
+the Nor&rsquo; Loch, but is now covered with the gardens of Princes
+Street. To the east rises Calton Hill (355 ft.) with several conspicuous
+monuments, the city prison and the Calton cemetery.
+On the south-east, beyond the Canongate limits, stands the hill
+of Arthur&rsquo;s Seat (822 ft.). Towards the north the site of the
+city slopes gently to the Firth of Forth and the port of Leith;
+while to the south, Liberton Hill, Blackford Hill, Braid Hills
+and Craiglockhart Hills roughly mark the city bounds, as
+Corstorphine Hill and the Water of Leith do the western limits.
+The views of the city and environs from the castle or any of
+the hills are very beautiful, and it is undoubtedly one of the most
+picturesque capitals in the world. Its situation, general plan
+and literary associations suggested a comparison that gave
+Edinburgh the name of &ldquo;the modern Athens&rdquo;; but it has a
+homelier nickname of &ldquo;Auld Reekie,&rdquo; from the cloud of smoke
+(reek) which often hangs over the low-lying quarters.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chief Buildings.</i>&mdash;Of the castle, the oldest building is St
+Margaret&rsquo;s chapel, believed to be the chapel where Queen
+Margaret, wife of Malcolm Canmore, worshipped, and belonging
+at latest to the reign of her youngest son, David I. (1124-1153).
+Near it is the parliament and banqueting hall, restored (1889-1892)
+by the generosity of William Nelson (1817-1887) the
+publisher, which contains a fine collection of Scottish armour,
+weapons and regimental colours, while, emblazoned on the
+windows, are the heraldic bearings of royal and other figures
+distinguished in national history. Other buildings in the
+Palace Yard include the apartments occupied by the regent,
+Mary of Guise, and her daughter Mary, queen of Scots, and the
+room in which James VI. was born. Here also are deposited
+the Scottish regalia (&ldquo;The Honours of Scotland&rdquo;), with the
+sword of state presented to James IV. by Pope Julius II., and
+the jewels restored to Scotland on the death (1807) of Cardinal
+York, the last of the Stuarts. The arsenal, a modern building
+on the west side of the rock, is capable of storing 30,000 stand
+of arms. In the armoury is a collection of arms of various dates;
+and on the Argyll battery stands a huge piece of ancient artillery,
+called Mons Meg, of which repeated mention is made in Scottish
+history. Argyll Tower, in which Archibald, 9th earl of Argyll,
+spent his last days (1685), was also restored in 1892 by Mr
+William Nelson.</p>
+
+<p>Holyrood Palace was originally an abbey of canons regular
+of the rule of St Augustine, founded by David I. in 1128, and
+the ruined nave of the abbey church still shows parts of the
+original structure. Connected with this is a part of the royal
+palace erected by James IV. and James V., including the apartments
+occupied by Queen Mary, the scene of the murder of
+Rizzio in 1566. The abbey suffered repeatedly in invasions.
+It was sacked and burnt by the English under the earl of Hertford
+in 1544, and again in 1547. In a map of 1544, preserved among
+the Cotton MSS. in the British Museum, the present north-west
+tower of the palace is shown standing apart, and only joined
+to the abbey by a low cloister. Beyond this is an irregular group
+of buildings, which were replaced at a later date by additions
+more in accordance with a royal residence. But the whole of this
+latter structure was destroyed by fire in 1650 while in occupation
+by the soldiers of Cromwell; and the more modern parts were
+begun during the Protectorate, and completed in the reign of
+Charles II. by Robert Milne, after the designs of Sir William
+Bruce of Kinross. They include the picture gallery, 150 ft. in
+length, with 106 mythical portraits of Scottish kings, and a
+triptych (<i>c.</i> 1484) containing portraits of James III. and his
+queen, which is believed to have formed the altar-piece of the
+collegiate church of the Holy Trinity, founded by the widowed
+queen of James II. in 1462, demolished in 1848, and afterwards
+rebuilt, stone for stone, in Jeffrey Street. The picture gallery is
+associated with the festive scenes that occurred during the
+short residence of Prince Charles in 1745; and in it the election
+of representative peers for Scotland takes place. Escaping
+from France at the revolution of 1789, the comte d&rsquo;Artois,
+afterwards Charles X. of France, had apartments granted for
+the use of himself and the emigrant nobles of his suite, who
+continued to reside in the palace till August 1799. When driven
+from the French throne by the revolution of 1830, Charles once
+more found a home in the ancient palace of the Stuarts. George
+IV. was received there in 1822, and Queen Victoria and the prince
+consort occupied the palace for brief periods on several occasions,
+and in 1903 Edward VII., during residence at Dalkeith Palace,
+held his court within its walls. A fountain, after the original
+design of that in the quadrangle of Linlithgow Palace, was
+erected in front of the entrance by the prince consort. The royal
+vault in the Chapel Royal, which had fallen into a dilapidated
+condition, has been put in order; Clockmill House and grounds
+have been added to the area of the parade ground, and the
+abbey precincts generally and the approaches to the King&rsquo;s
+Park have been improved. With the abolition of imprisonment
+for debt in 1881 the privileges of sanctuary came to
+an end.</p>
+
+<p>Parliament House, begun in 1632 and completed in 1640,
+in which the later assemblies of the Scottish estates took place
+until the dissolution of the parliament by the Act of Union of
+1707, has since been set apart as the meeting-place of the supreme
+courts of law. The great hall, with its fine open-timbered oak
+roof, is adorned with a splendid stained-glass window and several
+statues of notable men, including one (by Louis François Roubiliac)
+of Duncan Forbes of Culloden, lord president of the court
+of session (1685-1747), and now forms the ante-room for lawyers
+and their clients. The surrounding buildings, including the courtrooms,
+the Advocates&rsquo; and the Signet libraries, are all modern
+additions. The Advocates&rsquo; library is the finest in Scotland.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page938" id="page938"></a>938</span>
+Founded in 1682, at the instance of Sir George Mackenzie, king&rsquo;s
+advocate under Charles II., and then dean of the faculty, it is
+regarded as the national library, and is one of the five entitled
+by the Copyright Act to receive a copy of every work published
+in Great Britain.</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:638px; height:612px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img938.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p class="pt2">The General Register House for Scotland, begun in 1774 from
+designs by Robert Adam, stands at the east end of Princes
+Street. It contains, in addition to the ancient national records,
+adequate accommodation, in fireproof chambers, for all Scottish
+title-deeds, entails, contracts and mortgages, and for general
+statistics, including those of births, deaths and marriages.</p>
+
+<p>The Royal Institution, in the Doric style, surmounted by a
+colossal stone statue Of Queen Victoria by Sir John Steell,
+formerly furnished official accommodation for the Board of
+Trustees for Manufactures and the Board of Fishery, and also
+for the school of art, and the libraries and public meetings of
+the Royal Society (founded in 1783), and the Society of Antiquaries
+of Scotland (founded in 1780). In 1910 it was renamed and
+appropriated to the uses of the Royal Scottish Academy of Painting,
+Sculpture and Architecture, which was instituted in 1826,
+and incorporated by royal charter in 1838, on the model of the
+Royal Academy in London. It is situated on the Mound close
+to the National Gallery, of which the prince consort laid the
+foundation stone in 1850. These collections, especially rich in
+Raeburn&rsquo;s works, include also Alexander Nasmyth&rsquo;s portrait of
+Robert Burns, Gainsborough&rsquo;s &ldquo;The Hon. Mrs. Graham&rdquo; (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Painting</a></span>, Plate VI. fig. 20), Sir Noel Paton&rsquo;s &ldquo;Quarrel&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;Reconciliation of Oberon and Titania,&rdquo; several works by
+William Etty, Robert Scott Lauder and Sam Bough, Sir Edwin
+Landseer&rsquo;s &ldquo;Rent Day in the Wilderness,&rdquo; and the diploma
+pictures of the academicians, besides many specimens of the
+modern Scottish school. The National Portrait Gallery and
+Antiquarian Museum are housed in Queen Street, in a building
+designed by Sir Rowand Anderson and constructed at the expense
+of J.R. Findlay of Aberlour (1824-1898), the government
+providing the site.</p>
+
+<p><i>Churches.</i>&mdash;In conformity with the motto of the city, <i>Nisi
+Dominus frustra</i>, there are numerous handsome places of public
+worship. St Giles&rsquo;s church, which was effectively restored
+(1879-1883) by the liberality of Dr William Chambers the
+publisher, has interesting historical and literary associations.
+The regent Moray, the marquess of Montrose, and Napier of
+Merchiston were buried within its walls and are commemorated
+by monuments, and among the memorial tablets is one to R.L.
+Stevenson by Augustus St Gaudens. The choir (restored in
+1873 by public subscription) is a fine example of 15th-century
+architecture, and the Gothic crown surmounting
+the central tower forms one of the most characteristic
+features in every view of the city. Just
+outside the church in Parliament Square, the
+supposed grave of John Knox is indicated by a
+stone set in the pavement bearing his initials, and
+in the pavement to the west a heart indicates the
+site of the old Tolbooth,<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> which figures prominently
+in Scott&rsquo;s <i>Heart of Midlothian</i>. Other
+churches having historical associations are the
+two Greyfriars churches, which occupy the two
+halves of one building; Tron church, the scene
+of midnight hilarity at the new year; St Cuthbert&rsquo;s
+church; St Andrew&rsquo;s church in George Street,
+whence set out, on a memorable day in 1843,
+that long procession of ministers and elders to
+Tanfield Hall which ended in the founding of the
+Free Church; St George&rsquo;s church in Charlotte
+Square, a good example of the work of Robert
+Adam. The United Free Church claims no buildings
+of much historic interest, but St George&rsquo;s Free
+was the scene of the ministrations of Dr Robert S.
+Candlish (1806-1873), Dr Oswald Dykes (b. 1835),
+Dr Alexander Whyte (b. 1837), a man of great
+mark and influence in the city, and his successor
+Hugh Black (b. 1868). Preachers like Robert
+Candlish, Thomas Guthrie (1803-1873), Marcus
+Dods (b. 1834), occupied many pulpits, besides
+those of the particular congregations whom each
+served. The most imposing structure belonging
+to the Scottish Episcopal Church is St Mary&rsquo;s
+cathedral, built on ground and chiefly from funds
+left by the Misses Walker of Coates, and opened for worship
+in 1879. It is in the Early Pointed style, by Sir
+Gilbert Scott, is 278 ft. long, and is surmounted by a
+spire 275 ft. high. The old-fashioned mansion of East Coates,
+dating from the 17th century, still stands in the close, and is
+occupied by functionaries of the cathedral. St John&rsquo;s Episcopal
+church at the west end of Princes Street was the scene of the
+ministrations of Dean Ramsay, and St Paul&rsquo;s Episcopal church
+of the Rev. Archibald Alison, father of the historian. The
+Catholic Apostolic church at the foot of Broughton Street is
+architecturally noticeable, and one of its features is a set of mural
+paintings executed by Mrs Traquair. The Central Hall at Tollcross
+testifies to Methodist energy. John Knox&rsquo;s house at the east
+end of High Street is kept in excellent repair, and contains several
+articles of furniture that belonged to the reformer. The Canongate
+Tolbooth adjoins the parish church, in the burial-ground of
+which is the tombstone raised by Burns to the memory of Robert
+Fergusson, and where Dugald Stewart, Adam Smith and other
+men of note were buried. Almost opposite to it stands Moray
+House, from the balcony of which the 8th earl of Argyll watched
+Montrose led to execution (1650). The city gaol, a castellated
+structure on the black rock of Calton Hill, forms one of the
+most striking groups of buildings in the town. In the Music Hall
+in George Street, Carlyle, as lord rector of the university,
+delivered his stimulating address on books to the students, and
+Gladstone addressed the electors in his Midlothian campaigns.
+St Bernard&rsquo;s Well, on the Water of Leith, was embellished
+and restored (1888) at the cost of Mr William Nelson. A
+sum of £100,000 was bequeathed by Mr Andrew Usher (1826-1898)
+for a hall to be called the Usher Hall and to supplement
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page939" id="page939"></a>939</span>
+the municipal buildings. The library of the solicitors to the
+supreme courts presents to the Cowgate a lofty elevation in red
+sandstone. The Sheriff Court Buildings stand on George IV.
+Bridge, and facing them is Mr Andrew Carnegie&rsquo;s free library
+(1887-1889). At the corner of High Street and George IV. Bridge
+stand the County buildings. The <i>Scotsman</i> newspaper is housed
+in an ornate structure in North Bridge Street, the building of
+which necessitated the demolition of many old alleys and wynds,
+such as Fleshmarket Close and Milne Square. Ramsay Gardens,
+a students&rsquo; quarter fostered by Prof. Patrick Geddes (b. 1854),
+grew out of the &ldquo;goose-pie&rdquo; house where Allan Ramsay lived,
+and with its red-tiled roof and effective lines adds warmth to the
+view of the Old Town from Princes Street. Not the least interesting
+structure is the old City Cross (restored at the cost of W.E.
+Gladstone), which stands in High Street, adjoining St Giles&rsquo;s.
+Several of the quaint groups of buildings of Auld Reekie have
+been carefully restored, such as the White Horse Close in the
+Canongate; the mass of alleys on the north side of the Lawnmarket,
+from Paterson&rsquo;s Close to James&rsquo;s Court have been
+connected, and here Lord Rosebery acquired and restored the
+17th-century dwelling which figures in the legend of <i>My Aunt
+Margaret&rsquo;s Mirror</i>. Another model restoration of a historic
+close is found in Riddle&rsquo;s Close, which contains a students&rsquo;
+settlement. If these and other improvements have led to the
+disappearance of such old-world picturesque buildings as Allan
+Ramsay&rsquo;s shop &ldquo;at the sign of the Mercury, opposite Niddry
+Wynd,&rdquo; Cardinal Beaton&rsquo;s palace, the old Cunzie House, or mint,
+the beautiful timber-fronted &ldquo;land&rdquo; that stood at the head of
+the West Bow, and even such &ldquo;howffs&rdquo; as Clerihugh&rsquo;s tavern,
+where Mr Counsellor Pleydell and the rest played the &ldquo;high
+jinks&rdquo; described in <i>Guy Mannering</i>, it must be conceded that
+the changes in the Old Town (many of a drastic nature) have
+been carried out with due regard to the character of their
+environment.</p>
+
+<p><i>Monuments.</i>&mdash;Edinburgh is particularly rich in monuments
+of every description and quality. Of these by far the most
+remarkable is the Scott monument in East Princes Street
+Gardens, designed by George Meikle Kemp (1795-1844); it is
+in the form of a spiral Gothic cross with a central canopy beneath
+which is a seated statue of Scott with his dog &ldquo;Maida&rdquo; at his
+side, by Sir John Steell, the niches being occupied by characters
+in Sir Walter&rsquo;s writings. A column, 136 ft. high, surmounted
+by a colossal figure of Viscount Melville, Pitt&rsquo;s first lord of the
+Admiralty, rises from the centre of St Andrew Square. At the
+west end of George Street, in the centre of Charlotte Square,
+stands the Albert Memorial, an equestrian statue of the prince
+consort, with groups at each of the four angles of the base.
+Burns&rsquo;s monument, in the style of a Greek temple, occupies a
+prominent position on the Regent Road, on the southern brow
+of the lower terrace of Calton Hill. It was originally intended to
+form a shrine for Flaxman&rsquo;s marble statue of the poet (now in the
+National Portrait Gallery), but it proved to be too confined
+to afford a satisfactory view of the sculptor&rsquo;s work and was at
+length converted into a museum of Burnsiana (afterwards removed
+to the municipal buildings). On Calton Hill are a number
+of finely placed monuments. The stateliest is the national
+monument to commemorate the victory of Waterloo, originally
+intended to be a reproduction of the Parthenon. The plan was
+abandoned for lack of funds, after twelve out of the twenty-four
+Greek pillars had been erected, but it is perhaps more effective
+in its unfinished state than if it had been completed. The
+Nelson monument, an elongated turreted structure, stands
+on the highest cliff of the hill. Close by is the monument to
+Dugald Stewart, a copy of the choragic monument of Lysicrates.
+Sir John Steell&rsquo;s equestrian statue of the duke of Wellington
+stands in front of the Register House, and in Princes Street
+Gardens are statues of Livingstone, Christopher North, Allan
+Ramsay, Adam Black and Sir J.Y. Simpson. In George Street
+are Chantrey&rsquo;s figures of Pitt and George IV., and a statue of
+Dr Chalmers; the 5th duke of Buccleuch stands beside St
+Giles&rsquo;s. Charles II. surveys the spot where Knox was buried;
+the reformer himself is in the quadrangle of New College: Sir
+David Brewster adorns the quadrangle of the university; Dr
+William Chambers is in Chambers Street, and Frederick, duke
+of York (1763-1827), and the 4th earl of Hopetoun are also
+commemorated.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cemeteries.</i>&mdash;Obviously the churchyards surrounding the
+older and more important parish churches&mdash;such as Greyfriars&rsquo;,
+St Cuthbert&rsquo;s and the Canongate, contain the greatest number
+of memorials of the illustrious dead. In Greyfriars&rsquo; churchyard
+the Solemn League and Covenant was signed, and among its
+many monuments are the Martyrs&rsquo; monument, recording the
+merits of the murdered covenanters, and the tomb of &ldquo;Bluidy&rdquo;
+Mackenzie. To the three named should be added the Calton
+burying-ground, with its Roman tomb of David Hume, and the
+obelisk raised in 1844 to the memory of Maurice Margarot,
+Thomas Muir (1765-1798), Thomas Fyshe Palmer (1747-1802),
+William Skirving and Joseph Gerrald (1765-1796), the political
+martyrs transported towards the end of the 18th century for
+advocating parliamentary reform. The Scottish dead in the
+American Civil War are commemorated in a monument bearing
+a life-sized figure of Abraham Lincoln and a freed slave. The
+cemeteries are all modern. In Warriston cemetery (opened in
+1843) in the New Town, were buried Sir James Young Simpson,
+Alexander Smith the poet, Horatio McCulloch, R.S.A., the
+landscape painter, the Rev. James Millar, the last Presbyterian
+chaplain of the castle, and the Rev. James Peddie, the pastor
+of Bristo Street church. In Dean cemetery, partly laid out on
+the banks of the Water of Leith, and considered the most beautiful
+in the city (opened 1845), were interred Lords Cockburn,
+Jeffrey and Rutherford; &ldquo;Christopher North,&rdquo; Professor
+Aytoun, Edward Forbes the naturalist, John Goodsir the
+anatomist; Sir William Allan, Sam Bough, George Paul
+Chalmers, the painters; George Combe, the phrenologist;
+Playfair, the architect; Alexander Russel, editor of the <i>Scotsman</i>;
+Sir Archibald Alison, the historian; Captain John Grant,
+the last survivor of the old Peninsular Gordon Highlanders;
+Captain Charles Gray, of the Royal Marines, writer of Scottish
+songs; Lieutenant John Irving, of the Franklin expedition,
+whose remains were sent home many years after his death by
+Lieut. Frederick Schwatka, U.S. navy; and Sir Hector Macdonald,
+&ldquo;Fighting Mac&rdquo; of Omdurman. In the south side are
+the Grange, Newington or Echobank, and Morningside cemeteries.
+In the Grange repose the ashes of Chalmers, Guthrie and Lee,
+Sir Thomas Dick Lauder, Sir Hope Grant, Hugh Miller and the
+2nd Lord Dunfermline.</p>
+
+<p><i>Parks and Open Spaces.</i>&mdash;Edinburgh is exceptionally well
+provided with parks and open spaces. The older are Princes
+Street Gardens, covering the old Nor&rsquo; Loch, Calton Hill, the
+Meadows and the Bruntsfield Links. The municipal golf links
+are on the Braid Hills. On the southern side Blackford Hill
+has been set apart for public use. Here stands the Royal
+Observatory, in which the great Dunecht telescope was erected
+in 1896. Harrison Park is a breathing spot for the congested
+district of Fountainbridge, and the park at Saughton Hall,
+opened in 1905, for the western district of the city. To the north
+of the Water of Leith lie Inverleith Park, the Arboretum and
+the Royal Botanical Garden. This institution has undergone
+four changes of site since its foundation in 1670 by Sir Andrew
+Balfour and Sir Robert Sibbald, and now occupies an area of
+34 acres in Inverleith Row. It includes a herbarium and palm
+house, with an extensive range of hot-houses, a museum of
+economic botany, a lecture-room and other requisites for the
+study of botany. The most important open spaces, however,
+surround Arthur&rsquo;s Seat (822 ft.). This basaltic hill, the name
+of which is believed to commemorate the British king Arthur,
+who from its height is said to have watched the defeat of the
+Picts by his followers, is shaped like a lion <i>couchant</i>, with head
+towards the north. It is separated from the narrow valley, in
+which lie the Canongate and Holyrood Palace, by Salisbury
+Crags, named after Edward III.&rsquo;s general William Montacute,
+1st earl of Salisbury (1301-1344). At their base is the Queen&rsquo;s
+Drive (3½ m. long), named by Queen Victoria. Adjoining
+Holyrood Palace is the King&rsquo;s Park, used as a parade ground.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page940" id="page940"></a>940</span>
+Facing the crags on the south-west are the spots familiar to
+readers of <i>The Heart of Midlothian</i>, where stood Jeanie Deans&rsquo;s
+cottage, and between the crags and Arthur&rsquo;s Seat lies Hunter&rsquo;s
+Bog, used as a shooting range. Near here too are three small
+lakes, Duddingston, Dunsappie and St Margaret&rsquo;s, the last
+overlooked by the ruins of St Anthony&rsquo;s chapel.</p>
+
+<p><i>Environs.</i>&mdash;In several directions many places once to be
+described among the environs have practically become suburbs
+of Edinburgh. Newhaven (population of parish, 7636), so called
+from the harbour constructed in the reign of James IV., had a
+shipbuilding yard of some repute in former times. The village
+has always been a fishing-place of importance, the &ldquo;fishwives&rdquo;
+in their picturesque garb being, till recently, conspicuous figures
+in the streets of the capital. It used to be a popular resort for
+fish dinners, and it plays a prominent part in Charles Reade&rsquo;s
+novel of <i>Christie Johnstone</i>. To the west lies Granton (pop. 1728),
+where the 5th duke of Buccleuch constructed a magnificent
+harbour. Before the building of the Forth Bridge the customary
+approach to Fifeshire and the north-east of Scotland was by
+means of a steam ferry from Granton to Burntisland, which is
+still used to some extent. There is regular communication with
+Iceland, the continental ports and London. A marine station
+here was established by Sir John Murray, but has been discontinued.
+Still farther west lies the village of Cramond (pop.
+of parish, 3815), at the mouth of the river Almond, where Roman
+remains have often been found. It was the birthplace of several
+well-known persons, among others of John Law (1671-1729),
+originator of the Mississippi scheme, Lauriston Castle being
+situated in the parish. Cramond Brig was the scene of one of the
+&ldquo;roving&rdquo; adventures of James V., when the life of the &ldquo;Gudeman
+of Ballengeich&rdquo; was saved by Jock Howieson of the
+Braehead. Corstorphine (pop. 2725), once noted for its cream
+and also as a spa, is now to all intents and purposes a western
+suburb of the capital. The parish church contains the tombs
+of the Forresters, of old the leading family of the district, with
+full-length sculptured figures, and at the base of Corstorphine
+Hill&mdash;from one point of which (&ldquo;Rest and be Thankful&rdquo;)
+is to be had one of the best views of Edinburgh&mdash;are the seats of
+several well-known families. Among these are Craigcrook Castle
+(where Lord Jeffrey spent many happy years, and the gardens
+of which are said to have given Scott a hint for Tullyveolan in
+<i>Waverley</i>), and Ravelston House, the home of the Keiths. To
+the south of the metropolis are Colinton (pop. 5499), on the Water
+of Leith, with several mansions that once belonged to famous
+men, such as Dreghorn Castle and Bonally Tower; and Currie
+(pop. 2513), which was a Roman station and near which are
+Curriehill Castle (held by the rebels against Queen Mary), the
+ruins of Lennox Tower, and Riccarton, the seat of the Gibson-Craigs,
+one of the best-known Midlothian families. At Dalmahoy
+Castle, near Ratho (pop. 1946), the seat of the earl of
+Morton, are preserved the only extant copy of the bible of the
+Scottish parliament and the original warrant for committing
+Queen Mary to Lochleven Castle in Kinross-shire. Craigmillar,
+though situated in the parish of Liberton, is really a part of
+Edinburgh. Its picturesque castle, at least the oldest portion
+of it, probably dates from the 12th century. Its principal
+owners were first the Prestons and latterly the Gilmours. After
+playing a varied rôle in local and national story, now as banqueting-house
+and now as prison, it fell gradually into disrepair.
+It was advertised as to let in 1761, and early in the 19th
+century, along with the chapel adjoining, was in ruins, but has
+been restored by Colonel Gordon-Gilmour. It was a favourite
+residence of Mary Stuart, and its associations with the hapless
+queen give it a romantic interest. Duddingston (pop. 2023),
+once a quiet village, has become a centre of the distilling and
+brewing industries. The parish church, effectively situated on
+an eminence by the side of the lake, was the scene of the ministration
+of the Rev. John Thomson (1778-1840), the landscape painter,
+who numbered Sir Walter Scott among his elders. Duddingston
+House is a seat of the duke of Abercorn. Liberton (pop. of parish,
+7233), a name that recalls the previous existence of a leper&rsquo;s
+hospital, is prominently situated on the rising ground to the south
+of Edinburgh, the parish church being a conspicuous landmark.
+Adjoining is the village of Gilmerton (pop. 1482), which used
+to supply Edinburgh with yellow sand, when sanded floors were
+a feature in the humbler class of houses. Portobello (pop. 9180),
+being within 3 m. of the capital, must always enjoy a large share
+of public patronage, though it is not in such favour as a watering-place
+as it once was. Its beautiful stretch of sands is flanked
+by a promenade extending all the way to Joppa. The beach
+was at one time used for the purpose of reviews of the yeomanry.
+The town dates from the middle of the 18th century, when a
+cottage was built by a sailor and named Portobello in commemoration
+of Admiral Vernon&rsquo;s victory in 1739. The place
+does a considerable trade in the making of bricks, bottles,
+earthenware, pottery, tiles and paper. Joppa, which adjoins
+it, has salt works, but is chiefly a residential neighbourhood.
+Inveresk (pop. 2939), finely situated on the Esk some 6 m. from
+Edinburgh, is a quaint village with several old-fashioned mansions
+and beautiful gardens. Alexander Carlyle, the famous divine
+(1772-1805), whose <i>Memorials of his Times</i> still affords fascinating
+reading, ministered for fifty-five years in the parish church, in
+the graveyard of which lies David Macbeth Moir (1798-1851),
+who under the pen-name of &ldquo;Delta&rdquo; wrote <i>Mansie Wauch</i>, a
+masterpiece of Scots humour and pathos. Lasswade (pop. of
+parish, 9708), partly in the Pentlands, famous for its oatmeal,
+was often the summer resort of Edinburgh worthies. Here
+Sir Walter Scott lived for six years and De Quincey for nineteen,
+and William Tennant (1784-1848), author of <i>Anster Fair</i>, was the
+parish dominie. Many interesting mansions were and are in the
+vicinity, amongst them Melville Castle, the seat of the Dundas
+Melvilles, and Auchendinny, where Henry Mackenzie, author
+of <i>The Man of Feeling</i>, resided. The two most celebrated
+resorts, however, amongst the environs of Edinburgh are Roslin
+(pop. 1805) and Hawthornden. Roslin Castle is romantically
+situated on the beautifully wooded precipitous banks of the
+Esk. It dates from the 12th century and is a plain, massive
+ruin, architecturally insignificant. Partially destroyed by fire in
+1447 and afterwards rebuilt, it was sacked in 1650 and again in
+1688, and then gradually fell into decay. The chapel, higher
+up the bank, a relic of great beauty, was founded in 1446 by
+William St Clair, 3rd earl of Orkney. It is believed to be the
+chancel of what was intended to be a large church. Although it
+suffered at the hands of revolutionary fanatics in 1688, the
+damage was confined mainly to the external ornament, and the
+chapel, owing to restoration in judicious taste, is now in perfect
+condition. The Gothic details are wonderful examples of the
+carver&rsquo;s skill, the wreathed &ldquo;Prentice&rsquo;s pillar&rdquo; being the subject
+of a well-known legend. The walk to Hawthornden, about 1½ m.
+distant, through the lovely glen by the river-side, leads to the
+mansion of the Drummonds, perched high on a lofty cliff falling
+sheer to the stream. The caverns in the sides of the precipice
+are said to have afforded Wallace and other heroes (or outlaws)
+refuge in time of trouble, but the old house is most memorable
+as the home of the poet William Drummond, who here welcomed
+Ben Jonson; the tree beneath which the two poets sat still
+stands. Near Swanston, on the slopes of the Pentlands, where
+R.L. Stevenson when a boy used to make holiday occasionally,
+is a golf-course which was laid out by the Lothianburn Club.
+The Pentland range contains many points of interest and beauty,
+but these are mostly accessible only to the pedestrian, although
+the hills are crossed by roads, of which the chief are those by
+Glencorse burn and the Cauld Stane Slap. Habbie&rsquo;s Howe, the
+scene of Allan Ramsay&rsquo;s pastoral <i>The Gentle Shepherd</i>, is some
+2 m. from Carlops, and Rullion Green is noted as the field on
+which the Covenanters were defeated in 1666. At Penicuik
+(pop. 5097), where the Clerks were long the ruling family, S.R.
+Crockett was minister until he formally devoted himself to
+fiction. The town is, industrially, remarkable for its paper mills
+and mines of coal and other minerals.</p>
+
+<p><i>Communications.</i>&mdash;The two trunk railways serving Edinburgh
+are the North British and the Caledonian. The North British
+station is Waverley, to which the trains of the Great Northern,
+North Eastern and the Midland systems run from England. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page941" id="page941"></a>941</span>
+Caledonian station is Princes Street, where the through trains from
+the London &amp; North-Western system of England arrive. Leith,
+Granton and Grangemouth serve as the chief passenger seaports
+for Edinburgh. Tramways connect the different parts of the city
+with Leith, Newhaven, Portobello and Joppa; and the Suburban
+railway, starting from Waverley station, returns by way of
+Restalrig, Portobello, Duddingston, Morningside and Haymarket.
+In summer, steamers ply between Leith and Aberdour and other
+pleasure resorts; and there is also a service to Alloa and Stirling.
+In the season brakes constantly run to Queensferry (for the
+Forth Bridge) and to Roslin, and coaches to Dalkeith, Loanhead
+and some Pentland villages.</p>
+
+<p><i>Population.</i>&mdash;In 1801 the number of inhabitants was
+66,544; in 1851 it was 160,302; in 1881 it was 234,402; and
+in 1901 it was 316,479. In 1900 the birth-rate was 26.90 per
+thousand, 7.8% of the births being illegitimate; the death-rate
+was 19.40 per thousand, and the marriage-rate 10 per
+thousand.</p>
+
+<p>The area of the city has been enlarged by successive extensions
+of its municipal boundaries, especially towards the west and
+south. An important accession of territory was gained in 1896,
+when portions of the parishes of Liberton and Duddingston and
+the police burgh of Portobello were incorporated. Under the
+Edinburgh Corporation Act 1900, a further addition of nearly
+1800 acres was made. This embraced portions of South Leith
+parish (landward) and of Duddingston parish, including the
+village of Restalrig and the ground lying on both sides of the main
+road from Edinburgh to Portobello; and also part of Cramond
+parish, in which is contained the village and harbour of Granton.
+The total area of the city is 10,597½ acres. The increase in wealth
+may best be measured by the rise in assessed valuation. In 1880
+the city rental was £1,727,740, in 1890 it was £2,106,395, and in
+1900-1901 £2,807,122.</p>
+
+<p><i>Government.</i>&mdash;By the Redistribution Act of 1885 the city was
+divided for parliamentary purposes into East, West, Central and
+South Edinburgh, each returning one member; the parliamentary
+and municipal boundaries are almost identical. The town
+council, which has its headquarters in the Municipal Buildings
+in the Royal Exchange, consists of fifty members, a lord
+provost, seven bailies, a dean of guild, a treasurer, a convener
+of trades, seven judges of police, and thirty-two councillors.
+The corporation has acquired the gas-works, the cable tramways
+(leased to a company), the electric lighting of the
+streets, and the water-supply from the Pentlands (reinforced
+by additional sources in the Moorfoot Hills and Talla Water).
+Among other duties, the corporation has a share in the
+management of the university, and maintains the Calton Hill
+observatory.</p>
+
+<p><i>May Meetings.</i>&mdash;During the establishment of Episcopacy in
+Scotland, Edinburgh was the seat of a bishop, and the ancient
+collegiate church of St Giles rose to the dignity of a cathedral.
+But the annual meeting of the General Assembly of the Church of
+Scotland at Edinburgh is now the public manifestation of the
+predominance of Presbyterianism as the national church. In
+May each year the sovereign appoints a representative as lord
+high commissioner to the General Assembly of the Established
+Church, who takes up his abode usually in the palace of Holyrood,
+and thence proceeds to the High Church, and so to the assembly
+hall on the Castle Hill. The lord provost and magistrates offer to
+him the keys of the city, and levees, receptions and state dinners
+revive in some degree the ancient glories of Holyrood. The
+General Assembly of the United Free Church is usually held at
+the same time.</p>
+
+<p><i>University.</i>&mdash;The university of Edinburgh, the youngest of the
+Scottish universities, was founded in 1583 by a royal charter
+granted by James IV., and its rights, immunities and privileges
+have been remodelled, ratified and extended at various periods.
+In 1621 an act of the Scottish parliament accorded to the
+university all rights and privileges enjoyed by other universities
+in the kingdom, and these were renewed under fresh guarantees
+in the treaty of union between England and Scotland, and in
+the Act of Security. Important changes were made in the constitution
+by acts passed in 1858 and 1889. It was one of the first
+universities to admit women students to its classes and degrees,
+and its <i>alumni</i> are brought into close bonds of sympathy and
+activity by a students&rsquo; union. The number of students averages
+nearly three thousand a year. As a corporation it consists of a
+chancellor, vice-chancellor, lord rector (elected by the students
+every three years), principal, professors, registered graduates and
+matriculated students. The chancellor is elected for life by the
+general council, of which he is head; and the rights of the city as
+the original founder have been recognized by giving to the town
+council the election of four of the seven curators, with whom rest
+the appointment of the principal, the patronage of seventeen of
+the chairs, and a share in other appointments. Along with that
+of St Andrews, the university sends one member to parliament.
+While the college, as such, bears the name of the College of King
+James, or King&rsquo;s college, and James VI. is spoken of as its founder,
+it really originated in the liberality of the citizens of Edinburgh.
+William Little of Craigmillar, and his brother Clement Little,
+advocate, along with James Lawson, the colleague and successor
+of John Knox, may justly be regarded as true founders. In
+1580 Clement Little gave all his books, three hundred volumes,
+for the beginning of a library, and this was augmented by other
+valuable benefactions, one of the most interesting of which was the
+library of Drummond of Hawthornden. The library now contains
+upwards of 220,000 volumes, and more than 7000 MSS. The
+buildings of the university occupy the site of the ancient collegiate
+church of St. Mary in the Field (the &ldquo;Kirk of Field&rdquo;), the scene of
+the murder of Darnley. The present structure, the foundation-stone
+of which was laid in 1789, is a classical building, enclosing an
+extensive quadrangle. The older parts of it, including the east
+front, are from the design of Robert Adam, his plans being
+revised and modified by W.H. Playfair (1789-1857), but it was
+not till 1883 that the building was completed by the dome,
+crowned by the bronze figure of Youth bearing the torch of
+Knowledge, on the façade in South Bridge Street. This edifice
+affords accommodation for the lecture rooms in the faculties of
+arts, law and theology, and for the museums and library. The
+opening up of the wide thoroughfare of Chambers Street, on the
+site of College Wynd and Brown and Argyll Squares, cleared the
+precincts of unsightly obstructions and unsavoury neighbours.
+The Royal Scottish Museum, structurally united to the university,
+contains collections illustrative of industry, art, science and
+natural history; and Minto House college and Heriot-Watt
+college are practically adjuncts of the university. The library hall
+was restored and decorated, largely through the generosity of Sir
+William Priestley (1829-1900), formerly M.P. for the university;
+while munificent additions to the academic funds and resources
+were made by the 15th earl of Moray (1840-1901), Sir William
+Fraser (1816-1898), and others. The university benefits also,
+like the other Scottish universities, from Mr Andrew Carnegie&rsquo;s
+endowment fund. The medical school stands in Teviot Row,
+adjoining George Square and the Meadows. To this spacious and
+well-equipped group of buildings the faculty of medicine was
+removed from the college. The medical school is in the Italian
+Renaissance style from the designs of Sir Rowand Anderson.
+The magnificent hall used for academic and public functions was
+the gift of William M&rsquo;Ewan, some time M.P. for the Central
+division of Edinburgh. Closely associated with the medical
+school, and separated from it by the Middle Meadow Walk, is the
+Royal Infirmary, designed by David Bryce, R.S.A. (1803-1876),
+removed hither from Infirmary Street. Its wards, in which
+nearly ten thousand patients receive treatment annually, are
+lodged in a series of turreted pavilions, and cover a large space of
+ground on the margin of the Meadows, from which, to make room
+for it, George Watson&rsquo;s College&mdash;the most important of the
+Merchant Company schools&mdash;was removed to a site farther west,
+while the Sick Children&rsquo;s hospital was moved to the southern side
+of the Meadows.</p>
+
+<p><i>Scientific Institutions.</i>&mdash;The old Observatory is a quaint
+structure on Calton Hill, overlooking the district at the head
+of Leith Walk. The City Observatory stands close by, and on
+Blackford Hill is the newer building of the Royal Observatory.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page942" id="page942"></a>942</span>
+The Astronomer-Royal for Scotland also holds the chair of
+practical astronomy.</p>
+
+<p>The museum and lecture-rooms of the Royal College of
+Surgeons occupy a handsome classical building in Nicolson
+Street. The college is an ancient corporate body, with a charter
+of the year 1505, and exercises the powers of instructing in surgery
+and of giving degrees. Its graduates also give lectures on the
+various branches of medicine and science requisite for the degree
+of doctor of medicine, and those extra-academical courses are
+recognized, under certain restrictions, by the University Court,
+as qualifying for the degree. The museum contains a valuable
+collection of anatomical and surgical preparations.</p>
+
+<p>The Royal College of Physicians is another learned body
+organized, with special privileges, by a charter of incorporation
+granted by Charles II. in 1681. In their hall in Queen Street
+are a valuable library and a museum of materia medica. But the
+college as such takes no part in the educational work of the
+university.</p>
+
+<p><i>Educational Institutions.</i>&mdash;After the Disruption in 1843, and
+the formation of the Free Church, New College was founded
+in connexion with it for training students in theology. Since
+the amalgamation of the United Presbyterian and the Free
+Churches, under the designation of the United Free Church of
+Scotland, New College is utilized by both bodies. New College
+buildings, designed in the Pointed style of the 16th century,
+and erected on the site of the palace of Mary of Guise, occupy a
+prominent position at the head of the Mound.</p>
+
+<p>Edinburgh has always possessed exceptional educational
+facilities. The Royal high school, the burgh school <i>par excellence</i>,
+dates from the 16th century, but the beautiful Grecian buildings
+on the southern face of Calton Hill, opened in 1829, are its third
+habitation. It was not until 1825, when the Edinburgh Academy
+was opened, that it encountered serious rivalry. Fettes College,
+an imposing structure in a 16th-century semi-Gothic style,
+designed by David Bryce and called after its founder Sir William
+Fettes (1750-1836), is organized on the model of the great English
+public schools. Merchiston Academy, housed in the old castle
+of Napier, the inventor of logarithms, is another institution
+conducted on English public school lines. For many generations
+the charitable foundations for the teaching and training of youth
+were a conspicuous feature in the economy of the city. Foremost
+among them was the hospital founded by George Heriot&mdash;the
+&ldquo;Jingling Geordie&rdquo; of Scott&rsquo;s <i>Fortunes of Nigel</i>&mdash;the goldsmith
+and banker of James VI. At his death in 1624 Heriot left his
+estate in trust to the magistrates and ministers of Edinburgh
+for the maintenance and teaching of poor fatherless sons of
+freemen. The quadrangular edifice in Lauriston, sometimes
+ascribed to Inigo Jones, is one of the noblest buildings in the city.
+Even earlier than Heriot&rsquo;s hospital was the Merchant Maiden
+hospital, dating from 1605, which gave to the daughters of
+merchants similar advantages to those which Heriot&rsquo;s secured
+for burgesses&rsquo; sons. In 1738 George Watson&rsquo;s hospital for boys
+was founded; then followed the Trades&rsquo; Maiden hospital for
+burgesses&rsquo; daughters, John Watson&rsquo;s, Daniel Stewart&rsquo;s, the
+Orphans&rsquo;, Gillespie&rsquo;s,<a name="fa2g" id="fa2g" href="#ft2g"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Donaldson&rsquo;s<a name="fa3g" id="fa3g" href="#ft3g"><span class="sp">3</span></a> hospitals, and other institutions
+founded by successful merchants of the city, in which poor
+children of various classes were lodged, boarded and educated.
+Nearly all these buildings are characterized by remarkable
+distinction and beauty of design. This is especially true of
+Donaldson&rsquo;s hospital at the Haymarket, which has accommodation
+for three hundred children. As the New Town expanded,
+the Heriot Trust&mdash;whose revenues were greatly benefited thereby&mdash;erected
+day-schools in different districts, in which thousands
+of infants and older children received a free education, and, in
+cases of extreme poverty, a money grant towards maintenance.
+Public opinion as to the &ldquo;hospital&rdquo; system of board and
+education, however, underwent a revolutionary change after
+the Education Act of 1872 introduced school boards, and the
+Merchant Company&mdash;acting as governors for most of the institutions&mdash;determined
+to board out the children on the foundation
+with families in the town, and convert the buildings
+into adequately equipped primary and secondary day-schools.
+This root-and-branch policy proved enormously successful, and
+George Watson&rsquo;s college, Stewart&rsquo;s college, Queen Street ladies&rsquo;
+college, George Square ladies&rsquo; college, Gillespie&rsquo;s school, and
+others, rapidly took a high place among the educational institutions
+of the city. Nor did the Heriot Trust neglect the claims
+of technical and higher education. The Heriot-Watt college
+is subsidized by the Trust, and Heriot&rsquo;s hospital is occupied as
+a technical school. Concurrently with this activity in higher
+branches, the school board provided a large number of handsome
+buildings in healthy surroundings. The Church of Scotland and
+the United Free Church have training colleges.</p>
+
+<p><i>Charities.</i>&mdash;Besides the Royal Infirmary there are a considerable
+number of more or less specialized institutions, two of
+the most important being situated at Craiglockhart. On the
+Easter Hill stands the Royal Edinburgh asylum for the insane,
+which formerly occupied a site in Morningside, while the City
+infectious diseases hospital is situated at Colinton Mains. The
+Royal blind asylum at Powburn in its earlier days tenanted
+humbler quarters in Nicolson Street. Chalmers&rsquo;s hospital in
+Lauriston was founded in 1836 by George Chalmers for the
+reception of the sick and injured. The home for incurables is
+situated in Salisbury Place. The infirmary convalescents are
+sent to the convalescent house in Corstorphine. Other institutions
+are the Royal hospital for sick children, the home for
+crippled children, the Royal maternity hospital, and the deaf
+and dumb asylum. Though Trinity hospital no longer exists
+as a hospital with resident pensioners, the trustees disburse
+annually pensions to certain poor burgesses and their wives and
+children; and the trust controlling the benevolent branch of
+the Gillespie hospital endowment is similarly administered.</p>
+
+<p><i>Industries.</i>&mdash;Although Edinburgh is a residential rather than
+a manufacturing or commercial centre, the industries which it
+has are important and flourishing. From 1507, when Walter
+Chapman, the Scottish Caxton, set up the first press, to the
+present day, printing has enjoyed a career of almost continuous
+vitality, and the great houses of R. &amp; R. Clark, T. &amp; A. Constable,
+the Ballantyne Press, Morrison &amp; Gibb, Turnbull &amp; Spears, and
+others, admirably maintain the traditional reputation of the
+Edinburgh press. Publishing, on the other hand, has drifted
+away, only a few leading houses&mdash;such as those of Blackwood,
+Chambers and Nelson&mdash;still making the Scottish capital their
+headquarters. Mapmakers, typefounders, bookbinders and
+lithographers all contribute their share to the prosperity of the
+city. Brewing is an industry of exceptional vigour, Edinburgh
+ale being proverbially good. The brewers and distillers, such as
+M&rsquo;Ewan, Usher and Ure, have been amongst the most generous
+benefactors of the city. The arts and crafts associated with
+furniture work, paper-making and coach-building may also be
+specified, whilst tanneries, glassworks, india-rubber and vulcanite
+factories, brass-founding, machinery works, the making of
+biscuits, tea-bread and confectionery are all prominent. In
+consequence of the large influx of tourists every year the North
+British and Caledonian railway companies give employment to
+an enormous staff. Building and the allied trades are chronically
+brisk, owing to the constant development of the city. Fine
+white freestone abounds in the immediate vicinity (as at Craigleith,
+from the vast quarry of which, now passing into disuse,
+the stone for much of the New Town was obtained) and furnishes
+excellent building material; while the hard trap rock, with
+which the stratified sandstones of the Coal formation have been
+extensively broken up and overlaid, supplies good materials for
+paving and road-making. On this account quarrying is another
+industry which is seldom dormant. Owing to the great changes
+effected during the latter part of the 19th century, some of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page943" id="page943"></a>943</span>
+old markets were demolished and the system of centralizing
+trade was not wholly revived. The Waverley Market for
+vegetables and fruit presents a busy scene in the early morning,
+and is used for monster meetings and promenade and popular
+concerts. Slaughter-houses, cattle markets and grain markets
+have been erected at Gorgie, thus obviating the driving of
+flocks and herds through the streets, which was constantly
+objected to. An infantry regiment is always stationed in
+the castle, and there are in addition the barracks at Piers-hill
+(or &ldquo;Jock&rsquo;s Lodge&rdquo;), half-way between Edinburgh and
+Portobello.</p>
+
+<p><i>Social Life.</i>&mdash;Edinburgh society still retains a certain old-fashioned
+Scottish exclusiveness. It has been said that the
+city is &ldquo;east-windy&rdquo; and the folk &ldquo;west-endy.&rdquo; But this
+criticism needs judicious qualification. The local patriotism
+and good taste of the citizens have regulated recreation and
+have also preserved in pristine vigour many peculiarly Scottish
+customs and pastimes. Classical concerts and concerts of the
+better sort, chiefly held in the M&rsquo;Ewan and Music Halls, are well
+attended, and lectures are patronized to a degree unknown in
+most towns. In theatrical matters in the old days of stock
+companies the verdict of an Edinburgh audience was held to
+make or mar an actor or a play. This is no longer the case, but
+the Lyceum theatre in Grindlay Street and the Theatre Royal
+at the head of Leith Walk give good performances. Variety
+entertainments are also in vogue, and in Nicolson Street and
+elsewhere there are good music halls. Outdoor recreations
+have always been pursued with zest. The public golf-course on
+Braid Hills and the private courses of the Lothianburn club
+at Swanston and the Barnton club at Barnton are usually full
+on Saturdays and holidays. The numerous bowling-greens
+are regularly frequented and are among the best in Scotland&mdash;the
+first Australian team of bowlers that visited the mother
+country (in 1901) pronouncing the green in Lutton Place the
+finest on which they had played. Cricket is played by the university
+students, at the schools, and by private clubs, of which
+the Grange is the oldest and best. In winter the game of curling
+is played on Duddingston Loch, and Dunsappie, St Margaret&rsquo;s
+Loch, Lochend and other sheets of water are covered with
+skaters. Rugby football is in high favour, Edinburgh being
+commonly the scene of the international matches when the
+<i>venue</i> falls to Scotland. Hockey claims many votaries, there
+usually being on New Year&rsquo;s day a match at shinty, or <i>camanachd</i>,
+between opposing teams of Highlanders resident in the city.
+The central public baths in Infirmary Street, with branch
+establishments in other parts of the town, including Portobello,
+are largely resorted to, and the proximity of the Firth of Forth
+induces the keener swimmers to visit Granton every morning.
+Facilities for boating are limited (excepting on the Forth), but
+rowing clubs find opportunity for practice and races on the
+Union Canal, where, however, sailing is scarcely possible. Edinburgh
+maintains few newspapers, but the <i>Scotsman</i>, which may
+be said to reign alone, has enjoyed a career of almost uninterrupted
+prosperity, largely in consequence of a succession of able
+editors, like Charles Maclaren, Alexander Russel, Robert Wallace
+and Charles Cooper. The <i>Edinburgh Evening News</i> and the
+<i>Evening Dispatch</i> are popular sheets. In the past the <i>Edinburgh
+Evening Courant</i>, the chief organ of the Tory party, of which
+James Hannay was editor for a few years, had a high reputation.
+<i>The Witness</i>, edited by Hugh Miller, the <i>Daily Review</i>, edited
+first by J.B. Manson and afterwards by Henry Kingsley, and
+the <i>Scottish Leader</i>, were conducted more or less as Liberal
+organs with a distinct bias in favour of the then Free Church,
+but none of these was long-lived. Volunteering has always
+attracted the younger men, and the highest awards at Wimbledon
+and Bisley have been won by the Queen&rsquo;s Edinburgh.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;In remote times the seaboard from the Tyne to
+the Forth was occupied by the Ottadeni, a Welsh tribe of the
+Brigantes, the territory immediately to the west of it being
+peopled by the Gadeni. It is probable that the Ottadeni built
+a fort or camp on the rock on which Edinburgh Castle now
+stands, which was thus the nucleus around which, in course of
+time, grew a considerable village. Under the protection of the
+hill-fort, a native settlement was established on the ridge running
+down to the valley at the foot of Salisbury Crags, and another
+hamlet, according to William Maitland (1693-1757), the earliest
+historian of Edinburgh, was founded in the area at the north-western
+base of the rock, a district that afterwards became
+the parish of St Cuthbert, the oldest in the city. The Romans
+occupied the country for more than three hundred years, as is
+evidenced by various remains; but James Grant (1822-1887),
+in <i>Old and New Edinburgh</i>, doubts whether they ever built on
+the castle rock. When they withdrew, the British tribes reasserted
+their sway, and some authorities go so far as to suggest
+that Arthur was one of their kings. The southern Picts ultimately
+subdued the Britons, and the castle became their chief
+stronghold until they were overthrown in 617 (or 629) by the
+Saxons under Edwin, king of Northumbria, from whom the name
+of Edinburgh is derived. Symeon of Durham (854) calls it
+Edwinesburch, and includes the church of St Cuthbert within
+the bishopric of Lindisfarne. Its Gaelic name was Dunedin.
+This name is probably a translation of the Saxon name. James
+Grant&rsquo;s view that it may have been the earlier name of the
+castle, from <i>dun</i> (&ldquo;the fort&rdquo;), and <i>edin</i> (&ldquo;on the slope&rdquo;),
+conflicts with the more generally received opinion that the
+Britons knew the fortress as <i>Castelh Mynedh Agnedh</i> (&ldquo;the hill
+of the plain&rdquo;), a designation once wrongly interpreted as the
+&ldquo;castle of the maidens&rdquo; (<i>castrum puellarum</i>), in allusion to
+the supposed fact that the Pictish princesses were lodged within
+it during their education. In the 16th century the latinized
+form Edina was invented and has been used chiefly by poets,
+once notably by Burns, whose &ldquo;Address&rdquo; begins &ldquo;Edina!
+Scotia&rsquo;s darling seat.&rdquo; Long after Edwin&rsquo;s conquest the lowland
+continued to be debatable territory held by uncertain tenure, but
+at length it was to a large extent settled anew by Anglo-Saxon
+and Norman colonists under Malcolm Canmore and his sons.</p>
+
+<p>In the reign of Malcolm Canmore the castle included the
+king&rsquo;s palace. There his pious queen, Margaret, the grand-niece
+of Edward the Confessor, died in 1093. It continued to be a royal
+residence during the reigns of her three sons, and hence the first
+rapid growth of the upper town may be referred to the 12th
+century. The parish church of St Giles is believed to have been
+erected in the reign of Alexander I., about 1110, and the huge
+Norman keep of the castle, built by his younger brother,
+David I., continued to be known as David&rsquo;s Tower till its destruction
+in the siege of 1572. Soon after his accession to the Scottish
+throne David I. founded the abbey of Holyrood (1128), which
+from an early date received the court as its guests. But notwithstanding
+the attractions of the abbey and the neighbouring chase,
+the royal palace continued for centuries to be within the fortress,
+and there both the Celtic and Stuart kings frequently resided.
+Edinburgh was long an exposed frontier town within a territory
+only ceded to Malcolm II. about 1020; and even under the
+earlier Stuart kings it was still regarded as a border stronghold.
+Hence, though the village of Canongate grew up beside the abbey
+of David I., and Edinburgh was a place of sufficient importance
+to be reckoned one of the four principal burghs as a judicatory
+for all commercial matters, nevertheless, even so late as 1450,
+when it became for the first time a walled town, it did not extend
+beyond the upper part of the ridge which slopes eastwards from
+the castle. So long, however, as its walls formed the boundary,
+and space therefore was limited, the citizens had to provide
+house-room by building dwellings of many storeys. These tall
+tenements on both sides of what is now High Street and Canongate
+are still a prominent characteristic of the Old Town. The
+streets were mostly very narrow, the main street from the castle
+to Holyrood Palace and the Cowgate alone permitting the passage
+of wheeled carriages. In the narrow &ldquo;wynds&rdquo; the nobility and
+gentry paid their visits in sedan chairs, and proceeded in full
+dress to the assemblies and balls, which were conducted with
+aristocratic exclusiveness in an alley on the south side of High
+Street, called the Assembly Close, and in the assembly rooms
+in the West Bow. Beyond the walls lay the burghs of Calton,
+Easter and Wester Portsburgh, the villages of St Cuthbert&rsquo;s,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page944" id="page944"></a>944</span>
+Moutrie&rsquo;s Hill, Broughton, Canonmills, Silvermills and Deanhaugh&mdash;all
+successively swallowed up in the extension of the modern
+city. The seaport of Leith, though a distinct burgh, governed
+by its own magistrates, and electing its own representative to
+parliament, has also on its southern side become practically
+united to its great neighbour.</p>
+
+<p>The other three royal burghs associated with Edinburgh were
+Stirling, Roxburgh and Berwick; and their enactments form
+the earliest existing collected body of Scots law. The determination
+of Edinburgh as the national capital, and as the most frequent
+scene of parliamentary assemblies, dates from the death of
+James I. in 1436. Of the thirteen parliaments summoned by
+that sovereign, only one, the last, was held at Edinburgh, but his
+assassination in the Blackfriars&rsquo; monastery at Perth led to the
+abrupt transfer of the court and capital from the Tay to the
+Forth. The coronation of James II. was celebrated in Holyrood
+Abbey instead of at Scone, and the widowed queen took up
+her residence, with the young king, in the castle. Of fourteen
+parliaments summoned during this reign, only one was held at
+Perth, five met at Stirling and the rest at Edinburgh; and,
+notwithstanding the favour shown for Stirling as a royal residence
+in the following reign, every one of the parliaments of James III.
+was held at Edinburgh. James II. conferred on the city various
+privileges relating to the holding of fairs and markets, and the
+levying of customs; and by a royal charter of 1452 he gave it
+pre-eminence over the other burghs. Further immunities and
+privileges were granted by James III.; and by a precept of
+1482, known as the Golden Charter, he bestowed on the provost
+and magistrates the hereditary office of sheriff, with power to
+hold courts, to levy fines, and to impose duties on all merchandise
+landed at the port of Leith. Those privileges were renewed
+and extended by various sovereigns, and especially by a general
+charter granted by James VI. in 1603.</p>
+
+<p>James III. was a great builder, and, in the prosperous era
+which followed his son&rsquo;s accession to the throne, the town reached
+the open valley to the south, with the Cowgate as its chief
+thoroughfare. But the death of James IV. in 1513, along with
+other disastrous results of the battle of Flodden, brought this
+era of prosperity to an abrupt close. The citizens hastened to
+construct a second line of wall, enclosing the Cowgate and the
+heights beyond, since occupied by Greyfriars churches and
+Heriot&rsquo;s hospital, but still excluding the Canongate, as pertaining
+to the abbey of Holyrood. In the 16th century the movements
+connected with John Knox and Mary, queen of Scots, made
+Edinburgh a castle of much activity. With the departure,
+however, of the sixth James to fill the English throne in 1603,
+the town lost for a long period its influence and prestige. Matters
+were not bettered by the Act of Union signed in a cellar in High
+Street in 1707, amidst the execrations of the people, and it was
+not till the hopes of the Jacobites were blasted at Culloden (1746)
+that the townsfolk began to accept the inevitable. This epoch,
+when grass grew even in High Street, long lingered in the popular
+memory as the &ldquo;dark age.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>By the accession of George III. (1760), Edinburgh showed
+signs of revived enterprise. In 1763 the first North Bridge, connecting
+the Old Town with the sloping ground on which afterwards
+stood the Register House and the theatre in Shakespeare
+Square, was opened; a little later the Nor&rsquo; Loch was partially
+drained, and the bridging of the Cowgate in 1785 encouraged
+expansion southwards. Towards the end of the 18th century
+the New Town began to take shape on the grand, if formal,
+lines which had been planned by James Craig (d. 1795), the
+architect, nephew of the poet Thomson, and the erection of
+Regent Bridge in Waterloo Place (formally opened in 1819 on
+the occasion of the visit of Prince Leopold, afterwards king of
+the Belgians) gave access to Calton Hill. The creation of Princes
+Street, one of the most beautiful thoroughfares in the world,
+led to further improvement. The earth and débris from the
+excavation of the sites for the houses in this and adjoining
+streets had been &ldquo;dumped&rdquo; in the centre of the drained Nor&rsquo;
+Loch. This unsightly mass of rubbish lay for a while as an eye-sore,
+until the happy thought arose of converting it into a broad
+way joining the new road at Hanover Street with the Old Town
+at the Lawnmarket. Upon this street, which divides Princes
+Street and its gardens into east and west, and which received
+the title of the Mound, were erected the National Gallery and
+the Royal Institution. Speaking generally, the New Town was
+resorted to by professional men&mdash;lawyers, doctors and artists,&mdash;and
+in its principal streets will be found the head offices of the
+leading banks and insurance offices, all lodged in buildings of
+remarkable architectural pretensions. The Commercial, the
+Union and the Clydesdale banks are in George Street, the
+National Bank of Scotland, the Royal Bank of Scotland, and
+the British Linen Company&rsquo;s Bank are in St Andrew Square,
+the Bank of Scotland is at the head of the Mound. The extensive
+building operations engaged in by the town council in the early
+part of the 19th century resulted in the insolvency of the city
+in 1833. The property of the corporation was valued at £271,658
+against a debt of £425,195, which was compounded for by the
+issue of 3% annuity bonds&mdash;the loss to the creditors amounting
+to 25% of their claims.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the progress of letters, science and learning
+manifested the recovery of the city. The names of Knox
+(d. 1572), Buchanan (1582), Alexander Montgomery (1605),
+Drummond of Hawthornden (1649), Allan Ramsay (1757),
+Smollett (1771), Fergusson (1774), and Burns (1796), carried on
+the literary associations of the Scottish capital nearly to the
+close of the 18th century, when various causes combined to give
+them new significance and value. The university was served by
+a body of teachers and investigators who won for it a prominent
+position among European schools. Then succeeded the era of
+Scott&rsquo;s <i>Marmion</i> and <i>The Lady of the Lake</i>, followed by the
+Waverley novels and the foundation of <i>Blackwood&rsquo;s Magazine</i>
+and the <i>Edinburgh Review</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Modern conditions have changed the character of Edinburgh
+society. In Scott&rsquo;s early days a journey to London was beset
+with difficulties and even dangers; but railways have now
+brought it within a few hours&rsquo; distance, and Scottish artists and
+literary men are tempted to seek a wider field. Nevertheless,
+the influence of the past survives in many ways. Edinburgh
+is not markedly a manufacturing city, but preserves its character
+as the Scottish capital.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;James Grant, <i>Old and New Edinburgh</i> (London,
+1880 et seq.); W. Maitland, <i>History of Edinburgh</i> (1753); Hugo
+Arnot, <i>History of Edinburgh</i> (1789); B. Chambers, <i>Traditions of
+Edinburgh</i> (1824); D. Wilson, <i>Memorials of Edinburgh in the Olden
+Time</i> (1846-1848); O. Smeaton, <i>Edinburgh and its Story</i> (1904).
+<i>The Municipal Buildings of Edinburgh</i>, by Robert Miller, Lord Dean
+of Guild, printed by order of the town council (Edinburgh, 1895);
+<i>Royal Edinburgh</i>, by Mrs Oliphant, illustrations by Sir George Reid,
+R.S.A. (London, 1890).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The original Tolbooth was completed in 1501, but a new one
+took its place in 1563-1564, and was subsequently altered. At first
+occupied by the parliament and courts of justice, it served later as a
+prison, and was removed in 1817.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2g" id="ft2g" href="#fa2g"><span class="fn">2</span></a> James Gillespie (1726-1797) was a tobacco and snuff manufacturer,
+and when he set up his carriage Henry Erskine suggested
+as a motto the homely couplet:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Wha wad hae thocht it,</p>
+<p class="i05">That noses wad bocht it?&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p><a name="ft3g" id="ft3g" href="#fa3g"><span class="fn">3</span></a> James Donaldson (1751-1830) was a printer who bequeathed
+nearly the whole of his large fortune for the purposes of a hospital
+for poor boys and girls, and the trustees have usually selected half
+of the children admitted from the ranks of the deaf and dumb.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDINBURGHSHIRE,<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Midlothian</span>, a county of Scotland,
+bounded N. by the Firth of Forth, E. by the shires of Haddington,
+or East Lothian, and Berwick, S.E. by Roxburghshire, S. by
+Selkirkshire, Peeblesshire and Lanarkshire, S.W. by Lanarkshire,
+and W. by Linlithgowshire or West Lothian. Its area is 234,339
+acres or 3662 sq. m. The island of Cramond belongs to the
+county. There are no mountains, but the Pentland Hills
+advance boldly from the south-west to within 5 m. of the sea.
+The loftiest summits are Scald Law (1898 ft.), Carnethy (1881),
+West and East Cairn Hill (1844 and 1839), and West Kip (1806).
+They are generally of rounded form, and covered with heath or
+grass. The Moorfoot Hills, in the south-east, are a continuation
+of the Lammermuirs, and attain in Blackhope Scar a height of
+2136 ft. Of more or less isolated eminences there are the Braid
+Hills (698 ft.), Blackford Hill (500), Arthur&rsquo;s Seat (822), Corstorphine
+Hill (500)&mdash;all practically within Edinburgh&mdash;and
+Dalmahoy Craig (800), 7 m. south-west of the city. Of the
+rivers the Gala rises on the south-east of the Moorfoot Hills and
+flows south to join the Tweed, and the Tyne after a course of
+7 m. passes into Haddingtonshire. All the others flow into the
+Firth of Forth. Of these the Esk, which is the longest, drains
+the district between the Pentlands and the Moorfoot Hills, and
+empties into the sea at Musselburgh. The southern branch has
+its source near Blackhope Scar, receives on its right Gore Water
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page945" id="page945"></a>945</span>
+and, on its left, Dalhousie Burn, and flows past Newbattle Abbey;
+the northern rises in the Pentlands, and proceeds through much
+picturesque scenery past Penicuik, Roslin, Hawthornden and
+Lasswade; the two streams uniting within the grounds of
+Dalkeith Palace. Braid Burn from Capelaw Hill passes between
+the Braid Hills and Blackford Hill, and reaches the sea at Portobello.
+The Water of Leith, with its head streams on the western
+slope of the Pentlands, flows past Balerno, Currie, Juniper Green,
+Colinton, Edinburgh and Leith. The Almond, rising in Lanarkshire,
+and its right-hand tributary, Breich Water, form the
+boundary between Midlothian and Linlithgowshire. Several
+of these streams, especially the Esk and the Water of Leith,
+furnish much water power. The only loch is that at Duddingston,
+but there are several large reservoirs connected with the water
+supply of Edinburgh. Cobbinshaw reservoir, situated at the
+head of Bog Burn, a tributary of the Almond, is used for the
+supply of the Union Canal connecting the Forth with the Clyde.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Geology.</i>&mdash;The southern portion of the county, embracing the
+Moorfoot Hills and a large part of the catchment basin of the Gala
+Water, lies within the Silurian tableland of the south of Scotland.
+From Bowland northwards to Crookston in the Gala valley the
+Silurian strata are mainly of Tarannon age and consist of greywackes,
+grits, flags and shales, with thin dark seams which yield graptolites
+sparingly. To the north of this area, older sediments, comprising
+Arenig cherts, black shales, greywackes and grits of Llandeilo and
+Caradoc age, rise from underneath the Tarannon strata and spread
+over the hills north to the margin of the tableland. In some of the
+folds of Arenig cherts diabase lavas appear, which occupy small
+lenticular areas. All the Silurian strata are repeated by folds
+striking north-east and south-west and frequently dipping in one
+direction, to the north-west as in the Gala valley. North of the
+Silurian tableland and within the area occupied by the younger
+palaeozoic rocks of the Pentland Hills, there are various inliers of
+Upper Silurian strata. These isolated patches occur (1) in the North
+Esk section, (2) at Loganlee reservoir, (3) near Bavelaw Castle, and
+(4) in Bavelaw Burn. The section in the North Esk is by far the
+most complete, as the strata embrace Wenlock, Ludlow and Downtonian
+rocks with a north-east strike similar to that of the beds in the
+Silurian tableland. The Wenlock rocks have yielded a rich suite of
+organic remains. In the Pentland Hills the folded and denuded
+Silurian strata are covered unconformably by Lower Old Red
+Sandstone rocks, comprising conglomerates and red sandstones,
+which are succeeded by a great volcanic series, the latter extending
+from the West Kip Hill to the Braid Hills. The pebbles of the basal
+conglomerates are derived chiefly from the underlying platform of
+greywackes and shales and from the Radiolarian cherts and volcanic
+rocks in the tableland to the south. The contemporaneous igneous
+rocks include olivine basalts, andesites, trachytes, rhyolites and tuffs,
+which are pierced by the microgranite of the Black Hill and by
+several vents filled with agglomerate, as near Swanston.</p>
+
+<p>The Upper Old Red Sandstone rests unconformably on all older
+formations. The red sandstones and cornstones of this division form
+the Cairn Hills, and are traceable north-eastwards along the north-west
+slope of the Pentland Hills towards the Clubbiedean reservoir,
+where they are overlapped by Carboniferous strata. They occupy
+the south part of the city of Edinburgh, they occur in the lower slope
+of Salisbury Crags, and south by Craigmillar and Liberton towards
+Mortonhall. Recently the horizon of these beds has been proved
+by the discovery of fish remains (<i>Holoptychius</i>), a zonal form of the
+Upper Old Red Sandstone. The remainder of the county embracing
+the fertile low ground west of the city of Edinburgh and along the
+basin of the Esk is occupied by Carboniferous strata and various
+igneous rocks associated with that formation. The Pentland Hills,
+formed of older Palaeozoic deposits, appear as a prominent ridge,
+throwing off the Carboniferous beds to the north-west and south-east.
+In the former direction only the Calciferous Sandstone series
+is represented, and in the latter all the Carboniferous divisions are
+well developed. The lowest subdivision of the Calciferous Sandstone
+series, consisting of sandstones, red and green shales, marls and
+cement-stones, appears in the ridge of the old part of the city between
+the Castle and Holyrood, in the Hunter&rsquo;s Bog and on the north-west
+side of the Pentland Hills. Intercalated in this series near the top,
+there are interbedded volcanic rocks, comprising olivine basalts,
+mugearites, tuffs and agglomerates, which form conspicuous features
+on Arthur&rsquo;s Seat, on Calton Hill, at Craiglockhart and Corston Hill
+south of Mid Calder. Next in order come the Granton sandstones
+and Wardie shales, which are best seen on the shore at Granton,
+and extend up the Water of Leith in the direction of Colinton, where
+they are succeeded by the Hailes sandstone. The upper portion of
+the Calciferous Sandstone series, overlying the Hailes sandstone,
+embraces the valuable oil-shales, which give rise to one of the chief
+industries of the Lothians. Recently, however, it has been proved
+that some of the bands in the Wardie shales give a low yield of oil
+and sulphate of ammonia. The oil-shale-fields in the county lie
+partly along its west margin from Mid Calder south to Breich and
+also on the south-east side of the Pentland Hills between Straiton
+and Carlops along the west side of the Midlothian basin. From an
+economic point of view the Midlothian coalfield is of special importance,
+the strata being arranged in a syncline, the long axis of which
+trends north-north-east and south-south-west. In the centre of the
+basin lie the Coal-Measures covered by the barren red sandstone of
+Dalkeith, probably on the same horizon as the red sandstones of
+Wemyss in Fife (Middle Coal-Measures). The underlying Millstone
+Grit and Carboniferous Limestone series with its middle-coal-bearing
+group rise from underneath the Coal-Measures, forming parallel bands
+curving round the basin. Along the west side of the syncline, the
+strata dip at high angles to the south-east, are sometimes vertical
+and even in some cases inverted, while in the centre they become
+flat and rise at gentle angles towards the east. The Coal Measures
+and the coal-bearing group of the Carboniferous Limestone series
+contain numerous valuable coals and ironstones, and there still
+remains a large field for development. The intrusive igneous rocks
+forming prominent features in the county are divisible into two
+main groups, which are separated from each other by a considerable
+interval of time. The coarse agglomerate filling the old volcano on
+the top of Arthur&rsquo;s Seat is associated with the eruption of the volcanic
+rocks of Calciferous Sandstone age near Edinburgh. The fine grained
+basalt appearing as a plug on the Castle Rock closely resembles the
+basalt on the top of Arthur&rsquo;s Seat, and is likewise of the same age.
+The intrusive sheets of Salisbury Crags and Corstorphine Hill composed
+of olivine-dolerite belong to the same general period. But the
+quartz-dolerites represented by the Ratho sill are in all probability
+of late Carboniferous age.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Climate and Agriculture.</i>&mdash;In the hill country the average
+rainfall is 37.4 in., but on the coast only 28.4 in. The average
+temperature ranges from 38° F. in January to 59°.5 in July,
+the mean for the year being 47.7. The north-east and easterly
+winds prevailing in spring are, especially in Edinburgh and its
+vicinity, remarkable for their cold and blighting character.
+Excepting in the uplands, snow seldom lies long, but frosts
+sometimes occur at night as late as the beginning of June, and
+severe enough to destroy the young shoots of seedling trees in
+nurseries. But the winter is often astonishingly mild. The
+common snowdrop (<i>Galanthus nivalis</i>) blossoms as early as the
+25th of January, the kidney liverleaf (<i>Hepatica triloba</i>) by the
+31st of January and the rhododendron (<i>R. nobleanum</i>) by the
+25th of February. On the shores of the Forth along the Almond
+and the Esk, and on some of the richer flats, grain crops ripen
+early; 2 m. nearer the hills and 200 ft. higher the harvest is
+ten days later; and at 600 ft. still another week later. High
+farming is the rule in the three Lothians. All the area on which
+wheat can be profitably grown is so occupied; oats, however,
+is the predominant grain crop, though barley is also raised.
+Turnips and potatoes are the chief roots, and beans are grown
+to a limited extent. A large area is occupied by pasture and
+sown grasses, fallow land having practically disappeared. Near
+Edinburgh sewage farming has been largely developed. There
+are 200 acres at Craigentinny between Restalrig and the Forth,
+besides smaller tracts under similar treatment at Lochend, Dalry
+and the Grange. The produce consists principally of natural
+grasses. Sheep and cattle raising is an important pursuit. In
+the neighbourhood of the capital dairy farming is conducted
+on an extensive scale. Horse breeding flourishes, several of the
+studs being of excellent character, Clydesdales predominating.
+Pig-keeping has grown considerably and poultry-farming is
+carried on near Edinburgh. The nursery gardens are extensive,
+and, besides market gardening, which prospers near the capital,
+there are many orchards.</p>
+
+<p><i>Other Industries.</i>&mdash;Though as a whole not a mining county,
+Midlothian possesses some mineral wealth. Coal is extensively
+mined at various points on the North Esk, like Penicuik,
+Loanhead, Bonnyrigg, Eskbank and at Gorebridge, Newbattle,
+Newbigging, Niddrie, Gilmerton, Mid and West Calder. Ironstone
+is obtained chiefly at Lasswade and Penicuik and fire-clay
+occurs at various points. In the vicinity of West Calder there
+is a large amount of valuable oil-bearing shale. Limestone is of
+frequent occurrence&mdash;at Esperston, Cousland, Crichton near
+Dalkeith, Burdiehouse, Gilmerton near Edinburgh, the Camps
+in Kirknewton parish, and at Muirieston and Leven Seat in the
+south-west. Freestone is quarried at Craigleith, Hailes, Redhall
+and Craigmillar. It is used for pavements and stairs, and for
+the great docks at Leith. Barnton Mount supplies large blocks
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page946" id="page946"></a>946</span>
+of whinstone, also used for docks and for fortifications; the
+causeway stones for the streets of Edinburgh are mainly procured
+from the quarries at Ratho; and a number of smaller quarries
+for the supply of road-material are scattered throughout the
+county. Owing no doubt to the growth of printing and publishing
+in the metropolis, the chief manufacturing industry in Midlothian
+is paper-making. Most of the mills are extensive and
+equipped with the most modern processes and have an enormous
+yearly output. The most important mills, some of them dating
+from the beginning of the 18th century, are situated on the
+North Esk between Penicuik and Musselburgh, and on the
+South Esk at Newbattle. At Balerno, Currie, Colinton and
+elsewhere on the Water of Leith there are several mills, as well
+as near Mid Calder and at Portobello. The ancient vat-mill
+called Peggy&rsquo;s Mill, at Cramond, produces handmade papers.
+There are carpet factories on the Esk at Roslin and at
+Lasswade. The manufacture of gunpowder is also carried on
+at Roslin, the works being distributed in recesses on the Esk.
+Iron foundries exist at Dalkeith, Westfield, Loanhead, Penicuik,
+Millerhill and in the suburbs of Edinburgh; brick and tile works
+at Portobello, Millerhill, Newbattle, Bonnyrigg and Rosewell;
+and candle works at Dalkeith and Loanhead. Leather also is
+tanned at Edinburgh and Dalkeith. The shipping trade is
+concentrated at Leith and Granton, and Newhaven is still an
+important fishery centre, while there are also fleets at Fisherrow
+and Granton.</p>
+
+<p><i>Population and Government.</i>&mdash;The population in 1891 was
+434,276, and in 1901 488,796, of whom 5765 spoke both Gaelic
+and English, and 75 Gaelic only. The chief towns, besides
+Edinburgh, the capital (pop. in 1901, 316,837), are Bonnyrigg
+(1924), Dalkeith (6812), Leith (77,439), Loanhead (3071),
+Musselburgh (11,711), Newton Grange (2406), Penicuik (3574),
+and West Calder (2652). The county forms a single parliamentary
+constituency, exclusive of Edinburgh city and Leith
+burghs. It has been divided by the county council into four
+county districts (Calder, Gala Water, Lasswade, Suburban) for
+the purposes of the Roads and Bridges Act 1878, and the Public
+Health Acts. The management of special districts formed for
+water supply, drainage and other sanitary purposes is entrusted
+to sub committees appointed by the respective district committees.
+The grant under the Local Taxation (Customs and
+Excise) Act is administered by the Technical Education Committee
+appointed by the Council; and, subject to the same
+authority, the Secondary Education Committee provides for the
+distribution of the grant under the Local Taxation (Scotland) Act.
+In respect of education the shire is under school-board jurisdiction.</p>
+
+<p><i>History and Antiquities.</i>&mdash;Cramond was once a Roman seaport,
+and various objects of Roman art and workmanship have been
+discovered in its vicinity and along the banks of the Almond.
+On several heights are remains of early military works&mdash;the most
+important being that on Dalmahoy Hill, Braidwood Castle in
+the parish of Penicuik, and Castle Greg on the Harburn estate in
+Mid Calder parish. Picts&rsquo; houses are found at Crichton Mains,
+at Borthwick Castle, near Middleton House and elsewhere, the
+first being especially interesting from the fact that some of the
+stones bear marks of Roman masonry. There are hut-circles
+and a fort on Kaimes Hill, near Ratho; a large tumulus, with
+three upright stones, at Old Liston; a smaller tumulus at
+Newbattle; a cistvaen or stone burial chest at Carlowrie; and
+standing stones at Lochend, at Comiston (the Caiy stone), and
+the &ldquo;Cat Stane&rdquo; near Kirkliston. Temple, on the South Esk,
+was at one time the chief seat of the Knights Templars in Scotland
+for whom David I. here built a church, now in ruins.</p>
+
+<p>The history of the county is almost identical with that of the
+capital. Traces of Celtic occupation are obvious in such names
+as Inveresk, Almond, Leith, Dalry, Dalmahoy, Dalkeith and
+others; though most of the villages, hamlets and castles received
+their present designation from Saxon possessors. The termination
+<i>ton</i> is very frequent. Following upon the withdrawal
+of the Romans the land was the scene of intertribal strife, but
+it was in a measure subdued by the Saxons and passed under the
+rule of the Northumbrian kings, who held it till 1020, when the
+Lothians were handed over to the Scottish king, Malcolm II.
+The people of the Lothians, however, stipulated that they were
+to retain their manners and customs, and in this way the south-eastern
+lowlands became the centre from which Anglo-Saxon
+and Norman civilization gradually spread throughout Scotland,
+and hence, too, was assured the pre-eminence of Edinburgh.
+Within the county lie the battlefields of Roslin, where (in 1303)
+the English suffered three reverses in one day; Burghmuir,
+where the English were defeated by the earl of Moray in 1334;
+Pinkie near Inveresk, where (in 1547) the duke of Somerset
+inflicted heavy loss upon the Scots; and Rullion Green, on the
+eastern slopes of the Pentlands, where (in 1666) the Covenanters
+were routed by the royal troops under General Dalziel.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See James Grant, <i>Old and New Edinburgh</i> (London, 1880 et seq.);
+Miss Warrender, <i>Walks near Edinburgh</i> (Edinburgh, 1890); J.C.
+Oliphant, <i>Rambles round Edinburgh</i> (Edinburgh, 1892); J.M. Bell,
+<i>Castles of the Lothians</i> (Edinburgh, 1893); W. Baird, <i>Annals of
+Duddingston and Portobello</i> (Edinburgh, 1898); J. Geddie, <i>The
+Water of Leith</i> (Edinburgh, 1896); Rev. J. Dickson, <i>Ruined Castles
+of Midlothian</i> (Edinburgh, 1895); <i>The Islands of the Forth</i> (Edinburgh
+1899).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDISON, THOMAS ALVA<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> (1847-&emsp;&emsp;), American inventor,
+was born on the 11th of February 1847, at Milan, Erie county,
+Ohio, of mixed Dutch and Scottish descent; but his parents
+moved to Port Huron, Michigan, when he was seven years old.
+At the age of twelve he became a train news-boy on the railway
+to Detroit, and managed to gratify his youthful interest in
+chemistry by performing experiments while travelling. At
+fifteen he became a telegraph operator, and was employed in
+many cities in the United States and Canada, but frequently
+neglected his duties in order to carry on studies and experiments
+in electrical science. Before he was twenty-one he had constructed
+an automatic repeater, by means of which a message could be
+transferred from one wire to another without the aid of an
+operator; and he had also directed his attention to the problem
+of duplex telegraphy, of which he later invented a successful
+system. In 1869 Edison came to New York city, and soon
+afterwards became connected with the Gold &amp; Stock Company.
+He invented an improved printing telegraph for stock quotations,
+for which he received $40,000. He then established a laboratory
+and factory in Newark, N.J., for further experiments and for
+the manufacture of his inventions. In 1876 he removed to
+Menlo Park, and later to West Orange, N.J., where he continued
+his experiments. Since then his name has been prominently associated
+with all kinds of novelties in practical electricity. Among
+his principal inventions are his system of duplex telegraphy,
+which he later developed into quadruplex and sextuplex transmission;
+his carbon telephone transmitter; the microtasimeter,
+for the detection of small variations in temperature; the phonograph,
+which records and reproduces all manner of sounds; the
+cinematograph, which his improvements made practicable; and
+his method of preparing carbon filaments for the incandescent
+electric lamp. In 1878 Edison was made a chevalier of the
+Legion of Honour by the French government.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDMONTON,<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> the capital city of the province of Alberta,
+Canada, which was constituted in 1905. Pop. (1901) 2652;
+(1906) 11,167. It is picturesquely situated on the north bank
+of the North Saskatchewan river in 113° 37&prime; W. and 53° 32&prime; N.
+It is on a high tableland which rises 200 ft. above the river, and
+overlooks the thickly wooded valley of the North Saskatchewan
+river&mdash;at this point a mile in width, the river itself being one-eighth
+of a mile wide. Directly opposite Edmonton on the
+south bank of the river stands Strathcona, a town with a population
+of 2927. The streets of Edmonton are wide and laid out in
+rectangular form. Its excellent drainage makes street grading
+an easy matter. In 1896 it was scarcely a village; in 1901 it
+assumed some importance, but three-quarters of the city were
+built between 1901 and 1906. Its choice as capital in 1905 gave
+it a great impetus. The buildings, largely of brick, give a
+substantial appearance to the place. The public school buildings,
+high school and Alberta College are attractive. The church
+buildings, many in number, include several architecturally
+beautiful. Three well planned and commodious hospital
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page947" id="page947"></a>947</span>
+buildings represent the benevolent work of the community. The
+banks and the wholesale warehouses are well built, and many
+beautiful private residences are worthy of note. Its growth may
+be realized from the fact that during a part of 1906, $806,015
+worth of building permits were granted; the customs receipts,
+$57,994 in 1905, grew to $104,416 in 1906; the mail parcels
+handled increased from 6800 to 12,079; and the express parcels
+handled from 1277 to 2347. Edmonton is the depot of the fur
+traders for the great region on the north and west. The Hudson&rsquo;s
+Bay Company has great interest in Edmonton, but is vigorously
+opposed by a strong French firm, Revillon Frères of Paris.
+These two companies have their posts wide spread over the
+north country. The city, being incorporated, is governed by a
+mayor and a board of aldermen. It operates its own water
+service, electric light plant, and telephone system. Its schools
+are managed by an elected public school board.</p>
+
+<p>Edmonton was begun as a post of the North West Company
+about the year 1778. Early in the 19th century the Hudson&rsquo;s
+Bay Company also established a fort at this point. On the
+union of the two companies under the name of the latter, Fort
+Edmonton sprang into new importance. It became a north-western
+centre, and in its neighbourhood many employees of
+the fur company, both Scottish and French, took up land as
+settlers. As freighters for the Hudson&rsquo;s Bay Company many
+of these settlers made, with their ox or pony carts, the long
+journey over the natural prairie roads to Fort Garry, fording
+or swimming the streams, carrying furs for a thousand miles or
+more on the eastern trip, and returning brought loads of
+merchandise for the company. Its inaccessibility made the
+Edmonton settlement grow very slowly, so that its great
+increase in population belongs to the period subsequent to 1896.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDMONTON,<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> an urban district in the Enfield parliamentary
+division of Middlesex, England, suburban to London, 7½ m. N.
+of London Bridge, on the Old North Road, on the west side of
+the Lea Valley. Pop. (1891) 25,381; (1901) 46,899. There are
+numerous factories in the valley, and Edmonton consists largely
+of the cottages of artisans. The church of All Saints has been
+extensively restored, but retains part of the ancient fabric of
+Perpendicular and earlier date. It contains brasses of interest,
+and in the churchyard is the memorial of Charles Lamb, who
+lived and died (1834) at Edmonton, and his sister. Cowper and
+Keats were also residents, and the Bell Inn is famed through
+Cowper&rsquo;s poem <i>John Gilpin</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDMUND, SAINT<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Edmund Rich</span>] (d. 1240), English saint
+and archbishop of Canterbury, was born at Abingdon, near
+Oxford, about 1175. His father was a merchant of that town
+who retired, with his wife&rsquo;s consent, to the monastery of Eynsham,
+leaving in her hands the education of their family. Her name was
+Mabel; she was a devout woman who lived an ascetic life and
+encouraged her children to do the same. Both her daughters
+took the veil; three of her sons served the church in different
+capacities. Edmund, her first-born, began his education in a
+grammar school at Oxford. Of weak health and a contemplative
+disposition, he showed, from his earliest years, a remarkable
+taste for learning and religious exercises. He saw visions while
+still at school, and at the age of twelve took a vow of perpetual
+chastity in the Virgin&rsquo;s church at Oxford. Later he was sent,
+with his brother Robert, to study the liberal arts at Paris. His
+mother&rsquo;s death and family affairs recalled him for a time to
+England; but he afterwards graduated at Paris. For six years
+he lectured in the liberal arts, partly in Paris and partly in
+Oxford; his career as an Oxford teacher commenced before
+1205, and is noteworthy for the fact that he was the first who
+lectured there on Aristotle. He then returned to Paris for a
+course of theological studies, and rapidly made himself proficient
+in that branch of learning.</p>
+
+<p>After spending a year in retirement with the Augustinian canons
+of Merton (Surrey) he became a theological lecturer in Oxford.
+In this capacity he gained some reputation, and it is related
+that his audience were often moved to tears by his eloquence.
+He spent the fees which he received in charity, and refused to
+spend upon himself the revenues which he derived from several
+benefices. He not infrequently retired for solitude to Reading
+Abbey; it is probable that he would have become a monk if
+that profession had afforded more scope for his gifts as a preacher
+and expositor. As his fame increased he became alarmed by
+the temptations which it threw in his way. He ceased to lecture
+in Oxford, and about 1222 accepted, at the invitation of Bishop
+Richard Poore, the treasurership of Salisbury cathedral. Little
+is known of his life for the next ten years. But he attracted
+the notice of the Roman court, and was appointed in 1227 to
+preach the Crusade in England; he formed a friendship with
+Ella, countess of Salisbury, and her husband, William Longsword,
+and he won general admiration by his works of charity and the
+austerity of his life.</p>
+
+<p>In 1233 he was elected archbishop of Canterbury at the express
+suggestion of Gregory IX., after the monks of Canterbury had
+in vain suggested three other candidates for the pope&rsquo;s approval.
+Edmund at once leaped into prominence by the outspoken
+manner in which he rebuked the king for following the advice
+of foreign favourites. In common with the baronial opposition
+he treated Henry III. as responsible for the tragic fate of Richard
+Marshal, earl of Pembroke, and threatened the king with excommunication.
+The king bowed before the storm, dismissed
+the foreign counsellors, made peace with Marshal&rsquo;s adherents,
+and was publicly reconciled with the barons. But the new
+ministers were as unpopular as the old; nor was the archbishop
+allowed that political influence which he claimed in virtue of his
+office. It was with the object of emancipating himself from
+Edmund&rsquo;s control that the king asked the pope to send him a
+legate (1236). On the arrival of Cardinal Otho (1237) the archbishop
+found himself thwarted and insulted at every point.
+The marriage between Simon de Montfort and the Princess
+Eleanor, which Edmund had pronounced invalid, was ratified
+at Rome upon appeal. The king and legate upheld the monks
+of Canterbury in their opposition to the archbishop&rsquo;s authority.
+On all public occasions the legate took precedence of the archbishop.
+By the advice of his suffragans Edmund laid a protest
+before the king, and excommunicated in general terms all who
+had infringed the liberties of Canterbury. These measures led
+to no result; nor could the pope be moved to reverse the legate&rsquo;s
+decisions. Edmund complained that the discipline of the
+national church was ruined by this conflict of powers, and began
+to meditate retiring. He was confirmed in this intention by the
+papal encroachments of the year 1240, when the English clergy
+were required to pay a subsidy of a fifth for the war against
+Frederick II., and simultaneously three hundred Romans were
+&ldquo;provided&rdquo; with English benefices in return for their political
+services to the Holy See. Edmund withdrew to Pontigny in
+the summer of 1240. A little later the state of his health compelled
+him to seek the cooler air of Soissy (near Provins). Here
+he died on the 16th of November 1240.</p>
+
+<p>His canonization was at once demanded by his admirers, and
+only delayed (till 1247) through the opposition of Henry III. The
+honour was well deserved. He is one of the most saintly and
+attractive figures in the history of the English church. It was
+his misfortune to be placed at the head of the national hierarchy
+in a crisis for which he had not been prepared by practical
+training or experience. As archbishop he showed no great
+capacity or force of character; but the purity of his motives
+and the loftiness of his ideals commanded universal respect.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the Life printed by Martène and Durand in the <i>Thesaurus
+novus anecdotorum</i> (1717). Other lives of importance exist in
+manuscript at the British Museum, in the Cambridge University
+library and in that of St John&rsquo;s College, Cambridge. The last-named
+is printed by W. Wallace in the appendix to his <i>Life of St Edmund</i>
+(1893). An account of the manuscript lives and many extracts
+(translated) will be found in the Rev. B. Ward&rsquo;s <i>St Edmund</i> (1903).
+See also <i>St Edmund of Abingdon</i> (1898), by the Baroness Paravicini;
+and the <i>English Historical Review</i>, xxii. pp. 84 ff.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. W. C. D.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDMUND,<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> king of East Anglia (<i>c.</i> 840-870), succeeded to
+the East Anglian throne in 855 while he was yet but a boy.
+According to Abbo, followed by Florence of Worcester, he was
+&ldquo;<i>ex antiquorum Saxonum prosapia</i>,&rdquo; which would seem to mean
+that he was of foreign origin and that he belonged to the Old
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page948" id="page948"></a>948</span>
+Saxons of the continent. This very doubtful tradition was
+expanded later into a fuller legend which spoke of his Old Saxon
+parentage, his birth at Nuremberg, his nomination as successor
+to Offa, king of East Anglia, and his landing at Hunstanton to
+claim his kingdom. His coronation took place in the next year
+at &ldquo;Burna&rdquo; (<i>i.e.</i> probably Bures St Mary, Suffolk), which was
+then the royal capital.</p>
+
+<p>Of the life of St Edmund during the next fourteen years
+we know nothing. In the year 870 the Danes, who had been
+wintering at York, marched through Mercia into East Anglia
+and took up their quarters at Thetford. Edward engaged them
+fiercely in battle, but the Danes under their leaders Ubba and
+Inguar were victorious and remained in possession of the field
+of battle. The king himself was slain, whether on the actual
+field of battle or in later martyrdom is not certain, but the widely
+current version of the story which makes him fall a martyr to
+the Danish arrows when he had refused to renounce his faith or
+hold his kingdom as a vassal from the heathen overlords, may
+very probably be true. The story is a very old one, and according
+to Abbo of Fleury (945-1004), St Edmund&rsquo;s earliest biographer,
+it was told him by Dunstan, who heard it from the lips of
+Edmund&rsquo;s own standard-bearer. This is chronologically just
+possible, but that is all. The battle was fought at Hoxne, some
+20 m. south-east of Thetford, and the king&rsquo;s body was ultimately
+interred at Beadoricesworth, the modern Bury St Edmunds.
+The shrine of Edmund soon became one of the most famous in
+England and the reputation of the saint was European. The
+date of his canonization is unknown, but churches dedicated to
+his memory are found all over England.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Asser&rsquo;s Life of Alfred</i>, ed. W.H. Stevenson; <i>Annals of St
+Neots</i>; <i>Saxon Chronicle</i>; <i>Memorials of St Edmund&rsquo;s Abbey</i> (Rolls
+Series), including the <i>Passio Sancti Edmundi</i> of Abbo of Fleury;
+and the <i>Corolla Sancti Eadmundi</i>, edited by Lord Francis Hervey
+(1907).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. Mw.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDMUND I.,<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> king of the English (d. 946), was the son of
+Eadgifu, third wife of Edward the Elder, and half-brother to
+his predecessor Æthelstan. He succeeded to the throne in 940,
+but had already played an active part in the previous reign,
+especially when he fought by the side of his half-brother in the
+great battle of Brunanburh.</p>
+
+<p>In the first year of his reign Edmund had trouble with Olaf
+or Anlaf Sihtricsson, called Cuaran. The latter had just crossed
+from Ireland and had been chosen king by the Northumbrians,
+who threw off their allegiance to Edmund. Anlaf took York,
+besieged Northampton and destroyed Tamworth, but was met
+by Edmund at Leicester. The enemy escaped, but a peaceful
+settlement was made by the good offices of Odo of Canterbury
+and Wulfstan of York. Simeon of Durham states that a division
+of the kingdom was now made, whereby Edmund took England
+south of Watling Street and Anlaf the rest. This division seems
+incredible, especially in face of the poem inserted in the chronicle
+(<i>sub anno</i> 942). There can be little doubt that the story told
+there of the reconquest of Northern Mercia by Edmund refers
+to the compact with Anlaf, made as a result of the campaign,
+and it is probable that Simeon&rsquo;s statement is a wide exaggeration,
+due in part at least to a confused reminiscence of the earlier pact
+between Alfred and Guthrum. All Mercia south of a line from
+Dore (near Sheffield), through Whitwell to the Humber, was now
+in Edmund&rsquo;s hands, and the five Danish boroughs, which had
+for some time been exposed to raids from the Norwegian kings
+of Northumbria, were now freed from that fear. The peace was
+confirmed by the baptism of Kings Anlaf and Rægenald, Edmund
+standing as sponsor, but in 944 or 945 the peace was broken and
+Edmund expelled Anlaf and Rægenald from Northumbria.</p>
+
+<p>In 945 Edmund ravaged Strathclyde, and entrusted it all to
+Malcolm, king of Scotland, &ldquo;on condition that he should be his
+fellow-worker by sea and land,&rdquo; the object of this policy being
+apparently to detach the king of Scots from any possible confederacy
+such as had been formed in 937.</p>
+
+<p>On the 26th of May 946 Edmund&rsquo;s brief but energetic reign
+came to a tragic conclusion when he was stabbed at the royal
+villa of Pucklechurch, in Gloucestershire, by an exiled robber
+named Liofa, who had returned to the court unbidden. Edmund,
+the &ldquo;deed-doer&rdquo; as the chronicle calls him, &ldquo;Edmundus
+magnificus&rdquo; as Florence of Worcester describes him, perhaps
+translating the Saxon epithet, was buried at Glastonbury, an
+abbey which he had entrusted in 943 to the famous Dunstan.</p>
+
+<p>Edmund was twice married; first to Ælfgifu, the mother of
+Eadwig and Edgar; second to Æthelflæd &ldquo;æt Damerhame&rdquo;
+(<i>i.e.</i> of Damerham, Co. Wilts). Ælfgifu died in 944, according
+to Ethelwerd.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;<i>Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</i> (ed. Earle and Plummer,
+Oxford); <i>Simeon of Durham</i> (Rolls Series); <i>A.S. Laws</i>, ed. Liebermann,
+pp. 184-191; Birch, <i>Cartularium Saxonicum</i>, Nos. 745-817;
+<i>Dictionary of National Biography</i>, s.v.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. Mw.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDMUND,<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Eadmund</span> (<i>c.</i> 980-1016), called <span class="sc">Ironside</span>, king
+of the English, was the son of Æthelred II. by his first wife
+Ælfgifu. When Canute invaded England in 1015, Edmund
+sought to resist him, but, paralysed by the treachery and desertion
+of the ealdorman Edric, he could do nothing, and Wessex
+submitted to the Danish king. Next year Canute and Edric
+together harried Mercia, while Edmund with infinite difficulty
+gathered an army. Returning into Northumbria, he in his turn
+harried the districts which had submitted to the invader, but a
+march northward by Canute brought about the speedy submission
+of Northumbria and the return of Edmund to London.
+The death of Æthelred on the 23rd of April 1016 was followed
+by a double election to the English crown. The citizens of
+London and those members of the Witan who were present in the
+city chose Edmund, the rest of the Witan meeting at Southampton
+elected Canute. In the warfare which ensued Edmund
+fought at the severest disadvantage, for his armies dispersed
+after every engagement, whatever its issue. Canute at once
+fiercely besieged London, but the citizens successfully resisted
+all attacks. Edmund meanwhile marched through Wessex
+and received its submission. At Pen in Somersetshire he engaged
+the Danes and defeated them. Canute now raised the siege of
+London and soon afterwards encountered Edmund at Sherston
+in Wiltshire. The battle was indecisive, but Canute marched
+back to London and left Edmund in possession of Wessex.
+Edmund hastened after him and relieved London, which he had
+again besieged. He defeated the Danes at Brentford and again
+at Otford, and drove them into Sheppey. He was now joined
+by Edric, in conjunction with whom he followed the Danes into
+Essex, overtaking them at Assandun (or Ashington). In the
+battle which ensued Edric again played the traitor, and the
+English were routed with terrible slaughter. Edmund retired
+into Gloucestershire, whither he was followed by Canute. He
+himself was anxious to continue the struggle, but Edric and the
+Witan persuaded him to accept a reconciliation. At Olney
+the two rivals swore friendship, and a division of the kingdom
+was effected&mdash;Canute taking the north, Edmund the south.
+Soon afterwards Edmund died (30th of November 1016), probably
+from natural causes, though later historians hint at foul
+play.</p>
+<div class="author">(C. S. P.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDMUND,<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> king of Sicily and earl of Lancaster (1245-1296),
+was the second son of Henry III. of England by Eleanor of
+Provence. At ten years of age Edmund was invested by Pope
+Alexander IV. with the kingdom of Sicily (April 1255); the
+pecuniary obligations which Henry III. undertook on his son&rsquo;s
+behalf were not the least among the causes which led to the
+Provisions of Oxford and the Barons&rsquo; War. Alexander annulled
+his grant in 1258, but still pressed Henry for the discharge of
+unpaid arrears of subsidies. In 1265, after Montfort&rsquo;s fall,
+Edmund received the earldom of Leicester, and two years later
+was created earl of Lancaster. He joined the crusade of his elder
+brother, the Lord Edward (1271-1272); and Edward, on his
+accession, found in Edmund a loyal supporter. In 1275, two
+years after the death of his first wife, Aveline de Fortibus,
+Edmund married Blanche of Artois, the widow of Henry III.
+of Navarre and Champagne. Although the county of Champagne
+had descended to his wife&rsquo;s infant daughter, Joan, Edmund
+assumed the title &ldquo;Count Palatine of Champagne and Brie,&rdquo;
+and is described in the English patent rolls as earl of Lancaster
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page949" id="page949"></a>949</span>
+and Champagne. Until 1284 he held, in his wife&rsquo;s right, the
+custody of Champagne. This he was compelled to renounce upon
+the marriage of Joan to Philip the Fair, the heir to the crown
+of France. But he retained the possession of his wife&rsquo;s dowerlands
+in Champagne, and is described in an official document
+of Champagne so late as the year 1287, as &ldquo;the Count Edmund.&rdquo;
+He was employed by his brother as a mediator with Philip the
+Fair in 1293-1294. When Philip&rsquo;s court pronounced that the
+king of England had forfeited Gascony, Edmund renounced his
+homage to Philip and withdrew with his wife to England. He
+was appointed lieutenant of Gascony in 1296, but died in the
+same year, leaving a son Thomas to succeed him in his English
+possessions.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See &ldquo;Edmund, Earl of Lancaster,&rdquo; by W.E. Rhodes, in the
+<i>English Historical Review</i>, vol. x. pp. 19, 209.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDMUNDS, GEORGE FRANKLIN<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> (1828-&emsp;&emsp;), American
+lawyer and political leader, was born in Richmond, Vermont,
+on the 1st of February 1828. He began the practice of law in
+1849. He was a member of the Vermont House of Representatives
+in 1854, 1855, 1857, 1858 and 1859, acting for the last two
+years as speaker, and was a member and president <i>pro tem.</i>
+of the state Senate in 1861-1862. In 1866 he became a member,
+as a Republican, of the United States Senate, where he remained
+until 1891, when he resigned in order to have more time for the
+practice of his profession. He took an active part in the attempt
+to impeach President Johnson. He was influential in providing
+for the electoral commission to decide the disputed presidential
+election of 1876, and became one of the commissioners. In
+the national Republican nominating conventions of 1880 and
+1884 he was a candidate for the presidential nomination. From
+1882 to 1885 he was president <i>pro tem.</i> of the Senate. As senator
+he was conspicuous on account of his legal and parliamentary
+attainments, his industry and his liberal opinions. He was the
+author of the so-called Edmunds Act (22nd of March 1882) for
+the suppression of polygamy in Utah, and of the anti-trust law
+of 1890, popularly known as the Sherman Act.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDOM,<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> the district situated to the south of Palestine, between
+the Dead Sea and the Gulf of &lsquo;Akaba (Aelanitic Gulf), the
+inhabitants of which were regarded by the Israelites as a
+&ldquo;brother&rdquo; people (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Esau</a></span>). On the E. it touched Moab,
+the tribes of the great desert and the northern part of Arabia;
+on the W. its boundaries were determined by the Sinaitic peninsula,
+Egypt and Israel. Both Kadesh and Mt. Hor (perhaps
+Jebel M&#257;dera) are represented as lying on its border (Num. xx.
+16, 22), and the modern Wadi el-Fikreh, in which the &ldquo;Scorpion
+pass&rdquo; was probably situated (Judg. i. 36; Num. xxxiv. 4),
+may have marked its limits from Jebel M&#257;dera north-west
+towards the southern extremity of the Dead Sea. Kadesh
+(<i>&lsquo;Ain &#7730;adis</i>), however, lies about 50 m. south of Beersheba
+(the southern end of Israel as opposed to Dan in the north), and
+the precise borders must always have been determined by
+political conditions: by the relations between Edom and its
+neighbours, Judah, the Philistine states, Moab, and the restless
+desert tribes with which Edom was always very closely allied.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The northern part of Edom became known by a separate name as
+Gebalene (Gebal in Ps. lxxxiii. 7), the modern Jib&#257;l, &ldquo;mountain
+country.&rdquo; Seir or Mt. Seir, a synonym for Edom, not to be confused
+with the Judaean locality (Josh. xv. 10), has been identified with
+the modern <i>e&#353;-&#353;arah</i>, the hilly region to the south of Petra; though
+its use probably varied in ancient times as much as that of Edom
+certainly did. Mt. &#7716;ala&#7731;, apparently one of its offshoots (Josh. xi.
+17, xii. 7), is of uncertain identification, nor can the exact position
+of Paran (probably desert of <i>et-Tih</i>) or Zin (Sin) be precisely determined.
+The chief Edomite cities extended from north to south on
+or adjoining an important trade-route (see below); they include
+Bozrah (Buseire), Sh&#333;bek, Petra (the capital), and Ma&lsquo;&#257;n; farther
+to the south lay the important seaports Ezion-Geber (mod. &lsquo;Ain el-Ghudy&#257;n,
+now 15 m. north of the head of the Aelanitic Gulf) and
+Elath (whence the gulf derives its name). Petra (<i>q.v.</i>) is usually
+identified with the biblical Sela, unless this latter is to be placed at
+the south end of the Dead Sea (Judg. i. 36). The sites of Teman and
+Dedan, which also were closely associated with Edom (Jer. xlix. 7 seq.;
+Ez. xxv. 13), are uncertain. No doubt, as a general rule, the relations
+between Edomites and the &ldquo;sons of the east&rdquo; (Ezek. xxv. 10; Job
+i. 3) and the &ldquo;kingdoms of Hazor&rdquo; (nomad states; Jer. xlix. 28,
+30, 33) varied considerably throughout the period of O.T. history.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The land of Edom is unfruitful and forbidding, with the
+notable exception of fertile districts immediately south of the
+Dead Sea and along its eastern border. It was traversed by an
+important trade-route from Elath (the junction for routes to
+Egypt and Arabia) which ran northwards by Ma&rsquo;&#257;n and Moab;
+but cross-routes turned from Ma&rsquo;&#257;n and Petra to Gaza or up
+the Ghor (south end of Dead Sea) to Hebron and Jerusalem.<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+Thus Edom formed a prominent centre for traffic from Arabia
+and its seats of culture to Egypt, the Philistine towns,
+Palestine and the Syrian states, and it enjoyed a commercial
+importance which made it a significant factor in Palestinian
+history.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest history of Edom is that of the &ldquo;sand-dwellers,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;archers&rdquo; or <i>Shasu</i> (perhaps &ldquo;marauders&rdquo;), whose conflicts
+with ancient Egypt are not infrequently mentioned. The first
+clear reference is in the eighth year of Mineptah II. (close of 13th
+century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), when a tribe of Shasu from Aduma received
+permission to enter Egypt and feed their flocks.<a name="fa2h" id="fa2h" href="#ft2h"><span class="sp">2</span></a> A little more
+than a century later Rameses III. claims to have overthrown
+the Saaru among the tribes of the Shasu, and the identification
+of this name with Seir is usually recognized, although it is
+naturally uncertain whether the Edomites of Old Testament
+tradition are meant. According to the latter, the Edomites
+were a new race who drove out the Horites from Mt. Seir. The
+designation suggests that these were &ldquo;cave-dwellers,&rdquo; but
+although many caves and hollows have been found about Petra
+(and also in Palestine), this tradition probably &ldquo;serves only to
+express the idea entertained by later generations concerning their
+predecessors&rdquo; (Nöldeke).</p>
+
+<p>Not only is Edom as a nation recognized as older than Israel,
+but a list of eight kings, who reigned before the Israelite monarchy,
+is preserved in Gen. xxxvi.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The first Bela, son of Beor, is often identified with Balaam, but
+the traditions of the Exodus are not precise enough to warrant the
+assumption that the seer was the king of a hostile land in Num. xx.
+14 sqq., which in Deut. ii. 1-8 appears to have been peaceful; see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Balaam</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Exodus</a></span>. In Husham, the third king, several scholars
+(Grätz, Klostermann, Marquart, &amp;c.) have recognized the true
+adversary of Othniel (<i>q.v.</i>; Judg. iii.). The defeat of Midian in the
+land of Moab by his successor Hadad has been associated with the
+Midianite invasion in the time of Gideon (<i>q.v.</i>; Judg. vi. sqq.). The
+sixth is Shaul, whose name happens to be identical with Saul, king of
+Israel, whilst the last Hadad (so 1 Chron. i. 50) of Pau (or Peor in
+Moab, so the Septuagint) should belong to the time of David. The
+list, whatever its value, together with the other evidence in Gen.
+xxxvi., implies that the Edomites consisted of a number of local
+groups with chieftains, with a monarchy which, however, was not
+hereditary but due to the supremacy of stronger leaders. The
+tradition thus finds an analogy in the Israelite &ldquo;judges&rdquo; before the
+time of Saul and David.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Saul, the first king of Israel, conquered Edom (1 Sam. xiv. 47).<a name="fa3h" id="fa3h" href="#ft3h"><span class="sp">3</span></a>
+Of the conquest of Edom by David, the first king of the united
+Judah and Israel, several details are given (2 Sam. viii. 13 seq.;
+1 Kings xi. 14 sqq.; 1 Chron. xviii. 11 seq.; cf. Ps. lx. title and
+ver. 8 seq.), although the account of the slaughter is certainly
+exaggerated. The scene was the valley of Salt, probably to the
+south of the Dead Sea. Of the escape of the Edomite prince
+Hadad, and of his residence in Egypt, a twofold account is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page950" id="page950"></a>950</span>
+preserved.<a name="fa4h" id="fa4h" href="#ft4h"><span class="sp">4</span></a> After the death of David he returned to Edom; if,
+as the narrative implies, he became a troublesome adversary to
+Solomon, nothing is known of his achievements, and if the royal
+trading-journeys from Ezion-geber were maintained, Edom
+could have done little. However, in the first half of the 9th
+century Edom was under the rule of Jehoshaphat of Judah, and
+this king together with Israel held Ezion-geber (1 Kings xxii.
+47 sqq.; 2 Chron. xx. 35 sqq.). But some catastrophe befell the
+fleet, and shortly afterwards Jehoshaphat&rsquo;s son Jehoram had to
+face a revolt in which Edom and the men of Libnah (the Philistines)
+were concerned. It was about this period that Israel had
+conquered Moab, thrusting it farther south towards Edom, and
+the subsequent success of Moab in throwing off the yoke, and the
+unsuccessful attempt of Jehoram of Israel to regain the position,
+may show that Edom was also in alliance with Moab.<a name="fa5h" id="fa5h" href="#ft5h"><span class="sp">5</span></a> In the
+time of Adad-nirari of Assyria (812-783 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) Edom is mentioned
+as an independent tributary with Beth-Omri (Israel) and
+Palashtu (Philistia); the absence of Judah is perplexing.
+Amaziah of Judah had gained a signal victory over Edom in the
+valley of Salt (2 Kings xiv. 7), but after his defeat by Jehoash of
+Israel there is a gap and the situation is obscure. Consequently
+it is uncertain whether Edom was the vassal of the next great
+Israelite king Jeroboam II., or whether the Assyrian evidence
+for its independent position belongs to this later time. However,
+Uzziah, a contemporary of Jeroboam II., and one of the most
+successful of Judaean kings, overcame Edom and its natural
+allies (2 Chron. xxvi. 6 sqq.), and at this stage Edomite history
+becomes more prominent. It joined the great coalition in which
+Philistia and Israel were leagued against Assyria, and drove out
+the Judaeans who had been in possession of Elath.<a name="fa6h" id="fa6h" href="#ft6h"><span class="sp">6</span></a> On the
+events that followed see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ahaz</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hezekiah</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Philistines</a></span>. The
+Assyrian inscriptions name as tributary kings of Edom, Kau&#353;-melek
+(time of Tiglath-Pileser IV.), Malik (?)-ram (701 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and
+Kau&#353;-gabri (7th century). In the middle of the 7th century both
+Edom and Moab suffered from the restlessness of the desert
+tribes, and after another period of obscurity, they joined in
+the attempt made by Zedekiah of Judah to revolt against
+Nebuchadrezzar (Jer. xxvii. 3). In the last years before the fall of
+Jerusalem many of the Jews found a refuge in Edom (Jer. xl. 11),
+although other traditions throw another light upon the attitude of
+Edom during these disasters.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>That Edomites burned the temple after the destruction of Jerusalem
+(1 Esd. iv. 45, cf. <i>v.</i> 50) is on a line with the repeated denunciation
+of their &ldquo;unbrotherly&rdquo; conduct in later writings. Certainly
+the weak state of Palestine invited attacks from the outlying tribes,
+but the tone of certain late writings implies a preliminary period of,
+at least, neutrality (cf. Deut. ii. 4 sqq., xxiii. 7 seq.; the omission of
+Edom in xxiii. 3; Neh. xiii. 1; and in Ezra ix. 1&mdash;contrast 1 Esd.
+viii. 69). Subsequently Edom is execrated for revengeful attacks
+upon the Jews, and its speedy destruction is foretold; but the
+passages appear to be much later than the disaster of 587 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and
+may even imply conditions after the restoration (Ob. 10 sqq.;
+Ezek. xxv. 12-14; Jer. xlix. 7; Ps. cxxxvii. 7; Lam. iv. 21 seq.,
+v. 2 sqq.). But at length the day of reckoning came (cf. Is. xxxiv. 5;
+lxiii. 1-6), and the fate of Edom is still fresh in the mind of Malachi
+(i. 1-5).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The problem is complicated by the possibility that during the
+ages over which the references can range many changes of fortune
+could have occurred. The pressure of the Nabataeans (<i>q.v.</i>) forced
+Edom to leave its former seats and advance into the south of
+Judah with Hebron as the capital. This had been fully accomplished
+by 312 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, but the date of the first occupation cannot be
+ascertained from the literary evidence alone. Thus the district
+in question is Jewish in the time of Nehemiah (Neh. xi. 25-30),
+but it is uncertain whether the Edomite occupation was earlier
+(a fusion being assumed) or later, or whether the passage may
+be untrustworthy. Henceforth, the new home of the Edomites
+is consequently known as Idumaea. See, for further history,
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Herod</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jews</a></span>.<a name="fa7h" id="fa7h" href="#ft7h"><span class="sp">7</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Although but little is known of the inhabitants of Edom, their
+close relationship to Judah and their kinship with the surrounding
+tribes invest them with particular interest. The ties which
+united Lot (the &ldquo;father&rdquo; of Ammon and Moab), Ishmael,
+Midian and Edom (Esau) with the southern tribes Judah and
+Simeon, as manifested in the genealogical lists, are intelligible
+enough on geographical grounds alone, and the significance of this
+for the history of Judah and Palestine cannot be ignored. The
+traditions recording the separation of Lot from Abraham, of
+Hagar and Ishmael from Isaac, and of Esau from Jacob, although
+at present arranged in a descending scheme of family relationship,
+are the result of systematic grouping and cannot express any
+chronological order of events (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Genesis</a></span>). Many motives have
+worked to bring these legends into their present form, and while
+they depict the character of Israel&rsquo;s wilder neighbours, they
+represent the recurrent alternating periods of hostility and
+fellowship between it and Edom which mark the history. Esau
+(Edom) although the older, loses his superiority, and if the
+oracles declare that the elder shall serve the younger (Jacob, <i>i.e.</i>
+Israel), the final independence of Esau (Gen. xxv. 23, xxvii. 39
+seq.), as foretold, obviously alludes to some successful Edomite
+revolt. As an enemy, Edom in alliance with the tribes along the
+trade-routes (Philistines, Moabites, &amp;c.) was responsible for many
+injuries, and in frequent forays carried away Judaeans as slaves
+for Gaza and Tyre (Am. i. 6 seq., 9). As an ally or vassal, it was in
+touch with the wealth of Arabia (Ezek. xxvii. 16, read &ldquo;Edom&rdquo;
+for &ldquo;Aram&rdquo;), and Judah and Israel as well as Gaza and Damascus
+enjoyed the fruits of its commerce. In view of the evidence for
+the advanced culture of early Arabia, the question of Edom is
+extremely suggestive, and although speculation at this stage
+would be premature, it is interesting to observe that Edomite and
+allied tribes were famed for their wisdom,<a name="fa8h" id="fa8h" href="#ft8h"><span class="sp">8</span></a> and that apart from
+the <i>possibility</i> of Arabian influence upon Israelite culture, the
+influence of Midian and related tribes is <i>certain</i> from the traditions
+of Moses and of his work (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jethro</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kenites</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Moses</a></span>), and
+the Edomite district was a traditional home of Yahweh himself
+(Deut. xxxiii. 2; Judg. v. 4; Hab. iii. 3); see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hebrew Religion</a></span>.
+It should be added, however, that the Edomite names
+and other evidence point to the cult of other gods, viz. Baal,
+Hadad, Malik (cf. <span class="sc">Moloch</span>), Kau&#353;, or Ku&#353;, and Kozeh (Jos. <i>Ant.</i>
+xv. 7, 9), who was probably a sky or lightning deity.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The names Esau and Edom are possibly old divine names; see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Esau</a></span> and <i>Ency. Bib.</i> <i>s.v.</i> &ldquo;Obed edom&rdquo; (the name appears to mean
+&ldquo;servant of Edom&rdquo;). For Kau&#353;, see Baethgen, <i>Beitr. z. semit.
+Religionsgeschichte</i>, p. 11 seq.; G.A. Cooke, <i>N. Sem. Inscr.</i> p. 234;
+<i>Ency. Bib.</i> col. 2682, n. 2 and 2688 (<i>s.v.</i> &ldquo;Kushaiah&rdquo;); and Zimmern,
+<i>Keilinschr. u. d. alte Test.</i><span class="sp">3</span>, pp. 472 seq. On the question of early
+Arabian civilization see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Yemen</a></span>. That the name Mizraim (Mi&#7779;raim),
+&ldquo;Egypt,&rdquo; was extended eastwards of the Delta is in itself probable,
+but it is still uncertain whether the term (also Ass. Mu&#7779;ri) was
+applied to Edom. The evidence (which is of mixed value) makes the
+view a plausible one, but the theory has often been exaggerated
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mizraim</a></span>). For Edom see, generally, Buhl, <i>Gesch. d. Edomiter</i>
+(1893); Nöldeke&rsquo;s article in <i>Ency. Bib.</i>; W. Libbey and F.E.
+Hoskins, <i>The Jordan Valley and Petra</i> (1905); the conjectural sketch
+by I. Levy in <i>Rev. d&rsquo;études juives</i> (Jan. 1906). For the history and
+culture of the latest period, see J.P. Peters and Thiersch, <i>Painted
+Tombs in the Necropolis of Marissa</i> (1905), ch. i.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(S. A. C.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See further, E. Robinson, <i>Biblical Researches</i>, vol. ii.; E. Hull,
+<i>Mt. Seir</i>; E.H. Palmer, <i>Desert of the Exodus</i>; Baedeker&rsquo;s <i>Palestine
+and Syria</i>; C.W. Wilson, &ldquo;Quart. Stat.&rdquo; (<i>Pal. Explor. Fund</i>), 1899,
+p. 307, and G.A. Smith, <i>Ency. Bib.</i> col. 5162 seq.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2h" id="ft2h" href="#fa2h"><span class="fn">2</span></a> In the old story of Sinuhit (ascribed to the 12th dyn.) the hero
+visits the land of <i>Kedem</i>, which, it was suggested, lay to the south-east
+or south of the Dead Sea; see, however, now A.H. Gardiner, <i>Sitz.-Ber.</i>
+of the Berlin Academy, 1907, pp. 142 sqq. The suggestion
+that the city Udumu, in the land of Gar, mentioned in the 15th
+century (<i>Amarna Tablets</i>, ed. Winckler, No. 237), is Edom, Gar being
+the Eg. <i>Kharu</i> (Palestine) and the O.T. Horites (see above), is extremely
+hazardous. That the name Aduma (above) refers to Etham
+(so Naville, &amp;c.) is improbable.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3h" id="ft3h" href="#fa3h"><span class="fn">3</span></a> That the Edomites preserved this tradition of Saul&rsquo;s sovereignty
+and (from their standpoint) enrolled him among their kings (Gen.
+xxxvi. 37) cannot of course be proved. The account of the ferocious
+slaughter of the priests of Nob at Saul&rsquo;s command by Doeg the
+Edomite is a secondary tradition and probably of late origin (1 Sam.
+xxi. 1-9, xxii. 6-23); cf. the hostility of Edom in exilic and post-exilic
+times (p. 878, col. 1).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4h" id="ft4h" href="#fa4h"><span class="fn">4</span></a> 1 Kings l.c., see the Septuagint and, especially, H. Winckler,
+<i>Alttest. Untersuch.</i>, pp. 1-15; C.F. Burney, <i>Kings</i>, pp. 158 sqq.;
+J. Skinner, <i>Kings</i>, pp. 443 sqq.; Ed. Meyer, <i>Israeliten</i>, pp. 358 sqq.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5h" id="ft5h" href="#fa5h"><span class="fn">5</span></a> On 2 Kings iii. see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jehoram</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jehoshaphat</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Moab</a></span>; and for
+the biblical traditions relating to this period see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kings</a></span> (Book) and
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jews</a></span>: <i>History</i>. The chronicler&rsquo;s account of Judaean successes
+(2 Chron. xvii. 10 seq.; xx.) and reverses (xxi. 16, xxii. 1) may rest
+originally upon the source from which 1 Kings xxii. 47 seq.; 2 Kings
+viii. 20, 22, have been abbreviated. It is hardly probable that there
+was enmity between Edom and Moab as 2 Kings iii. now implies,
+although hostile relations at other periods are likely (cf. Am. ii. 1);
+for Edom in Moabite territory see above on Gen. xxxvi. and &ldquo;Quart.
+Stat.&rdquo; (<i>Pal. Explor. Fund</i>), 1902, pp. 10 sqq.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6h" id="ft6h" href="#fa6h"><span class="fn">6</span></a> 2 Kings xvi. 6; on the text see the commentaries.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7h" id="ft7h" href="#fa7h"><span class="fn">7</span></a> For the Jewish hatred of Edom in later times see the book of
+Enoch lxxxix. 11-12; Jubilees, xxxvii. 22 seq., and on the Talmudic
+custom of applying to the Romans the references to Edom or Esau,
+see <i>Jewish Ency.</i> vol. v. p. 41.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8h" id="ft8h" href="#fa8h"><span class="fn">8</span></a> Ob. 8; Jer. xlix. 7 sqq.; Baruch iii. 22, cf. 1 Kings iv. 30;
+see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Job</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDRED<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Eadred</span>), king of the English (d. 955), was the
+youngest son of Edward the Elder and his wife Eadgifu. He
+succeeded his brother Edmund in the year 946 and at this time
+received the formal submission both of the Northumbrians and
+Scots. In the next year Edred himself went to Tanshelf, near
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page951" id="page951"></a>951</span>
+Pontefract, in Yorkshire, where he received from Wulfstan, archbishop
+of York, and the Northumbrian &ldquo;witan&rdquo; confirmation of
+their submission. Shortly after they threw their pledges to the
+winds and took the Norwegian Eric Bloodaxe, son of Harold
+Fairhair (Harald Harfagar), as their king. Edred recklessly
+ravaged all Northumbria in revenge, burning Ripon during his
+march. On his return home Edred&rsquo;s rearguard was attacked at
+Castleford, and the infuriated king once more turned to ravage
+Northumbria, which was only saved by its abandonment of Eric
+and by compensation made to Edred. Archbishop Wulfstan
+seems to have been a centre of disaffection in the north, and in
+952 Edred caused him to be imprisoned in the castle of &ldquo;Judanburh,&rdquo;
+while in the same year the king, in revenge for the slaying
+of Abbot Eadelm, slew many of the citizens of Thetford. After
+the brief rule of Anlaf Cuaran in Northumbria, Eric was once
+more restored, probably in 950, only to be expelled again in 953
+or 954, when Edred took the Northumbrian kingdom into his own
+hands. In the same year Wulfstan was liberated and appointed
+to the Mercian bishopric of Dorchester. Edred died on the 23rd
+of November 955 at Frome, in Somersetshire, and was buried in
+the old minster at Winchester. During the whole of his life
+Edred was troubled by ill-health, a fact which may help to
+explain some of the more passionate acts of violence attributed
+to him. The king was throughout his life on terms of personal
+intimacy with St Dunstan, and his public policy was largely
+guided by that prelate and by his own mother Eadgifu. So far as
+we know, Edred was never married.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;The <i>Saxon Chronicle</i> (ed. Earle and Plummer,
+Oxford), <i>sub ann.</i>; <i>Memorials of St Dunstan</i> (Rolls Series, ed.
+Stubbs); Florence of Worcester; Birch, <i>Cartularium Saxonicum</i>, vol.
+iii., Nos. 815-834 and 860-931; <i>D.N.B.</i>, art. <i>sub voce</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. Mw.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDRIC,<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Eadric</span>, <b>STREONA</b> (d. 1017), ealdorman of the
+Mercians, was a man of ignoble birth who was advanced to high
+dignity through the favour of the English king Æthelred II. In
+1007 he became ealdorman of the Mercians, and subsequently
+married Æthelred&rsquo;s daughter Eadgyth. In the struggle between
+the English and the Danes he appears in the character of an arch-traitor.
+When Æthelred in 1009 proposed a great attack on the
+Danes, Edric dissuaded him from carrying it into effect. Again,
+on the invasion of England by Canute in 1015 Edric deserted
+Edmund Ironside and joined him. After the battle of Otford he
+returned to Edmund, but only by his treachery at the battle of
+Assandun to secure the utter defeat of the national cause. When
+peace was at length made, Canute restored to Edric the earldom
+of Mercia; but at Christmas 1017, fearing further treachery, he
+had him slain&mdash;&ldquo;very rightly&rdquo; says the <i>Saxon Chronicle</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDUCATION.<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> In the following treatment of this subject, the
+theory and early history of education is first dealt with, and
+secondly the modern organization of education as a national
+concern. Many definitions have been given of the word &ldquo;education,&rdquo;
+but underlying them all is the conception that it denotes
+an attempt on the part of the adult members of a human
+society to shape the development of the coming generation in
+accordance with its own ideals of life. It is true that the word has
+not infrequently been used in wider senses than this. For
+example, J.S. Mill included under it everything which &ldquo;helps to
+shape the human being&rdquo;; and, with some poetic licence, we
+speak of the education of a people or even of the whole human
+race. But all such usages are rhetorical extensions of the
+commonly accepted sense of the term, which includes, as an
+essential element, the idea of deliberate direction and training
+(Lat. <i>educare</i>, to bring up; <i>educere</i>, to draw out, lead forth). No
+doubt, all education is effected through the experiences of the
+educated, and much of it is indirect, consisting mainly in the
+determination of the form of experiences other than those of
+direct precept, compulsion and instruction. But it does not
+follow that all experiences are educative. Whether an experience
+is part of an individual&rsquo;s education or not is determined by its
+origin. Whatever be its effect, it is educative in so far as its form
+has been arranged with greater or less deliberation by those who
+are concerned with the training of him whose experience it is. It
+follows that an education may be good or bad, and that its
+goodness or badness will be relative to the virtue, wisdom and
+intelligence of the educator. It is good only when it aims at the
+right kind of product, and when the means it adopts are well
+adapted to secure the intended result and are applied intelligently,
+consistently and persistently.</p>
+
+<p>Education is, thus, a definitely personal work, and will vary
+between wide extremes of effectiveness and worth in any given
+society. For in all times and places there are wide differences in
+virtue, wisdom and capacity among those who have in their
+hands the care and nurture of the young. But the inference that,
+therefore, no comparative estimate of the education of different
+times and places can be made would be fallacious. For, despite
+all differences in conception and efficiency among individual
+educators, each expresses, more or less perfectly and clearly, the
+common conception and energy of his age and country. As these
+rise or fall the general level of the actual educative practice rises
+or sinks with them. The first essential for successful educative
+effort is, then, that the community as a whole should have a true
+estimate of the nature and value of education.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">I. Educational Theory</p>
+
+<p>In any comparative estimate of different places and times, as
+tested by the standard just given, it must be borne in mind that,
+except in the most general and abstract form, we cannot speak
+of an ideally best education. Looking at the individual to be
+educated, we may say with Plato that the aim of education is
+&ldquo;to develop in the body and in the soul all the beauty and all the
+perfection of which they are capable,&rdquo; but this leaves quite
+undecided the nature and form of that beauty and perfection, and
+on such points there has never been universal agreement at any
+one time, while successive ages have shown marked differences of
+estimate. We get nearer to the point when we reflect that
+individual beauty and perfection are shown, and only shown, in
+actual life, and that such life has to be lived under definite
+conditions of time, place, culture, religion, national aspirations
+and mastery over material conditions. Perfection of life, then, in
+the Athens of the age of Plato would show a very different form
+from that which it would take in the London or Paris of to-day.
+So an individualistic statement of the purpose of education leads
+on analysis to considerations that are not, in themselves, individualistic.
+The personal life is throughout a relation between
+individual promptings to activity and the environment in which
+alone such promptings can, by being actualized, become part of
+life. And the perfection of the life is to be sought in the perfection
+of the relations thus established. So far, then, as any conception
+of education can give guidance to the actual process it must be
+relative in every way to the state of development of the society in
+which it is given. Indeed, looked at in the mass, education may
+be said to be the efforts made by the community to impose its
+culture upon the growing generation. Here again is room for
+difference. The culture in question may be accepted as absolute
+at least in its essentials, and then the ideal of education will be to
+secure its stability and perpetuation, or it may be regarded as a
+stage in a process of development, and then the ideal will be to
+facilitate the advance of the next generation beyond the point
+reached by the present. So some ages will show a relatively
+fixed conception of the educative process, others will be times of
+unrest and change in this as in other modes of social and
+intellectual life.</p>
+
+<p>It is in these latter times that the actual work of education
+is apt to lose touch with the culture of the community. For
+schools (<i>q.v.</i>) and universities (<i>q.v.</i>), which are the ordinary
+channels through which adult culture reaches the young, are
+naturally conservative and bound by tradition. They are slow
+to leave the old paths which have hitherto led to the desired
+goal, and to enter on new and untried ways. If the opposition to
+change is absolute, there must come a time when the instruments
+of education are out of true relation to the desired end. For
+change in culture ideals means change in the specific form of
+the goal of education, and consequently the paths of educative
+effort need readjustment. When the goal of the past is no
+longer the goal of the present, to follow the ways which led to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page952" id="page952"></a>952</span>
+the former is to fail to reach the latter. Continuous readjustment,
+by small and almost imperceptible degrees, is the ideal at which
+the educator should aim. When this is not secured, the educational
+domain is liable to sudden and violent revolutions which
+are destructive of successful educative effort at the time they
+occur, however beneficial their results may be in the future.</p>
+
+<p>But the relation of adjustment is not entirely one-sided.
+The tone of thought and feeling and the direction of will induced
+by education necessarily affect the common ideals of the next
+generation, and may make them better or worse than those of
+the present. Hence, the educator must not blindly accept all
+current views of life, but rather select the highest. For the
+average thought of every community is obviously below its best
+thought; and may, in some points at any rate, be lower than
+the best thought of a past age. While, then, all true education
+must be in direct relation with the culture of its age and country,
+yet, especially on the ethical side, it should aim at transcending
+the average thought and tone.</p>
+
+<p>Still more does this imply that education strives to transcend
+the present condition of the educated by making their life more
+rational, more volitional, and more attracted by goodness and
+beauty than it would otherwise be. It can never be a passive
+watching of the child&rsquo;s development. No more fundamental
+error can be made than the assumption that education can be
+determined wholly, or even mainly, by the tendencies and impulses
+with which a child is endowed. Its real guiding principle
+must be a conception of the nature to which the child may attain,
+not a knowledge of that with which it starts. The educator
+studies the original endowment of the child and the early stages
+in the development of that innate nature in order that he may,
+wisely and successfully, employ appropriate means to direct
+further development and to accelerate its progress towards a
+more rational, complete and worthy life; not that he may the
+more skilfully give facilities to the child to drift about on the
+unregulated currents of caprice.</p>
+
+<p>Such considerations show the importance of an insight into
+the theory of education on the part of all who are practically
+concerned with its direction. But the theory required is no
+system of abstract ideas ignoring the real concrete conditions
+of the life for which the actual education it is to guide is a
+preparation. To approach the subject only from the standpoint
+of the mental sciences which underlie it is to run the risk of setting
+up such a body of abstractions, whose relation to real life is
+neither very close nor very direct. The most profitable way of
+developing an educational theory for the present is to trace how
+in the past education has consciously adapted itself, more or less
+truly and fully, to the conditions of culture and social life; and
+by analysis to discover the reasons for comparative success or
+failure in the degree of clearness with which the end to be sought
+was apprehended and the nature of the children to be trained
+was understood.</p>
+
+<p>In all ages the claims of the individual and those of the community
+have struggled for the mastery as the ultimate principles
+of life. As one or the other has prevailed the conception of education
+has emphasized social service or individual success as the
+primary end. The true harmony of human life will only be
+attained when these two impulses, contradictory on their own
+level, are united in a higher synthesis which sees each as the
+complement of the other in a life whose purpose is neither simple
+egoism nor pure altruism. Until that conception of life is
+attained and held generally there can be no sure and universally
+accepted conception of the aim and function of education. Much
+of the interest of the history of education<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> turns on the relation
+of these two principles as determinants of its aim.</p>
+
+<p>In ancient Greece the supremacy of the state was generally
+unquestioned, and, especially in the earlier times, the good man
+was identified with the good citizen. No doubt, in
+later days philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle,
+<span class="sidenote">Old Greek education.</span>
+saw clearly that the round of the duties of citizenship
+did not exhaust the life of the individual. With them the highest
+life was one of cultured leisure in which the energies were mainly
+concentrated on the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake.
+But this &ldquo;diagogic&rdquo; life was only for the select few; for the
+undistinguished many the fulfilment by each of the duties of
+his station remained the measure of worthy life, though such
+duties were regarded as affecting the individual and private
+relations of the citizens in a much more intimate way than in
+former and ruder ages. And for those who devoted their lives
+to the highest culture, the essential preliminary condition was
+the existence of such a state as would form the most favourable
+environment for their pursuits and the most stable foundation
+for their leisured life. Thus Greek thought was saturated with
+the conception of life as essentially a set of relations between
+the individual and the city-state of which he formed an integral
+part. The first aim of education was therefore to train the young
+as citizens.</p>
+
+<p>This training must, of necessity, be of a specific kind; for, like
+other small communities, the Greek city-states showed a life
+fundamentally one in conception, under various specific forms.
+Each state had its special character, and to this character the
+education given in it must conform if it were to be an effective
+instrument for training the citizens. From these fundamental
+conceptions flowed the demands of Plato and Aristotle that
+education should be regulated in all its details by the state
+authority, should be compulsory on all free citizens, and should
+be uniform&mdash;at any rate in its earlier stages&mdash;for all. In the
+<i>Republic</i> and the <i>Laws</i>, Plato shows to what extreme lengths
+theory may go when it neglects to take account of some of the
+most pertinent facts of life. For the guardian-citizens of the
+ideal state family life and family ties are abolished; no lower
+community is to be allowed to enter into competition with the
+state. Aristotle, indeed, did not go to these extreme lengths;
+he allowed the family to remain, but he seems to have regarded
+it as likely to affect children more for evil than for good.</p>
+
+<p>In the essential principles laid down by both philosophers as to
+the relation of the state to education, and in the corollaries they
+drew from that relation, they were not at variance with the
+accepted Greek theory on the subject. It is true that the actual
+practice of Greek states departed, and often widely, from this
+ideal, for, especially in later centuries, the Greek always tended to
+live his own life. The nearest approach to the theory was found
+in Sparta, where the end of the state as a military organization
+was kept steadily in view, and where, after early childhood, the
+young citizens were trained directly by the state in a kind of
+barrack life&mdash;the boys to become warriors, the girls the mothers
+of warriors. It was this feature of Spartan education, together
+with the rude simplicity of life it enforced, which attracted Plato,
+and, to a less extent, Aristotle. In Athens there had of old been
+state laws insisting on the attendance of the children of the free
+citizens at school, and, in some degree, regulating the schools
+themselves. But at the time of Plato these had fallen into
+desuetude, and the state directly concerned itself only with
+the training of the ephebi, for which, we learn from Aristotle&rsquo;s
+<i>Constitution of Athens</i>, somewhat elaborate provisions were made
+by the appointment of officers, and the regulation of both intellectual
+and physical pursuits. For children and youths under
+the ephebic age there was no practical regulation of schools or
+palaestra by the state. Yet there is no doubt that the education
+really given was in conformity with Athenian ideals of culture and
+life, and that it was generally received by the children of free
+citizens, though of course the sons of the wealthy, then as now,
+could and did continue their attendance at school to a later age
+than their poorer brethren. The education of girls was essentially
+a domestic training. What Plato and Aristotle, with the
+theorist&rsquo;s love of official systematic regulation, regarded as the
+greatest defect of Athenian education was in reality its strongest
+point. In practice, the harmony between individual liberty and
+social claims was much more nearly attained under a system of
+free working out of common thoughts and ideals than would have
+been the case under one of the irresistible imposition from without
+of a rigid mould.</p>
+
+<p>The instruments of education everywhere found to be in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page953" id="page953"></a>953</span>
+harmony with the Greek conception of life and culture
+were essentially twofold,&mdash;&ldquo;music&rdquo; (<span class="grk" title="mousikê">&#956;&#959;&#965;&#963;&#953;&#954;&#942;</span>), or literary
+and artistic culture, for the mind, and systematic gymnastic
+(<span class="grk" title="gymnastikê">&#947;&#965;&#956;&#957;&#945;&#963;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#942;</span>) for the body. Plato, in the <i>Republic</i>, shows that
+the latter, as well as the former, affects the character, and
+doubtless, though not formulated, this was generally more or less
+vaguely felt. But Greek gymnastic was really an individual
+training, and therefore made only indirectly for the aim of
+cultivating the social bonds of citizenship. Ancient Greece had
+nothing corresponding in value in this respect to the organized
+games which form so important a feature in the school life of
+modern England. The &ldquo;musical&rdquo; training was essentially in the
+national literature and music of Greece, and this could obviously
+be carried to very different lengths. The elements of mathematical
+science were also commonly taught. The essential purpose
+throughout was the development of the character of a loyal
+citizen of Athens. As Athenian culture advanced, increasing
+attention was paid to diagogic studies, especially in the ephebic
+age, with a corresponding decrease of attention to merely
+physical pursuits; hence the complaints of such satirists as
+Aristophanes of a growing luxury, effeminacy and corruption of
+youths: complaints apparently based on a comparison of the
+worst features of the actual present with an idealized and
+imaginative picture of the virtues of the past. Such comparison
+is, indeed, implicit in much of Plato and Aristotle as well as in
+Aristophanes.</p>
+
+<p>But a disintegrating force was already at work in the
+educational system of Greece which Plato and Aristotle vainly
+opposed. This was the rhetorical training of the Sophists, the
+narrowly practical and individualistic aim of which was entirely
+out of harmony with the older Greek ideals of life and culture.
+In a democratic city-state the orator easily became a demagogue,
+and generally oratory was the readiest path to influence and
+power. Thus oratory opened the way to personal ambition, and
+young men who were moved by that passion eagerly attended the
+Sophist schools where their dominant motive was strengthened.</p>
+
+<p>Further, the closer relations between the Greek states, both in
+nearer and farther Hellas, led naturally to the diminution of
+differences between civic ideals, and, as a consequence, to a more
+cosmopolitan conception of higher education. This process was
+completed by the loss of political independence of the city-states
+under the Macedonian domination. Henceforth, higher education
+became purely intellectual, and its relation to political and
+social life increasingly remote. This, combined with the growing
+rhetorical tendency already noticed, accounts for the sterility of
+Greek thought during the succeeding centuries. The means
+of higher education were, indeed, more fully organized. The
+university of Athens was the outcome of a fusion of the private
+philosophical schools with the state organization for the training
+of the ephebi, and there were other such centres of higher
+culture, especially in after years at Alexandria, where the
+contact of Greek thought with the religions and philosophies
+of Egypt and the East gave birth in time to the more or less
+mystical philosophies which culminated in Neo-platonism.
+But at Athens itself thought became more and more sterile, and
+education more and more a mere training in unreal rhetoric, till
+the dissolution of the university by Justinian in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 529.</p>
+
+<p>Thus when Rome conquered Greece, Greek education had lost
+that reality which is drawn from intimate relation to civic life,
+and the fashionable individualistic schools of philosophy
+could do nothing to replace the loss. It was, then, an
+<span class="sidenote">Old Roman education.</span>
+education which had largely lost its life-springs that was
+transferred to Rome. In the earlier centuries of the republic,
+Roman education was given entirely in family and public life.
+The father had unlimited power over his son&rsquo;s life, and was open
+to public censure if he failed to train him in the ordinary moral,
+civic and religious duties. But it is doubtful if there were any
+schools (<i>q.v.</i>), and it is certain there was no national literature to
+furnish an instrument of culture. A Roman boy learnt to
+reverence the gods, to read, to bear himself well in manly
+exercises, and to know enough of the laws of his country to
+regulate his conduct. This last he acquired directly by hearing
+his father decide the cases of his clients every morning in his hall.
+The rules of courtesy he learnt similarly by accompanying his
+father to the social gatherings to which he was invited. Thus
+early Roman education was essentially practical, civic and
+moral, but its intellectual outlook was extremely narrow.</p>
+
+<p>When a wider culture was imported from Greece it was,
+however, the form rather than the spirit of true Hellenic education
+that was transferred. This was, indeed, to some
+extent inevitable from the decadent state of Greek
+<span class="sidenote">Hellenized Roman education.</span>
+education at the time, but it was accentuated by the
+essentially practical character of the Roman mind.
+The instrument of education first introduced was Greek literature,
+much of which was soon translated into Latin. In time the
+schools of the <i>grammatici</i>, teaching grammar and literature, were
+supplemented by schools of rhetoric and philosophy, though the
+philosophy taught in them was itself little more than rhetorical
+declamation. These furnished the means of higher culture for
+those youths who did not study at Alexandria or Athens, and
+were also preparatory to studies at those universities. Under the
+Empire the rhetorical schools were gradually organized into a
+state system, the general principles of administration being laid
+down by imperial decree, and even such details as the appointment
+and rate of payment of the professors, at first left to the
+municipalities, being in time assumed by the central government.
+There is no evidence of any state regulation or support of the
+lower schools. This widening of culture affected both boys and
+girls, the domestic education of the latter being supplemented
+by a study of literature. But it is the higher training in
+rhetoric which is especially characteristic of Hellenized Roman
+education.</p>
+
+<p>The conception of a rhetorical culture is seen at its best
+in Quintilian&rsquo;s <i>Institutio oratoria</i>, the most systematic treatise
+on education produced by the ancient world. With Quintilian
+the ideal of an orator was a widely cultured, wise and honourable
+man. And at first the teaching of rhetoric undoubtedly made
+for higher and true culture. But with the autocracy, soon
+passing into tyranny, of the empire, rhetoric ceased to be a
+preparation for real life. The true function of oratory is to
+persuade a free people. When it cannot be applied to this
+purpose it becomes little more than a means of intellectual
+frivolity, or, at the best, an exhibition of cultured ingenuity.
+Under the empire a rhetorical training was, indeed, turned in
+not a few instances to practical but most unworthy uses by
+the delators; a result made possible by the legal system which
+rewarded delation with a considerable portion of the estate
+of the condemned. Even apart from this, the education in
+rhetoric had an increasingly evil effect both on the culture and
+on the character of the higher classes in the Roman empire.
+Out of real connexion with life as it was, it sought its subjects
+in the realms of the fanciful and the trivial, and with unreality
+of topic went of necessity deterioration of style. The vivid
+presentment of living thought gave way to that inflated and
+bombastic abuse of meretricious ornament and far-fetched
+metaphor in which human speech is always involved when it
+sets forth ideas, or shadows of ideas, which grow out of no conviction
+in the speaker and are expected to carry no conviction
+to the hearer. Imitation of the form of great models, without
+the substance of thought which underlay them, led to a general
+unreality and essential falseness of mental life. Further, the
+continual gazing with admiration on the productions of the past,
+and the conception of excellence as consisting in closeness of
+imitation, induced a servile attitude of mind towards authority
+in all too close agreement with the political servility which
+marked the Roman court. Such an attitude was essentially
+hostile to mental initiative, and thus rhetoric became not merely
+an art of expression but a type of character.</p>
+
+<p>Nor was there anything in the general conditions of society
+to counterbalance the ill effects of school and university education.
+Quintilian lamented that, even in his time, the old Roman
+family education by example was corrupted; and the moral
+degradation of later times, though it has doubtless been exaggerated,
+was certainly real and widespread. Nor does the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page954" id="page954"></a>954</span>
+religious revival of Paganism which synchronized with the early
+centuries of Christianity appear to have effected any reform in life.
+Alexandria, the birthplace of Neo-platonism and the intellectual
+centre of the later empire, was also a very sink of moral obliquity.</p>
+
+<p>It was into such a decaying civilization, which by its want of
+vitality sterilized education, oppressing it under the weight of
+a dead tradition, that Christianity brought new life.
+Of course, careful instruction in the Faith was given
+<span class="sidenote">Christianity and Pagan education.</span>
+in catechetical schools, of which that at Alexandria
+was the most famous. But the question as to the
+attitude of Christians towards the ordinary classical culture was
+important. On the one hand, literature was saturated with
+Paganism, and the Pagan festivals formed a regular part of school
+life. On the other hand, the Pagan education offered the only
+means of higher culture, and thus furnished the only weapon
+with which Christians could successfully meet their controversial
+antagonists. Quite at first, no doubt, when the converts to the
+new faith were few and obscure, the question scarcely arose;
+but as men of culture and position were attracted to the Church
+it became urgent. The answers given by the Christian leaders
+were various, and largely the outcome of temperament and
+previous training. The Greek Fathers, especially Clement of
+Alexandria (150-217) and Origen (185-253), regarded Christianity
+as essentially the culmination of philosophy, to which the way
+must be found through liberal culture. Without a liberal education
+the Christian could live a life of faith and obedience but could
+not attain an intellectual understanding of the mysteries of
+the Faith. On the other hand, Tertullian (160-240) was very
+suspicious of Pagan culture; though he granted the necessity of
+employing it as a means of education, yet he did so with regret,
+and would forbid Christians to teach it in the public schools,
+where some recognition of Paganism would be implied. The
+general practice of the Christians, however, did not conform
+to Tertullian&rsquo;s exhortations. Indeed, many of the cultivated
+Christians of the 3rd and 4th centuries were little more than
+nominal adherents to the Faith, and the intercourse between
+Christian and Pagan was often close and friendly. The general
+attitude of Christians towards the traditional education is
+evidenced by the protest raised against the edict of Julian, which
+forbade them to teach in the public schools. The ultimate outcome
+seems to be fairly expressed in the writings of St Augustine
+(354-430) and St Jerome (346-420), who held that literary and
+rhetorical culture is good so long as it is kept subservient to the
+Christian life.</p>
+
+<p>In another way Greek philosophy exercised an abiding influence
+over the culture of future ages. The early centuries of
+Christianity felt the need of formulating the Faith to preserve
+it from disintegration into a mass of fluid opinions, and such
+formulation was of necessity made under the influence of the
+philosophy in which the early Fathers had been trained&mdash;that
+Neo-platonism which was the last effort of Paganism to attain a
+conception of life and of God. In the West, this formulation had
+to be translated into Latin, for Greek was no longer generally
+understood in Italy, and thus the juristic trend of Roman
+thought also became a factor in the exposition of Christian
+doctrine. This formulation of the Faith was one of the chief
+legacies the transition centuries passed on to the middle ages.</p>
+
+<p>Had classical culture been less formal than it was during
+the early centuries of Christianity, the innate antagonism of
+the Pagan and Christian views of life and character must have
+been so apparent that the education which prepared for the
+one could not have been accepted by the other. It was only
+because rhetorical culture was so emphatically intellectual, and
+so little, if at all, moral in its aims, that its inherent opposition
+to the Christian conception of character was not obvious. That
+its antagonistic influence was not inoperative is shown by the
+not infrequent perversions of cultured Christians to Paganism.
+But generally the opposition was so obscured that the ethical
+writings of St Ambrose (340-397) are largely Stoic in conception
+and reasoning. Yet the Pagan ideal of life, especially as it had
+been developed in the individualistic ethics which had prevailed
+for more than six centuries, was antithetical in essence to that
+of the Christian Church. The former was essentially an ethics
+of self-reliance and self-control showing itself in moderation
+and proportion in all expressions of life. An essential feature in
+such a character was high-mindedness and a self-respect which
+was of the nature of pride. On the contrary, Christian teaching
+exalted humility as one of the highest virtues, and regarded pride
+and self-confidence as the deadliest of sins. It recognized no
+doctrine of limitation; what was to be condemned could not be
+abhorred too violently, nor could what was good be too strongly
+desired or too ardently sought. The highest state attainable by
+man was absorption in loving ecstasy in the mystic contemplation
+of God. The practical attempt to realize this gave rise to
+monasticism, with its minutely regulated life expressing unlimited
+obedience and the renunciation of private will at every
+moment. The monastic life was regarded as the nearest approach
+to the ideal which a Christian could make on earth. Naturally,
+as this conception gathered strength in generations nurtured
+in it, the value of classical culture became less and less apparent,
+and by the time of St Gregory the Great (d. 604) the use of
+classical literature except as means of an education having
+quite another end than classical culture was discouraged.</p>
+
+<p>Of course, during these centuries, the gradual subjugation
+of the western empire by the barbarians had been powerfully
+operative in the obscuring of culture. Most of the
+public schools disappeared, and generally the light of
+<span class="sidenote">Effect of barbarian inroads.</span>
+learning was kept burning only in monasteries, and in
+them more and more faintly as they became more or
+less isolated units exposed to attack by ruthless foes or living in
+continual dread of such attack. Though the barbarians absorbed
+the old culture in various degrees of imperfection, yet the four
+centuries following the death of St Augustine were plunged in
+intellectual darkness, relieved by transitory gleams of light in
+Britain and by a more enduring flame in Ireland. The utmost
+that could be done was to preserve to some extent the heritage
+of the past. This, indeed, was essentially the work of men like
+Boethius, Cassiodorus, Isidore and Bede.</p>
+
+<p>During these same centuries another process had been advancing
+with accelerating steps. This was the modification of the
+Latin language. In the early centuries of Christianity
+literary Latin was already very different from colloquial
+<span class="sidenote">Modification of Latin.</span>
+Latin, especially in the provinces; and, as has been
+said, the literary output of the last age of Paganism
+was marked by sterility of thought and meretricious redundancy
+of expression. On the other hand, the writings of Christianity
+show a real living force seeking to find appropriate expression
+in new forms. Thus, with Christian writers, slavish imitation
+of the past gradually gave way to the evolution of a new and
+living Latin, which showed itself more and more regardless of
+classical models. To express the new ideas to which Christianity
+gave birth fresh words were coined, or borrowed from colloquial
+speech or from the Hebrew and Greek Scriptures. This Christian
+Latin was a real living instrument of expression, which conformed
+itself in its structure much more closely to the mode of thought
+and expression of actual life than did the artificial imitation of
+antiquity in which the literary productions of Paganism were
+clothed. It is the Latin in which St Jerome wrote the Vulgate.
+But with the obscuring of culture during the barbarian invasions
+this current Latin became more and more oblivious of even such
+elements of form as grammatical inflexions and concords.</p>
+
+<p>It was to the reformation of this corrupt Latin by a return
+to classical models, and to the more general spread of culture,
+especially among clergy and nobles, that the Carolingian
+revival addressed itself. The movement was essentially
+<span class="sidenote">The Carolingian revival.</span>
+practical and conservative. Alcuin (735-804), who
+was Charlemagne&rsquo;s educational adviser and chief
+executive officer in scholastic matters, was probably the best
+scholar of his time, and himself loved the classical writings with
+which he was acquainted; but the text-books he wrote were but
+imperfect summaries of existing compendia, and the intellectual
+condition of his pupils forbade a very generous literary diet even
+had he thought it desirable, of which there is some doubt. The
+most valuable outcome of the movement was the establishment
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page955" id="page955"></a>955</span>
+of the palace school, and of bishops&rsquo; schools and monastic schools
+throughout the empire. Of these the latter were the most
+important, and each of the chief monasteries had from the time
+of Charlemagne an external school for pupils not proposing to
+enter the order as well as an internal school for novices. Thus,
+the educational system north of the Alps was pre-eminently
+ecclesiastical in its organization and profoundly religious in its
+aims. For two centuries the new intellectual life was obscured
+by the troubled times which followed the death of Charlemagne,
+but the learning which the Carolingian revival had restored was
+preserved here and there in cathedral and monastic schools,
+and the sequence of well-educated ecclesiastics was never altogether
+interrupted.</p>
+
+<p>The scope of that learning was comprised within the seven
+liberal arts and philosophy, on the secular side, together with
+some dogmatic instruction in the doctrines of the
+Church, the early fathers, and the Scriptures. Theology
+<span class="sidenote">The medieval curriculum.</span>
+was as yet not organized into a philosophical system:
+that was the great work the middle ages had to perform.
+The seven liberal arts (divided into the <i>Trivium</i>&mdash;grammar,
+dialectic, rhetoric; and the more advanced <i>Quadrivium</i>&mdash;geometry,
+arithmetic, music, astronomy) were a legacy from
+old Roman education through the transition centuries. They
+appear in the <i>Disciplinarum libri IX.</i> of Varro in the 2nd
+century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, where are added to them the more utilitarian arts
+of medicine and architecture. But they reached the middle
+ages chiefly through the summaries of writers in the transition
+centuries, of which the best known were the <i>De nuptiis Philologiae
+et Mercurii</i> of the Neo-platonist Martianus Capella, who
+wrote probably early in the 5th century; the <i>De artibus ac
+disciplinis liberalium litterarum</i> of the Christian Cassiodorus
+(468-562); and the <i>Etymologiarum libri XX.</i> of St Isidore of
+Seville (570-636).</p>
+
+<p>The scope of the arts was wider than their names would
+suggest in modern times. Under grammar was included the
+study of the content and form of literature; and in practice
+the teaching varied from a liberal literary culture to a dry and
+perfunctory study of just enough grammar to give some facility
+in the use of Latin. Dialectic was mainly formal logic. Rhetoric
+covered the study of law, as well as composition in prose and
+verse. Geometry was rather what is now understood by geography
+and natural history, together with the medicinal properties
+of plants. Arithmetic, with the cumbrous Roman notation,
+included little more than the simplest practical calculations
+required in ordinary life and the computation of the calendar.
+Music embraced the rules of the plain-song of the Church, some
+theory of sound, and the connexion of harmony and numbers.
+Astronomy dealt with the courses of the heavenly bodies, and
+was seldom kept free from astrology. In philosophy the current
+text-books were the <i>De consolatione philosophiae</i> of Boethius
+(470-524), an eclectic summary of pagan ethics from the standpoint
+of the Christian view of life, and the same writer&rsquo;s adapted
+translations of the <i>Categories</i> and <i>De interpretatione</i> of Aristotle
+and of Porphyry&rsquo;s <i>Introduction to the Categories</i>.</p>
+
+<p>It is evident that though such a scheme of studies might in
+practice, during ages of intellectual stagnation and general
+ignorance, be arid in the extreme, it was capable in time of
+revival of giving scope to the widest extension of culture. It
+was, indeed, at once comprehensive and unified in conception,
+and well adapted to educate for the perfectly definite and clear
+view of life which the Church set before men.</p>
+
+<p>In the 11th century Europe had settled down, after centuries
+of war and invasion, into a condition of comparative political
+stability, ecclesiastical discipline, and social tranquillity:
+the barbarians had been converted, and, as in
+<span class="sidenote">The scholastic revival.</span>
+the case of the Normans, had pressed to the forefront
+of civilization; civic life had developed in the fortified
+towns of Italy, raised as defences against the pressure of Saracen
+and Hungarian invasions. Soon, communication with the East
+by trade and in the Crusades, and with the highly cultivated
+Moors in Spain, further stimulated the new burst of intellectual
+life. Arabic renderings of some of the works of Aristotle and
+commentaries on them were translated into Latin and exercised
+a profound influence on the trend of culture. A new translation
+of Aristotle&rsquo;s <i>Metaphysics</i> appeared in 1167, and by the beginning
+of the 13th century all his physical, metaphysical and ethical
+treatises were available, and during the next half century the
+translations from Arabic versions were superseded by renderings
+direct from the original Greek. As expositions of the real
+doctrines of Aristotle the translations from the Arabic left much
+to be desired. Renan calls the medieval edition of the <i>Commentaries</i>
+of Averroës &ldquo;a Latin translation of a Hebrew translation
+of a commentary made upon an Arabic translation of a
+Syriac translation of a Greek text.&rdquo; The study of such works
+often led to the enunciation of doctrines held heretical by the
+theologians, and it was only when the real Aristotle was known
+that it was found possible to bring the Peripatetic philosophy
+into the service of theology.</p>
+
+<p>There were thus two broad stages in the educational revival
+commonly known as scholasticism. In the first the controversies
+were essentially metaphysical, and centred round the question
+of the nature of universals; the orthodox theological party
+generally supporting realism, or the doctrine that the universal
+is the true reality, of which particulars and individuals are only
+appearances; while the opposite doctrine of nominalism&mdash;that
+universals are &ldquo;mere sounds&rdquo; and particulars the only true
+existences&mdash;showed a continual disposition to lapse into heresies
+on the most fundamental doctrines of the Church. The second
+stage was essentially constructive; the opposition of philosophy
+to theology was negated, and philosophy gave a systematic
+form to theology itself. The most characteristic figure of the
+former period was Abelard (1079-1142), of the latter St Thomas
+Aquinas (1225-1274). The former knew little of Aristotle
+beyond the translations and adaptations of Boethius, but he was
+essentially a dialectician who applied his logic to investigating
+the fundamental doctrines of the Church and bringing everything
+to the bar of reason. This innate rationalism appeared to bring
+theology under the sway of philosophy, and led to frequent
+condemnations of his doctrines as heretical. With St Thomas,
+on the other hand, the essential dogmas of Christianity must be
+unquestioned. In his <i>Summa theologiae</i> he presents all the
+doctrines of the Church systematized in a mould derived from
+the Aristotelian philosophy.</p>
+
+<p>It is evident, then, that during the period of the scholastic
+revival, men&rsquo;s interests were specially occupied with questions
+concerning the spiritual and the unseen, and that
+the great instrument of thought was syllogistic logic,
+<span class="sidenote">Scholastic education.</span>
+by which consequences were deduced from premises
+received as unquestionably true. There was a general acceptance
+of the authority of the Church in matters of belief and
+conduct, and of that of Aristotle, as approved by the Church, in
+all that related to knowledge of this world.</p>
+
+<p>Before the rediscovery of Aristotle exerted such a general
+influence on the form of education, there was a real revival of
+classical literary culture at Chartres and a few other schools, and
+John of Salisbury (d. 1182) in his <i>Metalogicus</i> advocated literature
+as an instrument of education and lamented the barrenness of
+a training confined to the subtleties of formal logic. But the
+recrudescence of Aristotle accelerated the movement in favour of
+dialectic, though at the same time it furnished topics on which
+logic could be exercised which only a bare materialism can
+esteem unimportant. The weaknesses of the general educational
+system which grew up within scholasticism were that haste to
+begin dialectic led to an undue curtailment of previous liberal
+culture, and that exclusive attention to philosophical and
+theological questions caused a neglect of the study of the physical
+world and a disregard of the critical functions of the intellect.
+Doubtless there were exceptions, of which perhaps the most
+striking is the work in physical science done at Oxford by Roger
+Bacon (1214-1294). But Albertus Magnus (1193-1280), the
+master of St Thomas, was also a student of nature and an
+authority for his day on both the natural and the physical
+sciences. And the work of Grosseteste (d. 1253), as chancellor of
+the university of Oxford, shows that care for a liberal literary
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page956" id="page956"></a>956</span>
+culture was by no means unknown. Always there were such
+examples. But too often boys hastened to enter upon dialectic
+and philosophy as soon as they had acquired sufficient smattering
+of colloquial Latin to engage in the disputes of the schools. A
+deterioration of Latin was the unavoidable consequence of such
+premature specialization. The seven liberal arts were often not
+pursued in their entirety, and students remained satisfied with
+desiccated compendia of accepted opinions. Thus the encyclopaedias
+of general information which were in general use during
+the middle ages show little or no advance in positive knowledge
+upon the treatment of similar subjects in Isidore of Seville.</p>
+
+<p>The services of scholasticism to the cause of education,
+however, cannot well be overestimated, and the content of
+scholastic studies was in fundamental harmony with
+the intellectual interests of the time. Above all other
+<span class="sidenote">The foundation of universities.</span>
+benefits owed by future ages to scholasticism is the
+foundation of the universities of western Europe. The
+intellectual activity of the 11th century led everywhere to a
+great increase in the number of scholars attending the monastic
+and cathedral schools. Round famous teachers, such as Abelard,
+gathered crowds of students from every country. In the 12th
+century the need for organizing such bodies of teachers and
+students was imperative, and thus the earlier universities arose
+in Italy, France and England, not by deliberate foundation of
+secular or ecclesiastical ruler, but as spontaneous manifestations
+of the characteristic medieval impulse to organize into institutions.
+Afterwards, charters conferring powers and privileges were sought
+from both Church and state, but these only confirmed the self-governing
+character the universities had borne from the first.
+Each of the early universities was a specialized school of higher
+study: Salerno was a school of medicine; Bologna was the
+centre of that revival of Roman law which wrought so profound
+an effect upon the legal systems of France and Germany towards
+the close of the medieval period. But the greatest of medieval
+universities was that of Paris, emphatically the home of philosophy
+and theology, which was the model upon which many other
+universities, including Oxford and Cambridge, were organized.</p>
+
+<p>The German universities were of later origin, the earliest
+being Prague (1348) and Vienna (1365). They indicate the more
+recognized position the movement had attained; for nearly all
+were founded by the civic authority, and then obtained the
+recognition of the Church and charters from the emperor.</p>
+
+<p>The concentration of higher instruction in universities was not
+antagonistic to the medieval conception of the Church as the
+teacher of mankind. University life was modelled on
+that of the cloister, though the monastic ideal could not
+<span class="sidenote">University work and life.</span>
+be fully realized, and the scholars not infrequently
+exhibited considerable licence in life. This was inevitable
+with the very large numbers of the scholars and the
+great variations of age among them. Moreover students, and to a
+less extent teachers, passed from university to university, so that
+the universities of medieval Europe formed a free confederacy of
+learning in close relation to the Church but untrammelled by state
+control. Nevertheless, they were less definitely ecclesiastical
+than the cathedral seminaries which they largely supplanted, and
+the introduction of studies derived from the Greeks through the
+Arabians led to an increased freedom of thought, at first within
+authorized limits, but prepared, when occasion served, to
+transcend those limits.</p>
+
+<p>The scheme of instruction was arranged on the assumption that
+special studies should be based on a wide general culture. Thus
+of the four faculties into which university teaching was organized,
+that of arts, with its degrees of <i>Baccalaureat</i> and <i>Magister</i>, was
+regarded as propaedeutic to those of theology, law and medicine.
+It often included, indeed, quite young boys, for the distinction
+between grammar school and university was not clearly drawn.
+Attention was concentrated on those subjects which treat of man
+and his relations to his fellow-men and to God, and no attempt
+was made to extend the bounds of knowledge. The aim was to
+pass on a body of acquired knowledge regarded as embracing all
+that was possible of attainment, and the authority of Aristotle in
+physics as well as in philosophy, and of Galen and Hippocrates
+in medicine was absolute. The methods of instruction&mdash;by
+lecture, or commentary on received texts; and by disputation,
+in which the scholars acquired dexterity in the use of the
+knowledge they had absorbed&mdash;were in harmony with this
+conception, and were undoubtedly thoroughly well suited to the
+requirements of an age in which the ideal of human thought was
+not discovery but order, and in which knowledge was regarded as
+a set of established propositions, the work of reason being to
+harmonize these propositions in subordination to the authoritative
+doctrines of the Church.</p>
+
+<p>Such an extension of the means of higher education as was
+given by the universities was naturally accompanied by a
+corresponding increase in schools of lower rank. Not
+only were there grammar schools at cathedral and
+<span class="sidenote">Medieval schools.</span>
+collegiate churches, but many others were founded in
+connexion with chantries, and by some of the many gilds into
+which medieval middle-class life organized itself. The Dominican
+and Franciscan friars were enthusiastic promoters of learning
+both in universities and in schools, and in the Netherlands the
+Brethren of the Common Life, founded by Gerard Groote and
+approved by Eugenius IV. in 1431, regarded school teaching as
+one of their main functions, and the promotion of learning by the
+multiplication of manuscripts as another. The curriculum was
+represented broadly by the <i>Trivium</i>. The greatest attention was
+paid to grammar, which included very various amounts of reading
+of classical and Christian authors, the most commonly included
+being Virgil, parts of Ovid and Cicero, and Boethius. The text-books
+in grammar were the elementary catechism on the eight
+parts of speech by Donatus, a Roman of the 4th century, said
+to have been the tutor of St Jerome, and the more advanced
+treatise of Priscian, a schoolmaster of Constantinople about <span class="scs">A.D.</span>
+500, which remained the standard text-book for over a thousand
+years. In rhetoric Cicero&rsquo;s <i>De oratore</i> was read, and dialectic
+was practised, as in the universities, by means of disputations.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the grammar schools were writing and song
+schools of an elementary type, in which instruction was usually in
+the vernacular. Girls were taught in women&rsquo;s monasteries and in
+the home, and those of the upper classes at least very generally
+learned to read, write and keep accounts, as well as fine needlework,
+household duties and management, and such elementary
+surgery and medicine as served in cases of slight daily accidents
+and illnesses. Even those boys and girls who did not receive
+formal scholastic instruction were instructed orally by the parish
+priests in the doctrines and duties of the Faith; while the pictures
+and statues with which the churches were adorned aided the
+direct teaching of sermons and catechizing in giving a general
+knowledge of Bible history and of the legends of the saints.</p>
+
+<p>No doubt, in times of spiritual and intellectual lethargy,
+the practice fell short of the theory; but on the whole it may
+be concluded that in medieval times the provision for higher
+instruction was adequate to the demand, and that, relatively
+to the culture of the time, the mass of the people were by no
+means sunk in brutish ignorance. Indeed, especially when the
+paucity of books before the invention of printing is borne in
+mind, the number of people who could read the vernacular, as
+evidenced by the demand for books in the vulgar tongue as soon
+as printing made them available, is clear proof that the latter
+part of the middle ages was by no means a time of general
+illiteracy.</p>
+
+<p>Feudalism, the other characteristic aspect of medieval society,
+had also its system of education, expressing its own view of life,
+and preparing for the adequate performance of its
+duties. This was the training in chivalry given to
+<span class="sidenote">Education of chivalry.</span>
+pages and squires in the halls and castles of the great.
+Hallam has well said: &ldquo;There are, if I may so say,
+three powerful spirits which have from time to time moved over
+the face of the waters, and given a predominant impulse to the
+moral sentiments and energies of mankind. These are the
+spirits of liberty, of religion and of honour. It was the principal
+business of chivalry to animate and cherish the last of these.&rdquo;
+And this was not in opposition to the spirit of religion which
+animated the scholastic education which went on side by side
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page957" id="page957"></a>957</span>
+with it. Throughout chivalry was sanctified by the offices of the
+Church. The education of chivalry aimed at fitting the noble
+youth to be a worthy knight, a just and wise master, and a
+prudent manager of an estate. Much was acquired by daily
+experience of a knightly household, but in addition the page
+received direct instruction in reading and writing; courtly
+amusements, such as chess and playing the lute, singing and
+making verses; the rules and usages of courtesy; and the
+knightly conception of duty. As a squire he practised more
+assiduously the knightly exercises of war and peace, and in the
+management of large or small bodies of men he attained the
+capacity of command.</p>
+
+<p>With the unification of existing knowledge and the systematization
+of theology the constructive work of scholasticism was
+done. At the same time the growth of national
+feeling was slowly but surely undermining feudalism.
+<span class="sidenote">Decadence of scholasticism.</span>
+Moreover, deep resentment was accumulating throughout
+western Europe against the practical abuses
+which had become prevalent in the Church, and especially in the
+court of Rome and in the prince-bishoprics of Germany. In
+short, Europe was out-growing medieval institutions, which
+appeared more and more as empty forms unable to satisfy the
+needs and longings of the human soul. In such conditions, the
+customary and traditional education of school and university
+tended to lose touch more and more completely with the new
+aspirations and views of life which were everywhere gathering
+adherents among the keenest and most active intellects. Had
+a new cultural movement not begun, the education of Europe
+threatened to become as arid as the rhetorical education of the
+last centuries of the Roman empire had been. From this it was
+saved by the renaissance of classical studies which began in the
+14th century.</p>
+
+<p>Italy, by its greater wealth and its more intimate commerce
+with the eastern empire, was the seed-plot of this new tree of
+knowledge. Ever since the 11th century the cities
+of northern Italy had been in advance of Europe
+<span class="sidenote">The Renaissance.</span>
+beyond the Alps both in culture and in material
+progress. The old classical spirit and the feeling of Roman
+citizenship had never quite died out, and the <i>Divina Commedia</i>
+of Dante (1265-1321) furnishes evidence that the poet of the
+scholastic philosophical theology was also a keen student and
+lover of the old Latin poets. But the greatest impulse to the
+revived study of the classics was given by Petrarch (1304-1374)
+and Boccaccio (1313-1375). Generally throughout western
+Europe the 14th century, though full of war and political unrest,
+was a time of considerable intellectual activity, shown in the
+increase of schools and universities, as well as in the literary and
+artistic revival in Italy, in the social and theological movement
+in England and Bohemia associated with the names of Wycliffe
+and Huss, and in the more or less perfect substitution of Roman
+law everywhere except in England for the law of custom which
+had hitherto prevailed.</p>
+
+<p>But it was the literary movement which most affected education,
+and indeed the whole life of Europe. A decisive step was
+taken when Manuel Chrysoloras was invited to teach Greek
+in the university of Florence in 1397. The enthusiasm for
+classical culture, to which Petrarch had given so great an impetus,
+gathered force and extended over the whole of Italy, though,
+of course, felt only by a select few and leaving the mass of the
+people little, if at all, affected. From Italy it spread gradually
+to countries north of the Alps. In the old writers men found
+full expression of that new spirit of self-conscious freedom which
+was vaguely striving for expression throughout the whole of
+Christendom. In the free political atmosphere of the Italian
+communes, with their wealthy and leisured merchant class, that
+spirit could flourish much more readily than in the feudalized
+Europe across the Alps. Moreover, the antique spirit was in
+direct line of ancestry with that of medieval Italy. Thus, for a
+couple of centuries, Italy stood in the van of European culture.</p>
+
+<p>The stages of the movement cannot be traced here: suffice
+it to say it showed itself especially in an enthusiastic search for
+manuscripts, followed by their multiplication and wider distribution;
+in an intense devotion to literary form; in a revival
+of classic taste in architecture; in a wonderful development of
+painting and sculpture from symbolism of spiritual qualities
+towards naturalism and romanticism; in a return to Platonism
+in philosophy; in a contempt, often unreasoning and wanting
+a foundation in knowledge, for the scholastic Aristotelian
+philosophy itself, and not simply for the trivialities into which
+its actual exercise had so commonly degenerated. The invention
+of printing necessarily gave the movement both a stronger and a
+wider influence than it could otherwise have attained. And
+in its search after knowledge it was in full harmony with the
+spirit of adventure which marked the age, and by the discovery
+of the New World wrought so profound a change in the relative
+importance and prosperity of the countries of western Europe.</p>
+
+<p>It is the spirit of the movement which is of interest to the
+student of education. And that spirit was essentially one of
+opposition to authority and of assertion of individual
+liberty, which worked itself out in various forms
+<span class="sidenote">Influence of the Renaissance on education.</span>
+among peoples of different temperaments. In Italy
+the form was literary and artistic, and the full development
+of the Renaissance spirit was seen in a practical
+Paganism which substituted the attractions of art for the claims
+of religion and morality, and eventuated in deep and widespread
+immorality and a contemptuous tolerance of the outward
+observances of religion without faith in the doctrines they
+symbolized. The movement became an attempt to reconstitute
+the past intellectual life of Italy, and, as such, was foredoomed
+to sterility as soon as the work of re-discovery was completed;
+for the revived forms were not inspired with the vital spirit
+which had once made them realities, and consequently men&rsquo;s
+minds once again were occupied with mere verbal subtleties.
+The really valuable service of the Italian humanists to Europe
+was the restoration to man of the heritage of knowledge which
+he had allowed to slip from his grasp, and the leading the way to a
+freer intellectual atmosphere. In Germany the spirit manifested
+itself in a rebellion against the doctrinal system of the Church
+as the only effectual means of attaining reform of ecclesiastical
+abuses. The Protestant reformation of Luther was the real
+German outcome of the Renaissance. In no other country of
+Europe did the movement take so distinctive a form.</p>
+
+<p>It was, then, not merely the revival of interest in classical
+studies which so profoundly affected the life and education of
+western Europe. It was rather that in those literatures men
+found a response to intellectual and moral cravings which had
+been blindly gathering force for generations, and which found
+themselves formulated and objectified in the writings which set
+forth the Pagan view of life with its assumption of the essential
+worth and self-reliance of the individual and its frank delight
+in all the pleasures of existence. It was, in short, in proportion
+as men not only found delight in Pagan literature but returned
+in essence to the Pagan view of individual worth and the supremacy
+of the human intellect, that the Church realized the danger
+to herself which lurked in the new movement.</p>
+
+<p>At first the revival of interest in the classical literatures did not
+show any antagonism to Catholic faith and practice, and its
+warmest supporters were faithful sons of the Church. The view of
+the relation of classical literature to Christianity adopted by the
+great humanist schoolmaster Vittorino da Feltre (1378-1446) was
+broadly that of the early Fathers, and in his school at Mantua he
+showed that culture was not inconsistent with loyalty to the
+Church or with purity of life. With him classical literature was
+not the end and sum of education, but was a means of implanting
+ideas, of developing taste, and of acquiring knowledge, all as
+helps and ornaments of a Christian life. Though Pagan literature
+was the means of education, the Pagan spirit had not supplanted
+that of Christianity. The school at Mantua may, indeed, be said
+to have exhibited in practice a Christianized application of the
+doctrines of Quintilian and Plutarch.</p>
+
+<p>So was it in the other countries of Christendom. In the
+Netherlands the Brethren of the Common Life introduced
+humanistic studies into their schools side by side with definite
+religious teaching and observances and their work was always
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page958" id="page958"></a>958</span>
+dominated by the Christian spirit. The earlier German
+humanists, such as Nicholas de Cusa, Hegius, Agricola and
+Wimpheling, adopted the same attitude, and Erasmus himself,
+bitterly as he attacked the practical abuses of the Church,
+remained in communion with it, and aimed at harmonizing
+classical culture with the Christian life. In England the same
+love of culture combined with devotion to the Church was seen in
+Selling, prior of Christ Church, Canterbury, the first real English
+humanist, in Grocyn, Linacre, More, Fisher, Colet and many
+others whose enthusiasm for culture was as undoubted as was
+their loyalty to Catholicism. It seemed, then, at first as if the
+greatest educational effect of the classical revival would be the
+deepening of literary culture, and the substitution of real inquiry
+for dialectic subtleties in the courses of schools and universities,
+without any break with established religious teaching. It is true
+that the majority of schools were but little affected, and many
+of the universities had given but a half-hearted welcome to
+humanistic studies when the religious revolt in Germany under
+the leadership of Luther threw the whole of Europe into two
+hostile camps. But even the conservative university of Paris&mdash;the
+headquarters of scholastic philosophical theology&mdash;had
+permitted the teaching of Greek as early as 1458, and both
+Oxford and Cambridge had welcomed the new studies. That the
+influence of the new movement for classical study was gradually
+permeating the schools is shown not only by the practice of the
+Brethren of the Common Life but by the curriculum laid down by
+the statutes of the schools refounded by Wolsey at Ipswich and by
+Colet at St Paul&rsquo;s.</p>
+
+<p>The immediate effect of the religious controversies of the 16th
+century on education was emphatically, if unintentionally, disastrous.
+The secularization of ecclesiastical property
+too often absorbed the endowments of the schools,
+<span class="sidenote">Immediate influence of the Reformation on education.</span>
+so that, both in Germany and in England, the majority
+of grammar schools either disappeared or continued
+a starved existence with diminished funds; the
+doctrine of salvation by faith alone and the futility
+of good works dried up the source from which such endowments
+had flowed; the violent fulminations of the German
+reformers against the universities as the homes of the hated
+scholastic theology and philosophy found an echo in minds fired
+with the renaissance enthusiasm for poetry and oratory, and
+correlative distaste for the more severe and abstract speculations
+of logic and philosophy, which expressed itself in abstention from
+those seats of learning; the preoccupation of men&rsquo;s minds with
+theological speculations and quarrels led those few who did resort
+to the universities to neglect their appointed studies and to
+devote their energies to interminable wrangling over the points in
+dispute. This decadence in culture was attended by an outbreak
+of licence and immorality, especially among the young, which
+called forth violent denunciations from Luther and many of his
+followers in Germany, and from Latimer and other reformers in
+England. In some respects these results were only transitory.
+Humanism and Protestantism, which had so far diverged that
+Erasmus (1467-1536) had declared that where Lutheranism
+flourished learning decayed, were brought together again by
+Melanchthon (1497-1560) under whose influence universities were
+founded or reorganized and schools re-established in Protestant
+German states; and in England the reign of Elizabeth saw many
+new educational foundations. But this restoration of the means
+of education was only partial, and the doctrine of the worthlessness
+of &ldquo;carnal knowledge,&rdquo; which led the Barebones Parliament
+to propose the suppression of the English universities, was held
+by many fervent Protestants both in England and in Germany
+all through the 17th century.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, the schools established a tradition of curriculum and
+instruction which ignored the new directions of men&rsquo;s thoughts
+and the new view of knowledge as something to be
+enlarged, and not merely a deposit to be handed down
+<span class="sidenote">Protestant schools.</span>
+from generation to generation. The later humanist
+theories of education, which the schools continued to follow
+generally for over two centuries, and in many cases for another
+hundred years after that, were drawn mainly from Erasmus and
+Melanchthon, who found in the classical languages and literatures,
+and especially in Latin, the only essential instruments of education.
+General knowledge of natural facts might be desirable
+to the cultured man as ornaments to his rhetoric, but it was
+to be sought in the writings of antiquity. Even so revolutionary
+a thinker on education as Rabelais (1495-1553) with all his
+demand for an encyclopaedic curriculum, held the writings of the
+ancients as authoritative on natural phenomena. Melanchthon,
+whose conception of instruction was much narrower, exercised
+enormous influence in the moulding of Protestant universities and
+secondary schools, both directly and through such disciples as
+Trotzendorf and Neander, but especially through his friend
+Sturm (1507-1589), whose Latin gymnasium at Strassburg
+became the model which the grammar schools of Protestant
+Europe strove to imitate. In this school nearly the whole of the
+energies of the boys was given to acquiring a mastery of the
+Latin language after the model of Cicero. Sturm, indeed, did not
+go to the extreme length of the Ciceronians, opposed and satirized
+by Erasmus, who would allow no word or construction which
+could not be found in the extant writings of their master, but a
+like spirit dominated him.</p>
+
+<p>In Catholic countries the Church retained control of education.
+The practical reformation of abuses by the Council of Trent, and
+the energy and skill of the Society of Jesus, founded by
+St Ignatius Loyola, in 1534, brought back most of
+<span class="sidenote">The Society of Jesus.</span>
+south Germany into the fold of the Church. Everywhere
+Catholic universities were mainly taught by
+Jesuit fathers; and under their influence, scholasticism, purged
+from the excretions which had degraded it, was restored, and
+continued to satisfy the longings of minds which felt the need of
+an authoritative harmonizing of faith and knowledge. Everywhere
+the society established schools, which, by their success in
+teaching and the mildness of their discipline, attracted thousands
+of pupils who came even from Protestant homes. Their curriculum
+was purely classical, but it was elaborated with much
+skill, and the methods of instruction and discipline were made
+the subject of much thought and of long-continued experiment.
+In the methods thus determined all Jesuit fathers were trained, so
+that the teachers in Jesuit schools attained a degree of skill in
+their art which was too generally wanting elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p>So long as Latin remained the language of learning, and new
+fields of knowledge were not appropriated, the schools remained
+in harmony with the culture of their time, though, as
+Mulcaster (1530-1611) pointed out, such a training
+<span class="sidenote">Early proposals for reform.</span>
+was not of value to the majority of boys. For them he
+urged an elementary education in the vernacular; but
+neither in this nor in his advocacy of the training of teachers was
+his advice followed.</p>
+
+<p>In the 17th century the dislocation between the Latin schools
+and the needs of life began to be accentuated as Latin gradually
+ceased to be the language of learning; and, as a consequence, the
+numbers attending the schools decreased, and the mass of the
+people sunk continually lower in ignorance. In vain Hoole urged
+the establishment of a universal system of elementary schools
+giving instruction in the vernacular, Petty put forth his plan for
+elementary trade schools, and Cowley proposed the establishment
+of a college devoted to research. Ideas of reform were in the air,
+but the main current of scholastic practice flowed on unaffected
+by them. Some attention was, indeed, paid to the conservative
+reforms advocated by the Port Royalists, of which the most
+important was the inclusion of the vernacular as a branch of
+instruction, but the cry for more fundamental changes based on
+the philosophy of Bacon was unheeded. Of these, none was a more
+active propagandist than Comenius (1571-1635). Unfortunately
+his <i>Great Didactic</i>, in which he set forth his general principles,
+attracted little attention and won less adherence, though his
+school books, in which he attempted with very little success to
+apply his principles, were widely used in schools. But these were
+little more than bald summaries of real and supposed facts,
+stated in Latin and the vernacular in parallel columns. In
+content they differed from such medieval summaries of knowledge
+as the well-known work of Bartholomew Anglicus, which had been
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page959" id="page959"></a>959</span>
+widely used since the 13th century, chiefly by their greater
+baldness and aridity of statement.</p>
+
+<p>In the universities, too, the 16th and 17th centuries saw a
+continuous decadence. The 16th century was not ripe for
+real intellectual freedom; and Protestantism, having
+based its revolt on the right of private judgment,
+<span class="sidenote">Decadence of universities.</span>
+soon produced a number of conflicting theological
+systems, vying with each other in rigidity and narrowness,
+which, as Paulsen says, &ldquo;nearly stifled the intellectual
+life of the German people.&rdquo; Further, the idea of national
+autonomy, which exercised so great an effect on the politics of
+the time, included the universal adherence of the citizens to
+the religion of the state. Hence, till the end of the 17th century
+the universities of Protestant Europe were regarded mainly as
+instruments for securing adhesion to the national theological
+system on the part of future clergy and officials, and the state
+interfered more and more with their organization and work.
+Theology occupied the most important place in the higher
+studies pursued, which for the rest differed little in content and
+less in spirit from those of preceding centuries, except that more
+attention was paid to the study of classical literature. Even that
+decayed into formal linguistics as the Renaissance enthusiasm
+for poetry and oratory died out, and interest in logical and
+philosophical questions, fostered by the dominance of dogmatic
+controversial theology, again became dominant. In Paris, on
+the other hand, the faculty of theology had decayed through the
+withdrawal of those preparing for the priesthood into episcopal
+seminaries, and the higher studies pursued were mainly law and
+medicine. Thus, generally, the universities were less and less
+fulfilling the function of providing a general liberal education.
+Another change, due to the same causes and making for the
+same results, was the isolation of universities, often directly
+fostered by the state governments, which for the universal
+interchange of medieval thought substituted a narrow provincial
+culture and outlook. It is no wonder that numbers everywhere
+decayed and that complaints as to the habits of the students
+were loud and frequent.</p>
+
+<p>At the close of the 17th century, then, universities as well
+as schools had reached a very low level of efficiency and were
+held in little respect by the cultured. Indeed, from
+the middle of the century, the main current of intellectual
+<span class="sidenote">Education of the higher classes.</span>
+life had drifted away from the orthodox
+centres of learning. The formation of the Berlin
+Academy in Germany and of the Royal Society in England,
+and the refusal of Leibnitz to accept a chair in any German
+university, were signs of the times. In France, and later in
+Germany, the education of the noble youth was increasingly
+carried on apart from the schools, and was really an outgrowth
+from the education of chivalry. In the 16th century Castiglione
+and Montaigne had advocated a training directly adapted to
+prepare for polite life, and Elyot wrote on similar lines. But the
+most important movement in this direction was the formation
+of the courtly academies which flourished in France in the 17th
+century, and were soon imitated in the <i>Ritterakademien</i> of
+Germany. In these schools of the nobility French was more
+honoured than classics, and the other subjects were chosen as
+directly adapted to prepare for the life of a noble at the court.
+Milton in his <i>Tractate</i> advocated the foundation of such academies
+in England, though he proposed a curriculum far more extensive
+than had ever been found possible. More and more, too, foreign
+travel had, from the middle of the 16th century, been looked
+upon as a better mode of finishing the education of a gentleman
+than a course at a university.</p>
+
+<p>The later years of the 17th century saw a revival of university
+life in Cambridge, through the work of Newton and the increasing
+attention paid to mathematics and the physical
+sciences, though the number of students continued
+<span class="sidenote">Revival of university life.</span>
+very small. In Germany, also, a new era opened
+with the foundation of the universities of Halle (1694)
+and Göttingen (1737), which from the first discarded the old
+conception that the function of a university is to pass on knowledge
+already complete, and so opened the door of the German
+universities to the new culture and philosophy. It was soon
+seen that students could thus be attracted, and the influence
+spread to the other German universities, which by the end of
+the 18th century had regained their position as homes of the
+highest German thought.</p>
+
+<p>At Halle, too, was set the example by Francke of providing
+for the education of the children of the poor, and to his disciple
+Hecker Germany owes the first <i>Realschule</i>. Simultaneous
+<span class="sidenote">Education of the poor.</span>
+movements for the education of the poor were
+made by St Jean-Baptiste de la Salle and the Brothers
+of the Christian Schools in France, and by the Society
+for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge in England. But the
+total results were not great; the mass of the people in every
+European country remained without schooling throughout the
+18th century.</p>
+
+<p>The intellectual movements of that century were, indeed,
+essentially aristocratic. Voltaire and the Encyclopaedists aimed
+at the enlightenment of the select few, and Rousseau
+declared baldly that the poor need no education.
+<span class="sidenote">18th-century thought and education.</span>
+That these movements influenced education profoundly
+is undoubted. The individualistic and abstract
+rationalism of Voltaire, derived from the sensationist
+philosophy of Locke through the more thorough-going Condillac,
+and finding its logical outcome in the materialistic atheism
+of La Mettrie and the refined selfishness of Rochefoucault,
+infected the more cultured classes. In Lord Chesterfield&rsquo;s
+<i>Letters to his Son</i> is shown its educational outcome&mdash;a veneer
+of superficial culture and artificial politeness covering, but not
+hiding, the most cold-blooded selfishness. Against this fashionable
+artificiality, as well as against the obvious social and political
+abuses of the time, Rousseau&rsquo;s call for a return to nature was a
+needed protest.</p>
+
+<p>Rousseauism, however, was not merely a transitory revolt
+against a conventionality of life that had become unbearable;
+it was emphatically the voicing of a view of life and
+of education which has profoundly influenced Europe
+<span class="sidenote">Rousseauism.</span>
+ever since. In that Rousseau (1712-1778) attempted
+to look at life as a whole he was on truer ground than were the
+intellectualists of the &ldquo;Enlightenment&rdquo;; but in that he found
+the essence of life in the gratification of the desires and impulses
+of the moment, he enunciated a doctrine which banished high
+principle and strenuous effort from life and consequently from
+education. In the <i>Émile</i> is presented a purely fantastic scheme
+of education based on a psychology of development so crude
+as to be absolutely false, and producing a young man utterly
+unable to guide his own life or to control his emotions and
+impulses. Rousseauism is, indeed, in its essence the application
+to education of the doctrines of naturalism&mdash;the philosophy
+which regards human life as a mere continuation of physical
+process, and consequently as determined wholly by environment.
+So Rousseau would abolish all moral training and leave the
+child to the reactions of the physical world upon his actions.</p>
+
+<p>Against this position the educational teaching of Kant (1724-1804),
+influenced though he was by the <i>Émile</i>, is essentially a
+protest. The most necessary element in education,
+<span class="sidenote">Kant.</span>
+according to Kant, is constraint, which by the
+formation of habit prepares the young to receive as principles
+of conduct the laws at first imposed upon them from without.
+And the supreme guide of life is the law of duty which is always
+more or less opposed to the promptings of inclination. Kant
+exaggerates the dualism: Rousseau would abolish it by ignoring
+the more important of the two antitheses.</p>
+
+<p>The French Revolution&mdash;the natural outcome of the teachings
+of Voltaire and of Rousseau&mdash;was the second stage in the movement
+of which the Reformation was the first. It
+was essentially the assertion of the natural rights of
+<span class="sidenote">Educational outcome of the Revolution.</span>
+man, and, as a logical sequence, of the right of every
+child to be properly trained for life. The reaction
+due to the excesses of the revolutionists no doubt
+delayed the acknowledgment for a time, but its gradual recognition
+is emphatically the characteristic mark of the educational
+history of the 19th century.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page960" id="page960"></a>960</span></p>
+
+<p>Preached and practised by Pestalozzi (1746-1827) in Switzerland,
+the general education of the poor was first made a reality
+by Prussia after the crushing defeat of Jena. In
+France and England it remained for nearly three-quarters
+<span class="sidenote">State education.</span>
+of the century the work of the Church and
+other voluntary agencies, though aided by the state. Finally
+a state system of schools has been more or less fully set up in
+every state of western Europe and in America, and subjected
+to more or less state regulation and control. Equally marked
+has been the growing care for the scholastic education of girls
+as well as boys, though only in America are the two regarded
+as practically identical in form and content.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the 19th century saw the final working out of the idea
+that the state should be substituted for the Church as the official
+agent of education, an idea which had its roots in the Renaissance
+conception of the right of man to direct his life apart from
+theological determinations. The more direct outcome of the
+same idea is apparent in the absolute liberty with which the
+presuppositions of knowledge are questioned, and the maxim
+of Descartes&mdash;to prove everything by the reason and to accept
+nothing which fails to stand the test&mdash;is acted upon. No greater
+contrast is possible than that between the medieval student and
+the modern searcher after truth.</p>
+
+<p>The influence of the same spirit has wrought an equally
+momentous change in the methods of instruction. The impetus
+given by the exaggerated doctrine of Rousseau to the
+view that the nature of the child should determine
+<span class="sidenote">Methods of instruction.</span>
+the means of education, led to more thorough-going
+attempts than had hitherto been made to base educational
+method on a knowledge of child psychology. Pestalozzi
+and Froebel (1782-1852), by their insistence on the need of
+educating a child through his own activity, and by their widespread
+influence, made the new view of method an actuality.
+The influence of Rousseau has, thus, passed into modern educational
+practice in a form that, in its essence, is true, though in
+practice it has shown itself apt to run into the same excess of
+emphasis on impulse and feeling which vitiated the teaching of
+Rousseau himself. The influence of Herbart (1776-1841) has
+tended to counteract this. The essence of Herbartianism is that
+mental life consists of presentations, or reactions of the mind on
+the environment, and that will springs from the circle of thought
+thus developed. The emphasis is therefore placed on intellect
+and instruction while in Froebelianism it is placed on spontaneous
+activity and on the arrangement of the environment. Each
+exaggerates the function of the one factor in concrete experience
+which it makes the centre of interest, and each is tinged with the
+individualistic conception of life which characterized the 18th
+and early 19th century.</p>
+
+<p>The most marked change in the outward aspect of education
+has been the modification of the curriculum of school and university
+by the introduction of various branches of natural
+science. Conjointly with this has been much increase
+<span class="sidenote">Curriculum of instruction.</span>
+of specialization, and that not only in the university
+but in the school. There is no longer a universally
+recognized circle of knowledge constituting a liberal education
+preparatory to specialist studies, as there was in the middle ages.
+Nor is there general agreement as to what such educational institutions
+as schools and universities should attempt to do, or
+even as to the end that should be sought by education as a whole.
+Nor can agreement on such points be expected while men differ
+widely as to the meaning and purpose of life. The work of the
+organization of the material means of education has largely been
+accomplished by the civilized world: that of determining the
+true theory and practice of the educative process itself is still
+incomplete. To that, both discussion of the philosophy of life
+and of the relative values in life, of various kinds of experience
+and experiment in the light of the conclusions reached, are needed.
+The problem will never be absolutely solved, for that would
+imply an absolutely best education irrespective of conditions,
+but its practical solution will be reached when a true adjustment
+is made between the process of education and the life for which
+that education is intended to be a preparation.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also the articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Academies</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Classics</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Co-education</a></span>;
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Examinations</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Polytechnic</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Schools</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Technical Education</a></span>;
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Universities</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Women</a></span>; &amp;c.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. Wn.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">II. National Systems of Public Education</p>
+
+<p>A statement of the principles commonly recognized by modern
+communities as governing the action of the state in relation to
+education may facilitate at the outset a clearer understanding
+of the problems which the organization of public education
+presents. The cardinal doctrine of state interference in the
+educational domain is universally accepted by all the great
+nations of the modern world; and in regard to its extent and
+limits a large measure of agreement has now been reached.</p>
+
+<p>In the first place, it is recognized as the duty of the state to
+insist upon a certain minimum of education for every future
+citizen. This does not necessitate a monopoly of
+education on the part of the state, such as was claimed
+<span class="sidenote">Principles of state interference.</span>
+by the Napoleonic despotism under the traditional
+influence (it would seem) of the old authoritative
+Gallo-Roman tradition, transformed in its outward manifestation
+but not in its inward spirit by the French Revolution. Such a
+monopoly would be plainly repugnant to the spirit of Anglo-Saxon
+individualism, and it is interesting to note that attempts
+to reassert it have in recent times been repudiated in republican
+France by some of the best exponents of modern free thought,
+as an infringement of personal liberty not calculated to justify
+itself by any corresponding public gain. Nevertheless, the
+recognition of this primary duty of the state plainly implies a
+state system of at least elementary education. The masses of
+the industrial population cannot afford the necessary minimum of
+instruction which the public interest demands, and private and
+voluntary effort cannot efficiently supply the want resulting
+from the unequal distribution of wealth. But it is in the nature
+of things that, so far as private effort attempts anything in
+this direction, it should be motived in the main by religion and
+associated with the great historical religious organizations;
+thus it comes about that the moment the state steps in to make
+good the deficiency of voluntary effort a fruitful and embittering
+source of difficulty and friction is disclosed. Hence, in England,
+the history of public elementary education since the beginning
+of the 19th century has been very largely the history of what is
+called the religious difficulty. Here we find ourselves in the
+region of acute controversy in which it is useless to do more than
+note empirically the various solutions adopted by different
+states. Perhaps all that can safely be indicated as commanding
+universal acceptance is the principle that the state must not
+impose upon an individual citizen in the person of his child any
+form of religious instruction to which he conscientiously objects.
+Modern controversies show the difficulty of applying even this
+rudimentary principle to the complicated circumstances of a free
+community split up into a number of groups differing profoundly
+in religious sentiment, and zealous each for the recognition of its
+own ideal within the common system. So far, however, as
+secular instruction (<i>i.e.</i> the teaching of other subjects than
+religion) is concerned it is now generally accepted that the
+elementary minimum must be both compulsory and free for every
+individual child whose parents will not or cannot (as the case
+may be) provide such instruction for it efficiently elsewhere than
+in the state-supported schools.</p>
+
+<p>Next, the action of the modern state cannot stop short at
+elementary education. The principle of &ldquo;the career open to
+talent&rdquo; is no longer a matter of abstract humanitarian theory,
+a fantastical aspiration of revolutionary dreamers; for the great
+industrial communities of the modern world it is a cogent
+practical necessity imposed by the fierce international competition
+which prevails in the arts and industries of life. The
+nation that is not to fail in the struggle for commercial success,
+with all that this implies for national life and civilization,
+must needs see that its industries are fed with a constant supply
+of workers adequately equipped in respect both of general
+intelligence and technical training.</p>
+
+<p>On political grounds too, the increasing democratization of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page961" id="page961"></a>961</span>
+institutions renders a wide diffusion of knowledge and the
+cultivation of a high standard of intelligence among the people a
+necessary precaution of prudent statesmanship, especially for the
+great imperial states which confide the most momentous issues of
+world policy to the arbitrament of the popular voice. The state
+then must satisfy itself that the means of education are placed
+within the reach of all, in grades adapted to the varying degrees of
+intelligence and educational opportunity to be found among a
+community upon the majority of whose members is imposed the
+necessity of entering upon the practical business of life at a more
+or less early age. The organization of the higher grades of
+education constitutes a task of less formidable magnitude than the
+organization of elementary education, for the reason that, at any
+rate in the prevailing social conditions, it is only a minority who
+can benefit by it, and that of this minority a large proportion can
+afford the whole or a considerable portion of the cost in each
+individual case. The class, however, whose education must needs
+be assisted by the state if it is not to remain inefficient must
+always be considerable; and account must be taken also of the
+necessities of the further class whose exceptional mental development
+is such as to make it worth while for the state to bestow
+gratuitously an education higher than elementary at the public
+expense. University education is distinguished from education
+of the lower grades by the fact that, being necessarily restricted
+to an élite of intellect or birth, it cannot, save in very exceptional
+circumstances, usefully be organized locally. Although universities
+are the necessary complement of a public educational
+system they do not in strictness or necessity form part of such a
+system, and in so far as they are brought within the purview of
+public authority it must be as a matter of national, rather than
+municipal or provincial, concern. Accordingly university education
+is separately treated (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Universities</a></span>), and will not be
+referred to, save incidentally, in the present article.</p>
+
+<p>Reserving to a final section the history of education in the
+United States of America, a brief description is given here of the
+educational systems of the leading European countries by way of
+introduction to a more detailed, but still summary, historical
+sketch of public education in England. The highly organized
+educational systems of France and Prussia (as representing
+Germany) are manifestly suitable for the purposes of a general
+study of the principles of educational polity as worked out upon
+logical and consistently thought-out plans by highly centralized
+states. As to other European countries, a brief mention must
+suffice of certain features of special interest presented by smaller
+progressive states of such different types as Switzerland,
+Belgium and Holland. Similarly, in the case of the United
+Kingdom, considerations of space forbid more than a brief notice
+of the educational systems of Scotland (<i>q.v.</i>) and Ireland (<i>q.v.</i>).
+For other countries see the sections in the articles under the
+headings of the respective states.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center"><i>France.</i></p>
+
+<p>France (<i>q.v.</i>) presents the most complete type of a state system
+of education organized under a strongly centralized administration
+in all grades. This centralized administration in education, as in
+other departments, represents the Napoleonic heritage of the
+Republic, and, although there has been an increasing tendency
+of recent years to study local conditions in the internal organization
+of schools, anything approaching to local autonomy is
+unknown in educational affairs. The necessary checks upon
+bureaucracy are supplied not by popularly elected municipal
+bodies but by a strong infusion of the pedagogic element in the
+administrative machinery. The pedagogic element in turn does
+but represent another side of the collective activities of the state.
+The teaching profession both in the primary and higher spheres&mdash;and
+the two are sharply marked off from one another&mdash;consists of
+a highly organized body of state functionaries, united by a strong
+<i>esprit de corps</i> and actuated by ideals and aims which are inspired
+by the state. The importance of this condition of things lies in the
+fact that the Republic is something more than a form of government:
+it is the social and moral expression of the democratic ideal
+as conceived by a people profoundly imbued by tradition with the
+sense of social solidarity, or collectivism; and nowhere has this
+expression been more characteristic or more complete than in the
+domain of public education. Yet the educational system of
+modern France is by no means exclusively the creation of the
+Third Republic, and the main stages in its development deserve to
+be traced historically.</p>
+
+<p>No historical sketch, however slight, of French education can
+ignore the great Catholic religious educator of the 18th century,
+Jean Baptiste de la Salle, the founder of <i>Les Frères
+de la Doctrine chrétienne</i>, commonly known as the
+<span class="sidenote">Frères de la Doctrine chrétienne.</span>
+&ldquo;Christian Brothers.&rdquo; The Brothers were not merely
+pioneers of elementary education, they may also be
+regarded (as M. Buisson, formerly director of public instruction,
+has shown) as the originators of higher primary instruction.
+Under the Restoration they upheld the method of simultaneous
+teaching against the partisans of the mutual (or monitorial)
+method, successfully demonstrating the superiority of the trained
+teacher. The unfortunate effects of the monitorial system upon
+English education show the reality of the service which this
+religious congregation rendered to the national pedagogy in
+France.</p>
+
+<p>The Constitution of 1791 decreed that primary instruction
+should be compulsory and gratuitous. (It may be explained that
+the term &ldquo;free education,&rdquo; <i>instruction libre</i>, does not
+bear the same meaning in France as in England. In
+<span class="sidenote">The Revolution and Napoleon.</span>
+France a free school means a school not under state
+control and not forming part of the state system.) In
+this as in much else the Revolution was powerless to do more than
+enunciate general principles which it left for later generations, in
+the present instance after the lapse of nearly a century, to carry
+into effect. True to its theories of individualistic liberty, the
+Revolution admitted liberty of teaching. Napoleon, on the other
+hand, by the law of 1806, centralized all forms of education in one
+official teaching body under the name of the Imperial University,
+thus securing a monopoly of teaching to the state. The
+Napoleonic idea of the university, doubtless because a true
+expression of the national genius, has never ceased to exert a
+profound influence upon French education, an influence which of
+late years has been revivified and reinforced by the modern ideal
+of social solidarity.</p>
+
+<p>Under the Restoration education fell inevitably under the
+control of the church, but under the Liberal Monarchy Guizot in
+1833 passed a law which laid the foundations of modern
+primary instruction, obliging the communes to maintain
+<span class="sidenote">Reforms of Guizot.</span>
+schools and pay the teachers. It is also to the
+credit of Guizot as an educational reformer that he perceived
+the necessity for the higher primary as distinct from
+the secondary school. The higher primary schools which he
+founded were unfortunately suppressed by the <i>Loi Falloux</i>;
+their restoration constitutes one of the great positive services
+rendered by the Third Republic to the cause of popular
+education.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Loi Falloux</i> of 1850, passed by the Second Republic under
+the influence of the prince president, is chiefly memorable for its
+restoration of the liberty of teaching, which in a
+Catholic country means in effect free scope for priestly
+<span class="sidenote">Loi Falloux.</span>
+schools. This law also made provision for separate
+communal schools for girls, for adult classes and for the technical
+instruction of apprentices. In 1854 France was divided for
+purposes of educational administration into sixteen academies,
+each administered by a rector with an academy inspector
+under him for each department. This organization survives
+to-day, with the difference that for each academy (except
+Chambéry) there is now a local teaching university.</p>
+
+<p>The ministry of the well-known educationist M. Duruy (1865-1869),
+corresponding to the period of the Liberal Empire, was
+notable for marked administrative progress. A permanent
+<span class="sidenote">Ministry of M. Duruy.</span>
+memorial of this epoch is the enactment
+rendering primary schools for girls obligatory in
+communes of over 500 inhabitants. Duruy also provided for
+the introduction of gratuitous instruction at the option of the
+commune.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page962" id="page962"></a>962</span></p>
+
+<p>The task of educational reform imposed itself upon the
+republic by a twofold necessity. The wars of 1866 and 1870 were
+victories for the Prussian schoolmaster, and aroused all
+western Europe to the national importance of popular
+<span class="sidenote">The Third Republic.</span>
+education. For France then the reform of popular
+education was an essential part of the work of national restoration.
+For the republic too, menaced by older and hostile
+traditions, the creation of a national system of education inspired
+by its own spirit was an essential condition of the permanence and
+security of its government and the social ideals of which that
+government was the expression. Hence the energy with which
+the republican state addressed itself to the organization of primary
+instruction, &ldquo;obligatory, gratuitous, secular.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>By the law of June 1, 1878, there was imposed upon the communes
+the obligation of acquiring their school buildings; and
+as a grant in aid a sum of £2,400,000 was set aside for
+this purpose by the state. In 1879 a law was passed
+<span class="sidenote">Acquisition of elementary school buildings and organization of teaching profession.</span>
+compelling every department to maintain a training
+college for male and female teachers respectively.
+The two higher normal schools of Fontenay and St
+Cloud were also founded to supply the training colleges
+with professors. During the same period, among other
+<i>certificats</i> or professional diplomas, there were established
+the <i>certificat d&rsquo;aptitude pédagogique</i>, which qualifies probationer-teachers
+(<i>stagiaires</i>) for appointment as teachers in full
+standing (<i>titulaires</i>), and the <i>certificat d&rsquo;aptitude</i> for primary
+inspectors and heads of normal schools. The law of June 16,
+1881, rendered obligatory for all teachers, whether public or
+private, the <i>brevet de capacité</i>. It was found impracticable to
+carry this law into immediate effect, and as late as 1902 only
+about 60% of the men and 52% of the women were provided
+with the professional certificate necessary for becoming <i>titulaires</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The laws making primary education gratuitous, compulsory
+and secular, are indissolubly associated with the name of Jules
+Ferry. The law of June 16, 1881, abolished fees in
+all primary schools and training colleges, the law of
+<span class="sidenote">Reforms of Jules Ferry. Laicization.</span>
+1882 established compulsory attendance, and finally
+the law of October 30, 1886, enacted that none
+but lay persons should teach in the public schools, and
+abolished in those schools all distinctively religious teaching.
+In the boys&rsquo; schools members of religious communities were to be
+displaced within five years, but in girls&rsquo; schools the <i>religieuses</i>
+might remain till death or resignation.</p>
+
+<p>Religious teaching was replaced in the state schools under
+the Ferry law by moral instruction according to official curricula,
+a change which has been described by M. Séailles
+(<i>Éducation ou révolution</i>) as a revolution of the profoundest
+<span class="sidenote">Moral instruction.</span>
+philosophical meaning. The difficult and
+delicate topics of the relation of the state school to religion and
+the value of the substituted moral instruction have recently
+received illuminating and objective treatment from different
+points of view in the series of reports on <i>Moral Instruction and
+Training in Schools</i>, edited by Professor M.E. Sadler (1908,
+vol. ii.); the barest reference to the questions at issue must
+here suffice. As regards the character of the moral instruction,
+it would appear to have shifted from a Kantian to a purely
+sociological basis. Roman Catholic opinion is at least not
+unanimous in regarding the &ldquo;lay&rdquo; or neutral school as essentially
+or necessarily anti-religious, and plainly there is no inherent
+reason why the neutrality should not be a real neutrality, but
+with the existing relations between the Catholic Church and
+modern thought in France the influence of the Normalist
+teachers is in fact apt to be anti-religious, and moreover no system
+of independent moral doctrine, whether based upon a priori
+or inductive reasoning, can be acceptable to the Roman Catholic
+Church. In whatever degree the blame may be rightly apportionable
+between church and state, the fact is that the two find
+themselves in acute conflict, and that from the conflict there has
+resulted a certain moral confusion which Christian and non-Christian
+moralists alike view with alarm. It may be that the
+mischief would have been mitigated had more moderate counsels
+prevailed at the time of the Ferry law, and had the church been
+willing to accept (as the Republic might then have been willing
+to concede) right of entry for the clergy into the schools. But
+the real causes of the trouble lie deep in the philosophical and
+religious problems of our time, and in the constant and self-sacrificing
+devotion of the French to logical ideals on either side.
+Perhaps it is not too sanguine to discern in the growing tendency
+to idealism in French philosophy, and to liberal ideas in French
+and Catholic religious thought, the promise of a happier state of
+things. In the meantime, the religious difficulty in the schools
+divides the nation into two hostile camps (<i>les deux Frances</i>,
+as a Swiss Protestant writer puts it) in the shape of the state
+secular schools on the one side and the private religious schools
+on the other.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 1903-1904 the total number of pupils in private
+primary schools was 1,298,591, as against 4,935,000 in the public
+primary schools, but these figures were liable to be materially
+affected by the rigorous enforcement of the laws against the
+religious orders.</p>
+
+<p>In 1889 an important change was made in educational finance
+by transferring the cost of teachers&rsquo; salaries in primary schools
+from the communes to the state, a right consequence
+of the changes which made the teacher a state official.
+<span class="sidenote">Financial reform of 1889.</span>
+Thus the state assumed the greater part of the burden
+of primary instruction, leaving to the communes
+merely the cost of fabric, and to the department the maintenance
+of the fabric of the normal schools and certain expenses of
+inspection.</p>
+
+<p>At this point it will be convenient to describe shortly the
+various central and local authorities that constitute the official
+machine. The minister, the head of the entire hierarchy,
+is assisted by a <i>conseil supérieur</i> consisting of
+<span class="sidenote">Administrative machinery. Minister and conseil supérieur.</span>
+fifty-seven members, of whom the majority are elected
+by the higher teaching profession, while a few are
+nominated by the president, including a small number
+to represent private schools, and a few are elected
+by the primary teachers. Practically the ordinary
+work of the council is carried on by a sub-committee consisting
+of the nine nominees of the president and six others designated
+for this purpose by the minister. The council has administrative,
+judicial and disciplinary, as well as advisory, powers which
+enable it to exert a direct influence upon the internal organization
+of schools. There is also a pedagogic <i>comité consultatif</i> and a legal
+<i>comité contentieux</i>, whose respective functions are purely advisory.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>inspecteurs généraux</i> &ldquo;act,&rdquo; says Mr Brereton in his
+official report to the English Board of Education, &ldquo;as the eyes
+and ears of the central authority.&rdquo; Their duties are:
+<span class="sidenote">Inspecteurs généraux.</span>
+first to inspect the normal schools; next to supervise
+the work of the ordinary inspectorate; lastly to give
+general and comparative information on the progress
+of primary instruction in the various parts of France. For the
+purpose of general inspection France is divided into seven
+districts.</p>
+
+<p>As already indicated, for the purpose of educational administration,
+the departments of France are grouped in seventeen
+divisions called academies. At the head of each
+academy is the rector. He is appointed directly by the
+<span class="sidenote">Rector and council of academy.</span>
+president and must hold the doctor&rsquo;s degree. He is
+not only the head of the local teaching university,
+but is also charged in a general way with the oversight of all
+three departments of education, superior, secondary and primary;
+in regard to the last, however, his functions are confined to the
+pedagogic side. The direct share of the rector in administration
+is mainly confined to the normal schools and the higher primary
+schools. The rector is assisted by an academic council composed
+almost exclusively of pedagogic elements.</p>
+
+<p>Each department of France has an academy inspector appointed
+by the minister. The duties of the academy inspector
+embrace both higher and primary education. In the
+<span class="sidenote">The academy inspector.</span>
+latter sphere he is the real head of the local administration,
+and the primary inspectors are his subordinate
+officers. He appoints the probationer-teachers and
+nominates the regular teachers for appointment by the <i>préfet</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page963" id="page963"></a>963</span></p>
+
+<p>The <i>préfet</i>, the chief administrative officer of each department,
+not only appoints the teachers upon the proposition of the
+academy inspector, he is also as president of the
+<i>conseil départemental</i> concerned generally with the
+<span class="sidenote">Préfet and conseil départemental.</span>
+externa of school administration, including the supply
+of schools. The <i>conseil départemental</i> with respect to
+its powers corresponds in some degree to our own local education
+authorities, but as regards its constitution it is in no sense a
+municipal body, the representatives of the <i>conseil général</i> of the
+department (which corresponds to the county council) being
+greatly outnumbered by the pedagogical members.</p>
+
+<p>The inspectors of primary schools, as has already been stated,
+act under the academy inspector. They are appointed upon
+the result of examination and not by direct nomination
+<span class="sidenote">Primary inspectors.</span>
+as in England. The examination is severe, and it is
+from the body of the professors of the normal schools
+rather than from the ranks of the primary teachers that the
+successful candidates are chiefly drawn.</p>
+
+<p>Very limited powers are entrusted to certain communal and
+cantonal authorities. The <i>commission scolaire</i> is a committee
+organized in each commune for the purpose of improving
+school attendance, to which end they administer
+<span class="sidenote">Minor local authorities.</span>
+a <i>caisse des écoles</i> or school fund for supplying
+clothing and meals to needy children. The <i>maire</i> of
+the commune has the right of visiting the schools, but neither
+he nor any of the minor local authorities can interfere with the
+teaching. Similar duties are assigned to the <i>délégués cantonaux</i>,
+who are appointed by the <i>conseil départemental</i> for each canton
+(a wider area than the commune), and can best be described as
+local visitors or visiting committees rather than managers in our
+sense of the word. &ldquo;All this hierarchy of central and local
+officials,&rdquo; says Mr Brereton, &ldquo;will doubtless seem complicated
+to English minds. The extraordinary thing is that, so far as I
+could learn, the machine, for all its complexity, works smoothly
+enough. The truth is that the province of each particular
+functionary is so clearly defined that there is no debateable
+ground over which ambitious rival authorities can wrangle.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In proceeding to sketch the French system of higher primary
+and secondary schools, it may be observed that European
+systems of higher education have generally been
+framed upon the view that the divisions of education
+<span class="sidenote">Conception of secondary education.</span>
+are longitudinal, not latitudinal, and that secondary
+education is a training complete in itself from the
+preparatory stage to the university, with aims and ideals of
+general culture which differentiate it radically and at the very
+outset from education of the elementary type. On the other
+hand, in the United States the view has prevailed that the
+divisions of education must be latitudinal, that the secondary
+school must be complementary to the elementary school, in
+which even the élite must receive their preparatory or elementary
+training. At any rate down to the reform of 1902, which will
+presently be explained, the French system could be regarded
+as a typical and even extreme example of the European theory,
+little consistent as this might seem to be with the broader
+principles of democracy. This view of the matter is expressed
+by the French terminology, by which what in England is called
+&ldquo;elementary&rdquo; is in France termed &ldquo;primary&rdquo; education.</p>
+
+<p>The thoroughness with which the principle of the autonomous
+character of the two divisions of education was carried out
+undoubtedly favoured in a special degree the complete
+organization given to higher primary instruction in
+<span class="sidenote">Higher primary schools.</span>
+the <i>écoles primaires supérieures</i> under the Third
+Republic. The aim of these schools is to fill the void
+which must otherwise exist for those who need a higher education
+than the primary school can give, but for whose subsequent
+careers secondary education would be ill-adapted and injudicious.
+Throughout the organization of primary education the French
+have kept steadily in view the danger of creating an intellectual
+proletariate. &ldquo;Nous poursuivons la culture générale du caractère
+et de l&rsquo;esprit, mais nous cherchons en même temps à orienter
+l&rsquo;enfant vers la vie pratique,&rdquo; says an official report. The aim
+of the higher primary school is to continue education in this
+spirit up to the age of sixteen so as to prepare the scholar to take
+an honourable place in the higher ranks of skilled industry
+rather than to deflect him towards a professional career or
+intellectual pursuits for which he is unfitted, not so much by
+the accidents of birth and social circumstance as by his own
+natural aptitudes. Within the limits necessarily marked out
+for them the higher primary schools of France have aimed at
+imparting what may be termed a general culture as distinct
+from purely technical or trade teaching, and this development
+has been greatly furthered by the separate organization given
+to the latter teaching in the <i>écoles professionnelles</i>. At the same
+time, prominence is given in the higher primary schools to
+practical training of an educational character with special
+reference to the industries and circumstances of the locality,
+and in the rural districts a special agricultural bias is imparted
+to the curriculum. It is interesting to note that the institution
+of the higher primary schools was due in large part to the spontaneous
+initiative of the municipalities, and that in the later
+phases of state organization special care has been taken to avoid
+anything in the nature of a rigid uniformity in these schools.</p>
+
+<p>A wider extension has been given to higher primary instruction
+by the establishment of <i>cours complémentaires</i> in certain schools,
+at centres at which it would be impossible to organize
+separate higher primary schools. A similar solution
+<span class="sidenote">Supplementary courses.</span>
+of the continuation school problem has recently commended
+itself to the consultative committee of the
+Board of Education for England.</p>
+
+<p>Admission to the higher primary schools in France is
+only accorded to those who have obtained the elementary
+school leaving certificate, <i>certificat d&rsquo;études primaires</i>. A feature
+of importance for continuation work in rural districts is the
+provision made for boarding scholars in attendance at these
+schools. The boarding arrangements are generally, as in the
+case of the secondary schools, left to the head teacher, but in
+some instances municipal hostels have been provided. No fees
+may be charged for higher primary instruction, and scholarships
+(<i>bourses</i>) are provided to a certain extent in the form either of
+boarding scholarships or maintenance allowances to compensate
+the parent for the loss of the child&rsquo;s labour. The number of
+scholars in the public higher primary schools for the year 1903-1904
+was 34,084, and in <i>cours complémentaires</i> 21,777, making a
+total of 55,861. In addition there were 8891 scholars in receipt
+of higher primary instruction in private schools.</p>
+
+<p>French secondary education is given in the <i>lycées</i> which are
+first-grade schools maintained and controlled by the state,
+and the <i>collèges</i>, which are schools of the second grade
+maintained partly by the state and partly by the
+<span class="sidenote">Secondary schools, lycées and collèges.</span>
+municipality. A considerable number of scholars
+pass annually from the collèges to the lycées. In both
+grades of schools the teachers are paid by the state and nominated
+directly or indirectly by the minister of education. They
+are required to possess certain specified academic qualifications
+which can only be obtained from the <i>université</i>, but failing
+teachers with the prescribed qualifications the classes are taught
+by teachers styled <i>chargés de cours</i> as distinct from professors.</p>
+
+<p>With a view to supplying teachers for the secondary schools,
+the state maintains the École Normale Supérieure,
+a college in which instruction, board and lodging are
+given free to a number of scholars selected by competition
+<span class="sidenote">École Normale Supérieure.</span>
+from the best secondary school boys, though residence
+in the institution is no longer compulsory. By the decrees
+of November 10, 1903, and May 10, 1904, the École Normale
+became practically the College of Pedagogy of the University of
+Paris. Its students are entered as students of the university, and
+study for their qualifying examination as teachers in secondary
+schools (<i>agrégation</i>) under university professors, partly at the
+Sorbonne, partly at the École Normale, while their professional
+preparation is entrusted solely to the latter institution.</p>
+
+<p>The Republic has not reorganized secondary education by a
+comprehensive law; it has, however, introduced by decree,
+under parliamentary authority, an important reform in the
+internal organization of the schools which marks a notable
+<span class="sidenote">Classical and modern education. Reform of 1902.</span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page964" id="page964"></a>964</span>
+departure from the traditional view of secondary education as
+a self-contained whole. Article 1 of the decree of May 31, 1902,
+declares that secondary education is co-ordinated with
+primary education in such a way as to constitute a continuation
+of a course of primary studies of a normal
+duration of four years. The decree goes on to provide for
+a full course of secondary studies of seven years&rsquo; duration,
+divided into two cycles of four and three years
+respectively. In the first cycle the scholar has two options. In
+section 1 Latin is obligatory and Greek optional from the beginning
+of the third year (<i>classe iv.</i>). In section 2 there is no Latin.
+At the end of the first cycle the state grants a <i>certificat d&rsquo;études
+secondaires du premier degré</i>. In the second cycle one of four
+courses may be taken; section 1 with Latin and Greek continues
+the old classical education; section 2 with Latin and modern
+languages corresponds to the German Realgymnasium; section
+3 with Latin and science, and section 4 with modern languages
+and science, to the Oberrealschule. The <i>baccalauréat</i>, or secondary
+school-leaving examination, conducted by the university, is
+adapted to all the courses on the principle that courses of study of
+equal length, whether classical or modern, literary or scientific,
+are entitled to equal advantages. This system of alternative
+courses with leaving examinations of equal value is mainly
+German in origin, and may be said to represent the results of the
+best European thought upon the problem of the organization of
+secondary education.</p>
+
+<p>It is remarkable in view of the thoroughness with which the
+principle of laicization has been applied to the primary schools
+that the lycées still retain their chaplains (<i>aumôniers</i>)
+for the purpose of giving religious instruction. This
+<span class="sidenote">Religious instruction in lycées.</span>
+difference of treatment is apparently based upon the
+consideration that the gratuitous and compulsory
+character of primary education demanded a much stricter
+interpretation of the principle of the neutrality of the state than
+was necessary in the case of secondary education, which is neither
+compulsory nor gratuitous.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the state schools there have until lately been in
+France a large number of private secondary schools, the most
+important of which have been associated with the
+Catholic religious orders. The enforcement of the laws
+<span class="sidenote">Private secondary schools.</span>
+against these communities has resulted in the closure of
+a number of these schools, and in the reorganization of
+others under a lay teaching staff. It is conceivable that the
+action of the Republic may largely forward the movement,
+otherwise perceptible in the Roman Catholic Church, to transfer
+education, even when combined with specific religious teaching,
+from ecclesiastical to lay hands. Evidence of this tendency is to
+be found in the boarding-schools (some four in number) founded
+upon the plan of M. Demolins (author of <i>A quoi tient la supériorité
+des Anglo-Saxons</i>) after the English public school model, but
+with a distinctly Catholic colouring.</p>
+
+<p>Apart from the position of the religious orders, the future of
+private education in France is far from secure at the present
+time. The liberty of teaching secured by the <i>Loi Falloux</i> is
+regarded as a pseudo-liberty by the advanced republican educationists,
+and the principle that education is a function of the state
+and not a matter of supply and demand is deeply rooted in the
+public mind. Proposals have been mooted for making the baccalauréat
+strictly a school leaving examination attached to the state
+schools. The adoption of any such measure would practically
+destroy liberty of teaching by reason of the power which the
+baccalauréat secures to the state as the key to the professions.</p>
+
+<p>The foundation of secondary schools for girls in connexion with
+the educational reform of Jules Ferry is in its way one of the most
+notable achievements of the republic. There is little
+doubt that the expulsion of the religious orders is
+<span class="sidenote">Secondary education for girls.</span>
+destined to exercise a profound influence upon the
+education of women in France. The place of the closed
+convent schools is being taken either by new state schools or by
+Catholic schools under lay teachers, and the number of scholars
+affected by this process of laicization is far larger in the case of
+girls than of boys. This change is calculated to produce far-reaching
+effects in the social and religious order, by no means
+necessarily, however, of an anti-Catholic or irreligious kind.</p>
+
+<p>For an account of the resuscitation by the Republic of the
+local universities under the one great state teaching body
+collectively known as the University, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Universities</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center"><i>Germany.</i></p>
+
+<p>Under the German empire education is left to the exclusive
+control of each of the federated states. The only point of direct
+contact between the Empire and education lies in the mutual
+undertaking of the federated states to bring the law of compulsory
+school attendance to bear upon all subjects of the empire
+resident within their respective borders. Of far greater moment
+is the moral influence exerted upon the other states by the
+Prussian hegemony, in virtue of which the Prussian educational
+system comes to be in all essential characteristics typical and
+representative of Germany as a whole. It is remarkable that
+though, as Matthew Arnold was able to report to the Schools
+Inquiry Commission in 1866, &ldquo;the school system of Germany in
+its completeness and carefulness is such as to excite the foreigner&rsquo;s
+admiration,&rdquo; neither Prussia herself, nor Bavaria, nor several
+other of the principal states of the Empire, have found it practicable
+to pass a comprehensive education law, owing to the
+religious and political difficulties with which any general legislative
+assertion of principle is attended in Germany as in England.
+The consequence is that the Prussian system in particular is the
+result of a long and complicated series of special laws, decrees and
+administrative regulations. In such circumstances it is inevitable
+that, especially in secondary education, some considerable local
+variations and anomalies should remain, but the centralized
+authority of the state has confined these to questions of patronage
+and external administration, and even within this sphere has
+successfully asserted its own ultimate supremacy as the guardian
+of the educational interests of its citizens. A detailed historical
+study would bring out clearly the intimate connexion between
+the development of the educational system and the growth of the
+Prussian state, and again between these and the expansion of the
+national life of the German people; incidentally it would
+exhibit the supremacy of Prussia in the modern Empire as the
+inevitable result not merely of military force but of a genuine
+hegemony of intellect and culture.</p>
+
+<p>Stress is rightly laid by all educational writers upon Luther&rsquo;s
+famous letter to the German municipalities in 1524, urging upon
+them the duty of providing schools and upon parents
+the duty of sending their children to school. An
+<span class="sidenote">Influence of Luther.</span>
+attempt to give effect to this teaching was at once
+made by the electoral government of Saxony, which by a school
+ordinance of 1528 provided for the establishment in every town
+and village of Latin schools, for in Germany as in England the
+influence of the Protestant reformers was solidly on the side of
+classical education as the key to the study of the Scriptures and
+theological learning. All the more remarkable, therefore, was
+the initiative of the electorate of Württemberg, whose school
+ordinance of 1559 represents the first systematic attempt to make
+provision for both elementary and higher education, directing that
+elementary schools should be set up throughout the country,
+and <i>Particularschulen</i> or Latin schools in every considerable
+centre of population. The educational efforts both of the early
+Reformers and of the remarkable Jesuit educationists, who contributed
+so largely to the partial reconquest of south Germany
+for the Catholic Church, were brought to naught amid the
+troublous times of the Thirty Years&rsquo; War, and the desolation and
+national decadence which that calamity brought in its train. To
+this result the aridity of the Protestant scholastics who succeeded
+Luther and Melanchthon, and the frivolity, incompetence and
+petty despotism of the small German courts, contributed in no
+slight measure. The permanent and positive value of Luther&rsquo;s
+pronouncement of 1524 consists not so much in the direct effects
+which it produced as in the hallowed association which it established
+for Protestant Germany between the national religion and
+the educational duties of the individual and the state, and
+doubtless this association largely contributed to the creation of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page965" id="page965"></a>965</span>
+that healthy public opinion which in Prussia rendered the
+principle of compulsory school attendance easy of acceptance at a
+much earlier date than in England and elsewhere, save only
+Scotland, where a similar historical religious influence was
+supplied by John Knox.</p>
+
+<p>State interference in education is almost coincident with the
+rise of the Prussian state. Already in 1717 Frederick William I.
+ordered all children to attend school where schools
+existed, and fixed the fee at 5 pf. (½d.) a week. This
+<span class="sidenote">Early Prussian measures.</span>
+was followed in 1736 by edicts for the establishment of
+schools in certain provinces and by a royal grant of
+50,000 thalers for that purpose in the following year. In 1763
+the <i>General Landschulreglement</i> of Frederick the Great laid
+down the broad lines upon which the Prussian state has since
+proceeded, asserting the principle of compulsory school attendance,
+fixing the fees, with provision for the assistance of very
+poor children, prescribing the course of instruction, and giving
+directions for the examination and supervision of teachers.
+Much progress was made, more especially in the organization of
+higher education, under Baron von Zedlitz, who was appointed
+minister for Lutheran church and school affairs by Frederick
+the Great in 1771, and retired under Frederick William II. in
+1788. The last-mentioned year saw the establishment of the
+<i>Abiturientenexamen</i>, or leaving examinations, which form the
+determining element in the state organization of secondary
+education in Germany. As in England, the fear of the French
+Revolution produced a corresponding reaction in educational
+affairs, and the policy of Frederick William II. was to bind ever
+closer school and church in a system practically independent of
+state control. The first departure from this policy was marked
+by the <i>Allgemeines Landrecht</i> of 1794, which boldly proclaims
+that schools and educational institutions may be founded only
+with the knowledge and consent of the state, and must always be
+under its supervision and subject to its examination and control.
+This law also laid upon heads of families in every place the duty
+of providing and maintaining schools.</p>
+
+<p>It was not till the disaster of Jena and the prostration of
+Prussia at the feet of Napoleon awoke the dormant spirit of
+patriotism, and concentrated all the intellectual forces
+of north Germany upon the task of national regeneration,
+<span class="sidenote">Reconstruction after Jena.</span>
+that the principles of the <i>Allgemeines Landrecht</i> of
+1794 bore full fruit. &ldquo;The organization of the Prussian
+school system,&rdquo; says Dr James E. Russell in his work on <i>German
+Higher Schools</i>, &ldquo;waited on the reorganization of the Prussian
+State.&rdquo; One of the first acts of the great patriotic minister von
+Stein, upon his assuming control of the civil administration in
+1807, was to abolish the semi-ecclesiastical Oberschulkollegium
+which had been set up as the central authority under the churchly
+policy of Frederick William II., and to place education under
+the Ministry of the Interior as a special section. Wilhelm von
+Humboldt was placed at the head of this section in 1809, and the
+work which this &ldquo;great master of the science and art of education&rdquo;
+(as Professor Seeley terms him in his <i>Life of Stein</i>) inaugurated
+in his one year of office entitles him to be ranked
+among the founders of German unity. Humboldt&rsquo;s greatest
+positive achievements&mdash;the foundation of the university of
+Berlin and its organization under a professorial staff which
+included Fichte, Schleiermacher, Savigny, Wolf and Niebuhr,
+as also the internal reform of secondary schools undertaken with
+the pedagogical assistance of Wolf and under the inspiration of
+Fichte&mdash;lie beyond the scope of this article. It may, however,
+be observed that Humboldt&rsquo;s policy in secondary education
+represents a compromise between the narrow philological
+pedantry of the old Latin schools and the large demands of the
+new humanism of the period; and the recent reform of the
+Prussian secondary schools may be said to represent a return to
+the spirit of Humboldt in this respect. The measure introduced
+by Humboldt in 1810 for the state examination and certification
+of teachers checked the then common practice of permitting
+unqualified theological students to teach in the schools, and at
+once raised the teaching profession to a high level of dignity
+and efficiency which of itself sufficed to place Prussia in the
+forefront of educational progress. It was due also to the initiative
+of Humboldt that the methods of Pestalozzi were introduced into
+the teachers&rsquo; seminaries, through them to vitalize the elementary
+schools. To the period of the national struggle belong the revival
+in 1812 of the Abiturientenexamen which had fallen into
+abeyance, and the institution about the same time of the
+local authorities called <i>Schulvorstände</i> for the country and
+<i>Schuldeputationen</i> for the towns.</p>
+
+<p>Though the period which succeeded the peace of 1815 was
+one of political reaction, the cabinet order of Frederick William
+III. in 1825 strengthened the law of compulsory
+attendance and carried on the work of administrative
+<span class="sidenote">Reforms of 1825 and 1834. Abiturientenexamen.</span>
+organization by defining the duties of the Provinzial-Schul-Kollegium
+and the Regierung. In 1834 an
+important development was given to secondary education
+by making it necessary for candidates for the learned
+professions as well as for the civil service, and for university
+studies, to have passed the leaving examination of the gymnasia.
+Thus through the leaving examination the state holds the key to
+the liberal careers, and has thereby been able to impose its own
+standard upon all secondary schools. Apart from the privileges
+relative to professional studies, the system of leaving examinations
+has exerted a wide influence upon popular education in
+connexion with the institution of compulsory military service,
+in virtue of a regulation which entitles those who pass the leaving
+examination of any of the recognized kinds of secondary schools
+to the much-coveted privilege of service for one year as a
+&ldquo;volunteer&rdquo; instead of two years as an ordinary conscript.</p>
+
+<p>The revolutionary and national movement of 1848 was
+followed by a period of further educational activity. The Act
+of Constitution of 1850 declared teachers civil servants and
+elementary education free. In practice, the abolition of school
+fees did not become general until 1888. Since then the view
+has more and more prevailed that elementary education must be
+free,<a name="fa2i" id="fa2i" href="#ft2i"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and, broadly speaking, fees in elementary schools are now
+charged only for children attending from another school district.</p>
+
+<p>In connexion with the <i>Kulturkampf</i>, or struggle between the
+state and the Roman Catholic Church, the <i>Schulaufsichtsgesetz</i>
+of 1872 reasserted the absolute right of the state alone
+to the supervision of the schools; but the severity
+<span class="sidenote">Kulturkampf and the confessional system.</span>
+of this law as a measure against Roman Catholic
+clerical education was considerably modified as a result
+of the subsequent reconciliation with the papacy under
+Leo XIII., and the Prussian system remains to-day both for
+Catholics and Protestants essentially denominational. All
+schools, whether elementary or secondary, are Evangelical,
+Catholic, Jewish or mixed. In the elementary sphere, in
+particular, recourse is only had to the mixed school (<i>Simultanschule</i>
+or <i>paritätische Schule</i>), where the creeds are so intermingled
+that a confessional school is impracticable. In all cases
+the teachers are appointed with reference to religious faith;
+religious instruction is given compulsorily in school hours and is
+inspected by the clergy. The general purport of the Prussian
+school law of 1906 is to strengthen the system of separate confessional
+schools, which it extends to certain provinces where it
+had not previously been in operation.</p>
+
+<p>In financial respects the last-mentioned law effected some
+readjustment of burdens by charging a proportion of the expenditure
+upon landed property. Other recent changes relate
+to the reform of secondary education referred to below. The
+system of educational administration as it stood in 1909 may
+shortly be described as follows.</p>
+
+<p>Under the ministerium in Berlin stands the Provinzial-Schul-Kollegium,
+the chairman of which is the <i>Ober-Präsident</i>
+of the province, composed of four or five <i>Räte</i> or
+<span class="sidenote">Administrative machinery.</span>
+councillors, generally selected from the directors of
+training colleges and gymnasia. This body is concerned
+mainly with higher education.</p>
+
+<p>Each province is divided for purposes of general administration
+into two <i>Regierungen</i> or governments, and in each Regierung
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page966" id="page966"></a>966</span>
+there is a section of usually three or four Schulräte, which controls
+the elementary schools. This council is usually recruited from
+the ranks of directors of training colleges and from the inspectorate.
+The Regierung is divided into <i>Kreise</i> or districts, and
+in each district an administrative officer, called the <i>Landrat</i>,
+represents the government. The Landrat is concerned with
+the provision and repair of elementary school buildings; as
+regards internal organization, the elementary schools are under
+the Kreisschulinspektor.</p>
+
+<p>In the Protestant districts the inspectors (<i>Kreisschulinspektoren</i>)
+are usually Evangelical clergymen holding the
+position of superintendent in the Lutheran Church.
+In the Catholic and certain other exceptional districts
+<span class="sidenote">Inspection.</span>
+inspectors with pedagogical qualifications and the status of
+full government inspectors are appointed. Every candidate for
+Lutheran ordination is required to spend six months at a training
+college, but pedagogical opinion is hostile to the system, which
+must be regarded as a survival of the traditional union of church
+and state in educational affairs, retained at the present day from
+motives of economy and a desire to conciliate the church.</p>
+
+<p>For every school there is an <i>Ortsschulinspektor</i>, usually the
+clergyman of the parish, who discharges the duties of local
+manager and correspondent. This local inspector is also
+chairman of the <i>Schulvorstand</i> or committee, elected by the
+<i>Schulgemeinde</i>, and charged with questions of attendance and
+maintenance rather than with internal affairs. The Schulgemeinde
+need not coincide with the civil parish. Parishes may
+unite to provide one school, or within one parish different
+religious communities may form separate school &ldquo;parishes.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Thus the administrative system of Prussia in education as in
+other matters may be described in general as a decentralized
+bureaucracy. This bureaucracy is somewhat checked by the
+rights of patronage attaching to the local boards in certain cases,
+but the exercise of such rights is in all cases subject to government
+approval. As regards higher-grade elementary and
+secondary schools, the local boards in the towns (<i>Schuldeputationen</i>)
+are able to exert a considerable influence in the way of
+selection of the type of school, and even of suggestion for the
+modification of recognized types, as is shown by the cases of
+the famous &ldquo;reformed&rdquo; secondary curricula of Altona and
+Frankfort. Still, the legal powers of the local board are restricted
+to the establishment of an approved type of school, the control
+of externa, and the right of nominating teachers.</p>
+
+<p><i>Elementary Schools.</i>&mdash;The single-class school (<i>Einklassige
+Schule</i>) and the half-day school (<i>Halbtagsschule</i>) are features
+of the Prussian elementary system which require notice.
+The Einklassige Schule is a school taught by a single
+<span class="sidenote">Peculiarities of elementary education.</span>
+teacher, who may teach a maximum number of eighty
+children. The Halbtagsschule is a single-class school
+of which half the children are taught in the morning and half
+in the afternoon. During the summer months, owing to the
+exigencies of agricultural labour, many single-class schools are
+taught as half-day schools. The system of course is regarded
+as a makeshift, but in this, as in the matter of buildings for rural
+elementary schools, the Prussian administration attaches great
+weight to the consideration of financial economy. As regards
+staff, a large measure of economy is rendered possible by the high
+average standard of merit reached by German elementary
+teachers, whose powers of oral exposition have struck English
+observers as specially remarkable, and again by the national
+readiness to be content with a moderate salary in return for
+official status. A survival of the old close connexion between
+church and school is to be found in the <i>Kirchendienste</i>, the duties
+of training the choir, playing the organ, &amp;c., which are attached
+in many cases to the post of schoolmaster, and afford an additional
+source of emolument, rendered feasible by the practical
+absence of religious dissent.</p>
+
+<p>For the preliminary training of elementary teachers there are
+special schools called <i>Präparanden-Anstalten</i>, of which most
+are state institutions, some are municipal, and a few are private.
+The training colleges themselves are provided by the state and
+have a three years&rsquo; course.</p>
+
+<p><i>Continuation Schools (Fortbildungsschulen).</i>&mdash;Germans have
+been foremost to realize the truth which is gradually being
+brought home to English educationists, that adequate
+value for the heavy expenditure of public funds upon
+<span class="sidenote">Continuative education.</span>
+education can only be obtained by providing for the
+continued education for two or three years of the
+children of the working classes who leave school at fourteen
+years of age. One of the educational results of the war of 1870,
+with its great lesson of the importance of national education,
+was the Saxon law of 1873 making attendance at continuation
+schools compulsory for three years (<i>i.e.</i> up to seventeen)
+in that kingdom: The Saxon law appears to have been
+justified by the experience of nearly a generation. It must
+suffice here to note the following features of its working. (1)
+The schools are taught by the primary teachers, supplemented
+in the towns by some technical instructors. (2) The school
+session may be either for the whole year or for only half the year,
+and may also be held on Sunday, like the old English secular
+Sunday schools. (3) The schools are brought into close relation
+with trades, not only for purposes of curriculum, but also with
+a view to considering the exigencies and meeting the convenience
+of employers with respect to hours of attendance. (4) The
+discipline of the continuation school is extended to supervision
+out of school hours. &ldquo;Visits to dancing-halls and all such
+exhibitions as are dangerous to uprightness and purity are
+forbidden to scholars of continuation schools.&rdquo; Further, useful
+institutions such as savings banks, and also associations for
+social intercourse and the promotion of <i>esprit de corps</i>, are
+organized in connexion with continuation schools. There is no
+doubt that in this matter of continuation schools, as in so many
+other fields of social organization, the adoption of compulsion
+has been facilitated by the habituation of the working classes
+to compulsory military service, which has made the German
+workman more disciplined, more &ldquo;organizable&rdquo; as a social unit,
+more accustomed to subordinate the principle of individual
+freedom and self-will to the collective claims of the state, than
+the workman reared in the traditions of Anglo-Saxon individualism.</p>
+
+<p>Attendance at continuation schools is now compulsory by
+state law in 12 states, including (besides Saxony) Baden, Württemberg
+and Bavaria. The city of Munich is notable for its highly
+organized system of technical continuation schools for apprentices.
+In Prussia compulsory attendance is still the exception (save in
+the provinces of Posen and West Prussia, where it is enforced by
+state law), but the permissive act is being rapidly adopted by
+the great cities, including Berlin.</p>
+
+<p><i>Secondary Education.</i>&mdash;The official classification or grading
+according to the type of curriculum of secondary schools in
+Prussia (and indeed throughout Germany) is very
+precise. The following are the officially recognized
+<span class="sidenote">Grading of secondary schools.</span>
+types. I. Classical schools: (<i>a</i>) Gymnasium, with
+nine years&rsquo; course; (<i>b</i>) Progymnasium, with six years&rsquo;
+course. II. Modern schools: (<i>a</i>) with Latin (semi-classical)&mdash;(i.)
+Realgymnasium (nine years&rsquo; course), (ii.) Realprogymnasium
+(six years&rsquo; course); (<i>b</i>) without Latin (non-classical)&mdash;(i.)
+Oberrealschule (nine years&rsquo; course), (ii.) Realschule (six years&rsquo;
+course). The six-year classical and semi-classical schools are
+comparatively unimportant subdivisions in smaller towns.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lower-grade Secondary Education.</i>&mdash;Inasmuch as French is
+taught in the lowest class of the Realschule under the official
+curriculum (English, on the other hand, beginning in
+Tertia, the fourth class from the lowest), it follows
+<span class="sidenote">Co-ordination of elementary and secondary education.</span>
+that this, the lowest type of secondary school, is not
+directly co-ordinated with the elementary school. The
+Realschulen of Berlin, however, form an important
+exception to the general rule; their curriculum,
+sanctioned by the ministry at the instance of the Berlin municipality,
+provides for the beginning of French in Quarta (the third
+class from the bottom) and English in Secunda. The consequence
+is that in Berlin a very large number of pupils pass from the
+elementary schools to the Realschulen, which take the place
+of the Mittelschulen or higher-grade elementary schools that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page967" id="page967"></a>967</span>
+are to be found in some towns, though something in the nature of
+higher elementary education is afforded by the top sections of the
+elementary schools.</p>
+
+<p><i>First-grade Schools.</i>&mdash;One of the most striking features of
+German secondary education is the careful differentiation of
+schools according to the type of curriculum adopted.
+Thus, every German school is a homogeneous unit
+<span class="sidenote">First grade secondary schools.</span>
+with a definite educational aim and organization,
+conforming to a common standard approved by
+public authority for the particular type to which it belongs.
+Hence the importance attached by the Germans to nomenclature;
+so that in selecting a Gymnasium, a Realgymnasium
+or an Oberrealschule, the parent knows exactly the type of
+education he is going to secure for his son. In England, on the
+other hand, as has often been observed, a great school tends to
+multiply within itself different types of curricula in a haphazard
+way according to the demand of parents, whose original choice
+of school is based rather on social than on educational grounds.
+Modern sides, army classes and engineering classes grow up as
+excrescences upon an originally classical type, with the waste
+of power that results from loss of consistency and concentration
+of purpose. The difference between the English and German
+systems is due ultimately to the adoption in Germany of the
+day-school system and the absence, very remarkable in an
+otherwise aristocratically governed country, of the caste spirit
+in education above the elementary level, thanks to which the
+nobly born are not ashamed to sit on the school bench side by
+side with the children of the trading classes. On the other hand,
+the English boarding-school system, despite all the want of
+social solidarity, and all the class jealousy and exclusiveness
+with which it is inevitably associated, has admittedly favoured
+those ideals of the cultivation of character as distinct from
+book-learning which give a special value to what is in England
+called a public school education.</p>
+
+<p>The present differentiation of first-grade schools in Prussia
+is the result of a natural educational development corresponding
+with the economic changes which have transformed
+Prussia and the empire from an agricultural to an
+<span class="sidenote">Rise of semi-classical schools.</span>
+industrial state. It was in 1855 that semi-classical
+schools (teaching Latin without Greek) were first
+recognized for a nine years&rsquo; course under the title of Realschule I.
+Ordnung, and in 1871 pupils possessing their leaving certificates
+were admitted to mathematical studies in the universities.
+The Latinless Realschule II. Ordnung is the direct product of
+the great industrial development of the modern empire. In
+1882 the Realschule I. Ordnung received the title of Realgymnasium,
+and the Realschule II. Ordnung that of Oberrealschule,
+both types being at the same time admitted to certain
+privileges in the universities, schools of technology and civil
+service.</p>
+
+<p>About the same period official recognition was obtained for
+reformed secondary curricula, first at Altona and afterwards
+(1892) at Frankfort. These two types differ from
+each other in detail, but the feature which distinguishes
+<span class="sidenote">The &ldquo;reform school&rdquo; movement.</span>
+both from the older types is the postponement
+of Latin to Untertertia. The design is to secure for all
+types of secondary education a common non-classical base
+coextensive with the first three years of school life, followed by
+a trifurcation or threefold choice between the classical, semi-classical
+and non-classical types. The principle of the &ldquo;reform-school&rdquo;
+has been adopted in a considerable number of German
+(chiefly Prussian) schools, but it would be premature to see in it
+at present more than a new variety of Realgymnasium or semi-classical
+school; it can hardly be said as yet to have affected
+the course of classical studies in the full sense. The widespread
+sentiment of discontent with the old philological type of classical
+school was vigorously expressed in a private letter written by the
+emperor William II. as crown prince of Prussia in 1885, but not
+published until some-years later. In December 1890 the Prussian
+ministry convoked a conference at Berlin of secondary school
+experts, and the emperor presided in person at the opening
+session. His majesty delivered a speech criticizing the Gymnasia
+as wanting a national basis. &ldquo;It is our duty to educate
+young men to become young Germans and not young Greeks or
+Romans&rdquo; was the keynote of the imperial discourse. The outcome
+of the conference was a shortening of the hours allowed to
+Latin in the Gymnasia, a reduction of the hours of study in view
+of over-pressure, and an expression of official opinion adverse
+to the Realgymnasium. These changes, introduced in 1892, did
+not go far enough to satisfy the reformers, whilst the reduction
+of the hours allowed for Latin caused misgivings among the
+upholders of the traditional Gymnasium. Moreover, the Realgymnasium
+showed greater vitality among the large towns than
+its official critics anticipated. The ensuing decade witnessed a
+certain reaction in favour of the classical humanities as a barrier
+against the materialistic influences of the new industrialism.
+At the same time the protagonists of the classics came to recognize
+that side by side with the old humanities there must be
+accorded to modern and scientific subjects that place in the
+high-grade schools which the practical exigencies of industrial
+life demanded. Thus, the opinion grew that the best line of
+defence for the classical schools lay in the concession of equal
+privileges to the non-classical types; in this way only could the
+classical schools be kept safe from demands upon their time
+that could not be conceded without endangering their proper
+work. It was upon this basis that an agreement was reached
+between the contending parties at a second school conference
+that met in Berlin in June 1900. As the result of this conference
+there was issued a royal decree laying down certain general
+principles, of which the following are the most important. (1)
+There must be equality of privileges as between classical, semi-classical
+and non-classical first-grade schools. The decree
+recognizes, however, that this principle must be applied with a
+certain elasticity and with due regard to the necessity for training
+in particular branches of knowledge as a preliminary to certain
+lines of university study and certain professional pursuits.
+Consequently the Prussian system of privileges has become
+extremely complicated, and it is truer to speak, as the decree
+goes on to do, of an extension of the privileges of the non-classical
+schools, rather than of absolute equality. (2) &ldquo;In
+thus acknowledging the equality of the three types of higher
+institutions, it will be possible more thoroughly to strengthen
+the special characteristics of each type. In this connexion,&rdquo;
+the royal decree proceeds, &ldquo;I shall offer no objection to an
+increase in the number of hours devoted to Latin in the Gymnasium
+and Realgymnasium.&rdquo; Thus, both as to the place of
+Latin in the curriculum of classical schools and as to the status
+of semi-classical schools, the decree of 1900 involves a reversal
+of the policy of 1890. (3) The decree expresses approval of the
+reformed curricula of Altona and Frankfort, and a desire for an
+extension of the experiment where the conditions are suitable.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding the growing official encouragement of
+education upon semi-classical or non-classical lines, the upper
+and professional classes of Germany continue to show a marked
+preference for the fully classical Gymnasium; hence, in Germany
+as in England, the tendency for a widening gulf to disclose itself
+between the education of the directing classes in politics and
+administration and the bulk of the industrial population, which
+suggests that the problem of combining in just proportions the
+liberal and practical elements in a thoroughly national system
+of education has not yet reached the solution that the needs of
+the age require.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center"><i>Switzerland.</i></p>
+
+<p>Switzerland affords perhaps the best type of a democratic
+system of local authorities. The central authority is the canton,
+not the federation. The interference of the federal
+authority is confined to the imposition of certain broad
+<span class="sidenote">Educational influence of federal constitution.</span>
+principles by the constitution, to the indirect influence
+exerted by the examination of recruits for the national
+army, and to financial grants for technical instruction,
+its most important direct educational work being the
+support of the technological university at Zurich. The federal
+constitution (1) states that primary instruction must be under
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page968" id="page968"></a>968</span>
+the control of the canton (an important point in view of the
+strength of ecclesiastical influence in some of the Catholic
+cantons), and must be compulsory and gratuitous; (2) declares
+that it must be possible for the public schools to be attended
+by the adherents of all creeds without hurting their freedom of
+conscience; (3) forbids the employment of child labour before
+completion of the fourteenth year, with a provision that in the
+fifteenth and sixteenth years factory work, together with the time
+given to school and religious instruction, must not exceed eleven
+hours a day. (4) All recruits for the federal army (in which service
+is compulsory on a militia basis) are examined in their twentieth
+year, and the results are published. This examination affords an
+instructive index to the state of education in the several cantons
+and promotes a healthy emulation among them.</p>
+
+<p>The cantonal organization of education presents the variety
+which the extraordinary diversity of race, language, religion and
+physical conditions of the component states of the
+federation would lead one to expect. The large canton
+<span class="sidenote">Cantonal organization.</span>
+of Bern may be instanced as the type of a strong
+central authority. The commune or parish is the unit
+for elementary education. The communal council nominates a
+school board of at least five members, whose function is to spend
+the money voted for school purposes by the general communal
+council. Several communes in combination form a district
+authority for the support of what are in reality higher primary
+schools, though called in Switzerland <i>Sekundarschulen</i>, maintained
+by the district. The maintenance both of the primary and higher
+primary schools is aided by grants from the central authority.
+The true secondary schools, called middle or higher schools, are
+maintained and controlled by the central or cantonal authority.
+The existence of separate local authorities for each grade of
+education is characteristic of Switzerland generally, this system
+being the opposite to that adopted in England in 1902.</p>
+
+<p>The central grants in Switzerland always take the form of
+payments to the local authorities of a proportion of the teachers&rsquo;
+salaries; they are never, as in England, assessed upon the number
+of children in attendance, nor are they dependent, as was formerly
+the case in England, upon the results of examination, nor again
+are grants made in respect of particular subjects as is the case
+with the grants for special, <i>i.e.</i> practical, instruction in England.</p>
+
+<p>Religious instruction in the Swiss communal schools generally
+follows the faith of the majority; in a few cantons separate
+schools being provided for minorities if sufficiently numerous.
+In the town of Lucerne, Catholic instruction is given in school
+hours and Protestant instruction is provided out of school and
+out of hours for the Protestant minority.</p>
+
+<p>In 19 out of the 25 cantons attendance at continuation schools
+is compulsory (at least in some districts) for boys up to 17, and
+in 3 cantons it is compulsory also wholly or in part for girls.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center"><i>Belgium.</i></p>
+
+<p>The interesting feature in Belgian education is the treatment
+<span class="sidenote">Belgian treatment of religious question.</span>
+of the religious question in successive laws.</p>
+
+<p>1. The law of 1842 obliged the communes to provide
+primary instruction, which was to be free in the case of
+poor children. The state made grants in aid, subject to
+inspection. Subject to a conscience clause, religious
+instruction was obligatory, and was placed under ecclesiastical
+inspection.</p>
+
+<p>2. The law of 1879 removed religious instruction from the
+curriculum, and provided for facilities to the clergy to give such
+instruction outside school hours. This law furnishes a striking
+instance of the futility of a parliamentary majority legislating in a
+sense opposed to the convictions of a considerable section of the
+community. The law evoked a storm of opposition in the country,
+still profoundly Catholic and attached to ecclesiastical traditions,
+and within eighteen months the Catholics founded private
+elementary schools with 455,000 scholars. In 1883 the Catholic
+private schools numbered 622,000 scholars, whilst the attendance
+at the communal schools had sunk to 324,000. Their doctrinaire
+treatment of the education question resulted in the political
+annihilation of the Belgian Liberals, and was responsible for the
+strongest and most persistent Roman Catholic reaction that has
+been witnessed in western Europe since the beginning of the
+19th century.</p>
+
+<p>3. The law of 1884 was the work of the moderate Catholic
+party. It did not make religious instruction obligatory, but it
+gave liberty to the communes to provide for the giving of religious
+and moral instruction at the beginning or end of school hours,
+subject to a conscience clause. Power was given to the communes
+to &ldquo;adopt&rdquo; private confessional schools and maintain them.
+Provision was further made entitling any twenty parents of
+children of school age to demand a school of the normal communal
+type as against a proposal to adopt a confessional school. Power
+was also given to a like number of parents to compel the adoption
+of a confessional school in the case of the commune refusing to
+provide religious instruction of the type demanded by them, or
+putting obstacles in the way of its being given by the clergy or
+their representatives.</p>
+
+<p>4. The law of 1895 is the work of the more authoritarian
+Catholics, and makes religious instruction obligatory, placing it
+directly under the control of the clergy. It also increased the
+subsidies to private schools. This law was passed in face of
+opposition from the moderate section, who saw in it an exaltation
+of state authority which might be turned by opponents to the
+disadvantage of the religious interest. It is by no means clear
+that Belgium has yet attained a final solution of the religious
+difficulty; the life of the present law is probably to be measured
+by that of the Catholic political majority.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center"><i>Holland.</i></p>
+
+<p>The outstanding feature of public education in Holland is the
+strength of the private primary schools. Under the law of 1857
+secular teaching alone was provided in the primary schools at
+the public cost. The law of 1878 allowed communes to make
+grants to private schools on condition of their becoming neutral
+in the matter of religion. The law of 1889 allowed private
+denominational schools to receive government grants while
+retaining their denominational character, but forbade further
+grants to such schools by the communes.</p>
+
+<p>In 1905 there were 566,460 children in the public and 278,632
+in the private schools.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center"><i>Scotland.</i></p>
+
+<p>The diverse religious and social conditions of the three constituent
+parts of the United Kingdom must necessarily cause the
+education problem to assume a different shape and to receive
+different solutions in England, Scotland and Ireland respectively;
+latterly also the special conditions obtaining in Wales
+have received partial recognition at the hands both of the
+legislature and the executive. In Scotland the conditions have
+been less complex than in England. The practical unanimity of
+the people in religious faith, which has remained undisturbed by
+the institutional divisions of recent times, the wider diffusion of a
+sense of the value of education, the greater simplicity of life which
+has rendered all classes largely content to avail themselves of the
+preparatory education afforded by the common school and
+favoured the development in the secondary sphere of day rather
+than boarding schools, are among the causes which have contributed
+to the early building up of a national system which in
+some respects resembles the continental rather than the English
+type.</p>
+
+<p>The national appreciation of education is found marked
+already before the Reformation in a statute of James IV. (1494)
+requiring all freeholders of substance to send their
+heirs to school and to keep them there until they had
+<span class="sidenote">Historical development.</span>
+perfect Latin. The Reformation, asserting itself by
+common consent under one ecclesiastical form, and free
+from the divisions of religious organization which tended to
+neutralize it as an educational force in England, put fresh life into
+the educational aspirations of the people. As early as 1560 the
+Church Assembly, largely under the influence of John Knox, put
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page969" id="page969"></a>969</span>
+forth the <i>Book of Discipline</i>, providing that &ldquo;every several kirk&rdquo;
+in a town &ldquo;of any reputation&rdquo; was to have its Latin school, that
+the &ldquo;upaland&rdquo; or country parts were to have a teacher of the
+&ldquo;first rudiments&rdquo; in every parish, and that each &ldquo;notable&rdquo;
+town was to have &ldquo;a college for logic, rhetoric and the tongues.&rdquo;
+Practical effect was later given to this scheme by an act of the
+Scottish parliament in 1696, under which parish schools were set
+up in connexion with the Established Church of Scotland. This
+system was extended by an act of 1803, which made better
+provision for teachers&rsquo; salaries and also confirmed the position of
+the parish school as an adjunct of the parish church. The system
+of inspection and state aid introduced in England in 1839 was
+made applicable to Scotland, thus grafting upon Scotland the
+English system of voluntary state-aided schools. At the same
+period another new factor was imported into Scottish education
+by the ecclesiastical disruption of 1843. As a result of these
+changes in 1861 a new act was passed which relaxed, though it
+did not sever, the ties which bound the parish school to the
+church.</p>
+
+<p>The Education (Scotland) Act of 1872 set up elective school
+boards for parishes and boroughs, and vested in them the
+existing parish and burgh schools. Long prior to the
+act it had been the practice of the Church of Scotland
+<span class="sidenote">Scottish school boards and school attendance law.</span>
+to allow exemption in the schools from religious instruction;
+consequently in imposing a compulsory
+conscience clause the act did little more than confirm
+existing usage. The school boards were left full
+liberty as to the religious instruction to be given in their
+schools, and in practice school boards universally adopt the
+Shorter Catechism, which is acceptable to all denominations
+of Presbyterians. The act made the school boards responsible
+for the supply of school accommodation, and introduced compulsory
+attendance, for which opinion in England was not at that
+time ripe. By the act of 1901, the age of compulsory attendance
+was raised to fourteen, with provision for exemption after
+twelve.</p>
+
+<p>The experience of the Scottish Education Department, like
+that of the English, has led to the gradual abandonment of individual
+examination as the basis for the payment of
+grants. The institution of the merit certificate is
+<span class="sidenote">Administrative progress.</span>
+one of the features in which the Scottish system differs
+from the English. Prior to the code of 1903 the merit
+certificate, awarded on examination after the age of twelve,
+was properly described as the leaving certificate of the elementary
+school. Under the more recent codes merit certificates are
+awarded under a system designed to encourage the transference
+of promising pupils at an early age to supplementary courses or
+higher-grade departments. Under this system the fitness of the
+pupil to enter upon a course of higher studies is determined
+not solely by the results of a single examination, but by
+the whole character of his work during the preceding school
+course.</p>
+
+<p>A notable factor historically in Scottish education was the
+extent to which the parish schools supplied their best pupils
+with higher or further education. The administrative
+changes last mentioned have led to a remarkable
+<span class="sidenote">Higher-grade schools.</span>
+development of organized higher-grade schools and
+departments. These departments have now been
+organized upon the lines of the higher primary schools of France,
+&ldquo;to continue a stage further&rdquo; (says the report of the Scottish
+Education Department) &ldquo;the general education of that considerable
+body of pupils who, under new conditions, may be
+expected to remain at school till fifteen or sixteen.&rdquo; The
+function &ldquo;of giving something of the nature of a specialized
+education to pupils who will leave school at a comparatively
+early age&rdquo; is now discharged by the supplementary courses.</p>
+
+<p>Elementary education has generally been rendered free by
+the fee grants under the parliamentary vote, and by
+the sums accruing under the Local Taxation (Customs
+<span class="sidenote">Free education.</span>
+and Excise) Act 1890 and the Education and Local
+Taxation (Scotland) Act 1892.</p>
+
+<p>Voluntary schools are not numerous, being chiefly those of
+the Roman Catholic Church. The average cost of maintenance
+per child in average attendance in public schools (according
+to the official report 1907-1908) was £3, 11s. 1¼d., of which
+£2, 4s. 4½d. was met by government grants for elementary
+education. In voluntary schools the average cost of maintenance
+was £2, 15s. 1¾d., of which £2, 2s. 7d. was met by
+elementary grants, including a special aid grant of 3s. per
+head under the Education (Scotland) Act 1897.</p>
+
+<p>The total number of children (1907-1908) in average attendance
+in grant-earning schools was 712,076, and the percentage of
+attendances to numbers on the register was 87.66%. As
+regards teaching power, 81.52% of the male teachers and
+56.71% of the female teachers in the elementary teachers had
+been trained in training colleges.</p>
+
+<p>Certain miscellaneous additional powers are conferred upon
+school boards by the Education (Scotland) Act 1908, including
+powers to provide school meals; in outlying parts, to
+provide means of conveyance, or pay travelling expenses
+<span class="sidenote">Education (Scotland) Act 1908.</span>
+of teachers or pupils, or defray the cost of lodging pupils
+in convenient proximity to a school; to provide for
+medical inspection; and as to children neglected by reason of the
+ill-health or poverty of the parent, to supply food, clothing
+and personal attention.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the most noteworthy provision in the act of 1908
+is that which enables (not obliges) school boards to make bye-laws
+requiring attendance at continuation classes up
+<span class="sidenote">Compulsory continuation classes.</span>
+to the age of seventeen years. Apart from compulsory
+attendance, the act lays upon school boards
+the duty of making suitable provision of continuation
+classes with reference to the crafts and industries practised in
+the district.</p>
+
+<p>The Scottish Education Act of 1872 distinguished certain
+burgh and parish schools as &ldquo;higher class public&rdquo; or secondary
+schools. The act of 1908 deals in some detail with
+secondary education, modifying and strengthening
+<span class="sidenote">Secondary education.</span>
+the framework in various ways, but without introducing
+organic changes. &ldquo;Secondary&rdquo; schools are distinguished
+from &ldquo;intermediate,&rdquo; the former being defined as providing
+at least a five years&rsquo; course; the latter as providing at least a
+three years&rsquo; course in languages, mathematics, science and such
+other subjects as may from time to time be deemed suitable for
+the instruction of pupils who have reached a certain standard
+of attainment in elementary subjects under the code. Intermediate
+and secondary schools may be provided and maintained
+either by school boards or otherwise, and provision is contained
+in the act for the transfer of endowed schools to the school
+board. Thus secondary (as well as elementary and continuative)
+education is organized upon the basis of the parish or burgh; it
+receives, however, grants in aid through the agency of county
+(or large urban) authorities (called district committees) constituted
+under schemes of the Scottish Education Department.
+For the purpose of such grants in aid the funds available under
+the various local taxation acts, together with parliamentary
+grants, other than a fee grant at the rate of 12s. per child in
+average attendance, form a fund called the Education (Scotland)
+Fund. After provision has been made for (<i>inter alia</i>) grants for
+universities, higher technical education and training colleges,
+the fund is allocated to the district committees according to a
+scheme laid before parliament and approved by the king in
+council. Out of the &ldquo;district education fund&rdquo; the school
+board receives (ordinarily) a sum equal to one-half of the amount
+by which the net cost to the school board (after deducting income
+from grants made by the department and from fees) exceeds the
+amount which would be produced by such rate per pound upon
+the district of the school board as the committee may determine,
+not being more than a rate of twopence in the pound. Important
+powers are also conferred upon the district committee for organizing
+and aiding within their district the provision by the school
+boards of medical examination and supervision of school children,
+the supply of bursaries for purposes of all forms of higher education,
+and the provision of instruction in special subjects, such as
+agriculture, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page970" id="page970"></a>970</span></p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center"><i>Ireland.</i></p>
+
+<p>The full development of a system of public education in
+Ireland has been hampered and retarded by the general difficulties
+inherent in the problem of Irish government.
+In consequence of the fundamentally different social,
+<span class="sidenote">Special difficulties of Irish education.</span>
+religious and political conditions in the two countries,
+the English and Irish systems have developed down
+to the present time upon divergent lines. In England,
+popular education was founded in the first instance upon individual
+initiative combining in organized voluntary effort, and,
+though the voluntary agencies have been first supplemented
+and latterly to a large extent supplanted by public action, the
+tendency has been in the direction of municipalization rather
+than in that of central state control. In Ireland, on the other
+hand, education has suffered in the past from the general absence
+of individual initiative and local interest almost as seriously as
+from the mistakes of the English government. These causes,
+more directly perhaps than the prevailing poverty of the country,
+made it necessary to throw the burden of supporting the schools
+to an increasing extent upon the state, while the want of local
+self-government precluded any devolution of powers and duties
+upon municipal authorities.</p>
+
+<p>State intervention is actually of earlier date in Ireland than
+in England. From the reign of Elizabeth onwards, English
+Protestant schools were founded by the government
+in a sporadic and intermittent fashion in pursuance
+<span class="sidenote">Historic retrospect.</span>
+of its Anglicizing policy. To mention briefly one or
+two historical features, the great religious educational
+enterprise of Edmond Rice in founding the well-known Irish
+Catholic order of the Christian Brothers in 1802 forms an exception
+to the general lack of initiative among the people themselves.
+About the same period the Kildare Place Society (founded in
+1811 while the first commission of inquiry into Irish education
+was sitting) attempted to grapple with the peculiar difficulties
+of the religious situation upon lines somewhat similar to those
+just laid down by Lancaster and his followers in England.
+This organization comprised both Roman Catholic and
+Protestant schools upon a common religious basis of Bible
+reading without note or comment, and received government
+grants which rose to £30,000 a year before they were discontinued
+in 1833. The religious compromise which the system embodied
+broke down in consequence of Catholic dissatisfaction, and that
+it was at first fairly successful may seem extraordinary in view
+of the later attitude of the Catholic Church towards the question
+of common schools and combined religious instruction.</p>
+
+<p>In 1833, as the result of a second commission of inquiry
+(1824) and a select committee of the House of Commons (1828),
+Mr Stanley inaugurated the national system of elementary
+schools under a board of commissioners nominated
+<span class="sidenote">The national system.</span>
+from the different religious denominations. The
+government appears from the outset to have aimed
+at combined secular and separate religious instruction for
+Roman Catholics and Protestants. At the same time, an
+attempt was inconsistently made to provide an ethical basis
+for the secular instruction by means of Bible extracts. The
+story of the preparation of these extracts by an ingenious
+compound of the Protestant Authorized and Douai versions of
+Scripture is in its way one of the curiosities of religious history.
+The extracts were designed to meet the recognized Catholic
+objection to the indiscriminate reading of the Bible without note
+or comment. In practice they were chiefly used in the Protestant
+schools (in which their use is now practically extinct), and the
+growing Catholic objection to the policy of the National Board
+in this respect found authoritative, though somewhat cautiously
+worded, expression in a decree of the Roman Congregation De
+Propaganda Fide of January 11, 1846, declaring that non-sectarian
+religious instruction was dangerous to youth. &ldquo;Tutius
+multo esse ut literarum tantummodo humanarum magisterium
+fiat in scholis promiscuis, quam ut fundamentales, ut aiunt, et
+communes religionis Christianae articuli restricte tradantur,
+reservata singulis sestis peculiari seorsum eruditione. Ita enim
+cum pueris agere periculosum valde videtur.&rdquo; The religious
+difficulty in Irish elementary education may be said to have
+been solved in process of time by the conversion of the national
+system in practice, though not in theory, into a system strongly
+denominational and therefore widely different from the design
+of its founders, combined Biblical instruction being discarded,
+and separate schools for the most part taking the place of
+common schools for the two creeds. In the latter respect the
+like tendency has been noted in the case of Germany.</p>
+
+<p>The following are the chief specific points upon which the
+Irish system of elementary education differs from the English.</p>
+
+<p><i>Finance.</i>&mdash;The state still makes building grants to the extent
+of two-thirds of the cost. Such grants are only made to what
+are called vested schools, that is to say, schools of
+which the premises are vested in trustees or in the
+<span class="sidenote">Irish elementary education.</span>
+commissioners themselves. The state further pays
+in the case of all national schools the entire cost of
+maintenance except only the upkeep of the building, and the
+provision of books after the exhaustion of a first free grant.</p>
+
+<p><i>Appointment and Payment of Teachers.</i>&mdash;For the purpose of
+promotion the state through its inspectors undertakes the duty
+of classifying the individual teachers in four grades, passage
+from one grade to another being secured by examination.
+Appointments of teachers to schools are made by the school
+managers subject to the approval of the commissioners. Rights
+of dismissal are reserved to the local managers and also to the
+commissioners independently. Lastly, the teachers&rsquo; salaries
+are now paid directly by the state. The old system of payment
+by results was abandoned in 1900, and the teacher is paid (<i>a</i>)
+a fixed salary according to grade, (<i>b</i>) a continued good service
+salary which may be increased triennially, (<i>c</i>) a capitation
+payment.</p>
+
+<p><i>Convent Schools.</i>&mdash;In addition to the national schools supported
+as above, there are a considerable number of convent or monastery
+schools which receive capitation grants after the English
+plan, but not direct salaries. There were 308 such schools in
+1908, with an average attendance of 70,003. There were also 83
+other convent or monastery schools paid by personal salaries,
+with an average attendance of 11,075.</p>
+
+<p><i>School Attendance and Free Education.</i>&mdash;The Irish Education
+Act 1892 provided for compulsory attendance in towns and for
+the adoption of compulsion in other districts. In virtue of the
+financial sections of this act, which provided an increased
+grant for salaries, most national schools have become free.</p>
+
+<p><i>General Elementary-School Statistics.</i>&mdash;In 1908 the average
+number of scholars on the rolls of all the schools was 708,992,
+and the average daily attendance was 494,662, or 69.8% as
+compared with the number on the rolls. As regards religious
+denomination, 74.42% of the scholars on the rolls were Roman
+Catholics; 28.6% were in schools attended by both Roman
+Catholic and Protestant children and 71.4% in schools attended
+solely by Roman Catholics or solely by Protestants. The total
+expenditure on the schools and teaching staffs was £1,591,214,
+of which £1,451,139, equivalent to £2, 19s. 3d. per scholar, was
+contributed from state grants, and £140,074, equivalent to
+5s. 9d. per scholar, from local (<i>i.e.</i> voluntary) sources, the rate
+per scholar from all sources being £3, 5s.</p>
+
+<p><i>Training of Teachers.</i>&mdash;Salaried monitors are employed in
+the Irish schools, but, unlike the English pupil teachers, are not
+explicitly recognized as forming part of the school staff. There
+are now seven training colleges, viz. one undenominational
+college maintained by the commissioners, five Roman Catholic
+colleges, and one college in connexion with the Protestant
+Episcopal Church of Ireland. Of the scholars in the undenominational
+college, 73 out of 312 were Roman Catholics. The total
+number of students in training was 1189, viz. 514 men and 675
+women. The percentage of trained teachers to the total number
+of teachers was 64.7. A special training college for the instruction
+of teachers in Irish has been recognized.</p>
+
+<p>One of the chief desiderata in Irish education is a single
+central authority for all branches of education, elementary,
+secondary (or &ldquo;intermediate&rdquo;) and technical. There are two
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page971" id="page971"></a>971</span>
+central authorities dealing with secondary education, viz. the
+<span class="sidenote">Secondary education.</span>
+Intermediate Education Board and the Department for Agriculture
+and Technical Instruction. The Intermediate
+Board administers sums available under the Intermediate
+Education Act of 1878 from the Irish Church
+Surplus, and also the sum allocated under the Local Taxation
+Act 1890. The vice of the system in the opinion of educational
+experts lies in the statutory obligation to award grants on the
+result of an individual examination of the scholars. As a result
+of the vice-regal commission of 1898, power was taken to introduce
+a system of school inspection, though not to dispense with
+the individual examination as the basis for the award of the
+grants; this measure of reform was ultimately carried out in
+1909. The sum distributed in result grants is about £50,000
+per annum.</p>
+
+<p>Prior to the Agriculture and Technical Instruction (Ireland)
+Act 1899, science and art grants were administered by the
+Science and Art Department in England; by this act they were
+transferred to the new Irish Department for Agriculture and
+Technical Instruction. This department makes block grants
+to secondary schools in respect of science and art teaching, and
+manual instruction or domestic economy. Measures have been
+taken for the co-ordination of the duties of the Technical Department
+and the Intermediate Board, and the impetus given to the
+teaching of experimental science by grants for the erection of
+laboratories represents a reform of undoubted value for higher
+education in Ireland, especially when considered in connexion
+with the enlistment of the local interest of the technical education
+committees in the intermediate schools. Nevertheless, in the
+absence of a reform of the results system of intermediate grants,
+the special subsidizing of science teaching has tended to put an
+undue premium upon this subject to the detriment of the rest
+of the curriculum.</p>
+
+<p>Ireland possesses no such system of scholarships for assisting
+the passage of scholars from the elementary to the secondary
+school as England enjoys as a result of the municipalization of the
+educational system. Nevertheless, Irish children as a fact pass
+much more freely from the elementary to the secondary school
+than is the case in England where social prejudices are stronger.
+The schools of the Christian Brothers are usually organized in two
+departments, primary and intermediate, and thus supply for the
+Roman Catholic population the demand for the cheap type of
+secondary day school represented by the municipal schools in
+England. It must be added that the Irish intermediate schools
+are purely denominational. The widespread demand for secondary
+education among the people, to which the report of Messrs Dale
+and Stephens bears witness, is a gratifying feature of Irish life,
+while the recent establishment (1908) of the long-deferred national
+university, and the perceptible quickening of intellectual interests
+throughout the country in connexion with the Celtic revival,
+point to better conditions for higher education and to the development
+of a wider, deeper and truer, because more national, culture.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center"><i>England.</i></p>
+
+<p>It was justly observed by Sir Joshua Fitch (<i>Ency. Brit.</i>, 10th
+ed., xxvii. p. 655) that &ldquo;the public provision for the education of
+the people in England is not the product of any theory or plan
+formulated beforehand by statesmen or philosophers; it has
+come into existence through a long course of experiments,
+compromises, traditions, successes, failures and religious controversies.
+What has been done in this department of public
+policy is the resultant of many diverse forces and of slow evolution
+and growth rather than of pure purpose and well-defined national
+aims. It has been effected in different degrees by philanthropy,
+by private enterprise, by religious zeal, by ancient universities
+and endowed foundations, by municipal and local effort, and only
+to a small extent by legislation. The genius&mdash;or rather characteristic
+habit&mdash;of the English people is averse from the philosophical
+system, and is disposed to regard education, not as a science, but
+as a body of expedients to be discovered empirically and amended
+from time to time as occasion may require.&rdquo; Clearly, then, the
+English system of public education, as it results from successive
+acts of the administration and the legislature, is one which can
+only adequately be appreciated in the light of an historical
+survey of the various stages which have led up to it and the social
+conditions by which they were determined. The history of state
+education in England begins tardily in 1832, when after a
+generation of hesitation and controversy a beginning was made
+upon an exceedingly modest scale with the system of treasury
+grants in aid of elementary schools. The diverse forces which
+were at that date at work in the education of the nation as a
+whole, retarding state interference and marking out the limits
+within which it was long to be confined, derive their origin from a
+much remoter period.</p>
+
+<p>The apprenticeship laws of Henry VIII. contain the earliest
+germ of state interference. These laws obliged children between
+five and thirteen years of age who were found begging or idle to
+be bound apprentices to some handicraft. If the immediate
+<span class="sidenote">Influence of the English Reformation.</span>
+object was the prevention of crime rather than education as such,
+this early legislation is at least significant of the primary and
+intimate connexion that exists between popular education and
+industrial and economic needs. Yet in the shaping of the educational
+system the original influences were religious rather than
+economic; hence the importance of the canons of 1604,
+which secured the control of education to the Established
+Church. This of course was no novel doctrine,
+but merely the reaffirmation by the Reformed Church
+of the Catholic tradition of religious exclusiveness,
+presenting itself to the mind of contemporaries rather as the
+recognition of a national, that was also a religious, duty than as
+the assumption of an ecclesiastical privilege. Whatever mischief
+the Tudor statesmen wrought by indiscriminate destruction of
+chantries and other foundations which combined educational
+work with observances that the new religion branded as superstitions,
+however far the English Reformation fell short of the
+organized enthusiasm for popular education and culture that
+marked the first most vigorous and constructive period of
+Lutheranism in Germany, the Protestant, and especially the
+Puritan, spirit unquestionably inspired a considerable volume of
+individual educational effort during the latter half of the 16th
+and the first half of the 17th centuries. Here, as in Germany,
+the influence of the Reformation was wholly on the side of
+classicism, the dead languages being the key to the theological
+learning which was of primary concern to the men of that
+theological age. The conception of elementary education as a
+system complete in itself and adapted to the needs of the masses of
+the people was unfamiliar at this date. The earliest elementary
+schools were <i>petits</i> schools, which (as the name implies) were
+really preparatory departments of the grammar-schools. Education
+in fact was still regarded as the privilege of an élite, but, as in
+the middle ages, the élite for whom it was sought to provide a
+ladder to the university by means of the endowed schools so
+numerously founded about this time was an élite of intellect and
+not of mere wealth; the class feeling which became so marked
+a feature of English higher education was of much later growth.</p>
+
+<p>Towards the end of the 17th century elementary education
+began to differentiate itself, partly by way of reaction against the
+unnatural classicism of the preceding age, but more
+especially as the result of the growth of towns and the
+<span class="sidenote">Rise of elementary education.</span>
+creation of a considerable industrial population. At
+the close of the century the moral evils attendant upon
+industrialism alarmed the religious conscience and prompted one
+of the great educational movements that stand to the credit of
+the national church. In 1699 Dr Bray founded the Society for
+Promoting Christian Knowledge, and the movement thereby
+initiated may be traced in the numerous &ldquo;charity&rdquo; or &ldquo;Blue
+Coat&rdquo; schools scattered plentifully throughout the country and
+especially in the great centres of population. The foundation of
+these schools, which was pushed forward with vigour during the
+early years of the 18th century, represents an energetic and well-planned
+attempt to cope with the social evil of poverty by
+educational means. The instruction was elementary, the scholars
+were clothed as well as taught free, and the schools in the first
+instance were supported not so much by permanent endowment
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page972" id="page972"></a>972</span>
+as by voluntary effort, so that with this movement the voluntary
+system may be said to make its appearance. Lastly, all these
+philanthropic efforts were inspired by a solid but sober piety
+nurtured by a church which came nearer than at any other period
+of its history to enjoying the undivided allegiance of the people.
+Another notable movement in connexion with the church was one
+confined to Wales, that of the Welsh &ldquo;circulating schools&rdquo;
+established by Griffith Jones about 1730, consisting of an organized
+staff of schoolmasters who went round teaching adults to
+read the Bible in Welsh. In the English rural parishes the comparative
+religious unanimity favoured the quiet development
+of elementary education in a small way upon less specifically
+religious lines. Numerous small endowments for the elementary
+education of poor children were provided by well-to-do
+parishioners; indeed to such an extent did the practice of making
+charitable (and largely educational) bequests increase that the
+legislature intervened in the interest of private inheritance by
+reviving the law of mortmain in an act of 1736. The village
+schoolmaster became a feature of rural life, frequently enjoying
+a schoolhouse provided sometimes by endowment and sometimes
+even directly by the parishioners at the cost of the rate levied by
+the vestry, but more often aided only by a little stipend from an
+endowment for teaching poor children, and eking out an always
+scanty subsistence by the fees of such paying scholars as he could
+succeed in getting together.</p>
+
+<p>Towards the end of the 18th century the emergency of the
+industrial revolution evoked a fresh religious effort upon a more
+highly organized scale in the shape of the Sunday-school
+movement, which may be said to represent the
+<span class="sidenote">The Sunday-school movement.</span>
+educational contribution of the Evangelical revival
+Robert Raikes, the founder of the Sunday School
+Union, established his first Sunday school in 1782. The idea of
+the Sunday school did not originate with Raikes; among earlier
+pioneers in this field were John Wesley, who held Sunday classes
+at Savannah in 1737; Theophilus Lindsey at Catterick in the
+North Riding of Yorkshire, about 1769; Hannah Ball at High
+Wycombe in 1769; and Jenkin Morgan near Llanidloes in
+1770. Sunday schools, too, had been founded in England by
+Joseph Alleine, the Puritan Father, in the 17th century, and
+in Catholic Italy and France by St Charles Borromeo and Jean
+Baptiste de la Salle in the 16th and 17th centuries respectively.
+Nevertheless, in virtue of his achievement in organization,
+Raikes is rightly regarded as the founder of the English Sunday
+school. The peculiar value of the Sunday-school system in its
+early days lay in the combination of secular with religious
+instruction; in many cases the school was held on Saturday as
+well as Sunday, and its restriction to the one day or two days was
+due to the prevalence of child labour under stress of the great
+industrial expansion. With better economic conditions and with
+the development of day schools the Sunday schools gradually
+became restricted in function to purely religious instruction.
+Even with this limitation there is no doubt that the great Sunday-school
+organizations of the various churches still deserve to be
+reckoned among the educational assets of the nation, and as
+agencies both of religious instruction and of general culture they
+may tend, under modern educational and religious developments,
+to play an increasingly important part.</p>
+
+<p>At the end of the 18th century the development of industry
+and the social unrest which followed the French Revolution
+combined to bring home to the public mind the need
+of a national system of day schools. Unfortunately,
+<span class="sidenote">Movements of Lancaster and Bell, and rise of the religious controversy.</span>
+just at this moment the revival of Nonconformity as
+the result of the religious vitality of the Evangelical
+movement shattered the religious peace of the early
+Hanoverian period and divided the nation once more into
+hostile camps, to which class distinctions lent additional
+bitterness. The famous controversy between Andrew
+Bell and Joseph Lancaster and their respective followers in the
+opening years of the 19th century served to define the religious
+difficulty substantially in the form in which it exists after the
+lapse of a century for the present generation. Both these
+remarkable men conceived independently the idea of a national
+system of popular education upon a voluntary basis; both
+concurred in extolling the merits of the monitorial system,
+which each claimed to have originated. The controversy
+between them, begun upon personal grounds, resolved itself
+into a national contest of rival principles of religious teaching.
+Lancaster as a young Quaker schoolmaster, confronted with
+pupils drawn from various religious bodies, planned his religious
+instruction upon the lines of doctrine common to all the orthodox
+Christian denominations. Thus he is the father of the undenominational
+religious teaching which later formed the basis
+of the Cowper-Temple compromise. But whereas the Cowper-Temple
+clause is purely negative in form and so seems to point
+to an undogmatic religion, the Lancasterian teaching was
+essentially positive and dogmatic within its limits. In 1805
+Mrs Trimmer opened the attack upon Lancaster&rsquo;s system with
+a work bearing the expressive title of <i>A Comparative View of the
+New Plan of Education promulgated by Mr Joseph Lancaster
+and of the System of Christian Instruction founded by our Forefathers
+for the initiation of the young members of the Established
+Church in the Principles of the Reformed Religion</i>. The church
+as a whole refused to co-operate in religious teaching upon the
+basis of a common Christianity, and joined issue with Lancaster
+and his Whig and Nonconformist following not merely upon
+the question of the exclusion of dogmatic formularies, but
+also upon the question of the control of whatever religious teaching
+should be given. In fact the vital question at this period
+was whether the clergy of the Established Church were to control
+the national education. The religious issue was prominent in
+connexion with the remarkable attempt at legislation made
+by the Whig statesman Mr Whitbread in his Parochial Schools
+Bill of 1807. As originally introduced, the bill proposed to make
+it compulsory on parochial vestries to levy rates for the support
+of schools for teaching reading, writing and arithmetic. The
+compulsory provisions were dropped in the House of Commons,
+but the bill was rejected by the Lords, mainly on the ground
+that it did not place education on a religious basis or sufficiently
+secure control to the minister of the parish.</p>
+
+<p>The failure of the liberal proposals of Whitbread, and the
+strength of the Dissenting opposition to any settlement on purely
+church lines (such as that advocated by Bell in 1808
+for establishing schools under the control of the
+<span class="sidenote">Foundation of voluntary schools.</span>
+parochial clergy), rendered recourse to voluntary effort
+inevitable. In 1808 the Royal Lancasterian Society
+was formed to carry on the work of Lancaster, the name being
+afterwards changed, owing to personal difficulties due to the
+wayward character of Lancaster, to the British and Foreign
+School Society. In the following year the National Society for
+Promoting the Education of the Poor in the Principles of the
+Established Church throughout England and Wales was formed,
+with Bell as its superintendent. In voluntary effort on a grand
+scale the church easily outdistanced her opponents, and in 1831
+the National Society was able to show that there were in all over
+13,000 schools in connexion with the church, of which 6470 were
+both day and Sunday schools, having a total attendance of
+409,000.</p>
+
+<p>The rapid development of the voluntary school system was
+no doubt greatly facilitated by the monitorial plan of teaching,
+upon which Bell and Lancaster equally relied.
+Probably the first idea of utilizing the older pupils
+<span class="sidenote">Monitorial system.</span>
+to teach the younger presented itself independently
+to Lancaster in the Borough Road and to Bell in Madras. The
+monitorial plan never rested upon any educational theory;
+it was simply a makeshift, a rough-and-ready expedient for
+overcoming the practical difficulty caused by the dearth of
+competent teachers. Historically it is important as the precursor
+of the pupil-teacher system which so long formed the
+exclusive basis of the English elementary system.</p>
+
+<p>Meantime a further political move was attempted by
+Brougham, who included educational reform among his multifarious
+activities. In 1816 he procured the appointment of a
+general commission of inquiry into endowed charities. The
+<span class="sidenote">Activities of Brougham.</span>
+labours of this great inquisition lasted for twenty years and led
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page973" id="page973"></a>973</span>
+to the reformation of many cases of abuse or waste of wealthy
+endowments, and eventually to the establishment of the Charity
+Commission in 1853. In 1820 Brougham introduced a
+remarkable bill which proposed to make the magistrates
+in quarter sessions the rating authority, to require
+teachers to be members of the Church of England
+and to be appointed upon a certificate from the parochial clergyman,
+and on the other hand to prohibit religious formularies and
+to confine religious instruction to Bible reading without comment.
+The bill naturally failed through the opposition cf the Dissenters,
+and served only to accentuate the religious impasse.</p>
+
+<p>In 1832 the Whig government which passed the Reform Bill
+placed on the Estimates a sum of £20,000 for public education,
+thus initiating the system of the annual grant voted by
+parliament and dispensed under regulations framed
+<span class="sidenote">Treasury grants.</span>
+by administrative act. The grant of 1832 was administered
+by the treasury and not by a special department,
+under certain conditions laid down by treasury minute of August
+30, 1833. The chief of these were that grants were confined to
+the erection of school buildings, and were to be administered
+only through the National and the British and Foreign School
+societies; there was a provision for audit, but no condition
+of inspection.</p>
+
+<p>In 1839 Lord Melbourne&rsquo;s government by means of an order
+in council established a separate education office under the style
+of the Committee of Council on Education, and the
+sum voted by parliament was increased to £39,000.
+<span class="sidenote">Establishment of State-aided system.</span>
+The original intention of the government was to establish
+a state normal school or training college as the
+foundation of a national system of education. Unfortunately
+this design had to be abandoned in view of the
+religious difficulty, with the result (so fruitful in controversy
+at the present time) that the training of elementary teachers
+was left in private hands and became a stronghold of the voluntary
+and denominational interests. In view of the limited
+resources placed at their disposal by parliament, the Committee
+of Council were at first compelled to confine their assistance to
+capital grants in aid of the provision of school buildings, but in
+the distribution of the money three important conditions were
+at once imposed. In the first place, the continuing right of
+inspection was required in all cases; secondly, promoters were
+obliged to conform to a fixed standard of structural efficiency;
+thirdly, the building must be settled upon trusts permanently
+securing it to the education of poor children.</p>
+
+<p>By the minute of August 10, 1840, the Committee of Council
+concluded what came to be known as the concordat with the
+church. Under this minute no appointment was to
+be made of any person to inspect schools in connexion
+<span class="sidenote">Concordat with the church.</span>
+with the Church of England without the concurrence
+of the archbishop of the province, and, what seems
+still more extraordinary to modern ideas, any such appointment
+was to be revoked should the archbishop at any time withdraw
+his concurrence. The inspectors were charged with the duty
+of inspecting religious teaching, but under instructions to be
+framed by the archbishop, and their reports were to be transmitted
+in duplicate to the archbishop and the bishop for the
+information of these authorities. Further, the general instructions
+of the Committee of Council themselves were to be communicated
+to the archbishop before being finally sanctioned.
+The march of events, and in particular the altered financial
+relations between the state and the voluntary managers brought
+about by the institution of maintenance grants, soon rendered
+this concordat obsolete, but it remains historically important
+as showing how at the outset the denominational principle was
+recognized and fostered by the state.</p>
+
+<p>Among the first acts of the Committee of Council was the
+promulgation of a set of model trusts deeds, one or other of which
+applicants for building grants were required to adopt
+for the settlement of their school premises. The
+<span class="sidenote">Trust deeds.</span>
+necessary conditions were the permanent appropriation
+of the site to purposes of education, and the permanent right of
+government inspection; it must, however, be noted that this
+latter right was generally limited in terms to the inspection
+provided for by the minute of August 10, 1840. A conscience
+clause was not obligatory, and indeed was only offered in the
+limited form of exemption from instruction in formularies and
+attendance at Sunday school or public worship. A more systematic
+attempt to promote public control by means of trust deeds
+in 1846 led the Committee of Council into a controversy with the
+National Society which extended over a period of three years,
+turning chiefly upon the management clauses and the question of
+appeals, and resulting in compromises which constituted a fresh
+concordat with the church. In point of fact, the management
+clauses proved to be of little practical consequence, save in a few
+controversial cases, until the act of 1902, which had the effect of
+bringing them once more into prominence in connexion with the
+constitution of statutory bodies of foundation managers. The
+act of 1902 also dealt specifically with two other points arising
+upon the old trust deeds, viz. the control of religious instruction
+and the appeal to the bishop in religious questions. Special
+facilities for the conveyance of land for school purposes were
+afforded to limited owners by the School Sites Acts of 1841 and
+subsequent years. The landed gentry responded with great
+public spirit to the call thus made upon their generosity by the
+state, with the result that the vast majority of rural, and many
+urban, parishes were freely endowed with sites for elementary
+schools.</p>
+
+<p>The Grammar Schools Act of 1840, which was passed to deal
+with the case of the decayed &ldquo;grammar&rdquo; (<i>i.e.</i> classical) schools
+which abounded throughout the country, belongs to the
+history of elementary rather than secondary education.
+<span class="sidenote">Grammar Schools Act 1840.</span>
+It expressly empowered the Court of Chancery, where
+the endowment was insufficient for a classical school, to
+substitute subjects of useful learning analogous to those contained
+in the original trusts. As a result of this act a considerable
+number of ancient endowments were reorganized so as to afford
+an improved elementary instead of an inefficient classical
+education, and the schemes made under the act constituted
+an early, but not very successful, experiment in the direction of
+higher elementary schools.</p>
+
+<p>In 1843 the Committee of Council decided to make grants in aid
+of the erection of normal schools or training colleges
+<span class="sidenote">Training-college grants.</span>
+in connexion with the National Society and the British
+and Foreign School societies, thus marking the definite
+abandonment of the provision of training colleges to
+voluntary effort.</p>
+
+<p>In 1846 an important step forwards was taken in the foundation
+of the pupil-teacher system. The regulations of this year
+inaugurated annual maintenance grants in the form of
+stipends for apprenticed pupil teachers receiving a
+<span class="sidenote">Pupil-teacher system.</span>
+prescribed course of instruction under the head teacher,
+and a lower grade of stipendiary monitors in schools
+where such instruction could not be provided. These regulations
+inaugurated the system of Queen&rsquo;s Scholarships to assist pupil
+teachers to proceed to a training college; they also established
+capitation grants for the support of such colleges, and annual
+grants to elementary schools under government inspection of
+from £15 to £30 in aid of the salary of every trained teacher
+employed. Provision was at the same time made for retiring
+pensions to elementary teachers.</p>
+
+<p>Down to 1847 state aid was confined to two religious categories
+of schools: those giving specifically Church of England teaching,
+and those in connexion with the British and Foreign
+School Society giving simple Bible teaching. To
+<span class="sidenote">Extension of state aid to Wesleyans, Roman Catholics and Jews.</span>
+facilitate the recognition of other denominational
+schools the Committee of Council in 1847 issued a
+minute dispensing schools not connected with the
+Established Church from inquiries concerning their
+religious condition, and in the same year state aid was
+extended to Wesleyan and Roman Catholic schools. The
+settlement of model trust deeds gave occasion for each of these
+two great religious bodies to negotiate a kind of concordat with
+respect to school management, and the Roman Catholic deed was
+only settled after a controversy, similar to that which had arisen
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page974" id="page974"></a>974</span>
+with the National Society, as to the rights of ecclesiastical
+authority. Jewish schools received recognition in 1851 upon
+condition that the Scriptures of the Old Testament should be
+daily read in them.</p>
+
+<p>During the middle years of the century various unsuccessful
+legislative attempts were made to establish a national system of
+elementary schools upon the basis of rate-aid. These
+attempts began with the education clauses of Sir Robert
+<span class="sidenote">Bills of 1842-57.</span>
+Peel&rsquo;s Factory Bill of 1842, and were renewed in a
+series of bills from 1853 to 1857, of which one set was introduced
+by Lord John Russell on behalf of the Whig government, whilst
+a second was promoted by an organization called the Manchester
+and Salford Committee on Education, in the denominational
+interest, and a third set by an organization called the Lancashire
+(afterwards the National) Public Schools Association, in the secular
+interest. The only one of these attempts which calls for notice
+here is the bill introduced by Lord John Russell (called the
+Borough Bill, on account of its being restricted to municipal
+boroughs) in 1853, and forming part of a comprehensive scheme of
+legislative and administrative reform of which a portion was
+actually carried into effect. The bill as a measure for elementary
+education was supplemented by an administrative system of
+capitation grants for rural areas. The government scheme also
+comprised a measure dealing with the administration of charitable
+trusts (which took shape as the Charitable Trusts Act 1853), the
+constitution of the Department of Science and Art, and university
+reform upon the lines recommended by the Oxford and Cambridge
+commissions. The Borough Bill left it optional with municipalities
+to adopt the act. It provided for the appointment of a school
+committee, one half of whose members might be non-members of
+the council. The school committee was merely given power to
+assist existing voluntary schools out of the rates. No provision
+was made for public control beyond the requirement of audit;
+the sole condition as to religious instruction was the acceptance of
+a conscience clause.</p>
+
+<p>The failure of the Borough Bill did not affect the new system of
+capitation grants which was introduced by minute of the Committee
+of Council dated April 2, 1853. These grants
+were fixed at a scale varying from 3s. to 6s. per head,
+<span class="sidenote">Capitation grants.</span>
+payable upon certain conditions, of which the most
+important were that the school must be under a certificated
+teacher, and that three-fourths of the children must pass a
+prescribed examination. In consequence of the failure of the
+several fresh bills introduced in 1855 by the government, the
+church party and the secular party respectively amplifying the
+proposals previously brought forward, the capitation grant was,
+by minute of January 26, 1856, extended to urban areas. As in
+the case of all the early grants, the regulations governing the
+distribution of the capitation grants were framed upon the
+principle that subventions of public money must be met by local
+funds derived from voluntary contributions, endowments and
+school fees; thus the basis of the denominational system as
+fostered by the state at this stage was one of financial partnership.</p>
+
+<p>In 1856 a purely administrative bill was passed, establishing
+the office of vice-president of the Committee of Council
+<span class="sidenote">Education minister, 1856.</span>
+on Education as a minister responsible to parliament.
+At the same time, the Science and Art Department
+was transferred from the Board of Trade to the Committee
+of Council.</p>
+
+<p>The progress of state-aided education during this period may
+be measured by the increase of the annual parliamentary grant,
+which rose from £30,000 in 1839 to £100,000 in 1846,
+£150,000 in 1851, £396,000 in 1855, and £663,400 in
+1858. This expansion was viewed with misgiving
+<span class="sidenote">Newcastle Commission.</span>
+by the friends of the denominational system, and by
+the strong individualist school of that day, who upon wider
+grounds clung to the old ideal of voluntary initiative. These
+sections combined with the advocates of further state intervention
+to press for a commission of inquiry, and at the instance of
+Sir John Pakington (the eminent Conservative educationist
+who was responsible for the denominational bills of the &rsquo;fifties)
+a royal commission was appointed in 1858, under the chairmanship
+of the duke of Newcastle, to inquire into the state of popular
+education in England, and to consider and report what measures,
+if any, were required for the extension of sound and cheap
+elementary instruction to all classes of the people. The <i>Report</i>
+of the Newcastle Commission, issued in 1861, contains an exhaustive
+account of the existing condition of elementary education,
+and, with due allowance for the grave defects revealed,
+and in particular the glaring inefficiency of the numerous little
+private-venture schools kept by &ldquo;dames&rdquo; and others, the
+graphic picture drawn by the commissioners constitutes a
+striking tribute to the sterling qualities of self-help and religious
+earnestness which were so characteristic of the early Victorian
+period. It was found that in round numbers about 2,500,000
+children were attending day schools, the proportion to population
+being 1 in 7, as compared with 1 in 9 in France, 1 in 8 in Holland,
+and 1 in 6 in Prussia, where education was compulsory. On the
+other hand, of this number only 1,675,000 were in public schools
+of all kinds, only 1,100,000 in schools liable to inspection, and
+917,000 in schools receiving annual grant. The result was that
+only one child in every twenty was attending a school whose
+efficiency could be in any way guaranteed by the state. In
+the constructive portion of their work the comments and recommendations
+of the commissioners reflected the prevailing perplexity
+of the public mind. A consistent individualistic minority
+considered that the annual grant should be withdrawn altogether,
+and that any further state aid should be confined to building
+grants, which they would concede not as desirable in themselves
+but as necessitated out of considerations of fairness to the parishes
+that had not yet received such aid. The commissioners as a
+body rejected free and compulsory education in view of the
+religious difficulty and upon general grounds of individualistic
+principle. Of the religious difficulty itself the commissioners
+had some wise words to say which hold good in substance at the
+present time. In their judgment the considerable evidence they
+had amassed conclusively proved that the religious difficulty
+originated with the managers, promoters and organizers of the
+schools, and not with the parents themselves; yet the indifferent
+or comparatively passive attitude of the people nowise materially
+diminished the practical difficulty of introducing a comprehensive
+system, since it was not with the body of the people but with
+the founders and supporters of schools that legislators would
+always have to deal. In view of the solution adopted in 1902
+it is of interest to note that the Newcastle Commissioners deliberately
+rejected the parish as unfit to be taken as the unit of
+elementary education upon the ground that management by
+parochial ratepayers must tend to be illiberal and niggardly,
+bent upon economy of the rates to the detriment of educational
+interests; accordingly they recommended the constitution of
+county boards (which in the absence of elective councils must
+needs originate with quarter sessions) clothed with power to
+levy a rate for the aid of existing voluntary schools.</p>
+
+<p>The one definite achievement of the Newcastle Commission
+was the famous system of payment by results, which may be
+said to have excited a keener and more prolonged
+controversy than any other measure of a purely
+<span class="sidenote">Payment by results.</span>
+educational character. Impressed by the defects of
+the existing teaching, the commissioners reported that there
+was only one way of securing efficiency, and that was to institute
+a searching examination by competent authority of every
+child in every school to which grants were to be paid, with the
+view of ascertaining whether the indispensable elements of
+knowledge were thoroughly acquired, and to make the prospects
+and position of the teacher dependent to a considerable extent
+upon the results of this examination. Thus the commissioners
+hoped to counteract what appeared to them to be the crying
+defect of the existing training college system, viz. that it tended
+mainly to adapt the young schoolmaster to advance his higher,
+rather than to thoroughly ground his junior, pupils. They
+recognized that to raise the character of the children, both
+morally and intellectually, was and must always be the highest
+aim of education, and they were far from desiring to supersede
+this by any plan of a mere examination into the more mechanical
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page975" id="page975"></a>975</span>
+work of elementary education, the reading, writing and arithmetic
+of young children; but they thought that the importance
+of this training, which must be the foundation of all other
+teaching, had been lost sight of, and that there was justice in the
+common complaint that while a fourth of the scholars were
+really taught, three-fourths after leaving school forgot everything
+they had learnt there.</p>
+
+<p>Mr Lowe (Lord Sherbrooke) as vice-president of the Committee
+of Council (1859-1864) adopted the system of payment by results
+in what became famous in history as the Revised Code,
+issued in 1862 and so called because it was a revision
+<span class="sidenote">Revised Code.</span>
+of the minutes and regulations of the Committee of
+Council, which were first collected and issued in the form of a
+code in 1860. The Revised Code provided for the payment of a
+grant of 4s. upon the old principle and a further grant of not
+more than 8s. upon the result of examination. Mr Lowe declared
+of the system in the House of Commons that &ldquo;if it was costly
+it should at least be efficient; and if it was inefficient it should
+at least be cheap.&rdquo; In fact, it proved to be cheap; the giant
+fell from £813,400 in 1861 to £636,800 in 1865. The upholders
+of the existing system denounced the Revised Code as an undeserved
+slight upon the voluntary managers, and even as a
+breach of faith with the great religious denominations. On
+purely educational grounds, which need not be here re-capitulated,
+it was at once viewed with misgiving by many
+authorities, including Matthew Arnold. To meet objections,
+some modifications were introduced in the code under the
+Conservative government in 1867. The system of paying grant
+upon the result of individual examination of the scholars was not
+finally abolished till 1904.</p>
+
+<p>The years immediately preceding 1870 were occupied with
+discussion and preparation for the great legislative measure for
+which the time was now felt to have arrived. Good
+work was done in this direction by the Select Committee
+<span class="sidenote">Proceedings preliminary to the act of 1870.</span>
+of the House of Commons in 1866, over which Sir
+John Pakington presided. For reasons connected
+with the political situation of the moment this committee
+never reported, but the minutes of evidence and the
+draft report prepared by Sir John Pakington contained
+much valuable material in the way of criticism of the existing
+system and suggestion for the coming settlement; in particular
+the draft report insisted upon the inevitableness of an education
+rate. In 1868 the Conservative government brought in, but did
+not proceed with, an education bill deliberately discarding the
+principle of rate-aid on the ground that it would destroy voluntary
+contributions and gradually starve out the denominational
+schools. In 1867 and again in 1868 Mr Bruce (afterwards Lord
+Aberdare), Mr W.E. Forster and Mr Algernon Egerton introduced
+a bill which formed the basis of the measure of 1870. As
+redrafted in 1868 the bill of Mr Bruce and his coadjutors proposed
+a universal system of municipal and parochial rating with
+liberty for voluntary schools to unite themselves to the rate-aided
+system under their existing management, subject to the
+acceptance of a conscience clause. The bill also proposed to
+empower town councils to co-opt outsiders upon their education
+committees. Thus both in the principle of co-optation and in
+the extension of rate aid to schools not under public control
+the bill of these Liberal statesmen in 1868 anticipated certain
+controverted features of Mr Balfour&rsquo;s Education Act of 1902.
+In the meantime, in the country the Education League, originated
+at Birmingham, was carrying on a propaganda in favour of free
+secular schools, whilst the Education Union, formed to counteract
+the influence of the league, urged a settlement upon the old
+lines. As a concession to the popular feeling against secularism,
+the league proposed to allow Bible reading without doctrinal
+exposition. Thus opinion was sufficiently focussed to enable
+Mr Gladstone&rsquo;s administration in 1870 to undertake the comprehensive
+measure of educational reform for which the country
+had had to wait so long.</p>
+
+<p>The Elementary Education Act of 1870 bore in every respect
+the marks of compromise. As Mr Forster explained in introducing
+the bill, the object of the government was &ldquo;to complete
+the voluntary system and to fill up gaps,&rdquo; not to supplant it.
+<span class="sidenote">Act of 1870.</span>
+To this end the Education Department was charged with the
+duty of ascertaining whether or not there was in every
+parish a deficiency of public school accommodation,
+and provision made for the formation of school boards
+in every school district (<i>i.e.</i> parish or municipal borough)
+requiring further public school accommodation. Such accommodation
+might consist either of public elementary schools as
+defined by the act, or other schools giving efficient and suitable
+elementary education. The definition of public elementary
+school contained in section 7 of the act is still in force. Shortly,
+a public elementary school is a school subject to a conscience
+clause entitling scholars to complete exemption from all religious
+instruction and observance whatsoever. Any religious instruction
+or observance in the school must be either at the beginning
+or the end of the school meeting. The school must also be open
+at all times to the government inspectors and must be conducted
+in accordance with the conditions required to be fulfilled in order
+to obtain an annual parliamentary grant. In the same connexion
+an important change was made in the conditions of inspection
+by declaring that it should be no part of the duties of the inspector
+to inquire into religious instruction, whilst a later section
+of the act provided that no parliamentary grant should be made
+in respect of any religious instruction.</p>
+
+<p>Three important changes were made in the measure during
+its passage through parliament. As at first proposed, (1) the
+school boards were not to be directly elected by the ratepayers,
+but were to be appointed by the town council or the vestry.
+(2) These nominated boards were empowered either to provide
+schools themselves or to assist existing public elementary
+schools, provided that such assistance was granted on equal
+terms to all such schools, upon conditions to be approved by the
+Education Department. Thus the school board, if it exercised
+the option of assisting denominational schools, would have been
+obliged to assist all or none. (3) With regard to its own schools,
+the school board was to settle the form of religious instruction.
+These proposals raised serious opposition in the country, and
+when the committee stage of the bill was reached two fundamental
+changes were made in the policy of the bill. In the first
+place, as Mr Gladstone put it, the government had decided
+&ldquo;to sever altogether the tie between the local board and the
+voluntary schools.&rdquo; In lieu of the suggested rate-aid they
+proposed an increased grant from the treasury, that is to say,
+the voluntary schools were left standing as state-aided schools
+under private management, side by side with the new rate-supported
+schools.</p>
+
+<p>Next, the character of the religious instruction in the board
+schools was determined upon an undenominational basis by a
+provision which has become known to history after
+the name of its author, then Mr Cowper-Temple,
+<span class="sidenote">Cowper-Temple clause.</span>
+as the Cowper-Temple clause (section 14 of the act),
+directing that &ldquo;no religious catechism or religious
+formulary which is distinctive of any particular denomination
+shall be taught in the school.&rdquo; The clause was not intended
+to exclude doctrinal exposition, and was in fact a compromise
+not merely between absolute secularism and denominationalism,
+but between denominationalism and the view of those who would
+have the Bible read without note or comment. The Apostles&rsquo;
+Creed as a symbol common to all denominations of Christians
+was held by Mr Forster (at the suggestion of Mr Gladstone)
+not to be excluded under the Cowper-Temple clause. The result
+was the establishment in the schools, upon the lines laid down
+by Joseph Lancaster at the beginning of the 19th century, of
+what may be termed the common Protestantism of the English
+nation; and though Mr Disraeli urged that a religion without
+formularies was in fact a new religion, and that in leaving its
+exposition to the teachers we were creating a new sacerdotal
+class, the Cowper-Temple compromise, notwithstanding its inherent
+want of logic, stood the test of experience for more than
+a generation against the consistent denominationalists on the one
+hand and the party of secular education on the other. It is
+important to observe that the act of 1870 left the giving of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page976" id="page976"></a>976</span>
+religious instruction, whether in voluntary schools (in which its
+inclusion might be assumed as of course) or in board schools,
+purely permissive. In practice it was only in Wales that school
+boards availed themselves to any extent of the liberty to abstain
+from giving religious instruction, and this comparative secularism
+of Wales certainly argued no lack of religious life among the
+people.</p>
+
+<p>The third change in the bill was the substitution of the <i>ad hoc</i>
+school board for the municipally appointed board originally
+proposed, a change which commended itself in view of the special
+difficulty presented by the case of London. These boards were
+elected by the system of cumulative voting under which each
+elector had as many votes as there were candidates to be elected,
+with liberty to give all his votes to one candidate or to distribute
+them amongst the candidates as he thought fit. This system was
+much criticized as being unduly favourable to minorities, whose
+representation it was devised to secure; it continued, however,
+until the supersession of the <i>ad hoc</i> authorities by committees
+of the county and urban councils under the act of 1902.</p>
+
+<p>School boards were empowered not only to acquire sites for
+schools under powers of compulsory purchase, but also to take
+transfers of existing voluntary schools from their managers.
+The section which enables managers to transfer schools to the
+school board or local education authority for the purpose of
+board or council schools freed from religious trusts unquestionably
+marks an important inroad by the state upon the sanctity
+of trusts. Thus though the act of 1870 did not itself introduce
+the principle of compulsory transfer, it formed the point of departure
+for the proposals in this direction which were the basis of
+the unsuccessful bills of 1906 and 1908. The act of 1870 did not
+introduce either direct compulsory attendance or free education,
+but it took a distinct step forward in each direction by enabling
+school boards to frame by-laws rendering attendance compulsory,
+and also to pay the school fees in the case of poverty of the parent.</p>
+
+<p>The policy of compromise between the two systems of voluntary
+and rate-established schools was carried out in the provisions
+relating to the future supply of schools. On the one hand,
+building grants were continued temporarily for the benefit
+of those who applied (as voluntary managers alone could apply)
+before the 31st of December 1870. On the other hand, the
+Education Department was authorized to refuse parliamentary
+grants to schools established in school board districts after the
+passing of the act if they thought such schools unnecessary.</p>
+
+<p>The following figures are of interest as showing the progress
+made under the act of 1870. In the year 1870 there was accommodation
+in inspected day schools for about 2,000,000
+children; the average attendance was 1,168,000, and
+<span class="sidenote">Progress under the act of 1870.</span>
+the number on the books about 1,500,000. It was
+computed, however, that there were, exclusive of the
+well-to-do classes, at least 1,500,000 children who attended no
+school at all or schools not under inspection. In 1876 accommodation
+had been provided for nearly 3,500,000, and of
+the 1,500,000 new places nearly two-thirds were provided by
+voluntary agencies. &ldquo;These voluntary agencies,&rdquo; says Sir H.
+Craik, &ldquo;had received grants in aid for about one-third of the
+schools they had built, the grants defraying about one-fifth of
+the cost of the aided schools.&rdquo; On the other hand, the growth of
+school boards was rapid and continuous, notwithstanding the
+permissive character of the act and the strenuous efforts of
+the voluntaryists to keep pace with the new demands. In 1872,
+9,700,000 of the population were under school boards, and of
+these 8,142,000 were under by-laws; in 1876 the numbers were
+respectively 12,500,000 and 10,400,000. In the same period
+the annual grants increased from £894,000 in 1870 to £1,600,000
+in 1876.</p>
+
+<p>The development evidenced by the above figures, and in
+particular the fact that 52% of the population were subject to
+by-laws, enabled Mr Disraeli&rsquo;s government in 1876 to
+take a notable step forward in the direction of universal
+<span class="sidenote">Act of 1876.</span>
+direct compulsion. The act of 1876 embodied the
+declaration that &ldquo;it shall be the duty of the parent of every child
+to cause such child to receive efficient elementary instruction in
+reading, writing and arithmetic, and if such parent fail to
+perform such duty he shall be liable to such orders and penalties
+as are provided by the Act&rdquo;; next, it rendered an employer
+liable to a penalty who took into his employment a child under
+the age of ten years, or a child between the ages of ten and
+fourteen years who had not obtained the required certificate of
+proficiency in reading, writing and arithmetic, or of previous
+attendance at a certified efficient school. In order to complete
+the machinery for compulsion, the act directed that, in every
+district where there was no school board, a school attendance
+committee should be appointed by the local authority. The
+law as to school attendance, resting upon this and subsequent
+enactments, is complicated and in some details obscure. The
+subject was dealt with in the report of an inter-departmental
+committee in 1909, who recommended the abolition of the
+partial exemptions permitted, and the raising of the age of
+exemption to 13.</p>
+
+<p>In 1880 Mr Mundella, as vice-president of the Council in Mr
+Gladstone&rsquo;s administration, passed a short act which made the
+framing of by-laws compulsory upon school boards and
+school attendance committees, thus completing the
+<span class="sidenote">Act of 1880.</span>
+system of universal direct compulsion. Under the acts
+of 1876 and 1880 the average attendance increased from 2,000,000
+in 1876 to 3,500,000 in 1878 and 4,000,000 in 1881; in terms of
+percentage to population, 8.06 in 1876, 9.60 in 1878, and 10.69
+in 1881. In the last-mentioned year the annual grant rose to
+£2,200,000, having more than doubled in the decade.</p>
+
+<p>With the passing of the Elementary Education Act 1880 the
+education question entered upon a new phase. The country was
+now possessed of a national system of elementary
+education, in the sense that provision was made for
+<span class="sidenote">Development of public opinion.</span>
+the supply of efficient schools and for compulsory
+attendance. The question of free education was
+brought within the range of practical politics by the adoption of
+universal compulsion, but as yet it was advocated only by a small
+political group of pronounced collectivist tendencies. Whilst
+opinion was maturing on this topic, there began to force itself
+upon the public mind the vastly more difficult problem of
+combining the two systems of voluntary, denominational, state-aided
+schools on the one hand, and public, undenominational,
+rate-supported schools on the other. From the denominational
+point of view the problem presented itself as that of a burden
+imposed and a danger threatened in ever-increasing degree by the
+competition of the board schools, a competition that was felt not
+so much by direct rivalry of school with school as indirectly by
+the steady raising of the standard of efficiency with respect to
+buildings, equipment, salaries of teachers and educational
+attainment which inevitably resulted from the establishment of
+authorities with power to draw upon the rates. On the other
+hand, from the purely educational point of view, it was seen that
+the dual system tended in practice to an illicit but almost
+inevitable recognition of two standards of efficiency, the lower
+being conceded to voluntary schools in consideration of their
+comparative poverty. Experience, too, of the shortcomings of
+small country school boards was beginning to confirm the misgivings
+entertained long before by the Newcastle Commissioners
+as to the wisdom of entrusting autonomous powers to the parish,
+when the reform of local government by the creation of popularly
+elected county authorities turned attention once more to the
+question of organizing education upon a county basis.</p>
+
+<p>In 1887 a royal commission under the presidency of Viscount
+Cross was appointed to inquire into the working of the education
+acts. The labours of this commission produced a
+thorough discussion of the educational problem in all
+<span class="sidenote">Cross Commission, 1887.</span>
+its aspects, political, administrative, scholastic and
+religious. For any clear recommendations with regard
+to the reorganization of education generally the moment was not
+opportune, inasmuch as the commission just preceded the
+establishment of the new county authorities and the powers
+with respect to instruction other than elementary which parliament
+was shortly to confide to them under the Technical
+Instruction Acts. Nevertheless the report of the majority of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page977" id="page977"></a>977</span>
+commissioners pointed unmistakably towards the solution adopted
+in the act of 1902, and their definite recommendation that voluntary
+schools should be accorded rate-aid without the imposition of
+the Cowper-Temple clause, served as the basis of that legislation.
+The commission brought into strong relief the opposing currents
+of thought in educational politics, the majority report, representing
+the principles of denominationalism, being balanced by a
+strong minority report embodying the views of those who looked
+for progress along the lines of the school-board system. Taken
+together, the two reports form a comprehensive survey of the
+difficulties which still in the main beset public education in this
+country.</p>
+
+<p>Of the developments which followed the Cross report, it is
+convenient to mention in the first place, out of chronological
+sequence, the practical establishment of free education
+by the act of 1891, not by the absolute prohibition of
+<span class="sidenote">Elementary Education Act 1891.</span>
+school fees but by the device of a special grant payable
+by parliament in lieu of fees, called the fee grant.
+The result of this legislation and of subsequent administrative
+action was to place free education within the reach of every
+child, fees being retained (with few exceptions) only where some
+instruction of a higher elementary type was given.</p>
+
+<p>The establishment of county councils by the Local Government
+Act 1888 introduced a new factor which was destined to exert a
+determining influence upon subsequent developments
+of public education. In the first place, it at once
+<span class="sidenote">Education other than elementary.</span>
+rendered possible the partial and experimental provision
+for higher education attempted by the Technical
+Instruction Acts, which affected secondary education as well as
+technical education in the proper sense of the term. In order to
+understand the state of secondary education at this period, it is
+necessary to refer back to the first attempts made to deal with
+secondary education a generation earlier.</p>
+
+<p>In 1861, that is to say, nearly thirty years after the state began
+to concern itself with elementary education, the first step in the
+way of intervention in what is now called secondary or
+intermediate education was taken by the appointment
+<span class="sidenote">Public Schools Commission, 1861.</span>
+of a royal commission, presided over by Lord Clarendon,
+to inquire into the condition of nine of the chief
+endowed schools in the country, viz. Eton, Winchester, Westminster,
+Charterhouse, St Paul&rsquo;s, Merchant Taylors, Harrow,
+Rugby and Shrewsbury. The report of this commission led to a
+statute, the Public Schools Act of 1864, which introduced certain
+reforms in the administration of seven of these schools, leaving
+the two great London day schools, St Paul&rsquo;s and Merchant Taylors,
+outside its operation. The results achieved were seen to be
+important enough to call for a further and much wider inquiry.</p>
+
+<p>Accordingly in 1864 the Schools Inquiry Commission was
+appointed under the presidency of Lord Taunton to inquire into
+all the schools which had not been included either in
+the commission of 1861 or the Popular Education Commission
+<span class="sidenote">Schools Inquiry Commission, 1864-68.</span>
+of 1858. It included several men of eminent
+distinction, such as Dr Temple (afterwards archbishop
+of Canterbury), Mr W.E. Forster, Dean Hook, and Sir
+Stafford Northcote; and it was singularly fortunate in its staff of
+assistant commissioners, among whom were numbered Mr James
+Bryce, Mr Matthew Arnold, and Mr (afterwards Sir Joshua)
+Fitch. It thoroughly explored the field of secondary education,
+discussing all the problems, administrative and pedagogic, which
+the subject presents, and &ldquo;its luminous and exhaustive report&rdquo;
+(to quote the words of Mr Bryce&rsquo;s Commission of 1894) remains
+the best introduction to the problem of public secondary education
+in England. The existence of numerous and frequently very
+wealthy endowments arising from private benefactions and
+bequests has at all times been a feature in education as in other
+departments of English social life. In the organization of
+secondary education in particular, private endowments have
+played and continue still to play a part which cannot be
+paralleled in any other country. This circumstance has undoubtedly
+resulted in a great economy of resources, though in
+numerous instances the difficulties occasioned by the haphazard
+distribution of endowments and the local jealousies invariably
+aroused by any attempt to readjust their areas to modern
+conditions have obstructed useful reform and proved a source of
+misdirected and wasted effort. At the date of the Schools Inquiry
+Commission the state of the ancient endowments was largely one
+of abuse. Very many endowments intended for advanced
+education were applied for instruction of a purely elementary
+character, and that of an inferior kind; indeed the possession of
+an endowment in a rural locality not infrequently operated to
+prevent the establishment of an efficient state-aided school. The
+evidence showed that the proportion of scholars in the country
+grammar-schools who were receiving some tincture of the classical
+education intended by the founders was steadily decreasing, and
+nothing had been done to bring the curriculum into harmony with
+the actual needs of the time. No doubt a small élite of classical
+scholars were sent to the older universities by these schools, but in
+the main they were in a feeble and decadent state, giving, more or
+less inefficiently, an education wholly unsuited to the wants of
+the class to whom they ministered. In addition to the general
+inelasticity of the curriculum, the special evils from which the
+grammar-schools suffered were the want of effective governing
+bodies and the freehold tenure of the headmasterships.</p>
+
+<p>The commission was singularly successful in bringing about
+the reform of these abuses, its report being immediately followed
+in 1869 by the Endowed Schools Act, which was based
+upon its recommendations and conferred upon a special
+<span class="sidenote">Endowed Schools Acts 1869-74.</span>
+commission (united in 1874 with the Charity Commission)
+very wide and drastic powers of reorganizing
+ancient endowments. A direction for extending the benefits of
+endowments to girls did much to assist the movement for the
+secondary education of girls. The Endowed Schools Acts
+1869-1874 introduced modifications of importance and general
+interest into the law of trusts. Under the existing rules of the
+court of chancery, which rules were also binding upon the Charity
+Commissioners, educational endowments were generally treated,
+in the absence of evidence to the contrary, as subject to a trust
+for instruction in the doctrines of the Church of England. Under
+the Endowed Schools Acts the presumption is reversed, and
+ancient trusts are treated as free from denominational restrictions,
+save in virtue of express conditions imposed by or under the
+authority of the founder. The result was that in framing schemes
+for the reorganization of ancient endowed schools the commissioners
+found themselves able to treat the majority of
+cases as undenominational. In such cases the general practice
+was to direct that instruction should, subject to a strict conscience
+clause, be given in the principles of the Christian faith; this
+provision corresponded in a way to the Cowper-Temple clause in
+elementary education, with the important distinction that it
+was positive, not negative, and did not exclude special doctrinal
+instruction.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the recommendations for the reform of endowed
+schools, to which substantial effect was given directly or indirectly
+by means of the Endowed Schools Acts, the
+Schools Inquiry Commission also submitted proposals
+<span class="sidenote">Schools Inquiry Commission&rsquo;s proposals for reform of secondary education.</span>
+for the general administrative organization of a system
+of secondary education. They recommended the
+establishment of three authorities&mdash;(1) a central
+authority; (2) a local or provincial authority, representing
+the county or a group of counties, with a certain
+jurisdiction both in proposing schemes for the reform
+of endowed schools in their area (such as that afterwards conferred
+upon the joint education committees under the Welsh
+Intermediate Education Act), and in administering these
+schools; and (3) a central council of education charged with
+examination duties. Further, it was proposed to raise the level
+of proprietary and private schools by offering them inspection
+and examination and by establishing a system of school registration.
+Lastly, in order that the supply of public secondary schools
+might not be dependent upon endowments, it was proposed to
+confer upon towns and parishes powers of rating for the establishment
+of new schools. For these proposals as a whole the time
+was not ripe. The bill of 1869 as originally introduced in the
+House of Commons attempted to give effect, with some variations,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page978" id="page978"></a>978</span>
+to one of these suggestions, namely, that for the creation of a
+central council, but exigencies of parliamentary time made it
+necessary to drop this part of the measure; the result was that
+the plan of the commissioners was only half carried out. Nevertheless,
+owing to the multiplicity and wealth of endowments,
+the work accomplished was sufficient to exert a considerable
+influence upon the secondary education of the country. Thus
+in 1895 Mr Bryce&rsquo;s Commission was able to report that schemes
+under the Endowed Schools Acts had been made for 902 endowments
+in England, excluding Wales and Monmouth, leaving
+only 546 endowments out of the total of 1448 endowments in
+England known to be subject to the Endowed Schools Acts,
+which had not felt the reforming hand of the commissioners. The
+total income of the endowments known to be Subject to the Endowed
+Schools Acts, and therefore available for purposes of
+secondary education, according to the estimate of the Secondary
+Education Commission (still in 1909 the latest available source
+of complete information), was in 1895 about £735,000 gross.</p>
+
+<p>Twenty years after the Schools Inquiry Commission the
+creation by the Local Government Act in 1888 of the representative
+and popular county authorities of which the
+need had been felt by reformers alike in secondary and
+<span class="sidenote">Technical Instruction Acts 1889, &amp;c.</span>
+elementary education, rendered the first step in the
+direction of the municipalization of secondary instruction
+at last possible. In 1889 the Technical Instruction Act
+(extended in some particulars by an act of 1891) empowered
+the councils of counties, boroughs and urban districts to levy
+a rate (not exceeding a penny in the pound) for the support or
+aid of technical or manual instruction. Comparatively few
+councils were prepared to resort to their rating powers, but
+progress under these acts was greatly facilitated by the Local
+Taxation (Customs and Excise) Act of 1890, which mentioned
+technical instruction as one of the purposes to which the imperial
+contribution paid to local authorities in respect of the beer and
+spirit duties might be applied. By virtue of the very liberal
+interpretation given to technical instruction by these acts the
+financial assistance afforded under them was extended to cover
+the whole field of mathematical and physical science, as well as
+modern languages.</p>
+
+<p>The Department of Science and Art acted as an agency in
+the development of secondary education upon the same lines as
+the Technical Instruction Acts, administering a parliamentary
+grant which was gradually extended with a
+<span class="sidenote">Grants of science and art department.</span>
+view to encouraging literary studies as well as the
+scientific and mathematical subjects to the promotion
+of which it was primarily directed. Thus the combined
+effect of the local resources available under the Technical
+Instruction Act and the imperial grant administered by
+the department was gradually to develop a national system of
+secondary education with a marked bias on the side of
+physical science.</p>
+
+<p>An undoubted stimulus was given to secondary education in
+the great centres of industry during the last quarter of the
+19th century by the rise of the new university colleges,
+<span class="sidenote">Influence of new university colleges.</span>
+among which must be reckoned those established
+expressly for women. In the main the influence of
+these new institutions made for a non-classical and
+scientific type of curriculum in the popular secondary schools.</p>
+
+<p>At the same time, the pressure of the school boards influenced
+secondary education in two ways. In the first place, the elementary
+schools were found to act as feeders for
+schools of a higher type, and the idea of the &ldquo;educational
+<span class="sidenote">Influence of school boards.</span>
+ladder&rdquo; began to play a leading part in plans
+for the organization of national education. It was
+seen that there must be schools to which the more advanced
+scholars could pass from the public elementary schools, and
+scholarships to assist such scholars to continue their education
+in this way. In the next place, it was recognized that to provide
+adequately for the further education of public elementary
+scholars a new type of school was required. Thus there came
+into being through the initiative of the great school boards
+what were known as higher-grade elementary schools. These
+were really secondary schools of the third grade, and, as the
+Commission on Secondary Education observed, the school boards
+simply stepped in to fill the educational void which the Schools
+Inquiry Commissioners had proposed to fill by schools of that
+name. The happy obscurity of the legal definition of elementary
+education left these schools free to develop during the long years
+of the neglect of secondary education by the state, and when in
+1901 the famous judgment in the test case of <i>Rex</i> v. <i>Cockerton</i>
+pronounced them to be illegal, it was at once recognized that
+the legislature must without delay step in to secure the educational
+work which the undoubtedly correct principles of judicial
+interpretation had placed in jeopardy.</p>
+
+<p>Such were the agencies at work in the domain of secondary
+education when in 1894 a royal commission was appointed
+under the presidency of Mr Bryce to inquire into this
+branch of education. The terms of reference excluded
+<span class="sidenote">Secondary Education Commission, 1894.</span>
+elementary education, and the report may be taken
+as embodying the views of that school of educational
+statesmen who held that progress would best be attained
+by keeping elementary and secondary education entirely separate
+for purposes of local administration, the parish being regarded
+as the natural unit for elementary and the county for secondary
+education, a topic to which it will be necessary to revert in connexion
+with the act of 1902. The principal recommendations
+of the commission were: (1) the unification of the existing
+central authorities, viz. the Department of Science and Art,
+the Charity Commission (so far as it dealt with educational
+endowments), and the Education Department, in one central
+office, and the establishment of an educational council to advise
+the minister of education in certain professional matters; (2)
+the establishment of local authorities, to consist of committees
+of the county councils with co-opted elements; (3) the formation
+of a register of teachers with a view to the encouragement of
+professional training, and a system of school registration upon
+the basis of inspection and examination. The first of these
+recommendations was carried out by the Board of Education
+Act 1899, as mentioned below, and under the same act an
+attempt was made to give some effect to the third-named object,
+which, though it unfortunately fell short of success, may serve
+as a point of departure for further efforts. The realization of
+the second, and the most important, of the recommendations
+was deferred till 1902, when it was brought about as a part of a
+wider reorganization of the educational system.</p>
+
+<p>The religious difficulty in elementary education during the
+period immediately succeeding the report of Mr Bryce&rsquo;s Commission
+in 1895 once more reached an acute stage, and
+this circumstance was immediately unfavourable to a
+<span class="sidenote">Agitation on behalf of voluntary schools.</span>
+resolute handling of educational problems as such,
+public attention being largely concentrated upon the
+demand of the supporters of voluntary schools for
+relief from the growing financial burden which was laid upon
+them by that steady raising of the standard to which reference has
+been made above. In 1896 an endeavour was made to meet
+the demands of the voluntary managers by means of a bill
+introduced by Sir John Gorst on behalf of the Conservative
+government. This bill with its provision for a special aid
+grant to be administered by county education authorities,
+which were to exist side by side with the school boards, represented
+a kind of compromise between the systems of 1870 and
+1902. It encountered opposition in all quarters and was withdrawn.
+In 1897, however, the position of the denominational
+schools was strengthened by the Voluntary Schools Act, which
+provided for a special aid grant of five shillings per head of the
+scholars in average attendance in these schools.</p>
+
+<p>In view of the difficulties which beset any comprehensive
+treatment of the education question, partial effect was given
+to the recommendations of the Secondary Education
+Commission by the Board of Education Act of 1899,
+<span class="sidenote">Board of Education Act 1899.</span>
+which abolished the office of vice-president of the
+council, united the Department of Science and Art with
+the Education Department in one central office under the title
+of the Board of Education, with a president and parliamentary
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page979" id="page979"></a>979</span>
+secretary; and provided for the transfer to this board of the
+powers of the Charity Commissioners in relation to educational
+endowments; also for the association with the board of a consultative
+committee, consisting as to not less than two-thirds
+of persons qualified to represent the views of university and
+other bodies interested in education, for the purpose (1) of
+framing a register of qualified teachers, and (2) of advising the
+Board of Education upon any matters referred to the committee
+by the board. The administrative reorganization of the Education
+Office was completed shortly after the passing of the act
+of 1902, when a tripartite division was adopted to correspond
+with the three branches of education with which the Board
+of Education is concerned, viz. elementary, secondary and
+technological.</p>
+
+<p>No law of recent years has excited an acuter or more prolonged
+controversy than the Education Act of 1902, and amid the dust
+of religious and political strife it is not easy for contemporaries
+to view it objectively and in its true
+<span class="sidenote">Act of 1902, general principles.</span>
+proportions. Nevertheless, considered historically,
+the act becomes intelligible as the product of the
+forces, partly religious and partly educational, which have been
+already described. The immediate impulse for this measure
+must be sought in the agitation that during the preceding
+decade had been gathering force among the adherents of the
+Established and Roman Catholic churches for equality of
+financial treatment as between voluntary and board schools.
+It must be placed to the credit of the constructive statesmanship
+of the Conservative party that it availed itself of an ecclesiastical
+agitation to take an important step forward in the organization
+of national education. The difficulty inherent in such a measure
+was the admitted difficulty of securing public control, as a necessary
+concomitant of public maintenance, without jeopardizing
+or destroying the special religious character of the voluntary
+schools. The act of 1902 sought to solve this problem, so
+difficult of solution under democratic conditions, upon the
+principle of a division of financial responsibility justifying a
+corresponding division of control between the voluntary managers
+and the local authority. The constitution of the local authority
+to be charged not only with the delicate duty of participating
+in the dual control of the voluntary public elementary schools,
+but also with the responsible task of co-ordinating public higher
+with public elementary education, presented features of controversy
+only less formidable than the purely religious question
+itself. Boldly reversing the settlement of 1870, the act of 1902
+abolished the parochial school boards, and with them the system
+of <i>ad hoc</i> election, and made the county councils, already seised
+of technical and secondary education under the Technical
+Instruction Acts, the local authorities for all forms of education,
+thus reverting to the solution propounded by Conservative
+statesmanship in the middle period of the 19th century and
+endorsed by an important memorandum contributed by Lord
+Sandford (formerly permanent secretary of the Education
+Department) to the report of the Cross Commission. The
+unquestionable niggardliness and inefficiency of many small
+country school boards, which had been foretold by the prescience
+of the Newcastle Commissioners, constituted the chief educational
+argument for the selection of the wider area so far as the interests
+of elementary education alone were concerned. On the other
+hand, experience has shown that in the rural districts against
+the undoubted gain in general efficiency there must be set a
+certain loss on account of the decay of local and personal interest
+consequent upon the centralization of authority in the hands of
+the county councils. Account, too, must be taken of the comparative
+heaviness with which a uniform county rate is apt to
+press upon sparsely populated agricultural parishes, especially
+in counties which include considerable industrial districts.
+Notwithstanding these minor drawbacks, it may be said that
+upon the whole the best opinion has endorsed the policy of 1902
+with respect to the area of administration. At any rate it has
+been necessary to recognize the impracticability of disestablishing
+the strongly organized provincial authorities which the act
+brought into being, and proposals for amendment in this particular
+have been confined to schemes, favoured in principle by
+all parties, for securing some measure of decentralization and
+delegation of powers calculated to restore and stimulate local
+interest without derogating from the financial and administrative
+responsibility of the county council.</p>
+
+<p>The principal provisions of the act of 1902 may be summarized
+as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Part I. Local Education Authority. The council of every county
+and of every county borough is the local education
+authority for the purposes of the act, <i>i.e.</i> for both higher
+and elementary education, but for the purpose of elementary
+<span class="sidenote">Act of 1902, summary of provisions.</span>
+education autonomous powers are conferred upon
+boroughs with a population of over 10,000, and urban
+districts with a population of over 20,000 (§ 1).</p>
+
+<p>Part II. Higher Education. &ldquo;The L.E.A. (local education
+authority) shall consider the educational needs of their area and take
+such steps as seem to them desirable, after consultation with the
+Board of Education, to supply or aid the supply of education other
+than elementary, and to promote the general co-ordination of all
+forms of education.&rdquo; For this purpose the application of the money
+received by the local authority under the Local Taxation (Customs
+and Excise) Act 1890, heretofore optional, is made compulsory, and
+power is given to levy a rate which in the case of a county is not
+to exceed two pence in the pound, or such higher rate as the county
+council with the consent of the Local Government Board may fix
+(§ 2). Concurrent powers are given to the councils of non-county
+boroughs and urban districts, with the limit of a penny rate (§ 3).
+A council must not require any particular form of religious instruction
+or observance, but the usual conscience clause in schools, colleges,
+or hostels provided by the council is modified by a provision for
+facilities for any particular religious instruction to be given at the
+request of parents of scholars at such times and under such conditions
+as the council think desirable, otherwise than at the cost of the
+council (§ 4).</p>
+
+<p>Part III. Elementary Education. (1) Powers and duties. School
+boards and school attendance committees are abolished and their
+powers and duties are transferred to the L.E.A., who are also to be
+responsible for and have the control of all secular instruction in
+public elementary schools not provided by them (§ 5).</p>
+
+<p>(2) Management of schools. (<i>a</i>) For public elementary schools
+provided by the L.E.A. (now officially styled &ldquo;council schools&rdquo;):
+(1) in counties, there is to be a body of six managers, viz. four
+appointed by the county council and two by the borough or urban
+district council, or parish council or parish meeting as the case may
+be, called in the act the minor local authority; (2) in non-county
+areas, the L.E.A. (being the borough or urban district council) may,
+if they think fit, appoint a body of managers consisting of such
+number as they may determine (§ 6 [1]).</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) For schools not provided by the L.E.A. (voluntary schools) the
+act directs that there shall be a body of six managers, of whom four
+are to be &ldquo;foundation managers,&rdquo; and two are to be appointed as
+follows: in counties, one by the L.E.A. and one by the minor local
+authority, and in autonomous boroughs or urban districts both by
+the borough or urban district council (§ 6 [2]). Directions for the
+appointment of foundation managers are given by § 11, which in
+effect declares that, unless the trust deed of the school provides
+for the appointment of the required number, the foundation managers
+must be appointed under an order of the Board of Education, in
+making which the board are to have regard to the ownership of the
+school building and to the principles on which the education given
+in the school had been conducted in the past. It was found necessary
+for the board to make over 11,000 of these orders, a heavy task which
+was rendered the more formidable by the controversial character
+of the questions arising upon trust deeds as to the mode of
+appointment and the qualifications of managers.</p>
+
+<p>(3) Maintenance of schools (§ 7). (<i>a</i>) Powers. The L.E.A. are
+required to maintain and keep efficient all public elementary schools
+which were necessary (<i>i.e.</i> which, as defined by § 9, have an average
+attendance of not less than thirty), under certain specified conditions,
+of which the most material are as follows. The managers
+must carry out the directions of the L.E.A. as to the secular instruction
+to be given in the school, including any directions with respect
+to the number and educational qualifications of the teachers, and
+for the dismissal of any teacher on educational grounds (§ 7 [1]
+[<i>a</i>]). The consent of the L.E.A. is required to the appointment of
+teachers, but that consent may not be withheld except on educational
+grounds; and the consent of the authority is also required to the
+dismissal of a teacher unless the dismissal is on grounds connected
+with the giving of religious instruction (§7 [1] [<i>c</i>]).</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) Liabilities. The managers are required to provide the school
+premises to the L.E.A. for use as a public elementary school free of
+charge, except that a rent is payable for the teacher&rsquo;s residence
+where one exists; and the managers are further required out of
+funds provided by them to keep the school premises in good repair
+and to make such alterations and improvements in the buildings as
+might reasonably be required by the L.E.A. On the other hand,
+the L.E.A. are required to make good such damage as they consider
+to be due to fair wear and tear of rooms used by them (§ 7 [1] [<i>d</i>]).
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page980" id="page980"></a>980</span>
+Thus, by virtue of the teacher&rsquo;s house rent and the wear-and-tear
+allowance the voluntary managers secured a valuable set-off against
+the cost of ordinary repairs.</p>
+
+<p>Any question arising under this section (§ 7) between the L.E.A.
+and the managers of a voluntary school is to be determined by the
+Board of Education (§ 7 [3]).</p>
+
+<p>It is further provided with respect to teachers in voluntary schools
+that assistant teachers and pupil teachers may be appointed &ldquo;if it
+is thought fit&rdquo; without reference to religious creed and denomination,
+and in any case in which there are more candidates for the post of
+pupil teacher than there are places to be filled, the appointment is
+to be made by the L.E.A. (§ 7. [5]).</p>
+
+<p>A provision, § 7 (6), known from the name of its author (d. 1908),
+Colonel Kenyon Slaney, M.P., as the Kenyon-Slaney clause, attracted
+considerable attention and formed the subject of much ecclesiastical
+controversy during the passage of the bill through parliament.
+The Kenyon-Slaney clause requires the religious instruction in
+voluntary schools to be in accordance with the provisions (if any) of
+the trust deed, but also to be under the control of the managers
+as a whole, whereas the common form of trust deed of the National
+Society reserves the control of religious instruction to the clergyman,
+whilst the clause was equally in conflict with the well-known sacerdotal
+principles of the Roman Catholic Church. Thus the clause
+represented a revival, as did the questions with respect to foundation
+managers, of the early controversy over the management clauses of
+the Committee of Council on Education. Its special interest lies,
+not so much in its intrinsic importance, as in the precedent it affords,
+specially notable as emanating from a Conservative source, for the
+overruling of trust deeds upon grounds of public policy. By way of
+saving another familiar provision of the trust deeds, a proviso to the
+Kenyon-Slaney clause reserves the existing trust-deed rights of
+appeal to the bishop or other denominational authority as to the
+character of the religious instruction.</p>
+
+<p><i>Provision of New Schools.</i>&mdash;New schools may be provided either
+by the L.E.A. or any other persons, subject to the issue of three
+months&rsquo; public notice, and to a right of appeal on the part of the
+managers of any existing school, the L.E.A. (in the case of proposed
+voluntary schools) or any ten ratepayers of the district, to the Board
+of Education on the ground that the proposed school is not required,
+or that a school provided by the L.E.A., or not so provided, as the
+case might be, is better suited to meet the wants of the district than
+the proposed school. Any enlargement of a public elementary school
+which in the opinion of the Board of Education is such as to amount
+to the provision of a new school is to be so treated for the purposes
+of the section, and any transfer of a school to or from the L.E.A.
+must be treated as the provision of a new school. In deciding appeals
+as to new schools and in determining a case of dispute whether a
+school was necessary or not, the board are directed to have regard
+to the interest of secular instruction, the wishes of parents as to the
+education of children, and the economy of the rates, but existing
+schools are not to be considered unnecessary if the average attendance
+is not less than thirty (§§ 8-9). The last-mentioned canons
+have played a prominent part in subsequent discussions. Experience
+of these sections has shown that though it is extremely difficult to
+set up new voluntary schools in face of opposition from the L.E.A.,
+such opposition is rarely offered or pressed where any really strong
+local demand is shown to exist.</p>
+
+<p><i>Aid Grant.</i>&mdash;Section 10 provides a new aid grant payable to the
+L.E.A. in respect of the number of scholars in average attendance
+in schools maintained by them. This new grant, calculated by an
+elaborate method which need not here be set out, took the place of
+the grants under the Voluntary Schools Act 1897, and § 97 of the
+act of 1870 as amended by the Elementary Education Act 1897.</p>
+
+<p><i>Education Committees.</i>&mdash;The constitution of education committees
+is dealt with by § 17. All councils having powers under the act,
+except those having concurrent powers as to higher education only,
+must establish education committees in accordance with schemes
+made by the councils and approved by the Board of Education
+(§ 17 [1]). A scheme may provide for more than one education
+committee under a single council, but before approving such a scheme
+the board must satisfy themselves that due regard is paid to the
+importance of the general co-ordination of all forms of education
+(§ 17 [6]). All matters relating to the exercise by a council of their
+powers under the act, except the power of raising a rate or borrowing
+money, stand referred to the education committee; the council
+may also delegate to the education committee any of their powers
+other than financial powers as above (§ 17 [2]). Every scheme must
+provide (<i>a</i>) for the appointment of a majority of the committee by
+the council, the persons so appointed to be persons who are members
+of the council unless in the case of a county the council otherwise
+determine; (<i>b</i>) for the appointment by the council, on the nomination
+or recommendation, where it appears desirable, of other bodies
+(including associations of voluntary schools) of persons of experience
+in education, and of persons acquainted with the needs of the various
+kinds of schools in the area of the council; (<i>c</i>) for the inclusion of
+women. Provision was also made (<i>d</i>) for the representation in the
+first instance of members of existing school boards (§ 17 [3]).</p>
+
+<p><i>Expenses.</i>&mdash;All parliamentary grants are made payable to the
+L.E.A. instead of as previously to the managers (§ 18 [2]). The
+county council must charge a proportion of all capital expenditure
+and liabilities, including rent, on account of the provision or improvement
+of any public elementary school on the parish or parishes
+which in the opinion of the council are served by the school, such
+proportion to be not less than one-half or more than three-fourths
+as the council think fit (§ 18 [1] [<i>c</i>] [<i>d</i>]). The county council may also
+if they think fit charge on the parishes benefited any expenses
+incurred with respect to education other than elementary (§ 18
+[1] [<i>a</i>]).</p>
+
+<p><i>Endowments.</i>&mdash;The act introduced a new principle into the
+administration of endowments by directing that their income so
+far as necessarily applicable in any case for those purposes of a public
+elementary school for which the local authority are liable must be
+paid to that authority for the relief of the parochial rate (§ 13).
+As the result of technicalities of legal interpretation the section has
+been found to have in practice a narrower scope than had been
+generally anticipated.</p>
+
+<p>The act of 1902 was extended to London by a separate act in 1903,
+containing certain special provisions of only minor importance.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The hostility of Nonconformists to the extension of rate-aid to
+denominational schools led to the organization upon a considerable
+scale of what became known as the &ldquo;Passive
+Resistance&rdquo; movement, a number of Nonconformist
+<span class="sidenote">&ldquo;Passive resistance&rdquo; to 1902 act. Default Act 1904.</span>
+rate-payers refusing to pay the education rate on the
+ground that their consciences forbade their supporting
+the religious teaching in denominational schools;
+and their willingness to become subject to distraint
+and consequent inconveniences rather than pay the rates became
+the foundation of a widespread political campaign. In Wales,
+where in the rural districts the schools were commonly Anglican
+whilst the population was Nonconformist, particular difficulties
+arose in administering the act in consequence of the hostile
+attitude of the county authorities. Friction likewise manifested
+itself in one or two English areas, which reflected militant
+Nonconformist views. Accordingly the government passed
+the Local Education (Local Authority Default) Act 1904,
+empowering the Board of Education, in the case of default by
+the local authority, to make payments direct to the managers
+of the school and to deduct the amount from the sums payable
+to the defaulting authority on account of parliamentary grants.</p>
+
+<p>When the liberal party came into power again in 1906, Mr
+Birrell as president of the Board of Education in Sir Henry
+Campbell-Bannerman&rsquo;s administration introduced a
+bill to amend the Education Acts 1902-1903, with
+<span class="sidenote">Bill of 1906.</span>
+the object of securing full public control of all rate-aided
+schools and the appointment of teachers without reference
+to religious belief. The bill was of a highly complex character;
+its principal features were,&mdash;compulsory transfer of existing
+voluntary schools to the local authority, facilities for the giving
+of denominational instruction in transferred schools out of school
+hours by persons other than the regular teachers, and the recognition
+in populous districts, upon the demand of parents, of
+special publicly maintained schools in which denominational
+teaching could be included in the curriculum; the latter schools
+might (according to the bill as finally amended) in the last resort,
+<i>i.e.</i> if the local authority refused to maintain them, be recognized
+as state-aided schools. The bill encountered strong opposition
+from Anglicans and Catholics (though the Catholic Irish members
+finally voted for it as amended); it passed the House of Commons
+by a large majority, but after unavailing attempts at compromise
+upon the amendments introduced in the House of Lords, the
+two Houses failed to agree and the measure was lost.</p>
+
+<p>Mr Birrell was soon transferred to another office, and nothing
+more was done to amend the act of 1902 till early in the session
+of 1908, his successor Mr McKenna introduced a bill
+based on what was known as &ldquo;contracting out.&rdquo; In
+<span class="sidenote">Bills of 1908.</span>
+single-school parishes the existing schools were to be
+compulsorily transferred, subject to the grant of denominational
+facilities out of school hours; elsewhere a sufficiency of places
+in schools with Cowper-Temple teaching, which the bill proposed
+to make compulsory in all provided schools, must be supplied
+by the local authority, while existing voluntary schools might
+become state-aided schools upon terms of receiving a grant of
+47s. per head. The bill was accompanied by a financial scheme
+for a new system of allocating the parliamentary grant. In
+view of the improbability of its passing into law the bill was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page981" id="page981"></a>981</span>
+not pressed beyond the stage of second reading. Meanwhile,
+when Mr Asquith reorganized the cabinet, Mr Runciman succeeded
+Mr McKenna at the education office, and in the autumn he
+introduced a fresh measure framed as the result of negotiations
+between the government and the archbishop of Canterbury
+(Dr Randall Davidson) and designed to be passed rapidly
+through parliament by consent of all parties. Mr Runciman&rsquo;s
+bill, like his predecessor&rsquo;s, was based upon the principle of
+compulsory transfer in single-school parishes and contracting
+out elsewhere, but it gave a right of entry for denominational
+teaching on two days a week during school hours in all council
+schools whether transferred voluntary schools or otherwise,
+with liberty to employ for this purpose assistant teachers, but
+not (save temporarily at first in transferred schools) head teachers.
+Provision was also made for the payment of a small rent which
+would be applicable for or towards the cost of the denominational
+instruction. Unfortunately, the compromise failed at the last
+moment for want of agreement as to the financial terms of
+&ldquo;contracting out,&rdquo; the government offering 50s. per head and
+the Church demanding 7s. more. It is obvious that &ldquo;contracting
+out&rdquo; is open to serious objection upon educational and economic
+grounds, and that if resorted to upon any very considerable
+scale it would involve a disruption of the public elementary
+system, and a duplication of schools which would constitute
+a wasteful drain upon the national exchequer. Upon such a
+system, therefore, some check is necessary, and, once decided
+that the check should take the form of financial pressure, rather
+than request of parents as in Mr Birrell&rsquo;s bill, or some form of
+administrative control, the question of pecuniary terms became
+one of principle and not merely of financial detail. Moreover,
+the difficulty of adjusting differences was intensified by the
+opposition of the extremists on either side, which daily gathered
+force, and the bill was withdrawn by the government when in
+committee of the House of Commons. The conciliatory efforts
+of Mr Runciman and Dr Randall Davidson revealed the existence
+of a considerable body of influential opinion among all schools
+of thought in favour of a national compromise, and the proposals
+embodied in the bill marked on the part both of Churchmen
+and Nonconformists important concessions to each other&rsquo;s
+views, engendering reasonable hopes of an ultimate settlement
+being reached at no distant date.</p>
+
+<p>Two subsidiary points as regards educational machinery have
+to be noted. The Education (Provision of Meals) Act 1906
+enabled local education authorities to aid voluntary
+agencies in the provision of meals for children attending
+<span class="sidenote">Feeding of school children.</span>
+public elementary schools, and in certain cases with
+the consent of the Board of Education to defray the
+cost of the food themselves. In 1907-1908 forty, and in 1908-1909
+seventy-five authorities in England and Wales were authorized by
+the board to expend moneys from the rates on food under this
+act. In addition, a number of authorities expended funds on
+equipment and service.</p>
+
+<p>In 1907 an uncontroversial act entitled the Education (Administrative
+Provisions) Act, besides dealing with various matters
+of technical and administrative detail, laid upon local
+education authorities the new duty of providing for
+<span class="sidenote">Medical inspection.</span>
+the medical inspection of all children attending public
+elementary schools. In connexion with this act the
+Board of Education established a medical department to advise
+and assist them in supervising local education authorities in
+carrying out their statutory duties in this regard. The whole
+departure is significant of the new sense of the importance of
+physical culture and hygiene which has been one of the remarkable
+features in recent educational developments.</p>
+
+<p>Sir Joshua Fitch, in his article on education in the 10th
+edition of this work, describes how experience had led the
+Education Department to abandon the system of
+payment by results, to establish &ldquo;in place of testing
+<span class="sidenote">General progress in elementary education.</span>
+the proficiency of individual scholars, ... one summary
+estimate of the work of the school; in place of
+an annual examination, occasional inspection without
+notice; in place of a variable grant dependent on a report in
+detail on the several subjects of instruction and on particular
+educational merits and defects, one block grant payable to all
+schools alike.&rdquo; He at the same time expressed some misgiving
+as to the effect of &ldquo;so large a relaxation of the conditions by
+which it had hitherto been sought to secure accuracy and
+thoroughness in teaching.&rdquo; The act of 1902, by placing secular
+education in public elementary schools under the control of
+strongly organized local education authorities may be said to
+have largely removed such dangers as were to be apprehended
+from the relaxation in question. Thus it was possible for the
+Board of Education in the code of 1904 to abolish the last traces
+of the system of payment by results, by setting forth (in the
+language of their report for 1903-1904) &ldquo;a properly co-ordinated
+curriculum suitable to the needs of the children, with an indication
+of the relation which the various subjects of instruction
+should bear to each other, in place of the relatively haphazard
+list of possible branches of knowledge which were formerly
+presented to the choice of individual schools or authorities.&rdquo;
+In the new code also the board for the first time endeavoured
+to state for the guidance of teachers and parents the proper aim
+of the public elementary school, laying stress upon that element
+of the training of character which the system of payment by
+results had so unfortunately obscured. The new spirit was
+strikingly manifested in the volume of <i>Suggestions for the Considerations
+of Teachers</i>, issued by the Board of Education in 1905.
+This volume represented a notable attempt to connect administration
+with educational theory, without in any way seeking
+to crush individual initiative, or to impose a bureaucratic
+uniformity of method upon those engaged in the actual work
+of the schools. Apprehension of the true aim of elementary
+education as essentially and primarily a preparation for practical
+life has led to a corresponding development of instruction of a
+practical character, observation lessons and nature study being
+treated as a necessary element in the curriculum, while handicraft
+and gardening, and domestic subjects (for girls), are encouraged
+by special grants. Particular attention has been bestowed both
+by the central and local authorities upon the problem of rural
+instruction, and much has been done in many areas to bring the
+schools into closer relations with the needs of agricultural and
+rural life generally. In this way the old and perhaps not altogether
+ill-founded distrust of popular education as tending to
+unfit the working classes for industrial pursuits is being broken
+down and a public opinion more favourable to educational
+progress in the widest sense is being created.</p>
+
+<p>According to the official returns for 1907-1908, the total number
+of scholars on the registers (England only) was as follows:&mdash;council
+schools, 2,991,741; voluntary schools, 2,566,030;
+total, 5,557,771, and the total attendance upon which grant
+was paid was 4,928,659. The percentage of actual average
+attendance to average number on the registers was 88.50%.
+The parliamentary grant (England and Wales) for elementary
+schools, other than higher elementary, amounted to £11,023,433.</p>
+
+<p>The development of higher elementary education in England
+is now proceeding very much upon the lines that have been noted
+in France. The old higher-grade board-schools
+(declared illegal under the Elementary Education Acts
+<span class="sidenote">Higher elementary schools.</span>
+by the judgment in the case of <i>Rex</i> v. <i>Cockerton</i> in
+1901, and legalized temporarily by an act passed for
+the purpose in the same year) were mostly converted into
+municipal secondary schools under the act of 1902. In the
+succeeding years provision was made in the code for higher
+elementary schools of a specialized and technical type intended
+only for industrial districts. In 1906, as the result of the recommendations
+of the Consultative Committee, a new type of
+higher elementary school was admitted for children over twelve,
+corresponding generally to the French <i>école primaire supérieure</i>,
+described as having &ldquo;for its object the development of the
+education given in the ordinary public elementary school, and
+the provision of special instruction bearing on the future occupations
+of the scholars, whether boys or girls.&rdquo; It may be possible
+to supplement this system in the rural areas to some extent by
+&ldquo;higher tops&rdquo; to the ordinary elementary schools in cases
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page982" id="page982"></a>982</span>
+where it is not practicable to establish a fully organised higher
+elementary school; but for such &ldquo;higher tops&rdquo; no central grant
+is available. The total number of scholars upon the registers
+of higher elementary schools (England) in 1907-1908 was:
+New Type, 3178 (against 2715 in the previous year); Old Type,
+4492 (against 5866 in the previous year).</p>
+
+<p>The total expenditure (exclusive of capital outlay) of the local
+authorities (1906-1907) in England only upon elementary
+education, including &ldquo;industrial&rdquo; and &ldquo;special&rdquo;
+schools, was £19,776,733, of which (<i>a</i>) £10,408,242
+<span class="sidenote">Expenditure on elementary education.</span>
+was met by the ordinary parliamentary grant, and
+(<i>b</i>) £8,930,468 was the balance required to be met by
+rates, the difference being represented by receipts from various
+sources. The average cost per child of elementary schools in
+England and Wales (excluding London) may be taken at £3
+(including London £3, 4s. 10d.), and the average central grant
+(excluding grants for special purposes) at 41s., leaving 19s. to
+be raised locally.</p>
+
+<p>The training of teachers for the two great branches of public
+education, elementary and secondary respectively, is an important
+part of the general administrative problem.
+Since the middle of the 19th century there has been
+<span class="sidenote">Preliminary training of elementary teachers.</span>
+a great development of public opinion with regard
+to their professional qualifications. Sir Joshua Fitch
+(<i>Ency. Brit.</i> 10th ed.) pointed out that the full appreciation
+of the importance of training began at the lower end of
+the social scale. Shuttleworth and Tufnell in 1846 urged the
+necessity of special training for the primary teacher, and hoped
+to establish State Training Colleges to supply this want; but
+the one college at Battersea which was founded as an experiment
+was soon transferred to the National Society (the &ldquo;National
+Society for educating the poor in the principles of the Established
+Church&rdquo;: founded in 1811). Before this, Bell and
+Lancaster had made arrangements in their model schools for
+the reception of a few young people to learn the system by
+practice. In Glasgow, David Stow, who founded in 1826 the
+Normal Seminary which afterwards became the Free Church
+College, was one of the first to insist on the need of systematic
+professional preparation. The religious bodies in England,
+notably the Established Church, availed themselves promptly of
+the failure of the central government, and a number of diocesan
+colleges for men, and separately for women, were gradually
+established. In 1854 the British and Foreign School Society
+(founded 1808) placed their institutes at the Borough Road
+and Stockwell on a collegiate footing, and subsequently founded
+other colleges at Swansea, Bangor, Darlington and Saffron
+Walden; the Roman Catholic Church provided two for women
+and one for men; and the Wesleyans two, one for each sex.
+The new provincial colleges of university rank were invited by
+the Education Department to attach normal classes to their
+ordinary course and to make provision for special training and
+suitable practice in schools for those students who desired to
+become teachers. Thus the government came to recognize two
+kinds of training schools&mdash;the residential colleges of the old type
+and the day colleges attached to institutions of university rank;
+both were subsidized by grants from the Treasury, and regularly
+inspected. As the need of special training for teachers became
+further recognized by the consideration of the same question
+as regards teachers in higher and intermediate schools (Cambridge
+instituting in 1879 examinations for a teacher&rsquo;s diploma, and
+other universities providing courses for secondary as well as
+primary teachers, and establishing professorships of education),
+the attitude of the government, <i>i.e.</i> the Board of Education,
+towards the problem gradually became more and more a subject
+of controversy and of public interest, as indicated by the clause
+in the Act of 1899 providing for a public registration of qualified
+teachers and for the gradual elimination from the profession
+of those who were unqualified. And meanwhile the increased
+solidarity of the National Union of Teachers (founded in 1870),
+the trade union, so to speak, of the teachers, brought an important
+body of professional opinion to bear on the discussion
+of their own interests.</p>
+
+<p>The question of the preliminary education of elementary
+teachers had after some years of discussion reached a critical
+stage in 1909. The history of pupil teachership as a method
+of concurrent instruction and employment shows that it was in
+its inception something in the nature of a makeshift; the ideal
+placed before local education authorities in the recent regulations
+and reports of the Board of Education is the alternative system
+whereby with the aid of national bursaries (instituted in 1907)
+&ldquo;the general education of future teachers may be continued in
+secondary schools until the age of seventeen or eighteen, and all
+attempts to obtain a practical experience of elementary school
+work may be deferred until the training college is entered,
+or at least until an examination making a natural break in that
+general education and qualifying for an admission to a training
+college has been passed.&rdquo; Under the revised pupil-teacher
+system established by the regulations of 1903 provision is made
+for the instruction of pupil teachers in centres which as far as
+possible are attached to secondary schools receiving grants from
+the Board of Education under the regulations for secondary
+schools, about two-thirds of the secondary schools on the grant
+list undertaking this work. Accordingly, the result of recent
+changes is to modify the old system in two ways: first by providing
+the alternative of a full course of secondary education,
+secondly by associating pupil teachership itself as far as possible
+with part-time attendance at a secondary school. The total
+number of pupil teachers recognized during the year 1907-1908
+was 20,571, and of these 9770 were in centres forming integral
+parts of secondary schools. The number of bursars who passed
+the leaving examination was 1486.</p>
+
+<p>One of the principal difficulties which confronted the state
+and the local authorities in their task of organizing an improved
+system of public education under the act of 1902
+lay in the deficiency of training colleges in view of
+<span class="sidenote">Training colleges.</span>
+the increased number of teachers. Local authorities
+naturally hesitated to burden themselves with the cost of
+providing such institutions in view of the fact that there is
+nothing to prevent teachers trained at great expense by one
+authority taking service under a less public-spirited authority
+who had contributed nothing to such training; hence a widespread
+feeling that the provision of training colleges should be
+undertaken by the state as a matter of national concern. Under
+these circumstances a new system of building grants in aid of
+the establishment of training colleges was instituted in 1905.
+In 1906 these grants were raised from 25 to 75% of the capital
+expenditure, but were limited to colleges provided by local
+authorities. A further difficulty in view of the municipalization
+of education arose from the fact that the majority of the residential
+colleges were in the hands of denominational trusts
+which did not admit a conscience clause. Under the presidency
+of Mr McKenna in 1907, the Board of Education, in regulations
+which excited much controversy, &ldquo;with a view to throwing open
+as far as possible the advantages of a course of training in colleges
+supported mainly by public funds to all students who are qualified
+to profit by it irrespective of religious creed or social status,&rdquo;
+laid down that the application of a candidate might in no circumstances
+<span class="correction" title="amended from he">be</span> rejected on any religious ground, nor on the ground
+of social antecedents or the like. The same regulations provided
+that no new training colleges would be recognized except on
+terms of compliance with certain conditions as to freedom from
+denominational restrictions or requirements. The obligation
+as to religious exemptions has since been limited to 50% of
+the admissions. There were in attendance (<i>Statistics</i>, England,
+1907-1908) in the various colleges, 6561 women and 2835 men, of
+whom 1619 women and 335 men were in colleges provided by local
+education authorities. The grants made by the Board of Education
+for training colleges were as follows: maintenance grants
+£383,851; building grants £45,000. These figures include Wales.</p>
+
+<p>The fear has been widely entertained that a considerable
+part of the national expenditure upon elementary education is
+wasted for want of an effective system of continuative instruction
+to be given out of working hours to adolescents engaged in
+<span class="sidenote">Continuative education.</span>
+industrial employment. The whole subject was exhaustively
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page983" id="page983"></a>983</span>
+treated by the report in 1909 of the Consultative Committee of
+the Board of Education. This report seeks to base an efficient
+continuative system upon the improvement of
+elementary education by reducing the size of the
+classes in the elementary schools upon the lines
+now laid down by the new staffing regulations of
+1909; by increasing the amount of instruction in hand-work
+with a view to rendering the curriculum less bookish and
+more efficient as a training for industrial and agricultural life;
+and by legislation to reform the system of half-time attendance
+and raise the age of compulsory attendance to thirteen and ultimately
+fourteen. Upon the foundation of an improved and
+prolonged elementary education there would be reared a superstructure
+of continuative schools or classes, attendance at which up
+to seventeen would be compulsory under bye-laws adoptive locally
+at the option of the local education authorities. In 1906-1907
+about 21 per thousand of the population of England and Wales
+attended evening schools and classes inspected by the Board of
+Education, and grant amounting to £361,596 was paid in respect
+of 440,718 regular attendants.</p>
+
+<p>The most marked progress has undoubtedly been in secondary
+education, and in no direction has the act of 1902 proved more
+fruitful. At the end of the 19th century secondary
+instruction in England was still provided chiefly by
+<span class="sidenote">Secondary education.</span>
+endowed grammar-schools, by proprietary schools
+established by religious bodies or joint-stock companies, and by
+private enterprise. No public provision was made for secondary
+education as such; what financial assistance was forthcoming
+from municipal sources was given indirectly under cover of the
+grants under the Technical Instruction Acts, while in the administration
+of central grants for the first years of the working
+of the Board of Education Act 1899, no absolute differentiation
+between secondary and technological functions was recognized.
+The establishment of local authorities with direct duties in respect
+of secondary education, and the reorganization of the central
+office with reference to the three branches of education, elementary,
+secondary and technological, rendered possible for the
+first time an adequate treatment of the problem of public
+secondary education as a whole. &ldquo;The regulations for secondary
+schools,&rdquo; says the prefatory memorandum to the regulations
+of the Board of Education, &ldquo;grew up round the old provisions
+of the Directory of the Science and Art Department. Detached
+science classes were gradually built up into schools of science.
+Schools of science were subsequently widened into schools of what
+was known as the &lsquo;Division A&rsquo; type, providing a course of
+instruction in science in connexion with, and as part of, a course
+of general education. Aid was afterwards extended to schools
+of the &lsquo;Division B&rsquo; type in which science did not form the
+preponderating element of the instruction given. In 1904 the
+board recast the regulations so as to bring all schools aided by
+grants within the general definition of a school offering a general
+education up to and beyond the age of sixteen through a complete
+graded course of instruction, the object of which should be to
+develop all the faculties, and to form the habit of exercising them.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Two main tendencies distinguish the recent development:
+on the one hand the tendency to municipalization, or at least to
+the establishment of public control; on the other hand the
+tendency (marked especially by the regulations of 1907) to
+greater elasticity in regard to curricula, and so to the freer
+encouragement of local initiative and local effort.</p>
+
+<p>In 1907 the government of Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman
+placed greatly increased funds at the disposal of the Board of
+Education for the purpose of secondary education. The regulations
+under which the increased grant was administered imposed
+conditions in respect of freedom from denominational restrictions
+or requirements, representative local control, and accessibility to
+all classes of the people, which, like the analogous rules with
+regard to training colleges, roused considerable controversy.
+With regard to religious instruction, the requirement was made
+that no catechism or formulary distinctive of any particular
+religious denomination might be taught in the school except upon
+the request in writing of the parent or guardian and at the cost of
+funds other than grants of public money. Power was at the same
+time reserved to the board to waive the new conditions in the
+event of the local education authority passing a resolution that
+the school was in their view required as part of the secondary
+school provision for their area, and that the conditions, or one or
+more of them, might be waived with advantage in view of the
+educational needs of the area. It will be noticed that one effect
+of the regulations (as of the training college regulations) was
+to recognize as a kind of established religion those elements
+of Christianity which are shared in common by the various
+Protestant churches, according to the system of Lancaster and the
+Cowper-Temple compromise. Normally schools are required to
+provide 25% of free places for scholars from public elementary
+schools, and, with a view to encouraging the transference of
+children from the public elementary school at an early age, a
+grant of £2 was made payable on account of ex-public elementary
+scholars between ten and twelve years of age. The full scale of
+grants is £2 for ex-public elementary scholars between ten and
+twelve, and £5 for scholars between twelve and eighteen. To
+schools previously recognized and failing to comply with the new
+conditions, grant may be paid on the lower scale of £2 and
+£2, 10s. respectively.</p>
+
+<p>Secondary school grants are assessed upon average attendance,
+and efficiency is guaranteed by inspection and not by individual
+examination. All recognized schools must provide at least the
+substantial equivalent of the four-years&rsquo; course formerly required,
+and recognition is withheld or withdrawn if an adequate number
+of the scholars do not remain at least four years in the school, or
+do not remain up to sixteen; in rural areas, however, and small
+towns, a school life of three years and a leaving age of fifteen may
+be accepted. &ldquo;The board are now in a position, through their
+inspectorate, to keep a watch and exercise a guidance which were
+previously impossible over the planning and working of school
+curricula. Detailed reports following upon full inspections, and
+the more constant if less obvious influence exercised through
+informal visits, conferences, reports and suggestions, may now be
+relied upon to guard against the risks of one-sided education, of
+ill-balanced schemes of instruction, and of premature or excessive
+specialization&rdquo; (Report of Board of Education, 1906-1907, page
+68). The curriculum must provide instruction duly graded and
+duly continuous, in the English language and literature, in
+geography and history, in mathematics, science and drawing,
+and in at least one language other than English. Where
+two languages other than English are taken, Latin must ordinarily
+be one. Provision must be made for organized games,
+physical exercises and manual instruction, and in girls&rsquo; schools
+science and mathematics other than arithmetic may be replaced
+by an approved scheme of practical housewifery for girls over
+fifteen. The total number of secondary schools recognized for
+grant (<i>Statistics</i>, 1907-1908) was 736, of which only 220 were
+directly provided by local authorities. The number of pupils
+in attendance was 68,104 boys and 56,359 girls, total 124,463.
+The government grants for 1907-1908 amounted to £320,873
+besides grants from local authorities.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center"><i>Wales.</i></p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding the important differences which exist between
+the social and especially the religious conditions of England and
+Wales respectively, Wales continued to be treated as one with
+England for purposes of educational administration down to quite
+recent years. Towards the end of the 19th century the striking
+revival of Welsh nationality, in itself largely an educational and a
+literary movement, led to a spontaneous demand among the
+Welsh people for the organization of a national system of higher
+education. In accordance with the recommendations of a special
+royal commission the Welsh Intermediate Education Act passed
+in 1889 provided for the creation in every county in Wales
+(including Monmouthshire) of joint education committees
+consisting of three nominees of the county council and two
+nominees of the lord president of the council. To these committees
+were entrusted the duties of framing (under the Charity
+Commissioners) schemes for the establishment of intermediate
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page984" id="page984"></a>984</span>
+and technical schools and for the application of endowments, and
+for administering a ½d. county rate, which was supplemented by
+a treasury grant not exceeding the amount raised by the rate.
+Certain supervisory functions were entrusted to a Central Education
+Board, to which are committed the duties of inspection and
+examination. The joint education committees have now (except
+for the purpose of framing schemes for endowments) been superseded
+by the local education authorities under the act of 1902.
+The public assistance afforded to secondary <span class="correction" title="amended from educaton">education</span> in Wales
+under the Intermediate Act is supplemented by the grants of the
+Board of Education, and the Board&rsquo;s revised Secondary School
+Regulations were applied to Wales in 1908. There were (1907-1908)
+92 county secondary schools in Wales administered under
+schemes made under the Welsh Intermediate Act, attended by
+6235 boys and 6727 girls, total 12,962; and 12 other secondary
+schools, of which 8 were provided by local authorities. The total
+attendance at all secondary schools was 13,615, viz. 6819 boys
+and 6796 girls. The Board of Education grant amounted to
+£31,090. The expenditure of the local authorities for the year
+1906-1907 was £85,242.</p>
+
+<p>The number of scholars on the registers of ordinary public
+elementary schools in Wales was (<i>Statistics</i>, 1907-1908), in council
+schools 330,413, and in voluntary schools 100,290, total 430,703.
+The percentage of average attendance was 86.98. The ordinary
+parliamentary grant (1906-1907) was £794,161, and the net
+expenditure of local authorities £561,234.</p>
+
+<p>In 1907 a Welsh department of the Board of Education was
+established with a permanent secretary and a chief inspector, each
+responsible directly to the president. A movement was in progress
+in Wales in 1908-1909 for the creation of a national council of
+education under an independent minister, but this change could
+in any case only be effected by legislation; and meanwhile the
+special religious and social conditions in Wales caused administrative
+difficulties in working an act (that of 1902) primarily designed
+to meet those prevailing in England.</p>
+<div class="author">(G. B. M. C.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt1 center"><i>United States.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;The first white settlers who came to North America
+were typical representatives of those European peoples who had
+made more progress in civilization than any other
+in the world. Those settlers, in particular those
+<span class="sidenote">Beginnings.</span>
+from England and from Holland, brought with them
+the most advanced ideas of the time on the subject of education.
+The conditions of life in the New World emphasized the need
+of schools and colleges, and among the earliest public acts of
+the settlers were provisions to establish them. The steps taken
+between 1619 and 1622 to provide schools for the colony of
+Virginia were frustrated by the Indian war which broke out in
+the latter year, and were never successfully renewed during the
+colonial period. In New York, where the influence of the Dutch
+was at first predominant, elementary schools were maintained
+at the public expense, and were intended for the education of
+all classes of the population. This policy reflected the very
+advanced views as to public elementary education which were
+then held in the Netherlands. The assumption of control in the
+colony of New York by the English was a distinct check to the
+development of public elementary education, and little or no
+further progress was made until after the Revolution. The
+most systematic educational policy was pursued in the colony
+of Massachusetts. As early as 1635, five years after it was
+founded, the town of Boston took action to the end that &ldquo;our
+brother Philemon Pormort shall be entreated to become schoolmaster
+for the teaching and nurturing children with us.&rdquo; The
+General Court of the colony in 1636 made the first appropriation
+for what was to become Harvard College, taking its name in
+honour of the minister, John Harvard, who died in 1638, leaving
+his library and one-half of his property, having a value of £800,
+to the new institution. The amount of this appropriation of
+1636 (£400) was remarkable in that it was probably equal to
+the whole colony tax for a year. In 1642 followed a legislative
+act which, while saying nothing of schools, gave to the selectmen
+in every town power to oversee both the education and the
+employment of children. It is made the duty of the selectmen
+to see that the children can read and understand the principles
+of religion and the capital laws of the country, and that they
+are put to some useful work.</p>
+
+<p>Five years later, in 1647, was enacted the law which is not
+only the real foundation of the Massachusetts school system,
+but the type of later legislation throughout the United States.
+This epoch-making act, the first of its kind in the world, represented
+the public opinion of a colony of about 20,000 persons,
+living in thirty towns. It required every town of fifty house-holders
+to establish a school, the master of which should be paid
+either by the parents of the children taught or by public tax,
+as the majority of the town committee might decide; and it
+further required every town of one hundred families or house-holders
+to set up a grammar school in which pupils might be
+prepared for the &ldquo;University,&rdquo; as the new institution at Cambridge
+was designated. Moreover, a penalty was attached to
+neglect of this legislative requirement, in the form of a fine to
+be devoted to the maintenance of the nearest school. Horace
+Mann said of the act of 1647: &ldquo;It is impossible for us adequately
+to conceive the boldness of the measure, which aimed at universal
+education through the establishment of free schools. As a fact
+it had no precedent in the world&rsquo;s history; and, as a theory, it
+could have been refuted and silenced by a more formidable array
+of argument and experience than was ever marshalled against
+any other institution of human origin. But time has ratified
+its soundness. Two centuries of successful operation now
+proclaim it to be as wise as it was courageous, and as beneficent
+as it was disinterested.&rdquo; The significance of these acts of 1642
+and 1647 is that they foreshadow the whole American system
+of education, including elementary schools, secondary schools
+and colleges, and that they indicate the principles upon which
+that system rests. These principles as summarized by George
+H. Martin in his <i>Evolution of the Massachusetts Public School
+System</i> are the following:&mdash;(1) The universal education of
+youth is essential to the well-being of the state. (2) The obligation
+to furnish this education rests primarily upon the parent.
+(3) The state has a right to enforce this obligation. (4) The
+state may fix a standard which shall determine the kind of
+education and the minimum amount. (5) Public money raised
+by general tax may be used to provide such education as the
+state requires. The tax may be general, though the school
+attendance is not. (6) Education higher than the rudiments may
+be supplied by the state. Opportunity must be provided at the
+public expense for youths who wish to be fitted for college. These
+principles have now found expression in the public acts of every
+state, and upon them education in the United States is founded.</p>
+
+<p>Despite the praiseworthy attempts made in New York, New
+Jersey and Pennsylvania to develop schools and school systems,
+very little was accomplished in those colonies which
+was permanent. The sentiment in the more southern
+<span class="sidenote">Development.</span>
+colonies was, as a rule, unfriendly to free schools, and
+nothing of importance was attempted in that section of the
+country until the time of Thomas Jefferson. Through religious
+zeal or philanthropy colleges were founded as far south as
+Virginia, and no fewer than ten of these institutions were in
+operation in 1776. Their present names and the dates of their
+foundation are: Harvard University, Massachusetts (1636);
+College of William and Mary, Virginia (1693); Yale University,
+Connecticut (1701); Princeton University, New Jersey (1746);
+Washington and Lee University, Virginia (1749); University
+of Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania (1749); Columbia University,
+New York (1754); Brown University, Rhode Island (1764);
+Rutgers College, New Jersey (1766); and Dartmouth College,
+New Hampshire (1769). In the colleges the ecclesiastical spirit
+was at first almost uniformly dominant. The greater number
+of their students were preparing for the ministry in some one of
+the branches of the Protestant Church. These facts caused the
+grammar schools to take on more and more the character of
+college-preparatory schools; and when this was brought about
+they supplied the educational needs of but one portion of the community.
+As time passed, the interdependence of governmental
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page985" id="page985"></a>985</span>
+and ecclesiastical interests began to weaken in the colonies, and
+there arose among those who represented the new secularizing
+tendency a distrust of the colleges and their influence. This
+gave rise to a new and influential type of school, the academy,
+which took its name from the secondary schools established
+in England by the dissenting religious bodies during the latter
+part of the seventeenth century at the suggestion of Milton.
+These academies were intended to give an education which was
+thought to be more practical than that offered by the colleges,
+and they drew their students from the so-called middle classes of
+society. The older academies were usually endowed institutions,
+organized under the control of religious organizations or of
+self-perpetuating boards of trustees. Their programme of
+studies was less restricted than that of the grammar schools,
+and they gave new emphasis to the study of the English language
+and its literature, of mathematics and of the new sciences of
+nature. For two generations the academies were a most beneficent
+factor in American education, and they supplied a large
+number of the better-prepared teachers for work in other schools.
+These schools were in a sense public in that they were chartered,
+but they were not directly under public control in their management.
+Early in the 19th century there arose a well-defined
+demand for public secondary schools&mdash;high schools, as they are
+popularly known. They were the direct outgrowth of the
+elementary school system. Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore
+and New York were the first of the large cities to establish
+schools of this type, and they spread rapidly. These public
+secondary schools met with opposition, however, springing
+partly from the friends of the academies, and partly from those
+who held that governmental agency should be restricted to the
+field of elementary education. The legal questions raised were
+settled by a decision of the supreme court of Michigan, which
+contained these words: &ldquo;Neither in our state policy, in our
+constitution, nor in our laws do we find the primary school
+districts restricted in the branches of knowledge which their
+officers may cause to be taught, or the grade of instruction that
+may be given, if their voters consent, in regular form, to bear
+the expense and raise the taxes for the purpose.&rdquo; This decision
+gave marked impetus to the development of public secondary
+or high schools, and they have increased rapidly in number.
+The academies have relatively declined, and in the Western
+states are almost unknown.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the elementary school system had grown rapidly.
+The school district, the smallest civil division, was created in
+Connecticut in 1701, in Rhode Island about 1750, and in Massachusetts
+in 1789. From the point of view of efficient, well-supported
+schools, it has been felt since the time of Horace Mann
+that the substitution of the small school district for the town
+as the unit of school administration was a mistake. Yet the
+school district has exercised a profound influence for good upon
+the American people. In New York state, for example, there
+were in 1900 over eleven thousand school districts, and in
+Illinois over twelve thousand. The districts are small in extent
+and often sparsely settled. Their government is as democratic
+as possible. The resident legal voters, often including women,
+hold a meeting at least once a year. They elect trustees to
+represent them in the employment of the teacher and the management
+of the school. They determine whether a new schoolhouse
+shall be built, whether repairs shall be made, and what sum of
+money shall be raised for school purposes. In the rural districts
+this system has often been itself a school in patriotism and in
+the conduct of public affairs. Recently the tendency is to
+merge the school districts into the township, in order that larger
+and better schools may be maintained, and that educational
+advantages may be distributed more evenly among the people.
+Most of the southern states have the county system of school
+administration. This is because the county, rather than the
+township, has been the political unit in the south from the
+beginning. Special laws have been made for the school system
+in cities, and the form of these laws differs very much. In
+nearly every city there is a separate board of education, sometimes
+chosen by the voters, sometimes appointed by the mayor
+or other official, which board has full control of the schools.
+The city board of education has as its executive officer a superintendent
+of schools, who has become a most important factor in
+American educational administration. He exerts great influence
+in the selection of teachers, in the choice of text-books, in the
+arrangement of the programme of studies, and in the determination
+of questions of policy. Sometimes he is charged by law
+with the initiative in some or all of these matters. He is usually
+a trained administrator as well as an experienced teacher. The
+first superintendent was appointed in 1837 at Buffalo. Providence
+followed in 1839, New Orleans in 1841, Cleveland in 1844,
+Baltimore in 1849, Cincinnati in 1850, Boston in 1851, New York,
+San Francisco and Jersey City in 1852, Newark and Brooklyn
+in 1853, Chicago and St Louis in 1854, and Philadelphia in 1883.
+In general, it may be said that the progress of public education
+in the United States is marked by (1) compulsory schools,
+(2) compulsory licensing of teachers, (3) compulsory school
+attendance, and (4) compulsory school supervision, and by the
+increasingly efficient administration of these provisions. The
+compulsion comes in each case from the state government,
+which alone, in the American system, has the power to prescribe
+it and to enforce it. Each state is therefore an independent
+educational unit, and there is no single, uniform American
+system of education in any legal sense. In fact, however, the
+great mass of the American people are in entire agreement as to
+the principles which should control public education; and the
+points in which the policies of the several states are in agreement
+are greater, both in number and in importance, than those in
+which they differ. An American educational system exists,
+therefore, in spirit and in substance, even though not in form.</p>
+
+<p>Neither in the Declaration of Independence nor in the Constitution
+of the United States is there any mention of education.
+The founders of the nation were by no means indifferent
+to education, but they shared the common view of
+<span class="sidenote">National policy.</span>
+their time, which was that the real responsibility for
+the maintenance of schools and the expense of maintaining
+them should fall upon the several local communities. The
+relation of government to education was not then a subject of
+ordinary consideration or discussion. Later, when this question
+did arise and the power of taxation was involved, the several
+states assumed control of education, as it was necessary that
+they should do. Nevertheless, from the very beginning the
+national government has aided and supported education, while
+not controlling it. This policy dates from the 13th of July 1787,
+when there was passed the famous &ldquo;Ordinance for the Government
+of the Territory of the United States North-West of the
+River Ohio,&rdquo; meaning the territory north and west of the Ohio
+river now represented by the states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois,
+Michigan, Wisconsin, and the eastern side of Minnesota, embracing
+more than 265,000 sq. m. of territory. This ordinance
+contains this declaration: &ldquo;Religion, morality, and knowledge
+being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind,
+schools and the means of education shall for ever be
+encouraged.&rdquo; The Ordinance of 1787 also reaffirmed the provisions
+of the so-called Land Ordinance of 1785, by which
+section No. 16 in every township (a township consists of 36
+numbered sections of 1 sq. m. each), or one thirty-sixth of the
+entire north-west territory, was set aside for the maintenance of
+public schools within the township. The funds derived from the
+sale and lease of these original &ldquo;school lands&rdquo; form the major
+portion of the public school endowment of the states formed
+out of the north-west territory. The precedent thus established
+became the policy of the nation. Each state admitted
+prior to 1848 reserved section No. 16 in every township of public
+land for common schools. Each state admitted since 1848 (Utah
+being an exception, and having four sections) has reserved
+sections No. 16 and No. 36 in every township of public lands
+for this purpose. In addition, the national government has
+granted two townships in every state and territory containing
+public lands for seminaries or universities. A third land grant
+is that made in 1862 for colleges of agriculture and the mechanical
+arts. The sum total of these three land grants amounted in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page986" id="page986"></a>986</span>
+1900 to 78,659,439 acres, to which there must be added various
+special grants made from time to time to the states and devoted
+to education. The portion of the public domain so set apart
+in 1900 amounted in all to 86,138,473 acres, or 134,591 English
+sq. m. This is an area greater than those of the six New England
+states, New York, New Jersey, Maryland and Delaware added
+together. It is a portion of the earth&rsquo;s surface as great as the
+kingdom of Prussia, about seven-tenths as great as France, and
+considerably greater than the combined areas of Great Britain
+(including the Channel Islands) and the kingdom of Holland.
+Besides the enormous grants of land in aid of education, the
+national government has maintained since 1802 a military
+academy at West Point, New York, for the training of officers
+for the army, and since 1845 a naval academy at Annapolis,
+Maryland, for the training of officers for the navy. It has also
+taken charge of the education of the children of uncivilized
+Indians, and of all children in Alaska. It has voted, by act of
+1887, a perpetual endowment of $15,000 a year for each agricultural
+experiment station connected with a state agricultural
+college, and, by act of 1890, an additional endowment of $25,000
+a year for each of the agricultural colleges themselves. The
+aggregate value of land and money given by the national government
+for education in the several states and territories is about
+$300,000,000.</p>
+
+<p>In 1867 the Congress established a bureau of education,
+presided over by a commissioner who is under the jurisdiction
+of the secretary of the interior, the purpose of which
+is declared to be to collect &ldquo;such statistics and facts
+<span class="sidenote">Bureau of education.</span>
+as shall show the condition and progress of education
+in the several states and territories, and of diffusing such information
+respecting the organization and management of school
+systems and methods of teaching as shall aid the people
+of the United States in the establishment and maintenance of
+efficient school systems, and otherwise promote the cause of
+education throughout the country.&rdquo; The bureau has therefore
+no direct power over the educational policy of the several states.
+It has, however, exercised a potent influence for good in its
+advisory capacity. Up to 1900 this bureau had published 360
+separate volumes and pamphlets, including 31 annual reports,
+covering from 800 to 2300 pages each; and the number has
+since been much increased. The annual reports alone of the
+Commissioner of Education are mines of information. These
+standard works of reference are distributed gratuitously in large
+numbers to libraries, school officials and other persons interested,
+and to foreign governments. The several commissioners of
+education have been: Henry Barnard, 1867-1870; John Eaton,
+1870-1886; Nathaniel H.R. Dawson, 1886-1889; William
+T. Harris,<a name="fa3i" id="fa3i" href="#ft3i"><span class="sp">3</span></a> 1889-1906; Elmer Ellsworth Brown, 1906-  .</p>
+
+<p>In the United States the sovereign powers are not all lodged
+in one place. Such of those powers as are not granted by the
+Constitution to the national government are reserved
+to the states respectively, or to the people. The power
+<span class="sidenote">State governments and education.</span>
+to levy taxes for the support of public education has
+been almost universally held to be one of the powers
+so reserved. The inhabitants of the several local communities,
+however indisposed they may have been to relinquish absolute
+control of their own schools, have been compelled to yield to the
+authority of the state government whenever it has been asserted,
+for except under such authority no civil division&mdash;county, city,
+township, or school district&mdash;possesses the power to levy taxes
+for school purposes. Moreover, since the exercise of state
+authority has uniformly improved the quality of the schools,
+it has usually been welcomed, not resisted. In general, it may
+be said that the state has used its authority to prescribe a
+minimum of efficiency which schools and teachers must reach,
+and it enforces this minimum through inspection and the withholding
+of its proper share of the state school fund from any
+locality where schools or teachers are permitted to fall below
+the required standard. In extreme cases the state authorities
+have interfered directly to prevent the evil results of local
+inefficiency or contumacy. In addition, the states, almost
+without exception, maintain at their own expense schools for
+the training of teachers, known as normal schools. Many of
+the states also offer inducements to the cities, towns and districts
+to exceed the prescribed minimum of efficiency. Through the
+steady exercise of state supervision the school buildings have
+improved, the standard for entrance upon the work of teaching
+has been raised, the programme of studies has been made more
+effective and more uniform, and the length of the school term
+has increased. The Constitution of every state now contains
+some provision as to public education. Each state has an
+executive officer charged with the enforcement of the state
+school laws. Sometimes, as in New York, this official has
+plenary powers; sometimes, as in Massachusetts and Ohio, he
+is little more than an adviser. In twenty-nine states this
+official is known as the superintendent of public instruction; in
+Massachusetts and Connecticut he is called secretary of the state
+board of education; other titles used are commissioner of public
+schools, superintendent of common schools, and superintendent
+of public schools. The schools are administered, on behalf of
+the taxpayers, by an elected board of school trustees in rural
+school districts, and by an elected (though sometimes appointed)
+board of education or school committee in cities and towns. In
+836 cities and towns there is a local superintendent of schools,
+who directs and supervises the educational work and acts as
+the executive officer of the board of education. The schools in
+the rural districts are under the direct supervision of a county
+superintendent of schools or similar official, who is often chosen
+by the people, but who sometimes is named by the state
+authorities. The county and city superintendents are often
+charged with the duty of holding examinations for entrance
+upon the work of teaching, and of issuing licences to those
+persons who pass the examinations. This system works best
+where it is carefully regulated by state law. Thirty states,
+one territory, and the District of Columbia have enacted compulsory
+education laws, but the enforcement of them is usually
+very lax. In fifteen states and territories there are no compulsory
+education laws, although there are in existence there fully
+organized school systems free to all children. The usual age
+during which school attendance is required is from 8 to 14.
+Provision is made in Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts,
+Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania,
+Indiana, Minnesota and Michigan, for sending habitual
+truants to some special institution. Laws forbidding the employment
+of children under a specified minimum age in any mercantile
+or manufacturing establishment are in force in twelve states,
+and are usually administered in connexion with the compulsory
+education laws.</p>
+
+<p>The universal establishment in America of public secondary
+schools (high schools), and the existence of state universities in
+all of the states south and west of Pennsylvania, have brought
+into existence a system of state education which reaches from
+the kindergarten and the elementary school to the graduate
+instruction offered at state colleges and universities. This system
+includes (1) about 1500 free public kindergartens scattered
+over fifteen states; (2) free public elementary schools within
+reach of almost every home in the land; (3) free public secondary
+schools (high schools) in every considerable city or town and in
+not a few rural communities; (4) free land grant colleges, supported
+in large part by the proceeds of the nation&rsquo;s endowment of
+public lands, paying particular attention to agriculture and the
+mechanical arts, in all the states; (5) state universities, free
+or substantially so, in all the states south and west of Pennsylvania;
+(6) free public normal schools, for the professional
+training of teachers, in nearly every state; (7) free schools
+for the education of defectives in nearly all the states; and (8)
+the national academies at West Point and Annapolis for the
+professional training of military and naval officers respectively.</p>
+
+<p>Miss Susan E. Blow, herself the leading exponent of kindergarten
+principles in the United States, has pointed out that the
+history of the kindergarten movement reveals four distinct
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page987" id="page987"></a>987</span>
+stages in its development: the pioneer stage, having Boston as
+<span class="sidenote">Kindergartens.</span>
+its centre; the philanthropic stage, which began in the village
+of Florence, Mass., and reached its climax at San Francisco,
+California; the national or strictly educational
+stage, which began at St Louis; and the so-called
+maternal stage, which from Chicago as a centre is spreading over
+the entire country. During the first stage public attention was
+directed to a few of the most important aspects of Froebel&rsquo;s
+teaching. During the second stage the kindergarten was valued
+largely as a reformatory and redemptive influence. During the
+third stage the fundamental principles underlying kindergarten
+training were scientifically studied and expounded, and the
+kindergarten became part of the public school system of the
+country. The fourth stage, which, like the third, is fortunately
+still in existence, aims at making the kindergarten a link between
+the school and the home, and so to use it to strengthen the
+foundations and elevate the ideals of family life. By 1898 there
+were 4363 kindergartens in the United States (1365 of which
+were public), employing 9937 teachers (2532 in the public
+kindergartens) and enrolling 189,604 children (95,867 in the
+public kindergartens). Of the 164 public normal schools, 36
+made provision for training kindergarten teachers. The scientific
+and literary activity of some of the private kindergarten training
+classes is very great, and they exert a beneficial and stimulating
+effect on teaching in the elementary schools. It is generally
+admitted that from the point of view of the children, of the
+teachers, of the schools, and of the community at large, the
+kindergarten has been and is an inspiration of incalculable value.</p>
+
+<p>The elementary school course is from six to nine years in
+length, the ordinary period being eight years. The pupils enter
+at about six years of age. In the cities the elementary
+schools are usually in session for five hours daily,
+<span class="sidenote">Elementary schools.</span>
+except Saturday and Sunday, beginning at 9 <span class="scs">A.M.</span>
+There is an intermission, usually of an hour, at midday,
+and short recesses during the sessions. In the small rural schools
+the pupils are usually ungraded, and are taught singly or in
+varying groups. In the cities and towns there is a careful
+gradation of pupils, and promotions from grade to grade are
+made at intervals of a year or of a half-year. The best schools
+have the most elastic system of gradation and the most frequent
+promotions. In a number of states there are laws authorizing
+the conveyance of children to school at the public expense, when
+the schoolhouse is unduly distant from the homes of a portion
+of the school population. Co-education (<i>q.v.</i>) in the elementary
+school has been the salutary and almost uniform practice in the
+United States. The programme of studies in the elementary
+school includes English (reading, writing, spelling, grammar,
+composition), arithmetic (sometimes elementary algebra also,
+or plane geometry in the upper grades), geography, history of
+the United States, and elementary natural science, including
+human physiology and hygiene. Physical training, vocal music,
+drawing and manual training are often taught. Sometimes a
+foreign language (Latin, German or French) and the study of
+general history are begun. Formal instruction in manners
+and morals is not often found, but the discipline of the school
+offers the best possible training in the habits of truthfulness,
+honesty, obedience, regularity, punctuality and conformity to
+order. Religious teaching is not permitted, although the
+exercises of the day are often opened with reading from the
+Bible, the repetition of the Lord&rsquo;s Prayer and the singing of a
+hymn. Corporal punishment is not infrequent, but is forbidden
+by law in New Jersey, and in many states may be used only under
+restrictions. Text-books are used as the basis of the instruction
+given, and the pupils &ldquo;recite&rdquo; in class to the teacher, who, by
+use of illustration and comment, makes clear the subject-matter
+of the prescribed lesson. The purpose of the recitation method
+is to make the work of each pupil help that of his companion.
+Skilfully used, it is the most effectual instrument yet devised for
+elementary school instruction.</p>
+
+<p>The secondary school course is normally four years in length.
+The principal subjects studied are Latin, Greek, French, German,
+algebra, geometry, physics, chemistry, physical geography,
+physiology, rhetoric, English literature, civics and history.
+<span class="sidenote">Secondary schools.</span>
+Although but 11.36% of the students in public high schools and
+25.36% of those in private secondary schools are
+preparing for a college or scientific school, yet the conditions
+prescribed by the colleges for admission to their
+courses affect powerfully both the secondary school programme
+and the methods of teaching. Of late years no educational
+topic has been more widely discussed than that as to the proper
+relations of secondary schools and colleges. As a result, special
+examinations for admission to college are either greatly simplified
+or entirely abolished, and the secondary studies are much more
+substantial and better taught than formerly. An increasing
+proportion of secondary school teachers are college graduates.
+The most extraordinary characteristic of secondary education
+in recent years is the rapid increase in the number of students
+taking Latin as a school subject. Meanwhile the proportion
+of those studying physics and chemistry has fallen off slightly.
+The rate of increase in the number of pupils who study Latin
+is fully twice as great as the rate of increase in the number
+of secondary school students. Between 1890 and 1896, while
+the number of students in private secondary schools increased
+12%, the number of students in public secondary schools
+increased 87%. Since 1894 the number of students in private
+secondary schools has steadily declined.</p>
+
+<p>The American college, although it is the outgrowth of the
+English colleges of Oxford and of Cambridge, has developed
+into an institution which has no counterpart in Europe.
+The college course of study, at first three years in
+<span class="sidenote">The colleges.</span>
+length, was soon extended to four years, and the
+classes are uniformly known as the freshman, the sophomore,
+the junior and the senior. The traditional degree which crowns
+the college course is that of Bachelor of Arts (A.B.). The studies
+ordinarily insisted on in the case of candidates for this degree
+are Latin, Greek, mathematics, English, philosophy, political
+economy, history, at least one modern European language
+(French or German), and at least one natural science. The
+degrees of Bachelor of Science (B.S.), Bachelor of Philosophy
+(Ph.B.), and Bachelor of Letters (B.L.) are often conferred by
+colleges upon students who have pursued systematic courses of
+study which do not include Greek or the amount of Latin required
+for the degree of Bachelor of Arts. The best colleges give instruction
+which is similar in character to that given in Germany in
+the three upper classes of the gymnasium and in the introductory
+courses at the universities, in France in the two upper classes of
+the lycée and in the first two years of university study, and in
+England in the upper form of the public schools and during the
+years of undergraduate residence at Oxford and Cambridge.
+Since 1870 the colleges have developed enormously. Their
+resources have multiplied, the number of their students has
+increased by leaps and bounds, the programme of studies
+has broadened and deepened, the standards have been raised,
+and the efficiency of the instruction has greatly increased.
+Rigidly prescribed courses of study have given way to elective
+courses, and a knowledge of Greek is no longer required for
+the degree of A.B. at such influential colleges as Harvard,
+Columbia, Cornell and Williams. A strong effort is being made
+to have the leading colleges give but one degree, that of Bachelor
+of Arts, and to confer that upon those who complete any substantial
+course of college studies. A marked change has taken
+place in the attitude of the college authorities toward the students.
+In 1870 the college president was a paterfamilias. He knew each
+student and came into direct personal contact with him. The
+president and the faculty had supervision not only of the studies
+of the students, but of their moral and religious life as well.
+The older type of college professor was not always a great
+scholar, but he was a student of human nature, with keen
+intuitions and shrewd insight. The new type, which had come
+into existence at the opening of the 20th century, was more
+scholarly in some special direction, often regarded teaching
+as a check upon opportunities for investigation, and disdained
+troubling himself with a student&rsquo;s personal concerns or intellectual
+and moral difficulties. The change was not altogether
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page988" id="page988"></a>988</span>
+for the better, and a desirable reaction has been observable.
+Each college, however small or ill-equipped, exercises a helpful
+local influence. Ninety per cent of all college students attend
+an institution not more than one hundred miles from their own
+homes. Few colleges have a national constituency, and even
+in these cases an overwhelming preponderance of the students
+come from the immediate neighbourhood. This explains, in a
+measure, the powerful influence which the college has exercised
+in the life of the nation. While hardly more than one in a
+hundred of the white male youth of the country has had a college
+education, yet the college graduates have furnished one-half
+of all the presidents of the United States, most of the justices
+of the Supreme Court, about one-half of the cabinet officers and
+United States senators, and nearly one-third of the House of
+Representatives. Before the Revolution eleven colleges were
+founded. From 1776 to 1800, twelve more were added; from
+1800 to 1830, thirty-three; from 1830 to 1865, one hundred and
+eighty; from 1865 to 1898, two hundred and thirty-six. Their
+standards, efficiency and equipment are very diverse, many of
+the so-called colleges being less effective than some of the better
+organized secondary schools. Except in New York and Pennsylvania,
+there is no statutory restriction upon the use of the name
+&ldquo;college.&rdquo; This is an abuse to which public attention has in
+recent years been increasingly called.<a name="fa4i" id="fa4i" href="#ft4i"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p>
+
+<p>In the United States the title &ldquo;university&rdquo; is used indiscriminately
+of institutions which are in reality universities, of
+institutions which are colleges, and of institutions
+which are so ill-equipped as not to take rank with
+<span class="sidenote">The universities.</span>
+good secondary schools. Only time and a greatly
+increased capacity to distinguish the various types of
+higher schools will remedy this error. Putting aside tentative
+and unsuccessful attempts to develop genuine university instruction
+much earlier, it may safely be said that the opening of the
+Johns Hopkins University at Baltimore in 1876 began the
+present movement to organize carefully advanced study and
+research, requiring a college education of those who wish to enter
+upon it. This is university instruction properly so called, and
+though found elsewhere, it is given chiefly at fourteen institutions:
+California University, Catholic University of America,
+Chicago University, Clark University, Columbia University,
+Cornell University, Harvard University, Johns Hopkins University,
+Michigan University, Pennsylvania University, Princeton
+University, Leland Stanford Jr. University, Wisconsin University
+and Yale University. All of these institutions, except the
+Catholic University of America, are also colleges. The combination
+of collegiate and university instruction under one
+corporation and one executive administration is distinctive of
+higher education in the United States, and its chief source of
+strength. The crowning honour of the university student is
+the degree of Ph.D., although that of A.M.&mdash;obtainable in less
+time and much easier conditions&mdash;is also sought. The minimum
+period of study accepted for the degree of Ph.D. is two years
+after obtaining the bachelor&rsquo;s degree; but in practice, three,
+and even four, years of study are found necessary. In addition
+to carrying on an investigation in the field of his main subject
+of study, the candidate for the degree of Ph.D. is usually required
+to pass examinations on one or two subordinate subjects, to
+possess a reading knowledge of French and German (often of
+Latin as well), and to submit&mdash;usually in printed form&mdash;the
+dissertation which embodies the results of his researches. The
+methods of instruction in the universities are the lecture, discussion
+and work in laboratory or seminary&mdash;the latter transplanted
+from the German universities. The degree of Master of
+Arts is conferred upon students who, after one year of university
+residence and study, pass certain prescribed examinations.
+This degree, like those of D.D., S.T.D. and LL.D., is often
+conferred by colleges and universities as a purely honorary
+distinction. The degree of Ph.D. is not so conferred any longer
+by the best universities. Not a few of the universities maintain
+schools of law and medicine. Harvard and Yale universities
+maintain schools of theology as well. The learned publications
+issued by the universities, or under the direction of university
+professors, are of great importance, and constitute an imposing
+body of scientific literature. The national and state governments
+make increasing use of university officials for public service
+requiring special training or expert knowledge. In 1871-1872
+there were only 198 resident graduate (or university) students
+in the United States. In 1887 this number had risen to 1237,
+and in 1897 to 4392. These figures are exclusive of professional
+students, and include only those who are studying in what
+would be called, in Germany, the philosophical faculty. (See
+also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Universities</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>Most extensive provision is made in America for professional,
+technical and special education of all kinds, and for the care and
+training of the dependent and defective classes (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Blindness</a></span>
+and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Deaf and Dumb</a></span>), as well as for the education of the Indian
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Indians, North American</a></span>), and&mdash;in the Southern states&mdash;of
+the negro (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+<div class="author">(N. M. B.)</div>
+
+<p><i>Statistics.</i>&mdash;Details as to education in each state of the American
+Union are given in the articles under state headings. But
+a more comprehensive view may be obtained here from the
+general statistics. The introduction to the statistical tables in
+vol. ii. of the Commissioner of Education&rsquo;s Report for 1907 may
+usefully be quoted. Mr Edward L. Thorndike, of the Teachers&rsquo;
+College, Columbia University, there summarizes the national
+account as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;We use in formal school education a material plant valued at
+from twelve to thirteen hundred million dollars, the labour of 550,000
+teachers or other educational officers, and more or less of the time
+of some eighteen million students.... We pay for the labour of
+these teachers, many of whom work for only part of the normal city-school
+year, about $300,000,000. We pay for fuel, light, janitorial
+services, repairs, depreciation of books, school supplies, insurance
+and the like, about $90,000,000. For depreciation of the plant
+not so charged we should properly provide during the year a sinking
+fund of perhaps $25,000,000. Adding an interest charge of 5%
+on the investment in the plant, our annual bill for formal school
+education comes to over $475,000,000. Additions to the plant were
+made [in 1906-1907] to the extent of from ninety to a hundred million
+dollars. As a partial estimate of the returns from this investment
+we may take the number of students whose education has been carried
+to a specified standard of accomplishment and power. Thus I
+estimate that, in 1907, 3000 students reached the standard denoted
+by three years or more of academic, technical or professional study
+in advance of a reputable college degree; that 25,000 students
+reached the standard denoted by at least three and not over four
+years of such study in advance of a four-year high-school course;
+than an eighth of a million students reached the standard denoted
+by at least three and not over four years of study in advance of an
+eight-year elementary-school course; and that three-quarters of a
+million students reached the standard of completion of an elementary-school
+course of seven or eight years or its equivalent.... Roughly,
+nine-tenths of elementary education and the education of teachers,
+over two-thirds of secondary education, and over a third of college
+and higher technical education are provided and controlled by the
+public. Professional education, other than the training of teachers
+and engineers, is still largely a function of private provision and
+control.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The following rough comparison may serve to define further the
+status of education in the country at large. The plant used for formal
+education is valued at 1% of our entire national wealth, or twice
+the value of our telephone systems, or ten times the value of our
+Pullman and private cars, or one-tenth the value of our railroads.
+The number of teachers is approximately that of the clergymen,
+engineers, lawyers and physicians together, five times that of the
+regular army and navy, and about twice that of the saloon-keepers
+and bar-tenders and their assistants. The annual expenditure for
+education, exclusive of additions to the plant, is somewhat over twice
+the expenditure for the war and navy departments of the national
+government. It is three and a half times the expenditure of the
+national government in 1907 for pensions. It is about one and a
+fourth times the cost (New York wholesale prices) of the sugar and
+coffee we consume annually.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The above comparison indicates perhaps, not inadequately,
+the &ldquo;business&rdquo; conception of the value of education prevailing
+in the United States, where its practical advantages are realized
+as in no other country, not even Germany.</p>
+
+<p>From the same report the following statistics may be cited
+for 1906-1907.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page989" id="page989"></a>989</span></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p class="pt1 center"><i>Common Schools (including Elementary and Secondary Public
+Schools only).</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Total number of pupils of all ages</td> <td class="tcl cl">16,820,386<a name="fa5i" id="fa5i" href="#ft5i"><span class="sp">5</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Average number of days schools open</td> <td class="tcl">151.2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Average number of days attended by each pupil</td> <td class="tcl cl">106.2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Number of male teachers</td> <td class="tcl">105,773</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Number of female teachers</td> <td class="tcl cl">369,465</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Number of school houses</td> <td class="tcl">259,115</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Average monthly wage of male teachers</td> <td class="tcl cl">$56.10</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Average monthly wage of female teachers</td> <td class="tcl">$43.67</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Value of all school property</td> <td class="tcl cl">$843,309,410</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Income from permanent funds and rents</td> <td class="tcl">&ensp;$16,579,551</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Income from State taxes</td> <td class="tcl cl">&ensp;$46,281,501</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Income from local taxes</td> <td class="tcl">$230,424,554</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Income from other sources</td> <td class="tcl cl">&ensp;$50,317,132</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Expenditure on sites, buildings, furniture, libraries and apparatus</td> <td class="tcl">&ensp;$65,817,870</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Expenditure on salaries</td> <td class="tcl cl">$196,980,919</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Expenditure on other purposes</td> <td class="tcl">&ensp;$67,882,012</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Expenditure per head of population</td> <td class="tcl cl">$3.90</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Expenditure per pupil</td> <td class="tcl">$27.98</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The Bureau of Education in 1907 received reports from 606
+universities, colleges and technological schools; they had a teaching
+force of 24,679, and an enrolment of 293,343 students. The number
+of public and private normal schools reporting was 259, with an
+enrolment of 70,439 students in the regular training courses for
+teachers, 12,541 graduates and 3660 instructors. There were 148
+manual and industrial training schools (independently of the manual
+training taught in the public schools and in 66 Indian schools),
+with 1692 teachers and an enrolment of 68,427 students; and 445
+independent commercial and business schools, with 2856 instructors
+and 137,364 students.</p>
+<div class="author">(X.)</div>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;For the study of education as an aspect of
+religious, social, moral and intellectual development, the material
+is practically inexhaustible, and much of the most valuable does not
+treat specifically of the education given in schools and colleges.
+The most useful guide is E.P. Cubberley&rsquo;s <i>Syllabus of Lectures on the
+History of Education</i> (1902), which consists of an analytic outline
+of topics with copious and detailed references to authorities. See
+also W.S. Monroe&rsquo;s <i>Bibliography of Education</i> (1897). The best
+general history in English is P. Monroe&rsquo;s <i>Text-Book in the History of
+Education</i> (1905), which, like Davidson&rsquo;s much briefer <i>History of
+Education</i>, treats the subject broadly and in relation to other aspects
+of life. Williams&rsquo;s <i>History of Ancient, Medieval, and Modern Education</i>
+is a useful statement of the main facts of educational progress
+taken somewhat by itself. In German the standard work is K.A.
+Schmid&rsquo;s <i>Geschichte der Erziehung</i>, a comprehensive and detailed
+treatment in which each period is dealt with by a specialist. Ziegler&rsquo;s
+<i>Geschichte der Pädagogik</i> is a good short history. In French,
+Letourneau&rsquo;s <i>L&rsquo;Évolution de l&rsquo;éducation</i> is especially good on ancient
+and non-European education. Draper&rsquo;s <i>Intellectual Development of
+Europe</i> is vigorous and interesting, but marred by its depreciation
+of the work of the Church. Guizot&rsquo;s <i>History of Civilization</i> is still
+of value, as are parts of Hallam&rsquo;s <i>Literary History</i>. Lecky&rsquo;s <i>History
+of the Rise and Influence of the Spirit of Rationalism in Europe</i>, and
+Buckle&rsquo;s <i>History of Civilization</i> in England, contain much that is
+of value. The best encyclopaedias are W. Rein&rsquo;s <i>Encyklopädisches
+Handbuch der Pädagogik</i>, and F. Buisson&rsquo;s <i>Dictionnaire de pédagogie,
+première partie</i>. Sir Henry Craik&rsquo;s <i>The State and Education</i> (1883)
+is an excellent text-book on national education.</p>
+
+<p>Of books dealing with special periods and topics, S. Laurie&rsquo;s
+<i>Historical Sketch of Pre-Christian Education</i>, Freeman&rsquo;s <i>Schools of
+Hellas</i>, Girard&rsquo;s <i>L&rsquo;Éducation athénienne au V<span class="sp">e</span> et au IV<span class="sp">e</span> siècle avant</i>
+J.-C., Davidson&rsquo;s <i>Education of the Greek People</i>, Mahaffy&rsquo;s <i>Old Greek
+Education</i> and <i>Greek Life and Thought</i>, Nettleship&rsquo;s article on
+&ldquo;Education in Plato&rsquo;s Republic&rdquo; in <i>Hellenica</i>, Capes&rsquo;s <i>University
+Life in Athens</i>, Hobhouse&rsquo;s <i>Theory and Practice of Ancient Education</i>,
+Grasberger&rsquo;s <i>Erziehung und Unterricht im classischen Alterthum</i>,
+Wilkin&rsquo;s <i>Roman Education</i>, and Clarke&rsquo;s <i>Education of Children at
+Rome</i>, are valuable for classical times.</p>
+
+<p>For the somewhat obscure transition centuries there is much of
+value in Taylor&rsquo;s <i>Classical Heritage of the Middle Ages</i>, Dill&rsquo;s <i>Roman
+Society in the Last Century of the Western Empire</i>, especially the
+chapter on &ldquo;Culture in the 4th and 5th centuries,&rdquo; Boissier&rsquo;s <i>La
+Fin du paganisme</i>, and Hatch&rsquo;s <i>Influence of Greek Thought upon the
+Christian Church</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The best general account of medieval education is in Drane&rsquo;s
+<i>Christian Schools and Scholars</i>; and J.B. Mullinger&rsquo;s <i>Schools of
+Charles the Great</i> treats well of the Carolingian Revival. G.B.
+Adams&rsquo;s <i>Civilization during the Middle Ages</i> is excellent; and
+Sandys&rsquo;s <i>History of Classical Scholarship</i> is a valuable book of
+reference. On the scholastic philosophy Turner&rsquo;s <i>History of Philosophy</i>,
+and Hauréau&rsquo;s <i>Histoire de la philosophie scolastique</i>, are
+useful. Medieval schools are described in Furnivall&rsquo;s preface to
+<i>The Babees Book</i>, which deals with &ldquo;Education in Early England,&rdquo;
+and in Leach&rsquo;s <i>Old Yorkshire Schools</i> and <i>History of Winchester
+College</i>. The most important books on the universities are Rashdall&rsquo;s
+<i>Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages</i>, Jourdain&rsquo;s <i>Histoire
+de l&rsquo;université de Paris aux XVII<span class="sp">e</span> et XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècles</i>, Lyte&rsquo;s <i>History
+of the University of Oxford to 1530</i>, and Mullinger&rsquo;s <i>History of the
+University of Cambridge to the Accession of Charles I.</i> Paulsen&rsquo;s
+<i>Geschichte des gelehrten Unterrichts auf den deutschen Schulen und
+Universitäten</i> is the best history of education in Germany.</p>
+
+<p>On the Renaissance in Italy, Villari&rsquo;s Introduction to his <i>Life
+and Times of Machiavelli</i>, and Burckhardt&rsquo;s <i>Die Kultur der Renaissance
+in Italien</i> (translated into English), are of the first importance.
+Other valuable books are the first volume of the <i>Cambridge Modern
+History</i> and Symonds&rsquo;s great work on <i>The Renaissance in Italy</i>,
+especially the volume on <i>The Revival of Learning</i>. Dealing more
+specifically with education are Woodward&rsquo;s excellent monographs
+on <i>Education during the Renaissance</i>, <i>Vittorino da Feltre</i> and <i>Erasmus</i>.
+Janssen&rsquo;s <i>Geschichte des deutschen Volkes</i> (translated into English)
+gives a good account of the social and intellectual condition of
+Germany in the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries. Christie&rsquo;s <i>Life of
+Étienne Dolet</i> is of value for the Renaissance in France. For the
+movement in England Seebohm&rsquo;s <i>Oxford Reformers</i>, Gasquet&rsquo;s <i>Eve
+of the Reformation in England</i>, Einstein&rsquo;s <i>The Italian Renaissance in
+England</i>, and Leach&rsquo;s <i>English Schools at the Reformation, 1546-1548</i>,
+are particularly important.</p>
+
+<p>For later times the material is chiefly in the form of monographs,
+of which the following, among others, are of value: Adamson&rsquo;s
+<i>Pioneers of Modern Education</i>, Laas&rsquo;s <i>Die Pädagogik des Johannes
+Sturm</i>, Beard&rsquo;s <i>Port Royal</i>, vol. ii., Kuno Fischer&rsquo;s <i>Fr. Bacon und
+seine Nachfolger</i>, Laurie&rsquo;s <i>John Amos Comenius</i>, Morley&rsquo;s <i>Rousseau</i>,
+Pinloche&rsquo;s <i>La Réforme de l&rsquo;éducation en Allemagne au dix-huitième
+siècle</i>, Biedermann&rsquo;s <i>Deutschlands geistige, sittliche, und gesellige
+Zustände im XVIII. Jahrhundert</i>.</p>
+
+<p>For the 19th century and after, the best sources of information are
+the official Reports, such as those of the Royal Commissions on the
+English Universities, the Public Schools, and the other English
+secondary schools; the &ldquo;Special Reports,&rdquo; issued by the English
+Board of Education; the encyclopaedic annual Reports of the
+American Commissioner of Education (dealing not only with the
+United States, but with progress in other countries); monographs
+in the French <i>Musée pédagogique</i>, and various German Reports.</p>
+
+<p>For education in the United States, see also Boone&rsquo;s <i>History of
+Education in U.S.A.</i> (1889); N.M. Butler (editor), <i>Education in the
+U.S.A.</i> (1900), a series of monographs prepared for the Paris Exposition;
+E.G. Dexter&rsquo;s <i>History of Education in the United States</i>
+(1904); and the <i>Proceedings</i> of the National Educational Association.</p>
+
+<p>On the leading writers on education the monographs in the Great
+Educator Series are useful, and editions and translations of the best
+known of these writers are available. The greatest systematic
+collection is the <i>Monumenta Germaniae paedagogica</i>. On the development
+of the means of education, Montmorency&rsquo;s two books on
+<i>State Intervention in English Education from the Earliest Times to
+1833</i>, and <i>The Progress of Education in England</i>, Balfour&rsquo;s <i>Educational
+Systems of Great Britain and Ireland</i>, Allain&rsquo;s <i>L&rsquo;Instruction primaire
+en France avant la Révolution</i>, Lantoine&rsquo;s <i>Histoire de l&rsquo;enseignement
+secondaire en France au XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> et au début du XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>, and
+Konrad Fischer&rsquo;s <i>Geschichte des deutschen Volkschullehrerstands</i>, may
+be mentioned.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. Wn.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For the evolution of the school as such from early times see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Schools</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2i" id="ft2i" href="#fa2i"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See especially <i>Das öffentliche Unterrichtswesen Deutschlands</i>,
+by Dr Paul Stötzner (Leipzig, 1901).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3i" id="ft3i" href="#fa3i"><span class="fn">3</span></a> A valuable bibliography of Mr Harris&rsquo;s contributions to educational
+literature is given in the Report of the Commissioner of
+Education for 1907 (Washington, 1908).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4i" id="ft4i" href="#fa4i"><span class="fn">4</span></a> See especially the second Annual Report of the President of the
+Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching (pp. 76-80),
+quoted in the Report for 1907 of the Commissioner of Education.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5i" id="ft5i" href="#fa5i"><span class="fn">5</span></a> In private schools there were also 1,304,547 pupils.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDWARD,<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> &ldquo;<span class="sc">The Elder</span>&rdquo; (d. 924), king of the Angles and
+Saxons, was the second son of Alfred the Great, and with his
+sister Æthelflæd was carefully educated at the court of his
+father. During his father&rsquo;s lifetime he took an active part in
+the campaigns against the Danes, especially in that of 894, and
+as early as 898 he signs a charter as &ldquo;rex,&rdquo; showing that he was
+definitely associated with his father in the kingship. He succeeded
+his father in October 899,<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> but not without opposition.
+The Ætheling Æthelwold, son of Alfred&rsquo;s elder brother Æthelred,
+seized Wimborne and Christchurch. Edward advanced against
+him, and Æthelwold took refuge among the Danes in Northumbria.
+In 904 Æthelwold landed in Essex, and in the next
+year he enticed the East Anglian Danes to revolt. They ravaged
+all southern Mercia and, in spite of Edward&rsquo;s activity, returned
+home victorious, though Æthelwold fell in the battle of the
+Holme. In 905 or 906 Edward made a peace with the East
+Anglian and Northumbrian Danes at &ldquo;Yttingaford,&rdquo; near
+Linslade in Buckinghamshire, perhaps the peace known as
+&ldquo;the Laws of Edward and Guthrum.&rdquo; In 909 and 910 fresh
+campaigns took place owing to southerly raids by the Danes,
+and victories were won at Tettenhall and Wednesfield in Staffordshire.<a name="fa2j" id="fa2j" href="#ft2j"><span class="sp">2</span></a>
+From 907 onwards Edward and his sister Æthelflæd,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page990" id="page990"></a>990</span>
+the Lady of the Mercians, were busy strengthening their hold
+on Mercia and Wessex. Forts were built at Lincoln (907),
+&ldquo;Bremesbyrig&rdquo; (910), &ldquo;Scergeat&rdquo; and Bridgenorth (912),
+and when in the year 911 Æthelflæd&rsquo;s husband Æthelred died,
+Edward took over from Mercia the government of London and
+Oxford, with the lands belonging to them, <i>i.e.</i> probably Oxfordshire
+and Middlesex. The policy of constructing &ldquo;burhs&rdquo; or
+fortified towns was continued. Hertford was fortified in 911,
+Witham in 912, while Æthelflæd fortified Cherbury in Shropshire,
+&ldquo;Weardbyrig&rdquo; and Runcorn (all in 915). In 913 the Danes in
+Eastern Mercia gave considerable trouble, and in 914 a fresh
+horde of pirates, coming from Brittany, sailed up the Severn.
+They raided southern Wales, but were hemmed in by the English
+forces and besieged until they promised to leave the king&rsquo;s
+territory. Edward watched the southern shores of the Bristol
+Channel so carefully that the Danes failed to secure a hold there,
+and were ultimately forced to sail to Ireland. In the same year
+Edward fortified Buckingham and received the submission of
+the jarls and chief men of Bedford. In 915 he fortified Bedford
+itself, Maldon in 916, and Towcester and &ldquo;Wigingamere&rdquo; in 917.
+In the last-mentioned year Edward captured and destroyed the
+Danish stronghold of Tempsford, and later in the year he took
+Colchester. An attack by the Danes on Maldon failed, and in
+915 Edward went to Passenham and received the submission
+of the men of the &ldquo;borough&rdquo; of Northampton. The Danish
+strongholds of Huntingdon and Colchester were now restored
+and repaired, and Edward received the submission of the whole
+of the East Anglian Danes. Before midsummer of this year
+Edward had fortified Stamford, and on the death of his sister
+he received the submission of the Mercians at Tamworth. There
+also three kings of the North Welsh took Edward as their lord.
+Nottingham was now fortified; Thelwall in Cheshire (919) and
+Manchester soon followed; Nottingham was strengthened by a
+second fort; Bakewell was fortified and garrisoned, and then
+came the greatest triumph of Edward&rsquo;s reign. He was &ldquo;chosen
+as father and lord&rdquo; by the Scottish king and nation, by Rægenald,
+the Norwegian king of Northumbria, by Ealdred of
+Bamborough, and by the English, Danes or Norwegians in
+Northumbria, and by the Strathclyde Welsh.</p>
+
+<p>With the conclusion of his wars Edward&rsquo;s activity ceased,
+and we hear no more of him until in 924 he died at Farndon in
+Cheshire and was buried in the &ldquo;New Minster&rdquo; at Winchester.
+He was thrice married: (1) to Ecgwyn, a lady of rank, by
+whom he had a son Æthelstan, who succeeded him, and a
+daughter Eadgyth, who married Sihtric of Northumbria in
+924. This marriage was probably an irregular one. (2) To
+Ælflæd, by whom he had two sons&mdash;Ælfweard, who died a
+fortnight after his father, and Eadwine, who was drowned in
+933&mdash;and six daughters, Æthelflæd and Æthelhild nuns, and
+four others (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Æthelstan</a></span>). (3) To Eadgifu, the mother of
+Kings Edmund and Edred, and of two daughters.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;<i>Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</i> (ed. Plummer and Earle,
+Oxford); Florence of Worcester (Mon. Hist. Brit.); William of
+Malmesbury, <i>Gesta regum</i> (Rolls Series); Simeon of Durham (Rolls
+Series); Ethelweard (Mon. Hist. Brit.); Birch, <i>Cartularium Saxonicum</i>,
+Nos. 588-635; <i>D.N.B.</i>, s.v.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. Mw.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See Stevenson&rsquo;s article in <i>Eng. Hist. Rev.</i> vol. xiii. pp. 71-77.
+The whole chronology of this reign is very difficult and certainly
+is often impossible of attainment.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2j" id="ft2j" href="#fa2j"><span class="fn">2</span></a> It is possible that these battles are one and the same; the places
+are within 2 to 3 m. of each other.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDWARD,<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> &ldquo;<span class="sc">The Martyr</span>&rdquo; (<i>c.</i> 926-978), king of the English,
+was the son of Edgar by his wife Æthelflæd. Edward&rsquo;s brief
+reign was marked by an anti-monastic reaction. Ælfhere,
+earl of Mercia, once more expelled many of the monks whom
+Bishop Æthelwold had installed. There seems also to have been
+some change in administrative policy, perhaps with regard to
+the Danes, for Earl Oslac, whom Edgar had appointed to Northumbria,
+was driven from his province. In ecclesiastical matters
+there were two parties in the kingdom, the monastic, which had
+its chief hold in Essex and East Anglia, and the anti-monastic,
+led by Ælfhere of Mercia. Conferences were held at Kirtlington
+in Oxfordshire and at Calne in Wiltshire in 977 and 978, but
+nothing definite seems to have been decided. On the 18th of
+March 978 Edward&rsquo;s reign was suddenly cut short by his assassination
+at Corfe Castle in Dorsetshire. The crime was probably
+inspired by his stepmother, Ælfthryth, who was anxious to secure
+the succession of her son Ælthelred. The body was hastily
+interred at Wareham and remained there till 980, when Archbishop
+Dunstan and Ælfhere of Mercia united in transferring
+it with great ceremony to Shaftesbury. Edward seems to have
+been personally popular, and the poem on his death in the
+chronicle calls his murder the worst deed in English history.
+Very shortly after his death he was popularly esteemed to be both
+saint and martyr.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Saxon Chronicle</i>; <i>Vita S. Oswaldi</i> (<i>Hist. of Ch. of York</i>, Rolls
+Series); <i>Memorials of St Dunstan</i> (ed. Stubbs, Rolls Series).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. Mw.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDWARD,<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> &ldquo;<span class="sc">The Confessor</span>&rdquo; (d. 1066), so called on account
+of his reputation for sanctity, king of the English, was the son of
+Æthelred II. and Emma, daughter of Richard, duke of Normandy,
+and was born at Islip in Oxfordshire. On the recognition of
+Sweyn as king of England in 1013, Æthelred, with his wife and
+family, took refuge in Normandy, and Edward continued to
+reside at the Norman court until he was recalled in 1041 by
+Hardicanute. He appears to have been formally recognized as
+heir to the throne, if not actually associated in the kingship, and
+on the death of Hardicanute in 1042 &ldquo;all folk received him to be
+king,&rdquo; though his actual coronation was delayed until Easter
+1043. A few months later Edward, in conjunction with the
+three great earls of the kingdom, made a raid on the queen-mother
+Ælfgifu, or Emma, seized all her possessions and compelled
+her to live in retirement.</p>
+
+<p>In the earlier years of the reign the influence of Earl Godwine
+was predominant, though not unopposed. His daughter Edith
+or Eadgyth became Edward&rsquo;s queen in 1045. But the king&rsquo;s
+personal tastes inclined much more to foreigners than to Englishmen,
+and he fell more and more into the hands of favourites from
+beyond the sea. Between Godwine, representing the spirit of
+nationalism, and these favourites (especially their leader Robert
+of Jumièges, successively bishop of London and archbishop of
+Canterbury) there was war to the knife. In 1046 Magnus, king of
+Norway, who had succeeded Hardicanute in Denmark and claimed
+to succeed him in England as well, threatened an invasion, but
+the necessity of defending Denmark against his rival Sweyn
+Estrithson prevented him from carrying it into effect. In 1049,
+Godwine&rsquo;s son Sweyn, who had been outlawed for the seduction of
+the abbess of Leominster, returned and demanded his restoration.
+This was refused and Sweyn returned into exile, but not before he
+had with foulest treachery murdered his young kinsman Beorn.
+He was, however, inlawed next year. The influence of Godwine,
+already shaken, received a severe blow in 1051 in the appointment
+of Robert of Jumièges to the archbishopric of Canterbury, and
+the same year saw the triumph of the foreigners for the moment
+complete. Edward, indignant at the resistance offered by the
+men of Dover to the insolence of his brother-in-law Eustace of
+Boulogne and his French followers, ordered Godwine to punish the
+town. Godwine refused. The king at the prompting of the
+archbishop then summoned a meeting of the witan, at which the
+old charge against Godwine of complicity in the murder of the
+Ætheling Alfred was to be revived. About the same time came
+news of a fresh outrage by the foreigners. Godwine gathered his
+forces and demanded redress, while the earls Leofric of Mercia and
+Siward of Northumbria hastened to the side of the king. Civil
+war seemed imminent, but at length a compromise was effected
+by which the matter was referred to a meeting of the witan to
+be held at London. At the appointed time Godwine presented
+himself at Southwark. But his followers were rapidly deserting
+him, nor would the king give hostages for his security. Alarmed
+for his safety, he fled to Flanders, while his son Harold went to
+Ireland. But their exile was brief. The tale of Godwine excited
+universal sympathy, for it was realized that he represented the
+cause of national independence. Encouraged by assurances from
+England, he sailed thither, and joining forces with Harold sailed
+along the south coast and up the Thames. The king would have
+resisted but found no support. Yielding to circumstances, he
+allowed himself to be reconciled, and Godwine and his house were
+restored to their old position. The queen at the same time was
+brought back from the monastery of Wherwell, whither she had
+been despatched after her father&rsquo;s flight. The foreigners had
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page991" id="page991"></a>991</span>
+already ignominiously fled the country, and henceforth the influence
+of Godwine, and, after his death, of Harold, was supreme.
+In 1063 Harold made a great expedition into Wales, in which he
+crushed the power of King Gruffyd, who was killed by his own
+people. But despite his prowess and his power, he was the
+minister of the king rather than his personal favourite. This
+latter position belonged to his younger brother Tostig, who on
+the death of Siward in 1055 was appointed earl of Northumbria.
+Here his severity and arbitrary temper rendered him intensely
+unpopular, and in 1065 his subjects broke into revolt. They
+elected Morkere as their earl, then marching south demanded
+Tostig&rsquo;s banishment. Edward desired to crush the revolt by force
+of arms, but he was overborne and forced to submit. The
+election of Morkere was recognized, and Tostig went into exile.
+Intensely mortified at this humiliation, the king fell sick, and
+henceforth his health failed rapidly. He was unable to gratify
+his intense desire to be present at the consecration of his new
+abbey of Westminster, the foundation of which had been the chief
+interest of his closing years, and on the 5th of January 1066
+he died.</p>
+
+<p>The virtues of Edward were monkish rather than kingly. In
+the qualities of a ruler he was conspicuously deficient; always
+dependent on others, he ever inclined to the unworthier master.
+But the charm of his character for the monastic biographer, and
+the natural tendency to glorify the days before the Norman
+oppression began, combined to cast about his figure a halo which
+had not attached to it in life. Allowed to keep her property by
+William the Conqueror, his widow, Edith, passed the remainder
+of her life at Winchester, dying on the 19th of December 1075.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Sources.</span>&mdash;A number of lives of Edward are brought together
+in a volume of the Rolls Series entitled <i>Lives of Edward the Confessor</i>,
+and edited by Dr H.R. Luard (London, 1858). Of these by far the
+most valuable is the contemporary <i>Vita Edwardi</i>, which would appear
+from internal evidence to have been written by an unknown writer
+soon after the Norman Conquest&mdash;some time between 1066 and 1074.
+The other chief authorities for the reign are (1) the <i>Saxon Chronicle</i>,
+(C. Plummer, Oxford, 1892-1899); (2) <i>Florence of Worcester</i>, ed.
+B. Thorpe, English Historical Society (London, 1848-1849). Reference
+may also be made to J.M. Kemble, <i>Codex diplomaticus aevi
+Saxonici</i> (London, 1839-1848).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. S. P.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDWARD I.<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> (1239-1307), king of England, born at Westminster
+on the 17th of June 1239, was the eldest son of Henry
+III. and Eleanor of Provence. He was baptized Edward after
+Edward the Confessor, for whom Henry had special veneration,
+and among his godfathers was Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester,
+his aunt Eleanor&rsquo;s husband. His political career begins when the
+conclusion of a treaty with Alphonso X. of Castile, by which he
+was to marry the Spanish king&rsquo;s half sister Eleanor, necessitated
+the conferring on him of an adequate establishment. His father
+granted him the duchy of Gascony, the earldom of Chester, the
+king&rsquo;s lands in Wales and much else. The provision made was so
+liberal that Henry&rsquo;s subjects declared he was left no better than a
+mutilated king. In May 1254 Edward went to Gascony to take
+possession of his inheritance. He then crossed the Pyrenees, and
+in October was dubbed knight by Alphonso and married to
+Eleanor at the Cistercian convent of Las Huelgas, near Burgos.
+He remained in Gascony till November 1255, but his father was
+too jealous to allow him a free hand in its administration. After
+his return, the attempts of his agents to establish English laws in
+his Welsh possessions brought Edward into hostile relations with
+the Welsh. Here also his father would give him no help, and
+his first campaign brought him little result. Edward became
+extremely unpopular through his association with his Lusignan
+kinsfolk, his pride and violence, and the disorders of his household.
+In 1258 his strenuous opposition to the Provisions of Oxford
+further weakened his position, but, after the banishment of the
+foreigners, he began to take up a wiser line. In 1259 he led the
+young nobles who insisted that the triumphant oligarchy should
+carry out the reforms to which it was pledged. For a moment it
+looked as if Edward and Leicester might make common cause,
+but Edward remained an enemy of Montfort, though he strove to
+infuse his father&rsquo;s party with a more liberal and national spirit.
+He was the soul of the reconstituted royalist party formed about
+1263. In 1264 he took a prominent part in the fighting between
+the king and the barons. At the battle of Lewes his rash pursuit
+of the Londoners contributed to his father&rsquo;s defeat. Two days
+later Edward surrendered to Leicester as a hostage for the good
+behaviour of his allies. He was forced to give up his earldom of
+Chester to Leicester, but at Whitsuntide 1265 he escaped from his
+custodians, and joined the lords of the Welsh march who were
+still in arms. With their aid he defeated and slew Leicester at
+Evesham on the 4th of August 1265.</p>
+
+<p>For the rest of Henry III.&rsquo;s reign Edward controlled his
+father&rsquo;s policy and appropriated enough of Leicester&rsquo;s ideals
+to make the royalist restoration no mere reaction. So peaceful
+became the outlook of affairs that in 1268 Edward took the cross,
+hoping to join the new crusade of St Louis. Want of money
+delayed his departure till 1270, by which time St Louis was dead,
+and a truce concluded with the infidel. Refusing to be a party
+to such treason to Christendom, Edward went with his personal
+followers to Acre, where he abode from May 1271 to August 1272.
+Despite his energy and valour he could do little to prop up the
+decaying crusading kingdom and he narrowly escaped assassination.
+At last the declining health of his father induced him
+to return to the West. He learned in Sicily the death of Henry
+III. on the 16th of November 1272. On the 20th of November,
+the day of Henry&rsquo;s funeral, he was recognized as king by the
+English barons, and from that day his regnal years were subsequently
+computed. Affairs in England were so peaceful that
+Edward did not hurry home. After a slow journey through
+Italy and France he did homage to his cousin Philip III. at
+Paris, on the 26th of July 1273. He then went to Gascony,
+where he stayed nearly a year. At last he landed at Dover on the
+2nd of August 1274, and was crowned at Westminster on the
+18th of the same month.</p>
+
+<p>Edward was thirty-five years old when he became king, and
+the rude schooling of his youth had developed his character
+and suggested the main lines of the policy which he was to carry
+out as monarch. He was a tall, well-proportioned and handsome
+man, extravagantly devoted to military exercises, tournaments
+and the rougher and more dangerous forms of hunting.
+He had learned to restrain the hot temper of his youth, and was
+proud of his love of justice and strict regard to his plighted word.
+His domestic life was unstained, he was devoted to his friends,
+and loyal to his subordinates. Without any great originality
+either as soldier or statesman, he was competent enough to appropriate
+the best ideas of the time and make them his own. His
+defects were a hardness of disposition which sometimes approached
+cruelty and a narrow and pedantic temper, which caused him
+to regard the letter rather than the spirit of his promises. His
+effectiveness and love of strong government stand in strong
+contrast to his father&rsquo;s weakness. Though he loved power, and
+never willingly surrendered it, he saw that to be successful he
+must make his policy popular. Thus he continued the system
+which Montfort had formed with the object of restraining the
+monarchy, because he saw in a close alliance with his people
+the best means of consolidating the power of the crown.</p>
+
+<p>The first years of Edward&rsquo;s reign were mainly occupied by
+his efforts to establish a really effective administration. In
+carrying out this task he derived great help from his chancellor,
+Robert Burnell, bishop of Bath and Wells. Administrative
+reform soon involved legislation, and from 1275 to 1290 nearly
+every year was marked by an important law. Few of these contained
+anything that was very new or original. They rather
+illustrate that policy which caused Dr Stubbs to describe his
+reign as a &ldquo;period of definition.&rdquo; Yet the results of his conservative
+legislation were almost revolutionary. In particular
+he left the impress of his policy on the land laws of England,
+notably by the clause <i>De Donis</i> of the Westminster statute of
+1285, and the statute <i>Quia Emptores</i> of 1290. The general effect
+of his work was to eliminate feudalism from political life. At
+first he aimed at abolishing all franchises whose holders could not
+produce written warranty for them. This was the policy of the
+statute of Gloucester of 1278, but the baronial opposition was
+so resolute that Edward was forced to permit many immunities
+to remain. Though the most orthodox of churchmen, his dislike
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page992" id="page992"></a>992</span>
+of authority not emanating from himself threatened to involve
+him in constant conflict with the Church, and notably with
+John Peckham, the Franciscan friar, who was archbishop of
+Canterbury from 1279 to 1292. The statute of Mortmain of
+1279, which forbade the further grant of lands to ecclesiastical
+corporations without the royal consent, and the writ <i>Circumspecte
+Agatis</i> of 1285, which limited the church courts to strictly
+ecclesiastical business, both provoked strong clerical opposition.
+However, Peckham gave way to some extent, and Edward
+prudently acquiesced in many clerical assumptions which he
+disliked. He was strong enough to refuse to pay the tribute to
+Rome which John had promised, and his reign saw the end
+of that papal overlordship over England which had greatly
+complicated the situation under his father.</p>
+
+<p>Besides administration and legislation, the other great event
+of the first fifteen years of Edward&rsquo;s reign was the conquest
+of the principality of Wales. It was part of Edward&rsquo;s policy
+of reconciliation after the battle of Evesham that in the treaty
+of Shrewsbury of 1267 he had fully recognized the great position
+which Llewelyn ab Gruffyd, prince of Wales, had gained as the
+ally of Simon de Montfort. However, Llewelyn&rsquo;s early successes
+had blinded the Welsh prince to the limitations of his power,
+and he profited by Edward&rsquo;s early absences from England to
+delay in performing his feudal obligations to the new king.
+Even after Edward&rsquo;s return Llewelyn continued to evade doing
+homage. At last Edward lost patience, and in 1277 invaded
+north Wales. He conducted his campaign like a great siege,
+blocking all the avenues to Snowdon, and forcing Llewelyn
+to surrender from lack of supplies. He thereupon reduced the
+Welsh prince to the position of a petty north Welsh chieftain
+strictly dependent on the English. For the next five years
+Edward did his best to set up the English system of government
+in the ceded districts. The Welsh resentment of this soon gave
+Llewelyn another chance, and compelled Edward to devote the
+years 1282-1283 to completing his conquest. In 1284 he issued
+the statute of Wales, which provided for a scheme for the future
+government of the principality. Edward is often called the
+conqueror of Wales, but in truth he only effected the conquest
+of Llewelyn&rsquo;s dominions. The march of Wales was only indirectly
+affected by his legislation, and remained subject to its feudal
+marcher lords until the 16th century.</p>
+
+<p>Edward was very careful in his foreign policy. Though
+preserving nominal peace with his cousin Philip III. of France,
+his relations with that country were constantly strained. After
+Philip III.&rsquo;s death in 1285, Edward crossed the Channel in 1286,
+to perform homage to his successor, Philip the Fair. He remained
+abroad till 1289, busied in attempts to improve the administration
+of Gascony, and making repeated and finally successful efforts to
+end by his mediation the still continuing struggle between the
+houses of Anjou and Aragon. His long absence threw the government
+of England into confusion, and on his return in 1289 he was
+compelled to dismiss most of his judges and ministers for corruption.
+In 1290 he expelled all Jews from England.</p>
+
+<p>The affairs of Scotland furnished Edward with his chief preoccupation
+for the rest of his reign. After the death of Alexander
+III., in 1286, Scotland was governed in the name of his granddaughter
+Margaret, the Maid of Norway. The English king
+had suggested that Edward of Carnarvon, his eldest surviving son,
+should marry the little queen of Scots, and thus bring about the
+union of the two countries. Unluckily the death of Margaret in
+1290 frustrated the scheme. The Scottish throne was now
+disputed by many claimants, and the Scots asked Edward to
+arbitrate between them. Edward accepted the position, but
+insisted that, before he acted, the Scots should recognize him
+as their overlord. The claimants set the example of submission,
+and soon the chief Scots nobles followed. Thereupon Edward
+undertook the arbitration, and in 1292 adjudged the throne
+to John Baliol. The new king did homage to Edward, but his
+subjects soon began to resent the claims of jurisdiction over
+Scotland, which Edward declared were the natural results of
+his feudal supremacy. At last the Scots deprived John of nearly
+all his power, repudiated Edward&rsquo;s claims, and made an alliance
+with the French. During the years of the Scottish arbitration
+Edward had slowly been drifting into war with France. The
+chronic difficulties caused by French attempts to confine
+Edward&rsquo;s power in Gascony were now accentuated by the
+quarrels between the sailors and merchants of the two countries.
+In 1293 Edward was persuaded by his brother, Edmund, earl of
+Lancaster, to yield up Gascony temporarily to Philip the Fair.
+But Philip refused to restore the duchy, and Edward, seeing that
+he had been tricked, declared war against France, at the very
+moment when the Scottish resistance gave the French a firm ally
+in Britain. To make matters worse, the Welsh rose in rebellion.
+It was therefore quite impossible for Edward to recover Gascony.</p>
+
+<p>The most critical years of Edward&rsquo;s reign now began. He
+saw that he could only meet his difficulties by throwing himself
+on the support of his own subjects, and convoked, in 1295, a
+representative parliament of the three estates, which has been
+called in later times the Model Parliament, because it first
+illustrated the type which was to be perpetuated in all subsequent
+parliaments. &ldquo;What touches all,&rdquo; ran Edward&rsquo;s writ of
+summons, &ldquo;should be approved of all, and it is also clear that
+common dangers should be met by measures agreed upon
+in common.&rdquo; The parliamentary constitution of England was
+established as the result of Edward&rsquo;s action.</p>
+
+<p>Secure of his subjects&rsquo; allegiance, Edward put down the
+Welsh revolt, and conquered Scotland in 1296. When quiet
+was restored to Britain, he hoped to throw all his energy into
+the recovery of Gascony, but new troubles arose at home which
+once more diverted him from his supreme purpose. Led by
+Archbishop Winchelsea, Peckham&rsquo;s successor, the clergy refused
+to pay taxes in obedience to the bull of Pope Boniface VIII.,
+called <i>Clericis Laicos</i>. Edward declared that if the clergy
+would not contribute to support the state, the state could afford
+them no protection. But the clerical opposition was soon joined
+by a baronial opposition. Headed by the earls of Hereford
+and Norfolk, many of the barons declined to join in an expedition
+to Gascony, and Edward was forced to sail to the French war,
+leaving them behind. Thereupon the recalcitrant barons forced
+upon the regency a fresh confirmation of the charters, to which
+new articles were added, safeguarding the people from arbitrary
+taxation. Edward at Ghent reluctantly accepted this <i>Confirmatio
+Cariarum</i>, but even his submission did not end the crisis. In the
+same year (1297), all Scotland rose in revolt under the popular
+hero William Wallace, and next year (1298), Edward was forced
+to undertake its reconquest. The battle of Falkirk, won on
+the 22nd of July, was the greatest of Edward&rsquo;s military triumphs;
+but, though it destroyed the power of Wallace, it did not put
+an end to Scottish resistance. Bitter experience taught Edward
+that he could not fight the French and the Scots at the same
+time, and in 1299 he made peace with Philip, and, Eleanor
+having died in November 1290, he married the French king&rsquo;s
+sister Margaret (<i>c.</i> 1282-1318), and some years later obtained
+the restitution of Gascony. In the same spirit he strove to destroy
+the clerical and baronial opposition. He did not succeed in
+the former task until a complacent pope arose in his own
+subject, Clement V., who abandoned Winchelsea to his anger, and
+suffered the archbishop to be driven into exile. The baronial
+leaders could not be wholly overthrown by force, and Edward
+was compelled to make them fresh concessions.</p>
+
+<p>It was not until 1303 that Edward was able to undertake
+seriously the conquest of Scotland. By 1305 the land was
+subdued, and Wallace beheaded as a traitor. But Edward had
+hardly organized the government of his new conquest when a
+fresh revolt broke out under Robert Bruce, grandson of the
+chief rival of Baliol in 1290. Bruce was soon crowned king of
+Scots, and at the age of seventy Edward had to face the prospect
+of conquering Scotland for the third time. He resolved to take
+the field in person; but the effort was too great, and on the 7th
+of July 1307 he died at Burgh-on-Sands, near Carlisle. His
+death destroyed the last faint hope of conquering Scotland, and
+showed that the chief ambition of his life was a failure. Yet
+his conquest of Wales, his legislation, his triumph over his barons,
+his ecclesiastics, and the greatest of French medieval kings
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page993" id="page993"></a>993</span>
+indicate the strength and permanence of his work. He was
+buried at Westminster under a plain slab on which was inscribed
+<i>Edwardus primus Scottorum malleus hic est. Pactum serva.</i></p>
+
+<p>By Eleanor of Castile Edward had four sons, his successor
+Edward II. and three who died young, and nine daughters,
+including Joan, or Joanna (1272-1307), the wife of Gilbert de
+Clare, earl of Gloucester (d. 1295), and then of Ralph de
+Monthermer; Margaret (1275-1318), the wife of John II., duke
+of Brabant; and Eleanor (1282-1316), who married John I.,
+count of Holland, and then Humphrey Bohun, earl of Hereford
+(d. 1322). By Margaret of France the king had two sons:
+Thomas of Brotherton, earl of Norfolk, and Edmund of
+Woodstock, earl of Kent.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The principal modern authorities for this reign are: W. Stubbs,
+<i>Constitutional History of England</i>, vol. ii. chaps. xiv. and xv. (1896);
+T.F. Tout, <i>Edward I.</i> (1893), and <i>Political History of England, 1216-1377</i>,
+pp. 136-235 (1905); R.B. Seeley, <i>Life and Reign of Edward I.</i>
+(1872); R. Pauli, <i>Geschichte von England</i>, iv. pp. 1-198 (Hamburg,
+1864-1875); W. Hunt, article on &ldquo;Edward I.&rdquo; in <i>Dictionary
+of National Biography</i>; J.E. Morris, <i>Welsh Wars of Edward I.</i>
+(Oxford, 1901); and C.V. Langlois&rsquo;s <i>Philippe le Hardi</i> (Paris,
+1887).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. F. T.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDWARD II.<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> (1284-1327), &ldquo;of Carnarvon,&rdquo; king of England,
+the fourth son of Edward I. by his first wife Eleanor of Castile,
+was born at Carnarvon Castle on the 25th of April 1284. The
+story that the king presented the new-born child to the Welsh
+as their future native prince is quite unfounded, for Edward
+was only made prince of Wales in the Lincoln parliament of
+1301. When a few months old, he became by his elder brother&rsquo;s
+death the heir to the throne, and Edward I. took great pains
+to train him in warfare and statecraft. He took part in several
+Scots campaigns, but all his father&rsquo;s efforts could not prevent
+his acquiring the habits of extravagance and frivolity which
+he retained all through his life. The old king attributed his
+son&rsquo;s defects to the bad influence of his friend, the Gascon knight
+Piers Gaveston, and drove the favourite into exile. When
+Edward I. died, on the 7th of July 1307, the first act of the prince,
+now Edward II., was to recall Gaveston. His next was to abandon
+the Scots campaign on which his father had set his heart.</p>
+
+<p>The new king was physically almost as fine a man as Edward I.
+He was, however, destitute of any serious purpose, and was, as
+Dr Stubbs says, &ldquo;the first king after the Conquest who was
+not a man of business.&rdquo; He cared for nothing but amusing himself,
+and found his chief delight in athletics and in the practice
+of mechanical crafts. He was not so much vicious as foolish,
+and wanting in all serious interests. He had so little confidence
+in himself that he was always in the hands of some favourite
+who possessed a stronger will than his own. In the early years
+of his reign Gaveston held this role, acting as regent when Edward
+went to France&mdash;where, on the 25th of January 1308, he married
+Isabella, the daughter of Philip the Fair&mdash;and receiving the
+earldom of Cornwall with the hand of the king&rsquo;s niece, Margaret
+of Gloucester. The barons soon grew indignant at Edward&rsquo;s
+devotion to his &ldquo;brother Piers,&rdquo; and twice insisted on his
+banishment. On each occasion Edward soon recalled his friend,
+whereupon the barons, headed by the king&rsquo;s cousin Thomas,
+earl of Lancaster, went to war against king and favourite, and
+in 1312 treacherously put Gaveston to death. Edward was not
+strong enough even to avenge his loss. He was forced to stand
+aside and suffer the realm to be governed by the baronial committee
+of twenty-one lords ordainers, who, in 1311, had drawn
+up a series of ordinances, whose effect was to substitute ordainers
+for the king as the effective government of the country. But
+in all the ordinances nothing was said about the commons and
+lower clergy. Parliament meant to the new rulers an assembly
+of barons just as it had done to the opponents of Henry III.
+in 1258. The effect of their triumph was to change England
+from a monarchy to a narrow oligarchy.</p>
+
+<p>During the quarrels between Edward and the ordainers,
+Robert Bruce was steadily conquering Scotland. His progress
+was so great that he had occupied all the fortresses save Stirling,
+which he closely besieged. The danger of losing Stirling shamed
+Edward and the barons into an attempt to retrieve their lost
+ground. In June 1314 Edward led a great army into Scotland
+in the hope of relieving Stirling. On the 24th of June his ill-disciplined
+and badly led host was completely defeated by Robert
+Bruce at Bannockburn. Henceforth Bruce was sure of his
+position as king of Scots, and his pitiless devastation of the
+northern counties of England was his wild vengeance for the
+sufferings his land had previously experienced from the English.
+Edward&rsquo;s disgraceful defeat made him more dependent on his
+barons than ever. His kinsman, Thomas of Lancaster, had now
+an opportunity of saving England from the consequences of the
+king&rsquo;s incompetence. He had shown some capacity as a leader
+of opposition, but though he had great wealth, and was lord of
+five earldoms, he had small ability and no constructive power.
+In his desire to keep the king weak, he was suspected to have
+made a secret understanding with Robert Bruce. Before long
+the opposition split up under his incompetent guidance into
+fiercely contending factions. Under Aymer of Valence, earl
+of Pembroke, a middle party arose, which hated Lancaster so
+much that it supported the king to put an end to Lancaster&rsquo;s
+rule. After 1318 the effect of its influence was to restore Edward
+to some portion of his authority. However, the king hated
+Pembroke almost as much as Lancaster. He now found a
+competent adviser in Hugh le Despenser, a baron of great
+experience. What was more important to him, he had in
+Despenser&rsquo;s son, Hugh le Despenser the younger, a personal
+friend and favourite, who was able in some measure to replace
+Gaveston. The fierce hatred which the barons manifested to
+the Despensers showed that they could hate a deserter as bitterly
+as they had hated the Gascon adventurer. They were indignant
+at the favours which Edward lavished upon the favourite and
+his father, and were especially alarmed when the younger
+Despenser strove to procure for himself the earldom of Gloucester
+in right of his wife, Edward&rsquo;s niece.</p>
+
+<p>At last, in 1321, the barons met in parliament, and under
+Lancaster&rsquo;s guidance procured the banishment of the Despensers.
+The disasters of his friends inspired Edward to unwonted
+activity. In 1322 he recalled them from exile, and waged war
+against the barons on their behalf. Triumph crowned his
+exertions. Lancaster, defeated at Boroughbridge, was executed
+at Pontefract. For the next five years the Despensers ruled
+England. Unlike the ordainers, they took pains to get the
+Commons on their side, and a parliament held at York in 1322
+revoked the ordinances because they trenched upon the rights
+of the crown, and were drawn up by the barons only. From
+this time no statute was technically valid unless the Commons
+had agreed to it. This marks the most important step forward
+in Edward II.&rsquo;s reign. But the rule of the Despensers soon
+fell away from this wise beginning. They thought only of
+heaping up wealth for themselves, and soon stirred up universal
+indignation. In particular, they excited the ill-will of the queen,
+Isabella of France. Craftily dissembling her indignation,
+Isabella kept silence until 1325, when she went to France in
+company with her eldest son, Edward of Windsor, who was sent
+to do homage for Aquitaine to her brother, the new French king.
+When her business was over, Isabella declined to return to her
+husband as long as the Despensers remained his favourites.
+She formed a criminal connexion with Roger Mortimer of
+Wigmore, one of the baronial exiles, and in September 1326
+landed in Essex accompanied by Mortimer and her son, declaring
+that she was come to avenge the murder of Lancaster, and to
+expel the Despensers. Edward&rsquo;s followers deserted him, and
+on the 2nd of October he fled from London to the west, where
+he took refuge in the younger Despenser&rsquo;s estates in Glamorgan.
+His wife followed him, put to death both the Despensers, and,
+after a futile effort to escape by sea, Edward was captured on
+the 16th of November. He was imprisoned at Kenilworth
+Castle, and a parliament met at Westminster in January
+1327, which chose his son to be king as Edward III. It was
+thought prudent to compel the captive king to resign the crown,
+and on the 20th of January Edward was forced to renounce his
+office before a committee of the estates. The government of
+Isabella and Mortimer was so weakly established that it dared
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page994" id="page994"></a>994</span>
+not leave the deposed king alive. On the 3rd of April he was
+secretly removed from Kenilworth and entrusted to the custody
+of two dependants of Mortimer. After various wanderings he
+was imprisoned at Berkeley Castle in Gloucestershire. Every
+indignity was inflicted upon him, and he was systematically
+ill-treated in the hope that he would die of disease. When his
+strong constitution seemed likely to prevail over the ill-treatment
+of his enemies he was cruelly put to death on the 21st of September.
+It was announced that he had died a natural death, and he was
+buried in St Peter&rsquo;s Abbey at Gloucester, now the cathedral,
+where his son afterwards erected a magnificent tomb.</p>
+
+<p>Edward&rsquo;s wife, Isabella (<i>c.</i> 1292-1358), bore him two sons,
+Edward III. and John of Eltham, earl of Cornwall (1316-1336),
+and two daughters, Isabella and Joanna (1321-1362), wife of
+David II., king of Scotland. After the execution of her paramour,
+Roger Mortimer, in 1330, Isabella retired from public life; she
+died at Hertford on the 23rd of August 1358.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See R. Pauli, <i>Geschichte von England</i>, iv. pp. 199-306; T.F. Tout,
+<i>Political History of England</i>, 1216-1307, pp. 236-304, and article in
+<i>Dictionary of National Biography</i>; W. Stubbs, <i>Constitutional History</i>,
+vol. ii. pp. 319-386, and <i>Introductions to Chronicles of the Reigns of
+Edward I. and Edward II.</i> in Rolls series.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. F. T.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDWARD III.<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> (1312-1377), &ldquo;of Windsor,&rdquo; king of England,
+eldest son of Edward II. and Isabella of France, was born at
+Windsor on the 13th of November 1312. In 1320 he was made
+earl of Chester, and in 1325 duke of Aquitaine, but he never
+received the title of prince of Wales. Immediately after his
+appointment to Aquitaine, he was sent to France to do homage
+to his uncle Charles IV., and remained abroad until he accompanied
+his mother and Mortimer in their expedition to England.
+To raise funds for this he was betrothed to Philippa, daughter
+of the count of Hainaut. On the 26th of October 1326, after
+the fall of Bristol, he was proclaimed warden of the kingdom
+during his father&rsquo;s absence. On the 13th of January 1327
+parliament recognized him as king, and he was crowned on the
+29th of the same month.</p>
+
+<p>For the next four years Isabella and Mortimer governed in
+his name, though nominally his guardian was Henry, earl of
+Lancaster. In the summer he took part in an abortive campaign
+against the Scots, and was married to Philippa at York on the
+24th of January 1328. On the 15th of June 1330 his eldest
+child, Edward, the Black Prince, was born. Soon after, Edward
+made a successful effort to throw off his degrading dependence
+on his mother and her paramour. In October 1330
+he entered Nottingham Castle by night, through a subterranean
+passage, and took Mortimer prisoner. On the 29th of November
+the execution of the favourite at Tyburn completed the young
+king&rsquo;s emancipation. Edward discreetly drew a veil over his
+mother&rsquo;s relations with Mortimer, and treated her with every
+respect. There is no truth in the stories that henceforth he
+kept her in honourable confinement, but her political influence
+was at an end.</p>
+
+<p>Edward III.&rsquo;s real reign now begins. Young, ardent and
+active, he strove with all his might to win back for England
+something of the position which it had acquired under Edward
+I. He bitterly resented the concession of independence to Scotland
+by the treaty of Northampton of 1328, and the death of
+Robert Bruce in 1329 gave him a chance of retrieving his position.
+The new king of Scots, David, who was his brother-in-law, was
+a mere boy, and the Scottish barons, exiled for their support
+of Robert Bruce, took advantage of the weakness of his rule
+to invade Scotland in 1332. At their head was Edward Baliol,
+whose victory at Dupplin Moor established him for a brief
+time as king of Scots. After four months Baliol was driven out
+by the Scots, whereupon Edward for the first time openly took
+up his cause. In 1333 the king won in person the battle of
+Halidon Hill over the Scots, but his victory did not restore
+Baliol to power. The Scots despised him as a puppet of the
+English king, and after a few years David was finally established
+in Scotland. During these years England gradually drifted
+into hostility with France. The chief cause of this was the
+impossible situation which resulted from Edward&rsquo;s position as
+duke of Gascony. Contributing causes were Philip&rsquo;s support
+of the Scots and Edward&rsquo;s alliance with the Flemish cities,
+which were then on bad terms with their French overlord, and
+the revival of Edward&rsquo;s claim, first made in 1328, to the French
+crown. War broke out in 1337, and in 1338 Edward visited
+Coblenz, where he made an alliance with the emperor Louis the
+Bavarian. In 1339 and 1340 Edward endeavoured to invade
+France from the north with the help of his German and Flemish
+allies, but the only result of his campaigns was to reduce him
+to bankruptcy.</p>
+
+<p>In 1340, however, he took personal part in the great naval
+battle off Sluys, in which he absolutely destroyed the French
+navy. In the same year he assumed the title of king of France.
+At first he did this to gratify the Flemings, whose scruples in
+fighting their overlord, the French king, disappeared when they
+persuaded themselves that Edward was the rightful king of
+France. However, his pretensions to the French crown gradually
+became more important. The persistence with which he and
+his successors urged them made stable peace impossible for more
+than a century, and this made the struggle famous in history
+as the Hundred Years&rsquo; War. Till the days of George III. every
+English king also called himself king of France.</p>
+
+<p>Despite his victory at Sluys, Edward was so exhausted by
+his land campaign that he was forced before the end of 1340 to
+make a truce and return to England. He unfairly blamed his
+chief minister, Archbishop Stratford, for his financial distress,
+and immediately on his return vindictively attacked him.
+Before the truce expired a disputed succession to the duchy
+of Brittany gave Edward an excuse for renewing hostilities
+with France. In 1342 he went to Brittany and fought an
+indecisive campaign against the French. He was back in
+England in 1343. In the following years he spent much time
+and money in rebuilding Windsor Castle, and instituting the
+order of the Garter, which he did in order to fulfil a vow that
+he had taken to restore the Round Table of Arthur. His
+finances, therefore, remained embarrassed despite the comparative
+pause in the war, although in 1339 he had repudiated
+his debt to his Italian creditors, a default that brought about
+widespread misery in Florence.</p>
+
+<p>A new phase of the French war begins when in July 1346
+Edward landed in Normandy, accompanied by his eldest son,
+Edward, prince of Wales, a youth of sixteen. In a memorable
+campaign Edward marched from La Hogue to Caen, and from
+Caen almost to the gates of Paris. It was a plundering expedition
+on a large scale, and like most of Edward&rsquo;s campaigns showed
+some want of strategic purpose. But Edward&rsquo;s decisive victory
+over the French at Crécy, in Ponthieu, on the 26th of August,
+where he scattered the army with which Philip VI. attempted
+to stay his retreat from Paris to the northern frontier, signally
+demonstrated the tactical superiority of Edward&rsquo;s army over
+the French. Next year Edward effected the reduction of Calais.
+This was the most solid and lasting of his conquests, and its
+execution compelled him to greater efforts than the Crécy
+campaign. Other victories in Gascony and Brittany further
+emphasized his power. In 1346, David, king of Scots, was also
+defeated and taken prisoner at Neville&rsquo;s Cross, near Durham.
+In the midst of his successes, however, want of money forced
+Edward to make a new truce in 1347. He was as far from the
+conquest of France as ever.</p>
+
+<p>Edward returned to England in October 1347. He celebrated
+his triumph by a series of splendid tournaments, and completed
+his scheme for the establishment of the order of the Garter.
+In 1348 he rejected an offer of the imperial throne. In the
+same year the Black Death first appeared in England, and raged
+until 1349. Yet the horrors which it wrought hardly checked
+the magnificent revels of Edward&rsquo;s court, and neither the plague
+nor the truce stayed the course of the French war, though
+what fighting there was was indecisive and on a small scale.
+Edward&rsquo;s martial exploits during the next years were those of
+a gallant knight rather than those of a responsible general.
+Conspicuous among them were his famous combat with Eustace
+de Ribemont, near Calais, in 1349, and the hard-fought naval
+victory over the Spaniards off Winchelsea, in 1350. Efforts
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page995" id="page995"></a>995</span>
+to make peace, initiated by Pope Innocent VI., came to nothing,
+though the English commons were now weary of the war. The
+result of this failure was the renewal of war on a large scale.
+In 1355 Edward led an unsuccessful raid out of Calais, and in
+January and February 1356 harried the Lothians, in the expedition
+famous as the Burned Candlemas. His exploits sank
+into insignificance as compared with those of his son, whose
+victory at Poitiers, on the 19th of September 1356, resulted
+in the captivity of King John, and forced the French to accept
+a new truce. Edward entertained his royal captive very
+magnificently, and in 1359 concluded with him the treaty of
+London, by which John surrendered so much that the French
+repudiated the treaty. Edward thereupon resolved to invade
+France afresh and compel its acceptance. On the 28th of
+October he landed at Calais, and advanced to Reims, where he
+hoped to be crowned king of France. The strenuous resistance
+of the citizens frustrated this scheme, and Edward marched
+into Burgundy, whence he made his way back towards Paris.
+Failing in an attack on the capital, he was glad to conclude, on
+the 8th of May 1360, preliminaries of peace at Brétigny, near
+Chartres. This treaty, less onerous to France than that of
+London, took its final form in the treaty of Calais, ratified by
+King John on the 9th of October. By it Edward renounced
+his claim to France in return for the whole of Aquitaine.</p>
+
+<p>The treaty of Calais did not bring rest or prosperity either to
+England or France. Fresh visitations of the Black Death, in
+1362 and 1369, intensified the social and economic disturbances
+which had begun with the first outbreak in 1348. Desperate,
+but not very successful, efforts were made to enforce the statute
+of Labourers, of 1351, by which it was sought to maintain
+prices and wages as they had been before the pestilence. Another
+feature of these years was the anti-papal, or rather anti-clerical,
+legislation embodied in the statutes of Provisors and Praemunire.
+These measures were first passed in 1351 and 1353, but often
+repeated. In 1366 Edward formally repudiated the feudal
+supremacy over England, still claimed by the papacy by reason
+of John&rsquo;s submission. Another feature of the time was the
+strenuous effort made by Edward to establish his numerous
+family without too great expense. In the end the estates of
+the houses of Lancaster, Kent, Bohun, Burgh and Mortimer
+swelled the revenues of Edward&rsquo;s children and grandchildren,
+in whose favour also the new title of duke was introduced.</p>
+
+<p>In 1369 the French king, Charles V., repudiated the treaty of
+Calais and renewed the war. Edward&rsquo;s French dominions
+gladly reverted to their old allegiance, and Edward showed
+little of his former vigour in meeting this new trouble. He
+resumed the title and arms of king of France, but left most of
+the fighting and administration of his foreign kingdoms to his
+sons, Edward and John. While the latter were struggling with
+little success against the rising tide of French national feeling,
+Edward&rsquo;s want of money made him a willing participator in the
+attack on the wealth and privileges of the Church. In 1371 a
+clerical ministry was driven from office, and replaced by laymen,
+who proved, however, less effective administrators than their
+predecessors. Meanwhile Aquitaine was gradually lost; the
+defeat of Pembroke off La Rochelle deprived England of the
+command of the sea, and Sir Owen ap Thomas, a grand-nephew
+of Llewelyn ab Gruffyd, planned, with French help, an abortive
+invasion of Wales. In 1371 the Black Prince came back to
+England with broken health, and in 1373 John of Lancaster
+marched to little purpose through France, from Calais to
+Bordeaux. In 1372 Edward made his final effort to lead an
+army, but contrary winds prevented his even landing his troops
+in France. In 1375 he was glad to make a truce, which lasted
+until his death. By it the only important possessions remaining
+in English hands were Calais, Bordeaux, Bayonne and Brest.</p>
+
+<p>Edward was now sinking into his dotage. After the death
+of Queen Philippa he fell entirely under the influence of a greedy
+mistress named Alice Perrers, while the Black Prince and John
+of Gaunt became the leaders of sharply divided parties in the
+court and council of the king. With the help of Alice Perrers
+John of Gaunt obtained the chief influence with his father,
+but his administration was neither honourable nor successful.
+His chief enemies were the higher ecclesiastics, headed by
+William of Wykeham, bishop of Winchester, who had been
+excluded from power in 1371. John further irritated the clergy
+by making an alliance with John Wycliffe. The opposition to
+John was led by the Black Prince and Edmund Mortimer,
+earl of March, the husband of Edward&rsquo;s grand-daughter, Philippa
+of Clarence. At last popular indignation against the courtiers
+came to a head in the famous Good Parliament of 1376. Alice
+Perrers was removed from court, and Duke John&rsquo;s subordinate
+instruments were impeached. But in the midst of the parliament
+the death of the Black Prince robbed the commons of their
+strongest support. John of Gaunt regained power, and in 1377
+a new parliament, carefully packed by the courtiers, reversed
+the acts of the Good Parliament. Not long after Edward III.
+died, on the 21st of June 1377.</p>
+
+<p>Edward III. was not a great man like Edward I. He was,
+however, an admirable tactician, a consummate knight, and
+he possessed extraordinary vigour and energy of temperament.
+His court, described at length in Froissart&rsquo;s famous chronicle,
+was the most brilliant in Europe, and he was himself well fitted
+to be the head of the magnificent chivalry that obtained fame
+in the French wars. Though his main ambition was military
+glory, he was not a bad ruler of England. He was liberal,
+kindly, good-tempered and easy of access, and his yielding to
+his subjects&rsquo; wishes in order to obtain supplies for carrying on
+the French war contributed to the consolidation of the constitution.
+His weak points were his wanton breaches of good faith, his
+extravagance, his frivolity and his self-indulgence. Like that
+of Edward I. his ambition transcended his resources, and before
+he died even his subjects were aware of his failure.</p>
+
+<p>Edward had twelve children, seven sons and five daughters.
+Five of his sons played some part in the history of their time,
+these being Edward the Black Prince, Lionel of Antwerp, duke
+of Clarence, John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, Edmund of
+Langley, afterwards duke of York, and Thomas of Woodstock,
+afterwards duke of Gloucester. John and Edmund are also
+important as the founders of the rival houses of Lancaster
+and York. Each of the last four was named from the place of
+his birth, and for the same reason the Black Prince is sometimes
+called Edward of Woodstock. The king&rsquo;s two other sons both
+died in infancy. Of his daughters, three died unmarried; the
+others were Isabella, who married into the family of Coucy,
+and Mary, who married into that of Montfort.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;The two chief modern lives of Edward III. are
+W. Longman&rsquo;s <i>Life and Times of Edward III.</i>, and J. Mackinnon&rsquo;s
+<i>History of Edward III.</i> Neither work can be regarded as adequate,
+and in some ways J. Barnes&rsquo;s quaint <i>History of Edward III.</i> (1688) is
+less unsatisfactory. The general history of the time can be read
+in W. Stubbs&rsquo;s <i>Constitutional History of England</i>, vol. ii. chapters xvi.
+and xvii.; in T.F. Tout&rsquo;s <i>Political History of England</i>, 1216-1377,
+pp. 301-441; in R. Pauli&rsquo;s <i>Geschichte von England</i>, iv. pp. 307-504;
+and in Edward&rsquo;s life by W. Hunt in the <i>Dictionary of National
+Biography</i>. For the Hundred Years&rsquo; War, see E. Déprez&rsquo;s <i>Les
+Préliminaires de la guerre de cent ans, 1328-1342</i>, and H. Denifle&rsquo;s
+<i>La Desolation des églises, monastères et hôpitaux en France pendant
+la guerre de cent ans</i>. For economic and social history see W.J.
+Ashley&rsquo;s <i>English Economic History</i>, and W. Cunningham&rsquo;s <i>Growth of
+English Industry and Commerce during the Early and Middle Ages</i>. For
+the end of the reign see S. Armitage Smith&rsquo;s <i>John of Gaunt</i>, J.
+Lechler&rsquo;s <i>Wiclif und die Vorgeschichte der Reformation</i>, translated as
+<i>Wycliffe and his English Precursors</i>, R.L. Poole&rsquo;s <i>Wycliffe and
+Movements for Reform</i>, and G.M. Trevelyan&rsquo;s <i>England in the Age of
+Wycliffe</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. F. T.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDWARD IV.<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> (1442-1483), king of England, son of Richard,
+duke of York, by Cicely Neville, was born at Rouen on the
+28th of April 1442. As a boy he was styled earl of March,
+and spent most of his time at Ludlow. After the Yorkist
+failure at Ludlow field in October 1459, Edward fled with the
+earls of Salisbury and Warwick, his uncle and cousin, to Calais.
+Thence in the following July he accompanied them in their
+successful invasion of England, to be welcomed in London, and
+to share in the victory over the Lancastrians at Northampton.
+After the acceptance of Richard of York as heir to the crown,
+Edward returned to the Welsh marches, where early in the new
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page996" id="page996"></a>996</span>
+year he heard of his father&rsquo;s defeat and death at Wakefield.
+Hastily gathering an army he defeated the earls of Pembroke
+and Wiltshire at Mortimer&rsquo;s Cross on the 2nd of February
+1461, and then marched on London. He was acclaimed by the
+citizens in an assembly at Clerkenwell, declared king by a Yorkist
+council, and took possession of the regality on the 4th of March.
+Soon after the new king and the earl of Warwick went north,
+and on the 28th of March won a decisive victory at Towton.</p>
+
+<p>Edward owed his throne to his kinsmen the Nevilles, and
+he was content for the time to be guided by them. For
+himself he was young and fond of pleasure. Still he made
+frequent progresses, and took some part in the fighting that
+went on in the north during 1462 and 1463. But he was absent
+from the final victory at Hexham on the 14th of May 1464,
+and was at the very time engaged in contracting a secret marriage
+with Elizabeth, daughter of Richard Woodville, Lord Rivers,
+and widow of Sir John Grey of Groby (d. 1461). The marriage
+was disclosed at Michaelmas, much to the vexation of Warwick,
+who in pursuit of his foreign policy had projected a match
+with a French princess. Edward heaped favours on his new
+relatives; his father-in-law was made treasurer, and great
+marriages were found for his wife&rsquo;s sisters and brothers. In
+foreign affairs also Edward thwarted Warwick&rsquo;s plans by favouring
+an alliance with Burgundy rather than France. There
+was, however, no open breach till 1469, when Warwick, taking
+advantage of the unpopularity of the Woodvilles, and supported
+by the king&rsquo;s next brother George, duke of Clarence, appeared
+in arms. Edward was surprised and made prisoner at Middleham,
+and Rivers was beheaded. For six months Edward had to
+submit to Warwick&rsquo;s tutelage; then on the occasion of a rising
+in Lincolnshire he gathered an army of his own. Sir Robert
+Welles, the leader of this rebellion, made a confession implicating
+Warwick, who fled with Clarence to France. The king thought
+himself secure, but when Warwick and Clarence made terms
+with the Lancastrian exiles, Edward in his turn had to seek
+refuge in Holland (September 1470). His brother-in-law,
+Charles of Burgundy, at first refused him any assistance, but at
+last furnished him with money, and on the 14th of March 1471
+Edward and his brother Richard landed with a small force at
+Ravenspur near Hull. Marching south he was welcomed at
+London on the 11th of April, defeated Warwick at Barnet
+three days later, and the Lancastrians at Tewkesbury on the
+4th of May. From thenceforth Edward&rsquo;s possession of the
+crown was secure. His position was strengthened by the birth
+of a son (2nd of November 1470, during his exile), and by the
+wealth which he acquired through the confiscation of the estates
+of his opponents. Clarence had made his peace with Edward,
+but was at enmity with his other brother Richard of Gloucester,
+who now married Warwick&rsquo;s second daughter and claimed a
+share in the Neville inheritance. Their rivalry and Clarence&rsquo;s
+continued intrigues furnished Edward with his chief domestic
+difficulty; the trouble was ended by the judicial murder of
+Clarence in 1478.</p>
+
+<p>The only serious enterprise of these latter years was the short
+French war of 1475, from which Edward was bought out by
+the treaty of Pecquigny. As foreign policy it was inglorious,
+and involved a departure from Edward&rsquo;s earlier plan of a
+Burgundian alliance. However, it shows a certain recognition
+of England&rsquo;s need to concentrate her energies on her own development.
+The annual subsidy which Louis XI. agreed to pay
+further served Edward&rsquo;s purposes by providing him with money
+for home government, and enabled him to avoid possible
+trouble through the necessity for too frequent parliaments
+and heavy taxation. So Edward&rsquo;s personal rule became in its
+character autocratic; but it was in the art of courting popularity
+and concealing despotism that he most shows himself as a type
+of tyranny. He lacked neither ambition nor capacity, but was
+indolent and only exerted himself spasmodically. He could be
+ruthless, but was not habitually cruel. His strongest weapons
+were the fine presence, the affable manners (even with citizens),
+and the love of pleasure and entertainments which secured his
+personal popularity. In his last years he was given to self-indulgence
+and scandalous excesses, which did not, however,
+alienate the London citizens, with whose wives he was too
+familiar. Most of the power at court was in the hands of the
+Woodvilles, in spite of their unpopularity; the more arduous
+work of administration in the north was left to Richard of
+Gloucester. If as a prince of the Renaissance Edward was
+the first to rule tyrannically in England, he also deserves
+credit as a patron of the new culture and friend of Caxton;
+he further resembles his Italian contemporaries in the commercial
+purposes to which he applied his wealth in partnership with
+London merchants.</p>
+
+<p>Edward died at Westminster on the 9th of April 1483, and
+was buried at Windsor. By Elizabeth Woodville, who died on
+the 8th of June 1492, he had two sons, Edward V. and Richard
+of York, who were murdered in the Tower; and five daughters,
+of whom the eldest, Elizabeth, married Henry VII. Of his
+numerous mistresses the most notorious was Jane Shore.
+Before his marriage he had been contracted to Lady Eleanor
+Butler, and this was alleged by Richard III. to have made
+his children by Elizabeth Woodville illegitimate.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;Of original authorities for Edward&rsquo;s reign the
+chief are the <i>Continuation of the Cropland Chronicle</i> in Fulman&rsquo;s
+<i>Scriptores</i>; the various London Chronicles, especially for the early
+years <i>Gregory&rsquo;s Chronicle</i>; Warkworth&rsquo;s <i>Chronicle</i>, and the <i>Arrivall
+of King Edward IV.</i> (a partisan account of events in 1470-1471),
+published by the Camden Society; the <i>Paston Letters</i> with Dr
+Gairdner&rsquo;s valuable Introduction; and for foreign affairs the
+<i>Mémoires</i> of Philippe de Comines; the collection called <i>Chronicles
+of the White Rose</i> is useful. For modern authors, consult Sir James
+Ramsay&rsquo;s <i>Lancaster and York</i> (1892), and the <i>Political History of
+England</i>, vol. iv. (1906), by Prof. C. Oman.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. L. K.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDWARD V.<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> (1470-1483), king of England, was the elder son
+of Edward IV. by his wife Elizabeth Woodville, and was born,
+during his father&rsquo;s temporary exile, in the sanctuary of Westminster
+Abbey on the 2nd of November 1470. In June 1471 he
+was created prince of Wales. When Edward IV. died in April
+1483 a struggle for power took place between the young king&rsquo;s
+paternal uncle, Richard, duke of Gloucester, who had been
+appointed as his guardian by Edward IV., and his maternal uncle,
+Richard Woodville, Earl Rivers. Gloucester obtained possession
+of the king&rsquo;s person, and, having arrested Rivers and some of his
+supporters, assumed the crown himself after a very slight and
+feigned reluctance, on the ground that the marriage of Edward
+and Elizabeth Woodville was invalid, and consequently its issue
+was illegitimate. At this time Edward and his brother Richard,
+duke of York, were living in the Tower of London. Shortly afterwards
+a movement was organized to free them from captivity,
+and then it became known that they were already dead; but,
+though it was the general conviction that they had been murdered,
+it was twenty years before the manner of this deed was discovered.
+According to the narrative of Sir Thomas More, Sir
+Robert Brackenbury, the constable of the Tower, refused to obey
+Richard&rsquo;s command to put the young princes to death; but he
+complied with a warrant ordering him to give up his keys for one
+night to Sir James Tyrell, who had arranged for the assassination.
+Two men, Miles Forest and John Dighton, then smothered the
+youths under pillows while they were asleep. The murder was
+committed most probably in August or September 1483. Horace
+Walpole has attempted to cast doubts upon the murder of the
+princes, and Sir C.R. Markham has argued that the deed was
+committed by order of Henry VII. Both these views, however,
+have been traversed by James Gairdner, and there seems little
+doubt that Sir Thomas More&rsquo;s story is substantially correct.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Richard III.</a></span>; and in addition, Sir Thomas More, <i>History
+of Richard III.</i>, edited by J.R. Lumby (Cambridge, 1883); Horace
+Walpole, <i>Historic Doubts on the Life and Reign of Richard III.</i>
+(London, 1768); J. Gairdner, <i>Richard III.</i> (Cambridge, 1898);
+J. Gairdner and C.R. Markham in the <i>English Historical Review</i>,
+vol. vi. (London, 1891); Sir C.R. Markham, <i>Richard III.</i> (1907).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDWARD VI.<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> (1537-1553), king of England and Ireland, born
+at Greenwich on the 12th of October 1537, was the only child of
+Henry VIII. by his third wife, Jane Seymour, who died of
+puerperal fever twelve days later. The story that the mother&rsquo;s
+life was deliberately sacrificed by the performance of Caesarean
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page997" id="page997"></a>997</span>
+section is unfounded, although Jane&rsquo;s death was little noticed
+amid the rejoicings which greeted the advent of a male heir to the
+throne. But in spite of Holbein&rsquo;s vivacious portrait of Edward
+at the age of two (now at Hanover), he was a frail child, and a
+short life was anticipated for him from his early years. This did
+not prevent a strenuous education; until the age of six he was
+naturally left in the charge of women, but when he was only seven
+his tutor Dr Coxe, afterwards bishop of Ely, writes that he could
+decline any Latin noun and conjugate any regular verb (<i>L. and
+P.</i>, 1544, ii. 726); &ldquo;every day in the mass-time he readeth a
+portion of Solomon&rsquo;s Proverbs, wherein he delighteth much.&rdquo;
+Sir John Cheke, Sir Anthony Cooke and Roger Ascham all
+helped to teach him Latin, Greek and French; and by the age of
+thirteen he had read Aristotle&rsquo;s <i>Ethics</i> in the original and was
+himself translating Cicero&rsquo;s <i>De philosophia</i> into Greek.</p>
+
+<p>Edward was duke of Cornwall from his birth, but he was never
+prince of Wales, and he was only nine when he succeeded his
+father as king of England and Ireland and supreme head of the
+church (28th of January 1546/7). His nonage threw power into
+the hands of Somerset and then of Northumberland, and enabled
+Gardiner and Bonner to maintain that the royal supremacy over
+the church was, or should be, in abeyance. Projects for his
+marriage were hardly even the occasion, but only the excuse, for
+Somerset&rsquo;s war on Scotland and Northumberland&rsquo;s subsequent
+alliance with France. All factions sought to control his person,
+not because of his personality but because of his position; he
+was like the Great Seal, only more so, an indispensable adjunct to
+the wielder of authority. The Protector&rsquo;s brother tried to bribe
+him with pocket-money; Northumberland was more subtle and
+established a complete dominion over his mind, and then put him
+forward at the age of fourteen as entitled to all the power of
+Henry VIII. But he was only Northumberland&rsquo;s mask; of his
+individual influence on the course of history during his reign there
+is hardly a trace. A posthumous effort was made to give him
+the credit of a humane desire to save Joan Bocher from the
+flames; but he recorded with apparently cold-blooded indifference
+the execution of both his uncles, and he certainly made
+no attempt to mitigate the harassing attentions which the
+council paid his sister Mary. This passed for piety with the
+zealots, and the persecutions of Mary&rsquo;s reign reflected a halo on
+that of the Protestant Josiah. So strong was the regret that
+rumours of his survival persisted, and hare-brained youths were
+found to personate him throughout Mary&rsquo;s and even far into
+Elizabeth&rsquo;s reign.</p>
+
+<p>It was well that they were false, for Edward showed signs of all
+the Tudor obstinacy, and he was a fanatic into the bargain, as no
+other Tudor was except Mary. The combination would probably
+have involved England in disasters far greater than any that
+ensued upon his premature death; and it was much better that
+the Anglican settlement of religion should have been left to the
+compromising temper of Elizabeth. As it was, he bequeathed a
+legacy of woe; his health began to fail in 1552, and in May 1553
+it was known that he was dying. But his will and the various
+drafts of it only betray the agitated and illogical efforts of
+Northumberland to contrive some means whereby he might
+continue to control the government and prevent the administration
+of justice. Mary and Elizabeth were to be excluded from the
+throne, as not sufficiently pliant instruments; Mary Stuart was
+ignored as being under Scottish, Catholic and French influence;
+the duchess of Suffolk, Lady Jane&rsquo;s mother, was excluded
+because she was married, and the duke her husband might claim
+the crown matrimonial. In fact, all females were excluded,
+except Jane, on the ground that no woman could reign; even she
+was excluded in the first draft, and the crown was left to &ldquo;the
+Lady Jane&rsquo;s heirs male.&rdquo; But this draft was manipulated so as
+to read &ldquo;the Lady Jane and her heirs male.&rdquo; That Edward
+himself was responsible for these delirious provisions is improbable.
+But he had been so impregnated with the divine right of kings
+and the divine truth of Protestantism that he thought he was
+entitled and bound to override the succession as established by
+law and exclude a Catholic from the throne; and his last recorded
+words were vehement injunctions to Cranmer to sign the will.
+He died at Greenwich on the 6th of July 1553, and was buried in
+Henry VII.&rsquo;s chapel by Cranmer with Protestant rites on the 8th
+of August, while Mary had Mass said for his soul in the Tower.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>J.G. Nichols collected almost all that is known of Edward VI. in
+his excellent edition of the king&rsquo;s <i>Journal</i>. A few additional facts
+and suggestions can be gleaned from the <i>Letters and Papers of
+Henry VIII.</i> vols. xii.-xxi.; <i>Acts of the Privy Council</i>, ed. Dasent,
+vols. i.-iv.; Domestic, Spanish, Venetian and Foreign <i>Calendars
+of State Papers</i>; Froude&rsquo;s <i>History</i>; Dixon&rsquo;s <i>Hist. Church of England</i>;
+A.F. Pollard&rsquo;s <i>England under Somerset</i> and <i>Life of Cranmer</i>; and <i>English
+Historical Review</i>, xxiii. 286, &amp;c. Sir Clements Markham&rsquo;s <i>Edward
+VI.</i> (1907) emphasizes his interest in geography.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. F. P.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDWARD VII.<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Albert Edward</span>) (1841-1910), king of Great
+Britain and Ireland, and of the British Dominions beyond the
+Seas, emperor of India, the eldest son and second child of Queen
+Victoria and of Albert, prince consort, was born at Buckingham
+Palace on the 9th of November 1841. He was created prince
+of Wales and earl of Chester on the 4th of December following,
+and was baptized on the 25th of January 1842. In his childhood
+he was educated by the dowager Lady Lyttelton; and in his boyhood
+successively by the Rev. Henry Mildred Birch, Mr F.W.
+Gibbes, the Rev. C.F. Tarver and Mr Herbert W. Fisher. He
+afterwards resided at Edinburgh, studying chemistry in its
+industrial applications under Professor (afterwards Lord) Playfair
+at the university; at Christ Church, Oxford; and at Trinity
+College, Cambridge. In November 1858 he was made a knight of
+the Garter and a colonel in the army. In 1859 he travelled in
+Italy and Spain, and in 1860 paid a visit as &ldquo;Lord Renfrew&rdquo;
+to the United States and Canada.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the completion of his Cambridge course in June 1861
+he joined the camp at the Curragh. The prince consort died on
+the 13th of December, and in 1862 the prince of Wales went for
+a tour in the Holy Land (February-June) under the guidance of
+Arthur Penrhyn Stanley, afterwards dean of Westminster. Early
+in 1863 he was sworn of the privy council, and took his seat in
+the House of Lords as duke of Cornwall. The estate of Sandringham,
+in Norfolk, was purchased for him out of the savings of his
+minority, and his town residence was fixed at Marlborough
+House.</p>
+
+<p>His impending marriage to the princess Alexandra, daughter
+of Christian IX., king of Denmark (b. December 1, 1844), had
+already been announced, and took place on the 10th of March
+at Windsor, the beauty and grace of the princess captivating
+the heart of the nation. Parliament granted the prince an income
+of £40,000 a year, exclusive of the revenues of the duchy of
+Cornwall, and he relinquished his right of succession to the
+duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. Prince Albert Victor, afterwards
+duke of Clarence, was the first offspring of the marriage, being
+born on the 8th of January 1864. The births followed of
+Prince George Frederick Ernest Albert, afterwards duke of York
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">George V.</a></span>), on the 3rd of June 1865; Princess Louise
+Victoria Alexandra Dagmar, by marriage duchess of Fife, princess
+royal, on the 20th of February 1867; Princess Victoria Alexandra
+Olga Mary, on the 6th of July 1868; and Princess Maud Charlotte
+Mary Victoria, afterwards queen of Norway, on the 26th of
+November 1869.</p>
+
+<p>From the time of their marriage the prince and princess
+were prominently before the country. Queen Victoria remained
+in retirement, but they filled her place at important public
+functions. The prince&rsquo;s readiness to promote every worthy
+cause was most marked; no one was a more constant attendant
+at meetings for objects of public utility of a non-political
+nature, and his speeches were always characterized by excellent
+sense. The most important external event of these years
+was a tour to Egypt, undertaken in 1869 in company with
+the duke of Sutherland, Sir Samuel Baker and others, an
+account of which was published by Mrs William Grey. The
+prince also visited Ireland more than once, and opened the
+International Exhibition of 1871.</p>
+
+<p>On the 23rd of November 1871 it was announced that the
+prince would be prevented from paying a visit which had been
+arranged to the Maharajah Dhuleep Singh by a feverish attack.
+It soon appeared that the malady was typhoid, contracted
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page998" id="page998"></a>998</span>
+as was supposed, on a visit to Scarborough. The case became
+so serious that on November 29 the queen and Princess Alice
+hurried to Sandringham. On the 1st of December there was a
+slight rally, but on the 8th so serious a relapse occurred that for
+some days the prince&rsquo;s life was despaired of. Under the skilful
+treatment of Sir William Jenner, Sir William Gull and Sir
+James Paget, however, the crisis was surmounted by December
+16, and by Christmas day the danger was regarded as
+virtually over. On the 27th of February 1872 a thanksgiving
+was held at St Paul&rsquo;s, amid imposing demonstrations of public
+joy.</p>
+
+<p>In January 1874 the prince of Wales attended the marriage at
+St. Petersburg of his brother, the duke of Edinburgh, with the
+grand-duchess Marie of Russia. In the same year he paid a
+historic visit to Birmingham, where Mr Joseph Chamberlain, not
+yet a member of parliament, received him officially as mayor.
+In March 1875 it was officially announced that he would make a
+visit to India, carrying out an idea originally conceived by the
+first Indian viceroy, Earl Canning. He was supposed to travel
+as heir-apparent, not as representative of the queen; but the
+characters could not be kept apart, and in fact the prince&rsquo;s visit
+was a political event of great importance. Leaving England on
+October 11, he was received at Bombay by the viceroy, Lord
+Northbrook. Here he met a very large number of Indian
+feudatory princes, whose acquaintance he subsequently improved
+by visiting at their courts during the seventeen weeks which he
+spent in the country. During these four months the prince
+travelled nearly 8000 m. by land and 2500 m. by sea, became
+acquainted with more rajahs than had all the viceroys who had
+reigned over India, and saw more of the country than any living
+Englishman. The visit led up to the queen&rsquo;s assumption of the
+title of empress of India in the following year.</p>
+
+<p>The prince&rsquo;s life after this date was full of conspicuous public
+appearances. In 1885 he visited Ireland at a time of much
+political excitement, and was received enthusiastically in many
+quarters and without symptoms of ill-will in any. In 1886 he
+filled the presidency of the Indian and Colonial Exhibition,
+opened the Mersey Tunnel, and laid the first stone of the Tower
+Bridge. In 1887 a large share of the arrangements for the queen&rsquo;s
+Jubilee devolved upon him. On the 27th of July 1589 his eldest
+daughter, Princess Louise, was married to the duke of Fife. In
+the autumn he paid a semi-incognito visit to Paris, where he
+was always highly popular, viewed the Exhibition, and ascended
+the Eiffel Tower. In 1890 he opened the Forth Bridge. On the
+14th of January 1892, however, a heavy blow fell upon him and
+his house by the death of his eldest son, Prince Albert Victor,
+duke of Clarence, after a brief illness. The young prince, who
+with his brother George had made the tour of the world (1879-1882)
+in H.M.S. &ldquo;Bacchante,&rdquo; and after a short career at Oxford
+and Cambridge was just settling down to play his part in public
+life, had recently become engaged to Princess Victoria Mary
+of Teck (b. May 26, 1867), and the popularity of the heir to the
+crown had been increased by the expression of his satisfaction
+at his son&rsquo;s bride being an English princess. On the 6th of July
+1893 the broken thread was reunited by her marriage to Prince
+George, duke of York.</p>
+
+<p>The year 1894 was a busy one for the prince of Wales, who
+became a member of the royal commission on the housing of the
+poor, opened the Tower Bridge, attended the Welsh Eisteddfod
+and was duly initiated, and paid two visits to Russia&mdash;one for the
+marriage of the grand-duchess Xenia, the other for the funeral of
+the tsar, his brother-in-law. In 1896 he became first chancellor
+of the university of Wales, and his first act after his installation at
+Aberystwyth was to confer an honorary degree upon the princess.
+He had already been for some years a trustee of the British
+Museum. On the 22nd of July 1896 his daughter. Princess Maud,
+was married to Prince Charles of Denmark, who in 1905 was
+offered and accepted the crown of the new kingdom of Norway.
+The arrangements for the queen&rsquo;s Jubilee of 1897 depended upon
+the prince even more than those of the corresponding celebration
+in 1887: he rode on the queen&rsquo;s right at the great procession to
+St Paul&rsquo;s, and as an admiral of the fleet presided at the naval
+review at Spithead. In July 1898 the prince had the misfortune
+to fracture his knee-cap while on a visit to Baron Ferdinand de
+Rothschild, but completely recovered from the effects of the
+accident. In December 1899, while passing through Brussels
+on his way to St Petersburg, he was fired at by a miserable
+lad named Sipido, crazed by reading anarchist literature.
+Fortunately no injury was done.</p>
+
+<p>It was the especial distinction of Albert Edward, while prince
+of Wales, to have been a substantial support of the throne
+before he was called upon to fill it. This cannot be said of any
+of his predecessors except Edward the Black Prince. He was
+exemplary in the discharge of his public duties, and in his
+scrupulous detachment from party politics. He was a keen
+patron of the theatre, and his thoroughly British taste for sport
+was as pronounced as his inclination for most of the contemporary
+amusements of society. The &ldquo;Tranby Croft Case&rdquo; (1890), in
+which Sir William Gordon Cumming brought an unsuccessful
+libel action for having been accused of cheating at a game of
+baccarat, caused some comment in connexion with the prince&rsquo;s
+appearance in the witness-box on behalf of the defendants.
+But it did him no disservice with the people to have twice won the
+Derby with his horses Persimmon (1896) and Diamond Jubilee
+(1900)&mdash;his third victory, in 1909, with Minoru, being the first
+occasion on which the race had been won by a reigning sovereign;
+and his interest in yacht-racing was conspicuously shown at
+all the important fixtures, his yacht &ldquo;Britannia&rdquo; being one of
+the best of her day. His activity in the life of the nation may
+be illustrated by his establishment (1897) of the Prince of
+Wales&rsquo;s (afterwards King Edward&rsquo;s) Hospital Fund, his
+devotion to the cause of Masonry (he was first elected grand
+master of the Freemasons of England in 1874), and his position as
+a bencher of the Middle Temple, where he also became (1887)
+treasurer.</p>
+
+<p>On the death of Queen Victoria on the 22nd of January 1901,
+the question what title the new king would assume was speedily
+set at rest by the popular announcement that he would be called
+Edward the Seventh. The new reign began auspiciously by the
+holding of a privy council at St James&rsquo;s Palace, at which the
+king announced his intention to follow in his predecessor&rsquo;s
+footsteps and to govern as a constitutional sovereign, and received
+the oaths of allegiance. On the 14th of February the king and
+queen opened parliament in state. Shortly afterwards it was
+announced that the visit of the duke and duchess of York to
+Australia, in order to inaugurate the new Commonwealth, which
+had been sanctioned by Queen Victoria, would be proceeded
+with; and on the 16th of March they set out on board the
+&ldquo;Ophir&rdquo; with a brilliant suite. The tour lasted till November 1,
+the duke and duchess having visited Australia, New Zealand,
+the Cape and Canada; and on their return the king, on
+November 9, created the duke prince of Wales and earl of
+Chester. Meanwhile parliament had settled the new civil list at
+£470,000 a year, and the royal title had been enlarged to include
+the colonial empire by an act enabling the king to style himself
+&ldquo;Edward VII., by the grace of God, of the United
+Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and of all the British
+Dominions beyond the Seas, King, Defender of the Faith,
+Emperor of India.&rdquo; At the end of May 1902 the long-drawn-out
+war in South Africa came at last to an end, and the coronation
+was fixed for the 26th of June. But on the 24th, amid
+general consternation, the king was announced to be suffering
+from perityphlitis, necessitating the immediate performance
+of an operation; and the coronation, for which unprecedented
+preparations had been made, had to be postponed. The operation&mdash;performed
+by Sir Frederick Treves&mdash;was, however, so
+marvellously successful, and the king&rsquo;s progress towards
+recovery so rapid and uninterrupted, that within a fortnight
+he was pronounced out of danger, and soon afterwards it was
+decided to hold the coronation service on August 9. Though
+shorn of much of the magnificence which would have been added
+to it in June by the presence of foreign royalties and the preparations
+for a great procession through London, the solemnity duly
+took place on that date in Westminster Abbey amid great
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page999" id="page999"></a>999</span>
+rejoicings. The king spent several weeks (partly in a yachting
+trip round the coast and up to Stornoway) in recruiting his
+health, and on the 25th of October he went in procession through
+the main streets of south London, when he was most enthusiastically
+received. Next day the king and queen attended St
+Paul&rsquo;s cathedral in state to return thanks for his restoration to
+health. On New Year&rsquo;s day 1903 the coronation was proclaimed
+in India at a magnificent durbar at Delhi.</p>
+
+<p>At home the king opened parliament in person in February
+1903, and on the 31st of March he sailed from Portsmouth to
+pay a visit to the king of Portugal at Lisbon, leaving Lisbon
+for Gibraltar on the 7th of April. On the 11th he held a review
+of the garrison troops and next day left for Malta, and the
+tour was continued to Naples (23rd of April). On the 27th of
+April he was received at Rome by the king of Italy&mdash;the first
+time an English king as such had been there; and two days
+later he paid a visit to Leo XIII. at the Vatican. On May day
+he was received in Paris by President Loubet. Later in the
+year return visits were paid to England by President Loubet
+(July) and the king and queen of Italy (November). On the
+11th of May His Majesty paid his first formal visit to Edinburgh,
+and held courts at Holyrood. In July the king and queen went
+to Ireland, and though the Dublin corporation refused to vote a
+loyal address the reception was generally cordial. In September
+the king took his annual &ldquo;cure&rdquo; at Marienbad, and paid a
+visit to Vienna, where he was received by the Austrian emperor.
+In 1904 again the king and queen went to Ireland; in June the
+king was cordially received by the German emperor at the
+yacht-races at Kiel, and he included a visit to Hamburg, where
+the welcome was hearty. In November the king and queen
+of Portugal were entertained at Windsor and at the Guildhall.</p>
+
+<p>The success of King Edward as a promoter of international
+friendliness, and the advantage of so efficient a type of kingship,
+attracted universal attention, and treaties of arbitration were
+concluded by Great Britain with France, Spain, Italy, Germany
+and Portugal in 1903 and 1904. In his first two years the king
+had already earned the title of Edward the Peacemaker, and
+established his position as a source of new strength to the
+state. This reputation was confirmed in the years which
+followed, during which the royal hand was to be seen in the
+progress of foreign affairs in a manner somewhat new to old-fashioned
+politicians. The <i>entente</i> with France was promoted
+by his influence, notably by his reception of President Fallières
+in England in 1908. It was noticed that the permanent under-secretary
+for foreign affairs, Sir Charles Hardinge, generally
+accompanied the king, as one of his suite, on his visits abroad: and
+the conclusion of the Anglo-Russian agreement (1907)&mdash;which
+was attributed with some reason to royal policy&mdash;was hotly
+criticized in Radical quarters. It was pointed out that neither
+the foreign secretary (Sir E. Grey) nor any other secretary of
+state accompanied the king on his foreign visits. These objections
+were, however, scouted by the government, and undeniably
+public opinion approved of the sovereign&rsquo;s personal activity in
+a sphere peculiarly his own. The strengthening of British influence
+in Europe, which was the marked result of the Anglo-French
+and Anglo-Russian <i>ententes</i>, and of the closer ties between
+England and countries like Portugal and Spain (whose young
+king Alfonso married Princess Ena of Battenberg, King
+Edward&rsquo;s niece), had, indeed, temporarily the effect of rousing
+German suspicion, the view taken being that the object of British
+foreign policy was to isolate Germany; and during 1907 and 1908
+the political situation was coloured by the discussions in the press
+with regard to Anglo-German rivalry. But in February 1909 the
+king and queen paid a state visit to the Kaiser in Berlin, where
+the greatest cordiality was displayed on all sides; the event was
+prepared for, in both countries, as a means of dispelling the
+clouds which had gathered over the relations between England
+and Germany, and the success of the visit proved once more how
+powerful King Edward&rsquo;s personality could be as an agency for
+peace and international amity.</p>
+
+<p>During the year 1909, however, the political situation at home
+was developing into an acute constitutional crisis, which seemed
+likely to involve the Crown in serious difficulties. Mr Lloyd-George&rsquo;s
+budget convulsed the House of Commons and the
+country, and was eventually rejected by the House of Lords;
+and the Liberal government now put in the forefront of its
+programme the abolition of the Peers&rsquo; &ldquo;veto.&rdquo; As was hinted,
+not obscurely, later by the doctors, King Edward, although
+certainly not prejudiced against a Liberal ministry, was seriously
+disturbed in mind and health by the progress of events, which
+culminated in the return of Mr Asquith to office after the elections
+of January 1910, and in his statement that, if necessary, guarantees
+would be sought from the Crown for the purpose of enforcing
+the will of the representative chamber. A remarkable sign of
+the king&rsquo;s discomfort was his insertion, in the official &ldquo;King&rsquo;s
+Speech&rdquo; at the opening of parliament, of the words &ldquo;in the
+opinion of my advisers,&rdquo; in connexion with the passage dealing
+with the House of Lords. The king had been far from robust for
+some little time, and while he was taking change and rest at
+Biarritz in the early spring of 1910 he had a bronchial attack
+which caused some anxiety, although the public heard nothing
+of it. When he returned to England there is no doubt that he
+was acutely affected by the prospect of being forcibly dragged
+into the political conflict. In the country at large there was
+indeed considerable confidence that the king&rsquo;s tact and experience
+would help to bring order out of chaos; but this was not
+to be. Within two days the public heard with consternation
+that he was ill, and then was dead. On May 5 it was announced
+that he had bronchitis; and he died at 11.45 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> on the 6th, of
+heart failure. On May 17, 18 and 19 there was an impressive
+lying-in-state in Westminster Hall, attended by unprecedented
+crowds; and on May 20 the burial took place at Windsor, after
+a great funeral procession through London, the coffin being
+followed by the new king, George V., and by eight foreign
+sovereigns&mdash;the German emperor, the kings of Greece, Spain,
+Portugal, Denmark, Norway, Belgium and Bulgaria&mdash;besides
+the archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria (heir to the throne of
+Austria-Hungary), the prince consort of Holland and many
+other royalties, and a number of special ambassadors, including
+Mr Roosevelt as representative of the United States. Mourning
+was as sincere as it was universal; for not only England and the
+British Empire, but the world, had lost a king who was both a
+very human man and a tried and trusted statesman.</p>
+
+<p>Queen Victoria&rsquo;s long reign had solidly established the constitutional
+monarchy; it remained for her son to rehabilitate
+the idea of English kingship by showing how the sovereign could
+be no less constitutional but personally more monarchical.
+While prince of Wales he had had little real training in statecraft,
+but when he became king his genuine capacity for affairs
+was shown. Ably advised by such men as Lord Knollys and
+Lord Esher, he devoted himself to the work of removing the
+Throne from its former isolation, and bringing it into touch with
+all sections of the community for the promotion of social happiness
+and welfare. His own love of pageantry and his interest in
+the stately ordering of court functions responded, moreover, to
+a marked inclination on the part of the public and of &ldquo;society&rdquo;
+for such things. It was significant that even Radicals and
+Socialists began to advocate extensions of the prerogative, and
+to insist on the active part which the Crown should play in public
+life. The king won the genuine affection and confidence of the
+people; and in Queen Alexandra he had an ideal consort, to
+whom all hearts went out.</p>
+<div class="author">(H. Ch.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDWARD,<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> prince of Wales, known as &ldquo;<span class="sc">The Black Prince</span>&rdquo;
+(1330-1376), the eldest son of Edward III. and Philippa of
+Hainaut, was born at Woodstock on the 15th of June 1330.
+Contemporaries called him Edward of Woodstock, and his
+surname of the Black Prince cannot be traced back earlier than
+the 16th century. It is supposed to have been derived from his
+wearing black armour. In 1333 he was made earl of Chester,
+and in 1337 duke of Cornwall, being the first duke ever created
+in England. Nominal warden of England during his father&rsquo;s
+absences abroad in 1338 and 1342, he was created prince of
+Wales in 1343, and in 1345 he first accompanied his father on a
+foreign expedition.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page1000" id="page1000"></a>1000</span></p>
+
+<p>His real career begins, however, with Edward III.&rsquo;s Norman
+campaign of 1346. On landing at La Hogue he was knighted by
+his father, and took a prominent part in the whole of the
+campaign. He commanded the right wing of the English forces
+at Crécy, and, though hard pressed for a time by the French, took
+his full share in gaining the victory. Next year he was at the
+siege of Calais, and returned to England in October 1347 with
+his father. He was one of the original knights of the Garter, and
+participated in his father&rsquo;s chivalrous adventures at Calais in
+1349 and in the battle off Winchelsea in 1350. In September
+1355 he was sent to Gascony at the head of an English army,
+having been appointed his father&rsquo;s lieutenant there in July. He
+was warmly welcomed by the Gascons, and at once led a foray
+through Armagnac and Languedoc. By November he had got
+as far as Narbonne, whence he returned to Bordeaux, where he
+kept his Christmas court. In August 1356 he started from
+Bergerac on another marauding expedition, this time in a
+northerly direction. He penetrated as far as the Loire, but was
+there compelled to retire before the superior forces of King John
+of France. On the 19th of September the two armies met in the
+battle of Poitiers, fought about 6 m. south-east of the city. It
+was the hardest-fought and most important battle of the Hundred
+Years&rsquo; War, and Edward&rsquo;s victory was due both to the excellence
+of his tactical disposition of his forces and to the superior
+fighting capacity of his army. The flank march of the Captal de
+Buch, which decided the fate of the day, was of Edward&rsquo;s own
+devising, and the captivity of King John attested the completeness
+of his triumph. He treated his prisoner with almost
+ostentatious magnanimity, and took him to Bordeaux, whence
+they sailed to England in May 1357. On the 24th of that month
+he led his prisoner in triumph through the streets of London.
+In 1359 he took part in his father&rsquo;s invasion of northern France,
+and had a large share in the negotiations at Brétigny and Calais.</p>
+
+<p>In October 1361 Edward married his cousin Joan, countess of
+Kent (1328-1385), the daughter and heiress of Edmund of
+Woodstock, earl of Kent, the younger son of Edward I. by his
+second wife Margaret of France. The lady, who enjoyed a great
+reputation for beauty, was in her thirty-third year, and the
+widow of Sir Thomas Holand, by whom she had had three
+children. Froissart says that the marriage was a love match, and
+that the king had no knowledge of it. However, Edward III.
+approved of his son&rsquo;s choice, and in July 1362 handed over to
+him all his dominions in southern France, with the title of prince
+of Aquitaine. In February 1363 Edward and Joan took ship
+for Gascony, which became his ordinary place of residence for the
+next eight years. He maintained a brilliant court at Bordeaux
+and Angoulême, and did his best to win the support of the
+Gascons. He was not, however, successful in winning over the
+greater nobles, who, with John, count of Armagnac, at their head,
+were dissatisfied with the separation from France, and looked
+with suspicion upon Edward&rsquo;s attempts to reform the administration
+as being likely to result in the curtailment of their feudal
+rights. Edward was better able to conciliate the towns, whose
+franchises he favoured and whose trade he fostered, hoping that
+they would prove a counterpoise to the aristocracy. He kept the
+chief posts of the administration mainly in English hands, and
+never really identified himself with the local life and traditions of
+his principality. He succeeded in clearing Aquitaine of the free
+companies, and kept good peace for nearly six years.</p>
+
+<p>In 1367 Peter the Cruel, the deposed king of Castile, visited
+Edward at Bordeaux, and persuaded him to restore him to his
+throne by force. In February 1367 Edward led an army into
+Spain over the pass of Roncesvalles. After a difficult and
+dangerous march Edward reached the Ebro, and on the 3rd of
+April defeated Bertrand du Guesclin at Nájera, the last of his
+great victories. He then proceeded to Burgos, and restored
+Peter to the throne of Castile. He remained in Castile for four
+months, living principally at Valladolid. His army wasted away
+during the hot Spanish summer, and Edward himself contracted
+the beginnings of a mortal disease. In August 1367 Edward led
+the remnant of his troops back through the pass of Roncesvalles,
+and returned to Bordeaux early in September. He had exhausted
+all his resources on the Spanish expedition, and was forced to
+seek from the estates of Aquitaine extraordinary sources of supply.
+A hearth tax for five years was willingly granted to him, and
+generally paid. The greater barons, however, found in this impost
+a pretext for revolt. The count of Armagnac, who had
+already made a secret understanding with Charles V., appealed
+against the hearth tax to the parlement of Paris. Cited before
+this body in January 1369, Edward declared that he would
+answer at Paris with sixty thousand men behind him. War
+broke out again, and Edward III. resumed the title of king of
+France. Thereupon Charles V. declared that all the English
+possessions in France were forfeited, and before the end of 1369
+all Aquitaine was in full revolt. With weak health and impaired
+resources, the Black Prince showed little activity in dealing with
+his insurgent subjects, or in warding off French invasion.
+Though too ill to ride on horseback, he insisted upon commanding
+his troops, and on the 19th of September 1370 won his last
+barren success, by capturing the revolted city of Limoges and
+putting the population to the sword. Early in 1371 he returned
+to England, leaving the impossible task of holding Gascony to his
+brother John of Gaunt. In August 1372 he joined his father in
+an abortive expedition to France, but contrary winds prevented
+their landing, and he now abandoned military life for good. In
+October he resigned his principality on the ground that he could
+not afford to retain any longer so expensive a charge. His health
+now rapidly declined, but he still followed politics with interest,
+and did what he could to support the constitutional opposition of
+the great ecclesiastics to the administration of John of Gaunt and
+the anti-clerical courtiers. His last public act was to inspire the
+attack on Lancaster&rsquo;s influence made by the Good Parliament
+in the spring of 1376. The famous parliament was still in
+session when he died at Westminster on the 8th of July. He was
+buried in the east end of Canterbury cathedral on the 29th of
+September, where his magnificent tomb, erected in accordance
+with the instructions in his will, may still be seen. By Joan,
+&ldquo;the fair maid of Kent,&rdquo; who died on the 7th of August 1385,
+the Black Prince left an only son, afterwards King Richard II.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For authorities see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Edward III</a></span>. To these may be added W.
+Hunt&rsquo;s article in the <i>Dict. Nat. Biog.</i>; A. Collins&rsquo;s <i>Life of Edward,
+Prince of Wales</i> (1740); G.P.R. James&rsquo;s <i>Life of Edward the Black
+Prince</i> (1839); J. Moisant&rsquo;s <i>Le Prince Noir en Aquitaine</i> (1894); and
+R.P. Dunn-Pattison&rsquo;s <i>The Black Prince</i> (1910).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. F. T.)</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 8, Slice 10, by Various
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 8, SL 10 ***
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+</body>
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+
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@@ -0,0 +1,19333 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 8, Slice 10, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 8, Slice 10
+       "Echinoderma" to "Edward"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: January 17, 2011 [EBook #34992]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 8 SL 10 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
+      letters.
+
+(6) The letter 'Eth' is replaced by 'd'.
+
+(7) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE ECHTERNACH: "The origin of this festival is uncertain, but
+      it dates at least from the 13th century and was probably instituted
+      during an outbreak of cholera." 'an' amended from 'on'.
+
+    ARTICLE ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY: "Among the Coleoptera or beetles there
+      is a group of world-wide pests, the Elateridae or click beetles,
+      the adults of the various 'wireworms.'" 'beetles' amended from
+      'bettles'.
+
+    ARTICLE EDUCATION: "... laid down that the application of a
+      candidate might in no circumstances be rejected on any religious
+      ground, nor on the ground of social antecedents or the like." 'be'
+      amended from 'he'.
+
+    ARTICLE EDUCATION: "The public assistance afforded to secondary
+      education in Wales under the Intermediate Act is supplemented by
+      the grants of the Board of Education, and the Board's revised
+      Secondary School Regulations were applied to Wales in 1908."
+      'education' amended from 'educaton'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+            VOLUME VIII, SLICE X
+
+           Echinoderma to Edward
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  ECHINODERMA                     EDESSA (Macedonia)
+  ECHINUS                         EDESSA (Mesopotamia)
+  ECHIUROIDEA                     EDFU
+  ECHMIADZIN                      EDGAR (king of the English)
+  ECHO                            EDGAR (son of Edward)
+  ECHTERNACH                      EDGECUMBE
+  ECHUCA                          EDGE HILL
+  ECIJA                           EDGEWORTH, MARIA
+  ECK, JOHANN MAIER               EDGEWORTH, RICHARD LOVELL
+  ECKERMANN, JOHANN PETER         EDGEWORTH DE FIRMONT, HENRY ESSEX
+  ECKERNFORDE                     EDGREN-LEFFLER, ANNE CHARLOTTE
+  ECKERSBERG, KRISTOFFER          EDHEM PASHA
+  ECKHART, JOHANNES               EDICT
+  ECKHEL, JOSEPH HILARIUS         EDINBURGH
+  ECKMUHL                         EDINBURGHSHIRE
+  ECLECTICISM                     EDISON, THOMAS ALVA
+  ECLIPSE                         EDMONTON (Alberta, Canada)
+  ECLIPTIC                        EDMONTON (England)
+  ECLOGITE                        EDMUND, SAINT
+  ECLOGUE                         EDMUND (king of East Anglia)
+  ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY             EDMUND I.
+  ECONOMICS                       EDMUND (Ironside)
+  ECONOMY (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.)  EDMUND (king of Sicily)
+  ECONOMY                         EDMUNDS, GEORGE FRANKLIN
+  ECSTASY                         EDOM
+  ECTOSPORA                       EDRED
+  ECUADOR                         EDRIC, STREONA
+  ECZEMA                          EDUCATION
+  EDAM                            EDWARD (The Elder)
+  EDDA                            EDWARD (The Martyr)
+  EDDIUS                          EDWARD (The Confessor)
+  EDELINCK, GERARD                EDWARD I.
+  EDELWEISS                       EDWARD II.
+  EDEN, SIR ASHLEY                EDWARD III.
+  EDEN                            EDWARD IV.
+  EDENBRIDGE                      EDWARD V.
+  EDEN HALL, LUCK OF              EDWARD VI.
+  EDENKOBEN                       EDWARD VII.
+  EDENTATA                        EDWARD (prince of Wales)
+  EDENTON
+
+
+
+ECHINODERMA.[1] The [Greek: echinoderma], or "urchin-skinned" animals,
+have long been a favourite subject of study with the collectors of
+sea-animals or of fossils, since the lime deposited in their skins forms
+hard tests or shells readily preserved in the cabinet. These were
+described during the 18th and first half of the 19th centuries by many
+eminent naturalists, such as J.T. Klein, J.H. Linck, C. Linnaeus, N.G.
+Leske, J.S. Miller, L. v. Buch, E. Desor and L. Agassiz; but it was the
+researches of Johannes Muller (1840-1850) that formed the groundwork of
+scientific conceptions of the group, proving it one of the great phyla
+of the animal kingdom. The anatomists and embryologists of the next
+quarter of a century confirmed rather than expanded the views of Muller.
+Thus, about 1875, the distinction of Echinoderms from such radiate
+animals as jelly-fish and corals (see COELENTERA), by their possession
+of a body-cavity ("coelom") distinct from the gut, was fully realized;
+while their severance from the worms (especially Gephyrea), with which
+some Echinoderrns were long confused, had been necessitated by the
+recognition in all of a radial symmetry, impressed on the original
+bilateral symmetry of the larva through the growth of a special division
+of the coelom, known as the "hydrocoel," and giving rise to a set of
+water-bearing canals--the water-vascular or ambulacral system. There was
+also sufficient comprehension of the differences between the main
+classes of Echinoderms--the sea-urchins or Echinoidea, the starfish or
+Asteroidea, the brittle-stars and their allies known as Ophiuroidea, the
+worm-like Holothurians, the feather-stars and sea-lilies called
+Crinoidea, with their extinct relatives the sac-like Cystidea, the
+bud-formed Blastoidea, and the flattened Edrioasteroidea--while within
+the larger of these classes, such as Echinoidea and Crinoidea, fair
+working classifications had been established. But the study that should
+elucidate the fundamental similarities or homologies between the several
+classes, and should suggest the relations of the Echinoderma to other
+phyla, had scarcely begun. Indeed, the time was not ripe for such
+discussions, still less for the tracing of lines of descent and their
+embodiment in a genealogical classification. Since then exploring
+expeditions have made known a host of new genera, often exhibiting
+unfamiliar types of structure.
+
+  Among these the abyssal starfish and holothurians described by W.P.
+  Sladen and H. Theel respectively, in the Report of the "Challenger"
+  Expedition, are most notable. The sea-urchins, ophiuroids and crinoids
+  also have yielded many important novelties to A. Agassiz
+  ("Challenger," "Blake," and "Albatross" Expeditions), T. Lyman
+  ("Challenger"), Sladen ("Astrophiura," _Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist._, 1879),
+  F.J. Bell (numerous papers in _Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist._ and in _Proc.
+  Zool. Soc._), E. Perrier ("Travailleur" and "Talisman," Cape Horn and
+  Monaco Expeditions), P.H. Carpenter "Challenger" Reports), and others.
+  The anatomical researches of these authors, as well as those of S.
+  Loven ("On Pourtalesia" and "Echinologica," published by the Swedish
+  Academy of Science), H. Ludwig (_Morphologische Studien_, Leipzig,
+  1877-1882), O. Hamann (_Histologie der Echinodermen_, Jena,
+  1883-1889), L. Cuenot ("Etudes morphologiques," _Arch. Biol._, 1891,
+  and papers therein referred to), P.M. Duncan ("Revision of the
+  Echinoidea," _Journ. Linn. Soc._, 1890), H. Prouho ("Sur Dorocidaris,"
+  _Arch. Zool. Exper._, 1888), and many more, need only be mentioned to
+  recall the great advance that has been made. In physiology may be
+  instanced W.B. Carpenter's proof of the nervous nature of the
+  chambered organ and axial cords of crinoids (_Proc. Roy. Soc._, 1884),
+  the researches of H. Durham (_Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._, 1891) and
+  others into the wandering cells of the body-cavity, and the study of
+  the deposition of the skeletal substance ("stereom") by Theel (in
+  _Festskrift for Lilljeborg_, 1896). Knowledge of the development has
+  been enormously extended by numerous embryologists, e.g. Ludwig (_op.
+  cit._), E.W. MacBride ("Asterina gibbosa," _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._,
+  1896), H. Bury (_Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._, 1889, 1895), Seeliger (on
+  "Antedon," _Zool. Jahrb._, 1893), S. Goto ("Asterias pallida," _Journ.
+  Coll. Sci. Japan_, 1896), C. Grave ("Ophiura," _Mem. Johns Hopkins
+  Univ._, 1899), Theel ("Echinocyamus," _Nov. Act. Soc. Sci. Upsala_,
+  1892), R. Semon ("Synapta," _Jena. Zeitschr._, 1888), and Loven (_opp.
+  citt._); and though the theories based thereon may have been fantastic
+  and contradictory, we are now near the time when the results can be
+  co-ordinated and some agreement reached. But the scattered details of
+  comparative anatomy are capable of manifold arrangement, while the
+  palimpsest of individual development is not merely fragmentary, but
+  often has the fragments misplaced. The morphologist may propose
+  classifications, and the embryologist may erect genealogical trees,
+  but all schemes which do not agree with the direct evidence of fossils
+  must be abandoned; and it is this evidence, above all, that gained
+  enormously in volume and in value during the last quarter of the 19th
+  century. The Silurian crinoids and cystids of Sweden have been
+  illustrated in N.P. Angelin's _Iconographia crinoideorum_ (1878); the
+  Palaeozoic crinoids and cystids of Bohemia are dealt with in J.
+  Barrande's _Systeme silurien_ (1887 and 1899); P.H. Carpenter
+  published important papers on fossil crinoids in the _Journal_ of the
+  Geological Society, on Cystidea in that of the Linnean Society, 1891,
+  and, together with R. Etheridge, jun., compiled the large _Catalogue
+  of Blastoidea in the British Museum_, 1886; O. Jaekel, in addition to
+  valuable studies on crinoids and cystids appearing in the
+  _Zeitschrift_ of the German Geological Society, has published the
+  first volume of _Die Stammesgeschichte der Pelmatozoen_ (Berlin,
+  1899), a richly suggestive work; the Mesozoic Echinoderms of France,
+  Switzerland and Portugal have been made known by P. de Loriol, G.H.
+  Cotteau, J. Lambert, V. Gauthier and others (see _Paleontologie
+  francaise_, _Mem. Soc. paleontol. de la Suisse_, _Trabalhos Comm.
+  Geol. Portugal_, &c.); a beautiful and interesting Devonian fauna from
+  Bundenbach has been described by O. Follmann, Jaekel, and especially
+  B. Sturtz (see _Verhandl. nat. Vereins preuss. Rheinlande, Palaont.
+  Abhandl._, and _Palaeontographica_); while the multitude of North
+  American palaeozoic crinoids has been attacked by C. Wachsmuth and F.
+  Springer in the _Proceedings_ (1879, 1881, 1885, 1886), of the
+  Philadelphia Academy and the _Memoirs_ (1897) of the Harvard Museum.
+
+The vast mass of material made known by these and many other
+distinguished writers has to be included in our classification, and that
+classification itself must be controlled by the story it reveals. Thus
+it is that a change, characteristic of modern systematic zoology, is
+affecting the subdivisions of the classes. It is not long since the main
+lines of division corresponded roughly to gaps in geological history:
+the orders were Palaeocrinoidea and Neocrinoidea, Palechinoidea and
+Euechinoidea, Palaeasteroidea and Euasteroidea, and so forth. Or
+divisions were based upon certain modifications of structure which, as
+we now see, affected assemblages of diverse affinity: thus both
+Blastoidea and Euechinoidea were divided into Regularia and Irregularia;
+the Holothuroidea into Pneumophora and Apneumona; and Crinoids were
+discussed under the heads "stalked" and "unstalked." The barriers
+between these groups may be regarded as horizontal planes cutting across
+the branches of the ascending tree of life at levels determined chiefly
+by our ignorance; as knowledge increases, and as the conception of a
+genealogical classification gains acceptance, they are being replaced by
+vertical partitions which separate branch from branch. The changes may
+be appreciated by comparing the systematic synopses at the end of this
+article with the classification adopted in 1877 in the 9th edition of
+the _Ency. Brit._ (vol. vii.), or in any zoological text-book
+contemporary therewith. In the present stage of our knowledge these
+minor divisions are the really important ones. For, whereas to one
+brilliant suggestion of far-reaching homology another can always be
+opposed, by the detailed comparison of individual growth-stages in
+carefully selected series of fossils, and by the minute application to
+these of the principle that individual history repeats race history, it
+actually is possible to unfold lines of descent that do not admit of
+doubt. The gradual linking up of these will manifest the true genealogy
+of each class, and reconstruct its ancestral forms by proof instead of
+conjecture. The problem of the interrelations of the classes will thus
+be reduced to its simplest terms, and even questions as to the nature of
+the primitive Echinoderm and its affinity to the ancestors of other
+phyla may become more than exercises for the ingenuity of youth. Work
+has been and is being done by the laborious methods here alluded to, and
+though the diversity of opinion as to the broader groupings of
+classification is still restricted only by the number of writers, we can
+point to an ever-increasing body of assured knowledge on which all are
+agreed. Unfortunately such allusion to these disconnected certainties as
+alone might be introduced here would be too brief for comprehension,
+and we are forced to select a few of the broader hypotheses for a
+treatment that may seem dogmatic and prejudiced.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Diagram of a simple form of Crinoid, with five
+arms, each forking once; the one nearest the observer is removed to
+expose the tegmen of five orals. This crinoid has only two circlets of
+plates in the cup, but the cup analysed in the adjoining diagram has in
+addition infrabasals and a centrale C.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--An early stage in the development of _Antedon_,
+showing the foot-plate or "dorso-central" _fp_ at the end of the stem
+_col._ Some of the thecal plates, infrabasals _I B_, basals B, and orals
+_O_ are forming around the body-cavities _r.pc_ and _l.pc_; _p_ is the
+water-pore. (After Seeliger.)]
+
+  _Calycinal Theory._--The theory which had most influence on the
+  conceptions of Echinoderms in the two concluding decades of the 19th
+  century was that of Loven, elaborated by P.H. Carpenter, Sladen and
+  others. This, which may be called the _calycinal_ theory, will be
+  appreciated by comparing the structure of a simple crinoid with that
+  of some other types. A crinoid reduced to its simplest elements
+  consists of three principal portions--(i.) a theca or test enclosing
+  the viscera; (ii.) five arms stretching upwards or outwards from the
+  theca, sometimes single, sometimes branching; (iii.) a stem stretching
+  downwards from the theca and attaching it to the sea-floor (see fig.
+  1). That part of the theca below the origins of the free arms is
+  called the "dorsal cup"; the ventral part above the origins of the
+  arms, serving as cover to the cup, is known as the "tegmen." All these
+  parts are supported by plates or ossicles of crystalline carbonate of
+  lime. The cup, in its simplest form, consists of two circlets of five
+  plates. Each plate of the upper circlet supports an arm, and is called
+  a "radial"; the plates of the lower circlet, the "basals," rest on the
+  stem and alternate with those of the upper circlet, i.e. are
+  interradial in position. Some crinoids have yet another circlet below
+  these, the constituent plates of which are called "infrabasals," and
+  are situated radially. The tegmen in most primitive forms, as well as
+  in the embryonic stages of the living _Antedon_ (fig. 2), consists of
+  five large triangular plates, alternating with the radials, and called
+  "orals," because they roof over the mouth. In addition to these three
+  or four circlets of plates, two other elements were once supposed
+  essential to the ideal crinoid: the dorso-central and the oro-central.
+  The former term was applied to a flattened plate observed in the
+  embryonic stage of a single genus (_Antedon_) at that end of the stem
+  attached to the sea-floor, and comparable to the foot of a wine-glass
+  (fig. 2). In some crinoids which have no trace of a stem (e.g.
+  _Marsupites_) a pentagonal plate is found at the bottom of the cup,
+  where the stem would naturally have arisen ("centrale" in fig. 1); and
+  since it was believed that the stem always grew by addition of
+  ossicles immediately below the infrabasals, it was inferred that this
+  pentagonal plate was the centro-dorsal in its primitive position, as
+  though the wine-glass had been evolved from a tumbler by pulling the
+  bottom out to form the foot. The oro-central was, it must be admitted,
+  a theoretical conception due to a desire for symmetry, and was not
+  confirmed by anything better than some erroneous observations on
+  certain fossils, which were supposed to show a plate at the oral pole
+  between the five orals; but this plate, so far as it exists at all, is
+  now known to be nothing but an oral shifted in position. The theory
+  was that all the plates just described, and more particularly those of
+  the cup, which were termed "the calycinal system," could be traced,
+  not merely in all crinoids, but in all Echinoderms, whether fixed
+  forms such as cystids and blastoids, or free forms such as ophiuroids
+  and echinoids, even--with the eye of faith--in holothurians. It was
+  admitted that these elements might atrophy, or be displaced, or be
+  otherwise obscured; but their complete and symmetrical disposition was
+  regarded as typical and original. Thus the genera exhibiting it were
+  regarded as primitive, and those orders and classes in which it was
+  least obscured were supposed to approach most nearly the ancestral
+  Echinoderm. Every one knows that an "apical system," composed of two
+  circlets known as "genitals" or basals and "oculars" or radials,
+  occurs round the aboral pole of echinoids (fig. 3, A), and that a few
+  genera (e.g. _Salenia_, fig. 3, B) possess a sub-central plate (the
+  "suranal"), which might be identified with the centro-dorsal. It is
+  also the case that many asterids (fig. 3, D) and ophiurids (fig. 3, C)
+  have a similar arrangement of plates on the dorsal (i.e. aboral)
+  surface of the disk. Accepting the homology of these apical systems
+  with the calycinal system, the theory would regard the aboral pole of
+  a sea-urchin or starfish as corresponding in everything, except its
+  relations to the sea-floor, with the aboral pole of a fixed
+  echinoderm.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.-Supposed calycinal systems of free-moving
+  Echinoderms. A, regular sea-urchin (_Cidaris_); B, sea-urchin with a
+  suranal plate (_Salenia_); C, developing ophiurid (_Amphiura_); D,
+  young starfish (_Zoroaster_).]
+
+  The theory has been vigorously opposed, notably by Semon (_op. cit._),
+  who saw in the holothurians a nearer approach to the ancestral form
+  than was furnished by any calyculate echinoderm, and by the Sarasins,
+  who derived the echinoids from the holothurians through forms with
+  flexible tests (_Echinothuridae_, which, however, are now known to be
+  specialized in this respect). The support that appeared to be given to
+  the theory by the presence of supposed calycinal plates in the embryo
+  of echinoids and asteroids has been, in the opinion of many,
+  undermined by E.W. MacBride (_op. cit._), who has insisted that in the
+  fixed stage of the developing starfish, _Asterina_, the relations of
+  these plates to the stem are quite different from those which they
+  bear in the developing and adult crinoid. But, however correct the
+  observations and the homologies of MacBride may be, they do not, as
+  Bury (_op. cit._) has well pointed out, afford sufficient grounds for
+  his inference that the abactinal (i.e. aboral) poles of starfish and
+  crinoids are not comparable with one another, and that all conclusions
+  based on the supposed homology of the dorso-central of echinoids and
+  asteroids with that of crinoids are incorrect. Bury himself, however,
+  has inflicted a severe blow on the theory by his proof that the
+  so-called oculars of Echinoidea, which were supposed to represent the
+  radials, are homologous with the "terminals" (i.e. the plates at the
+  tips of the rays) in Asteroidea and Ophiuroidea, and therefore not
+  homologous with the radially disposed plates often seen around the
+  aboral pole of those animals. For, if these radial constituents of the
+  supposed apical system in an ophiurid have really some other origin,
+  why can we not say the same of the supposed basals? Indeed, Bury is
+  constrained to admit that the view of Semon and others may be correct,
+  and that these so-called calycinal systems may not be heirlooms from a
+  calyculate ancestor, but may have been independently developed in the
+  various classes owing to the action of similar causes. That this view
+  must be correct is urged by students of fossils. Palaeontology lends
+  no support to the idea that the dorso-central is a primitive element;
+  it exists in none of the early echinoids, and the suranal of
+  _Saleniidae_ arises from the minor plates around the anus. There is no
+  reason to suppose that the central apical plate of certain
+  free-swimming crinoids has any more to do with the distal foot-plate
+  of the larval _Antedon_ stem than has the so-called centro-dorsal of
+  _Antedon_ itself, which is nothing but the compressed proximal end of
+  the stem. As for the supposed basals of Echinoidea, Asteroidea and
+  Ophiuroidea, they are scarcely to be distinguished among the ten or
+  more small plates that surround the anus of _Bothriocidaris_, which is
+  the oldest and probably the most ancestral of fossil sea-urchins (fig.
+  5). A calycinal system may be quite apparent in the later Ophiuroidea
+  and in a few Asteroidea, but there is no trace of it in the older
+  Palaeozoic types, unless we are to transfer the appellation to the
+  terminals. Those plates are perhaps constant throughout sea-urchins
+  and starfish (though it would puzzle any one to detect them in certain
+  Silurian echinoids), and they may be traced in some of the fixed
+  echinoderms; but there is no proof that they represent the radials of
+  a simple crinoid, and there are certainly many cystids in which no
+  such plates existed. Loven and M. Neumayr adduced the Triassic
+  sea-urchin _Tiarechinus_, in which the apical system forms half of the
+  test, as an argument for the origin of Echinoidea from an ancestor in
+  which the apical system was of great importance; but a genus appearing
+  so late in time, in an isolated sea, under conditions that dwarfed the
+  other echinoid dwellers therein, cannot seriously be thought to
+  elucidate the origin of pre-Silurian Echinoidea, and the recent
+  discovery of an intermediate form suggests that we have here nothing
+  but degenerate descendants of a well-known Palaeozoic family
+  (_Lepidocentridae_). But to pursue the tale of isolated instances
+  would be wearisome. The calycinal theory is not merely an assertion of
+  certain homologies, a few of which might be disputed without affecting
+  the rest: it governs our whole conception of the echinoderms, because
+  it implies their descent from a calyculate ancestor--not a
+  "crinoid-phantom," that bogey of the Sarasins, but a form with
+  definite plates subject to a quinqueradiate arrangement, with which
+  its internal organs must likewise have been correlated. To this
+  ingenious and plausible theory the revelations of the rocks are more
+  and more believed to be opposed.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.--The _Pentactula_ stage in the development of
+  _Synapta_.
+
+    T, The five interradial tentacles.
+    M, The water-pore, leading by the stone-canal stc to the water-ring,
+      from which hangs a Polian vesicle pb.
+    oc, Supposed otocysts.
+    m, Longitudinal muscles.
+    sk, Calcareous spicules.
+    st, Stomach.
+   (After Semon.)]
+
+  _Pentactaea Theory._--In opposition to the calycinal theory has been
+  the _Pentactaea_ theory of R. Semon. There have always been many
+  zoologists prepared to ascribe an ancestral character to the
+  holothurians. The absence of an apical system of plates; the fact that
+  radial symmetry has not affected the generative organs, as it has in
+  all other recent classes; the well-developed muscles of the body-wall,
+  supposed to be directly inherited from some worm-like ancestor; the
+  presence on the inner walls of the body in the family _Synaptidae_ of
+  ciliated funnels, which have been rashly compared to the excretory
+  organs (nephridia) of many worms; the outgrowth from the rectum in
+  other genera of caeca (Cuvierian organs and respiratory trees), which
+  recall the anal glands of the Gephyrean worms; the absence of podia
+  (tube-feet) in many genera, and even of the radial water-vessels in
+  _Synaptidae_; the absence of that peculiar structure known in other
+  echinoderms by the names "axial organ," "ovoid gland," &c.; the
+  simpler form of the larva--all these features have, for good reason or
+  bad, been regarded as primitive. Some of the more striking of these
+  features are confined to _Synaptidae_; in that family too the absence
+  of the radial water-vessels from the adult is correlated with
+  continuity of the circular muscle-layer, while the gut runs almost
+  straight from the anterior mouth to the posterior anus. Early in the
+  life-history of _Synapta_ occurs a stage with five tentacles around
+  the mouth, and into these pass canals from the water-ring, the radial
+  canals to the body-wall making a subsequent, and only temporary,
+  appearance (fig. 4). Semon called this stage the _Pentactula_, and
+  supposed that, in its early history, the class had passed through a
+  similar stage, which he called the _Pentactaea_, and regarded as the
+  ancestor of all Echinoderms. It has since been proved that the five
+  tentacles with their canals are interradial, so that one can scarcely
+  look on the _Pentactula_ as a primitive stage, while the apparent
+  simplicity of the _Synaptidae_, at least as compared with other
+  holothurians, is now believed to be the result of regressive changes.
+  The _Pentactaea_, at all events as it sprang from the brain of Semon,
+  must pass to the limbo of mythological ancestors.
+
+  _Pelmatozoic Theory._--The rejection of the calycinal and _Pentactaea_
+  theories need not scatter our conceptions of Echinoderm structure back
+  into the chaos from which they seemed to have emerged. The idea of a
+  calyculate ancestor, though by no means connoting fixation, turned
+  men's minds in the direction of the fixed forms, simply because in
+  them the calyx was best developed. The _Pentactaea_ again suggested a
+  search for some primitive type in which quinqueradiate symmetry was
+  exhibited in circumoral appendages, but had not affected the nervous,
+  water-vascular, muscular or skeletal systems to any great extent, and
+  the generative organs not at all. Study of the earliest larval stages
+  has always led to the conclusion that the Echinoderms must have
+  descended from some freely-moving form with a bilateral symmetry, and,
+  connecting this with the ideas just mentioned, we reach the conception
+  that this supposed bilateral ancestor (or _Dipleurula_) may have
+  become fixed, and may have gradually acquired a radial symmetry in
+  consequence of its sedentary mode of life. The different extent of
+  quinqueradiate symmetry in the different classes would thus depend on
+  the period at which they diverged from the sedentary stock. The
+  tracing of this history, and the explanation of the general characters
+  of Echinoderms and of the differentiating features of the classes in
+  accordance therewith, constitutes the _Pelmatozoic_ theory.
+
+  The word "Pelmatozoa" literally means "stalked animals," but the name
+  is now used to denote all Cystidea, Blastoidea, Crinoidea and
+  Edrioasteroidea, as opposed to the other classes, which may be called
+  Eleutherozoa. Many Pelmatozoa have, it is true, no stalk, while some
+  are freely-moving, but all agree in the possession of certain
+  characters obviously connected with a fixed mode of life. Thus, the
+  mouth is central and turned away from the sea-floor; the animal does
+  not seize its food by tentacles, limbs or jaws, neither does it move
+  in search of it, but a series of ciliated grooves which radiate from
+  the mouth sweep along currents of water, in the eddies of which minute
+  food-particles are caught up and carried down into the gullet; the
+  undigested food is driven out through an anus which is on the upper or
+  oral side of the theca, but as far distant as practicable from the
+  mouth and ciliated grooves. Such characters are found in any
+  primitive, sedentary group. More peculiarly Echinoderm features, in
+  which the Pelmatozoan nature is manifest, are the enclosing of the
+  viscera in a calcified and plated theca, for protection against those
+  enemies from which a fixed animal cannot flee; the development, at the
+  aboral pole of this theca, of a motor nerve-centre giving off branches
+  to the stroma connecting the various plates of the theca and of its
+  brachial, anal, and columnar extensions, and thus co-ordinating the
+  movements of the whole skeleton; the absence of suckers from the
+  podia, which, when present, are respiratory, not locomotor, in
+  function. There are other features of most, if not all, Pelmatozoa
+  that appear to be due to a fixed existence; but those are also found
+  in the Eleutherozoa. The Pelmatozoic theory thus regards the
+  Pelmatozoa as the more ancestral forms, and the Pelmatozoan stage as
+  one that must have been passed through by all Echinoderms during their
+  evolution from the _Dipleurula_. It might be possible to prove the
+  origin of all classes from Pelmatozoa, without thereby explaining the
+  origin of such fundamental features as radial symmetry, the
+  developmental metamorphosis, and the torsion that affects both gut and
+  body-cavities during that process; but the acceptance of a
+  _Dipleurula_ as the common ancestor necessitates an explanation of
+  these features. Such explanation is an integral part of the
+  Pelmatozoic theory, but is provided by no other.
+
+  The evidence for the Pelmatozoic theory is supplied by palaeontology,
+  embryology, the comparative anatomy of the classes, and a
+  consideration of other phyla. Palaeontology, so far as it goes, is a
+  sure guide, but some of the oldest fossiliferous rocks yield remains
+  of distinctly differentiated crinoids, asteroids and echinoids, so
+  that the problem is not solved merely by collecting fossils. Two lines
+  of argument appear fruitful. First, a comparison of the relative
+  numbers of the representatives of the various classes at different
+  epochs; according to this they may be placed in the following order,
+  with the oldest first: Cystidea, Crinoidea, Blastoidea, Asteroidea,
+  Ophiuroidea, Echinoidea. As for Holothuroidea, the fossil evidence
+  allows us to say no more than that the class existed in early
+  Carboniferous times, if not before. The second method is to work out
+  by slow and sure steps the lines of descent of the different families,
+  orders, and classes, and so either to arrive at the ancestral form of
+  each class, or to plot out the curve of evolution, which may then
+  legitimately be projected into "the dark backward and abysm of time."
+  In this way the many highly modified orders of Cystidea may be traced
+  back to a simple, many-plated ancestor with little or no radiate
+  symmetry (see below). All the complicated structures of Blastoidea are
+  evolved from a fairly simple type, which in its turn is linked on to
+  one of the cystid orders. That the crinoids are all deducible from
+  some such simple form as that above described under the head
+  "calycinal theory," is now generally admitted. Although, in the
+  extreme correlation of the radial food-grooves, nerves, water-vessels,
+  and so forth, with a radiate symmetry of the theca, such a type
+  differs from the Cystidea, while in the possession of jointed
+  processes from the radial plates, bearing the grooves and the various
+  body-systems outwards from the theca, it differs from all other
+  Echinoderms, nevertheless ancient forms are known which, if they are
+  not themselves the actual links, suggest how the crinoid type may have
+  been evolved from some of the more regular cystids. The fourth class
+  of Pelmatozoa--the Edrioasteroidea--differs from the others in the
+  structure of its ambulacra. As in all Pelmatozoa these seem to have
+  borne ciliated food-grooves protected by movable covering-plates (fig.
+  11). Beneath each food-groove was a radial water-vessel and probably a
+  nerve and blood-vessel, all which structures passed either between
+  certain regularly arranged thecal plates, or along a furrow floored by
+  those plates, which were then in two alternating series. The important
+  and distinctive feature is the presence of pores between the
+  flooring-plates, on either side of the groove; and these, we cannot
+  doubt, served for the passage of podia. Thus in a highly developed
+  edrioasteroid, such as _Edrioaster_ itself (fig. 11), there was a true
+  ambulacrum, apparently constructed like that of a starfish, but
+  differing in the possession of a ciliated food-groove protected by
+  covering-plates. The simpler forms of Edrioasteroidea, with their more
+  sac-like body and undifferentiated plates, may well have been derived
+  from early Cystidea of yet simpler structure, and there seems no
+  reason to follow Jaekel in regarding the class as itself the more
+  primitive. Turning to fossil Asteroidea, we find the earlier ophiurids
+  scarcely distinguishable from the asterids, while in the alternation
+  of the ambulacrals, which undoubtedly correspond to the
+  flooring-plates of _Edrioaster_, both groups approach the Pelmatozoan
+  type. These facts have been expressed by Sturtz in his names
+  Encrinasteriae and Ophio-encrinasteriae. There is no difficulty in
+  deducing the highly differentiated asterids and ophiurids of a later
+  day from these simpler types. The evolution of the modern Echinoidea
+  from their Palaeozoic ancestors is also well understood, but in this
+  case the ancestral form to which the palaeontologist is led does not
+  at first sight present many resemblances to the Pelmatozoa. It is,
+  however, characterized by simplicity of structure, and a short
+  description of it will serve to clear the problem from unnecessary
+  difficulties. _Bothriocidaris_ (fig. 5), a small echinoid from the
+  Ordovician rocks of Esthonia, is in essential structure just the form
+  demanded by comparative palaeontology to make a starting-point. It is
+  spheroidal, with the mouth and anus at opposite poles; there are five
+  ambulacra, and the ambulacral plates are large, simple and
+  alternating, each being pierced by two podial pores which lie in a
+  small oval depression; the ambulacrals next the mouth form a closed
+  ring of ten plates; the interambulacrals lie in single columns between
+  the ambulacra, and are separated from the mouth-area by the proximal
+  ambulacrals just mentioned, and sometimes by the second set of
+  ambulacrals also; the ambulacra end in the five oculars or terminals,
+  which meet in a ring around the anal area and have no podial pores,
+  but one of them serves as a madreporite; within this ring is a
+  star-shaped area filled with minute irregular plates, none of which
+  can safely be selected as the homologues of the so-called basals or
+  genitals of later forms; within the ring of ambulacrals around the
+  mouth are five somewhat pointed plates, which Jaekel regards as teeth,
+  but which can scarcely be homologous with the interradially placed
+  teeth of later echinoids, since they are radial in position; small
+  spines are present, especially around the podial pores. The position
+  of the pores near the centre of the ambulacrals in _Bothriocidaris_
+  need not be regarded as primitive, since other early Palaeozoic
+  genera, not to mention the young of living forms, show that the podia
+  originally passed out between the plates, and were only gradually
+  surrounded by their substance; thus the original structure of the
+  echinoid ambulacra differed from that of the early asteroid in the
+  position of the radial vessels and nerves, which here lie beneath the
+  plates instead of outside them. To this point we shall recur;
+  palaeontology, though it suggests a clue, does not furnish an actual
+  link either between Echinoidea and Asteroidea, or between those
+  classes and Pelmatozoa.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.--_Bothriocidaris globulus._ A, from the side;
+  B, the plates around the aboral pole. (After Jaekel.) The short spines
+  which were attached to the tubercles are not drawn.]
+
+  The argument from embryology leads further back. First, as already
+  mentioned, it outlines the general features of the _Dipleurula_;
+  secondly, it indicates the way in which this free-moving form became
+  fixed, and how its internal organs were modified in consequence; but
+  when we seek, thirdly, for light on the relations of the classes, we
+  find the features of the adult coming in so rapidly that such
+  intermediate stages as may have existed are either squeezed out or
+  profoundly modified. The difficulty of rearing the larvae in an
+  aquarium towards the close of the metamorphosis may account for the
+  slight information available concerning the stages that immediately
+  follow the embryonic. Another difficulty is due to the fact that the
+  types studied, and especially the crinoid _Antedon_, are highly
+  specialized, so that some of the embryonic features are not really
+  primitive as regards the class, but only as regards each particular
+  genus. Thus inferences from embryonic development need to be checked
+  by palaeontology, and supplemented by comparison of the anatomy of
+  other living genera.
+
+  Minute anatomical research has also aided to establish the Pelmatozoic
+  theory by the gradual recognition in other classes of features
+  formerly supposed to be confined to Pelmatozoa. Thus the elements of
+  the Pelmatozoan ventral groove are now detected in so different a
+  structure as the echinoid ambulacrum, while an aboral nervous system,
+  the diminished representative of that in crinoids, has been traced in
+  all Eleutherozoa except Holothurians. The broader theories of modern
+  zoology might seem to have little bearing on the Echinoderma, for it
+  is not long since the study of these animals was compared to a
+  landlocked sea undisturbed by such storms as rage around the origin of
+  the Vertebrata. This, however, is no more the case. The conception of
+  the _Dipleurula_ derives its chief weight from the fact that it is
+  comparable to the early larval forms of other primitive coelomate
+  animals, such as _Balanoglossus_, _Phoronis_, Chaetognatha,
+  Brachiopoda and Bryozoa. So too the explanation of radial symmetry and
+  torsion of organs as due to a Pelmatozoic mode of life finds
+  confirmation in many other phyla. Instead of discussing all these
+  questions separately, with the details necessary for an adequate
+  presentation of the argument, we shall now sketch the history of the
+  Echinoderms in accordance with the Pelmatozoic theory. Such a sketch
+  must pass lightly over debatable ground, and must consist largely of
+  suggestions still in need of confirmation; but if it serves as a frame
+  into which more precise and more detailed statements may be fitted as
+  they come to the ken of the reader, its object will be attained.
+
+_Evolution of the Echinoderms._--It is reasonable to suppose that the
+Coelomata--animals in which the body-cavity is divided into a gut
+passing from mouth to anus and a hollow (coelom) surrounding it--were
+derived from the simpler Coelentera, in which the primitive body-cavity
+(archenteron) is not so divided, and has only one aperture serving as
+both mouth and anus. We may, with Sedgwick, suppose the coelom to have
+originated by the enlargement and separation of pouches that pressed
+outwards from the archenteron into the thickened body-wall (such
+structures as the genital pouches of some Coelentera, not yet shut off
+from the rest of the cavity), and they would probably have been four in
+number and radially disposed about the central cavity. The evolution of
+this cavity into a gut is foreshadowed in some Coelentera by the
+elliptical shape of the aperture, and by the development at its ends of
+a ciliated channel along which food is swept; we have only to suppose
+the approximation of the sides of the ellipse and their eventual fusion,
+to complete the transformation of the radially symmetrical Coelenterate
+into a bilaterally symmetrical Coelomate with mouth and anus at opposite
+ends of the long axis. We further suppose that of the four coelomic
+pouches one was in front of the mouth, one behind the anus, and one on
+each side. Such an animal, if it ever existed, probably lived near the
+surface of the sea, and even here it may have changed its medusoid mode
+of locomotion for one in the direction of its mouth. Thus the bilateral
+symmetry would have been accentuated, and the organism shaped more
+definitely into three segments, namely (1) a preoral segment or lobe,
+containing the anterior coelomic cavity; (2) a middle segment,
+containing the gut, and the two middle coelomic cavities; (3) a
+posterior segment, containing the posterior coelomic cavity, which,
+however, owing to the backward prolongation of the anus, became divided
+into two--a right and left posterior coelom. Each of these cavities
+presumably excreted waste products to the exterior by a pore. There was
+probably a nervous area, with a tuft of cilia, at the anterior end;
+while, at all events in forms that remained pelagic, the ciliated
+nervous tracts of the rest of the body may be supposed to have become
+arranged in bands around the body-segments. Such a form as this is
+roughly represented to-day by the _Actinotrocha_ larva of _Phoronis_,
+the importance of which has been brought out by Masterman. But only
+slight modifications are required to produce the _Tornaria_ larva of the
+Enteropneusta and other larvae, including the special type that is
+inferred from the _Dipleurula_ larval stages of recent forms to have
+characterized the ancestor of the Echinoderms. We cannot enter here
+into all the details of comparison between these larval forms; amid much
+that is hypothetical a few homologies are widely accepted, and the
+preceding account will show the kind of relation that the Echinoderms
+bear to other animals, including what are now usually regarded as the
+ancestors of the Chordata (to which back-boned animals belong), as well
+as the nature of the evidence that their study has been, or may be, made
+to yield. How the hypothetical _Dipleurula_ became an Echinoderm, and
+how the primitive Echinoderms diverged in structure so as to form the
+various classes, are questions to which an answer is attempted in the
+following paragraphs:--
+
+  Confining our attention to that form of Dipleurula (fig. 6) which, it
+  is supposed, gave rise to the Echinoderma, we infer from embryological
+  data that its special features were as follow:--The anterior coelomic
+  cavity was wholly or partially divided, and from each half a duct led
+  to the exterior, opening at a pore near the middle line of the back.
+  The middle cavities were smaller, and the ducts from them came to
+  unite with those from the anterior cavities, and no longer opened
+  directly to the exterior; whether these cavities were already
+  specialized as water-sacs cannot be asserted, but they certainly had
+  become so at a slightly later stage. The posterior cavities were the
+  largest, but what had become of their original opening to the exterior
+  is uncertain. The genital products were derived from the lining of the
+  coelomic cavities, but it would not be safe to say that any particular
+  region was as yet specialized for generation. The epithelium of the
+  outer surface was probably ciliated, and a portion of it in the
+  preoral lobe differentiated as a sense-organ, with longer cilia and
+  underlying nerve-centre, from which two nerves ran back below the
+  ventral surface. Into the space between the walls of the coelom and
+  the outer body-wall, originally filled with jelly, definite cells now
+  wandered, chiefly derived from the coelomic walls. Some of these cells
+  produced muscles and connective tissue; others absorbed and removed
+  waste products, iron salts, calcium carbonate and the like, and so
+  were ready to be utilized for the deposition of pigment or of skeletal
+  substance. In some of these respects the _Dipleurula_ may have
+  diverged from the ancestor of Enteropneusta and of other animals, but
+  it could not as yet have been recognized as echinodermal by a
+  zoologist, for it presented none of the structural peculiarities of
+  the modern adult echinoderm.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Diagrammatic reconstruction of _Dipleurula_.
+  The creature is represented crawling on the sea-floor, but it may
+  equally well have been a floating animal. The ciliated bands are not
+  drawn.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Diagrammatic reconstruction of primitive
+  Pelmatozoon, seen from the side. The plates of the test are not drawn;
+  their probable appearance may be gathered from fig. 8.]
+
+  Now ensued the great event that originated the phylum--the discovery
+  of the sea-floor. This being apprehended by the sensory anterior end,
+  it was by that end that the _Dipleurula_ attached itself; not,
+  however, by the pole, since that would have interfered at once with
+  the sensory organ, but a little to one side, the right side being the
+  one chosen for a reason we cannot now fathom; it may be that fixation
+  was facilitated by the presence of the pore on that side, and by the
+  utilization of the excretion from it as a cement. The first result was
+  that which is always seen to follow in such cases--the passage of the
+  mouth towards the upper surface (fig. 7). As it passed up along the
+  left side, the gut caught hold of the left water-sac and pulled it
+  upwards, curving it in the process; this being attached to the left
+  duct from the anterior body-cavity, this structure with its water-pore
+  was also pulled up, and the pore came to lie between mouth and anus.
+  The forward portion of the anterior coelom shared in the constriction
+  and elongation of the preoral lobe; but its hinder portion was dragged
+  up along with the water-pore and formed a canal lying along the outer
+  wall (the parietal canal). As the gut coiled, it pressed inwards the
+  middle of the left posterior coelom of the _Dipleurula_, and drew the
+  whole towards the mouth, while the corresponding cavity on the right
+  was pressed down by the stomach towards the fixed end of the animal
+  and became involved in the elongation of that region. These changes,
+  which may still be traced in the development of _Antedon_, resulted in
+  the primitive Pelmatozoon (fig. 7), represented in the rocks by such a
+  genus as _Aritocystis_ (fig. 8). The pear-shaped body is encased in a
+  theca formed by a number of polygonal plates, and is attached by its
+  narrow end. On the broad upper surface are four openings, that nearest
+  the centre being the mouth, which is slit-like, and that nearest the
+  periphery being the anus. The two other openings are minute, and
+  placed between those two; one close to the mouth is almost certainly
+  the water-pore, while that nearer the anus is regarded as a genital
+  aperture. Which of the coelomic cavities this last is connected with
+  is uncertain, for there is considerable doubt as to the origin of the
+  genital glands in the embryonic development of recent echinoderms. It
+  seems clear, however, that there was but a single duct and a single
+  bunch of reproductive cells, as in the holothurians, though perhaps
+  bifurcate, as in some of those animals. The line between mouth and
+  anus, along which these openings are situate, corresponds with the
+  plane of union between the two horns of the curved left posterior
+  coelom, the united walls of which form the "dorsal mesentery." Since
+  this must have, on our theory, enclosed the parietal canal from the
+  anterior coelom, it is possible that the genital products were
+  developed from the lining cells of that cavity, and that the genital
+  pore was nothing but its original pore not yet united with that from
+  the water-sac. The concrescence of these pores can be traced in other
+  cystids; but as the genital organs became affected by radial symmetry
+  the original function of the duct was lost, and the reproductive
+  elements escaped to the exterior in another way. _Aristocystis_ may
+  have had ciliated food-grooves leading to its mouth, but these have
+  left no traces on the structure of the test. Traces, however, are
+  perceptible in genera believed to be descended from such a simple
+  type, and the majority may be grouped under two heads. One group
+  includes those in which the grooves wander outwards from the mouth
+  over the thecal plates, which gradually become arranged regularly on
+  either side of the grooves, while further extensions ascend from the
+  grooves on small jointed processes called "brachioles" (fig. 9). In
+  the other group the grooves do not tend so much to stretch over the
+  theca as to be raised away from it on relatively larger brachioles,
+  arising close around the mouth (fig. 10).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8.--_Aristocystis bohemicus_; side-view of the
+  theca. The internal structure may be gathered from fig. 7.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.--_Fungocystis rarissima_, one of the
+  Diploporita, in which the thecal plates bordering the food-grooves are
+  not yet regularly arranged. The brachioles are not drawn.]
+
+  These two types are, in the main, correlated with two gradual
+  differentiations in the minute structure of the thecal plates.
+  Originally the calcareous substance of the plates (stereom) was
+  pierced by irregular canals, more or less vertical, and containing
+  strands of the soft tissue (stroma) that deposited the stereom, as
+  well as spaces filled with fluid. In the former group (fig. 9) these
+  canals became connected in pairs (diplopores) still perpendicular to
+  the surface, and this structure, combined with that of the grooves,
+  characterizes the order--Diploporita. In the latter group (fig. 10)
+  the canals, that is to say, the stroma-strands, came to lie parallel
+  to the surface and to cross the sutures between the plates, which were
+  thus more flexibly and more strongly united: since the canals
+  crossing each suture naturally occupy a rhombic area, the order is
+  called Rhombifera. At first the grooves were three, one proceeding
+  from each end of the mouth-slit, and the third in a direction opposed
+  to the anus; with reference to the Pelmatozoan structure, the anal
+  side may be termed posterior, and this groove anterior. Eventually
+  each lateral groove forked, so that there were five grooves. These
+  gradually impressed themselves on the theca and influenced the
+  arrangement of the internal organs: it is fairly safe to assume that
+  nerves, blood-vessels and branches from the water-sac stretched out
+  along with these grooves, each system starting from a ring around the
+  gullet. At last a quinqueradiate symmetry influenced the plates of the
+  theca, partly through the development of a plate at the end of each
+  groove (terminal), partly through plates at the aboral pole of the
+  theca (basals and infrabasals) arising in response to mechanical
+  pressure, but soon intimately connected with the cords of an aboral
+  nervous system. Before the latter plates arose, the stem had developed
+  by the elongation and constriction of the fixed end of the theca, the
+  gradual regularization of the plates involved, and their coalescence
+  into rings. The crinoid type was differentiated by the extension of
+  the food-grooves and associated organs along radial outgrowths from
+  the theca itself. These constituted the arms (brachia), and five
+  definite radial plates of the theca were specialized for their
+  support. These radials may be homologous with the terminals already
+  mentioned, but this is neither necessary nor certain. In this
+  development of brachial extensions of the theca the genital organs
+  were involved, and their ripe products formed at the ends of the
+  brachia or in the branches therefrom. The remains of the original
+  genital gland within the theca became the "axial organ" surrounded by
+  the "axial sinus" derived from the anterior coelom, and this again by
+  structures derived from the right posterior coelom, which, as
+  explained above, had been depressed to the aboral pole. These last
+  structures formed a nervous sheath around the axial sinus with its
+  blood-vessels, and became divided into five lobes correlated with the
+  five basals (the "chambered organ") and forming the aboral
+  nerve-centre. Before these changes were complete the Holothurioidea
+  must have diverged, by the assumption of a crawling existence. Thus in
+  them the mouth and anus reverted to opposite poles, and only the
+  torsion of the gut and coelom, and the radial extensions of the
+  nervous, water-vascular and blood-vascular systems, testified to their
+  Pelmatozoan ancestry. The ciliated grooves, no longer needed for the
+  collection of food, closed over, and are still traceable as ciliated
+  canals overlying the radial nerves. At the same time the thecal plates
+  degenerated into spicules. The Edrioasteroidea followed a different
+  line from that of the cystids above mentioned and their descendants.
+  The theca became sessile, and in its later developments much flattened
+  (fig. 11). Mouth, water-pore and anus remained as in _Aristocystis_,
+  but the five ciliated grooves radiated from the mouth between the
+  thecal plates rather than over them, and were, as usual, protected by
+  covering-plates. The important feature was the extension of radial
+  canals from the water-sac along these grooves, with branches passing
+  between the flooring-plates of the grooves (fig. 12, A). The
+  resemblance of the flooring-plates to the ambulacral ossicles of a
+  starfish is so exact that one can explain it only by supposing similar
+  relations of the water-canals and their branches (podia). On the
+  thinly plated under surface of well-preserved specimens of
+  _Edrioaster_ are seen five interradial swellings (fig. 11, B). These
+  are likely to have been produced by the ripe genital glands, which may
+  have extruded their products directly through the membranous
+  integument of the under side. No other way out for them is apparent,
+  and it is clear that _Edrioaster_ was not permanently and solidly
+  fixed to the sea-floor.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10.--_Chirocrinus-alter_, one of the Rhombifera,
+  showing the reduced number and regular arrangement of the thecal
+  plates, and the concentration of the brachioles. (Adapted from
+  Jaekel.)]
+
+  Now comes a great change, unfortunately difficult to follow whether in
+  the fossils or in the modern embryos. We suppose some such form as
+  _Edrioaster_, which appears to have lived near the shore, to have been
+  repeatedly overturned by waves. Those that were able to accommodate
+  themselves to this topsy-turvy existence, by taking food in directly
+  through the mouth, survived, and their podia gradually specialized as
+  sucking feet. Such a form as this, when once its covering-plates had
+  atrophied, would be a starfish without more ado (fig. 12, B); but the
+  sea-urchins present a more difficult problem, on which
+  _Bothriocidaris_ sheds no light. An Upper Silurian echinoid, however,
+  _Palaeodiscus_, is believed by W.J. Sollas and W.K. Spencer to have
+  had in its ambulacra an inner as well as an outer series of plates. If
+  this be correct, the only change from _Edrioaster_, as regards the
+  ambulacra, was that in _Palaeodiscus_ the covering-plates could no
+  longer open, but closed permanently over the whole groove, while the
+  podia issued through slits between them. In more typical echinoids the
+  covering-plates alone remained to form the ordinary ambulacral plates,
+  while the flooring-plates disappeared, the canals and other organs
+  remaining as before. In any case we have to admit a closure of the
+  integument over the ciliated groove (fig. 12, D, e) just as in
+  holothurians, since this is necessitated by anatomical evidence. The
+  genital organs in both Asteroidea and Echinoidea would retain the
+  interradial position they first assumed in _Edrioaster_; and in
+  Echinoidea their primitive temporary openings to the exterior were
+  converted into definite pores, correlated with five interradially
+  placed plates at the aboral pole. The anus also naturally moved to
+  this superior and aboral position. In the Echinoidea the water-canals
+  and associated structures, ending in the terminal plates, stretched
+  right up to these genital plates; but in the Asteroidea they never
+  reached the aboral surface, so that the terminals have always been
+  separated from the aboral pole by a number of plates.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--_Edrioaster._ A, upper or oral surface of _E.
+Bigsbyi_, with the covering-plates on the anterior and left posterior
+food-grooves, but removed from the others, which show only the
+flooring-plates, between which are pores; B, under surface of _E.
+Buchianus_, with covering-plates on right posterior and right anterior
+food-grooves (left hand in the drawing). The * denotes the position of
+the anal interradius.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.-Diagrammatic sections across the ambulacra of A,
+C, PELMATOZOA, and B, D, ELEUTHEROZOA, placed in the same position for
+comparison. _S_, Blood-spaces, of which the homology is still
+uncertain.]
+
+_Analysis of Echinoderm Characters._--Regarding the Echinoderms as a
+whole in the light of the foregoing account, we may give the following
+analytic summary of the characters that distinguish them from other
+coelomate animals:--
+
+  They live in salt or brackish water; a primitive bilateral symmetry is
+  still manifest in the right and left divisions of the coelom; the
+  middle coelomic cavities are primitively transformed into two
+  hydrocoels communicating with the exterior indirectly through a duct
+  or ducts of the anterior coelom; stereom, composed of crystalline
+  carbonate of lime, is, with few exceptions, deposited by special
+  amoebocytes in the meshes of a mesodermal stroma, chiefly in the
+  integument; reproductive cells are derived from the endothelium,
+  apparently of the anterior coelom; total segmentation of the ovum
+  produces a coeloblastula and gastrula by invagination; mesenchyme is
+  formed in the segmentation cavity by migration of cells, chiefly from
+  the hypoblast. Known Echinoderms show the following features, imagined
+  to be due to an ancestral pelmatozoic stage:--Increase in the coelomic
+  cavities of the left side, and atrophy of those on the right; the
+  dextral coil of the gut, recognizable in all classes, though often
+  obscured; an incomplete secondary bilateralism about the plane
+  including the main axis and the water-pore or its successor, the
+  madreporite, often obscured by one or other of various tertiary
+  bilateralisms; the change of the hydrocoel into a circumoral, arcuate
+  or ring canal; development through a free-swimming, bilaterally
+  symmetrical, ciliated larva, of which in many cases only a portion is
+  transformed into the adult Echinoderm (where care of the brood has
+  secondarily arisen, this larva is not developed). All living, and most
+  extinct, Echinoderms show the following features, almost certainly due
+  to an ancestral pelmatozoic stage:--An incomplete radial symmetry, of
+  which five is usually the dominant number, is superimposed on the
+  secondary bilateralism, owing to the outgrowth from the mouth region
+  of one unpaired and two paired ciliated grooves; these have a floor of
+  nervous epithelium, and are accompanied by subjacent radial canals
+  from the water-ring, giving off lateral podia and thus forming
+  ambulacra, and by a perihaemal system of canals apparently growing out
+  from coelomic cavities. All living Echinoderms have a lacunar, haemal
+  system of diverse origin; this, the ambulacral system, and the
+  coelomic cavities, contain a fluid holding albumen in solution and
+  carrying numerous amoebocytes, which are developed in special
+  lymph-glands and are capable of wandering through all tissues. The
+  Echinoderms may be divided into seven classes, whose probable
+  relations are thus indicated:--
+
+                 / Cystidea------Edrioasteroidea
+                |      |          |\
+    PELMATOZOA <       |          | \ Holothurioidea \
+                |      |          |                  |
+                |  Blastoidea     |                   > ELEUTHEROZOA
+                 \ Crinoidea      |                  |
+                                 Stelliformia        |
+                                 Echinoidea          /
+
+  Brief systematic accounts of these classes follow:--
+
+  Grade A. PELMATOZOA.--Echinoderma with the viscera enclosed in a
+  calcified and plated theca, of which the oral surface is uppermost,
+  and which is usually attached, either temporarily or permanently, by
+  the aboral surface. Food brought to the mouth by a subvective system
+  of ciliated grooves, radiating from the mouth either between the
+  plates of the theca (endothecal), or over the theca (epithecal), or
+  along processes from the theca (exothecal: arms, pinnules, &c.), or,
+  in part, and as a secondary development, below the theca (hypothecal).
+  Anus usually in the upper or oral half of the theca, and never aboral.
+  An aborally-placed motor nerve-centre gives off branches to the stroma
+  connecting the various plates of the theca and of its brachial, anal
+  and columnar extensions, and thus co-ordinates the movements of the
+  whole skeleton. The circumoesophageal water-ring communicates
+  indirectly with the exterior; the podia, when present, are
+  respiratory, not locomotor, in function.
+
+  Class I. CYSTIDEA.--Pelmatozoa in which radial polymeric symmetry of
+  the theca is developed either not at all or not in complete
+  correlation with the radial symmetry of the ambulacra (such as obtains
+  in Blastoidea and Crinoidea); in which extensions of the food-grooves
+  are exothecal or epithecal or both combined, but neither endothecal
+  nor pierced by podia (as in some Edrioasteroidea) All Palaeozoic.
+
+  This class shows much greater diversity of organization than any
+  other, and the classifications proposed by recent writers, such as E.
+  Haeckel, O. Jaekel and F.A. Bather, start from such different points
+  of view that no discussion of them can be attempted here. Following
+  the narrative given above, we recognize a primitive
+  group--Amphoridea--represented by _Aristocystis_ (fig. 8). From this
+  are derived the orders Diploporita (fig. 9) and Rhombifera (fig. 10)
+  and the class Edrioasteroidea, all which have already been described
+  as steps in the evolution of the phylum. But there were also
+  side-branches leading nowhere, and therefore placed in separate
+  orders--Aporita and Carpoidea.
+
+  Order 1. _Amphoridea._--Radial symmetry has affected neither
+  food-grooves nor thecal plates; nor, probably, nerves, ambulacral
+  vessels, nor gonads. Canals or folds when present in the stereom are
+  irregular. Families: Aristocystidae (fig. 8); Eocystidae.
+
+  Order 2. _Carpoidea._--Theca compressed in the oro-anal plane and a
+  bilateral symmetry thus induced, affecting the food-grooves and,
+  usually, the thecal plates and stem. Food-grooves in part epithecal
+  and may be continued on one or two exothecal processes. No pores or
+  folds in the stereom. Families: Anomalocystidae, Dendrocystidae. These
+  correspond to Jaekel's Carpoidea Heterostelea; he also includes, as
+  Eustelea, our Comarocystidae and Malocystidae.
+
+  Order 3. _Rhombifera._--Radial symmetry affects the food-grooves and,
+  in the more advanced families, the thecal plates; probably also the
+  nerves and ambulacral vessels, but not the gonads. The food-grooves
+  are exothecal, i.e. are stretched out from the theca on jointed
+  skeletal processes (brachioles). These either are close to the mouth
+  or are removed from it upon a series of ambulacral or sub-ambulacral
+  plates not derived immediately from thecal plates, or are separated
+  from the oral centre by hypothecal passages passing beneath terminal
+  plates. The stereom and stroma become arranged in folds and strands at
+  right angles to the sutures of the thecal plates; in higher forms the
+  stereom-folds are in part specialized as pectini-rhombs. Families:
+  Echinosphaeridae; Comarocystidae; Macrocystellidae; Tiaracrinidae;
+  Malocystidae; Glyptocystidae, with sub-famm. Echinoencrininae,
+  Callocystinae, Glyptocystinae, of which examples are _Cheirocrinus_
+  (fig. 10) and _Cystoblastus_ from which Jaekel deduces the blastoids;
+  Caryocrinidae.
+
+  Order 4. _Aporita._--Pentamerous symmetry affects the food-grooves and
+  thecal plates; probably also the nerves and ambulacral vessels, but
+  not the gonads. Food-grooves exothecal and circumoral. The stereom
+  shows no trace of canals, folds, rhombs or diplopores. Family:
+  Cryptocrinidae.
+
+  Order 5. _Diploporita._--Radial symmetry affects the food-grooves, and
+  by degrees the thecal plates connected therewith, but not the
+  interradial thecal plates; probably also the nerves and ambulacral
+  vessels, but not the gonads. The food-grooves are epithecal, i.e. are
+  extended over the thecal plates themselves without intermediate
+  flooring; they are also prolonged on exothecal brachioles, which line
+  the epithecal grooves. The stereom of the thecal plates may be thrown
+  into folds, but the mesostroma does not so much tend to lie in strands
+  traversing the sutures, nor are pectini-rhombs or pore-rhombs
+  developed; diplopores are always present in the mesostereom, but often
+  restricted to definite tracts or plates, especially in higher forms.
+  Families: Sphaeronidae; Glyptosphaeridae, e.g. _Fungocystis_ (fig. 9);
+  Protocrinidae; Mesocystidae; Gomphocystidae.
+
+  The Protocrinidae lead up to _Proteroblastus_, in which the theca is
+  ovoid, sometimes prolonged into a stem, the plates differentiated into
+  (a) smooth, irregular, depressed interambulacrals, (b) transversely
+  elongate brachioliferous adambulacrals, to which the diplopores, which
+  lie at right angles to the main food-groove, are confined. This leads
+  almost without a break to the Protoblastoidea.
+
+  Class II. BLASTOIDEA.--Pelmatozoa in which five (by atrophy four)
+  epithecal ciliated grooves, lying on a lancet-shaped plate (? always),
+  radiate from a central peristome between five interradial deltoid
+  plates, and are edged by alternating side-plates bearing brachioles,
+  to which side-branches pass from the grooves. Grooves and peristome
+  protected by small plates, which can open over the grooves. The
+  generative organs and coelom probably did not send extensions along
+  the rays into the brachioles; but apparently nerves from the aboral
+  centre, after passing through the thecal plates, met in a circumoral
+  ring, from which branches passed into the plate under each main
+  food-groove, and thence supplied the brachioles. The thecal plates,
+  however irregular in some species, always show defined basals and a
+  distinct plate ("radial") at the end of each ambulacrum; they are in
+  all cases so far affected by pentamerous symmetry that their sutures
+  never cross the ambulacra. All Palaeozoic.
+
+  Division A. _Protoblastoidea._--Blastoidea without interambulacral
+  groups of hydrospire-folds hanging into the thecal cavity. Families:
+  Asteroblastidae, Blastoidocrinidae. The former might be placed with
+  Diploporita, were it not for a greater intimacy of correlation between
+  ambulacral and thecal structures than is found in Cystidea as here
+  defined. They form a link between the Protocrinidae and--
+
+  Division B. _Eublastoidea._--Blastoidea in which the thecal plates
+  have assumed a definite number and position in 3 circlets, as follows:
+  3 basals, 2 large and 1 small; 5 radials, often fork-shaped, forming a
+  closed circlet; 5 deltoids, interradial in position, supported on the
+  shoulders or processes of the radials, and often surrounding the
+  peristome with their oral ends. The stereom of the radials and
+  deltoids on each side of the ambulacra is thrown into folds, running
+  across the radio-deltoid suture, and hanging down into the thecal
+  cavity as respiratory organs (hydrospires).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 13.--A Eublastoid, _Pentremites_.]
+
+  These are the forms to which the name Blastoidea is usually
+  restricted. They have been divided into Regulares and Irregulares, but
+  it seems possible to group them according to three series or lines of
+  descent, thus:--
+
+  Series a. _Codonoblastida._--Families: Codasteridae, Pentremitidae
+  (fig. 13).
+
+  Series b. _Troostoblastida._--Families: Troostocrinidae,
+  Eleutherocrinidae.
+
+  Series c. _Granatoblastida._--Families: Nucleocrinidae,
+  Orbitremitidae, Pentephyllidae, Zygocrinidae.
+
+  Class III. CRINOIDEA.--Pelmatozoa in which epithecal extensions of the
+  food-grooves, ambulacrals, superficial oral nervous system,
+  blood-vascular and water-vascular systems, coelom and genital system
+  are continued exothecally upon jointed outgrowths of the abactinal
+  thecal plates (_brachia_), carrying with them extensions of the
+  abactinal nerve-system. The number of these processes is primitively
+  and normally five, but may become less by atrophy. The brachia rise
+  from a corresponding number of thecal plates, "radials (RR)." Below
+  these is always a circlet, or traces of a circlet, of plates
+  alternating with the radials, i.e. interradial, and called "basals
+  (BB)." Through all modifications, which are numerous and vastly
+  divergent, these elements persist. A circlet of radially situate
+  infrabasals (IBB) may also be present. Below BB or IBB there follows a
+  stem, which, however, may be atrophied or totally lost (see fig. 1).
+
+  The classification here adopted is that of F.A. Bather (1899), which
+  departs from that of Wachsmuth and Springer mainly in the separation
+  of forms with infrabasals or traces thereof from those in which basals
+  only are present. These two series also differ from each other in the
+  relations of the abactinal nerve-system. O. Jaekel (1894) has divided
+  the crinoids into the orders Cladocrinoidea and Pentacrinoidea, the
+  former being the Camerata of Wachsmuth and Springer (Monocyclica
+  Camerata, Adunata and Dicyclica Camerata of the present
+  classification), and the latter comprising all the rest, in which the
+  arms are either free or only loosely incorporated in the dorsal cup.
+  In minor points there is fair agreement between the American, German
+  and British authors. The families are extinct, except when the
+  contrary is stated.
+
+  Sub-class I. _Monocyclica._--Crinoidea in which the base consists of
+  BB only, the aboral prolongations of the chambered organ being
+  interradial; new columnals are introduced at the extreme proximal end
+  of the stem.
+
+  Order 1. _Monocyclica Inadunata._--Monocyclica in which the dorsal cup
+  is confined to the patina and occasional intercalated anals; such
+  ambulacrals or interambulacrals as enter the tegmen remain
+  supra-tegminal and not rigidly united. Families: Hybocrinidae,
+  Stephanocrinidae, Heterocrinidae, Calceocrinidae, Pisocrinidae,
+  Zophocrinidae, Haplocrinidae, Allagecrinidae, Symbathocrinidae,
+  Belemnocrinidae, Plicatocrinidae, Hyocrinidae (recent), Saccocomidae.
+
+  Order 2. _Adunata._--Monocyclica with dorsal cup primitively confined
+  to the patina and an occasional single anal; tegmen solid; portions of
+  the proximal brachials and their ambulacrals tend to be rigidly
+  incorporated in the theca. Arms fork once to thrice, and bear pinnules
+  on each or on every other brachial. BB fused to 3, 2 or 1.
+  (Eucladocrinus and Acrocrinidae offer peculiar exceptions to this
+  diagnosis.) Families: Platycrinidae, Hexacrinidae, Acrocrinidae.
+
+  Order 3. _Monocyclica Camerata._--Monocyclica in which the first, and
+  often the succeeding, orders of brachials are incorporated by
+  interbrachials in the dorsal cup, while the corresponding ambulacrals
+  are either incorporated in, or pressed below, the tegmen by
+  interambulacrals; all thecal plates united by suture, somewhat loose
+  in the earliest forms, but speedily becoming close, and producing a
+  rigid theca; mouth and tegminal food-grooves closed; arms pinnulate.
+
+    Sub-order i. _Melocrinoidea._--RR in contact all round; first
+    brachial usually quadrangular. Families: Glyptocrinidae,
+    Melocrinidae, Patelliocrinidae, Clonocrinidae, Eucalyptocrinidae,
+    Dolatocrinidae.
+
+    Sub-order ii. _Batocrinoidea._--RR separated by a heptagonal anal;
+    first brachial usually quadrangular. Families: Tanaocrinidae,
+    Xenocrinidae, Carpocrinidae, Barrandeocrinidae, Coelocrinidae,
+    Batocrinidae, Periechocrinidae.
+
+    Sub-order iii. _Actinocrinoidea._--RR separated by a hexagonal anal;
+    first brachial usually hexagonal. Families: Actinocrinidae,
+    Amphoracrinidae.
+
+  Sub-class II. _Dicyclica._--Crinoidea in which the base consists of BB
+  and IBB, the latter being liable to atrophy or fusion with the
+  proximale, but the aboral prolongations of the chambered organ are
+  always radial; new columnals may or may not be introduced at the
+  proximal end of the stem.
+
+  Order 1. _Dicyclica Inadunata._--Dicyclica in which the dorsal cup
+  primitively is confined to the patina and occasional intercalated
+  anals, and no other plates ever occur between RR (Grade: Distincta);
+  Br may be incorporated in the cup, with or without iBr, but never
+  rigidly, and their corresponding ambulacrals remain supra-tegminal
+  (Grade: Articulata); new columnals are introduced at the extreme
+  proximal end of the stem.
+
+    Sub-order i. _Cyathocrinoidea._--Tegmen stout with conspicuous
+    orals. Families: Carabocrinidae, Palaeocrinidae. Euspirocrinidae,
+    Sphaerocrinidae, Cyathocrinidae, Petalocrinidae, Crotalocrinidae,
+    Codiacrinidae, Cupressocrinidae, Gasterocomidae.
+
+    Sub-order ii. _Dendrocrinoidea._--Tegmen thin, flexible, with
+    inconspicuous orals. Families: Dendrocrinidae, Botryocrinidae,
+    Lophocrinidae, Scaphiocrinidae, Scytalecrinidae, Graphiocrinidae,
+    Cromyocrinidae, Encrinidae (preceding families are Distincta; the
+    rest Articulata), Pentacrinidae, including the recent _Isocrinus_
+    (fig. 14), Uintacrinidae, Marsupitidae, Bathycrinidae (recent).
+
+  Order 2. _Flexibilia._--Dicyclica in which proximal brachials are
+  incorporated in the dorsal cup, either by their own sides, or by
+  interbrachials, or by a finely plated skin, but never rigidly; plates
+  may occur between RR. Tegmen flexible, with distinct ambulacrals and
+  numerous small interambulacrals; mouth and food-grooves remain
+  supra-tegminal and open. Top columnal a persistent proximale, often
+  fusing with IBB, which are frequently atrophied in the adult.
+
+  All the Palaeozoic representatives have non-pinnulate arms, while the
+  Mesozoic and later forms have them pinnulate. There are other points
+  of difference, so that it is not certain whether the latter really
+  descended from the former. But assuming such a relationship we arrange
+  them in two grades.
+
+    Grade a. _Impinnata._--Families: Ichthyocrinidae, Sagenocrinidae,
+    and Taxocrinidae, perhaps capable of further division.
+
+    Grade b. _Pinnata._--Families: Apiocrinidae with the recent
+    _Calamocrinus_, Bourgueticrinidae with recent _Rhizocrinus_,
+    Antedonidae, Atelecrinidae, Actinometridae, Thaumatocrinidae (these
+    four recent families include free-moving forms with atrophied stem,
+    probably derived from different ancestors), Eugeniacrinidae,
+    Holopodidae (recent), Eudesicrinidae.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 14.--A living Pentacrinid, _Isocrinus asteria_;
+  the first specimen found, after Guettard's figure published in 1761.]
+
+  Order 3. _Dicyclica Camerata._--Dicyclica in which the first, and
+  usually the second, orders of brachials are incorporated in the dorsal
+  cup by interbrachials, at first loosely, but afterwards by close
+  suture. IBB always the primitive 5. An anal plate always rests on the
+  posterior basal; mouth and tegminal food-grooves closed; arms
+  pinnulate. Families: Reteocrinidae, Dimerocrinidae, Lampterocrinidae,
+  Rhodocrinidae, Cleiocrinidae.
+
+  Class IV. EDRIOASTEROIDEA.--Pelmatozoa in which the theca is composed
+  of an indefinite number of irregular plates, some of which are
+  variously differentiated in different genera; with no subvective
+  skeletal appendages, but with central mouth, from which there radiate
+  through the theca five unbranched ambulacra, composed of a double
+  series of alternating plates (covering-plates), sometimes supported by
+  an outer series of larger alternating plates (side-plates or
+  flooring-plates). In some forms at least, pores between (not through)
+  the ambulacral elements, or between them and the thecal plates, seem
+  to have permitted the passage of extensions from the perradial
+  water-vessels. Anus in posterior interradius, on oral surface, closed
+  by valvular pyramid. Hydropore (usually, if not always, present)
+  between mouth and anus. Families: Agelacrinidae, Cyathocystidae,
+  Edrioasteridae, Steganoblastidae. All Palaeozoic. The structure and
+  importance of _Edrioaster_ have been discussed above (figs. 11, 12).
+
+  Grade B. ELEUTHEROZOA--Echinoderma in which the theca, which may be
+  but slightly or not at all calcified, is not attached by any portion
+  of its surface, but is usually placed with the oral surface downwards
+  or in the direction of forward locomotion. Food is not conveyed by a
+  subvective system of ciliated grooves, but is taken in directly by the
+  mouth. The anus when present is typically aboral, and approaches the
+  mouth only in a few specialized forms. The aboral nervous system, if
+  indeed it be present at all, is very slightly developed. The
+  circumoesophageal water-ring may lose its connexion with the exterior
+  medium; the podia (absent only in some exceptional forms) may be
+  locomotor, respiratory or sensory in function, but usually are
+  locomotor tube-feet.
+
+  The classes of the Eleutherozoa probably arose independently from
+  different branches of the Pelmatozoan stem. The precise relation is
+  not clear, but the order in which they are here placed is believed to
+  be from the more primitive to the more specialized.
+
+  Class I. HOLOTHURIOIDEA.--Eleutherozoa normally elongate along the
+  oro-anal axis, which axis and the dorsal hydropore lie in the sagittal
+  plane of a secondary bilateral symmetry. The calcareous skeleton,
+  which may be entirely absent, is usually in the form of minute
+  spicules, sometimes of small irregular plates with no trace of a
+  calycinal or apical system; to these is added a ring of pieces
+  radiately arranged round the oesophagus. Ambulacral appendages take
+  the form of: (1) circumoral tentacles, (2) sucking-feet, (3) papillae;
+  of these (1) alone is always present. The gonads are not radiately
+  disposed.
+
+  The comparative anatomy of living forms, combined with the
+  evolutionary hypothesis sketched above, suggests that the early
+  holothurians possessed the following characters: subvective grooves
+  entirely closed; 5 radial canals, proceeding from the water-ring, gave
+  off branches furnished with ampullae to the podia on each side of
+  them, the 10 anterior podia being changed into cylindrical tentacles;
+  the transverse muscles of the body-wall formed a circular layer,
+  probably interrupted at the radii (though Ludwig believes the
+  contrary); longitudinal muscles as paired radial bands, without those
+  special retractors for withdrawing the anterior part of the body which
+  occur in many recent forms; a hydropore connected with the water-ring
+  by a canal in the dorsal mesentery; a gonopore behind the hydropore
+  connected by a single duct with a bunch of genital pouches on each
+  side of the mesentery; gut dextrally coiled, with a simple
+  blood-vascular system, and with an enlargement at the anus for
+  respiration, this eventually producing branched caeca called
+  "respiratory trees"; skeleton reduced to a ring of 5 radial and 5
+  interradial plates round the gullet, and small plates, with a
+  hexagonally meshed network, dispersed through the integument. Such a
+  form gave rise to descendants differing _inter se_ as regards the
+  suppression of the radial canals and of the podia, the form of the
+  tentacles, and the development of respiratory trees. These anatomical
+  facts are represented in the following classification by H. Ludwig:--
+
+  Order 1. _Actinopoda._--Radial canals supplying tentacles and podia.
+
+    A. With respiratory trees.
+                                    /Fam. 1, Holothuriidae.
+         (a) With podia            < Fam. 4, Cucumariidae.
+                                    \Fam. 5, Molpadiidae.
+         (b) Without podia
+
+    B. Without respiratory trees.
+         (a) With podia              Fam. 2, Elpidiidae.
+         (b) Without podia           Fam. 3, Pelagothuriidae.
+
+  Order 2. _Paractinopoda._--Neither radial canals nor podia. Tentacles
+  supplied from circular canal. Fam. Synaptidae.
+
+  It is admitted, however, that this scheme does not represent the
+  probable descent or relationship of the families. Consideration of the
+  views of Ludwig himself, of H. Ostergren, and especially of R.
+  Perrier, suggests the following as a more natural if less obvious
+  arrangement.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 15.--An Aspidochirote Holothurian of the family
+  _Holothuriidae_, showing the mouth surrounded by tentacles, the anus
+  at the other end of the body, and three of the rows of podia.]
+
+  Order 1. _Aspidochirota._--Tentacles more or less peltate; calcareous
+  ring when present simple and radially symmetrical; no retractors;
+  stone-canal often opens to exterior; genital tubes sometimes
+  restricted to left side in consequence of altered position of gut
+  (Fig. 15.) Families: Elpidiidae (deep-sea forms, with sub-famm.
+  Synallactinae, Deimatinae, Elpidiinae, Psychropotinae), Holothuriidae
+  (shallow water), Pelagothuriidae (pelagic).
+
+  Order 2. _Dendrochirota._--Tentacles simple or branched, never
+  peltate; calcareous ring well developed, often bilaterally
+  symmetrical; retractor muscles usually present; stone-canal opens
+  internally; genital tubes in right and left tufts.
+
+    Sub-order i. _Apoda._--No tube-feet or papillae, but tentacular
+    ampullae more or less developed. Mostly burrowers. Families:
+    Synaptidae (sub-famm. Synaptinae, Chirodotinae, Myriotrochinae),
+    Molpadiidae.
+
+    Sub-order ii. _Eupoda._--Tube-feet present, but tentacular ampullae
+    rudimentary or absent. Families: Cucumariidae (climbers and
+    crawlers), Rhopalodinidae (burrowers).
+
+  Class II. STELLIFORMIA (= ASTEROIDEA _sensu lato_).--Eleutherozoa with
+  a depressed stellate body composed of a central disk, whence radiate
+  five or more rays; this radiate symmetry affects all the systems of
+  organs, including the genital. The radial water-vessels lie in grooves
+  on the ventral side of flooring-plates (usually called "ambulacrals");
+  they and their podia are limited to the oral surface of the body and
+  their extremities are separated from the apical plates by a stretch
+  of dorsal integument containing skeletal elements; the opening of the
+  water-vascular system (madreporite) is not connected with a definite
+  apical plate or system of plates.
+
+  The starfish, brittle-stars and their allies (see STARFISH) have for
+  the last fifty years usually been divided into two classes--Asteroidea
+  and Ophiuroidea, each equivalent to the Holothurioidea or Echinoidea.
+  Recently, however, some authors, e.g. Gregory, have attempted to show
+  that these classes cannot be distinguished. It is true that some
+  specialized forms, such as the _Brisingidae_ among starfish,
+  _Astrophiura_ and _Ophioteresis_ among ophiurans, contravene the usual
+  diagnoses; but this neither obscures their systematic position, nor
+  does it alter the fact that since early Palaeozoic times these two
+  great groups of stellate echinoderms have evolved along separate
+  lines. If then we place these groups in a single class, it is not on
+  account of a few anomalous genera, but because the characters set
+  forth above sharply distinguish them from all other echinoderms, and
+  because we have good reason to believe that the ophiurans did not
+  arise independently but have descended from primitive starfish. For
+  that class Bell's name Stelliformia is selected since it avoids both
+  confusion and barbarism.
+
+  Sub-class I. _Asterida._--Stelliformia in which the ambulacral groove
+  always remains open and the podia serve as tube-feet (fig. 12, B); the
+  rays as a rule pass gradually into the disk, and contain both genital
+  glands and caecal extensions of the digestive system; an anus usually
+  present; respiration is by tubular extensions from the body-cavity
+  (papulae); skeletal appendages, in addition to small spines, are
+  either small grasping organs (pedicellariae), or clumped spines
+  (paxillae), or branched spines bearing a membrane.
+
+  No existing classification of the Asterida is satisfactory even for
+  the recent forms, still less when the older fossils are considered. A
+  separation of the latter as Palasterida, because of their alternating
+  ambulacrals, from the recent Euasterida with opposite ambulacrals, is
+  now discarded and an attempt made to arrange the Palasterida in
+  divisions originally established for Euasterida. Those divisions fall
+  under three schemes. C. Viguier has divided the starfish into:
+  _Asteries ambulacraires_, with plates of ambulacral origin prominent
+  in the mouth-skeleton, pedicellariae stalked, and straight or crossed,
+  podial pores usually quadriserial; _Asteries adambulacraires_, with
+  adambulacrals prominent in the mouth-skeleton, pedicellariae sessile,
+  and forcipiform or valvular, podial pores usually biserial. Perrier,
+  at first laying greater stress on the nature of the pedicellariae and
+  afterwards on the form of the mouth-skeleton, has gradually perfected
+  a scheme of five orders: (1) _Forcipulata_, with pedicellariae
+  stalked, and straight or crossed; (2) _Spinulosa_, with pedicellariae
+  sessile and forcipiform; (3) _Velata_, with membraniferous spines; (4)
+  _Paxillosa_, pedicellariae represented by an ossicle of the test and
+  the spines covering it, the whole forming a paxilla; (5) _Valvata_ or
+  _Granulosa_, with pedicellariae sessile and valvular or salt-cellar
+  shaped. A more widely accepted scheme is that of W.P. Sladen, who
+  divided the Euasterida into two orders; (1) _Phanerozonia_, with
+  marginals large and highly developed, the supero-marginals and
+  infero-marginals contiguous, with papulae confined to the dorsal
+  surface, with ambulacrals well spaced and usually broad, adambulacrals
+  prominent in the mouth-skeleton, with pedicellariae sessile; (2)
+  _Cryptozonia_, with marginals inconspicuous and somewhat atrophied in
+  the adult, the supero-marginals separated from the infero-marginals by
+  intercalated plates, with papulae distributed over the whole body,
+  with ambulacrals crowded and narrow, either ambulacrals or
+  adambulacrals prominent in the mouth-skeleton, with pedicellariae
+  stalked or sessile.
+
+  We give here a list of the families separated into Sladen's orders and
+  grouped under Perrier's divisions, extinct families being marked [+].
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Section across the arm-skeleton of a
+  Phanerozonate Asterid, _Astropecten_.
+
+    a, Ambulacral plates.
+    b, Adambulacral plates.
+    c and d, Inferior and superior lateral plates.
+    e, Dorsal plates with paxillae. Certain supra-ambulacral plates,
+      which also exist, are not shown.]
+
+  1. _Phanerozonia._--_Unclassed Famm._, [+] Palaeasteridae, [+]
+  Palasterinidae, [+] Taeniasteridae, [+] Aspidosomatidae. _Paxillosa_,
+  Luidiidae, Astropectinidae (fig. 16), Archasteridae restr. Verrill,
+  Porcellanasteridae, Chaetasteridae. _Valvata_, Benthopectinidae,
+  Goniopectinidae, Plutonasteridae, Odontasteridae, Pentagonasteridae,
+  Antheneidae, Pentacerotidae, Gymnasteriidae. _Spinulosa_, Poraniidae,
+  Asterinidae.
+
+  2. _Cryptozonia._--_Unclassed Famm._, [+] Sturtzasteridae (=
+  Palaeocomidae Greg.), [+] Lepidasteridae, [+] Tropidasteridae.
+  _Valvata_, Linckiidae restr. Perr. _Spinulosa_, Echinasteridae,
+  Solasteridae (fig. 17), Korethrasteridae. _Velata_, [+]
+  Palasteriscidae, Pterasteridae, Pythonasteridae, Myxasteridae.
+  _Forcipulata_, Stichasteridae, Zoroasteridae (fig. 3, D),
+  Heliasteridae, Pedicellasteridae, Asteriidae, Brisingidae.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 17.--A Cryptozonate Asterid, _Solaster papposus_,
+  from the upper or dorsal surface.]
+
+  Sub-class II. _Ophiurida._--Stelliformia in which the ambulacral
+  groove, though open in the oldest forms, soon becomes closed, while
+  the podia cease to serve as tube-feet; the rays as a rule spring
+  abruptly from the disk and contain neither genital glands nor
+  digestive caeca; no anus; respiration may be through clefts at the
+  bases of the rays, but not by papulae; skeletal appendages confined to
+  spines, usually of simple structure.
+
+  There is as yet no satisfactory classification of the Ophiurida into
+  orders expressing lines of descent; even as regards families, leading
+  writers are at variance. The following scheme is based on the attempts
+  of E. Haeckel, F.J. Bell, J.W. Gregory, B. Sturtz, J.O.E. Perrier, and
+  A.E. Verrill. Extinct families marked [+].
+
+  Grade A. _Palophiurae._--Ambulacrals not yet forming complete
+  vertebrae; plates of disk not yet specialized into mouth, radial or
+  genital shields.
+
+    Stage a. _Allostichia_ (= Lysophiurae).--Ambulacrals alternating and
+    unfused, groove uncovered by ventral arm-plates. Families: [+]
+    Protasteridae, [+] Protophiuridae.
+
+    Stage b. _Zygostichia._--Ambulacrals opposite and, except in
+    Ophiurinidae, fused; ventral arm-plates developed in some. Families:
+    [+] Ophiurinidae, [+] Lapworthuridae, [+] Furcasteridae, [+]
+    Palastropectinidae, [+] Eoluididae, [+] Palaeophiomyxidae.
+
+  Grade B. _Colophiurae._--Ambulacral pairs fused to form vertebrae with
+  definite articular surfaces; mouth, radial and genital shields
+  developed, though not all need be present in any one form.
+
+  Order 1. _Streptophiurae._--Rays simple and capable of coiling, since
+  the vertebrae articulate by a ball-and-socket joint; arm-plates
+  incompletely developed. Families: [+] Onychasteridae, Ophiohelidae,
+  Ophioscolecidae, Ophiomyxidae, Hemieuryalidae, Astrophiuridae;
+  unclassified genera, e.g. _Ophioteresis_, _Ophiosciasma_,
+  _Ophiogeron_.
+
+  Order 2. _Zygophiurae._--Rays simple and prevented from coiling by
+  processes on the vertebral joints (fig. 18); dorsal, ventral and
+  lateral arm-plates present.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 18.--A vertebral arm-ossicle (fused ambulacrals)
+  of a Zygophiuran, _Ophiolepis_.
+
+    A, Proximal joint-face.
+    B, Distal joint-face.
+    c, Ventral groove, where lies the water-vessel, from which branches
+      pass through the ossicle, emerging as podia at e and e.]
+
+    Sub-order i. _Brachyophiurae._--Spines short, simple, pointing
+    towards the end of the arm. Families: Pectinuridae (=
+    Ophiodermatidae), Ophiolepididae.
+
+    Sub-order ii. _Nectophiurae._--Spines may be variously elaborated
+    and are set more at right angles to the arm-axis. Families:
+    Amphiuridae, Ophiacanthidae, Ophiocomidae, Ophiothrichidae.
+
+  Order 3. _Cladophiurae_ (= Euryalae). Rays simple or branched, capable
+  of coiling, since the vertebrae articulate by surfaces of hour-glass
+  shape; ventral arm-plates, and often the others, much reduced; spines
+  reduced or absent. Families: Euryalidae, Gorgonocephalidae,
+  Astrochelidae, Astroschemidae, Astronycidae.
+
+  The Silurian genera _Eucladia_ and _Euthemon_ have the rays greatly
+  reduced and merged in the disk, so that the ambulacrals are unseen.
+  There are a few large dorsal, lateral and ventral arm-plates, and at
+  the angles of the latter emerge huge podia with a granular or plated
+  skin. There are five prominent mouth-shields and a separate
+  madreporite on the ventral surface. These genera attained the
+  Colophiuran grade in respect of external plating, but it is unlikely
+  that they or their ancestors had acquired even the Streptophiuran
+  type of vertebra. Sollas has separated them as an order _Ophiocistia_.
+
+  Class III. ECHINOIDEA.--Eleutherozoa with a test of roughly circular,
+  subpentagonal or elliptical outline, spheroidal, domed or flattened,
+  of primary pentameric symmetry affecting all systems of organs except
+  the gut. The radial water-vessels lie within the test through which
+  their podia pass (fig. 12, D); the ambulacra thus formed are
+  continuous from the peristome to the apical system of plates; the
+  hydropore is connected with a definite plate of that system, and thus
+  marks a secondary bilateral symmetry. An anus is present either within
+  the apical system (endocyclic, fig. 3, A and B), or outside it in an
+  interradius (exocyclic, fig. 19, 7), thus initiating yet another
+  bilateral symmetry. Skeletal appendages are spines (radioles),
+  pedicellariae, and, in some forms, minute sense-organs called
+  sphaeridia.
+
+  The echinoids or sea-archins (see SEA-URCHIN) may be grouped under the
+  following orders, here named in the sequence of their appearance in
+  the rocks.
+
+  Order 1. _Bothriocidaroida._--Ambulacrals simple, each with two pores
+  vertically superposed, 2 columns to each ambulacrum; interambulacrals
+  multi-tuberculate, in 1 column, none passing on to or resorbed by the
+  peristome; mouth central, jaws unknown, no external gills or
+  sphaeridia; anus aboral, endocyclic. Sole genus _Bothriocidaris_ (fig.
+  5), Ordovician.
+
+  Order 2. _Melonitoida._--Ambulacrals simple, each with two pores
+  horizontally juxtaposed, in 2 to 18 columns; interambulacrals
+  granulate with occasional tubercles, in 3 to 11 columns, not more than
+  one row passing on to the peristome; mouth central, with jaws, no
+  external gills or sphaeridia; anus aboral, endocyclic. Families:
+  Palechinidae (fig. 19, 1), Melonitidae and Lepidesthidae, Silurian to
+  Carboniferous.
+
+  Order 3. _Cystocidaroida._--Ambulacrals simple, each with one or two
+  pores, which sometimes pass between rather than through the plates, in
+  2 columns; interambulacrals, uni- or multi-tuberculate, in numerous
+  (say 10 or more) columns, none passing on to peristome; mouth central
+  with jaws, no external gills or sphaeridia; position of anus doubtful,
+  acyclic, i.e. no apical system so far as known. Include only
+  _Echinocystis_, _Palaeodiscus_ and (?) _Myriastiches_, all Upper
+  Silurian.
+
+  Order 4. _Cidaroida._--Ambulacrals simple, each with two pores
+  horizontally juxtaposed, in 2 columns; interambulacrals
+  unituberculate, in 2 to 11 columns, some rows may pass on to the
+  peristome; mouth central, with jaws, no external gills or sphaeridia;
+  anus aboral, endocyclic. Families: Lepidocentridae and
+  Archaeocidaridae (fig. 19, 2), Devonian and Carboniferous; Cidaridae
+  (fig. 19, 3, 4). Permian to present; Diplocidaridae and Tiarechinidae,
+  Mesozoic.
+
+  Order 5. _Diademoida._--Ambulacrals generally compound, with two pores
+  obliquely juxtaposed, in 2 columns as in all subsequent orders;
+  interambulacrals usually with large radioles surrounded by smaller
+  ones, as in Cidaroida, in 2 columns as in all subsequent orders, only
+  one plate resorbed; mouth central, with jaws and external gills,
+  sphaeridia present; anus aboral endocyclic. J.W. Gregory divides this
+  into four suborders, each representing a distinct evolutionary series;
+  i. _Calycina_, Saleniidae (fig. 19, 5) and Acrosaleniidae; ii.
+  _Arbacina_, Hemicidaridae and Arbaciidae; iii. _Diademina_,
+  Orthopsidae, Diadematidae, Diplopodiidae, Pedinidae, Cyphosomatidae,
+  and Echinothuridae; iv. _Echinina_, Temnopleuridae, Triplechinidae,
+  Strongylocentrotidae and Echinometridae. The order is Triassic to
+  Recent.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 19.--Denuded tests of some fossil Echinoids.
+
+    1, _Palaeechinus_; Carboniferous.
+    2, A plate and radiole of _Archaeocidaris_; Carboniferous.
+    3, A radiole of _Cidaris_; Jurassic.
+    4, _Hemicidaris_; Mid. Jurassic.
+    5, _Salenia_; Cretaceous.
+    6, _Dysaster_; Jurassic.
+    7, _Enallaster_: Cretaceous.
+    8, _Catopygus_; Cretaceous.]
+
+  Order 6. _Holectypoida._--Ambulacrals sometimes compound, with one or
+  two pores to a plate, some dorsal podia begin to assume respiratory
+  function; interambulacrals multi-tuberculate, none resorbed; mouth
+  central, with jaws weak or wanting, with external gills and
+  sphaeridia; anus exocyclic. Families: Pygasteridae, Discoidiidae,
+  Galeritidae, Conoclypeidae; Jurassic to Recent.
+
+  Order 7. _Spatangoida._--Ambulacrals simple, with two pores
+  juxtaposed, dorsal podia respiratory; interambulacrals bearing
+  numerous small spines, none resorbed; mouth central or shifted
+  forwards, with no jaws or external gills, sphaeridia numerous; anus
+  exocyclic. As the mouth moves forward and the anus downward, the
+  posterior interambulacrals between them are enlarged and strengthened
+  so as to form a sternum. The order may therefore be divided into: (i.)
+  _Asternata_, Famm. Echinoneidae, Nucleolitidae and Cassidulidae (fig.
+  19, 8); (ii.) _Sternata_, Famm. Collyritidae (fig. 19, 6),
+  Echinocorytidae, Spatangidae (fig. 19, 7), Palaeostomidae, and
+  Pourtalesiidae; Jurassic to Recent.
+
+  Order 8. _Clypeastroida._--Ambulacrals simple or compound, with two
+  pores juxtaposed, dorsal podia respiratory; interambulacrals
+  multi-tuberculate, none resorbed; mouth central with flattened unequal
+  jaws, reduced external gills, and few sphaeridia; anus exocyclic.
+  Families: Fibulariidae, Laganidae, Scutellidae, Clypeastridae;
+  Cretaceous to Recent.
+                                                                           _
+    Cambrian                                                                |
+                                                                            |
+                                                                            |
+    Ordovician       BOTHRIOCIDAROIDA (jaws unknown)                        |
+                        /       \                                           |
+                       /         \                                    columns
+    Silurian   MELONITOIDEA       \                                   unfixed
+                    #      CYSTO-  \                                       in
+                    ##     CIDAR-   \                                  number
+                    ###     OIDA     \                                      |
+    Devonian        ###           CIDAROIDA                                 |
+                    ###           #                                         |
+                    ###           #                                         |
+    Carboniferous   ###           ##\                                      _|
+                    ##            ## \
+                    ##            ##  \                                    _
+    Permian         #             ##   \                                    |
+                                  ##    \                                   |
+    Trias                         ##  DIADEMOIDA                      columns
+                                  ##  #       \                            20
+    Jurassic                      ##  ##        \  HOLECTYPOIDA             |
+                                  ##  ###               / #  \ SPATANGOIDEA |
+    Cretacious                    ##  ### CLYPEASTROIDEA  #   \     #       |
+                                  ##  ###       #         ##        ##      |
+    Tertiary                      ##  ###       ##        ##        ###     |
+                                  ##  ###       ###       #         ###     |
+    Recent                        ##  ###       ###       #         ####   _|
+
+             |----------jaws lofty--------|  jaws flat-reduced ---- lost
+
+             |------abranchiate-----| |-----branchiate-----| |-lipobranchiate-|
+
+             |----no sphaeridia-----| |--------------sphaeridia---------------|
+
+             |-------endocyclic---------| |------------exocyclic--------------|
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 20.]
+
+  The probable relationship of these orders is shown in the annexed
+  table. Here the Cystocidaroida occupy an isolated position. It is,
+  however, quite possible that _Echinocystis_ may some day be referred
+  to the Cidaroida, and _Palaeodiscus_ to the Melonitoida. This would
+  leave the Echinoid scheme remarkably simple, with the Melonitoida and
+  Cidaroida as divergent branches from an ancestor like
+  _Bothriocidaris_; but while the former branch soon decayed, the latter
+  continues to flourish at the present day. To take the Echinoidea now
+  living, and to divide them into Endocyclica and Exocyclica, Branchiate
+  and Abranchiate, Gnathostomata and Atelostomata, is easy and
+  convenient; or again to distinguish as Palechinoidea those
+  pre-Jurassic genera which do not conform to the fixed type of twenty
+  vertical columns found in the later Euechinoidea, is to express an
+  interesting fact; but all such divisions obscure the true
+  relationships, and the corresponding terms should be recognized as
+  descriptive rather than classificatory.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--In addition to the works referred to at the beginning of
+  the article, the following deal with the general subject: Bather,
+  Gregory and Goodrich, "Echinoderma," in Lankester's _Treatise on
+  Zoology_ (London, 1900); F.J. Bell, _Catalogue of the British
+  Echinoderms in the British Museum_ (London, 1892); P.H. Carpenter,
+  "Notes on Echinoderm Morphology," _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._,
+  1878-1887; Y. Delage and E. Herouard, _Traite de zoologie concrete,
+  iii., Echinodermes_ (Paris, 1904); A. Lang, _Text-Book of Comparative
+  Anatomy_, transl., part ii. (London, 1896); Ludwig and Hamann,
+  "Echinodermen," in Bronn's _Klassen und Ordnungen des Tierreichs_
+  (Leipzig, 1889), in progress; M. Neumayr, _Die Stamme des Tierreiches_
+  (Wien, 1889); P.B. and C.F. Sarasin, "Uber die Anatomie der
+  Echinothuriden und die Phylogenie der Echinodermen," _Ergebnisse
+  naturw. Forsch. auf Ceylon_, Bd. i Heft 3 (Wiesbaden, 1888); R. Semon,
+  "Die Homologien innerhalb des Echinodermenstammes," _Morph. Jahrb._
+  (1889); W.P. Sladen, "Homologies of the Primary Larval Plates in the
+  Test of Brachiate Echinoderms," _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._, 1884; K.A.
+  v. Zittel, _Handbuch der ... Palaozoologie_, i. pp. 308-560 (Munchen,
+  1879); also Grundzuge, translated and revised by C.R. Eastman as
+  _Text-Book of Palaeontology_ (New York and London, 1899). The larger
+  treatises here mentioned contain very full bibliographies, and a
+  complete analytical index to the annual literature of the Echinoderma
+  has for many years been published in the _Zoological Record_ (London).
+       (F. A. B.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Sometimes called "Echinodermata," a Greek name meaning
+    "sea-urchin-skins," which was invented by J.T. Klein (1734) to denote
+    the tests of the Echini or sea-urchins; its later use for the animals
+    themselves, or for the whole phylum, was an error in both history and
+    etymology.
+
+
+
+
+ECHINUS (Gr. for "hedge-hog" or "sea-urchin"), in architecture, the
+convex moulding which supports the abacus of the Doric column. The term
+is sometimes given to the _ovolo_ of the Ionic capital, especially when
+curved with the egg-and-tongue enrichment. The origin of this use of the
+word in architecture, which comes down from ancient times, is uncertain.
+
+
+
+
+ECHIUROIDEA (Gr. [Greek: echis], adder, and [Greek: oura], tail), the
+zoological name for a small group of marine animals which show in their
+larval life-history a certain degree of segmentation, and are therefore
+grouped by some authorities as Annelids. Formerly, together with the
+Sipunculoidea and Priapuloidea, they made up the class Gephyrea, but on
+the ground that they retain in the adult a large preoral lobe (the
+proboscis), that they have anal vesicles, that their anus is terminal,
+that setae are found, and finally that they are segmented in the larval
+stage, they have been removed from the class, which by the proposed
+further separation of the Priapuloidea on account of their unique renal
+and reproductive organs, has practically ceased to exist.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--A, _Bonellia viridis_, Rol., [female]; B, B.
+_fuliginosa_. Both natural size. a, grooved proboscis; b, mouth; c,
+ventral hooks; d, anus.]
+
+Echiuroids are animals of moderate size, varying roughly from one to six
+or seven centimetres in length, exclusive of the proboscis. This organ
+is capable of very considerable extension, and may attain a length in
+_Bonellia viridis_ of about a metre and a half (fig. 1). It is grooved
+ventrally and ciliated. At its attachment to the body the groove sinks
+into the mouth. In _Bonellia_ the proboscis is forked at its free end,
+but in the other genera it is short and unforked. The body is somewhat
+sausage-shaped, with the anus at the posterior extremity, surrounded in
+_Echiurus_ by a single or double ring of setae. The skin is usually
+wrinkled, and in _B. viridis_, _Thalassema lankesteri_, _Th. baronii_,
+_Hamingia arctica_, and in the larva of many species, is of a lively
+green colour. A pair of curved bristles, formed in true setal sacs as in
+Chaetopoda, project from the body a short distance behind the mouth, and
+are moved by special muscles; they are of use in helping the animal to
+move slowly about, and they take a large share in the burrowing
+movements (C.B. Wilson, _Biol. Bull._, 1900), for some species tunnel in
+the mud and sand and form more or less permanent burrows, the walls of
+which are strengthened by mucus secreted from the skin. The openings of
+the burrows become silted up, leaving, however, a small aperture through
+which the proboscis is extruded. This organ carefully searches the
+neighbourhood for particles of food. When these are found the grooved
+proboscis folds its walls inwards, and the cilia pass the particles down
+the tube thus formed to the mouth. Echiuroids also move by extending the
+proboscis, which takes hold of some fixed object, and, then contracting,
+draws the body forwards. Recently it has been shown that _Echiurus_
+swims freely at night-time, using for locomotion both the proboscis and
+the contraction of the muscles of its body-wall. The motion is described
+as "gyratory," and the anterior end is always carried foremost. Those
+species which do not burrow usually conceal themselves in crevices of
+the rocks or under stones, or at times in empty Mollusc or Echinid
+shells. They are occasionally used by fishermen for bait.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Female _Bonellia viridis_, Rol. Opened along the
+left side.
+
+  a, Proboscis cut short.
+  b, Bristle passing through the mouth into the pharynx.
+  c, Coiled intestine.
+  d, Anal tufts or vesicles.
+  e, Ventral nerve cord.
+  f, Ovary borne on ventral vessel running parallel with e.
+  g, Position of anus.
+  h, Position of external opening of nephridium.
+  i, Nephridium--the line points towards, but does not reach, the
+    internal opening.]
+
+  _Anatomy_ (fig. 2).--A thin cuticle covers the epidermis, which
+  contains mucus-secreting glands. Beneath the epidermis is a layer of
+  circular muscles, then a layer of longitudinal, and finally in some
+  cases a layer of oblique muscle-fibres. The inner face of this
+  muscular skin is lined by a layer of epithelium. The coelomic
+  body-cavity is spacious. It does not extend into the proboscis, which
+  is a solid organ traversed by the nervous and vascular rings, but
+  otherwise largely built up of muscle fibres and connective tissue.
+  Many sense-cells lie in the epidermis. The ciliated ventral groove of
+  the proboscis leads at its base into the simple mouth, which gives
+  access to the thin-walled alimentary canal. This is longer than the
+  body, and to tuck it away it is looped from side to side. The loops
+  are supported by strands of connective tissue, which in some species
+  are united so as to form a dorsal mesentery, whilst traces of a
+  ventral mesentery are met with anteriorly and posteriorly (H.L.
+  Jameson, _Zool. Jahrb. Anat._, 1899). The alimentary canal is
+  divisible into fore-gut, mid-gut and hind-gut, and the first-named can
+  be further divided into pharynx, oesophagus, gizzard and crop, mainly
+  on histological grounds. The mid-gut is characterized by the presence
+  of a ciliated groove, from which arises the collateral intestine or
+  siphon, a second tube which rejoins the alimentary canal lower down.
+  Similar collateral intestines are familiar in the Echinids and certain
+  Polychaets (Capitellidae). The rectum receives the openings of a pair
+  of very characteristic organs, the anal vesicles. Each consists of a
+  branching tube, the tips of whose twigs terminate in minute ciliated
+  funnels. The anal vesicles are thought to be excretory; whether this
+  be so or not, they undoubtedly have some influence on the amount of
+  fluid found in the coelom. The coelomic fluid contains as a rule both
+  amoeboid and rounded corpuscles, and, when ripe, the products of the
+  gonads. A closed system of vessels, usually called the vascular
+  system, is present. There are, however, no capillaries connected with
+  this, and it is confined to certain portions of the body. It can
+  possess few of the functions usually associated with a vascular
+  system, and its main use is probably to assist in the expansion of the
+  proboscis. The system consists of the following parts:--A dorsal
+  vessel applied to the alimentary canal is continued anteriorly into a
+  median vessel, which traverses the proboscis to its tip. Here the
+  vessel splits, and each half returns along the lateral edge of the
+  proboscis; they reunite around the oesophagus and form a single
+  ventral vessel, which lies above the ventral nerve-cord. The ventral
+  vessel, which ends solidly behind, sends off a branch which forms a
+  ring around the intestine and opens into the posterior extremity of
+  the dorsal vessel. In _Echiurus_ and _Thalassema_ the same vessel
+  forms a ring round a stout muscle, which connects the bases of the two
+  ventral setae before passing to surround the intestine. Amoeboid
+  corpuscles float in the fluid contents. The nephridia vary in number
+  from a single one in _Bonellia_ to three pairs in many species of
+  _Thalassema_. Their external openings are ventral, and on the same
+  level as the ciliated funnel-shaped nephrostomes. The posterior wall
+  of the organ is produced into a long blind sac, which is lined by
+  secretory cells. The nervous system is a single ventral cord, which
+  starts from a circumoesophageal ring. This ring is involved in the
+  growth of the proboscis, and is drawn out with it. Thus there is a
+  lateral nerve near each edge of the proboscis which unites with its
+  fellow dorsally above the oesophagus at the tip of the proboscis, and
+  ventrally beneath the oesophagus, where they fuse to form the ventral
+  nerve-cord. There are no specialized ganglia, but ganglion-cells are
+  scattered uniformly along the nerve-cords. The ventral cord gives off
+  rings, which run into the skin at regular intervals. The reproductive
+  cells are modified coelomic cells, which lie on the ventral vessel.
+  They escape into the coelomic fluid and there develop. When mature
+  they leave the body through the nephridia. _Bonellia_ and _Hamingia_
+  are very interesting examples of sexual dimorphism. The female has the
+  normal Echiuroid structure, but the male is reduced to a minute,
+  flattened, planarian-like organism, which passes its life usually in
+  the company of two or three others in a special recess of the
+  nephridia of the female. Its structure may be gathered by a reference
+  to fig. 3.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Adult male, _Bonellia viridis_, Rol. The
+  original was 1.5 mm. long. The nervous system is not shown. (After
+  Selenka.)
+
+    a, Generative pore with spermatozoa coming out.
+    b, Anterior blind end of intestine attached to the parenchymatous
+      tissue by muscular strands.
+    c, Green wandering cells containing chlorophyll.
+    d, Parenchymatous connective tissue.
+    e, Epidermis.
+    i, Intestine.
+    j, Vas deferens.
+    l, Internal opening of vas deferens.
+    m, The left anal vesicle.
+    n, Spermatozoa in the body-cavity.]
+
+  _Larva._--The larva is a typical trochosphere, which, although of a
+  temporary character, shows a distinct segmentation of the mesoblast,
+  of the nervous system, and of the ciliated and pigmented structures in
+  the skin, resembling that of Chaetopods. The preoral lobe persists as
+  the proboscis. The sexes of the larvae are not determinable in the
+  early stages, but when a certain growth has been reached in Bonellia
+  the males seek the proboscis of the adult females, and passing into
+  the mouth undergo there the transformation into the planarian-like
+  parasite which is the fully-formed male. This now creeps along the
+  body of the female and takes up its home in her nephridia.
+
+_Classification and Distribution._--The Echiuroidea consists of the
+following genera:--(1) _Bonellia_ (Rol.), with four species, widely
+distributed, but inhabiting the temperate and warmer waters of each
+hemisphere. (2) _Echiurus_ (Guerin-Meneville), with four species. This
+genus reaches from the Arctic waters of both hemispheres into the cooler
+temperate regions. (3) _Hamingia_ (Kor. and Dan.), with one species,
+which has been taken in the Arctic Sea and the Hardanger Fjord. (4)
+_Saccosoma_ (Kor. and Dan.) was described from a single specimen dredged
+about half-way between Iceland and Norway. (5) _Thalassema_ (Gaertner,
+Lamarck), with twenty-one species. This genus is in the main a denizen
+of the warmer waters of the globe. Sixteen species are found only in
+tropical or subtropical seas, three species are Mediterranean (_Mt.
+Stat. Neapel_, 1899), whilst three species are from the eastern
+Atlantic, where the temperature is modified by the Gulf Stream (Shipley;
+see Willey's _Zoological Results_, part iii. 1899; _Proc. Zool. Soc.
+Lond._, 1898, 1899; and _Cambridge Natural History_, ii.). The following
+are found in the British area:--_E. pallasii_ (Guerin-Meneville), _Th.
+neptuni_ (Gaertner), and _Th. lankesteri_ (Herdman, _Q.J.M.S._, 1898).
+
+_Affinities._--The occurrence of trochosphere larva and the temporary
+segmentation of the body have led to the belief that the Echiuroids are
+more nearly allied to the Annelids than to any other phylum. This view
+is strengthened by certain anatomical and histological resemblances to
+the genus _Sternaspis_, which in one species, _S. spinosa_, is said to
+carry a bifid proboscis resembling that of the Echiuroids.
+     (A. E. S.)
+
+
+
+
+ECHMIADZIN, or ITSMIADSIN, a monastery of Russian Transcaucasia, in the
+government of Erivan, the seat of the Catholicus or primate of the
+Armenian church. It is situated close to the village of Vagarshapat, in
+the plain of the Aras, 2840 ft. above the sea, 12 m. W. of Erivan and 40
+N. of Mount Ararat. The monastery comprises a pretty extensive complex
+of buildings, and is surrounded by brick walls 30 ft. high, which with
+their loopholes and towers present the appearance of a fortress. Its
+architectural character has been considerably impaired by additions and
+alterations in modern Russian style. On the western side of the
+quadrangle is the residence of the primate, on the south the refectory
+(1730-1735), on the east the lodgings for the monks, and on the north
+the cells. The cathedral is a small but fine cruciform building with a
+Byzantine cupola at the intersection. Its foundation is ascribed to St
+Gregory the Illuminator in 302. Of special interest is the porch, built
+of red porphyry, and profusely adorned with sculptured designs somewhat
+of a Gothic character. The interior is decorated with Persian frescoes
+of flowers, birds and scroll-work. It is here that the Catholicus
+confers episcopal consecration by the sacred hand (relic) of St Gregory;
+and here every seven years he prepares with great solemnity the holy oil
+which is to be used throughout the churches of the Armenian communion.
+Outside of the main entrance are the alabaster tombs of the primates
+Alexander I. (1714), Alexander II. (1755), Daniel (1806) and Narses
+(1857), and a white marble monument, erected by the English East India
+Company to mark the resting-place of Sir John Macdonald Kinneir, who
+died at Tabriz in 1830, while on an embassy to the Persian court. The
+library of the monastery is a rich storehouse of Armenian literature
+(see Brosset's _Catalogue de la bibliotheque d'Etchmiadzin_, St
+Petersburg, 1840). Among the more remarkable manuscripts are a copy of
+the gospels dating from the 10th or 11th century, and three bibles of
+the 13th century. A type-foundry, a printing-press and a bookbinding
+establishment are maintained by the monks who supply religious and
+educational works for their co-religionists.
+
+To the east of the monastery is a modern college and seminary. Half a
+mile to the east stand the churches of St Ripsime and St Gaiana, two of
+the early martyrs of Armenian Christianity; the latter is the
+burial-place of those primates who are not deemed worthy of interment
+beside the cathedral. From a distance the three churches form a fairly
+striking group, and accordingly the Turkish name for Echmiadzin is
+Uch-Kilissi, or the Three Churches. The town of Vagarshapat dates from
+the 6th century B.C.; it takes its name from King Vagarsh (Vologaeses),
+who in the 2nd century A.D. chose it as his residence and surrounded it
+with walls. Here the apostle of Armenia, St Gregory the Illuminator,
+erected a church in 309 and with it the primacy was associated. In 344
+Vagarshapat ceased to be the Armenian capital, and in the 5th century
+the patriarchal seat was removed to Dvin, and then to Ani. The monastery
+was founded by Narses II., who ruled 524-533; and a restoration was
+effected in 618. The present name of the monastery was adopted instead
+of Vagarshapat in the 10th century. At length in 1441 the primate George
+brought back the see to the original site.     (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.)
+
+
+
+
+ECHO (Gr. [Greek: echo]), in Greek mythology, one of the Oreades or
+mountain nymphs, the personification of the acoustical phenomenon known
+by this name. She was beloved by Pan, but rejected his advances.
+Thereupon the angry god drove the shepherds of the district mad; they
+tore Echo in pieces, and scattered her limbs broadcast, which still
+retained the gift of song (Longus iii. 23). According to Ovid (_Metam._
+iii. 356-401), Echo by her incessant talking having prevented Juno from
+surprising Jupiter with the Nymphs, Juno changed her into an "echo"--a
+being who could not speak till she was spoken to, and then could only
+repeat the last words of the speaker. While in this condition she fell
+in love with Narcissus, and in grief at her unrequited affection wasted
+away until nothing remained but her voice and bones, which were changed
+into rocks. The legends of Echo are of late, probably Alexandrian,
+origin, and she is first personified in Euripides.
+
+In acoustics an "echo" is a return of sound from a reflecting surface
+(see SOUND: _Reflection_).
+
+  See F. Wieseler, _Die Nymphe Echo_ (1854), and _Narkissos_ (1856); P.
+  Decharme in Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire des antiquites_.
+
+
+
+
+ECHTERNACH, a town in the grand duchy of Luxemburg, on the Sure, close
+to the Prussian frontier. Pop. (1905) 3484. It is the oldest town in
+Luxemburg, and was the centre from which the English Saint Willibrord
+converted the people to Christianity in the 7th century. There are the
+Benedictine abbey, the hospital almshouse, which is said to be the
+oldest hospital in Europe except the Hotel-Dieu in Paris, and the church
+of St Peter and St Paul. The Benedictine abbey has been greatly shorn of
+its original dimensions, but the basilica remains a fair monument of
+Romano-Gothic art. The church of St Peter and St Paul stands on an
+isolated mound, and for the ascent sixty steps have been built in the
+side, and these are well worn by the tread of numerous pilgrims who come
+in each succeeding year. The interior of the church is curious more than
+imposing, and is specially noteworthy only for its gloom. Under the
+altar, and below a white marble effigy of himself, lies Saint
+Willibrord.
+
+Echternach is famous, however, in particular for the dancing procession
+held on Whit-Tuesday every year. The origin of this festival is
+uncertain, but it dates at least from the 13th century and was probably
+instituted during an outbreak of cholera. Nowadays it is an occasion of
+pilgrimage, among Germans and Belgians as well as Luxemburgers, for all
+sick persons, but especially for the epileptic and those suffering from
+St Vitus' dance. The ceremony is interesting, and the Roman Catholic
+Church lends all its ritual to make it more imposing. The archbishop of
+Trier attends to represent Germany, and the bishop of Luxemburg figures
+for the grand duchy. There is a religious ceremony on the Prussian side
+of the bridge over the Sure, and when it is over the congregation cross
+into the duchy to join the procession, partly religious, partly popular,
+through the streets of the town. The religious procession, carrying
+cross and banners and attended by three hundred singers, comes first,
+chanting St Willibrord's hymn. Next comes a band of miscellaneous
+instruments playing as a rule the old German air "Adam had seven sons,"
+and then follow the dancers. Many of these are young and full of life
+and health and dance for amusement, but many others are old or feeble
+and dance in the hope of recovery or of escaping from some trouble, but
+on all alike the conditions of the dance are incumbent. There are three
+steps forward and two back; five steps are thus taken to make one in
+advance. This becomes especially trying at the flight of steps mounting
+to the little church where the procession ends in front of the shrine of
+the great saint. There are sixty steps, but it takes three hundred to
+reach the top for the final time. It is said that those who fall from
+age or weariness have to be dragged out of the way by onlookers or they
+would be trampled to death by the succeeding waves of dancers. The
+procession, although it covers a distance of less than a mile, is said
+to take as much as five hours in its accomplishment. In olden days the
+abbey was the goal of the procession, and King William I. of the
+Netherlands--great-grandfather of Queen Wilhelmina--changed the day from
+Tuesday to Sunday so that a working day should not be lost. This reform
+did not answer, and the ancient order was restored. Some critics see in
+the dancing procession of Echternach merely the survival of the spring
+dance of the heathen races, but at any rate it invests the little town
+with an interest and importance that would otherwise be lacking.
+
+
+
+
+ECHUCA, a borough of the county of Rodney, Victoria, Australia, 156 m.
+by rail N. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901) 4075. It is situated on the river
+Murray, across which it is connected by bridge with Moama, on the New
+South Wales side, whence a railway runs to Deniliquin. The town is the
+terminus of the Murray River railway and the entrepot of the overland
+intercolonial trade; it has large wool stores, saw-mills, coach
+factories, breweries and soap-works. The rich agricultural district is
+noted for its vineyards.
+
+
+
+
+ECIJA, a town of southern Spain, in the province of Seville; on the
+Cadiz-Cordova railway and the left bank of the river Genil. Pop. (1900)
+24,372. The river, thus far navigable, is here crossed by a fine old
+bridge; and the antiquity of the town betrays itself by the irregularity
+of its arrangement, by its walls and gateways, and by its numerous
+inscriptions and other relics. Its chief buildings include no fewer than
+twenty convents, mostly secularized. The principal square is surrounded
+with pillared porticoes, and has a fountain in the centre; and along the
+river bank there runs a fine promenade, planted with poplar trees and
+adorned with statues. From an early period the shoemakers of Ecija have
+been in high repute throughout Spain; woollen cloth, flannel, linen and
+silks are also manufactured. The vicinity is fertile in corn and wine,
+and cotton is cultivated. The heat is so great that the spot has
+acquired the sobriquet of _El Sarten_, or the "Frying-pan" of Andalusia.
+Ecija, called _Estija_ by the Arabs, is the ancient _Astigis_, which was
+raised to the rank of a Roman colony with the title of _Augusta Firma_.
+According to Pliny and Pomponius Mela, who both wrote in the 1st century
+A.D., it was the rival of Cordova and Seville. If local tradition may be
+believed, it was visited by the apostle Paul, who converted his hostess
+Santa Xantippa; and, according to one version of his life, it was the
+see of the famous St Crispin (q.v.) in the 3rd century.
+
+
+
+
+ECK, JOHANN MAIER (1486-1543), German theologian, the most indefatigable
+and important opponent of Martin Luther, was born on the 13th of
+November 1486 at Eck in Swabia, from which place he derived his
+additional surname, which he himself, after 1505, always modified into
+Eckius or Eccius, i.e. "of Eck." His father, Michael Maier, was a
+peasant and bailiff (_Amtmann_) of the village. The boy's education was
+undertaken by his uncle Martin Maier, parish priest at Rothenburg on the
+Neckar, who sent him at the age of twelve to the university of
+Heidelberg, and subsequently to those of Tubingen, Cologne and Freiburg
+in the Breisgau. His academic career was so rapidly successful that at
+the age of twenty-four he was already doctor and professor of theology.
+During this period he was distinguished for his opposition to the
+scholastic philosophy; and, though he did not go to all lengths with the
+"modernists" (_Moderni_) of his day, his first work--_Logices
+exercitamenta_ (1507)--was distinctly on their side. This attitude
+brought him into conflict with the senate of the university, a conflict
+which Eck's masterful temper, increased by an extreme self-confidence
+perhaps natural in one so young and so successful, did not serve to
+allay. His position in Freiburg becoming intolerable, he accepted in
+1510 an invitation from the duke of Bavaria to fill the theological
+chair at Ingolstadt, where he was destined for thirty years to exercise
+a profound influence as teacher and vice-chancellor (_Prokanzler_).
+
+A ducal commission, appointed to find a means for ending the
+interminable strife between the rival academic parties, entrusted Eck
+with the preparation of fresh commentaries on Aristotle and Petrus
+Hispanus. He had a marvellous capacity for work, and between 1516 and
+1520, in addition to all his other duties, he published commentaries on
+the _Summulae_ of Petrus Hispanus, and on the _Dialectics_, _Physics_
+and lesser scientific works of Aristotle, which became the text-books of
+the university. During these early years Eck was still reckoned among
+the "modernists," and his commentaries are inspired with much of the
+scientific spirit of the New Learning. His aim, however, had been to
+find a _via media_ between the old and new; his temper was essentially
+conservative, his imagination held captive by the splendid traditions of
+the medieval church, and he had no sympathy with the revolutionary
+attitude of the Reformers. Personal ambition, too, a desire to be
+conspicuous in the great world of affairs, may have helped to throw him
+into public opposition to Luther. He had won laurels in a public
+disputation at Augsburg in 1514, when he had defended the lawfulness of
+putting out capital at interest; again at Bologna in 1515, on the same
+subject and on the question of predestination; and these triumphs had
+been repeated at Vienna in 1516. By these successes he gained the
+patronage of the Fuggers, and found himself fairly launched as the
+recognized apologist of the established order in church and state.
+Distinguished humanists might sneer at him as "a garrulous sophist"; but
+from this time his ambition was not only to be the greatest scientific
+authority in Germany but also the champion of the papacy and of the
+traditional church order. The first-fruits of this new resolve were a
+quite gratuitous attack on his old friend, the distinguished humanist
+and jurist Ulrich Zasius (1461-1536), for a doctrine proclaimed ten
+years before, and a simultaneous assault on Erasmus's _Annotationes in
+Novum Testamentum_.
+
+It is, however, by his controversy with Luther and the other reformers
+that Eck is best remembered. Luther, who had some personal acquaintance
+with Eck, sent him in 1517 copies of his celebrated 95 theses. Eck made
+no public reply; but in 1518 he circulated, privately at first, his
+_Obelisci_, in which Luther was branded as a Hussite. Luther entrusted
+his defence to Carlstadt, who, besides answering the insinuations of Eck
+in 400 distinct theses, declared his readiness to meet him in a public
+disputation. The challenge was accepted, and the disputation took place
+at Leipzig in June and July 1519. On June 27 and 28 and on July 1 and 3
+Eck disputed with Carlstadt on the subjects of grace, free will and good
+works, ably defending the Roman Semipelagian standpoint. From July 4 to
+14 he engaged with Luther on the absolute supremacy of the papacy,
+purgatory, penance, &c., showing a brilliant display of patristic and
+conciliar learning against the reformer's appeals to Scripture. The
+arbitrators declined to give a verdict, but the general impression was
+that victory rested with Eck. He did, indeed, succeed in making Luther
+admit that there was some truth in the Hussite opinions and declare
+himself against the pope, but this success only embittered his animosity
+against his opponents, and from that time his whole efforts were devoted
+to Luther's overthrow. He induced the universities of Cologne and
+Louvain to condemn the reformer's writings, but failed to enlist the
+German princes, and in January 1520 went to Rome to obtain strict
+regulations against those whom he called "Lutherans." He was created a
+protonotary apostolic, and in July returned to Germany, as papal nuncio,
+with the celebrated bull _Exsurge Domine_ directed against Luther's
+writings. He now believed himself in a position to crush not only the
+Lutheran heretics, but also his humanist critics. The effect of the
+publication of the bull, however, soon undeceived him. Bishops,
+universities and humanists were at one in denunciation of the outrage;
+and as for the attitude of the people, Eck was glad to escape from
+Saxony with a whole skin. In his wrath he appealed to force, and his
+_Epistola ad Carolum V._ (February 18, 1521) called on the emperor to
+take measures against Luther, a demand soon to be responded to in the
+edict of Worms. In 1521 and 1522 Eck was again in Rome, reporting on the
+results of his nunciature. On his return from his second visit he was
+the prime mover in the promulgation of the Bavarian religious edict of
+1522, which practically established the senate of the university of
+Ingolstadt as a tribunal of the Inquisition, and led to years of
+persecution. In return for this action of the duke, who had at first
+been opposed to the policy of repression, Eck obtained for him, during a
+third visit to Rome in 1523, valuable ecclesiastical concessions.
+Meanwhile he continued unabated in his zeal against the reformers,
+publishing eight considerable works between 1522 and 1526.
+
+His controversial ardour was, indeed, somewhat damped by Luther's
+refusal to answer his arguments, and with a view to earning fresh
+laurels he turned his attention to Switzerland and the Zwinglians. At
+Baden-in-Aargau in May and June 1526 a public disputation on the
+doctrine of transubstantiation was held, in which Eck and Thomas Murner
+were pitted against Johann Oecolampadius. Though Eck claimed the victory
+in argument, the only result was to strengthen the Swiss in their
+memorial view of the Lord's Supper, and so to diverge them further from
+Luther. At the Augsburg diet in 1530 Eck was charged by Charles V. to
+draw up, in concert with twenty other theologians, the refutation of the
+Protestant Confession, but was obliged to rewrite it five times before
+it suited the emperor. He was at the colloquy of Worms in 1540 and at
+the diet of Regensburg (Ratisbon) in 1541. At Worms he showed some signs
+of a willingness to compromise, but at Regensburg his old violence
+reasserted itself in opposing all efforts at reconciliation and
+persuading the Catholic princes to reject the Interim.
+
+Eck died at Ingolstadt on the 10th of February 1543, fighting to the
+last and worn out before his time. He was undoubtedly the most
+conspicuous champion produced by the old religion in the age of the
+Reformation, but his great gifts were marred by greater faults. His vast
+learning was the result of a powerful memory and unwearied industry, and
+he lacked the creative imagination necessary to mould this material into
+new forms. He was a powerful debater, but his victories were those of a
+dialectician rather than a convincing reasoner, and in him depth of
+insight and conviction were ill replaced by the controversial violence
+characteristic of the age. Moreover, even after discounting the bias of
+his enemies, there is evidence to prove that his championship of the
+Church was not the outcome of his zeal for Christianity; for he was
+notoriously drunken, unchaste, avaricious and almost insanely ambitious.
+His chief work was _De primatu Petri_ (1519); his _Enchiridion locorum
+communium adversus Lutherum_ ran through 46 editions between 1525 and
+1576. In 1530-1535 he published a collection of his writings against
+Luther, _Opera contra Ludderum_, in 4 vols.
+
+  See T. Wiedemann, _Dr Johann Eck_ (Regensburg, 1865).
+
+
+
+
+ECKERMANN, JOHANN PETER (1792-1854), German poet and author, best known
+owing to his association with Goethe, was born at Winsen in Hanover on
+the 21st of September 1792, of humble parentage, and was brought up in
+penury and privation. After serving as a volunteer in the War of
+Liberation (1813-1814), he obtained a secretarial appointment under the
+war department at Hanover. In 1817, although twenty-five years of age,
+he was enabled to attend the gymnasium of Hanover and afterwards the
+university of Gottingen, which, however, after one year's residence as a
+student of law, he left in 1822. His acquaintance with Goethe began in
+the following year, when he sent to him the manuscript of his _Beitrage
+zur Poesie_ (1823). Soon afterwards he went to Weimar, where he
+supported himself as a private tutor. For several years he also
+instructed the son of the grand duke. In 1830 he travelled in Italy with
+Goethe's son. In 1838 he was given the title of grand-ducal councillor
+and appointed librarian to the grand-duchess. Eckermann is chiefly
+remembered for his important contributions to the knowledge of the
+great poet contained in his _Conversations with Goethe_ (1836-1848). To
+Eckermann Goethe entrusted the publication of his _Nachgelassene
+Schriften_ (posthumous works) (1832-1833). He was also joint-editor with
+Friedrich Wilhelm Riemer (1774-1845) of the complete edition of Goethe's
+works in 40 vols. (1839-1840). He died at Weimar on the 3rd of December
+1854.
+
+  Eckermann's _Gesprache mit Goethe_ (vols. i. and ii. 1836; vol. iii.
+  1848; 7th ed., Leipzig, 1899; best edition by L. Geiger, Leipzig,
+  1902) have been translated into almost all the European languages, not
+  excepting Turkish. (English translations by Margaret Fuller, Boston,
+  1839, and John Oxenford, London, 1850.) Besides this work and the
+  _Beitrage zur Poesie_, Eckermann published a volume of poems
+  (_Gedichte_, 1838), which are of little value. See _J.P. Eckermanns
+  Nachlass_, herausgegeben von F. Tewes, vol. i. (1905), and an article
+  by R.M. Meyer in the _Goethe-Jahrbuch_, xvii. (1896).
+
+
+
+
+ECKERNFORDE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
+Schleswig-Holstein, on a fjord of the Baltic, 20 m. by rail N.W. from
+Kiel. Pop. (1905) 7088. It has a good harbour, fishing, trade in
+agricultural products, and manufactures of tobacco, salt and iron goods.
+There are a technical school of building and a Protestant teachers'
+seminary. Eckernforde is mentioned as far back as 1197. It was taken by
+Christian IV. of Denmark in 1628 from the Imperial troops. In 1813 the
+Danes were defeated here, while in 1849 the harbour was the scene of the
+blowing up of the Danish line-of-battle ship "Christian VIII." and of
+the surrender of the frigate "Gefion" after an engagement with the
+German shore batteries. The place lost most of its trade after the union
+with Germany in 1864, and suffered severely from a sea-flood in 1872. In
+the immediate neighbourhood is the village of Borby, much frequented for
+sea-bathing.
+
+
+
+
+ECKERSBERG, KRISTOFFER (1783-1853), Danish painter, was born in south
+Jutland. He became successively the pupil of Nikolaj Abildgaard and of
+J.L. David. From 1810 to 1813 he lived at Paris under the direction of
+the latter, and then proceeded, as an independent artist, to Rome, where
+he worked until 1816 in close fellowship with Thorwaldsen. His paintings
+from this period--"The Spartan Boy," "Bacchus and Ariadne" and
+"Ulysses"--testify to the influence of the great sculptor over the art
+of Eckersberg. Returning to Copenhagen, he found himself easily able to
+take the first place among the Danish painters of his time, and his
+portraits especially were in extreme popularity. It is claimed for
+Eckersberg by the native critics that "he created a Danish colour," that
+is to say, he was the first painter who threw off conventional tones and
+the pseudo-classical landscape, in exchange for the clear atmosphere and
+natural outlines of Danish scenery. But Denmark has no heroic landscape,
+and Eckersberg in losing the golden commonplaces scarcely succeeds in
+being delightful. His landscapes, however, are pure and true, while in
+his figure-pieces he is almost invariably conventional and
+old-fashioned. He was president of the Danish Academy of Fine Arts in
+Charlottenburg.
+
+
+
+
+ECKHART,[1] JOHANNES ["Meister Eckhart"] (?1260-?1327), German
+philosopher, the first of the great speculative mystics. Extremely
+little is known of his life; the date and place of his birth are equally
+uncertain. According to some accounts, he was a native of Strassburg,
+with which he was afterwards closely connected; according to others, he
+was born in Saxony, or at Hochheim near Gotha. Trithemius, one of the
+best authorities, speaks of him merely as "Teutonicus." 1260 has
+frequently been given as the date of his birth; it was in all
+probability some years earlier, for we know that he was advanced in age
+at the time of his death, about 1327. He appears to have entered the
+Dominican order, and to have acted for some time as professor at one of
+the colleges in Paris. His reputation for learning was very high, and in
+1302 he was summoned to Rome by Boniface VIII., to assist in the
+controversy then being carried on with Philip of France. From Boniface
+he received the degree of doctor. In 1304 he became provincial of his
+order for Saxony, and in 1307 was vicar-general for Bohemia. In both
+provinces he was distinguished for his practical reforms and for his
+power in preaching. Towards 1325 we hear of him as preaching with great
+effect at Cologne, where he gathered round him a numerous band of
+followers. Before this time, and in all probability at Strassburg, where
+he appears to have been for some years, he had come in contact with the
+Beghards (see BEGUINES) and Brethren of the Free Spirit, whose
+fundamental notions he may, indeed, be said to have systematized and
+expounded in the highest form to which they could attain. In 1327 the
+opponents of the Beghards laid hold of certain propositions contained in
+Eckhart's works, and he was summoned before the Inquisition at Cologne.
+The history of this accusation is by no means clear. Eckhart appears,
+however, to have made a conditional recantation--that is, he professed
+to disavow whatever in his writings could be shown to be erroneous.
+Further appeal, perhaps at his own request, was made to Pope John XXII.,
+and in 1329 a bill was published condemning certain propositions
+extracted from Eckhart's works. But before its publication Eckhart was
+dead. The exact date of his death is unknown. Of his writings, several
+of which are enumerated by Trithemius, there remain only the sermons and
+a few tractates. Till the middle of the 19th century the majority of
+these were attributed to Johann Tauler, and it is only from Pfeiffer's
+careful edition (_Deutsche Mystiker d. XIV. Jahrhunderts_, vol. ii.,
+1857) that one has been able to gather a true idea of Eckhart's
+activity. From his works it is evident that he was deeply learned in all
+the philosophy of the time. He was a thorough Aristotelian, but by
+preference appears to have been drawn towards the mystical writings of
+the Neoplatonists and the pseudo-Dionysius. His style is unsystematic,
+brief and abounding in symbolical expression. His manner of thinking is
+clear, calm and logical, and he has certainly given the most complete
+exposition of what may be called Christian pantheism.
+
+Eckhart has been called the first of the speculative mystics. In his
+theories the element of mystical speculation for the first time comes to
+the front as all-important. By its means the church doctrines are made
+intelligible to the many, and from it the church dogmas receive their
+true significance. It was but natural that he should diverge more and
+more widely from the traditional doctrine, so that at length the
+relation between his teaching and that of the church appeared to be one
+of opposition rather than of reconciliation. Eckhart is in truth the
+first who attempted with perfect freedom and logical consistency to give
+a speculative basis to religious doctrines. The two most important
+points in his, as in all mystical theories, are first, his doctrine of
+the divine nature, and second, his explanation of the relation between
+God and human thought. (See MYSTICISM.)
+
+  For the German writings of Eckhart see F. Pfeiffer, _Deutsche
+  Mystiker_, vol. ii. (Leipzig, 1857), and F. Jostes, _Meister Eckhart
+  und seine Junger_ (Freiburg, 1895); for the Latin works, H. Denifle in
+  _Archiv f. Litt- und Kirchengeschichte d. Mittelalters_, ii. (1886),
+  pp. 417-652, and v. (1889), pp. 349-364; German translations by G.
+  Landauer, _Meister Eckarts mystische Schriften_ (Berlin, 1903), and
+  Buttner (Leipzig, 1903 foll.). See also A. Lasson, _Meister Eckhart
+  der Mystiker_ (1868); H.L. Martensen, _Meister Eckhart_ (1842); J.
+  Bach, _Meister Eckhart der Vater der deutschen Speculation_ (1864); C.
+  Ullmann, _Reformatoren vor der Reformation_ (1842); W. Preger,
+  _Geschichte d. deutschen Mystik_, i. (1874); and "Ein neuer Traktat M.
+  Eckharts und d. Grundzuge der Eckhartischen Theosophie" in _Zeitschr.
+  f. hist. Phil._ (1864), pp. 163 foll.; A. Bullinger, _Das Christenthum
+  im Lichte der deutschen Philos._ (Dillingen, 1895); H. Delacroix, _Le
+  Mysticisme speculatif en Allemagne au XIV^e siecle_ (Paris, 1900); E.
+  Kramm, _Meister Eckhart im Lichte der Denifleschen Funde_ (Bonn,
+  1889); R. Langenberg, _Uber die Verhaltnisse Meister Eckharts zur
+  niederdeutschen Mystik_ (Gottingen, 1896); W. Schopff, _Meister
+  Eckhart_ (Leipzig, 1889); A. Jundt, _Hist. du pantheisme populaire au
+  moyen age_ (Paris, 1875); art. in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_
+  (S.M. Deutsch); R.M. Jones, _Mystical Religion_ (1909).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The name is variously spelled: Eckehart, Eckart, Eckhard.
+
+
+
+
+ECKHEL, JOSEPH HILARIUS (1737-1798), Austrian numismatist, was born at
+Enzersfeld in lower Austria, 1737. His father was farm-steward to Count
+Zinzendorf, and he received his early education at the Jesuits' College,
+Vienna, where at the age of fourteen he was admitted into the order. He
+devoted himself to antiquities and numismatics. After being engaged as
+professor of poetry and rhetoric, first at Steyer and afterwards at
+Vienna, he was appointed in 1772 keeper of the cabinet of coins at the
+Jesuits' College, and in the same year he went to Italy for the purpose
+of personal inspection and study of antiquities and coins. At Florence
+he was employed to arrange the collection of the grand duke of Tuscany;
+and the first-fruits of his study of this and other collections appeared
+in his _Numi veteres anecdoti_, published in 1775. On the dissolution of
+the order of Jesuits in 1773, Eckhel was appointed by the empress Maria
+Theresa professor of antiquities and numismatics at the university of
+Vienna, and this post he held for twenty-four years. He was in the
+following year made keeper of the imperial cabinet of coins, and in 1779
+appeared his _Catalogus Vindobonensis numorum veterum_. Eckhel's great
+work is the _Doctrina numorum veterum_, in 8 vols., the first of which
+was published in 1792, and the last in 1798. The author's rich learning,
+comprehensive grasp of his subject, admirable order and precision of
+statement in this masterpiece drew from Heyne enthusiastic praise, and
+the acknowledgment that Eckhel, as the Coryphaeus of numismatists, had,
+out of the mass of previously loose and confused facts, constituted a
+true science. A volume of _Addenda_, prepared by Steinbuchel from
+Eckhel's papers after his death, was published in 1826. Among his other
+works are--_Choix de pierres gravees du Cabinet Imperial des Antiques_
+(1788), a useful school-book on coins entitled _Kurzgefasste
+Anfangsgrunde zur alten Numismatik_ (1787), of which a French version
+enlarged by Jacob appeared in 1825, &c. Eckhel died at Vienna on the
+16th of May 1798.
+
+
+
+
+ECKMUHL, or EGGMUHL, a village of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, on
+the Grosse Laaber, 13 m. S.E. of Regensburg by the railway to Munich. It
+is famous as the scene of a battle fought here on the 22nd of April
+1809, between the French, Bavarians and Wurttembergers under Napoleon,
+and the Austrians under the Archduke Charles, which resulted in the
+defeat of the latter. Napoleon, in recognition of Marshal Davout's great
+share in the victory, conferred on him the title of prince of Eckmuhl.
+For an account of this action and those of Abensberg and Landshut see
+NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS.
+
+
+
+
+ECLECTICISM (from Gr. [Greek: eklego], I select), a term used specially
+in philosophy and theology for a composite system of thought made up of
+views borrowed from various other systems. Where the characteristic
+doctrines of a philosophy are not thus merely adopted, but are the
+modified products of a blending of the systems from which it takes its
+rise, the philosophy is not properly eclectic. Eclecticism always tends
+to spring up after a period of vigorous constructive speculation,
+especially in the later stages of a controversy between thinkers of
+pre-eminent ability. Their respective followers, and more especially
+cultured laymen, lacking the capacity for original work, seeking for a
+solution in some kind of compromise, and possibly failing to grasp the
+essentials of the controversy, take refuge in a combination of those
+elements in the opposing systems which seem to afford a sound practical
+theory. Since these combinations have often been as illogical as facile,
+"eclecticism" has generally acquired a somewhat contemptuous
+significance. At the same time, the essence of eclecticism is the
+refusal to follow blindly one set of formulae and conventions, coupled
+with a determination to recognize and select from all sources those
+elements which are good or true in the abstract, or in practical affairs
+most useful _ad hoc_. Theoretically, therefore, eclecticism is a
+perfectly sound method, and the contemptuous significance which the word
+has acquired is due partly to the fact that many eclectics have been
+intellectual trimmers, sceptics or dilettanti, and partly to mere
+partisanship. On the other hand, eclecticism in the sphere of abstract
+thought is open to this main objection that, in so far as every
+philosophic system is, at least in theory, an integral whole, the
+combination of principles from hostile theories must result in an
+incoherent patchwork. Thus it might be argued that there can be no
+logical combination of elements from Christian ethics, with its divine
+sanction, and purely intuitional or evolutionary ethical theories, where
+the sanction is essentially different in quality. It is in practical
+affairs that the eclectic or undogmatic spirit is most valuable, and
+also least dangerous.
+
+In the 2nd century B.C. a remarkable tendency toward eclecticism began
+to manifest itself. The longing to arrive at the one explanation of all
+things, which had inspired the older philosophers, became less earnest;
+the belief, indeed, that any such explanation was attainable began to
+fail. Thus men came to adopt from all systems the doctrines which best
+pleased them. In Panaetius we find one of the earliest examples of the
+modification of Stoicism by the eclectic spirit; about the same time the
+same spirit displayed itself among the Peripatetics. In Rome philosophy
+never became more than a secondary pursuit; naturally, therefore, the
+Roman thinkers were for the most part eclectic. Of this tendency Cicero
+is the most striking illustration--his philosophical works consisting of
+an aggregation, with little or no blending, of doctrines borrowed from
+Stoicism, Peripateticism, and the scepticism of the Middle Academy.
+
+In the last stage of Greek philosophy the eclectic spirit produced
+remarkable results outside the philosophies of those properly called
+eclectics. Thinkers chose their doctrines from many sources--from the
+venerated teaching of Aristotle and Plato, from that of the Pythagoreans
+and of the Stoics, from the old Greek mythology, and from the Jewish and
+other Oriental systems. Yet it must be observed that Neoplatonism,
+Gnosticism, and the other systems which are grouped under the name
+Alexandrian, were not truly eclectic, consisting, as they did, not of a
+mere syncretism of Greek and Oriental thought, but of a mutual
+modification of the two. It is true that several of the Neoplatonists
+professed to accept all the teaching both of Plato and of Aristotle,
+whereas, in fact, they arbitrarily interpreted Aristotle so as to make
+him agree with Plato, and Plato so as to make his teachings consistent
+with the Oriental doctrines which they had adopted, in the same manner
+as the schoolmen attempted to reconcile Aristotle with the doctrines of
+the church. Among the early Christians, Clement of Alexandria, Origen
+and Synesius were eclectics in philosophy.
+
+The eclectics of modern philosophy are too numerous to name. Of Italian
+philosophers the eclectics form a large proportion. Among the German we
+may mention Wolf and his followers, as well as Mendelssohn, J.A.
+Eberhard, Ernst Platner, and to some extent Schelling, whom, however, it
+would be incorrect to describe as merely an eclectic. In the first
+place, his speculations were largely original; and in the second place,
+it is not so much that his views of any time were borrowed from a number
+of philosophers, as that his thinking was influenced first by one
+philosopher, then by another.
+
+In the 19th century the term "eclectic" came to be applied specially to
+a number of French philosophers who differed considerably from one
+another. Of these the earliest were Pierre Paul Royer-Collard, who was
+mainly a follower of Thomas Reid, and Maine de Biran; but the name is
+still more appropriately given to the school of which the most
+distinguished members are Victor Cousin, Theodore Jouffroy, J.P.
+Damiron, Barthelemy St Hilaire, C.F.M. de Remusat, Adolphe Garnier and
+Ravaisson-Mollien. Cousin, whose views varied considerably at different
+periods of his life, not only adopted freely what pleased him in the
+doctrines of Pierre Laromiguiere, Royer-Collard and Maine de Biran, of
+Kant, Schelling and Hegel, and of the ancient philosophies, but
+expressly maintained that the eclectic is the only method now open to
+the philosopher, whose function thus resolves itself into critical
+selection and nothing more. "Each system," he asserted, "is not false,
+but incomplete, and in reuniting all incomplete systems, we should have
+a complete philosophy, adequate to the totality of consciousness." This
+assumes that every philosophical truth is already contained somewhere in
+the existing systems. If, however, as it would surely be rash to deny,
+there still remains philosophical truth undiscovered, but discoverable
+by human intelligence, it is evident that eclecticism is not the only
+philosophy. Eclecticism gained great popularity, and, partly owing to
+Cousin's position as minister of public instruction, became the
+authorized system in the chief seats of learning in France, where it has
+given a most remarkable impulse to the study of the history of
+philosophy.
+
+
+
+
+ECLIPSE (Gr. [Greek: ekleipsis], falling out of place, failing), the
+complete or partial obscuration of one heavenly body by the shadow of
+another, or of the disk of the sun by the interposition of the moon;
+then called an eclipse of the sun. Eclipses are of three classes: those
+of the sun, as just defined; those of the moon, produced by its passage
+through the shadow of the earth, and those of the satellites of other
+planets, produced by their passage through the shadow of their primary.
+Jupiter (q.v.) is the only planet of whose satellites the eclipses can
+be observed, unless under very rare circumstances.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+The geometrical conditions of an eclipse of the sun or moon are shown in
+fig. 1, which represents the earth E as casting its shadow towards C,
+and the moon M between the earth and sun as throwing its shadow towards
+some part of the earth and eclipsing the sun. The dark conical regions
+are those within which the sun is entirely hidden from sight. This
+portion of the shadow is called the _umbra_. Around the umbra is an
+enveloping shaded cone with its vertices directly towards the sun. To an
+observer within this region the sun is partly hidden from view. As the
+apparent path of the moon may pass to the north or south of the line
+joining the earth and sun, the axis of its shadow may pass to the north
+or south of the earth, and not meet it at all. An eclipse of the sun is
+called _central_ when the shadow axis strikes any part of the earth;
+partial when only the penumbra falls upon the earth. It is evident that
+an eclipse can be seen as central only at those points of the earth's
+surface over which the axis of the shadow passes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.]
+
+A central eclipse is _total_ when the umbra actually reaches the earth;
+_annular_ when it does not. These two cases are shown in figs. 2 and 3.
+In the first of these the sun is entirely hidden within the region uu'.
+In fig. 3 within the region aa' the apparent diameter of the sun is
+slightly greater than that of the moon, and at the moment of greatest
+eclipse a narrow ring of sunlight is seen surrounding the dark body of
+the moon.
+
+We shall treat the subject in the following sections:--
+
+I. Phenomena of Eclipses of the Sun and conclusions derived from their
+observation.
+
+II. Eclipses of the Moon.
+
+III. The Laws and Cycles of recurrences of Eclipses of the Sun and Moon.
+
+IV. Chronological list of remarkable eclipses of the Sun, past and
+future, to the end of the 20th century.
+
+V. Description of the methods of computing eclipses.
+
+
+I. _Phenomena of Eclipses of the Sun._
+
+While an eclipse of the sun, whether partial, annular or total, is in
+progress, no striking phenomena are to be noted until, in the case of
+total eclipses, the moment of the total phase approaches. It will,
+however, be noticed that as the moon advances on the solar disk the
+sharply defined and ragged edge of the moon's disk contrasts strongly
+with the soft and uniform outline of the sun's limb. As the total phase
+approaches, the phenomenon known as _shadow bands_ may sometimes be
+seen. These consist of seeming vague and rapidly moving wave-like
+alternations of light and shade flitting over any white surface
+illuminated by the sun's rays immediately before and after the total
+phase. They are probably due to a flickering of the light from the thin
+crescent, produced by the undulations of the air, in the same way that
+the twinkling of the stars is produced. The rapid progressive motion
+sometimes assigned to them may be regarded as the natural result of an
+optical illusion. A few seconds before the commencement of the total
+phase the red light of the chromosphere becomes visible, and will be
+seen most distinctly as continuations of the solar crescent at its two
+ends. Owing to the inequalities of the lunar surface, the diminution of
+the solar crescent does not go on with perfect uniformity, but, just
+before the last moment, what remains of it is generally broken up into
+separate portions of light, which, magnified and diffused by the
+irradiation of the telescope, present the phenomenon long celebrated
+under the name of "Baily's beads." These were so called because minutely
+and vividly described by Francis Baily as he observed them during the
+annular eclipse of May 15, 1836, when he compared them to a string of
+bright beads, irregular in size and distance from each other. The
+disappearance of the last bead is commonly taken as the beginning of
+totality. An arc of the chromosphere will then be visible for a few
+seconds at and on each side of the point of disappearance, the length
+and duration of which will depend on the apparent diameter of the moon
+as compared with that of the sun, being greater in length and longer
+seen as the excess of diameter of the moon is less. The red prominences
+may now generally be seen here and there around the whole disk of the
+moon, while the effulgence of soft light called the corona surrounds it
+on all sides. Before the invention of the spectroscope, observers of
+total eclipses could do little more than describe in detail the varying
+phenomena presented by the prominences and the corona. Drawings of the
+latter showed it to have the appearance of rays surrounding the dark
+disk of the moon, quite similar to the glory depicted by the old
+painters around the head of a saint. The discrepancies between the
+outlines as thus pictured, not only at different times, but by different
+observers at the same time and place, are such as to show that little
+reliance can be placed on the details represented by hand drawings.
+
+During the eclipse of July 8, 1842, the shadow of the moon passed from
+Perpignan, France, through Milan and Vienna, over Russia and Central
+Asia, to the Pacific Ocean. Very detailed physical observations were
+made, but none which need be specially mentioned in the present
+connexion.
+
+The eclipse of July 28, 1851, was total in Scandinavia and Russia. It
+was observed in the former region by many astronomers, among them Sir
+George B. Airy and W.R. Dawes. It was specially noteworthy for the first
+attempt to photograph such a phenomenon. A daguerreotype clearly showing
+the protuberances was taken by Berkowski at the Observatory of
+Konigsberg. An attempt by G.A. Majocchi to daguerreotype the corona was
+a failure. Photographs of the eclipse of July 18, 1860, were taken by
+Padre Angelo Secchi and Warren De La Rue, which showed the prominences
+well, and proved that they were progressively obscured by the edge of
+the advancing moon. It was thus shown that they were solar appendages,
+and did not belong to the moon, as had sometimes been supposed. The
+corona was barely visible on De La Rue's plates, but those of Secchi
+showed it, with its rifts and the bases of the tall coronal wings, to
+about 15' from the sun's limb. The sketches taken at this eclipse proved
+that the corona extended in some regions 1 deg. from the sun's limb. As
+the sensitiveness of photographic plates has increased, they have
+gradually been wholly relied upon for information respecting the corona,
+so that at the present time naked-eye descriptions are regarded as of
+little or no scientific value. Owing to the great contrast between the
+brilliancy of the coronal light at its base and its increasing faintness
+as it extends farther from the sun, no one photograph will bring out all
+the corona. An exposure of one or two seconds is ample to show the
+details of inner corona to the best advantage, while longer exposures
+give greater extent of the brighter portions. The most extended
+streamers are very little brighter than the sky, and must be
+photographed with long exposures.
+
+The first application of the spectroscope to the phenomenon was made
+during the total solar eclipse of August 18, 1868, by P.J.C. Janssen and
+other observers in India. By them was made the capital discovery that
+the red solar prominences give a spectrum of bright lines, and are
+therefore immense masses of incandescent gases, chiefly hydrogen and the
+vapours of calcium and helium. Janssen also found that this bright-line
+spectrum could be followed after the eclipse was over, and, in fact,
+could be observed at any time when the air was sufficiently transparent.
+By one of those remarkable coincidences which frequently occur in the
+history of science, this last discovery was made independently by Sir
+Norman Lockyer in England before the news of Janssen's success had
+reached him. It was afterwards found that, by giving great dispersing
+power to the spectroscope, the prominences could be observed in a wide
+slit, in their true form. At this eclipse the spectrum of the corona was
+also observed, and was supposed to be continuous, while polariscopic
+observation by Lieutenant Campbell showed it polarized in planes passing
+through the sun's centre. The conclusion from these two observations was
+that the light was composed, at least in great part, of reflected
+sunlight.
+
+At the total eclipse of August 7, 1869, it was independently found by
+Professors C.A. Young of Princeton and W. Harkness of Washington that
+the continuous spectrum of the corona was crossed by a bright line in
+the green, which was long supposed to be coincident with 1474 of
+Kirchhoff's scale. This coincidence is, however, now found not to be
+real, and the line cannot be identified with that of any terrestrial
+substance. The name "coronium" has therefore been given to the supposed
+gas which forms it. It is now known that 1474 is a double line, one
+component of which is produced by iron, while the other is of unknown
+origin. The wave-length of the principal component is 5317, while that
+of the coronal line was found at the eclipses of 1896 and 1898 to be
+5303.
+
+The eclipse of December 28, 1870, passed over the south-western corner
+of Spain, Gibraltar, Oran and Sicily. It is memorable for the discovery
+by Young of the "reversing layer" of the solar atmosphere. This term is
+now applied to a shallow stratum resting immediately upon the
+photosphere, the absorption of which produces the principal dark lines
+of the solar spectrum, but which, being incandescent, gives a spectrum
+of bright lines by its own light when the light of the sun is cut off.
+This layer is much thinner than the chromosphere, and may be considered
+to form the base of the latter. Owing to its thinness, the phenomenon of
+the reversed bright lines is almost instantaneous in its nature, and can
+be observed for a period exceeding one or two seconds only near the edge
+of the shadow-path, where the moon advances but little beyond the solar
+limb. Near the central line it is little more than a flash, thus giving
+rise to the term "flash-spectrum." Young also at this eclipse saw bright
+hydrogen lines when his spectroscope was directed to the centre of the
+dark disk of the moon. This can only be attributed to the reflection of
+the light of the prominences and chromosphere from the atmosphere
+between us and the moon. The coronal light as observed in the
+spectroscope may thus be regarded as a mixture of true coronal light
+with chromospheric light reflected from the air, and it is therefore
+probable that the H and K (calcium) lines of the coronal spectrum are
+not true coronal lines, but chromospheric.
+
+At the eclipse of December 12, 1871, visible in India and Australia,
+Janssen observed, as he supposed, some of the dark lines of the solar
+spectrum in the continuous spectrum of the corona, especially D, b and
+G. This would show that an important part of the coronal light is due to
+reflected sunshine. This feature of the spectrum, however, is doubtful
+in the most recent photographs under the best conditions. At this
+eclipse the remarkable observation was also made by Colonel John
+Herschel and Colonel J.F. Tennant that the characteristic line of the
+coronal spectrum is as bright in the dark rifts of the corona as
+elsewhere. This would show that the gas coronium does not form the
+streamers of the corona, but is spherical in form and distributed
+uniformly about the sun. Photographs were also taken on wet plates by a
+party in Java and by the parties of Lord Lindsay (at Baikul, India) and
+of Colonel Tennant (at Dodabetta). The Baikul and Dodabetta photographs
+were of small size (moon's diameter = 3/10 in.), but of excellent
+definition. A searching study was made of them by A. C Ranyard and W.H.
+Wesley (_Memoirs R.A.S._ vol. xli., 1879), and for the first time a
+satisfactory representation of the corona was obtained. The drawings in
+the volume quoted show its polar rays, wings, interlacing filaments and
+rifts as they are now known to be, as well as the forms and details of
+the prominences.
+
+The eclipse of April 16, 1874, was observed in South Africa by E.J.
+Stone, H.M. astronomer at the Cape, who traced the coronal line about
+30' (430,000 m.) from the sun's limb. The visual corona was seen to
+extend in places some 90' from the limb.
+
+The eclipse of April 6, 1875, was observed in Siam by Sir J. Norman
+Lockyer and Professor Arthur Schuster. Their photographs showed the
+calcium and hydrogen lines in the prominence spectrum.
+
+The eclipse of July 29, 1878, was observed by many astronomers in the
+United States along a line extending from Wyoming to Texas. A number of
+the stations were at high altitudes (up to 14,000 ft.), and the sky was
+generally very clear. The visible corona extended on both sides of the
+sun along the ecliptic for immense distances--at least twelve lunar
+diameters, about eleven million miles. Photographs taken by the parties
+of Professors A. Hall and W. Harkness gave the details of the inner
+corona and of the polar rays, showing the filamentous character of the
+corona, especially at its base in the polar regions. A photograph taken
+by the party of Professor E.S. Holden showed the outer corona to a
+distance of 50' from the moon's limb. The bright-line spectrum of the
+corona was excessively faint and, as the solar activity (measured by
+sun-spot frequency) was near a minimum, it was concluded that the
+brilliancy of the coronium line varied in the sun-spot period, a
+conclusion which subsequent eclipse observations seem to have verified.
+It is not yet certain that the other coronal spectrum lines vary in the
+same way.
+
+The eclipse of May 17, 1882, was observed in Egypt. On the photographs
+of the corona the image of a bright comet was found, the first instance
+of the sort. (A faint comet was found on the plates of the Lick
+Observatory eclipse expedition to Chile in 1893.) The slitless
+spectroscope showed the green line (coronium) and D3 (helium) in the
+coronal spectrum.
+
+The eclipse of May 6, 1883, was observed from a small coral atoll in the
+South Pacific Ocean by parties from America, England, France, Austria
+and Italy. A thorough search was made by Holden (with a 6 in. telescope)
+for an intra-Mercurial planet, without success, during an unusually long
+totality (5 m. 23 s.). J. Palisa also searched for such a planet.
+Janssen again reported the presence of dark lines in the coronal
+spectrum. "White" prominences were seen by P. Tacchini.
+
+The eclipse of August 29, 1886, was observed in the West Indies. The
+English photographs of the corona, taken with a slitless spectroscope,
+show the hydrogen lines as well as K and f. Tacchini devoted his
+attention to the spectra of the prominences, and showed that their upper
+portions contained no hydrogen lines, but only the H and K lines of
+calcium. He also observed a very extensive "white" prominence. It was
+shown on the photographs of the corona, but could not be seen in the
+H[alpha] line with the spectroscope. It has been suggested by Professor
+G.E. Hale that the colour of a "white" prominence may be due to the fact
+that the H and K lines (calcium) are of their normal intensity, while
+the less refrangible prominence lines are, from some unknown cause,
+comparatively faint. It is known that the intensity of such lines does,
+in fact, vary, though it is not yet certain that the "white" prominences
+are produced in this way. The subject is one demanding further
+observation. High prominences are generally "white" at their summits,
+"red" at their bases. The Harvard College Observatory photographs show
+the corona out to 90' from the moon's limb, though no detail is visible
+beyond 60'. W.H. Pickering made a series of photographic photometric
+measures of the corona, some of which are given below, together with
+results deduced by Holden from the eclipses of January and December
+1889:--
+
+  +--------------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+
+  |                                      | August  | January | December|
+  |                                      |  1886.  |  1889.  |  1889.  |
+  +--------------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+
+  | Intrinsic actinic brilliancy of the  |         |         |         |
+  |   brightest parts of the corona      | 0.031   | 0.079   | 0.029   |
+  |    Do. of the polar rays             |   . .   | 0.053   | 0.016   |
+  |    Do. of the sky near the sun       | 0.0007  | 0.0050  | 0.0009  |
+  | Ratio of intrinsic brilliancy of the |         |         |         |
+  |   brightest parts of the corona to   |         |         |         |
+  |   that of the sky (actinic)          | 44 to 1 | 16 to 1 | 32 to 1 |
+  | Magnitude of the faintest star       |         |         |         |
+  |   shown on the eclipse negatives     |   . .   | 2.3     |   . .   |
+  +--------------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+
+
+  The results in the first and third columns are derived from plates
+  taken in a very humid climate, and are not very different.
+
+The eclipse of August 19, 1887, was total in Japan and Russia, but
+cloudy weather prevented successful observations except in Siberia and
+eastern Russia.
+
+The eclipse of January 1, 1889, was observed in California and Nevada by
+many American astronomers. The photographs of the corona, especially
+those by Charoppin and E.E. Barnard, show a wealth of detail. Those of
+Barnard, of the Lick Observatory party, were studied by Holden, and
+exhibited the fact that rays, like the "polar-rays," extended all round
+the sun, instead of being confined to the polar regions only. The outer
+corona was registered out to 100' from the moon's limb on Charoppin's
+negatives, to 130' on those of Lowden and Ireland. On other plates the
+outline of the moon is visible projected on the corona before totality
+began. The spectrum of the corona showed few bright lines besides those
+of coronium and hydrogen.
+
+The eclipse of December 22, 1889, was observed in Cayenne, S. America,
+by a party from the Lick Observatory under rather unfavourable
+conditions. Expeditions sent to Africa were baffled by cloudy weather.
+Father Stephen Joseph Perry observed at Salute Islands, French Guiana,
+and obtained some photographs of value. The effort cost him his life,
+for he died of malarial fever five days after the eclipse.
+
+The eclipse of April 16, 1893, was observed by British and French
+parties in Africa and Brazil, and by Professor J.M. Schaeberle of the
+Lick Observatory in Chile. The Chile photographs of the corona were
+taken with a lens of 40 ft. focus, and are extremely fine. They show a
+faint comet near the sun. No great extensions to the corona were shown
+on any of the negatives, or seen visually, though they were specially
+looked for by British parties. The neighbourhood of the sun was
+carefully examined by G. Bigourdan without finding any planet. The
+spectrum of the corona was the usual one. The following lines were
+photographed in slitless spectroscopes, and undoubtedly belong to the
+corona: W. L. 3987; 4086; 4217; 4231; 4240; 4280; 4486; 5303 (the last
+number is the wave-length of the green coronium line). All of these have
+been seen in slit spectroscopes also. It is possible that two lines
+observed by Young in 1869, namely, W. L. (Angstrom) 5450 and 5570,
+should be added to the list of undoubted coronal lines. It is not likely
+that helium or hydrogen or calcium vapour forms part of the corona. The
+wave-lengths of some 700 lines belonging to the chromosphere and
+prominences were determined by the British parties.
+
+The eclipse of August 9, 1896, was total in Norway, Novaya Zemlya and
+Japan. The day was very unfavourable as to weather, but good photographs
+of the corona were obtained by Russian parties in Siberia and Lapland.
+Shackelton, in Novaya Zemlya, with a prismatic camera obtained a
+photograph of the reversing-layer at the beginning of totality. This
+photograph completely confirms Young's discovery, and shows the
+prominent Fraunhofer lines bright, the bright lines of the chromosphere
+spectrum being especially conspicuous.
+
+At the solar eclipse of January 22, 1898, the shadow of the moon
+traversed India from the western coast to the Himalaya. The duration of
+totality was about 2 m. The eclipse was very fully observed, more than
+100 negatives of the corona being secured. The equatorial extension of
+the visible corona was short and faint, and the invisible
+(spectroscopic) corona was also very faint. The spectrum of the
+reversing-layer was successfully photographed; one set of negatives
+shows the polarization of one of the longest streamers of the corona,
+and proves the presence of dust particles reflecting solar light. The
+bright-line spectrum of hydrogen in the chromosphere was followed to the
+thirtieth point of the series, and the wave-lengths were shown to agree
+closely with Balmer's formula (see SPECTROSCOPY). The wave-length of
+coronium was found to be 5303 (not 5317 as previously supposed), and the
+brightness of the corona was measured. E.W. Maunder made the curious
+observation of coronal matter enveloping a prominence in the form of a
+hood.
+
+Observations of the eclipse of May 28, 1900, were favoured in a
+remarkable degree by the absence of clouds. The photographs of the
+corona obtained by W.W. Campbell extended four diameters of the sun on
+the west side. The sun's edge was photographed with an objective-prism
+spectrograph composed of two 60 deg. prisms in front of a telescope of 2
+in. aperture and 60 in. focus. A fine photograph, 6 in. long, of the
+bright-and dark-line spectra of the sun's edge at the end of totality
+was thus obtained. It shows 600 bright lines sharply in focus besides
+the dark-line spectrum, to which the bright lines gave way as the sun
+reappeared. The coronal material radiating the green light was found to
+be markedly heaped up in the sun-spot regions. No dark lines were found
+in the spectrum of the inner corona. G.E. Hale and E.B. Frost also
+photographed the combined bright-and dark-line spectra of the solar
+cusps at the instants before and after totality. On one photograph
+showing no dark lines 70 bright lines could be measured between 4070 and
+4340. On another were 70 bright lines between Hb and Hs. On a third were
+266 bright lines between 4026 and 4381, and some dark lines. These lines
+show a marked dissimilarity from the solar spectrum. (S. N.)
+
+The eclipse of May 18, 1901, was observable in Mauritius with 3-1/2
+minutes of totality, and in Sumatra with 6-1/2 minutes. Unfortunately
+there was cloudy weather in Sumatra, which at some stations prevented
+observations entirely and at others neutralized the advantages promised
+by the long duration of totality. Thus spectroscopic observations for
+the detection of motion of the corona, for which the long totality gave
+a special opportunity, failed owing to cloud; and the search for
+intra-Mercurial planets had only a negative result, though stars down to
+magnitude 8.8 were photographed on the plates. But though no particular
+step in advance was taken, successful records of the eclipse were
+obtained, which will enable comparison to be made with other eclipses
+and will contribute their share to the discussion of the whole series.
+These include photographs of the corona, showing that it was of the
+sun-spot minimum type, and available for measures of its brightness;
+photographs of the spectra of the chromosphere and corona which are of
+the same general character as those obtained at previous eclipses;
+photographs showing the polarization of the corona, available for
+quantitative measures of polarization at different points. Photographs
+of the spectrum of the outer corona taken by the Lick Observatory party
+show a strong Fraunhofer dark-line spectrum, consistent with the view
+that the light is reflected sunlight. At Mauritius there was no cloud,
+but the definition was poor. Successful photographs of the corona were
+obtained for comparison with those taken in Sumatra one and a half hours
+later, but nothing of great interest was revealed by the comparison.
+
+The eclipse of August 30, 1905, offered a duration of 3-1/2 minutes in
+Spain, the track running from Labrador through Spain to North Africa,
+and affording excellent opportunities for observers, who flocked to the
+central line in great numbers. Unfortunately it was cloudy in Labrador,
+so that the special advantages of the long line of possible stations
+were lost. Exceptionally good weather conditions were enjoyed in Algeria
+and Tunisia, and full advantage was taken of them by H.F. Newall, C.
+Trepied and others at Guelma, by the party from Greenwich and G.
+Bigourdan at Sfax. That G. Newall's spectroscopic photographs for
+rotation of the corona again gave no result is a clear indication of the
+faintness of the corona at 3' from the limb; but F.W. Dyson at Sfax
+obtained two new lines at 5536 and 5117 in the spectrum of the corona;
+and a very large number of photographs of the corona (including many in
+polarized light on several different plans), of its spectrum, and of the
+spectrum of the chromosphere, were obtained by the various parties,
+which will afford copious material for discussion. Newall also obtained
+a polarized spectrum of the corona. Altogether no less than eighty
+stations were occupied. There were English, American, Russian and German
+observers in Egypt; English and French in Algeria and Tunisia; English
+in Majorca; observers of almost all nationalities in Spain; and English
+and American in Labrador. In Egypt the weather was bright, though the
+sun was low; in Majorca and Spain there were local clouds. Consequently
+many observations, in addition to those in Labrador, were lost, notably
+the special spectroscopic observations undertaken by Evershed on the
+northern limit of totality, and the observations of radiation undertaken
+by H.L. Callendar. A search for intra-Mercurial planets was conducted on
+an elaborate plan, with similar batteries of telescopes, in Egypt, Spain
+and Labrador, by three parties from the Lick Observatory, but the
+examination of the plates showed nothing noteworthy. Pending discussion
+of the greater part of the material, some interesting preliminary
+results were published in 1906 by the French observers. C.E.H. Bourget
+and Montangerand conclude that there is a marked division of the
+chromosphere into two regions or shells, a lower or "reversing-layer,"
+extending only 1" from the limb, and a chromospheric layer extending to
+3" or 4"; and that the coronal light contains less blue and violet, but
+more green and yellow, than sunlight; while Fabry, by visual methods,
+obtained measures of the total and intrinsic intensity of the light from
+the corona closely confirming recent photographic observations, finding
+the total brightness about equal to that of the full moon, and the
+intrinsic brightness at 5' from the limb about one quarter of that of
+the full moon.     (H. H. T.)
+
+
+II. _Eclipses of the Moon._
+
+The physical phenomena attending eclipses of the moon are no longer of a
+high order of interest either to the layman or scientific observer. A
+brief statement of them and their causes will therefore be sufficient.
+An observer watching such an eclipse from the moon would see the earth,
+which has nearly four times the apparent diameter of the sun, impinging
+on the sun's disk and slowly hiding it. The phenomenon would be quite
+similar to that of an eclipse of the sun seen from the earth, until the
+sun was completely covered. During the progress of this partial eclipse
+the moon would be passing into the earth's penumbra. As the moment of
+total obscuration approached, a red band of light would rapidly form in
+the neighbourhood of the disappearing limb of the sun, and gradually
+extend around the earth. This would arise from the refraction of the
+sun's light by the earth's atmosphere, and the absorption of its blue
+rays. When the light of the sun was completely hidden, a reddish ring of
+great brilliancy would, owing to this cause, surround the entire dark
+body of the earth during the period of the total eclipse.
+
+The aspect of the moon, as seen from the earth, corresponds to this view
+from the moon. The fading of the moon's light, due to its entrance into
+the penumbra, is scarcely noticeable without direct photometric
+determination until near the beginning of the total phase. Then, as the
+limb of the moon approaches the earth's shadow, it begins to darken.
+When only a small portion has entered into the shadow, that portion is
+completely hidden. But, as the total phase approaches, the part of the
+moon's disk immersed in the penumbra becomes visible by a reddish
+coppery light--that of the sun refracted through the lower parts of the
+earth's atmosphere. The brightness of this illumination is different in
+different eclipses, a circumstance which may be attributed to the
+greater or less degree of cloudiness in those regions of the earth's
+atmosphere through which the light of the sun passes in order to reach
+the moon. Its colour is due to absorption in passing through the earth's
+atmosphere.
+
+
+III. _Laws and Cycles of Recurrences of Eclipses of the Sun and Moon._
+
+It has been known since remote antiquity that eclipses occur in cycles.
+These cycles are known now to be determined principally by the motion of
+the moon's node and the relations between the revolutions of the earth
+round the sun and the moon round the earth.
+
+
+  Eclipse seasons.
+
+Owing to the inclination of the moon's orbit to the plane of the
+ecliptic, an eclipse of the sun can occur only when the conjunction of
+the sun and moon takes place within about 16 deg. of one of the nodes of
+the moon's orbit. The eclipse can be total only within about 11 deg. of
+the node. An eclipse of the moon can occur only when the line
+sun-moon-earth makes an angle less than about 11 deg. with the line of
+nodes; and the eclipse can be total only within about 8 deg. of the
+node, the average limiting distances varying 1 deg. or 2 deg. according
+to the circumstances. These conditions being understood, the cycles of
+recurrence of eclipses of either kind can be worked out geometrically
+from the mean motions of the sun, moon, node and perigee by the aid of
+geometric conceptions shown in their simplest form in fig. 4. Here E is
+the earth, at the centre of a circle representing the mean orbit of the
+moon around it. MN is the line of nodes which is moving in the
+retrograde direction from N towards S1, at a rate of about 19.3 deg. in
+a year, making a complete revolution in 18.6 years. Let the sun at the
+moment of some new moon be in the line ES1, continued. If the angle NES1
+is less than 16 deg. there will probably be an eclipse of the sun, which
+may be central if the angle is less than 11 deg. Let the next new moon
+take place in the line ES2 a month later. The mean value of the angle
+S1ES2 is about 29 deg.; but as the node N has moved towards S1 about 1.4
+deg. during the interval, the sum of the angles NES1 and NES2 will be
+somewhat greater than S1ES2 by about 1.6 deg. The result is that if
+these two angles are nearly equal there may be two small partial
+eclipses of the sun, after which no more can occur until, by the annual
+revolution of the earth, the direction of the sun approaches the
+opposite line of nodes EM, nearly six months later. The result is that
+there are in the course of any one year two "eclipse seasons" each of
+about one month in duration, in which at least one eclipse of the sun,
+or possibly two small partial eclipses, may occur. One eclipse of the
+moon will generally, but not always, occur during a season.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.]
+
+Owing to the retrograde motion of the node the direction ES of the sun
+returns to the node at the end of about 347 days, so that a third
+eclipse season may commence before the end of a year. In this way there
+is a possible but very rare maximum of five eclipses of the sun in a
+year. Owing to the motion of the line of nodes each eclipse season
+occurs about 19 days earlier in the year than it did the year before.
+Another conclusion from the greater eclipse limit for the sun than for
+the moon is that in the long run eclipses of the sun, as regards the
+earth generally, occur oftener than those of the moon. But as any
+eclipse of the sun is visible only from a limited region of the earth's
+surface, while one of the moon may be seen from an entire hemisphere,
+more eclipses of the moon are visible at any one place than of the sun.
+
+If, starting with a conjunction along some line ES1, we mark by radial
+lines from E the successive conjunctions year after year, we shall find
+that at the end of 18 years and about 11 days the 223rd conjunction will
+fall once more very near the line ES1, the angle NES1 being about 24'
+greater than before. Successive eclipses will then occur very nearly in
+the same order as they did 18 years and 11 days before. This period of
+recurrence has been known from remote antiquity and is called the
+_Saros_. What is most remarkable in this period is that in addition to
+the distance from the node being nearly the same as before, the
+longitude of the sun increases by only 11 deg. and the distance of the
+moon from its perigee has changed less than 3 deg. The result of this
+approach to coincidence is that the recurring eclipse will generally be
+of the same kind--total, annular or partial--through a number of
+successive periods.
+
+To see the law of recurrence of corresponding eclipses in the successive
+periods let us suppose the line of conjunction ES1 to be that at which
+there is a very small eclipse, visible only in high northern or southern
+latitudes. At the end of 18 years 11 days a second eclipse will occur
+along a line nearly half a degree nearer EN, the line of nodes. The
+successive eclipses will occur at the same interval through about ten
+periods, or 180 years, when the line of conjunction will pass within 11
+deg. of EN. Then the eclipse will be central, whether annular or total
+depending on circumstances: in the first one the central lines will pass
+only over the polar regions; but in successive eclipses of the series it
+will pass nearer and nearer to the equator until the conjunction line
+coincides with the node. The path of centrality will then cross in the
+equatorial region. During 22 or 23 more recurrences the path will
+continually approach to the opposite pole and finally leave the earth
+entirely. The entire number of central eclipses in any one series will
+generally be about forty-five. Then a series of continually diminishing
+partial eclipses will go on for about ten periods more. The whole series
+of eclipses will therefore extend through about sixty-five periods; and
+interval of time of about twelve hundred years.
+
+Another remarkable eclipse period recurs at the end of 358 lunations. At
+the end of this period the line of mean conjunction ES1 falls so near
+its former position relative to the node that we find each central
+eclipse visible in our time to be one of an unbroken series extending
+from the earliest historic times to the present, at intervals equal to
+the length of the period. The recurring eclipses in this period do not,
+however, have the remarkable similarity of those belonging to the Saros,
+but may differ to any extent, owing to the different positions of the
+line of conjunction with respect to the moon's perigee. Moreover, they
+recur alternately at the ascending and descending node. The length of
+the period is 10,571.95 days, or 29 Julian years less 20.3 days. Hence
+18 periods make 521 years, so that at the end of this time each eclipse
+recurs on or about the same day of the year. As an example of this
+series, starting from the eclipse of Nineveh, June 15, 763 B.C.,
+recorded on the Assyrian tablets, we find eclipses on May 27, 734 B.C.,
+May 7, 705 B.C., and so on in an unbroken series to 1843, 1872 and 1901,
+the last being the 93rd of the series. Those at the ends of the 521-year
+intervals occurred on June 15, O.S., of each of the years 763, 242 B.C.,
+A.D. 280, 801, 1322 and 1843. As the lunar perigee moves through 242.4
+deg. in a period, the eclipses will vary from total to annular, but at
+the end of 3 periods the perigee is only 7.1 deg. in advance of its
+original position relative to the node. Hence in a series including
+every third eclipse the eclipses will be of the same character through a
+thousand years or more. Thus the eclipses of 1467, 1554, 1640, 1727,
+1814, 1901, 1988, &c., are total.
+
+
+IV. _Chronological Lists of Eclipses of the Sun._
+
+
+  Notable eclipses.
+
+The following is a brief chronological enumeration of those total
+eclipses of the sun which are of interest, either from their historic
+celebrity or the nature of the conclusions derived from them. In
+numbering the years before the Christian era the astronomical
+nomenclature is used, in which the number of the year is one less than
+that used by the chronologists. The Chinese eclipses are passed over,
+owing to the generally doubtful character of the records pertaining to
+them.
+
+  --1069 June 20 and --1062 July 31; total eclipses recorded at Babylon.
+
+  --762, June 14; a total eclipse recorded at Nineveh. Computation from
+  the modern tables shows that the path of totality passed about 100 m.
+  or more north of Nineveh.
+
+  --647, April 6; total eclipse at or near Thasos, mentioned by
+  Archilochus.
+
+  --584, May 28; the celebrated eclipse of Thales. For an account of
+  this eclipse see THALES.
+
+  --556, May 19, the eclipse of Larissa. The modern tables show that the
+  eclipse was not total at Larissa, and the connexion of the classical
+  record with the eclipse is doubtful.
+
+  --430, August 3; eclipse mentioned by Thucydides, but not total by the
+  tables.
+
+  --399, June 21; eclipse of Ennius. Totality occurred immediately after
+  sunset at Rome. The identity of this eclipse is doubtful.
+
+  --309, August 14; eclipse of Agathocles. This eclipse would be one of
+  the most valuable for testing the tables of the moon, but for an
+  uncertainty as to the location of Agathocles, who, at the time of the
+  occurrence, was at sea on a voyage from Syracuse to Carthage.
+
+  F.K. Ginzel (_Spezieller Kanon der Finsternisse_) has collected a
+  great number of passages from classical authors supposed to refer to
+  eclipses of the sun or moon, but the difficulty of identifying the
+  phenomenon is frequently such as to justify great doubt as to the
+  conclusions. In a few cases no eclipse corresponding to the
+  description can be found by our modern table to have occurred, and in
+  others the latitude of interpretation and the uncertainty of the date
+  are so wide that the eclipse cannot be identified.
+
+  Of medieval eclipses we mention only the dates of those visible in
+  England, referring for details to the works mentioned in the
+  bibliography. The letter C following a date shows that the eclipse is
+  mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles. The dates in question are:--
+
+    A.D. 538, February 15, C. (partial). | A.D.  878, October 29, C.
+         540, June 12, C. (partial).     |       885, June 15.
+         594, July 23.                   |      1023, January 24.
+         603, August 12.                 |      1133, August 1, C.
+         639, September 3.               |      1140, March 20, C.
+         664, May 1, C.                  |      1185, May 1, C.
+         733, August 14 (annular).       |      1191, June 23, C. (annular).
+         764, June 4 (annular).          |      1330, July 16.
+
+  Besides these, the tables show that the shadow of the moon passed over
+  some part of the British Islands on 1424, June 26; 1433, June 17;
+  1598, March 6; 1652, April 8; 1715, May 2; 1724, May 22. Of these the
+  eclipse of 1715 is notable for the careful observations made in
+  England, and published by Halley in the _Philosophical Transactions_.
+  The next dates are 1927, June 29, when a barely total eclipse will be
+  seen soon after sunrise in the northern counties near the Scottish
+  border, and 1999, August 11, when the moon's shadow will graze England
+  at Land's End.
+
+We give below, in tabular form, a list of the principal total eclipses
+during the 19th and 20th centuries, omitting a few visible only in the
+extreme polar regions, and some others of which the duration is very
+short. The first column gives the civil date of the point on the earth's
+surface at which the eclipse is central at noon. The next two columns
+give the position of this point to the nearest degree. The fourth column
+shows the Greenwich astronomical time of conjunction in longitude. The
+next column gives the duration of the total phase at the noon-point;
+this is sometimes 0.1' less than the absolutely greatest duration at any
+point. Next is given the node near which the eclipse occurs; and then
+the number in the Saros. Corresponding eclipses at intervals of 18 y. 11
+d. have the same number, and occur near the same node of the noon, which
+is indicated in the next column.
+
+  +----------------+--------------+---------------+---------+------+-------+------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |                | Point where  |Greenwich M.T. |Duration |      |       |                                                            |
+  |     Date at    |  Central at  |of conjunction |   of    |      |       |                                                            |
+  |   Noon-Point.  |     Noon.    | in Longitude. |Totality.| Node |Series.|                 Regions Swept by Shadow.                   |
+  |                +------+-------+---------------+---------+      |       |                                                            |
+  |                | Lat. | Long. | d.    h.   m. |    m.   |      |       |                                                            |
+  +----------------+------+-------+---------------+---------+------+-------+------------------------------------------------------------+
+  | 1803, Feb.  21 | 11 S.| 136 W.| 21    9   20  |   4.2   | Asc. |   1   | Pacific Ocean, Mexico.                                     |
+  | 1804, Aug.   5 | 38 S.|  66 W.|  5    4    6  |   1.2   | Desc.|   2   | Pacific Ocean, Chile, Argentina.                           |
+  | 1806, June  16 | 42 N.|  66 W.| 16    4   22  |   4.6   | Desc.|   3   | New England, Atlantic, Africa.                             |
+  | 1807, Nov.  29 | 11 N.|   2 E.| 28   23   48  |   1.4   | Asc. |   4   | Central Africa, Areolia.                                   |
+  | 1810, April  4 | 12 N.| 154 E.|  3   13   41  |   Ann.  | Desc.|   5   | Pacific Ocean, Borneo.                                     |
+  | 1811, Mar,  24 | 39 S.|  26 W.| 24    2   19  |   3.4   | Desc.|   6   | South Atlantic to and across South Africa.                 |
+  | 1814, July  17 | 31 N.|  84 E.| 16   18   33  |   6.6   | Asc. |   7   | Africa, Central Asia, China.                               |
+  | 1815, July   6 | 88 N.| 175 W.|  6   11   52  |   3.2   | Asc. |   8   | Polar Regions, Western Siberia.                            |
+  | 1816, Nov.  19 | 43 N.|  30 E.| 18   22    9  |   1.8   | Desc.|   9   | Eastern Europe, Central Asia.                              |
+  | 1817, Nov.   9 |  7 S.| 149 E.|  8   13   53  |   4.7   | Desc.|  10   | Burma, Pacific Ocean.                                      |
+  | 1821, Mar.   4 |  8 S.|  96 E.|  3   17   50  |   4.3   | Asc. |   1   | Indian and Pacific Oceans.                                 |
+  | 1822, Aug.  16 | 36 S.| 176 W.| 16   11   22  |   1.4   | Desc.|   2   | Australia, Pacific Ocean.                                  |
+  | 1824, June  26 | 47 N.| 175 W.| 26   11   43  |   4.4   | Desc.|   3   | Pacific Ocean, Japan, China.                               |
+  | 1825, Dec.   9 |  9 N.| 127 W.|  9    8   27  |   1.5   | Asc. |   4   | Pacific Ocean, Mexico.                                     |
+  | 1828, April 14 | 18 N.|  39 E.| 13   21   18  |   0.3   | Desc.|   5   | Northern Africa, India.                                    |
+  | 1829, April  3 | 32 S.| 149 W.|  3   10   24  |   4.1   | Desc.|   6   | South Pacific Ocean.                                       |
+  | 1832, July  27 | 24 N.|  28 W.| 27    2    2  |   6.8   | Asc. |   7   | West Indies and across Central Africa.                     |
+  | 1833, July  17 | 78 N.|  76 E.| 16   19   16  |   3.5   | Asc. |   8   | North-eastern Asia and Polar Regions.                      |
+  | 1834, Nov.  30 | 40 N.| 101 W.| 30    6   48  |   1.9   | Desc.|   9   | Southern and Western United States.                        |
+  | 1835, Nov.  20 | 10 S.|  20 E.| 19   22   31  |   4.6   | Desc.|  10   | Central Africa, Madagascar.                                |
+  | 1839, Mar.  15 |  6 S.|  31 W.| 15    2   14  |   4.4   | Asc. |   1   | South America, Africa, Egypt.                              |
+  | 1840, Aug.  27 | 34 S.|  72 E.| 26   18   45  |   1.6   | Desc.|   2   | Africa, Madagascar, Indian Ocean.                          |
+  | 1842, July   8 | 51 N.|  77 E.|  7   19    2  |   4.1   | Desc.|   3   | Spain, France, Russia to China, and Pacific Ocean.         |
+  | 1843, Dec.  21 |  8 N.| 102 E.| 20   17   10  |   1.6   | Asc. |   4   | Indian and North Pacific Oceans and India.                 |
+  | 1846, April 25 | 25 N.|  75 W.| 25    4   49  |   0.9   | Desc.|   5   | Mexico, West Indies, Africa.                               |
+  | 1847, April 15 | 24 S.|  90 E.| 14   18   22  |   4.7   | Desc.|   6   | Indian Ocean, Australia.                                   |
+  | 1850, Aug.   7 | 18 N.| 142 W.|  7    9   34  |   6.8   | Asc. |   7   | Pacific Ocean.                                             |
+  | 1851, July  28 | 70 N.|  34 W.| 28    2   41  |   3.7   | Asc. |   8   | Scandinavia, Russia and North America.                     |
+  | 1852, Dec.  11 | 37 N.| 127 E.| 10   15   32  |   2.0   | Desc.|   9   | China, Pacific Ocean.                                      |
+  | 1857, Mar.  25 |  4 S.| 155 W.| 25   10   30  |   4.5   | Asc. |   1   | Pacific Ocean, Mexico.                                     |
+  | 1858, Sept.  7 | 33 S.|  41 W.|  7    2   16  |   1.7   | Desc.|   2   | Peru, South Brazil, Uruguay.                               |
+  | 1860, July  18 | 56 N.|  31 W.| 18    2   21  |   3.7   | Desc.|   3   | British America, France, Egypt.                            |
+  | 1861, Dec.  31 |  9 N.|  29 W.| 31    1   55  |   1.8   | Asc. |   4   | Caribbean Sea to North Africa.                             |
+  | 1864, May    6 | 32 N.| 173 E.|  5   12   14  |   1.4   | Desc.|   5   | Pacific Ocean.                                             |
+  | 1865, April 25 | 16 S.|  30 W.| 25    2   13  |   5.3   | Desc.|   6   | Brazil to Central Africa.                                  |
+  | 1868, Aug.  18 | 10 N.| 103 E.| 17   17   12  |   6.8   | Asc. |   7   | India to Pacific Ocean.                                    |
+  | 1869, Aug.   7 | 61 N.| 145 W.|  7   10    8  |   3.8   | Asc. |   8   | United States and Alaska.                                  |
+  | 1870, Dec.  22 | 36 N.|   5 W.| 22    0   19  |   2.1   | Desc.|   9   | Gibraltar, Northern Africa, Sicily.                        |
+  | 1871, Dec.  12 | 12 S.| 118 E.| 11   16    2  |   4.4   | Desc.|  10   | Southern India, Northern Australia.                        |
+  | 1875, April  6 |  2 S.|  83 E.|  5   18   36  |   4.7   | Asc. |   1   | Indian Ocean, Siam, Pacific.                               |
+  | 1876, Sept. 17 | 33 S.| 156 W.| 17    9   54  |   1.8   | Desc.|   2   | Pacific Ocean.                                             |
+  | 1878, July  29 | 60 N.| 139 W.| 29    9   40  |   3.2   | Desc.|   3   | United States and Canada.                                  |
+  | 1880, Jan.  11 | 10 N.| 160 W.| 11   10   40  |   2.1   | Asc. |   4   | Pacific Ocean, California.                                 |
+  | 1882, May   17 | 39 N.|  63 E.| 16   19   34  |   1.8   | Desc.|   5   | Egypt, Central Asia, China.                                |
+  | 1883, May    6 |  9 S.| 147 W.|  6    9   58  |   6.0   | Desc.|   6   | Pacific Ocean, Caroline Islands.                           |
+  | 1886, Aug.  29 |  3 N.|  14 W.| 29    0   54  |   6.6   | Asc. |   7   | South America, Central Africa.                             |
+  | 1887, Aug.  19 | 53 N.| 102 E.| 18   17   39  |   3.8   | Asc. |   8   | Northern Europe, Siberia, Japan.                           |
+  | 1889, Jan.   1 | 37 N.| 138 W.|  1    9    8  |   2.2   | Desc.|   9   | California, Oregon, British America.                       |
+  | 1889, Dec.  22 | 12 S.|  13 W.| 22    0   52  |   4.2   | Desc.|  10   | Central Africa and South America.                          |
+  | 1893, April 16 |  1 S.|  37 W.| 16    2   35  |   4.8   | Asc. |   1   | Venezuela to West Africa.                                  |
+  | 1894, Sept. 29 | 34 S.|  86 E.| 28   17   43  |   1.8   | Desc.|   2   | East Africa, Indian Ocean.                                 |
+  | 1896, Aug.   9 | 65 N.| 112 E.|  8   17    2  |   2.7   | Desc.|   3   | North Europe, Siberia, Japan.                              |
+  | 1898, Jan.  22 | 13 N.|  69 E.| 21   19   24  |   2.3   | Asc. |   4   | East Africa, India, China.                                 |
+  | 1900, May   28 | 45 N.|  45 W.| 28    2   50  |   2.1   | Desc.|   5   | United States, Spain, North Africa.                        |
+  | 1901, May   18 |  2 S.|  97 E.| 17   17   38  |   6.5   | Desc.|   6   | Sumatra, Borneo.                                           |
+  | 1904, Sept.  9 |  5 S.| 133 W.|  9    8   43  |   6.4   | Asc. |   7   | Pacific Ocean.                                             |
+  | 1905, Aug.  30 | 45 N.|  12 W.| 30    1   13  |   3.8   | Asc. |   8   | Canada, Spain, North Africa.                               |
+  | 1907, Jan.  14 | 39 N.|  89 E.| 13   17   57  |   2.3   | Desc.|   9   | Russia, Central Asia.                                      |
+  | 1908, Jan.   3 | 12 S.| 145 W.|  3    9   44  |   4.2   | Desc.|  10   | Pacific Ocean.                                             |
+  | 1911, April 28 |  1 S.| 155 W.| 28   10   26  |   5.0   | Asc. |   1   | Australia, Polynesia.                                      |
+  | 1912, Oct.  10 | 35 S.|  33 W.| 10    1   41  |   1.8   | Desc.|   2   | Colombia, Ecuador, Brazil.                                 |
+  | 1914, Aug.  21 | 71 N.|   2 E.| 21    0   27  |   2.1   | Desc.|   3   | Scandinavia, Russia, Asia Minor.                           |
+  | 1916, Feb.   3 | 16 N.|  62 W.|  3    4    6  |   2.5   | Asc. |   4   | Pacific Ocean, Venezuela, West Indies.                     |
+  | 1918, June   8 | 51 N.| 152 W.|  8   10    3  |   2.4   | Desc.|   5   | British Columbia, United States.                           |
+  | 1919, May   29 |  4 N.|  18 W.| 29    1   12  |   6.9   | Desc.|   6   | Peru, Brazil, Central Africa.                              |
+  | 1922, Sept. 21 | 12 S.| 106 E.| 20   16   38  |   6.1   | Asc. |   7   | East Africa, Australia.                                    |
+  | 1923, Sept. 10 | 38 N.| 128 W.| 10    8   53  |   3.6   | Asc. |   8   | California, Mexico, Central America.                       |
+  | 1925, Jan.  24 | 42 N.|  44 W.| 24    2   46  |   2.4   | Desc.|   9   | United States.                                             |
+  | 1926, Jan.  14 | 10 S.|  82 E.| 13   18   35  |   4.2   | Desc.|  10   | East Africa, Sumatra, Philippines.                         |
+  | 1927, June  29 | 78 N.|  84 E.| 28   18   32  |   0.7   | Asc. |  11   | England, Scotland, Scandinavia.                            |
+  | 1929, May    9 |  1 S.|  89 E.|  8   18    8  |   5.1   | Asc. |   1   | Sumatra, Malacca, Philippines.                             |
+  | 1930, Oct.  21 | 36 S.| 155 W.| 21    9   47  |   1.9   | Desc.|   2   | Pacific Ocean, Patagonia.                                  |
+  | 1932, Aug.  31 | 78 N.| 109 W.| 31    7   55  |   1.5   | Desc.|   3   | Canada.                                                    |
+  | 1934, Feb.  14 | 19 N.| 168 E.| 13   12   44  |   2.7   | Asc. |   4   | Borneo, Celebes.                                           |
+  | 1936, June  19 | 56 N.| 101 E.| 18   17   15  |   2.5   | Desc.|   5   | Greece to Central Asia and Japan.                          |
+  | 1937, June   8 | 10 N.| 131 W.|  8    8   43  |   7.1   | Desc.|   6   | Pacific Ocean, Peru.                                       |
+  | 1940, Oct.   1 | 19 S.|  16 W.|  1    0   42  |   5.7   | Asc. |   7   | Colombia, Brazil, South Africa.                            |
+  | 1941, Sept. 21 | 30 N.| 114 E.| 20   16   39  |   3.3   | Asc. |   8   | Central Asia, China, Pacific Ocean.                        |
+  | 1943, Feb.   4 | 47 N.| 176 W.|  4   11   31  |   2.5   | Desc.|   9   | China, Alaska.                                             |
+  | 1947, May   20 |  2 S.|  25 W.| 20    1   44  |   5.2   | Asc. |   1   | Argentina, Paraguay, Central Africa.                       |
+  | 1948, Nov.   1 | 37 S.|  82 E.| 31   18    3  |   1.9   | Desc.|   2   | Central Africa, Congo.                                     |
+  | 1952, Feb.  25 | 22 N.|  39 E.| 24   21   17  |   3.0   | Asc. |   4   | Nubia, Persia, Siberia.                                    |
+  | 1954, June  30 | 62 N.|   5 W.| 30    0   27  |   2.5   | Desc.|   5   | Canada, Scandinavia, Russia, Persia.                       |
+  | 1955, June  20 | 15 N.| 117 E.| 19   16   12  |   7.2   | Desc.|   6   | Ceylon, Siam, Philippines.                                 |
+  | 1958, Oct.  12 | 26 S.| 139 W.| 12    8   52  |   5.2   | Asc. |   7   | Chile, Argentina.                                          |
+  | 1959, Oct.   2 | 23 N.|   6 W.|  2    0   32  |   3.0   | Asc. |   8   | Canaries, Central Africa.                                  |
+  | 1961, Feb.  15 | 53 N.|  53 E.| 14   20   11  |   2.6   | Desc.|   9   | France, Italy, Austria, Siberia.                           |
+  | 1962, Feb.   5 |  4 S.| 179 E.|  4   12   11  |   4.1   | Desc.|  10   | New Guinea.                                                |
+  | 1963, July  20 | 62 N.| 126 W.| 20    8   43  |   1.5   | Asc. |  11   | Alaska, Hudson's Bay Territory.                            |
+  | 1965, May   30 |  4 S.| 137 W.| 30    9   14  |   5.3   | Asc. |   1   | Pacific Ocean.                                             |
+  | 1966, Nov.  12 | 38 S.|  43 W.| 12    2   27  |   1.9   | Desc.|   2   | Bolivia, Argentina, Brazil.                                |
+  | 1970, Mar.   7 | 25 N.|  88 W.|  7    5   43  |   3.3   | Asc. |   4   | Mexico, Georgia, ? Florida.                                |
+  | 1972, July  10 | 67 N.| 111 W.| 10    7   40  |   2.7   | Desc.|   5   | North-East Asia, North-East America and Atlantic Ocean.    |
+  | 1973, June  30 | 19 N.|   6 E.| 29   23   39  |   7.2   | Desc.|   6   | South America, Africa and Atlantic Ocean.                  |
+  | 1974, June  20 | 32 S.| 107 E.| 19   16   56  |   5.3   | Desc.|  12   | South-West Australia and Indian Ocean.                     |
+  | 1976, Oct.  23 | 31 S.|  95 E.| 22   17   10  |   4.9   | Asc. |   7   | Africa, Australia, Indian and Pacific Oceans.              |
+  | 1977, Oct.  12 | 16 N.| 127 W.| 12    8   31  |   2.8   | Asc. |   8   | Venezuela, Pacific Ocean.                                  |
+  | 1979, Feb.  26 | 61 N.|  77 W.| 26    4   47  |   2.7   | Desc.|   9   | United States, British America, Pacific Ocean, N. Polar Sea|
+  | 1980, Feb.  16 |  1 N.|  48 E.| 15   20   52  |   4.3   | Desc.|  10   | Africa, Atlantic and Indian Oceans, and India.             |
+  | 1981, July  31 | 54 N.| 127 E.| 30   15   53  |   2.2   | Asc. |  11   | Pacific Ocean, Asia.                                       |
+  | 1983, June  11 |  7 S.| 111 E.| 10   16   38  |   5.4   | Asc. |   1   | Java, Atlantic Ocean.                                      |
+  | 1984, Nov.  22 | 39 S.| 170 W.| 22   10   58  |   2.1   | Desc.|   2   | Pacific Ocean, Patagonia.                                  |
+  | 1987, Mar.  29 | 17 S.|   6 W.| 29    0   45  |   0.3   | Asc. |  13   | Atlantic, Equatorial Africa.                               |
+  | 1988, Mar.  18 | 28 N.| 146 E.| 17   14    3  |   4.0   | Asc. |   4   | Indian and Pacific Oceans, Sumatra.                        |
+  | 1990, July  22 | 72 N.| 142 E.| 21   14   54  |   2.6   | Desc.|   5   | Finland, North Atlantic.                                   |
+  | 1991, July  11 | 22 N.| 105 W.| 11    7    6  |   7.1   | Desc.|   6   | Pacific Ocean, Hawaii, Central America.                    |
+  | 1992, June  30 | 26 S.|   5 W.| 30    0   19  |   5.4   | Desc.|  12   | South Atlantic.                                            |
+  | 1994, Nov.   3 | 36 S.|  31 W.|  3    1   36  |   4.6   | Asc. |   7   | Pacific Ocean, South America.                              |
+  | 1995, Oct.  24 | 10 N.| 110 E.| 23   16   37  |   2.4   | Asc. |   8   | Pacific and Indian Oceans.                                 |
+  | 1997, Mar.   9 | 71 N.| 154 E.|  8   13   16  |   2.8   | Desc.|   9   | North-East Asia, Arctic Sea.                               |
+  | 1998, Feb.  26 |  6 N.|  81 W.| 26    5   27  |   4.4   | Desc.|  10   | Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, Central America.              |
+  | 1999, Aug.  11 | 46 N.|  18 E.| 10   23    8  |   2.6   | Asc. |  11   | Central and Southern Europe touching England.              |
+  +----------------+------+-------+---------------+---------+------+-------+------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+_Recurrence of Remarkable Eclipses._
+
+From the property of the Saros it follows that eclipses remarkable for
+their duration, or other circumstances depending on the relative
+positions of the sun and moon, occur at intervals of one saros (18 y. 11
+d.). Of interest in this connexion is the recurrence of total eclipses
+remarkable for their duration. The absolute maximum duration of a total
+eclipse is about 7' 30"; but no actual eclipse can be expected to reach
+this duration. Those which will come nearest to the maximum during the
+next 500 years belong to the series numbered 4 and 6 and in the list
+which precedes. These occurring in the years 1937, 1955, &c., will
+ultimately fall little more than 20" below the maximum. But the series
+4, though not now remarkable in this respect, will become so in the
+future, reaching in the eclipse of June 25, 2150, a duration of about 7'
+15" and on July 5, 2168, a duration of 7' 28", the longest in human
+history. The first of these will pass over the Pacific Ocean; the second
+over the southern part of the Indian Ocean near Madras.
+
+All the national annual Ephemerides contain elements of the eclipses of
+the sun occurring during the year. Those of England, America and France
+also give maps showing the path of the central line, if any, over the
+earth's surface; the lines of eclipse beginning and ending at sunrise,
+&c., and the outlines of the shadow from hour to hour. By the aid of the
+latter the time at which an eclipse begins or ends at any point can be
+determined by inspection or measurement within a few minutes.
+
+
+V. _Methods of computing Eclipses of the Sun._
+
+
+  Elements of eclipses.
+
+The complete computation of the circumstances of an eclipse ab initio
+requires three distinct processes. The geocentric positions of the sun
+and moon have first to be computed from the tables of the motions of
+those bodies. The second step is to compute certain elements of the
+eclipse from these geocentric positions. The third step is from these
+elements to compute the circumstances of the eclipse for the earth
+generally or for any given place on its surface. The national
+Astronomical Ephemerides, or "Nautical Almanacs," give in full the
+geocentric positions of the sun and moon from at least the early part of
+the 19th century to an epoch three years in advance of the date of
+publication. It is therefore unnecessary to undertake the first part of
+the computation except for dates outside the limits of the published
+ephemerides, and for many years to come even this computation will be
+unnecessary, because tables giving the elements of eclipses from the
+earliest historic periods up to the 22nd century have been published by
+T. Ritter von Oppolzer and by Simon Newcomb. We shall therefore confine
+ourselves to a statement of the eclipse problem and of the principles on
+which such tables rest.
+
+Two systems of eclipse elements are now adopted in the ephemerides and
+tables; the one, that of F.W. Bessel, is used in the English, American
+and French ephemerides, the other--P. A. Hansen's--in the German and in
+the eclipse tables of T. Ritter von Oppolzer. The two have in common
+certain geometric constructions. The fundamental axis of reference in
+both systems is the line passing through the centres of the sun and
+moon; this is the common axis of the shadow cones, which envelop
+simultaneously the sun and moon as shown in figs. 1, 2, 3. The surface
+of one of these cones, that of the umbra, is tangent to both bodies
+externally. This cone comes to a point at a distance from the moon
+nearly equal to that of the earth. Within it the sun is wholly hidden by
+the moon. Outside the umbral cone is that of the penumbra, within which
+the sun is partially hidden by the moon. The geometric condition that
+the two bodies shall appear in contact, or that the eclipse shall begin
+or end at a certain moment, is that the surface of one of these cones
+shall pass through the place of the observer at that moment. Let a
+plane, which we call the fundamental plane, pass through the centre of
+the earth perpendicular to the shadow axis. On this plane the centre of
+the earth is taken as an origin of rectangular co-ordinates. The axis of
+Z is perpendicular to the plane, and therefore parallel to the shadow
+axis; that of Y and X lie in the plane. In these fundamental
+constructions the two methods coincide. They differ in the direction of
+the axis of Y and X in the fundamental plane. In Bessel's method, which
+we shall first describe, the intersection of the plane of the earth's
+equator with the fundamental plane is taken as the axis of X. The axis
+of Y is perpendicular to it, the positive direction being towards the
+north. The Besselian elements of an eclipse are then:--x, y, the
+co-ordinates of the shadow axis on the fundamental plane; d, the
+declination of that point in which the shadow axis intersects the
+celestial sphere; [mu], the Greenwich hour angle of this point; l, the
+radius of the circle, in which the penumbral or outer cone intersects
+the fundamental plane; and l', the radius of the circle, in which the
+inner or umbral cone intersects this plane, taken positively when the
+vertex of the cone does not reach the plane, so that the axis must be
+produced, and negatively when the vertex is beyond the plane.
+
+Hansen's method differs from that of Bessel in that the ecliptic is
+taken as the fundamental plane instead of the equator. The axis of X on
+the fundamental plane is parallel to the plane of the ecliptic; that of
+Y perpendicular to it. The other elements are nearly the same in the two
+theories. As to their relative advantages, it may be remarked that
+Hansen's co-ordinates follow most simply from the data of the tables,
+and are necessarily used in eclipse tables, but that the subsequent
+computation is simpler by Bessel's method.
+
+Several problems are involved in the complete computation of an eclipse
+from the elements. First, from the values of the latter at a given
+moment to determine the point, if any, at which the shadow-axis
+intersects the surface of the earth, and the respective outlines of the
+umbra and penumbra on that surface. Within the umbral curve the eclipse
+is annular or total; outside of it and within the penumbral curve the
+eclipse is partial at the given moment. The penumbral line is marked
+from hour to hour on the maps given annually in the American Ephemeris.
+Second, a series of positions of the central point through the course of
+an eclipse gives us the path of the central point along the surface of
+the earth, and the envelopes of the penumbral and umbral curves just
+described are boundaries within which a total, annular or partial
+eclipse will be visible. In particular, we have a certain definite point
+on the earth's surface on which the edge of the shadow first impinges;
+this impingement necessarily takes place at sunrise. Then passing from
+this point, we have a series of points on the surface at which the
+elements of the shadow-cone are in succession tangent to the earth's
+surface. At all these points the eclipse begins at sunrise until a
+certain limit is reached, after which, following the successive
+elements, it ends at sunrise. At the limiting point the rim of the moon
+merely grazes that of the sun at sunrise, so that we may say that the
+eclipse both begins and ends at that time. Of course the points we have
+described are also found at the ending of the eclipse. There is a
+certain moment at which the shadow-axis leaves the earth at a certain
+point, and a series of moments when, the elements of the penumbral cone
+being tangent to the earth's surface, the eclipse is ending at sunset.
+Three cases may arise in studying the passage of the outlines of the
+shadow over the earth. It may be that all the elements of the penumbral
+cone intersect the earth. In this case we shall have both a northern and
+a southern limit of partial eclipse. In the second case there will be no
+limit on the one side except that of the eclipse beginning or ending at
+sunrise or sunset. Or it may happen, as the third case, that the
+shadow-axis does not intersect the earth at all; the eclipse will then
+not be central at any point, but at most only partial.
+
+The third problem is, from the same data, to find the circumstances of
+an eclipse at a given place--especially the times of beginning and
+ending, or the relative positions of the sun and moon at a given moment.
+Reference to the formulae for all these problems will be given in the
+bibliography of the subject.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The richest mine of information respecting eclipses of
+  the sun and moon is T.R. von Oppolzer's "Kanon der Finsternisse,"
+  published by the Vienna Academy of Sciences in the 52nd volume of its
+  _Denkschriften_ (Vienna, 1887). It contains elements of all eclipses
+  both of the sun and moon, from 1207 B.C. to A.D. 2161, a period of
+  more than thirty centuries. Appended to the tables is a series of
+  charts showing the paths of all central eclipses visible in the
+  northern hemisphere during the period covered by the table. The points
+  of the path at which the eclipse occurs, at sunrise, noon and sunset,
+  are laid down with precision, but the intermediate points are
+  frequently in error by several hundred miles, as they were not
+  calculated, but projected simply by drawing a circle through the three
+  points just mentioned. For this reason we cannot infer from them that
+  an eclipse was total at any given place. The correct path can,
+  however, be readily computed from the tables given in the work. Eduard
+  Mahler's memoir, "Die centralen Sonnenfinsternisse des 20.
+  Jahrhunderts" (_Denkschriften_, Vienna Academy, vol. xlix.), gives
+  more exact paths of the central eclipses of the 20th century, but no
+  maps. General tables for computing eclipses are Oppolzer's
+  "Syzygientafeln fur den Mond" (Publications of the _Astronomische
+  Gesellschaft_, xvi.), and Newcomb's, in _Publications of the American
+  Ephemeris_, vol. i. part i. Of these, Oppolzer's are constructed with
+  greater numerical accuracy and detail, while Newcomb's are founded on
+  more recent astronomical data, and are preferable for computing
+  ancient eclipses. F.K. Ginzel's _Spezieller Kanon der Sonnen- und
+  Mondfinsternisse_ (Berlin, 1899) contains, besides the historical
+  researches already mentioned, maps of the paths of central eclipses
+  visible in the lands of classical antiquity from 900 B.C. to A.D. 500,
+  but computed with imperfect astronomical data. Maguire, "Monthly
+  Notices," _R.A.S._ xlv. and xlvi., has mapped the total solar eclipses
+  visible in the British Islands from 878 to 1724. General papers of
+  interest on the same subject have been published by Rev. S.J. Johnson.
+  A resume of all the observations on the physical phenomena of total
+  solar eclipses up to 1878, by A.C. Ranyard, is to be found in _Memoirs
+  of the Royal Astronomical Society_, vol. xli. A very copious
+  development of the computation of eclipses by Bessel's method is found
+  in W. Chauvenet's _Spherical and Practical Astronomy_, vol. i. _The
+  Theory of Eclipses_, by R. Buchanan (Philadelphia, 1904), treats the
+  subject yet more fully. Hansen's method is developed in the
+  _Abhandlungen_ of the Leipzig Academy of Sciences, vol. vi.
+  (Math.-Phys. Classe, vol. iv.). The formulae of computation by this
+  method are found in the introductions to Oppolzer's two works cited
+  above.     (S. N.)
+
+
+
+
+ECLIPTIC, in astronomy. The plane of the ecliptic is that plane in or
+near which the centre of gravity of the earth and moon revolves round
+the sun. The ecliptic itself is the great circle in which this plane
+meets the celestial sphere. It is also defined, but not with absolute
+rigour, as the apparent path described by the sun around the celestial
+sphere as the earth performs its annual revolution. Owing to the action
+of the moon on the earth, as it performs its monthly revolution in an
+orbit slightly inclined to the ecliptic, the centre of the earth itself
+deviates from the plane of the ecliptic in a period equal to that of the
+nodal revolution of the moon. The deviation is extremely slight, its
+maximum amount ranging between 0.5' and 0.6". Owing to the action of the
+planets, especially Venus and Jupiter, on the earth, the centre of
+gravity of the earth and moon deviates by a yet minuter amount,
+generally one or two tenths of a second, from the plane of the ecliptic
+proper. Owing to the action of the planets, the position of the ecliptic
+is subject to a slow secular variation amounting, during our time, to
+nearly 47" per century. The rate of this motion is slowly diminishing.
+
+The obliquity of the ecliptic is the angle which its plane makes with
+that of the equator. Its mean value is now about 23 deg. 27'. The motion
+of the ecliptic produces a secular variation in the obliquity which is
+now diminishing by an amount nearly equal to the entire motion of the
+ecliptic itself. The laws of motion of the ecliptic and equator are
+stated in the article PRECESSION OF THE EQUINOXES.
+
+Attempts have been made by Laplace and his successors to fix certain
+limits within which the obliquity of the ecliptic shall always be
+confined. The results thus derived are, however, based on imperfect
+formulae. When the problem is considered in a rigorous form, it is found
+that no absolute limits can be set. It can, however, be shown that the
+obliquity cannot vary more than two or three degrees within a million of
+years of our epoch.
+
+  The formula for the obliquity of the ecliptic, as derived from the
+  laws of motion of it and of the equator, may be developed in a series
+  proceeding according to the ascending powers of the time as follows:
+  we put T, the time from 1900, reckoned in solar centuries as a unit.
+  Then,
+
+  Obliquity = 23 deg. 27' 31.68" - 46.837" T - 0.0085" T^2 + 0.0017" T^3.
+
+  From this expression is derived the value of the obliquity at various
+  epochs given in the following table. The left-hand portion of this
+  table gives the values for intervals of 500 years from 2000 B.C. to
+  A.D. 2500 as computed from modern data. For dates more than three or
+  four centuries before or after 1850 the result is necessarily
+  uncertain by one or more tenths of a minute, and is therefore only
+  given to 0.1'.
+
+    B.C. 2000; obl. = 23 deg. 55.5"  A.D. 1700; obl. = 23 deg. 28' 41.91"
+         1500   "   = 23  52.3            1750   "   = 23  28  18.51
+         1000   "   = 23  48.9            1800   "   = 23  27  55.10
+          500   "   = 23  45.4            1850   "   = 23  27  31.68
+            0   "   = 23  41.7            1900   "   = 23  27   8.26
+    A.D.  500   "   = 23  38.0            1950   "   = 23  26  44.84
+         1000   "   = 23  34.1            2000   "   = 23  26  21.41
+         1500   "   = 23  30.3            2050   "   = 23  25  57.99
+         2000   "   = 23  26.4            2100   "   = 23  25  34.56
+         2500   "   = 23  22.5
+       (S. N.)
+
+
+
+
+ECLOGITE (from Gr. [Greek: ekloge], a selection), in petrology, a typical
+member of a small group of metamorphic rocks of special interest on
+account of the variety of minerals they contain and their microscopic
+structures and geological relationships. Typically they consist of pale
+green or nearly colourless augite (omphacite), green hornblende and pink
+garnet. Quartz also is usually present in these rocks, but felspar is
+rare. The augite is mostly a variety of diopside and is only occasionally
+idiomorphic. The garnet sometimes forms good dodecahedra, but may occur
+as rounded grains, and encloses quartz, rutile, kyanite, and other
+minerals very frequently. The hornblende is usually pale green and feebly
+dichroic, but, in some eclogites which are allied to garnet-amphibolites,
+it is of dark brown colour. Among the commoner accessory minerals are
+kyanite (of blue or greyish-blue tints), rutile, biotite, epidote and
+zoisite, sphene, iron oxides, and pyrites. The rutile is invariably in
+small brown prisms; the kyanite forms bladed crystals, with perfect
+cleavage; felspar, if present, belongs to basic varieties rich in lime.
+Other minerals which have been found in eclogites are bronzite, olivine
+and glaucophane. The last mentioned is a bright blue variety of
+hornblende with striking pleochroism. The eclogites in their chemical
+composition show close affinities to gabbros; they often exhibit
+relationships in the field which show that they were primarily intrusive
+rocks of igneous origin, and occasionally contact alteration can be
+traced in the adjacent schists. Examples are known in Saxony, Bavaria,
+Carinthia, Austria, Norway. A few eclogites also occur in the north-west
+highlands of Scotland. Glaucophane-eclogites have been met with in Italy
+and the Pennine Alps. Specimens of rock allied to eclogite have been
+found in the diamantiferous peridotite breccias of South Africa (the
+so-called "blue ground"), and this has given rise to the theory that
+these are the parent masses from which the Kimberley diamonds have come.
+     (J. S. F.)
+
+
+
+
+ECLOGUE, a short pastoral dialogue in verse. The word is conjectured to
+be derived from the Greek verb [Greek: eklegein], to choose. An eclogue,
+perhaps, in its primary signification was a selected piece. Another more
+fantastic derivation traces it to [Greek: aix], goat, and [Greek:
+logos], speech, and makes it a conversation of shepherds. The idea of
+dialogue, however, is not necessary for an eclogue, which is often not
+to be distinguished from the idyll. The grammarians, in giving this
+title to Virgil's pastoral conversations (_Bucolica_), tended to make
+the term "eclogue" apply exclusively to dialogue, and this has in fact
+been the result of the success of Virgil's work. Latin eclogues were
+also written by Calpurnius Siculus and by Nemesianus. In modern
+literature the term has lost any distinctive character which it may have
+possessed among the Romans; it is merged in the general notion of
+pastoral poetry. The French "Eglogues" of J.R. de Segrais (1624-1701)
+were long famous, and those of the Spanish poet Garcilasso de La Vega
+(1503-1536) are still admired.
+
+  See also BUCOLICS; PASTORAL.
+
+
+
+
+ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY, the name given to the study of insects based on
+their relation to man, his domestic animals and his crops, and, in the
+case of those that are injurious, of the practical methods by which they
+can be prevented from doing harm, or be destroyed when present. In Great
+Britain little attention is paid to this important branch of
+agricultural science, but in America and the British colonies the case
+is different. Nearly every state in America has its official economic
+entomologists, and nearly every one of the British crown colonies is
+provided with one or more able men who help the agricultural community
+to battle against the insect pests. Most, if not all, of the important
+knowledge of remedies comes from America, where this subject reaches the
+highest perfection; even the life-histories of some of the British pests
+have been traced out in the United States and British colonies more
+completely than at home, from the creatures that have been introduced
+from Europe.
+
+Some idea of the importance of this subject may be gained from the
+following figures. The estimated loss by the vine _Phylloxera_ in the
+Gironde alone was L32,000,000; for all the French wine districts
+L100,000,000 would not cover the damage. It has been stated on good
+evidence that a loss of L7,000,000 per annum was caused by the attack of
+the ox warble fly on cattle in England alone. In a single season
+Aberdeenshire suffered nearly L90,000 worth of damage owing to the
+ravages of the diamond back moth on the root crops; in New York state
+the codling moth caused a loss of $3,000,000 to apple-growers. Yet these
+figures are nothing compared to the losses due to scale insects, locusts
+and other pests.
+
+  The most able exponent of this subject in Great Britain was John
+  Curtis, whose treatise on _Farm Insects_, published in 1860, is still
+  the standard British work dealing with the insect foes of corn, roots,
+  grass and stored corn. The most important works dealing with fruit and
+  other pests come from the pens of Saunders, Lintner, Riley,
+  Slingerland and others in America and Canada, from Taschenberg, Lampa,
+  Reuter and Kollar in Europe, and from French, Froggatt and Tryon in
+  Australia. It was not until the last quarter of the 19th century that
+  any real advance was made in the study of economic entomology. Among
+  the early writings, besides the book of Curtis, there may also be
+  mentioned a still useful little publication by Pohl and Kollar,
+  entitled _Insects Injurious to Gardeners, Foresters and Farmers_,
+  published in 1837, and Taschenberg's _Praktische Insecktenkunde_.
+  American literature began as far back as 1788, when a report on the
+  Hessian fly was issued by Sir Joseph Banks; in 1817 Say began his
+  writings; while in 1856 Asa Fitch started his report on the "Noxious
+  Insects of New York." Since that date the literature has largely
+  increased. Among the most important reports, &c., may be mentioned
+  those of C.V. Riley, published by the U.S. Department of Agriculture,
+  extending from 1878 to his death, in which is embodied an enormous
+  amount of valuable matter. At his death the work fell to Professor
+  L.O. Howard, who constantly issues brochures of equal value in the
+  form of Bulletins of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The chief
+  writings of J.A. Lintner extend from 1882 to 1898, in yearly parts,
+  under the title of _Reports on the Injurious Insects of the State of
+  New York_. Another author whose writings rank high on this subject is
+  M.V. Slingerland, whose investigations are published by Cornell
+  University. Among other Americans who have largely increased the
+  literature and knowledge must be mentioned F.M. Webster and E.P. Felt.
+  In 1883 appeared a work on fruit pests by William Saunders, which
+  mainly applies to the American continent; and another small book on
+  the same subject was published in 1898 by Miss Ormerod, dealing with
+  the British pests. In Australia Tryon published a work on the _Insect
+  and Fungus Enemies of Queensland_ in 1889. Many other papers and
+  reports are being issued from Australia, notably by Froggatt in New
+  South Wales. At the Cape excellent works and papers are prepared and
+  issued by the government entomologist, Dr Lounsbury, under the
+  auspices of the Agricultural Department; while from India we have
+  Cotes's _Notes on Economic Entomology_, published by the Indian Museum
+  in 1888, and other works, especially on tea pests.
+
+Injurious insects occur among the following orders: _Coleoptera_,
+_Hymenoptera_, _Lepidoptera_, _Diptera_, _Hemiptera_ (both _heteroptera_
+and _homoptera_), _Orthoptera_, _Neuroptera_ and _Thysanoptera_. The
+order _Aptera_ also contains a few injurious species.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--A, Wireworm; B, pupa of Click Beetle; C, adult
+Click Beetle (_Agriotes lineatum_).]
+
+Among the _Coleoptera_ or beetles there is a group of world-wide pests,
+the _Elateridae_ or click beetles, the adults of the various
+"wireworms." The insects in the larval or wireworm stage attack the
+roots of plants, eating them away below the ground. The eggs deposited
+by the beetle in the ground develop into yellowish-brown wire-like grubs
+with six legs on the first three segments and a ventral prominence on
+the anal segment. The life of these subterranean pests differs in the
+various species; some undoubtedly (_Agriotes lineatum_) live for three
+or four years, during the greater part of which time they gnaw away at
+the roots of plants, carrying wholesale destruction before them. When
+mature they pass deep into the ground and pupate, appearing after a few
+months as the click beetles (fig. 1). Most crops are attacked by them,
+but they are particularly destructive to wheat and other cereals. With
+such subterranean pests little can be done beyond rolling the land to
+keep it firm, and thus preventing them from moving rapidly from plant to
+plant. A few crops, such as mustard, seem deleterious to them. By
+growing mustard and ploughing it in green the ground is made obnoxious
+to the wireworms, and may even be cleared of them. For root-feeders,
+bisulphide of carbon injected into the soil is of particular value. One
+ounce injected about 2 ft. from an apple tree on two sides has been
+found to destroy all the ground form of the woolly aphis. In garden
+cultivation it is most useful for wireworm, used at the rate of 1 ounce
+to every 4 sq. yds. It kills all root pests.
+
+In Great Britain the flea beetles (_Halticidae_) are one of the most
+serious enemies; one of these, the turnip flea (_Phyllotreta nemorum_),
+has in some years, notably 1881, caused more than L500,000 loss in
+England and Scotland alone by eating the young seedling turnips, cabbage
+and other _Cruciferae_. In some years three or four sowings have to be
+made before a "plant" is produced, enormous loss in labour and cost of
+seed alone being thus involved. These beetles, characterized by their
+skipping movements and enlarged hind femora, also attack the hop
+(_Haltica concinna_), the vine in America (_Graptodera chalybea_,
+Illig.), and numerous other species of plants, being specially harmful
+to seedlings and young growth. Soaking the seed in strong-smelling
+substances, such as paraffin and turpentine, has been found efficacious,
+and in some districts paraffin sprayed over the seedlings has been
+practised with decided success. This oil generally acts as an excellent
+preventive of this and other insect attacks.
+
+In all climates fruit and forest trees suffer from weevils or
+_Curculionidae_. The plum curculio (_Conotrachelus nenuphar_, Herbst) in
+America causes endless harm in plum orchards; curculios in Australia
+ravage the vines and fruit trees (_Orthorrhinus klugii_, Schon, and
+_Leptops hopei_, Bohm, &c.). In Europe a number of "long-snouted"
+beetles, such as the raspberry weevils (_Otiorhynchus picipes_), the
+apple blossom weevil (_Anthonomus pomorum_), attack fruit; others, as
+the "corn weevils" (_Calandra oryzae_ and _C. granaria_), attack stored
+rice and corn; while others produce swollen patches on roots
+(_Ceutorhynchus sulcicollis_), &c. All these _Curculionidae_ are very
+timid creatures, falling to the ground at the least shock. This habit
+can be used as a means of killing them, by placing boards or sacks
+covered with tar below the trees, which are then gently shaken. As many
+of these beetles are nocturnal, this trapping should take place at
+night. Larval "weevils" mostly feed on the roots of plants, but some,
+such as the nut weevil (_Balaninus nucum_), live as larvae inside fruit.
+Seeds of various plants are also attacked by weevils of the family
+_Bruchidae_, especially beans and peas. These seed-feeders may be killed
+in the seeds by subjecting them to the fumes of bisulphide of carbon.
+The corn weevils (_Calandra granaria_ and _C. oryzae_) are now found all
+over the world, in many cases rendering whole cargoes of corn useless.
+
+The most important Hymenopterous pests are the sawflies or
+_Tenthredinidae_, which in their larval stage attack almost all
+vegetation. The larvae of these are usually spoken of as "false
+caterpillars," on account of their resemblance to the larvae of a moth.
+They are most ravenous feeders, stripping bushes and trees completely of
+their foliage, and even fruit. Sawfly larvae can at once be recognized
+by the curious positions they assume, and by the number of pro-legs,
+which exceeds ten. The female lays her eggs in a slit made by means of
+her "saw-like" ovipositor in the leaf or fruit of a tree. The pupae in
+most of these pests are found in an earthen cocoon beneath the ground,
+or in some cases above ground (_Lophyrus pini_). One species, the
+slugworm (_Eriocampa limacina_), is common to Europe and America; the
+larva is a curious slug-like creature, found on the upper surface of the
+leaves of the pear and cherry, which secretes a slimy coating from its
+skin. Currant and gooseberry are also attacked by sawfly larvae
+(_Nematus ribesii_ and _N. ventricosus_) both in Europe and America.
+Other species attack the stalks of grasses and corn (_Cephus pygmaeus_).
+Forest trees also suffer from their ravages, especially the conifers
+(_Lophyrus pini_). Another group of Hymenoptera occasionally causes much
+harm in fir plantations, namely, the _Siricidae_ or wood-wasps, whose
+larvae burrow into the trunks of the trees and thus kill them. For all
+exposed sawfly larvae hellebore washes are most fatal, but they must not
+be used over ripe or ripening fruit, as the hellebore is poisonous.
+
+The order Diptera contains a host of serious pests. These two-winged
+insects attack all kinds of plants, and also animals in their larval
+stage. Many of the adults are bloodsuckers (_Tabanidae_, _Culicidae_,
+&c.); others are parasitic in their larval stage (_Oestridae_, &c.). The
+best-known dipterous pests are the Hessian fly (_Cecidomyia
+destructor_), the pear midge (_Diplosis pyrivora_), the fruit flies
+(_Tephritis Tyroni_ of Queensland and _Halterophora capitata_ or the
+Mediterranean fruit fly), the onion fly (_Phorbia cepetorum_), and
+numerous corn pests, such as the gout fly (_Chloropstaeniopus_) and the
+frit fly (_Oscinis frit_). Animals suffer from the ravages of bot flies
+(_Oestridae_) and gad flies (_Tabanidae_); while the tsetse disease is
+due to the tsetse fly (_Glossina morsitans_), carrying the protozoa that
+cause the disease from one horse to another. Other flies act as
+disease-carriers, including the mosquitoes (_Anopheles_), which not only
+carry malarial germs, but also form a secondary host for these
+parasites. Hundreds of acres of wheat are lost annually in America by
+the ravages of the Hessian fly; the fruit flies of Australia and South
+Africa cause much loss to orange and citron growers, often making it
+necessary to cover the trees in muslin tents for protection. Of animal
+pests the ox warbles (_Hypoderma lineata_ and _H. bovis_) are the most
+important (see fig. 2). The "bots" or larvae of these flies live under
+the skin of cattle, producing large swollen lumps--"warbles"--in which
+the "bots" mature (fig. 2). These parasites damage the hide, set up
+inflammation, and cause immense loss to farmers, herdsmen and butchers.
+The universal attack that has been made upon this pest has, however,
+largely decreased its numbers. In America cattle suffer much from the
+horn fly (_Haematobia serrata_). The dipterous garden pests, such as the
+onion fly, carrot fly and celery fly, can best be kept in check by the
+use of paraffin emulsions and the treatment of the soil with gas-lime
+after the crop is lifted. Cereal pests can only be treated by general
+cleanliness and good farming, and of course they are largely kept down
+by the rotation of crops.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--A, Ox Bot Maggot; B, puparium; C, Ox Warble Fly
+(_Hypoderma bovis_).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Looper-larva of Winter Moth (_Cheimatobia
+brumata_).]
+
+Lepidopterous enemies are numerous all over the world. Fruit suffers
+much from the larvae of the _Geometridae_, the so-called "looper-larvae"
+or "canker-worms." Of these geometers the winter moth (_Cheimatobia
+brumata_) is one of the chief culprits in Europe (fig. 3). The females
+in this moth and in others allied to it are wingless. These insects pass
+the pupal stage in the ground, and reach the boughs to lay their eggs by
+crawling up the trunks of the trees. To check them, "grease-banding"
+round the trees has been adopted; but as many other pests eat the
+leafage, it is best to kill all at once by spraying with arsenical
+poisons. Among other notable Lepidopterous pests are the "surface
+larvae" or cutworms (_Agrotis spp._), the caterpillars of various
+Noctuae; the codling moth (_Carpocapsa pomonella_), which causes the
+maggot in apples, has now become a universal pest, having spread from
+Europe to America and to most of the British Colonies. In many years
+quite half the apple crop is lost in England owing to the larvae
+destroying the fruit. Sugar-canes suffer from the sugar-cane borer
+(_Diatioca sacchari_) in the West Indies; tobacco from the larvae of
+hawk moths (_Sphingidae_) in America; corn and grass from various
+Lepidopterous pests all over the world. Nor are stored goods exempt, for
+much loss annually takes place in corn and flour from the presence of
+the larvae of the Mediterranean flour moth (_Ephestia kuniella_); while
+furs and clothes are often ruined by the clothes moth (_Tinea
+trapezella_).
+
+By far the most destructive insects in warm climates belong to the
+Hemiptera, especially to the _Coccidae_ or scale insects. All fruit and
+forest trees suffer from these curious insects, which in the female sex
+always remain apterous and apodal and live attached to the bark, leaf
+and fruit, hidden beneath variously formed scale-like coverings. The
+male scales differ in form from the female; the adult male is winged,
+and is rarely seen. The female lays her eggs beneath the scaly covering,
+from which hatch out little active six-legged larvae, which wander about
+and soon begin to form a new scale. The _Coccidae_ can, and mainly do,
+breed asexually (parthenogenetically). One of the most important is the
+San Jose scale (_Aspidiotus perniciosus_), which in warm climates
+attacks all fruit and many other trees, which, if unmolested, it will
+soon kill (fig. 4). These scales breed very rapidly; Howard states one
+may give rise to a progeny of 3,216,080,400 in one year. Other scale
+insects of note are the cosmopolitan mussel scale (_Mytilaspis pomorum_)
+and the Australian _Icerya purchasi_. The former attacks apple and pear;
+the latter, which selects orange and citron, was introduced into America
+from Australia, and carried ruin before it in some orange districts
+until its natural enemy, the lady-bird beetle, _Vedalia cardinalis_, was
+also imported.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--San Jose Scale (_Aspidiotus perniciosus_). A,
+Male scale insect; B, female; C, larva; D, female scale; E, male scale.]
+
+After the _Coccidae_ the next most important insects economically are
+the plant lice or _Aphididae_. These breed with great rapidity under
+favourable conditions: one by the end of the year will be accountable,
+according to Linnaeus, for the enormous number of a quintillion of its
+species. Aphides are born, as a rule, alive, and the young soon commence
+to reproduce again. Their food consists mainly of the sap obtained from
+the leaves and blossom of plants, but some also live on the roots of
+plants (_Phylloxera vastatrix_ and _Schizoneura lanigera_). Aphides
+often ruin whole crops of fruit, corn, hops, &c., by sucking out the
+sap, and not only check growth, but may even entail the death of the
+plant. Reproduction is mainly asexual, the females producing living
+young without the agency of a male. Males in nearly all species appear
+once a year, when the last female generation, the ovigerous generation,
+is fertilized, and a few large ova are produced to carry on the
+continuity of the species over the winter. Some aphides live only on one
+species of plant, others on two or more plants. An example of the latter
+is seen in the hop aphis (_Phorodon humuli_), which passes the winter
+and lives on the sloe and damson in the egg stage until the middle of
+May or later, and then flies off to the hops, where it causes endless
+harm all the summer (fig. 5); it flies back to the prunes to lay its
+eggs when the hops are ripe. Another aphis of importance is the woolly
+aphis (_Schizoneura lanigera_) of the apple and pear: it secretes tufts
+of white flocculent wool often to be seen hanging in patches from old
+apple trees, where the insects live in the rough bark and form cankered
+growths both above and below ground. Aphides are provided with a mealy
+skin, which does not allow water to be attached to it, and thus
+insecticides for destroying them contain soft soap, which fixes the
+solution to the skin; paraffin is added to corrode the skin, and the
+soft soap blocks up the breathing pores and so produces asphyxiation.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--The Hop Aphis (_Phorodon humuli_). A, Winged
+female; B, winged male; C, ovigerous wingless female; D, viviparous
+wingless female from plum; E, pupal stage.]
+
+Amongst _Orthoptera_ we find many noxious insects, notably the locusts,
+which travel in vast cloud-like armies, clearing the whole country
+before them of all vegetable life. The most destructive locust is the
+migratory locust (_Locusta migratoria_), which causes wholesale
+destruction in the East. Large pits are dug across the line of advance
+of these great insect armies to stop them when in the larval or wingless
+stage, and even huge bonfires are lighted to check their flight when
+adult. So dense are these "locust clouds" that they sometimes quite
+darken the air. The commonest and most widely distributed migratory
+locust is _Pachytylus cinerascens_. The mole cricket (_Gryllotalpa
+vulgaris_) and various cockroaches (_Blattidae_) are also amongst the
+pests found in this order.
+
+Of _Neuroptera_ there are but few injurious species, and many, such as
+the lace wing flies (_Hemerobiidae_), are beneficial.
+
+_The Treatment of Insect Pests._--One of the most important ways of
+keeping insect pests in check is by "spraying" or "washing." This method
+has made great advances in recent years. All the pioneer work has been
+done in America; in fact, until the South-Eastern Agricultural College
+undertook the elucidation of this subject, little was known of it in
+England except by a few growers. The results and history of this
+essential method of treatment are embodied in Professor Lodemann's work
+on the _Spraying of Plants_, 1896. In this treatment we have to bear in
+mind what the entomologist teaches us, that is, the nature, habits and
+structure of the pest.
+
+  For insects provided with a biting mouth, which take nourishment from
+  the whole leaf, shoot or fruit, the poisonous washes used are chiefly
+  arsenical. The two most useful arsenical sprays are Paris green and
+  arsenate of lead. To make the former, mix 1 oz. of the Paris green
+  with 15 gallons of soft water, and add 2 oz. of lime and a small
+  quantity of agricultural treacle; the latter is prepared by dissolving
+  3 oz. of acetate of lead in a little water, then 1 oz. of arsenate of
+  soda in water and mixing the two well together, and adding the whole
+  to 16 gallons of soft water; to this is added a small quantity of
+  coarse treacle. For piercing-mouthed pests like _Aphides_ no wash is
+  of use unless it contains a basis of soft soap. This soft-soap wash
+  kills by contact, and may be prepared in the following way:--Dissolve
+  6 to 8 lb. of the best soft soap in boiling soft water and while still
+  hot (but of course taken off the fire) add 1 gallon of paraffin oil
+  and churn well together with a force-pump; the whole may then be mixed
+  with 100 gallons of soft water. The oil readily separates from the
+  water, and thus a perfect emulsion is not obtained: this difficulty
+  has been solved by Mr Cousin's paraffin naphthalene wash, which is
+  patented, but can be made for private use. It is prepared as
+  follows:--Soft soap, 6 lb. dissolved in 1 quart of water; naphthalene,
+  10 oz. mixed with 1-1/2 pint of paraffin; the whole is mixed together.
+  When required for use, 1 lb. of the compound is dissolved in 5 to 10
+  gallons of warm water.
+
+  These two washes are essential to the well-being of every orchard in
+  all climates. Not only can we now destroy larval and adult insects,
+  but we can also attack them in the egg stage by the use of a caustic
+  alkali wash during the winter; besides destroying the eggs of such
+  pests as the _Psyllidae_, red spider, and some aphides, this also
+  removes the vegetal encumbrances which shelter numerous other insect
+  pests during the cold part of the year. Caustic alkali wash is
+  prepared by dissolving 1 lb. of crude potash and 1 lb. of caustic soda
+  in soft water, mixing the two solutions together, adding to them 3/4
+  lb. of soft soap, and diluting with 10 gallons of soft water when
+  required for use. Another approved insecticide for scale insects is
+  resin wash, which acts in two ways: first, corroding the soft scales,
+  and second, fixing the harder scales to stop the egress of the hexapod
+  larvae. It is prepared as follows:--First crush 8 lb. of resin in a
+  sack, and then place the resin in warm water and boil in a cauldron
+  until thoroughly dissolved; then melt 10 lb. of caustic soda in enough
+  warm water to keep it liquid, and mix with the dissolved resin; keep
+  stirring until the mixture assumes a clear coffee-colour, and for ten
+  minutes afterwards; then add enough warm water to bring the whole up
+  to 25 gallons, and well stir. Bottle this off, and when required for
+  use dilute with three times its bulk of warm soft water, and spray
+  over the trees in the early spring just before the buds burst. For
+  mites (_Acari_) sulphur is the essential ingredient of a spray. Liver
+  of sulphur has been found to be the best form, especially when mixed
+  with a paraffin emulsion. Bud mites (_Phytoptidae_, fig. 6) are of
+  course not affected. Sulphur wash is made by adding to every 10
+  gallons of warm paraffin emulsion or paraffin-naphthalene-emulsion 7
+  oz. of liver of sulphur, and stirring until the sulphur is well mixed.
+  This is applied as an ordinary spray. Nursery stock should always be
+  treated, to kill scale, aphis and other pests which it may carry, by
+  the gas treatment, particularly in the case of stock imported from a
+  foreign climate. This treatment, both out of doors and under glass, is
+  carried out as follows:--Cover the plants in bulk with a light
+  gas-tight cloth, or put them in a special fumigating house, and then
+  place 1 oz. of cyanide of potassium in lumps in a dish with water
+  beneath the covering, and then pour 1 oz. of sulphuric acid over it
+  (being careful not to inhale the poisonous fumes) for every 1000 cub.
+  ft. of space beneath the cover. The gas generated, prussic acid,
+  should be left to work for at least an hour before the stock is
+  removed, when all forms of animal life will be destroyed.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Bud Mites (_Phytoptidae_). A, Currant Bud Mite
+  (_Phytoptus ribis_); B, Nut Bud Mite (_P. avellanae_).]
+
+  For spraying, proper instruments must be used, by means of which the
+  liquid is sent out over the plants in as fine a mist as possible.
+  Numerous pumps and nozzles are now made by which this end is attained.
+  Both horse and hand machines are employed, the former for hops and
+  large orchards, the latter for bush fruit and gardens. In America,
+  where trees in parks as well as orchards and gardens are treated,
+  steam-power is sometimes used. Among the most important sprayers are
+  the Strawson horse sprayers and the smaller Eclair and Notus knapsack
+  pumps, carried on the back (fig. 7). The nozzles for "mistifying" the
+  wash most in use are known as the Vermorel and Riley's, which can be
+  fitted to any length of tubing, so as to reach any height, and can be
+  turned in any direction. The pumps in the machine keep the insecticide
+  constantly mixed, and at the same time force the wash with great
+  strength through the nozzle, and so to the exterior, as a fine mist;
+  every part of the plant is thus affected.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Knapsack Sprayer for Liquid Insecticides.]
+
+_Beneficial Insects_ have also to be considered in economic entomology.
+They are of two kinds--(1) those that help to keep down an excess of
+other insects by acting either as parasites or by being insectivorous in
+habit; and (2) insects of economic value, such as the bee and silkworm.
+Amongst the most important friends to the farmer and gardener are the
+Hymenopterous families of ichneumon flies (_Ichneumonidae_ and
+_Braconidae_); the Dipterous families _Syrphidae_ and _Tachinidae_; the
+Coleopterous families _Coccinellidae_ and _Carabidae_; and the
+Neuropterous _Hemerobiidae_, or lace-wing flies. Ichneumon flies lay
+their eggs either in the larvae or ova of other insects, and the
+parasites destroy their host. In this way the Hessian fly is doubtless
+kept in check in Europe, and the aphides meet with serious hindrance to
+their increase. If a number of plant-lice are examined, a few will be
+found looking like little pearls; these are the dried skins of those
+that have been killed by _Ichneumonidae_. The _Syrphidae_, or hover
+flies, are almost exclusively aphis-feeders in their larval stage.
+_Tachina_ flies attack lepidopterous larvae. One of the most notable
+examples of the use of insect allies is the case of the Australian
+lady-bird, _Vedalia cardinalis_, which, in common with all lady-birds,
+feeds off _Aphidae_ and _Coccidae_. The Icerya scale (_Icerya purchasi_)
+imported into America ruined the orange groves, but its enemy, the
+_Vedalia_, was also imported from Australia, and counteracted its
+abnormal increase with such great results that the crippled orange
+groves are now once more profitable.     (F. V. T.)
+
+
+
+
+ECONOMICS (from the Gr. [Greek: oikonomike], sc. [Greek: techne], from
+[Greek: oikos], a house, and [Greek: nomos], rule,--the "art of
+household management"), the general term, with its synonym "political
+economy," for the science or study of wealth (welfare) and its
+production, applicable either to the individual, the family, the State,
+or in the widest sense, the world. How far the same considerations apply
+to all these spheres is one of the problems of economic thought in its
+widest sense. The term "economy" (q.v.) by itself, which should strictly
+mean the art of applying money (or wealth) wisely, has commonly come to
+mean the art of saving money, or spending as little as possible. In
+practice the study of "political" economy is mainly devoted to the
+sphere of the State; the welfare of the individual as a member of the
+State, and of the State in its relation to the world, being internal
+aspects of the prosperity of the State itself. Economics thus includes
+the discussion of all the numerous factors which make life profitable,
+whether to the nation or to the business, or to the individual man. It
+may be conceived either as an historical science (What principles have
+in fact paid?), or as an abstract science (What are the true principles
+which must pay, presupposing an ideal?). Economists at different times
+have studied both aspects, according to their lights, and influenced by
+historical conditions of philosophic thought. A text-book on economics
+necessarily deals, therefore, with the whole subject in a manner which
+need not here be followed, since separate articles are devoted in this
+work to the biographies of writers on economics, and also to the
+principal economic questions involved, under their own headings. In
+this article we propose therefore to confine ourselves to discussing the
+character and subject-matter of the science, indicating its relation to
+other sciences, and explaining the methods by which economists reach
+their conclusions.
+
+We understand by economics the science which investigates the manner in
+which nations or other larger or smaller communities, and their
+individual members, obtain food, clothing, shelter and whatever else is
+considered desirable or necessary for the maintenance and improvement of
+the conditions of life. It is thus the study of the life of communities
+with special reference to one side of their activity. It necessarily
+involves the scientific examination of the structure and organization of
+the community or communities in question; their history, their customs,
+laws and institutions; and the relations between their members, in so
+far as they affect or are affected by this department of their activity.
+
+At the root of all economic investigation lies the conception of the
+standard of life of the community. By this expression we do not mean an
+ideal mode of living, but the habits and requirements of life generally
+current in a community or grade of society at a given period. The
+standard of life of the ordinary well-to-do middle class in England, for
+example, includes not only food, clothing and shelter of a kind
+different in many respects from that of a similar class in other
+countries and of other classes in England, but a highly complicated
+mechanism, both public and private, for ministering to these primary
+needs, habits of social intercourse, educational and sanitary
+organization, recreative arrangements and many other elements. Many
+influences operating for a long period of time on the character and the
+environment of a class go to determine its standard of life. In a modern
+industrial community it is possible to express this standard fairly
+accurately for the purposes of economic investigation in terms of money
+(q.v.). But it is doubtful whether the most complete investigation would
+ever enable us to include all the elements of the standard of life in a
+money estimate. The character, tastes and capacity for management of
+different individuals and groups differ so widely that equal incomes do
+not necessarily imply identity of standard. In the investigation of past
+times, the incommensurate elements of well-being are so numerous that
+merely money estimates are frequently misleading. The conception of the
+standard of life involves also some estimate of the efforts and
+sacrifices people are prepared to make to obtain it; of their ideals and
+character; of the relative strength of the different motives which
+usually determine their conduct. But no carefully devised calculus can
+take the place of insight, observation and experience. The economist
+should be a man of wide sympathies and practical sagacity, in close
+touch with men of different grades, and, if possible, experienced in
+affairs.
+
+
+  Character of subject-matter.
+
+It is evident that no permanent classification is possible of what is or
+is not of economic significance. No general rules, applicable to all
+times, can be laid down as to what phenomena must be examined or what
+may be neglected in economic inquiry. The different departments of human
+activity are organically connected, and all facts relating to the life
+of a community have a near or remote economic significance. For short
+historical periods, indeed, many phenomena are so remotely connected
+with the ordinary business of life that we may ignore them. But at any
+moment special causes may bring into the field of economic inquiry whole
+departments of life which have hitherto been legitimately ignored. In
+times past, biblical exegesis, religious ideals, and ecclesiastical
+organization, the purely political aims of statesmen, chance
+combinations of party politics and the intrigues of diplomatists, class
+prejudice, social conventions, apparently sudden changes of economic
+policy, capricious changes of fashion--all these causes and many others
+have exerted a direct and immediate influence on the economic life of
+the community. In our own day we have had many illustrations of the
+manner in which special circumstances may at once bring an almost
+unnoticed series of scientific investigations into direct and vital
+relation with the business world. The economist must, therefore, not
+only be prepared to take account of the physical features of the world,
+the general structure and organization of the industry and commerce of
+different states, the character of their administration and other
+important causes of economic change. He must be in touch with the actual
+life of the community he is studying, and cultivate "that openness and
+alertness of the mind, that sensitiveness of the judgment, which can
+rapidly grasp the significance of at first sight unrelated discoveries
+or events."
+
+Some people are of opinion that the factors to be taken account of in
+economic investigation are so numerous that progress on these lines is
+impossible. It would certainly be impossible if we had to begin _de
+novo_ to construct the whole fabric of economic science. But, as we
+shall see, it is no more necessary to do this in the world of science
+than it is in the world of business or politics. There is in existence a
+vast store of accumulated knowledge, and few, if any, departments of
+economics have been left quite unilluminated by the researches of former
+generations. Progress is the result of adaptation rather than
+reconstruction. It must be remembered also that economic work in modern
+times is carried on by consciously or unconsciously associated effort,
+and although it must always require high qualities of judgment, capacity
+and energy, many of the difficulties which at first sight appear so
+insuperable give way when they are attacked. In some ways also the study
+of highly developed organizations like the modern industrial state is
+simpler than that of earlier forms of society.
+
+
+  Ancient and modern conditions in England.
+
+In the earliest times for which we have abundant material the economic
+life of England had already reached in certain directions a high degree
+of complexity. Even in the rural districts, manorial records reveal the
+existence of a great variety of classes and groups of persons engaged in
+the performance of economic functions. The lord of the manor with his
+officials and retainers, the peasantry bound to him by ties of personal
+dependence and mutual rights and obligations, constituted a little
+world, in which we can watch the play of motives and passions not so
+dissimilar as we are sometimes led to believe from those of the great
+modern world. In many a country district the gradations of social rank
+were more continuous, the opportunities of intercourse more frequent,
+and the capacity for organization greater than in modern times. The
+manorial accounts were kept with precision and detail, and we are told
+that a skilled official could estimate to the utmost farthing the value
+of the services due from the villein to his lord. The manor was indeed
+self-sufficient and independent in the sense that it could furnish
+everything required by the majority of the inhabitants, and that over
+the greater part of rural England production was not carried on with a
+view to a distant market. But in the earliest times the manor was
+subjected to external influences of great importance. Vast areas of the
+country were in fact under the single control of a territorial lord or
+an ecclesiastical foundation. Every manor composing these great fiefs
+was likely to be affected by the policy or the character of the
+administration of the feudal lord, and he, again, by the policy or the
+difficulties, the strength or the weakness, of the central government.
+Foreign trade and foreign intercourse were undeveloped, but their
+influence was in historical times never entirely absent, while the
+influence of Roman law and the Christian Church constantly tended to
+modify the manorial organization. In the towns the division of labour
+had proceeded much further than in the rural districts, and there were
+in existence organized bodies, such as the Gild Merchant and the crafts,
+whose functions were primarily economic. But one of the most striking
+characteristics of town life in the middle ages was the manner in which
+municipal and industrial privileges and responsibilities were
+interwoven. In modern times the artisan, however well trained, efficient
+and painstaking he may be, does not, in virtue of these qualities, enjoy
+any municipal or political privileges. By means of his trade union,
+co-operative society or club he may gain some experience in the
+management of men and business, and in so far as the want of a
+sufficient income does not constitute an insuperable difficulty, he may
+share in the public life of the country. But in his character as
+artisan he enjoys no municipal or political privileges. In the middle
+ages this differentiation of the industrial, municipal and political
+life had not taken place, and in order to understand the working of at
+first sight purely economic regulations it is necessary to make a close
+study of the functions of local government. But this, after all, does
+not carry us very far. From the very nature of the records in which we
+study the town life of the middle ages, it follows that we obtain from
+them only a one-sided view. No one knows what proportion of the
+industrial population was included in the organized gilds, or how
+complete was the control exercised by these bodies over their members.
+Elaborate regulations were in force, but no one knows how elastic they
+were in practice. Medieval Englishmen were particularly apt to put their
+aspirations into a legal form, and then rest satisfied with their
+achievement. The number of regulations is scarcely to be regarded as a
+test of their administrative success. Further, as the country became
+more consolidated and the central government extended its authority over
+economic affairs, new regulations came into force, new organs of
+government appeared, which were sometimes in conflict, sometimes in
+harmony, with the existing system, and it becomes for a time far more
+difficult to obtain a clear view of the actual working of economic
+institutions. Thus the study of the economic life of the middle ages is
+one of the most complicated subjects which can engage the attention of
+man. It is impossible to carry the process of isolation very far. The
+different threads of social activity are so closely interwoven that we
+cannot follow any one for very long without forming wrong impressions,
+and it becomes necessary to turn back and study others which seemed at
+first sight unrelated to the subject of our investigations. Under an
+apparently uniform and stable system of social regulation there was much
+variation and movement, the significance of which it is impossible to
+estimate. Materials for forming such an estimate no doubt exist, but
+before doing so we have to study in infinite detail a vast number of
+separate manors, municipalities or other separate economic areas. This
+involves great industry on the part of many scientific workers.
+Meanwhile we can _illustrate_ the economic life of the middle ages,
+describe its main features, indicate the more important measures of
+public policy and draw attention to some of the main lines of
+development.
+
+
+  Conditions of economic science.
+
+It is only as we approach more modern times that the conditions of
+economic study are realized and economic science, as we understand it,
+becomes possible. Those conditions are: (i.) the life of the state or
+other community or communities we are studying must be so differentiated
+that we can isolate those functions which are wholly or predominantly
+economic. The "separation of employments" is not only a condition of
+economic efficiency; it was necessary before we could have an economic
+science. (ii.) We must be in a position so far to understand and
+estimate the character and motives of different classes and groups in
+these communities that we can rightly interpret their action. This
+condition cannot be realized without great difficulty, for "economic
+motives" are very different in different periods, nations and classes,
+and even for short periods of time in the same country are modified by
+the influence of other motives of an entirely different order. In
+studying the economic history of the 18th century, for example, it is
+not enough to assume with Defoe that "gain is the design of
+merchandise." We have to be saturated, as it were, with 18th-century
+influences, so that we can realize the conditions in which industry and
+trade were carried on, before we can rightly explain the course of
+development. In our own day labour disputes, to take another example,
+can scarcely ever be resolved into a question of merely pecuniary gain
+or loss. The significance of the amount of money involved varies greatly
+for different trades, and can only be understood by reference to the
+character and habits of the people concerned. But questions of
+sentiment, shop-feeling and trade customs invariably play an important
+part. (iii.) Economics can never lead to anything but hypothetical
+results unless we not only realize that we must "take account of" other
+than the purely economic factors, but also give due weight and
+significance to these factors. No explanation of the industrial
+situation in Germany, for example, would be intelligible or satisfactory
+even from the economic point of view which ignored the significance of
+the political conditions which Germans have to deal with. So, again, it
+is impossible to make a useful comparative estimate of the advantages
+and disadvantages of the transport systems of England, the United States
+and Germany, unless we keep constantly in view the very different
+geographical, military and political conditions which these systems have
+to satisfy. (iv.) Sufficient information must be available to enable us
+to test the validity of our hypotheses and conclusions. Whatever
+"method" of economic investigation we employ, we must at every stage see
+how far our reasoning is borne out by the actual experience of life.
+This obvious condition of scientific inquiry is very far from being
+completely realized even at the present time. It implies the existence
+of a well-trained class engaged in the work of collecting information,
+and much organization both by the state and private bodies. These four
+conditions can be reduced to two. The community we are studying must
+have reached such a stage of development that its economic functions and
+those immediately cognate to them form a well-defined group, and
+adequate means must be available so that we can, as it were, watch the
+performance of these functions and test our hypotheses and conclusions
+by observation and experience.
+
+It is easy to understand, therefore, why we trace the beginnings of
+economics, so far as England is concerned, in the 16th century, and why
+the application of strict scientific tests in this subject of human
+study has become possible only in comparatively recent times. Medieval
+economics was little more than a casuistical system of elaborate and
+somewhat artificial rules of conduct. From the close of the middle ages
+until the middle of the 18th century thousands of pamphlets and other
+works on economic questions were published, but the vast majority of the
+writers have little or no scientific importance. Their works frequently
+contain information given nowhere else, and throw much light on the
+state of opinion in the age in which they wrote. It is also possible to
+find in them many anticipations of the views of the economists of later
+times; but such statements were as a rule generated merely by the heat
+of controversy on some measure or event of practical importance, and
+when the controversy died down were seldom regarded or incorporated in a
+scientific system. Trade bias, personal impressions and guesswork took
+the place of scientific method. This was inevitable in the absence of
+trustworthy information on an adequate scale, and from the immediately
+practical aims of the writers. But from the end of the 17th century
+economics has been definitely recognized as a subject of scientific
+study.
+
+
+  Necessity of economic science.
+
+In modern times the conditions which have made economic science possible
+have also made it necessary. While it is impossible to give a strictly
+economic interpretation of the earlier history of nations, economic
+interests so govern the life and determine the policy of modern states
+that other forces, like those of religion and politics, seem to play
+only a subsidiary part, modifying here and there the view which is taken
+of particular questions, but not changing in any important degree the
+general course of their development. This may be, in the historical
+sense, merely a passing phase of human progress, due to the rapid
+extension of the industrial revolution to all the civilized and many of
+the uncivilized nations of the world, bringing in its train the
+consolidation of large areas, a similarity of conditions within them,
+and amongst peoples and governments a great increase in the strength of
+economic motives. When the world has settled down to the new conditions,
+if it ever does so, we may be confronted with problems similar to those
+which our forefathers had to solve. But, for the time, if we know the
+economic interests of nations, classes and individuals, we can tell with
+more accuracy than ever before how in the long run they will act. Public
+policy therefore requires the closest possible study of the economic
+forces which are moulding the destinies of the great nations of the
+world. In most civilized countries except England this is recognized,
+and adequate provision is made for the study of economic science. But
+the subject is not only of immediate concern to the state in its
+corporate and public capacity. The neglect of it in the domain of
+private business can now only lead to disastrous results. To quote from
+a useful work (_National Education: a Symposium_, 1901), "the commercial
+supremacy of England was due to a variety of causes, of which superior
+intelligence, in the ordinary business sense, was not the most
+important. Her insular position, continuity of political development and
+freedom from domestic broils played an important part in bringing about
+a steady and continuous growth of industry and manufactures for several
+generations before the modern era. The great wars of the 18th and the
+beginning of the 19th century, which arrested the growth of continental
+nations, gave England the control of the markets of the world. When
+peace was restored, England enjoyed something in the nature of a
+monopoly. The competition of France ceased for a time to be an important
+factor. What is now the German empire was a mere congeries of small
+states, waging perpetual tariff wars upon each other. In the old
+Prussian provinces alone there were fifty-three different customs
+frontiers, and German manufactures could not develop until the growth of
+the Zollverein brought with it commercial consolidation, internal
+freedom and greater homogeneity of economic conditions. The industries
+of the United States were in their infancy. Thus the productive power of
+England was unrivalled, and her manufactures and business men, under a
+regime rapidly approximating to complete freedom of trade, could reap
+the full advantages to be derived from the possession of great national
+resources and production by machinery. Commercial supremacy required not
+so much highly trained intelligence amongst manufacturers and merchants
+as keen business instinct and a certain rude energy. In the last
+generation all that has changed, and the change is of a permanent
+character. The struggle of the future must inevitably be between a
+number of great nations, more or less equally well equipped, carrying on
+production by the same general methods, each one trying to strengthen
+its industrial and commercial position by the adoption of the most
+highly developed machinery, and all the methods suggested by scientific
+research, policy or experience. Under these conditions, it is no longer
+possible for the individual merchant, or for small groups of merchants,
+to acquaint themselves, by personal experience alone, with more than a
+fractional part of the causes which affect the business in which they
+are engaged. The spread of the modern industrial system has brought with
+it the modern state, with its millions of consumers, its vast area, its
+innumerable activities, its complicated code of industrial and
+commercial law. At the same time, the revolution in the means of
+transport and communication has destroyed, or is tending to destroy,
+local markets, and closely interwoven all the business of the world.
+Events in the most distant countries, industrial and commercial
+movements at first sight unrelated to the concerns of the individual
+merchant, now exert a direct and immediate influence upon his interests.
+The technical training of the factory or the office, the experience of
+business, the discharge of practical duties, necessary as they are, do
+not infallibly open the mind to the large issues of the modern business
+world, and can never confer the detailed acquaintance with facts and
+principles which lie outside the daily routine of the individual, but
+are none the less of vital importance." Economics, therefore, under
+modern conditions, is not only a subject which may usefully occupy the
+attention of a leisured class of scientific men. It should form part of
+the training of educated men of all classes, on grounds of public policy
+and administrative and business efficiency.
+
+
+  Relations between economics and other sciences.
+
+The relations between economics and other sciences cannot be stated in a
+very general form. They vary for different periods, and are not the same
+for all branches of economics. There is no subject of human study which
+may not be at some time or other of economic significance, and anything
+which affects the character, the ideals or the environment of man may
+make it necessary to modify our assumptions and our reasoning with
+regard to his conduct in economic affairs. But if the economist, while
+studying one side of man's activities, must also cultivate all other
+branches of human learning, it is obvious that no substantial progress
+can be made. The economist frankly assumes the reality of the existing
+world and takes men as they are, or as they have been if he is studying
+past times. His assumptions are based upon ordinary observation and
+experience, and are usually accurate in proportion to his practical
+shrewdness and sagacity, so that he is not interested in the speculative
+flights of philosophy, except in so far as they influence or have
+influenced conduct. In times past, and to a less extent in our own day,
+philosophical conceptions have formed the basis of great systems of
+politics and economics. The historical relations between philosophy and
+economics are of great importance in tracing the development of the
+latter, and have done much to determine its present form. But the modern
+conception of society or the state owes more to biology than philosophy,
+and actual research has destroyed more frequently than it has justified
+the assumptions of the older philosophical school. Experimental
+psychology may in course of time have an important bearing on economics,
+but the older science cannot be said to be of much significance except
+in its historical aspects. Ethics is in much the same position. That is,
+it is possible to conceive of an ethical science which would extend
+considerably our knowledge of economic affairs, but no important new
+principle or original discovery, relevant to economic investigation, has
+come from that quarter in recent years, and at present ethics has more
+to learn from economics than the latter has from ethics. It is in the
+adaptation of biological conceptions and methods, in the positive
+contributions of jurisprudence, law and history, in the rigorous
+application, where possible, of quantitative tests, that the explanation
+of the present position of economics is to be found. Mathematics has
+influenced the form and the terminology of the science, and has
+sometimes been useful in analysis; but mathematical methods of
+reasoning, in their application to economics, while possessing a certain
+fascination, are of very doubtful utility.
+
+
+  Method of economic investigation.
+
+There is no method of investigation which is peculiarly economic or of
+which economics has the monopoly. In every age economists have applied
+the methods ordinarily in use amongst scientific men. There would
+probably have been no controversy at all on this subject but for the
+fact that economics was elaborated into systematic form, and made the
+basis of practical measures of the greatest importance, long before the
+remarkable development in the 19th century of historical research,
+experimental science and biology. The application of the _a priori_
+method in economics was an accident, due to its association with other
+subjects and the general backwardness of other sciences rather than any
+exceptional and peculiar character in the subject-matter of the science
+itself. The methods applied to economics in the 18th and the early part
+of the 19th century were no more invented with a special view to that
+subject than the principles of early railway legislation, in the domain
+of practical policy, were devised with a special view to what was then a
+new means of transport. As a matter of fact, discussions of method and
+the criticism of hypotheses and assumptions are very rarely found in
+early economic works. It is only by reference to the prevailing ideas in
+philosophy and politics that we can discover what was in the minds of
+their authors. The growth of a science is much like the growth of a
+constitution. It proceeds by adaptation and precedent. The scientific
+and historical movement of the 19th century was revolutionary in
+character. When it began to affect economics, many people were afraid
+that the whole fabric of science would be destroyed and the practical
+gains it had achieved, jeopardized. These fears were justified, in so
+far as those who entertained them shut their eyes to everything new and
+assumed an attitude of no compromise. Where the newer methods were
+assimilated, the position of economics was strengthened and its
+practical utility increased. General discussion of method, however, is
+rarely profitable. In all branches of economics, even in what is called
+the pure theory, there is an implied reference to certain historical or
+existing conditions of a more or less definite character; to the
+established order of an organized state or other community, at a stage
+of development which in its main features can be recognized. In all
+economic investigation assumptions must be made, but we must see that
+they are legitimate in view of the actual life and character of the
+community or communities which are the subject of investigation. In
+common with other sciences, economics makes use of "abstractions"; but
+if for some problems we employ symbolic processes of reasoning, we must
+keep clearly in view the limits of their significance, and neither endow
+the symbols with attributes they can never possess, nor lose sight of
+the realities behind them. Every hypothesis must be tested by an appeal
+to the facts of life, and modified or abandoned if it will not bear
+examination, unless we are convinced on genuine evidence that it may for
+a time be employed as a useful approximation, without prejudice to the
+later stages of the investigation we are conducting.
+
+
+  An illustration of economic method.
+
+We shall best illustrate the character and method of economic reasoning
+by examples, and for that purpose let us take first of all a purely
+historical problem, namely, the effect on the wage-earners of the wages
+clauses of the Statute of Apprenticeship (1563). It is at once obvious
+that we are dealing not with an abstract scheme of regulation in a
+hypothetical world, but with an act of parliament nominally in force for
+two hundred and fifty years, and applicable to a great variety of trades
+whose organization and history can be ascertained. The conclusions we
+reach may or may not modify any opinions we have formed as to the manner
+in which wages are determined under modern conditions. For the time
+being such opinions are irrelevant to the question we are investigating,
+and the less they are in our minds the better. There is no reason why we
+should apply to this particular act a different method of inquiry from
+that we should apply to any other of the numerous acts, of more or less
+economic importance, passed in the same session of parliament. The first
+step is to see whether there is a _prima facie_ case for inquiry, for
+many acts of parliament have been passed which have never come into
+operation at all, or have been administered only for a short time on too
+limited a scale to have important or lasting results. The justices were
+authorized to fix wages at the Easter quarter sessions. Did they
+exercise their powers? To answer this question we must collect the wages
+assessments sanctioned by the magistrates. This is a perfectly simple
+and straightforward operation, involving nothing more than familiarity
+with records and industry in going through them. Without having recourse
+to any elaborate process of economic reasoning, by confining our
+attention to one simple question, namely, what happened, we can
+establish conclusions of the greatest interest to economic historians
+and, further, define the problem we have to investigate. We can show,
+for example: (1) that the Statute of Apprenticeship did not stand alone;
+it was one of a long series of similar measures, beginning more than two
+centuries before, which in their turn join on to the municipal and gild
+regulations of the middle ages; one of an important group of statutes,
+more or less closely interwoven throughout their history, administered
+by local authorities whose functions had grown largely in connexion with
+this legislation and the gradual differentiation of the trades and
+callings to which it related. (2) That wages were regulated with much
+greater frequency during the reigns of Elizabeth, James I. and Charles
+I. than at any later period. (3) That they were regulated in some
+counties and not in others. (4) That in the counties and towns where
+they were regulated the action of the magistrates was in general
+spasmodic, and rarely continuous for a long series of years. (5) That
+the magistrates used their powers sometimes to raise wages, sometimes to
+force them down. (6) That the local variations of wages and prices were
+what we should call excessive, so that the standard of comfort in one
+district was very different from that of others. (7) That the wages
+assessments group themselves round certain short periods, coincident in
+many instances with high prices, increase of poverty, and other causes
+of exceptional action. (8) That what we may call, with the above
+limitations, the effective period of the act terminates with the
+outbreak of the Civil War. (9) That subsequent to that period organic
+changes in the industries affected, coupled with the incompetence of
+parliament to adapt the old legislation to new conditions, and the
+growing acceptance of the doctrine of _laissez faire_, brought about a
+general disuse of the statute, though isolated attempts to enforce it
+were made and new acts applicable to certain trades were passed in the
+18th century. (10) For more than one hundred years before the repeal of
+the act, trade unions and other forms of voluntary association amongst
+wage-earners, combinations amongst employers, collective agreements,
+customary regulations, were established in many of the important trades
+of the country. But these conclusions, after all, suggest more
+difficulties than they remove, for they show that our inquiry, instead
+of presenting certain well-marked features which can be readily dealt
+with, has to be split up into a number of highly specialized studies:
+the investigation of rates of wages, prices and the standard of comfort
+in different localities, bye-industries, regularity of employment, the
+organization of particular trades, the economic functions of local
+authorities, apprenticeship and a host of other subjects. Moreover, all
+these subjects hang together, so that it seems impossible to come to a
+decision about one of them without knowing all about the others.
+
+It is a comparatively simple thing to state the question to which we
+want an answer, but extremely difficult to define the exact nature of
+the evidence which will constitute a good answer; easy enough to say we
+must try hypothesis after hypothesis, and test each one by an appeal to
+the facts, but a man may easily spend his life in this sort of thing and
+still leave to his descendants nothing more than a legacy of rejected
+hypotheses. Every volume of records we look through contains a mass of
+detailed information on the economic life of England in the period we
+are studying. How much of it is relevant to the subject of inquiry? What
+is to be the principle of selection? How shall we determine the relative
+weight and importance of different kinds of relevant evidence? As in
+modern problems, so in those of past times, a man requires for success
+qualities quite distinct from those conferred by merely academic
+training and the use of scientific methods. A correct sense of
+proportion and the faculty of seizing upon the dominant factors in an
+historical problem are the result partly of the possession of certain
+natural gifts in which many individuals and some nations are
+conspicuously wanting, partly of general knowledge of the working of the
+economic and political institutions of the period we are studying,
+partly of what takes the place of practical experience in relation to
+modern problems, namely, detailed acquaintance with different kinds of
+original sources and the historical imagination by which we can realize
+the life and the ideals of past generations. These qualities are
+required all the more because, in order to make any further progress
+with such an inquiry as we have suggested, we have deliberately to make
+use of abstraction as an instrument of investigation.
+
+
+  The plan of a general theory.
+
+Let us see how this will work out. Suppose we have selected one of the
+numerous subsidiary problems suggested by the general inquiry, and
+obtained such full and complete information about one particular
+industry that we can tabulate the wages of the workers for a long series
+of years. We may do the same for other industries, some of them coming
+under the Statute of Apprenticeship, others not. If all the industries
+belong to one economic area over which, so far as we can tell from
+general statistics of wages and prices, and other information, fairly
+homogeneous conditions prevailed, we may be able to reach some useful
+conclusions as to the operation of the act. But it would be absurd to
+suppose that we could reach those conclusions by simple reference to the
+trades themselves. We cannot assume that the fluctuations in wages were
+due to the action or inaction of magistrates without the most careful
+examination of the other influences affecting the trades. In economic
+affairs the argument _post hoc propter hoc_ never leads to the whole
+truth, and is frequently quite misleading. We cannot suppose that the
+policy of the Merchant Adventurers' Company had nothing to do with the
+woollen industry; that the export trade in woollen cloth was quite
+independent of the foreign exchanges and international trade relations
+in those times; that the effect on wages of the state of the currency,
+the influx of new silver, the character of the harvests, and many other
+influences can be conveniently ignored. In studying, therefore, such an
+apparently simple question as the effect of an act of parliament on
+wages in a small group of trades we want a general theory which we can
+use as a kind of index of the factors we have to consider.
+
+
+  Difficulties due to want of evidence.
+
+Assuming that we have in our minds this safeguard against loose thinking
+and neglect of important factors, the investigation of the special
+problems arising out of the general inquiry resolves itself into a
+careful definition of each problem we wish to deal with, and the
+collection, tabulation and interpretation of the evidence. In most cases
+the interpretation of the facts is far from obvious, and we have to try
+several hypotheses before we reach one which will bear the strain of a
+critical examination in the light of further evidence. But at this stage
+in historical investigation it is generally the want of evidence of a
+sufficiently complete and continuous character, rather than difficulties
+of method, which forces us to leave the problem unsolved. It is, for
+instance, practically impossible to obtain reliable evidence as to the
+regularity of employment in any industry in the 17th century, and the
+best approximations and devices we can invent are very poor substitutes
+for what we really want. For this reason guesswork must continue to play
+an important part in economic history. But every genuine attempt to
+overcome its difficulties brings us into closer touch with the period we
+are examining; and though we may not be able to throw our conclusions
+into the form of large generalizations, we shall get to know something
+of the operation of the forces which determined the economic future of
+England; understand more clearly than our forefathers did, for we have
+more information than they could command, and a fuller appreciation of
+the issues, the broad features of English development, and be in a
+position to judge fairly well of the measures they adopted in their
+time. By comparing England with other countries we may be able in the
+distant future to reach conclusions of some generality as to the laws of
+growth, maturity and decay of industrial nations. But like the early
+statisticians of the 17th century, economic historians are the
+"beginners of an art not yet polished, which time may bring to more
+perfection."
+
+
+  The investigation of modern questions.
+
+When we come to exclusively modern questions, there is no reason or
+necessity for a fundamental change of method. We cannot suppose that
+there occurred, at or about the commencement of the 19th century, a
+breach of historical continuity of such a character that institutions,
+customs, laws and social conventions were suddenly swept away, the bonds
+of society loosened, and the state and people of England dissolved into
+an aggregate of competing individuals. The adoption of machinery
+gradually revolutionized the methods of production; but in the first
+instance only certain industries were affected, and those not at the
+same time or in the same degree; old laws grown obsolete were repealed,
+but other laws affecting wage-earners and employers took their place,
+more complicated and elaborate than the Elizabethan code. Trade unions,
+so far from disappearing, were legalized, gathered strength from the
+changes in industrial organization, and nowhere became so powerful as in
+the most progressive industries; while other forms of combination
+appeared, incomparably stronger, for good or evil, than those of earlier
+times. But while we recognize these facts, we must not suppose that we
+have to study the action of men as though they were all enrolled in
+organized associations, or covered by stringent laws which were always
+obeyed. There has never been in the history of English industry such
+licence as we find in certain directions in the earlier part of the 19th
+century.
+
+
+  The distinctive features of modern problems.
+
+It is not in the decay of combination and monopoly or in the growth of
+competition that we must look for the distinctive characteristics of
+modern problems. A 17th-century monopoly was a very weak and ineffective
+instrument compared with a modern syndicate; the Statute of
+Apprenticeship was certainly not so widely enforced as the "common
+rules" of trade unions; and many of the regulations of past times, which
+look so complicated to modern eyes, were conditions of free enterprise
+rather than restraints upon it. It is due to the influence of the
+_laisser faire_ doctrine that we regard law and regulation as a
+restraint on liberty. As a maxim for guidance in public affairs,
+_laisser faire_ was genuinely relevant at the end of the 18th and the
+beginning of the 19th century, when the Statute Book was cumbered with
+vexatious and obsolete laws. As an explanation of what has taken place
+in later years, or of the actual economic life of the present day, it is
+ludicrously inadequate. Competition, in the sense in which the word is
+still used in many economic works, is merely a special case of the
+struggle for survival, and, from its limitation, does not go far towards
+explaining the actual working of modern institutions. To buy in the
+cheapest market and sell in the dearest; to secure cheapness by lowering
+the expenses of production; to adopt the less expensive rather than the
+more expensive method of obtaining a given result--these and other
+maxims are as old as human society. Competition, in the Darwinian sense,
+is characteristic not only of modern industrial states, but of all
+living organisms; and in the narrower sense of the "higgling of the
+market" is found on the Stock Exchange, in the markets of old towns, in
+medieval fairs and Oriental bazaars. In modern countries it takes
+myriads of forms, from the sweating of parasitic trades to the
+organization of scientific research. Economic motives, again, are as
+varied as the forms of competition, and their development is coeval with
+that of human society. They have to be interpreted in every age in
+relation to the state of society, the other motives or ideals with which
+they are associated, the kind of action they inspire, and the means
+through which they operate. Apparently the same economic motives have
+led in the same age and in the same nation to monopoly and individual
+enterprise, protection and free trade, law and anarchy. In our own time
+they have inspired both the formation of trade combinations and attempts
+to break them up, hostility to all forms of state interference and a
+belief in collectivism.
+
+The conditions which are peculiar to the modern world are the large
+numbers we have to deal with, the vast and fairly homogeneous areas in
+which justice is administered and property secured, and the enormously
+increased facilities for transport and communication. These conditions
+are of course not independent of each other, and they have brought in
+their train many consequences, some good and some bad. But they supply
+the bases for that general theory which, as we have seen, is
+indispensable in economic investigation. From the standpoint of general
+theory economic movements assume an impersonal character and economic
+forces operate like the forces of nature. Although economic motives have
+become more complex, they have just as much and no more to do with
+general economic reasoning and analysis than the causes of death with
+the normal expectation of life, or domestic ideals with the birth-rate.
+So far as we have anything to do with psychology at all, it is the
+psychology of crowds and not of individuals which we have to consider.
+If we study the economy of a village, the idiosyncrasies of every
+individual in it are of importance. If the village is replaced by a
+large area, inhabited by millions, with modern facilities of
+communication, it is a matter of observation and experience that for the
+purposes of general reasoning the idiosyncrasies of individuals may be
+neglected. Whether such large numbers have the character of the
+"economic man" of the early economists matters very little. All the
+assumptions we require are furnished by observation of people in the
+mass and the larger generalizations of statistics. Thus we can construct
+a kind of envelope of theory, which, by careful testing as we proceed,
+can be made to indicate in a general manner the reactions of one part of
+the activities of the economic world upon the others, and the
+interdependence of the several parts. From its very nature this general
+theory can never correspond strictly to the actual life and movement of
+any given state. It is useful and necessary, and plays somewhat the same
+part in economic investigation as ton-mile statistics do in the
+administration of a railway. To express in any language or to illustrate
+by any images, from a purely objective standpoint, the infinitely
+complicated movements of the actual world, is a task far beyond human
+capacity.
+
+
+  Application to modern problems.
+
+With the aid of this general theory the methods we have sketched in
+relation to historical problems apply with greater force to the special
+problems of modern times, and are rewarded with results more accurate,
+more fruitful, more relevant to difficulties which all civilized nations
+have to face, than those of historical research. To many minds the
+interest and usefulness of economics depend entirely on the application
+of these methods, for it is the actual working of economic institutions
+about which the statesman, the publicist, the business man and the
+artisan wish to know. Under the conditions we have described, many of
+the most interesting problems of our own time, when they are once
+defined, resolve themselves into statistical inquiries. But in most
+cases such an inquiry cannot be successfully carried out by a mere
+statistician. Definite economic problems can very rarely be dealt with
+by merely quantitative methods. In the tabulation and interpretation of
+statistical evidence, as in its collection, it is scarcely possible to
+overrate the importance of wide knowledge and experience. There is
+another very important instrument of investigation which can be used in
+our own time, but cannot be employed in historical research. Historical
+documents, however detailed, rarely show all the factors we have to deal
+with or fully explain a given situation. No sane person would suppose
+that the minutes of a modern legislative body explain the steps by which
+legislation has been passed, or the issues really involved. The
+ostensible cause of a modern labour dispute is frequently not the real
+or the most important cause. In modern problems we can watch the
+economic machine actually at work, cross-examine our witnesses, see that
+delicate interplay of passions and interests which cannot be set down or
+described in a document, and acquire a certain sense of touch in
+relation to the questions at issue which manuscripts and records cannot
+impart. We can therefore substitute sound diagnosis for guesswork more
+frequently in modern than in historical problems.
+
+
+  The "old political economy."
+
+What then, it may be asked, becomes of the "old Political Economy"? Of
+what possible use are the works of the so-called classical writers,
+except in relation to the history of economics and the practical
+influence of theory in past times? If we take the mere popular view of
+what is meant by the "old Political Economy," that is, that a generation
+or so ago economics was comprised in a neatly rounded set of general
+propositions, universally accepted, which could be set forth in a
+text-book and learnt like the multiplication table, it is not incumbent
+on the present generation to define its attitude at all. In this sense
+of the words, there was no faith delivered to our fathers which we are
+under any obligation to guard or even explain. If by the "old Political
+Economy" we mean the methods and conclusions of certain great writers,
+who stood head and shoulders above their contemporaries and determined
+the general character of economic science, we are still under no
+obligation to define the attitude of the present generation with regard
+to them. The fact that Adam Smith, with the meagre materials of the 18th
+century at his disposal, saw his way to important generalizations which
+later research has established on a firm basis, may enhance greatly the
+reputation of Adam Smith, but does not strengthen the generalizations.
+They stand or fall by the strength of the evidence for or against them.
+In the history of economics or the biography of Ricardo it is of
+interest to show that he anticipated later writers, or that his analysis
+bears the test of modern criticism; but no economist is under any
+obligation to defend Ricardo's reputation, nor is the fact that a
+doctrine is included in his works to be taken as a demonstration of its
+truth. The appeal to authority cannot be permitted in economics any more
+than in chemistry, physics or astronomy. But the cases stated above
+suggest more or less false issues. There has been no revolution in
+economic science, and is not likely to be any. The question we have
+really to determine is how we can make the best use of the accumulated
+knowledge of past generations, and to do that we must look more closely
+into the economic science of the 19th century.
+
+Any one who has taken the trouble to trace the history of one of the
+modern schools of economists, or of any branch of economic science,
+knows how difficult it is to say when it began. "Anticipations" of
+method and doctrine can generally be found by the diligent investigator
+in the economic literature of his own or a foreign country. So that
+cross-sections of the stream of economic thought will reveal the
+existence, at different times, in varying proportions and at different
+stages of development, of most of the modern "schools." Again, the
+classification of an economic bibliography at once shows how varied has
+been the character of economic investigation, ranging from the most
+abstract speculation on the one hand to almost technical studies of
+particular trades on the other. Of the great army of writers who
+flourished in the first half of the 19th century some were closely
+identified with the utilitarian school, and the majority were influenced
+in a greater or less degree by the prevailing ideas of that school.
+Others, however, were hostile to it. In many works, such as those of a
+statistical or historical character, there are frequently to be found
+passages which could have been written in no other period, but are only
+of the nature of ejaculations and do not affect the argument. In stating
+the position of economics during this time we cannot ignore all writers,
+except these who belonged to one group, however eminent that group may
+have been, simply because they did not represent the dominant ideas of
+the period, and exercised no immediate and direct influence on the
+movement of economic thought. We must include the pioneers of the
+historical school, the economic historians, the socialists, the
+statisticians, and others whose contributions to economics are now
+appreciated, and without whose labours the science as we know it now
+would have been impossible. If we take this broadly historical view of
+the progress of economics, it is obvious that even in England there was
+no general agreement, during the 19th century, as to the methods most
+appropriate to economic investigation.
+
+Suppose, now, we ignore the writers who were inaugurating new methods,
+investigating special problems or laboriously collecting facts, and
+concentrate attention on the dominant school, with its long series of
+writers from Adam Smith to John Stuart Mill. It is the work of these
+writers which people have in mind when they speak of the "old Political
+Economy." There are several quite distinct questions we can ask with
+regard to them. That they must be studied closely by every one who
+wishes to follow the history of economics goes without saying. That they
+must be studied by the economic historian is equally clear, owing to
+their practical influence and the fact that they furnished the
+theoretical bases of much of the economic policy of the 19th century.
+This is true whether their method is good or bad, whether their
+conclusions are true or false. It is not so easy to determine their
+relevance and usefulness in relation to distinctively modern problems,
+or to indicate within what limits their work is of permanent value, and
+we can only deal with these questions in their more general aspects.
+
+It must be clear to every observer that the economists of the classical
+period, with the one exception of Adam Smith, will speedily share the
+fate of nearly all scientific writers. They will be forgotten, and their
+books will not be read. Adams Smith's _Wealth of Nations_, if it has
+ever been, has long ceased to be a scientific text-book. Whether a
+modern economist accepts his views or not is of no importance. There is
+probably not a single chapter in the _Wealth of Nations_ which would be
+thoroughly endorsed by any living economist. But the reputation of the
+book and its author is quite independent of considerations of this kind.
+The _Wealth of Nations_ is one of the great books of the world, many of
+the sayings of which are likely to be more frequently quoted in the
+future than they have been in the 19th century. Malthus is already an
+author whose name is probably more widely known than that of any other
+economist, but whose works are rarely read, and studied only by a small
+proportion of the few people who write books on the history of economic
+theory. Of economic students, many are unaware of the fact that he wrote
+any other book than the _Essay on the Principle of Population_, and what
+is of permanent importance in that work is contained in the
+generalization which it suggested to Darwin. Moreover, modern
+economists, while accepting in the main the general tenor of Malthus's
+theory of population, would not agree with his statement of it. Like
+Malthus, Ricardo owes his reputation very largely to the theory
+associated with his name, though it has long ceased to be stated
+precisely in the terms he employed. But there are very few people in the
+world who have made a careful study of his works; and although his
+theory of rent has a wide and increasing application in economics, it is
+not comparable in general scientific importance with Malthus's theory of
+population. It is already impossible to take J.S. Mill's _Principles of
+Political Economy_ as a text-book. Important as it was for thirty or
+forty years, it will soon be as little read as M'Culloch's _Principles_.
+For the rest of the economists of this period, it is difficult to see
+how they can escape oblivion. When the generation whose economic
+training was based upon J.S. Mill has died out, the relevance of the
+"old Political Economy" is not likely to be a question of any interest
+to ordinary educated men and women, or even to the great mass of
+economic students.
+
+The explanation of this decay of interest does not lie upon the surface.
+It is frequently supposed that the influence of the "old Political
+Economy" has been gradually undermined by the attacks of the historical
+school. But great as the achievements of this school have been, it has
+not developed any scientific machinery which can take the place of
+theory in economic investigation. If our view is correct that, broadly
+speaking, the two ways of regarding economic questions are complementary
+rather than mutually exclusive, there does not seem to be any reason why
+the growth of the historical school should have been destructive of the
+"old Political Economy" if it had been well founded. The use of the
+historical method has, in fact, raised more reputations than it has
+destroyed, because by keeping carefully in view the conditions in which
+economic works have been written, it has shown that many theories
+hastily condemned as unsound by _a priori_ critics had much to be said
+for them at the time when they were propounded. This observation is true
+not only of old-world writers like the Mercantilists, but also of
+Ricardian economics. No one is concerned to prove that the Ricardian
+economics applies to the manorial system, and it is generally supposed
+at any rate that the world has been approximating more and more nearly
+during the last century to the conditions assumed in most of the
+reasoning of that school. On the principles we have explained,
+therefore, the Ricardian economics should supply just that body of
+general theory which is required in the investigation of modern economic
+problems, and the reputation of at any rate the leading writers should
+be as great as ever. It would be of immense advantage from a scientific
+point of view if this could be taken for granted, if for a time the work
+of the classical economists could be considered final so far as it goes,
+and for the purposes of investigation regarded as the theoretical
+counterpart of the modern industrial system. This assumption, however,
+has been made quite impossible, not by the historical school, but by the
+criticism and analysis of economists in the direct line of the Ricardian
+succession.
+
+
+  Ricardo's limitations.
+
+Modern economic criticism and analysis has destroyed the authority of
+the "old Political Economy" as a scientific system. The assumptions, the
+definitions, the reasoning, the conclusions of the classical writers
+have been ruthlessly overhauled. Defects in their arguments have been
+exposed to view by those who are most concerned to defend their
+reputation. Writers with none of the prejudices of the historical
+school, but with the cold and remorseless regard for logic of the purely
+objective critic, have pointed out serious inconsistencies here, the
+omission of important factors there, until very little of the "old
+Political Economy" is left unscathed. In fact, there never was a
+scientific system at all. What was mistaken for it was fashioned in the
+heat of controversy by men whose interests were practical rather than
+scientific, who could not write correct English, and revealed in their
+reasoning the usual fallacies of the merely practical man. So the "old
+Political Economy" lies shattered. It is useless to suppose that this
+destructive criticism from within can be neutralized by generously
+sprinkling the pages of the classical writers with interpretation
+clauses. This may serve to show that the ideals of our youth were not
+without justification; but the younger generation, which does not care
+about our ideals, and looks to the future rather than the past, will not
+read annotated editions of old books, however eminent their authors. If
+the Ricardian school of economists had been merely philosophers, or even
+a group like the French physiocrats, this state of things might be
+regarded with equanimity. We might assume that criticism and analysis
+had separated the wheat from the chaff in their writings, that
+everything of permanent value had probably been preserved and
+incorporated in the works of later economists. But the character of much
+of their work makes this assumption impossible. It is, in fact, quite
+true that many of them were more interested in practical aims than in
+the advancement of economic science. We may talk of the assumptions
+implicitly involved in Ricardo's works. In reality we do not know what
+those assumptions were; we only know what assumptions we should make in
+order to reach the same conclusions, and they may be very different from
+"the mind of Ricardo." Ricardo's works, in fact, do not explain a
+theoretical system, but contain the matured reflections, more or less
+closely reasoned, of a man of great mental power looking out on the
+world as it appeared to a business man experienced in affairs. The
+conclusions of such a work are of wider significance than the
+assumptions we attribute to the author would warrant. They are not
+expressed in terms which satisfy our canons of scientific accuracy.
+Dissected sentence by sentence, the book may be shown to be a mass of
+inconsistencies. If it has the misfortune to be systematized by an
+enthusiastic but dull and incompetent disciple, it may appear even
+absurd. But after all the misinterpretation of contemporaries and the
+destructive criticism of later times, the book as a whole leaves upon us
+an impression of peculiar strength and charm, and imparts a sense of the
+relations of things truer, because less mechanical, than the laboured
+reasoning of smaller men. Such is the character of much of the work of
+Ricardo and some of his contemporaries. We think that the decay of
+interest in these writers involves a real loss, and that students of
+modern problems may do worse than read Ricardo and his school. Some of
+the criticism of their works, necessary and useful as it has been, will
+probably be corrected later on by that breadth of view and sense of
+proportion which has enabled us to appreciate justly the achievements of
+lesser men in more remote times. But rehabilitation in accordance with
+the canons of historical justice will not restore the lost influence of
+the Ricardian school. Their achievements in the 19th century will be
+fully acknowledged, but the relevance of their work to the problems of
+the 20th century will be admitted less than at the present time.
+
+
+  Economics a conservative science.
+
+In a subject like economics it must always be very difficult to decide
+how far a departure from the traditional form and expression of its main
+doctrines is necessary or desirable. No one who is really experienced in
+economic investigation cares to emphasize the originality, still less
+the revolutionary character of his own work. It is much more likely than
+not that some principle which for the moment seems new, some distinction
+which we may flatter ourselves has not been observed before, has been
+pointed out over and over again by previous writers, although, owing to
+special circumstances, it may not have received the notice it deserved.
+Economics is therefore, on the whole, an intensely conservative science,
+in which new truths are cautiously admitted or incorporated merely as
+extensions or qualifications of those enunciated by previous writers.
+This procedure has its advantages, but it may easily become dangerous by
+destroying the influence of the science it is meant to preserve. It is
+not unlike the procedure of the canonists and casuists of the middle
+ages with regard to the doctrine of usury, by which the doctrine was to
+all appearances preserved intact while in reality it was stripped of all
+its original meaning by innumerable distinctions "over-curious and
+precise." In the same way the doctrines of the classical economists may
+be adapted by interpretation clauses and qualifications the exact force
+of which cannot be tested or explained, so that we do not know whether
+the original proposition is to be considered substantially correct or
+not. The result will be that while the doctrines are apparently being
+brought into closer correspondence with the facts of life, they will in
+reality be made quite useless for practical purposes or economic
+investigation. It is easier to point out the danger than to suggest how
+it should be met. The position we have described is no doubt partly due
+to the unsettlement of economic opinion and the hostile criticism of
+old-established doctrines which has characterized the last generation.
+Or it may be the result of economic agnosticism, combined with
+unwillingness to cut adrift from old moorings. Whatever the cause, the
+complete restatement of economic theory, which some heroic persons
+demand, is clearly impossible, except on conditions not likely to be
+realized in the immediate future. The span of life is limited; the work
+requires an extensive knowledge of the economic literature of several
+countries and the general features of all the important departments of
+modern economic activity. In general theory special studies by other men
+cannot play the same part as they do in historical and statistical work.
+In historical and statistical investigation, or in special studies of
+particular subjects, it is possible, given the pecuniary means, to
+organize a whole army of skilled assistants, and with ordinary care to
+combine the results of their separate efforts. In general theory the
+inverse rule seems to prevail. There the unity of conception and aim,
+the firm grip of all the different lines of argument and their relation
+to each other, which are required, can only be given by a single brain.
+But no one individual can do original work over the whole field. He is
+lucky if he can throw new light on a few old propositions. For the rest,
+he can only, with the utmost caution, adopt the suggestions of other
+minds as qualifications of old doctrines, never feeling quite sure that
+he is right in doing so. A complete restatement could only be undertaken
+by a group of men, trained in much the same conditions, accustomed to
+think and work together, each one engaged on a special department, but
+all acting under the control of one master-mind. This is largely a
+question of the organization of economic studies, and it is of the
+greatest importance that, if possible, such an effort should be made to
+present in a connected form the best results of modern criticism and
+analysis.
+
+
+  Some recent developments of economic theory.
+
+Economics is unlike many other sciences in the fact that its claim to
+recognition must be based upon its practical utility, on its relevance
+to the actual life of the economic world, on its ability to unravel the
+social and economic difficulties of each generation, and to contribute
+to the progress of nations. The very effectiveness of modern criticism
+and analysis, which has brought great gains in almost all branches of
+economic theory, has made the science more difficult as a subject of
+ordinary study. The extensions, the changes or the qualifications, of
+old doctrines, which at any rate in the works of responsible writers are
+rarely made without good if not always sufficient reason, have modified
+very considerably the whole science, and weakened the confidence of
+ordinary educated men in its conclusions. In the case of many subjects
+this would matter very little, but in that of economics, which touches
+the ordinary life of the community at so many points, it is of great
+importance, especially at a time like the present, when economic
+questions determine the policy of great nations. The "economic man" of
+the earlier writers, with his aversion from labour and his desire of the
+present enjoyment of costly indulgences, has been abandoned by their
+successors, with the result that in the opinion of many good people
+altruistic sentiment may be allowed to run wild over the whole domain of
+economics. The "economic man" has, on the other hand, been succeeded by
+another creation almost as monstrous, if his lineaments are to be
+supposed to be those of the ordinary individual--a man, that is, who
+regulates his life in accordance with Gossen's Law of Satiety, and whose
+main passion is to discover a money measure of his motives. It is
+extremely important to consider how far the economic conceptions based
+upon this view of the action of men in the ordinary business of
+life--such, for example, as the doctrine of marginal utility--depend for
+their truth and relevance on the fact that in economics we are dealing
+with large aggregates. The earlier writers generally assumed perfect
+mobility of labour and capital. No economist would deliberately make
+that assumption now unless he were dealing with some purely theoretical
+problem, for the solution of which it was legitimate at some stage in
+the reasoning. Many of the questions of the greatest practical
+importance at the present time, such as the competition between old and
+new methods of manufacturing commodities substantially the same in kind,
+and equally useful to the great body of consumers, arise largely from
+the immobility of capital or labour, or both of them. But it is obvious
+that if the assumption of perfect mobility is invalid, there is scarcely
+any economic doctrine identified with the earlier writers which may not
+require modification, in what degree it is impossible to say without
+very careful investigation. Much suggestive work on this subject of a
+general character is incorporated in economic books of the present day,
+but there is room for a whole series of careful monographs on a question
+of such fundamental importance. The same may be said of another subject,
+too frequently neglected by earlier writers, to which due significance
+has been given in the best recent work, namely, time in relation to
+value. It would perhaps be too much to say that the full consideration
+of this point has revolutionized the theory of value, but it has
+certainly created what seems almost a new science in close contact with
+the actual life of the modern world.
+
+Some doctrines of the earlier economists, such as the Wages Fund Theory,
+are now practically abandoned, though it may be said that they contained
+a certain amount of truth. Others, which were considered of fundamental
+importance, owe their position in modern economics and the form in which
+they are stated to the "tradition of the elders." If they could, by some
+happy chance, have been left for discovery by modern economists, they
+would without doubt have received different treatment, to the great
+advantage of economic science. Such a doctrine is the so-called Law of
+Diminishing Returns, which Mill considered "the most important
+proposition in Political Economy." "Unless this one matter," he says,
+"be thoroughly understood, it is to no purpose proceeding any further in
+our inquiry." "Were the law different, nearly all the phenomena of the
+production and distribution of wealth would be other than they are." On
+the other hand, Thorold Rogers, not to speak of earlier objectors,
+described the law as a "dismal and absurd theorem." The opinions of
+present-day economists appear to fluctuate between these two extremes.
+The law may apparently be "a general rule" or "a tendency" which is
+liable to be "checked," or a particular case of the law of the
+conservation of energy. If we go to Mill to discover what it is, we find
+that "it is not pretended that the law of diminishing return was
+operative from the beginning of society; and though some political
+economists may have believed it to come into operation earlier than it
+does, it begins quite early enough to support the conclusions they
+founded on it." "It comes into operation at a certain and not very
+advanced stage in the progress of agriculture." But this very important
+stage in the history of a nation is not defined or clearly illustrated.
+We are told that we can see "the law at work underneath the more
+superficial agencies on which attention fixes itself"; it "undergoes
+temporary suspension," which may last indefinitely; and "there is
+another agency, in habitual antagonism" to it, namely, "the progress of
+civilization," which may include every kind of human improvement. Mill
+apparently is not content with the confusion between "law" and "agency"
+or "force," but opposes the one to the other. He is constantly speaking
+in terms which imply the conquering of one law by another, a habit from
+which his successors have not freed themselves; and the theory of
+natural processes which appears to have satisfied him, was that when two
+forces come into operation there is a partial or complete suspension of
+one by the other. In modern economics "fertility" has no very definite
+meaning. It may mean what is ordinarily understood by the word--climate,
+rainfall, railway rates or anything else except "indestructible powers
+of the soil." To speak of "additional labour and capital" without
+reference to the kind and quality of the labour and capital, and the
+manner in which they are employed, organized and directed, throws very
+little light on agriculture. Every improvement involves, from a
+quantitative point of view, more or less of capital or of labour, so
+that it is the "antagonizing" influences, which are nearly all
+qualitative, which appear to be really important. It is therefore
+extraordinarily difficult at present to know what happens, or rather
+what would happen if it were not prevented, when a country reaches "the
+stage of diminishing returns"; what precisely it is which comes into
+operation, for obviously the diminishing returns are the results, not
+the cause; or how commodities "obey" a law which is always "suspended."
+Possibly the present generation of English industrial history will
+furnish many illustrations of the law of diminishing returns. We can
+only say that it requires investigation and restatement.
+
+Closely related to the law of diminishing returns is the Theory of Rent.
+No economic doctrine so well illustrates the achievements and the
+defects of modern economic analysis. Ricardo's statement of the theory
+left upon the world an impression, not wholly just, of singular
+clearness. He employed the theory with wonderful success in unravelling
+the problems of his time. Its importance has not been seriously, or at
+any rate successfully, called in question. Treated at first as a
+doctrine peculiarly applicable to land, with a certain controverted
+relevance to other natural agents, it has been so extended that there is
+scarcely any subject of economic study in which we may not expect to
+find adaptations or analogies, so that Ricardo seemed to have discovered
+the key of economic knowledge. But it was discovered that there were no
+"indestructible powers of the soil"; that the fertility of land in a
+country like England is almost entirely the result of improvement at
+some time or other; that "advantage of situation" includes very much
+more than the words in their literal sense imply; that both "fertility"
+and "advantage of situation" include many kinds of differential
+advantage; that in some circumstances rent does not enter into the price
+of agricultural and other produce, and that in others it does. Moreover,
+the study of the theory of rent has had a very great influence on all
+branches of economics by destroying the notion that it is possible to
+draw sharp lines of distinction, or deal with economic conceptions as
+though they were entirely independent categories. That modern economic
+analysis is incomparably more accurate than that of earlier times there
+can be no question. But the net result of the development of the
+doctrine of rent is that all problems in which this factor appears, and
+they embrace the whole range of economic theory, must apparently be
+treated on their merits. In its modern form the doctrine is far too
+general to be serviceable without the closest scrutiny of all the facts
+relating to the particular case to which it is applied. To deal
+adequately with the numerous extensions or qualifications of these and
+other doctrines in the hands of modern economists would involve us in an
+attempt to do what we have already said is impossible except on
+conditions not at present realized. It is clear that in the interests of
+general economic theory we require a vast number of special studies
+before an adequate restatement can be undertaken.
+
+
+  Relations between general economics and special studies.
+
+It must be clearly recognized that the functions of economic science in
+the present requirements of the world cannot possibly; be discharged by
+treatises on economic theory. The relations between general theory and
+special studies conducted on the lines we have indicated have completely
+changed. General theory never has been, and in the nature of things
+never can be, the actual reflex of the life and movement of the economic
+world. It never has been, and never can be, more than an indication of
+the kind of thing which might be expected in a purely hypothetical
+world. When the aim of the man of affairs and the hypothesis of the
+economist was unrestricted competition, and measures were being adopted
+to realize it, general theory such as the classical economists provided
+was perhaps a sufficiently trustworthy guide for practical statesmen and
+men of business. If only people can be got to believe in them, a few
+abstract principles are quite enough to destroy an institution which it
+has taken centuries to create. But a new institution cannot be made on
+the same terms. The modern industrial system has brought with it an
+immense variety of practical problems which nations must solve on pain
+of industrial and commercial ruin. For these problems we want, not a few
+old-established general principles which no one seriously calls in
+question, but genuine constructive and organizing capacity, aided by
+scientific and detailed knowledge of particular institutions, industries
+and classes. Just as the historical school grew up along with the
+greatest constructive achievement of the 19th century, namely, the
+consolidation of Germany, so the application to modern problems of the
+methods of that school has been called forth by the constructive needs
+of the present generation. We have already shown how these methods, in
+their turn, require the aid of general theory, but not of a general
+theory which tries to do their work. In fact, every attempt to make it
+do so must inevitably fail. How can such a huge mass of general
+propositions as are necessarily included in a system of economics ever
+be thoroughly tested by an appeal to facts? If they are not so tested,
+the general theory will remain a general theory, of no practical use in
+itself, until the end of time. It they are to be tested, an indefinitely
+large number of special studies must be made, for which the original
+materials must be collected and examined. That is, original
+investigation of special problems has to be carried out on a more
+gigantic scale than any economist of the historical school ever dreamt
+of or the world requires, with the certain knowledge that at the end of
+it all the general theory will not correspond with the facts of life.
+For there is all the difference in the world between using a body of
+general theory as an indication of the factors to be considered in the
+study of a special problem, and undertaking special studies with a view
+to testing the general theory. If the necessary limitations of general
+economic theory are recognized, most of the difficulties we have noticed
+disappear. Now that the "industrial revolution" has extended practically
+all over the world, so that we have several countries carrying on
+production by modern methods, it is easily possible to sketch the main
+features of industrial and commercial organization at the present time,
+to describe the banking and currency systems of the principal nations,
+their means of transport and communication, their systems of commercial
+law and finance, and their commercial policy. It is true that at present
+very little work of this kind has been done in England, but innumerable
+books, many of them about England, have been written by thoroughly
+competent economists, in French, German and other languages. So that no
+great amount of original work is required for a reliable account of
+those general features of the modern system which should form the
+introduction to economics. The general theory which we require should be
+sketched in firm and clear outline, leaving the detailed qualifications
+of broad principles to special studies, where they can be dealt with if
+it is necessary or desirable, and examined by statistical and other
+tests. For such a general theory there is ample material in the economic
+literature of all civilized countries. It is of the utmost importance
+that the economic terms, which are also, though in many cases with an
+entirely different meaning, the terms of business and commerce, should
+as far as possible be used in their common and ordinary English sense:
+that they should correspond in meaning with the same words when used in
+description, in law, accountancy and ordinary business. This is no doubt
+a difficult matter. But some change in this direction is necessary both
+in the interests of the science itself and of its practical utility. All
+the materials for investigation, all the facts and figures from which
+illustrations are drawn, all methods of keeping accounts in England,
+assume the ordinary English tongue. There are few if any conceptions in
+economics which cannot be expressed in it without depleting the ordinary
+vocabulary. At present the language of economics is for the ordinary
+Englishman like a foreign language of exceptional difficulty, because
+he is constantly meeting with words which suggest to his mind a whole
+world of associations quite different from those with which economic
+theory has clothed them. The refinements of economic analysis, as
+distinguished from its broader achievements, should be reserved for
+special studies, in which a technical scientific terminology, specially
+devised, can be used without danger of misconception. But in a subject
+like economics obscurity and an awkward terminology are not marks of
+scientific merit.
+
+
+  Economic problems in Great Britain.
+
+Economic studies should be as relevant to existing needs as those of
+engineering and other applied sciences. The scientific study of
+practical problems and difficulties is (generally speaking, and with
+honourable exceptions) far more advanced in almost every civilized
+country than it is in England, where the limited scale upon which such
+work is carried on, the indifference of statesmen, officials and
+business men, and the incapacity of the public to understand the close
+relation between scientific study and practical success, contrast very
+unfavourably with the state of affairs in Germany or the United States.
+The backwardness of economic science has been an index of the danger
+threatening the industrial and commercial supremacy of the United
+Kingdom. There are very few questions of public or commercial importance
+upon which the best and most recent investigations are to be found
+amongst English works. This would matter very little, perhaps, if
+Englishmen had a firm belief, established by actual experience, in the
+soundness of their policy, the present security of their position, and
+the sufficiency of their methods to strengthen or maintain it. But this
+is very far from being the case. If we take, for example, the
+corner-stone of the British commercial system in the 19th century,
+namely, the policy of "free trade" (q.v.), the public do not now read
+the economic works which supplied the theoretical basis of that policy,
+and, indeed, would not be convinced by them. The great men of the
+period, Cobden and Bright, are merely historical figures. Long before
+his death, Bright's references in public speeches to the achievements of
+the Anti-Corn Law League were received with respectful impatience, and
+Peel's famous speech on the repeal of the corn laws would not convince
+the German Reichstag or a modern House of Commons. The result is that
+free trade had become by the end of the 19th century in the main an old
+habit, for which the ordinary English manufacturer could give no very
+reasonable explanation, whatever may be its influence in commerce and
+public affairs. The doctrine of free trade only prevailed in so far as
+it could be restated in terms which had a direct relevance to the
+existing position of England and existing conditions of international
+trade. And it was directly challenged by the representatives of Mr
+Chamberlain's school of Imperialist thought (see CHAMBERLAIN, JOSEPH).
+It thus became the work of economic science ruthlessly to analyse the
+existing situation, explain the issues involved in the commercial policy
+of different countries, and point out the alternative methods of dealing
+with present difficulties, with their probable results.
+
+
+  Commerce and finance.
+
+The commercial policy of a state is merely the reflex of its system of
+public finance (see e.g. ENGLISH FINANCE). The absence of conviction in
+regard to British commercial policy naturally had its counterpart in the
+attitude of many men to the financial system of the country. The
+eulogies showered upon it in the past were no longer considered
+adequate. The great increase in recent years in British military and
+naval expenditure, made necessary by the exceptional demands of a state
+of war and the great development of foreign powers, was partly
+responsible for the new difficulties; partly it was due to the great
+extension of the functions of the state during the latter part of the
+19th century. The former causes may be considered partly permanent,
+partly temporary; but those of a permanent character are likely to
+increase in force, and those of a temporary character will leave a
+deposit in the shape of an addition to the normal expenditure of the
+central government. The extension of government functions appeared much
+more likely to continue than to be checked. Normal expenditure might
+therefore be calculated to rise rather than fall. In spite of the vast
+increase in national wealth, it was found a matter of increasing
+difficulty to meet a comparatively slight strain without recourse to
+measures of a highly controversial character; and the search for new
+sources of revenue (as in 1909) at once raised, in an acute form,
+questions of national commercial policy and the relations between the
+United Kingdom and the colonies.
+
+The development of the powers of the central government has been less
+than that of the functions of local governing authorities. This, again,
+is a movement much more likely to extend than to be checked. Local
+governing authorities now discharge economic functions of enormous
+importance and complexity, involving sums of money larger than sufficed
+to run important states a generation ago. The scientific study of the
+economics of local administration is, however, in its infancy, and
+requires to be taken up in earnest by economists. These questions of
+commercial policy and local government are closely bound up with the
+scientific study of the transport system. Although the British Empire
+contains within itself every known species of railway enterprise, the
+study of railways and other means of transport, and their relation to
+the business, the commerce and the social life of the country, is
+deplorably backward. It is obvious that no inquiry into commercial
+policy, or into such social questions as the housing of the poor, can be
+effective unless this deficiency is remedied.
+
+The whole social and political fabric of the British Empire depends upon
+the efficiency of its industrial system. On this subject many monographs
+and larger works have been published in recent years, but dealing rather
+with such questions as trade unionism, co-operation and factory
+legislation, than the structure and organization of particular
+industries, or the causes and the results of the formation of the great
+combinations, peculiarly characteristic of the United States, but not
+wanting in England, which are amongst the most striking economic
+phenomena of modern times.
+
+These are some of the questions which must absorb the energies of the
+rising generation of economists. The claim of economics for recognition
+as a science and as a subject of study must be based on its relevance to
+the actual life of the economic world, on its ability to unravel the
+practical difficulties of each generation, and so contribute to the
+progress of nations.
+
+  LITERATURE.--See also FREE TRADE; PROTECTION; TARIFF; COMMERCIAL
+  TREATIES; TRUSTS; MONEY; FINANCE; &c. The bibliography of economics as
+  a whole would include a history of all the writers on the subject, and
+  is beyond our scope here; see the numerous articles on economic
+  subjects throughout this work. The article by Dr J.K. Ingram in the
+  ninth edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ is still a valuable
+  historical account. It is only possible to mention here a few of the
+  more recent text-books. The most important general work published in
+  English is Marshall's _Principles of Economics_, vol. i. (1st edition,
+  1890; 4th edition, 1898). J. Shield Nicholson's _Principles of
+  Political Economy_ (3 vols.) not only gives a survey of economic
+  principles since Mill's time, but contains much suggestive and
+  original work. The writer of this article is much indebted to the
+  works of Schmoller, particularly his _Grundris der allgemeinen
+  Volkswirtschaftslehre_ (1900), and Adolph Wagner, particularly his
+  _Grundlegung der politischen Okonomie_. On the history of economic
+  theory, Cannan's _History of the Theories of Production and
+  Distribution_ (1776-1848) is an admirable criticism, from a purely
+  objective standpoint, of the works of the English classical writers.
+  The most important English works published in recent years on general
+  English economic history are W. Cunningham's _Growth of Industry and
+  Commerce_, and W.J. Ashley's _Economic History_, while Vinogradoff's
+  _Villenage in England_ and _The Growth of the Manor_, as well as
+  Maitland's _Domesday Studies_, are of great importance to the student
+  of early economic institutions. D'Avenel's _Histoire economique de la
+  propriete, &c._ (_1200-1800_), is a monumental work on the history of
+  prices in France. Other books dealing with special subjects are likely
+  to take a very high place in economic literature. We may mention
+  particularly Charles Booth's _Life and Labour of the People in
+  London_, B.S. Rowntree's _Poverty_, Sidney and Beatrice Webb's
+  _History of Trade Unionism_ and _Industrial Democracy_, and Dr Arthur
+  Shadwell's _Industrial Efficiency_ (1906). These books are generally
+  regarded as typical of the best English work of recent years in
+  economic investigation. We may also mention Schloss's _Methods of
+  Industrial Remuneration_, a most important contribution to the study
+  of the wages question; C.F. Bastable's works on _International Trade_
+  and _Public Finance_; George Clare on the _Money Market_ and the
+  _Foreign Exchanges_; and A.T. Hadley's _Economics: An Account of the
+  Relations between Private Property and Public Welfare_ (1896). Studies
+  of particular questions, both concrete and theoretical, in foreign
+  languages are too numerous to specify, and much of the best modern
+  work is to be found in economic periodicals.     (W. A. S. H.)
+
+
+
+
+ECONOMY, a township and a village of Beaver county, Pennsylvania,
+U.S.A., on the E. bank of the Ohio river, 17 m. N.W. of Pittsburg. Pop.
+of township (1900) 1062; (1910) 860. The village is served by the
+Pennsylvania system. It was owned until 1904, when it was sold to a land
+company, by the Harmony Society (see COMMUNISM), commonly called the
+Economites, Harmonists or Rappists. The founder, George Rapp, after
+living with his would-be primitive Christian followers at Harmony,
+Butler county, Pennsylvania, in 1803-1814, and in 1815-1824 in New
+Harmony (q.v.), Indiana, which he then sold to Robert Owen, settled here
+in 1824 and rapidly built up a village, in which each family received a
+house and garden. The culture of silk, flax, grapes (for wine-making)
+and fruits and cereals in general, and the manufacture of flour and of
+woollen, flannel and cotton fabrics, were carried on under a rule
+requiring every adult to labour 12 or 14 hours each day in field or
+mill. Celibacy had been adopted in 1807 as the rule of the community.
+New members were received after a half-year's probation, and members who
+left received their original investment. Three hundred thus separated
+from Rapp in 1833, with $105,000 as their share of the communal
+property, to build the millennial kingdom of New Jerusalem at
+Phillipsburg (now Monaca), Beaver county, Pennsylvania, under the lead
+of Bernhard Muller, who had come to Economy in 1831 as a fellow
+religionist, and was called Count Maximilian de Leon (or Proli); in 1833
+Leon went, with his followers, to Louisiana, and established a religious
+colony 6 m. from Natchitoches. After his death his wife until 1871 was
+head of a similar community at Germantown in Webster parish. The
+Harmonists at Economy flourished under the rule of a tradesman, R.L.
+Baker, or Romelius Langenbacher, after the death of Rapp in 1847, and
+during the Civil War had about $500,000 buried away. Their numbers were
+for a time kept up by the addition of fresh converts, but the employes
+who were not Harmonists soon greatly outnumbered the members of the
+community, the basis of which was always religious. Baker died in 1868,
+and his successor, John Henrici, in 1892, when John S. Duss became first
+trustee. In 1907 there were only two or three members in the society. In
+1851 the township of Harmony was set apart from Economy.
+
+  See Morris Hillquit, _History of Socialism in the United States_ (New
+  York, 1903); William A. Hinds, _American Communities_ (revised
+  edition, Chicago, 1902); John L. Bole, _The Harmony Society_
+  (Philadelphia, 1904); Charles Nordhoff, _The Communistic Societies of
+  the United States_ (New York, 1875); and among several excellent
+  monographs in German, Karl Knortz, _Die christlichkommunistische
+  Kolonie der Rappisten_ (Leipzig, 1892), and J. Hanno Deiler, _Eine
+  vergessene deutsche Colonie: eine Stimme zur Verteidigung des Grafen
+  de Leon_ (New Orleans, 1900).
+
+
+
+
+ECONOMY, a word ranging in application from the careful thrift of an
+individual to the systematic arrangement of an organization. It is
+derived from the Gr. [Greek: oikonomia], the management ([Greek:
+nemein], to control) of an [Greek: oikos] or house, extended in meaning
+to the administration of a state. Of its original sense, the art or
+science of managing a household, the expression "domestic economy"
+survives, but the principal use in this sense is confined to the thrifty
+management of the financial resources of a household or of an
+individual. It is thus used as equivalent to "saving," not only of
+money, but of time, labour or effort, and, generally, of the least
+expenditure of means to attain a required end. It is on the principle of
+"economy" that many phonetic changes occur in the development of
+languages, and, in aesthetics, the name has been applied to a principle
+or law that effects are pleasant in proportion to the smallness of the
+effort made, and of the means taken to produce the result. The phrase
+"economy of truth" is due to an invidious application of the use, in
+patristic theology, of the word [Greek: oikonomia] for the careful
+presentation of such doctrine as would be applicable to the hearer (see
+J.H. Newman, _History of the Arians of the 4th Century_). "Economy" is
+also used in theology in such expressions as "Mosaic" or "Christian
+economy" as a synonym of "dispensation," for the administration of the
+world by God at particular times or for particular races. From the
+meaning of organization or administration of a house or state the word
+is applied more widely to the ordered arrangement of any organized body,
+and is equivalent almost to "system"; thus the "economy" of nature or of
+animal or plant life may be spoken of. The most common use, however, of
+the word is that of "political economy," the science dealing with the
+production, distribution and consumption of wealth (see ECONOMICS).
+
+
+
+
+ECSTASY (Gr. [Greek: ekstasis], from [Greek: existemi], put out of its
+place, alter), a term applied to a morbid mental condition, in which the
+mind is entirely absorbed in the contemplation of one dominant idea or
+object, and loses for the time its normal self-control. With this there
+is commonly associated the prevalence of some strong emotion, which
+manifests itself in various ways, and with varying degrees of intensity.
+This state resembles in many points that of catalepsy (q.v.), but
+differs from it sufficiently to constitute it a separate affection. The
+patient in ecstasy may lie in a fixed position like the cataleptic,
+apparently quite unconscious, yet, on awaking, there is a distinct
+recollection of visions perceived during this period. More frequently
+there is violent emotional excitement which may find expression in
+impassioned utterances, and in extravagant bodily movements and
+gesticulations. Ecstasy usually presents itself as a kind of temporary
+religious insanity, and has frequently appeared as an epidemic. It is
+well illustrated in the celebrated examples of the dancing epidemics of
+Germany and Italy in the middle ages, and the _Convulsionnaires_ of St
+Medard at the grave of the Abbe Paris in the early part of the 18th
+century, and in more recent times has been witnessed during periods of
+religious revivalism. (See also INSANITY and NEUROPATHOLOGY.)
+
+
+
+
+ECTOSPORA, a homogeneous and natural division of Protozoan parasites
+included under the Sporozoa; they comprise the three orders, Gregarines,
+Coccidia and Haemosporidia. The defining character of the Ectospora is
+that the spore-mother-cells (sporoblasts) are formed at the periphery of
+the parent-individual (sporont); we may, however, go further, and say
+that the formation of all the different reproductive elements is
+uniformly peripheral or exogenous. Two other very general features are
+(a) that the individual trophozoite is uninuclear, and (b) that growth
+and trophic activity are finished before the multiplicative or
+reproductive phase sets in.
+
+There is now little doubt that the Ectospora possess a flagellate
+ancestry. The principal facts in favour of this view are as follows: the
+actual ontogenetic connexion known to exist between certain
+Haemoflagellates and certain Haemosporidia (see TRYPANOSOMES); the
+possession by many Coccidia of biflagellar microgametes (male elements),
+whose general structure greatly resembles that of a Heteromastigine
+Flagellate; the possession by various parasitic Flagellates (e.g.
+_Herpetomonas_) of an attached, resting phase, when the parasites become
+gregariniform, which strongly suggests the attached phase of many young,
+growing Gregarines; the typical gregarinoid and euglenoid movements of
+Gregarines and of the germs or other stages of Coccidia and
+Haemosporidia, which are quite comparable with the contractile and
+metabolic movements of Flagellates; and, lastly, the exogenous type of
+reproduction, which is easily derivable from the multiple division of
+certain Haemoflagellates, and this, in turn, from the typical binary
+longitudinal fission of a Flagellate.
+
+
+
+
+ECUADOR
+
+  Boundaries.
+
+(officially _La Republica del Ecuador_), a republic of South America,
+bounded N. and N.E. by Colombia, S.E. and S. by Peru, and W. by the
+Pacific Ocean. Its boundary lines with Colombia and Peru were in 1909
+still unsettled, large areas of territory being claimed by all three
+republics. Under an agreement of the 15th of December 1894, the disputes
+were to be decided by the Spanish sovereign as arbitrator, but nothing
+was accomplished. On the 5th of November 1904, Colombia and Ecuador
+agreed to submit their dispute to the German emperor, and a convention
+of the 12th of September 1905 between Colombia and Peru established a
+_modus vivendi_ for the settlement of their conflicting claims, in which
+Ecuador is likewise interested. The maps of Ecuador, which are very
+defective, usually describe its territory as extending eastward to the
+Brazilian frontier, but as Peru is in actual occupation of the region
+east of Huiririma-chico, on the Napo river, 3-1/2 degrees west of that
+frontier, those maps cannot be considered correct. The Trans-Andine
+territory occupied by Ecuador is a wedge-shaped area between the Coca
+and Napo, the provisional boundary line with Colombia, and a line
+running nearly west-south-west from Huiririma-chico (about lat. 2 deg.
+50' S., long. 73 deg. 20' W.) to a point on the Santiago river in about
+lat. 4 deg. 12' S., long. 78 deg. W., which forms the provisional
+boundary with Peru. The eastern part of this territory is also claimed
+by Peru, which would have the effect, if allowed, of restricting Ecuador
+to a comparatively small area covered by the Andes and western
+Cordillera and the narrow plain on the Pacific coast. From the Santiago
+river, a western affluent of the Maranon, the boundary line runs
+south-west and west across the Andes to the head waters of the Macara,
+down that stream to the Chira, or Achira, whose channel marks the
+frontier down to about 80 deg. 17' W., where a small stream (the Rio
+Alamo) enters from the north. The line then runs almost due north to the
+south shore of the Gulf of Guayaquil, following the western water
+parting of the lower Tumbez valley. A small district in the valley of
+the Chira is claimed by Peru. The northern boundary line is described
+elsewhere (see COLOMBIA). A small section of this line terminating on
+the Pacific coast is also in dispute, Ecuador claiming the main channel
+of the Mira as the dividing line, and Colombia claiming a small district
+south of that channel, the line running due west from the mouth of the
+most southern outlet of the Mira opening into Panguapi Bay, to a point
+of intersection with that river.
+
+[Illustration: Map of Ecuador.]
+
+  _Physical Geography._--The surface of Ecuador may be divided into
+  three distinct regions: the Cis-Andine lying between the Western
+  Cordillera and the coast; the Inter-Andine, which includes the two
+  great mountain chains crossing the republic with the elevated plateau
+  lying between; and the Trans-Andine, lying east of the Andes in the
+  great Amazon valley. The first part consists of an alluvial, low-lying
+  plain formed in great part by the detritus brought down by the
+  mountain streams. It is irregular in form and is broken by isolated
+  elevations and spurs from the Cordillera. Large areas are still
+  subject to annual inundations in the rainy season, and the lower river
+  courses are bordered with swamps. This is the most fertile and
+  productive part of Ecuador, especially on the higher lands near the
+  Cordillera. The Trans-Andine region is similar to the neighbouring
+  territories of the upper Amazon basin occupied by Colombia, Brazil and
+  Peru--a great forest-covered plain descending gently toward the east,
+  broken on its western margin by short spurs from the Andes enclosing
+  highly fertile valleys, and by low, isolated ranges between the larger
+  river courses, and traversed by large rivers flowing into the Napo and
+  Maranon. This region has been only partially explored, and but little
+  is known of the large areas lying between the navigable rivers.
+
+
+    Mountains.
+
+  The Inter-Andine or plateau region lies in and between the two great
+  mountain chains which cross the greater part of the republic between
+  and almost parallel with the 78th and 79th meridians. The eastern
+  chain is known as the Andes of Ecuador, or the Cordillera Oriental,
+  and the western as the Cordillera Occidental (Western Cordillera).
+  Starting from the confused grouping on the southern frontier of the
+  two great chains and some transverse ranges, they run nearly north by
+  east to the Colombian frontier where another "knot" or junction
+  occurs. The summits of the western range form a line of noteworthy
+  regularity, but those of the eastern form a broken irregular line of
+  varying distances from the first. The elevated plateau between the two
+  great chains, which is about 300 m. long and 20 to 30 m. wide, is
+  divided into three great shallow basins or plains by the transverse
+  ridges or _paramos_ of Tiupullo and Azuay. These are known as the
+  Quito, Ambato and Cuenca basins. South of the latter is the irregular
+  and deeply broken Loja basin, which can hardly be considered a part of
+  the great Ecuador plateau. The three great basins, which are broken
+  and subdivided by mountainous spurs and ridges, descend gradually
+  toward the south, the Quito plain having an average elevation of 9500
+  ft. above the sea, Ambato 8500, and Cuenca 7800. They are also
+  characterized by the increasing aridity of the plateau from north to
+  south, the Quito plain being fertile and well covered with vegetation,
+  and the Ambato and Cuenca plains being barren and desolate except in
+  some favoured localities. The volcanic character of the region is
+  likewise responsible for large areas of barren surfaces. Rising from
+  this elevated plateau, along its eastern and western margins, are the
+  Cordilleras with their principal summits culminating far above the
+  line of perpetual snow, which in this region is about 15,750 ft. above
+  the sea. These summits are remarkable, not only for their great
+  height, but also for their apparent symmetrical arrangement in
+  parallel lines, sometimes in pairs facing each other across this
+  cyclopean passage. Nowhere in the world can there be found another
+  such assemblage of snow-clad peaks, several of which are active
+  volcanoes. There are 22 of them grouped around these central plains
+  almost within sight of each other. The western chain has the
+  distinction of having the highest summit, the eastern the greatest
+  number of high summits and the highest average elevation. From the
+  time of Humboldt's visit to this remarkable region down to the present
+  time there have been many diverse calculations of the height of these
+  peaks, but with a considerable variation. It is estimated that there
+  was a considerable decrease in the elevation of this part of the Andes
+  during the past century, Quito having sunk 26 ft. in 122 years,
+  Pichincha 218 ft. in the same time, and the farm of Antisana, where
+  Humboldt resided for a time, 165 ft. in 64 years. At the same time
+  Cotopaxi and Sangay, the two active volcanoes, have actually increased
+  in elevation since the measurement of La Condamine in 1742. These
+  changes in elevation, if correct, are due to seismic disturbances, a
+  cause that may be partially responsible for the varying computations
+  of the heights of these well-known peaks. Among modern investigators
+  are W. Reiss and A. Stubel (1871-1873), and Edward Whymper (1880),
+  whose measurements of the principal summits were:--
+
+            _Eastern Cordillera._             _Western Cordillera._
+    +--------------------------+--------+----------------------+--------+
+    |                          |   Ft.  |                      |   Ft.  |
+    +--------------------------+--------+----------------------+--------+
+    | Cayambe            (W.)  | 19,186 | Cotocachi      (W.)  | 16,301 |
+    | Sara-Urcu           "    | 15,502 | Mojanda     (R. & S.)| 14,088 |
+    | Antisana            "    | 19,335 | Pichincha      (W.)  | 15,918 |
+    | Sincholagua     (R. & S.)| 16,365 | Atacatzo    (R. & S.)| 14,892 |
+    | Ruminagui           "    | 15,607 | El Corazon           |        |
+    | Cotopaxi           (W.)  | 19,613 |  (Chamalari)   (W.)  | 15,871 |
+    | Tunguragua      (R. & S.)| 16,690 | Iliniza     (R. & S.)| 17,405 |
+    | Altar (Capac-Urcu)  "    | 17,730 | Carahuairazo   (W.)  | 16,515 |
+    | Sangay              "    | 17,464 | Chimborazo      "    | 20,498 |
+    +--------------------------+--------+----------------------+--------+
+
+  The Imbabura volcano, celebrated for its destructive eruptions of mud
+  and water, stands midway between the two ranges at the northern end of
+  the plateau, and belongs to the transverse ridge of knot (_nudo_)
+  which unites them. It is the most northern of the higher peaks of
+  Ecuador, with the exception of Cotocachi, and possibly of Chiles on
+  the Colombian frontier, and reaches the elevation of 15,033 ft. Ibarra
+  on the northern flanks of the volcano has suffered severely from its
+  eruptions. The name is derived from _imba_, fish, and _bura_, mother,
+  and is said to have originated from the quantities of a fish called
+  "prenadilla" (_Pimelodus cyclopum_) discharged from its crater during
+  one of its eruptions--a phenomenon which, after a searching
+  investigation, was discredited by Wagner. Cayambe, or Cayembi, the
+  second highest peak of the Ecuadorean Andes, has the noteworthy
+  distinction of standing very nearly on the equator. Its base covers a
+  large area, and its square top, rising far above the snow-line, is one
+  of the sights of Quito. Antisana is crowned with a double dome, and is
+  described as an extinct volcano, though Humboldt saw smoke issuing
+  from it in 1802. On its western side is the famous _hacienda_ (farm)
+  of Antisana, 13,306 ft. above the sea, where Humboldt resided for
+  several months in 1802. Sara-Urcu stands south-east of Antisana in a
+  densely forested region, drenched with rain and only slightly
+  explored. Sincholagua and Ruminagui are the next two peaks, going
+  southward, and then the unrivalled cone of Cotopaxi (q.v.)--the
+  highest active volcano in the world--from whose summit smoke curls
+  upward unceasingly.
+
+  Llanganati or Cerro Hermoso is chiefly known through the tradition
+  that the treasures of the Incas were buried in a lake on its slopes.
+  It consists of a group of summits, the highest being credited with
+  17,843 ft. Tunguragua, or Tungurahua, has a cone-shaped summit like
+  that of Cotopaxi, with a slope of 38 deg. It rises from a plain somewhat
+  lower than the neighbouring central plateau and stands free from the
+  surrounding elevations, except on the south, which give it an
+  exceptionally imposing appearance. Among its characteristic features
+  is a cataract fed by melting snows, which descends 1500 ft. in three
+  leaps, and an enormous basaltic lava-stream, which crosses the face of
+  the mountain in a north-easterly direction. Its most notable eruption
+  was in 1777. It has been sometimes classed among the extinct
+  volcanoes, but smoke has been seen issuing from it at different dates,
+  and a violent eruption occurred on January 12, 1886. The fertile
+  cultivated valley of Banos, with its thermal springs, lies at the base
+  of Tunguragua, which F. Hassaurek describes as "the most beautiful of
+  all the snow peaks in the country." The next in line is El Altar,
+  which the natives call Capac-Urcu ("king mountain"), whose broken cone
+  and impressive outlines make it one of the most attractive mountains
+  of Ecuador. Its summit comprises a group of eight snow-clad peaks, and
+  its crater is surrounded by a steep and jagged wall of rocks. There is
+  a tradition that this mountain was once higher than Chimborazo, but a
+  series of eruptions caused the cone to fall in and reduced its summit
+  to its present altitude and broken appearance. Altar has shown no
+  signs of activity since the discovery of America. Sangay, or Sangai,
+  the next and last large volcano to the south, is in a state of
+  frequent eruption, however, and is known as one of the most restless
+  volcanoes of the world. Since the Spanish conquest it has been in a
+  state of uninterrupted activity, but no damage has been done, because
+  there are no civilized settlements in its immediate vicinity. Though
+  of great interest to scientific investigators because of this
+  unceasing activity, and of its peculiar position in the Andean system,
+  and because of the difficult and dangerous country by which it is
+  surrounded, Sangay has been but rarely visited by European travellers.
+  Its eruptions are not on a grand scale, but small outbursts of lava
+  and explosions of steam occur at frequent intervals, and at longer
+  intervals more violent explosions in which the molten rock is thrown
+  2000 ft. above its summit, and ashes are carried away as far as the
+  streets of Guayaquil.
+
+  Turning to the Cordillera Occidental and taking the principal peaks in
+  order from south to north, the first to claim attention is Chimborazo
+  (from _Chimpu-raza_, "mountain of snow"), the highest summit of
+  Ecuador, and once believed to be the culminating point of the Andes.
+  Humboldt, who unsuccessfully attempted its ascent in 1802, gives its
+  elevation as 21,425 ft., Reiss and Stubel as 20,703, and Whymper as
+  20,498. It stands 76 m. north-east of Guayaquil, and, according to
+  Spruce, rises majestically from the valley of the Guayas, on the west,
+  without a "positive break from the summit down to the plain." This,
+  however, is erroneous, for Whymper located a detached range running
+  parallel with the Cordillera on the west, for a distance of 65 m. with
+  the Chimbo valley between them. The magnificence of its mass is
+  imposing from almost any point of view, but it can be most fully
+  appreciated from its western or Pacific side, where its base is
+  covered with forest up to the snow-line, above which its pure white
+  cone rises another 5000 ft. An unobstructed view of the great mountain
+  is rarely obtained, however, because of the mists and clouds which
+  cover its cone. Its summits were reached for the first time in 1880 by
+  Edward Whymper, all previous attempts having failed. It is considered
+  to be an extinct volcano because it makes the plumb-line deviate only
+  7" to 8", from which it is deduced that the mountain is hollow.
+  Moreover, the calcined matter resembling white sand which covers its
+  sides below the snow-line, extensive beds of lava, and the issue of
+  streams of hot water from its northern side, seem to confirm the
+  deduction that Chimborazo is an extinct volcano. Immediately north of
+  Chimborazo, and separated from it by only a narrow valley, are the
+  lower triple summits of Carahuairazo, or Carguairazo (which the
+  natives call _Chimborazo-embra_, "Chimborazo's wife"), whose hollow
+  cone collapsed in 1698 during a great earthquake, and left the jagged
+  rim which adds so much to its present picturesque appearance. Mr
+  Whymper's measurement is for the middle peak. Quirotoa, still farther
+  north, is supposed to have suffered a similar catastrophe. Its hollow
+  summit, 13,510 ft. above sea-level, now contains a large lake.
+  Iliniza, which stands west by north of Cotopaxi, has two pyramidal
+  peaks, and is one of the most interesting mountains of the Ecuadorean
+  group. It stands at the western end of the Tiupullo ridge, and
+  overlooks the Quito basin to the north-east. The French academician
+  Bouger, who was chief of the scientific commission sent to Ecuador in
+  1736 to measure a degree of the meridian on the equator, made a
+  trigonometrical measurement of Iliniza, and Wagner ascended to within
+  800 ft. of its summit in 1859. The geological structure of the
+  mountain furnishes no evidence of volcanic activity. Chamalari, which
+  the Spaniards called El Corazon from its heart-shaped appearance, is
+  similarly destitute of a crater. It overlooks the Quito basin and has
+  been ascended many times. Among the earlier explorers to reach its
+  summit were Bouger and La Condamine, Humboldt and Bonpland, and Jose
+  Caldas, the Granadian naturalist. Atacatzo is an extinct volcano, with
+  nothing noteworthy in its appearance and history. Pichincha, its
+  famous neighbour, is apparently of later origin, according to Wagner,
+  and of slightly lower elevation. Perhaps no Ecuadorean volcano is
+  better known than Pichincha, the "boiling mountain," because of its
+  destructive eruptions and its proximity to the city of Quito. Its
+  summit comprises three groups of rocky peaks, of which the most
+  westerly, Rucu-Pichincha (Old Pichincha), contains the crater, a
+  funnel-shaped basin 2460 ft. deep and about 1500 ft. wide at the
+  bottom, whose walls in places rise perpendicularly and in others at an
+  angle of 20 deg. The exterior of the cone has an angle of 30 deg.
+  Bouger and La Condamine were the first to reach its brink in 1742,
+  after which Humboldt made the ascent in 1802, Boussingault and Hall in
+  1831, Garcia Moreno and Sebastian Wisse in 1844 and 1845 (descending
+  into the crater for the first time), Garcia Moreno and Jameson in
+  1857, Farrand and Hassaurek in 1862, Orton in 1867, and Whymper in
+  1880. Farrand spent more than a week in the crater trying to get some
+  good photographic views, and Orton has given a graphic description of
+  his experiences in the same place. He found that the real cone of
+  eruption was an irregular heap 250 ft. in height and 800 ft. in
+  diameter, containing about 70 vents. The temperature of the vapour
+  within the fumarole was 184 deg., and water boiled at 189 deg. There
+  have been five eruptions of Pichincha since the Spanish conquest--in
+  1539, 1566, 1575, 1587 and 1660. The second covered Quito 3 ft. deep
+  with ashes and stones, but the last three were considered as the most
+  destructive to that city. The last happily broke down the western side
+  of the crater, which, it is believed, will ensure the city against
+  harm in any subsequent eruption. Since the earthquake of August 1867
+  Pichincha has sent forth dense masses of black smoke and great
+  quantities of fine sand. Cotocachi is a double-peaked mountain, rising
+  from an extremely rough country. It was ascended by Whymper in 1880.
+  All the higher summits of Ecuador have true glaciers, the largest
+  being found on Antisana, Cayambe and Chimborazo. Whymper located and
+  named no less than eleven on Chimborazo, and counted twelve on
+  Cayambe.
+
+
+    Rivers.
+
+  There are two distinct hydrographic systems in Ecuador--the streams
+  that flow south-eastward to the Maranon, or Amazon, and those which
+  flow westward to the Pacific. The southern part of the great central
+  plateau is arid and has a very light rainfall; it has no streams,
+  therefore, except from melting snows, and the higher elevations which
+  receive the impact of the easterly winds. Farther north the rainfall
+  becomes heavier, the plateau is covered with vegetation, and a
+  considerable number of small rivers flow westward through the
+  Cordillera to the Pacific. The Eastern Cordillera, or Andes, forms the
+  water-parting between the two systems. The largest of the
+  eastward-flowing rivers is the Napo, which rises in the eastern
+  defiles of Cotopaxi and Sincholagua--the principal source being the
+  Rio del Valle, which traverses the Valle Vicioso. It at first flows
+  south by east, and at the village of Napo is 1450 ft. above sea-level,
+  at the mouth of the Coca 858 ft., at the mouth of the Aguarico 586
+  ft., 500 at the mouth of the Curaray, and 385 at its junction with the
+  Maranon. Orton estimates its current at Napo in the month of November
+  as 6 m. an hour; in the next 80 m. the river falls 350 ft. and
+  produces a fine series of rapids; and from Santa Rosa downwards the
+  rate is not less than 4 m. an hour. Its breadth at Napo is only 120
+  ft., but at Coca it has widened to 1500 ft., and at its mouth to
+  nearly 1 m. Like most of the large Amazon tributaries, its discharge
+  into the Maranon is through several distinct channels. The Napo is
+  navigable for steam-boats for some distance above the mouth of the
+  Coca, and thence for canoes as far as the Cando cataract, 3332 ft.
+  above the sea. Its total length is 920 m. The principal tributaries of
+  the Napo are the Coca and Aguarico from the north, and the Curaray
+  from the south. The Coca rises on the eastern slopes of the Andes near
+  Cayambe and the Guamani range, and flows eastward near the equator to
+  San Rafael (about 76 deg. 30' W. long.), where it turns sharply
+  southward to a junction with the Napo in about lat. 1 deg. S., long.
+  76 deg. W. The Coca forms the provisional boundary line between
+  Ecuador and Colombia from its source to the Napo. The Aguarico also
+  rises on the eastern slopes of the Andes north of Cayambe and flows
+  south-eastward to a junction with the Napo in about long. 75 deg. W.,
+  its length being roughly estimated at 420 m. Little is known of its
+  course, or of the country through which it flows, which is
+  provisionally occupied by Colombia. The Curaray has its sources in the
+  defiles of the Cerros de Llanganati, and flows south-eastward to the
+  Napo, its length being estimated at 490 m. Its lower course is
+  sluggish, where its waters are made unpalatable by a reddish slime.
+  The Napo and its tributaries are celebrated in the early history of
+  South America as the route by which Gonzalo Pizarro and Orellana first
+  reached the Amazon, and it was afterwards the principal route by which
+  the early expeditions across the continent at this point connected the
+  Andean Plateau with the Amazon. The other rivers which flow through
+  the Oriente territory of Ecuador into the Maranon are the Tigre,
+  Pastaza, Morona and Santiago. The Tigre, of which little was known
+  until a recent date, is formed by the confluence of the Cunambo and
+  Huiviyacu, whose sources are on the eastern slopes of the Andes near
+  those of the Curaray. Its length below this confluence is 416 m., into
+  which are received 109 tributaries, the largest of which are the
+  Pucacuro and Corrientes. The Tigre is navigable at all stages up to
+  the Cunambo confluence, and promises to afford one of the most
+  valuable river routes in Ecuador. It enters the Maranon very near the
+  74th meridian. The Pastaza, or Pastassa, unlike the rivers already
+  described, has its source on the central plateau west of the principal
+  chain of the Andes, within the shadow of Cotopaxi, and breaks through
+  the Cordillera to the north of Tunguragua. After flowing southward
+  along the base of the high Andes for a short distance and receiving a
+  number of torrents from the snowclad heights, it turns south-eastward
+  across the plain and enters the Maranon about 70 m. above the mouth of
+  the Huallaga. The stream is known as the Patate down to its junction
+  with the Chambo, near Banos, and is not called Pastaza until the
+  Agoyan falls are passed. It was navigated by Don Pedro Maldonado as
+  early as 1741, and is navigable for steamboats of 2 to 4 ft. draft up
+  to the mouth of the Huasaga (about 124 m.) in times of high water, and
+  for canoes nearly 200 m. farther. The Pastaza, however, is subject to
+  irresistible floods caused by the sudden rising of the mountain
+  torrents on its upper course, especially the Toro, which sweep down
+  with such fury that navigation on the river is practically impossible.
+  The shallowness of the lower stream, where the current is sluggish, is
+  probably due to the great quantities of silt brought down by these
+  floods. Many of the rivers of eastern Ecuador are subject to similar
+  floods from the Andean slopes, which have cut away broad, deep
+  channels, through the adjacent plains, leaving long, narrow ridges
+  between their courses which the natives call _cuchillas_. The Morona
+  is formed by the confluence of the Manhuasisa and Cangaima about 310
+  m. above its mouth, and is freely navigable for small steamboats to
+  that point. The two confluents just mentioned have their sources in
+  the Andes, and flow for some distance across the plain before uniting
+  to form the Morona. Both are navigable for considerable distances. The
+  Morona follows a very tortuous course before entering the Maranon, at
+  long. 70 deg. W., and receives a large number of affluents, one of
+  which serves as the outlet for Lake Rimachuma, in Peruvian territory.
+  Very little is definitely known of the affluents of the Morona,
+  Pastaza and Tigre, as the territory through which they run has been
+  but slightly explored. The Santiago, which enters the Maranon near the
+  Pongo de Manseriche, is formed by the confluence of the Paute, which
+  rises in the province of Azuay, and the Zamora, which has its source
+  among the mountains of Loja. According to Alexander Garland (_Peru in
+  1906_), the rivers of eastern Ecuador are navigable at low water for
+  steamers of 2 to 4 ft. draft for an aggregate distance of 1503 m., as
+  follows:--
+
+                                              Miles.
+    Napo, to the mouth of the Aguarico         559
+    Curaray, up to Canonaco                    286
+    Tigre, up to Cunambo-Huiviyacu confluence  416
+    Pastaza                                     31
+    Morona, up to the Rarayacu                 211
+
+  These same rivers are navigable at high water for steamers of 19-1/2
+  ft. draft for an aggregate distance of 1330 m., including 68 m. of the
+  Aguarico, and for steamers of 2 to 4 ft. draft for an additional 733
+  m. The last aggregate includes an extension of 93 m. on the Pastaza,
+  99 on the Morona, 186 on the Napo, and the balance on the Manhuasisa,
+  Cangaima, Pucacuro, Corrientes, Cunambo and Huiviyacu.
+
+  On the western versant of the Andes of Ecuador there are three river
+  systems of considerable size--the Mira, the Esmeraldas and the Guayas.
+  The sources of the first--the Rioblanco, Pisco and Puntal--are to be
+  found on the northern slopes of the transverse ridge which culminates
+  in the Imbabura volcano. Its course is north and north-west to the
+  Colombian frontier, thence westward and north-west to the Pacific,
+  breaking through the Western Cordillera on its way. It forms the
+  boundary line for some distance between Ecuador and Colombia, but near
+  its mouth where the river turns northward Colombia has taken
+  possession of the left bank and all the territory covered by its large
+  delta. Its principal tributaries on the left are the San Pedro,
+  Paramba, Cachiyacu, Chachavi and Canumbi, and on the right the San
+  Juan, Caiquer and Nulpe. The delta channels of the Mira are navigable,
+  being tributary to the Colombian port of Tumaco. The Esmeraldas drains
+  all that part of the central plateau lying between the transverse
+  ridge of Tiupullo on the south, and the Imbabura ridge on the north,
+  together with the western slopes of the Cordillera between Iliniza and
+  Cotocachi, and a considerable part of the lower plain. It is formed by
+  the confluence of the Quininde and Toachi with the Guaillabamba
+  between 40 and 50 m. above its mouth, and discharges into the Pacific
+  in lat. 1 deg. N., long. 79 deg. 40' W., through a narrow and
+  precipitous gorge. The volume and current of the river is sufficient
+  to freshen the sea 2 m. from the coast. The Guaillabamba is the larger
+  and more important tributary, and should be considered the main
+  stream. It rises in the Chillo valley in the vicinity of Cayambe, and
+  flows across the northern end of the central plateau, breaking through
+  the Western Cordillera between Cotocachi and Pichincha. One of its
+  plateau tributaries, Rio Pedregal, rises on the slopes of Cotopaxi and
+  is celebrated for its three beautiful cascades, the highest of which
+  is about 220 ft. The Toachi and Quininde have their sources on the
+  western slopes of the Cordillera. The Guayas or Guayaquil river is in
+  part an estuary extending northward from the Gulf of Guayaquil,
+  bordered by mangrove swamps and mud banks formed by the silt brought
+  down from the neighbouring mountains. All the bordering country on
+  both sides is of the same description, and for a long distance inland
+  extensive areas of swampy country are submerged during the rainy
+  season. Above the mouth of the Daule the river is known as the
+  Bodegas, which in turn is formed by the confluence of the Babahoyo and
+  the Vinces. The Guayas also receives a large tributary from the east
+  called the Yaguachi. All these streams are navigable on their lower
+  courses, regular steamboat communication being maintained on the
+  Guayas and Bodegas to a river port of the latter name, 80 m. above
+  Guayaquil, and for 40 m. on the Daule. The navigable channels of all
+  the rivers are computed at 200 m. The drainage basin of the Guayas,
+  according to Theodor Wolf, covers an area of 14,000 sq. m., and
+  includes the greater part of the lower plain and the western slopes of
+  the Cordillera Occidental as far north as Iliniza. The Babahoyo, which
+  is the main stream, has its sources on the slopes of Chimborazo, the
+  Daule on the Sandomo ridge in the latitude of Pichincha, the Yaguachi
+  on the south-eastern slopes of Chimborazo, whence it flows southward
+  for a considerable distance before breaking through the Cordillera to
+  the western plain. The Guayas is one of the most interesting and
+  varied of the South American river systems, and is of great economic
+  importance to Ecuador. In addition to these three river systems, there
+  are a large number of short streams on the coast flowing into the
+  Pacific and Gulf of Guayaquil, only two of which have any special
+  importance in the present undeveloped state of the country. These are
+  the Santiago, which drains several fertile valleys in northern
+  Esmeraldas and western Carchi, and whose outlet is connected with some
+  navigable tide-water channels, including the Pailon basin and the
+  Caraquez, or Caracas, on which is located the village of Bahia de
+  Caraquez (lat. 0 deg. 34' S.), the nearest port to the city of Quito.
+
+
+    Lakes.
+
+  There are a considerable number of small lakes in Ecuador, but no
+  large ones. These are of two classes--those of the bowl-like valleys
+  and extinct craters of the mountainous region, and the reservoir lakes
+  of the lowland plains caused by the annual overflow of the rivers. It
+  is impossible to say how many of the latter there may be, for much of
+  the territory where they are found is unexplored. They are usually
+  shallow and malarial. Among the upland lakes, there are some of
+  special interest because of their position and historical association.
+  The Yaguar-cocha ("lake of blood"), in the province of Imbabura, near
+  Ibarra, which is only 1-1/2 m. in circumference, is celebrated for the
+  tradition that Huayna-Capac, one of the great conquerors of the Inca
+  dynasty, defeated an army of rebellious Carranquis on its shores, and
+  threw so many of their bleeding corpses into it as to turn its waters
+  to the colour of blood. On the south-east skirt of Cotocachi, 10,200
+  ft. above the sea, is the beautiful little Cuy-cocha, which
+  originated, it is believed, through the falling in of the mountain's
+  sides. There are two others of apparently the same origin on the
+  north-west slopes of the Mojanda volcano, but they are less attractive
+  because of their gloomy surroundings. In the deep valley between the
+  mountains of Imbabura and Mojanda is the lake of San Pablo, 8848 ft.
+  above the sea. It is one of the largest of its class, being about 5 m.
+  in circumference, and is situated in an exceptionally fertile region.
+  It drains through the Peguchi into the Rio Blanco, a tributary of the
+  Mira. Other well-known lakes of the plateau region are Quirotoa, about
+  4600 ft. in diameter; Colta, east of Riobamba, and Colay, south of the
+  same place. Among the many thermal springs throughout the Andean
+  districts, the best known are at Belermos and San Pedro del Tingo,
+  north-east of Quito; at Cachillacta, in the district of Nanegal; at
+  Timbugpoyo, near Latacunga; at Banos (5906 ft. elevation), near the
+  foot of Tunguragua; and on the slopes of Ruminagui and Chimborazo.
+
+
+    Coast.
+
+  The coast of Ecuador extends from about lat. 1 deg. 20' N. to the
+  vicinity of the Boca Jambeli on the southern shore of the Gulf of
+  Guayaquil, in lat. 3 deg. 14' S., and has an outward curve. Its more
+  prominent headlands are Punta Galera, Cabo Pasado, Cabo de San Lorenzo
+  and La Puntilla, or Santa Elena Point. The bays on this coast are
+  commonly broad indentations, and the rivers discharging into them are
+  generally obstructed by bars. The small ports along the coast,
+  therefore, do not afford much protection to shipping. The most
+  northern of these bays is the Ancon de Sardinas, lying south of the
+  Mira delta. The head of the bay is fringed with islands and reefs,
+  behind which is the mouth of the Santiago river, Poza Harbour, San
+  Lorenzo Bay, Pailon basin and a network of navigable channels, all of
+  which are difficult of access. The small ports of La Tola and Pailon
+  are located on these waters. The port of Esmeraldas, near the mouth of
+  the Esmeraldas river, is located near the southern entrance to this
+  bay. As the mouth of the river is obstructed by a bar and its current
+  is swift, the anchorage is outside in an open roadstead, only slightly
+  protected on the south. Farther south is the broad Bay of Manta, with
+  a small port of the same name at its southern extremity. The most
+  frequented port on this part of the coast is that of Bahia de
+  Caraquez, at the mouth of the Caraquez, or Caracas river, which is
+  also obstructed by a bar. There is a fertile, productive country back
+  of this port, and it is the objective point of a road from Quito.
+  Immediately north of the Gulf of Guayaquil is the Bay of Santa Elena,
+  with a small port of the same name, which has a good, well-sheltered
+  anchorage and is the landing-place of the West Coast cable. The Gulf
+  of Guayaquil, which lies between the Ecuadorean and Peruvian coasts,
+  is the largest gulf on the Pacific coast of South America between
+  Panama and Chiloe. Its mouth is 140 m. wide between La Puntilla on the
+  north and Cabo Blanco on the south, and it penetrates the land
+  eastward, with a slight curve northward at its head, for a distance of
+  about 100 m., terminating in the Guayas estuary or river, on which is
+  located the port of Guayaquil. The upper end of the bay and its
+  northern shores are fringed with swamps through which numerous
+  estuaries penetrate for some distance inland. Immediately west of the
+  Guayas river the Estero Salado, which comprises a great many shallow
+  tide-water channels, or bayous, penetrates as far inland as Guayaquil,
+  but is used only by canoes. The upper end of the gulf is filling up
+  with the silt brought down from the Cordillera. It is divided midway
+  by the large island of Puna, at the eastern end of which is the
+  anchorage for steamers too large to ascend the Guayas. The steamship
+  channel passes between this island and the Peruvian coast, and is
+  known as the Jambeli channel. The passage north of Puna Island is
+  known as the Morro channel, but its entrance is obstructed by shoals
+  and it is considered dangerous for shipping. A small port in the
+  Jambeli channel, on the south-east shore of the gulf, is that of
+  Puerto Bolivar, or Puerto Huaila, the shipping port for the town of
+  Machala and the Zaruma mining region.
+
+
+    Islands.
+
+  There are few islands off the coast of Ecuador, and only one of any
+  considerable size--that of Puna in the Gulf of Guayaquil, which is 29
+  m. long from north-east to south-west and 8 to 14 m. wide. It lies in
+  the north-east part of the gulf, and is separated from the Ecuadorean
+  mainland by the Morro channel, and from the southern mainland by the
+  wider and deeper Jambeli channel. There is a low, mountainous ridge,
+  called the Zampo Palo, running through it, and its eastern shores have
+  some moderately high bluffs; otherwise the island is low and swampy,
+  and its shores, except the eastern end, are fringed with mud banks.
+  The island is densely wooded (in marked contrast with the opposite
+  Peruvian shore), and is considered unhealthy throughout the greater
+  part. It has a population of 200, chiefly centred in the village of
+  Puna, at its north-east extremity, which is a shipping port and health
+  resort for the city of Guayaquil. Puna island is celebrated for its
+  connexion with Pizarro's invasion of Peru in 1531. It is said that it
+  had a considerable population at that time, and that the natives
+  resisted the invaders so vigorously that it cost six months to reduce
+  them. Midway in the outer part of the Gulf of Guayaquil is Amortajada
+  or Santa Clara island, whose resemblance to a shrouded corpse
+  suggested the name which it bears. It lies 12 m. south-west of Puna
+  island and 80 m. from Guayaquil. It rises to a considerable elevation,
+  and carries a light 256 ft. above sea-level. There are some low,
+  swampy islands, or mud flats, covered with mangrove thickets, in the
+  lower Guayas river, but they are uninhabited and of no importance.
+  North of the Gulf of Guayaquil there are only two small islands on the
+  coast of more than local interest. The first of these is Salango, in
+  lat. 1 deg. 25' S., which is 2 m. in circumference and rises to a
+  height of 524 ft. It is richly wooded, and has a well-sheltered
+  anchorage much frequented by whalers in search of water and fresh
+  provisions. The next is La Plata, in lat. 1 deg. 16' S., which rises
+  to a height of 790 ft., and has a deep anchorage on its eastern side
+  where Drake is said to have anchored in 1579 to divide the spoils of
+  the Spanish treasure ship "Cacafuego." The Galapagos Islands (q.v.)
+  belong to the republic of Ecuador, and form a part of the province of
+  Guayas.
+
+  _Geology._[1]--The great longitudinal depression which lies between
+  the eastern and the western branches of the Andes is also the boundary
+  between the ancient rocks of the east and the Mesozoic beds which
+  form the greater part of the west of the country. The Eastern
+  Cordillera is composed of gneiss, mica and chlorite schist and other
+  crystalline rocks of ancient date; the Western Cordillera, on the
+  other hand, is formed of porphyritic eruptive rocks of Mesozoic age,
+  together with sedimentary deposits containing Cretaceous fossils. Most
+  of the country between the Andes and the sea is covered by Tertiary
+  and Quaternary beds; but the range of hills which runs north-west from
+  Guayaquil is formed of Cretaceous and porphyritic rocks similar to
+  those of the Andes. In the intra-andine depression, between the East
+  and West Cordilleras, recent deposits with plant remains occur near
+  Loja, and to the north-east of Cuenca is a sandstone containing
+  mercury ores, somewhat similar to that of Peru. Farther north nearly
+  the whole of the depression is filled with lavas, tuffs and
+  agglomerates, derived from the Tertiary and recent volcanoes which
+  form the most striking feature of the Andes of Ecuador. These
+  volcanoes are most numerous in the northern half of the country, and
+  they stand indifferently upon the folded Mesozoic beds of the Western
+  Cordillera (e.g. Chimborazo, Iliniza, Pichincha), the ancient rocks of
+  the Eastern Cordillera (Altar, Tunguragua, Cotopaxi, Antisana), or the
+  floor of the great depression between. The lavas and ashes are for the
+  most part andesitic.
+
+  _Climate._--Climatic conditions in Ecuador are very largely contingent
+  on altitude, and the transition from one climate to another is a
+  matter of only a few hours' journey. Although the equator crosses the
+  northern part of the republic, only 15 m. north of the city Of Quito,
+  a very considerable part of its area has the temperature of the
+  temperate zone, and snow-crowned summits are to be seen every day in
+  the year from its great central plateau. In addition to the climatic
+  changes due to altitude, there are others caused by local arid
+  conditions, by volcanic influences and by the influence of mountain
+  ranges on the temperature and rainfall of certain districts. These
+  influences are not general; on the contrary, they often affect very
+  limited areas. For instance, Guayaquil has a hot humid climate and
+  mangrove swamps line the shores of Guayas down to the gulf; at Santa
+  Elena, about 60 m. due west, arid conditions prevail and vegetation is
+  scanty and dwarfed; at Salango island, 50 m. north of Santa Elena,
+  there is an abundance of moisture and vegetation is luxuriant; 33 m.
+  farther north, at Manta, the country is a desert; and at Atacames bay,
+  135 m. north of Manta, the rainfall and vegetation are again
+  favourable. On the plateau similar conditions prevail. There is no
+  great display of arboreal vegetation anywhere except in the valleys
+  and lower passes where the rainfall is abundant, but in general terms
+  it may be said that the rainfall and vegetation which characterize the
+  Quito basin soon disappear as one proceeds southward, and are
+  substituted by arid conditions. Even here there are local
+  modifications, as at Ambato, where a shallow depression, surrounded by
+  barren, dust-covered ridges exposed to cold winds, is celebrated for
+  its warm, equable climate and its fruit. It is to be noted that the
+  Gulf of Guayaquil separates the humid, forest-covered coastal plain of
+  Ecuador from the arid, barren coast of Peru, the two regions being
+  widely dissimilar. The mean annual temperature, on this plain,
+  according to an official publication, is 82.4 deg. F., and the range
+  is from 66 deg. to 95 deg. The heat is modified at many points on the
+  coast, however, by the cold Humboldt current which sweeps up the west
+  coast of South America from the Antarctic seas. The year is divided
+  into a wet and dry season--the former running from December to June,
+  and the latter from July to December. The rainy season, or _invierno_,
+  is broken by a short period of dry weather, called the _veranillo_
+  (little summer), shortly after the December solstice; otherwise it
+  rains every day, the streams overflow, land traffic is suspended, and
+  the air is drenched with moisture and becomes oppressive and
+  pestiferous. The dry season, which is called the _verano_, or summer,
+  is also broken by a short rainy spell called the _inviernillo_ (little
+  winter) or "cordonazo de San Francisco," which follows the September
+  equinox. Apart from these the two seasons are sometimes broken by
+  cloudless skies in winter, and a drizzling mist, called the _garua_,
+  in summer. In the inter-andine region the variations in temperature
+  are frequent and the averages comparatively low. An official estimate
+  gives the mean annual temperature as 64 deg. to 68 deg. between 6000
+  and 11,000 ft. In Quito the mean annual temperature is 58.8 deg., the
+  diurnal variation 10 deg., the annual maximum 70 deg., and the annual
+  minimum 45 deg. Other returns give the mean annual temperature at 55
+  deg. It is said that pulmonary tuberculosis is unknown in these
+  altitudes, though it is common in the coast districts. Catarrhal
+  complaints are common, however, and leprosy is widely prevalent, it
+  being necessary to maintain three large hospitals for lepers. In the
+  higher altitudes there are wide variations in the snow-fall and
+  intensity of the cold even on the same mountain. The line of permanent
+  snow is much higher on the plateau side in both ranges, the
+  precipitation being greater on the outer sides--those facing the
+  forested lowlands--and the terrestrial radiation being greater from
+  the barren surfaces of the plateau. In some instances the difference
+  in the elevation of the snow-line has been found to be fully 1000 ft.
+  Moreover, no two summits seem to retain the snow permanently at the
+  same altitude. For instance, in 1880 Whymper found permanent snow on
+  Cotocachi at 14,500 ft., while near by Imbabura was bare to its summit
+  (15,033 ft.); Antisana was permanently covered at 16,000 ft., and near
+  by Sara-Urcu, which is drenched with rains and mists from the Amazon
+  valley all the year round, at 14,000 ft.; Sincholagua had large beds
+  of permanent snow at 15,300 ft., Cotopaxi was permanently covered at
+  15,500 ft. on its western side, Corazon had daily snowstorms down to
+  14,500 ft., but no permanent beds of snow on its east side (elevation
+  15,871 ft.); and Chimborazo had deep snow at 15,600 ft. on its
+  north-east and south sides in June--July. The eastern range was found
+  to receive the heaviest snowfall. The elevation at which human
+  residence is possible seems to be unusually high in Ecuador. Many of
+  the towns and villages of central Ecuador lie at altitudes ranging
+  from 8606 ft. (Ambato) to 9839 ft. (Machachi). The capital city of
+  Quito is 9343 ft. above the sea, and is celebrated for its agreeable
+  temperature, and also for its healthiness in spite of prevailing
+  unsanitary conditions. Above these towns are a number of farms and
+  herdsmen's habitations, where men live the whole or a part of the year
+  with less discomfort from low temperature than is experienced in
+  northern Europe and northern United States. According to Whymper, the
+  _tambo_ of Chuquipoquio, at the foot of Chimborazo, is 11,704 ft., and
+  the _hacienda_ of Pedregal, near Iliniza, 11,629 ft., both being
+  permanently occupied. The _hacienda_ of Antisana, 13,306 ft., and the
+  herdsmen's hut of Cunayaco on Chimborazo, 13,396 ft., are occupied
+  only for a part of the year. The highest elevations are generally
+  covered with ice and snow, and glaciers, according to Whymper, are to
+  be found upon no less than nine of the culminating peaks, and possibly
+  upon two or three more. These serve to modify the temperatures of the
+  plateau, which is swept by cold winds at all seasons of the year. The
+  prevailing wind is that of the north-east and south-east trade winds,
+  broken and modified on the plateau and western lowlands by mountain
+  barriers. Westerly and north-west winds are sometimes experienced, but
+  are not permanent.
+
+  _Flora._--The flora of the Quito basin has been well studied by
+  various European botanists, more especially by Dr William Jameson
+  (1796-1873) of the university of Quito, who began the preparation of a
+  synopsis of the Ecuadorean flora in 1864-1865 (_Synopsis plantarum
+  Quitensium_, 2 vols., Quito, 1865). The flora of the forested lowlands
+  on both sides of the Andes has not been studied and described so
+  fully. From the Pacific coast upward to a height of about 3000 to 4000
+  ft. the vegetation is distinctively tropical, including among its
+  economic products cacao, cotton, sugar, tobacco, rice, maize, yucca
+  (also known as cassava and mandioca), peanuts, bananas, sweet
+  potatoes, yams, arracacha (_Conium moschatum_, H.B.K., or _Arracacha
+  esculenta_), indigo, rubber (_Castilloa_), ivory-nuts, cinchona and
+  bread-fruit. Most of these become rare at 3000 ft., but a few, like
+  sugar-cane, are cultivated as high as 8000 ft. The alluvial valley of
+  the Guayas, above Guayaquil, is celebrated for the richness of its
+  vegetation, which, in fruit alone, includes cacao, coffee, coco-nuts,
+  pine-apples, oranges, lemons, guayavas (_Psidium pomiferum_), guavas
+  (_Inga spectabilis_), shaddocks (or grape-fruit), pomegranates,
+  apricots, chirimoyas (_Anona Chirimolia_), granadillas (_Passiflora
+  quadrangularis_), paltas (_Persea gratissima_, otherwise known as
+  "alligator pears"), tunas (_Cactus_), mangoes (_Mangifera Indica_),
+  pacays (_Prosopis dulcis_), aji (Chile pepper), and many others of
+  less importance. Besides rubber, the forests produce a great variety
+  of cabinet and construction woods, ivory-nuts (from the "tagua" palm,
+  _Phytelephas macrocarpa_), "toquilla" fibre (_Carludovica palmata_)
+  for the manufacture of so-called Panama hats, cabbage palms, several
+  species of cinchona, vanilla and dyewoods. Among the large trees which
+  are valued for their timber are redwood (_Humiria balsamifera_),
+  Brazil-wood, algarrobo, palo de cruz (_Jacquinea ruscifolia_),
+  guaiacum or holy wood, rosewood, cedar and walnut. From 6000 to 10,000
+  ft. above the sea, the indigenous species include the potato, maize,
+  oca (_Oxalis tuberosa_), and quinua (_Chenopodium quinoa_), and the
+  exotic species, wheat, barley, oats, alfalfa (_Medicago sativa_), and
+  most of the fruits and vegetables of the northern temperate zone.
+  Wheat does not form a head below 4500 ft., nor ripen above 10,500. The
+  larger forest trees are rarely seen above 10,000 ft., and even there
+  only on the outer slopes of the Cordilleras. The _Escallonia
+  myrtalloides_, however, is found at an elevation of 13,000 ft., and
+  the shrubby _Befarias_ 400 or 500 ft. higher. A characteristic growth
+  of the open plateau and upland valleys is the cabulla, cabaya or
+  maguey (_Agave americana_), whose fibre is much used by the natives in
+  the manufacture of cordage, sandals (_alpargatas_) and other useful
+  articles. In the treeless region lying between 11,600 and 13,800, or
+  in other places between 12,000 and 14,000 ft., the similarity of the
+  vegetation to that of the corresponding European region, according to
+  Wagner, is especially striking. On the _paramos_ of Chimborazo,
+  Pichincha, Iliniza, &c., the relation of characteristic genera to
+  those identical with genera in the Alpine flora of Europe is as 5 to
+  4; and the botanist might almost suppose himself in the Upper
+  Engadine. Of the flora of the highest Andes, Whymper found 42 species,
+  of various orders, above 16,000 ft., almost all of which were from
+  Antisana and Chimborazo; 12 genera of mosses were found above 15,000
+  ft., and 59 species of flowering plants above 14,000 ft., of which 35
+  species came from above 15,000 and 20 species from above 16,000 ft.
+  The highest specimen obtained was a lichen (_Lecanora subfusca_, L.)
+  on the south side of Chimborazo, 18,400 ft. above sea-level. Mosses
+  (_Grimmia_) were found on Chimborazo at 16,660 ft., ferns (_Polypodium
+  pycnolepis_, Kze.) at 14,900, and specimens of _Gentiana rupicola_, H.
+  B. K., _Achyrophorus quitensis_, Sz. Bip., _Culcitium nivale_, H. B.
+  K., at 16,300; _Phyllactis inconspicua_, Wedd., at 16,600,
+  _Astragalus geminiflorus_, H. B. K., at 14-15,000, _Geranium
+  diffusum_, H. B. K., at 16,000, _Malvastrum phyllanthos_, Asa Gray, at
+  16,500, _Draba obovata_, Benth., at 16,660, and _Ranunculus
+  praemorsus_, Kth., at 16,500--all on Chimborazo. _Fuchsia loxensis_,
+  H. B. K., was found on the slope of Sara-Urcu at 12,779 ft., and
+  currant bushes (_Ribes glandulosum_, R. & P.), on Chimborazo, at
+  14,000. On the eastern slopes of the Andes, where the rainfall is
+  continuous throughout the year and the atmosphere is surcharged with
+  moisture, the forest growth is phenomenal. It is similar to that of
+  the Colombian and Peruvian _montanas_, modified, if at all, by the
+  excessive humidity which prevails in this region.
+
+  _Fauna._--The fauna of Ecuador is comparatively poor in mammalia, but
+  the birds and still more the insects are very numerous. The Quadrumana
+  are represented by a large number of species, the eastern forests
+  being very much like the other parts of the great Amazonian basin in
+  this respect. The Carnivora include the puma (_Felis concolor_),
+  jaguar (_F. onca_), ocelot (_F. grisea_), bear (_Ursus ornatus_), fox,
+  weasel and otter. A small deer and, in southern Ecuador, the llama
+  (_Auchenia_) with its allied species, the alpaca, guanaco and vicuna,
+  represent the ruminants. The rodents are numerous and include most, if
+  not all, of the Amazonian species--the capybara (_Hydrochoerus
+  capybara_), cavia (_C. aperea_), paca (_Coelogenys paca_) and cutia
+  (_Dasyprocta aguti_), all amphibious and having an extensive range.
+  Tapirs are to be found in the eastern forests, the peccary in more
+  open woodlands, and the opossum in nearly every part of the country.
+  Cattle, horses, asses, sheep and swine were introduced by the
+  Spaniards, and thrive well in some of the provinces. Excellent horses
+  are reared in the uplands, as well as mules and cattle, the pasturage
+  on the mountain slopes being good, and alfalfa being grown in
+  abundance in many districts. The Reptilia include countless numbers of
+  alligators in the Guayas and its tributaries and in the tide-water
+  channels of many of the smaller rivers; many species of lizards, of
+  which Mr Whymper found three in the Quito basin; snakes of every
+  description from the huge anaconda of the Amazon region down to the
+  beautifully marked coral snake; and a great variety of frogs and
+  toads. Bats also are very numerous, especially in the eastern forest
+  region, where the vampire bat is a serious obstacle to permanent
+  settlement. The avifauna of Ecuador is distinguished for the great
+  variety of its genera and species, among which are many peculiar to
+  the Amazon valley, and others to the colder uplands. Among the Amazon
+  species may be mentioned the parrot, macaw (_Macrocercus_), toucan
+  (_Ramphastos_), curassow (_Crax_), penelope, trogon, and horned
+  screamer (_Palamedea cornuta_). There are also herons, ibises, storks
+  and cranes, including the great black-headed white crane, _Mycteria
+  americana_, which ranges from northern Argentina to Colombia. One
+  species of ibis, the _Theristicus caudatus_, is to be found, it is
+  said, only on the slopes of Antisana. Species of the pheasant and
+  partridge are not uncommon, and the "guacharo" (_Steatornis
+  caripensis_), once believed to inhabit Venezuela only, is found in
+  Ecuador also. The Raptores are well represented by a large number of
+  genera and species, which include the condor, eagle, vulture, falcon,
+  hawk and owl. The condor (_Sarcorhamphus gryphus_) is commonly found
+  between the elevations of 6000 and 16,000 ft., rarely, if ever,
+  descending to the lowland plains or rising above the lower peaks. It
+  preys upon the smaller animals and inflicts much loss upon stock
+  farmers through the destruction of calves, lambs, &c., but it very
+  rarely ventures to attack man or any of the larger animals. The eagle
+  common to Ecuador is the _Morphnus taeniatus_, and possibly the _M.
+  guaianensis_ on the eastern slopes of the Andes. The harrier-eagle
+  (_Herpetotheres cachinnans_) is also to be found throughout this part
+  of the continent. An eagle with buzzard-like habits, the _Leucopternis
+  plumbea_, is likewise common in Ecuador. Among the vultures the
+  turkey-buzzard group (_Rhinogryphus_ or _Cathartes_), including the
+  _R. aurus_, _burrovianus_ and _perniger_, is common everywhere. The
+  carrion crow, or black vulture (_Catharista atrata_), is also common
+  to every part of the country, and is the general scavenger. The
+  carrion hawks are represented by the _Polyborus tharus_, popularly
+  called the "caracara," and the _Phalcobaenus carunculatus_; the
+  falcons by the _Aesalon columbarius_; and the kites by the _Gampsonyx
+  swainsoni_. The Ecuadorean owl is the _Bubo nigrescens_. An
+  interesting species of the song birds is popularly known as the
+  "flautero" (flute-bird), which inhabits the eastern forests. Its notes
+  are marvellous imitations of "the most mellow, sweet-sounding flute,"
+  but the singer itself, according to Mr Simson, is "a very
+  insignificant-looking little, greyish-coloured bird," which "always
+  dies in captivity." The most interesting group of the smaller birds is
+  that of the hummingbirds, of which the number and variety is
+  astonishing. Some of these have a very wide range, while others are
+  apparently limited to a small district, or to a certain altitude. The
+  best-known fish of Ecuador is the insignificant _Pimelodus cyclopum_,
+  the only fish found in the streams and lakes of the plateau region.
+  Its fame rests on Humboldt's publication of the tradition that great
+  numbers of this tiny fish had been thrown out during the eruptions of
+  Imbabura and other volcanoes. Mr Whymper's explanation of the
+  phenomenon is that the fish are scattered over the land by the sudden
+  overflow during volcanic eruptions of the rivers and lakes which they
+  inhabit. The rivers of the eastern plains are probably stocked with
+  the fish found in the Amazon. On the coast, the Ancon de Sardinas bay
+  is so named from the multitude of small fish (_sardinas_) which
+  inhabit its waters. Elsewhere there are no fisheries of importance,
+  except those of the Galapagos Islands.
+
+  The insect inhabitants of Ecuador, like the birds, include a large
+  number of genera and species, but no complete entomological survey of
+  the country has ever been made, and our knowledge in this respect is
+  insufficient to warrant a detailed description. In one ascent of
+  Pichincha in 1880, Mr Whymper collected 21 species of beetles, all new
+  to science, between 12,000 and 15,600 ft. elevation. On Cotopaxi, at
+  elevations of 13,000 to 15,800 ft., 18 species of the genus _Colpodes_
+  were collected, of which 16 were new. This may be considered a fair
+  illustration of the situation in Ecuador so far as natural history
+  exploration is concerned. Of the Machachi basin, near Quito, which he
+  calls a "zoologist's paradise," Mr Whymper writes (_Travels amongst
+  the Great Andes of the Equator_): "Butterflies above, below and
+  around; now here, now there, by many turns and twists displaying the
+  brilliant tessellation of their under-sides ... May-flies and
+  dragon-flies danced in the sunlight; lizards darted across the paths;
+  and legions of spiders pervaded the grass, many very
+  beautiful--frosted--silver backs, or curious, like the saltigrades,
+  who took a few steps and then gave a leap. There were crickets in
+  infinite numbers; and flies innumerable, from slim daddy-long-legs to
+  ponderous, black, hairy fellows known to science as _Dejeaniae_;
+  hymenopterous insects in profusion, including our old friend the
+  bishop of Ambato (possibly _Dielis_), in company with another
+  formidable stinger, with chrome antennae, called by the natives 'the
+  Devil'; and occasional _Phasmas_ (caballo de palo) crawling painfully
+  about, like animated twigs." This description refers to a fertile
+  sub-tropical oasis on the partially barren plateau; below in the
+  forested lowlands, where tropical conditions prevail, the numbers and
+  varieties are many times greater. The Coleoptera are especially
+  numerous; Mr Whymper took home with him 206 species which had been
+  identified and described up to 1892, most of them from the uplands and
+  most of them new to science. The total number of species in Ecuador is
+  roughly estimated to be 8000. The Hymenoptera are also numerous, but
+  less so than the Lepidoptera, with which the mountain slopes and
+  sunny, open spaces seem to be literally covered. Of moths alone Mr
+  Whymper took away with him specimens representing no less than 23
+  genera, with a probable addition of 13 genera more among his
+  undescribed specimens, the largest of which (an _Erebus odora_) was
+  7-1/4 in. across the wings. Among the Diptera, which includes a very
+  wide range of genera and species, are some of a highly troublesome
+  character, though on the whole, Mr Whymper did not find the flies and
+  mosquitoes so. His explorations, however, did not extend to the
+  eastern region, where the mosquitoes are usually described by
+  travellers as extremely troublesome. Sand-flies are common, and in the
+  eastern forests the tiny _pium_ fly (_Trombidium_, sp.?) is a
+  veritable pest. Of the insects which infest dwellings and prey upon
+  their human inmates, such as fleas, bed-bugs, roaches, &c., Ecuador
+  has more than a bountiful supply. Lice-eating is a widely prevalent
+  habit among the Indians and mestizos, and demonstrates how numerous
+  these parasites are among the people. A good illustration of the
+  prevalence of house-infesting animals and insects is given by Mr
+  Whymper (_op. cit._ p. 391), who made a collection of 50 different
+  specimens of the vermin which infested his bedroom in Guayaquil.
+
+_Population._--The indigenous population of Ecuador was originally
+composed of two distinct races--the Quitus and Caras, the former being
+the older, and the latter presumably of Quichua origin. The Caras,
+according to tradition, entered the country from the coast, and had
+thoroughly established themselves there long before the conquest by the
+Inca rulers Tupac-Yupanqui and his son Huayna-Capac. This conquest was
+comparatively easy because the Caras spoke a dialect of the same
+language, and were not greatly unlike their conquerors in manners and
+customs. The present Indian population of Ecuador, excepting those of
+the trans-Andean region, may be considered as descendants of these two
+races. They are subjected to incredible abuses under Spanish colonial
+rule, their numbers being reduced to a fraction of the former
+population, and even yet they are subjected to a kind of debt-bondage
+which is slavery in all but the name. Notwithstanding all this they
+still represent from two-thirds to three-fourths of the actual
+population of Ecuador. East of the Andes the forests are inhabited by
+tribes of what are termed "aucas" or "infieles" (infidels)--Indians who
+are independent of both church and political control. Missions have been
+established among some of the tribes, but their influence reaches only a
+small part of the wild inhabitants of this extensive region.
+
+The principal tribes are the Quijos or Canelos, who are settled about
+the headwaters of the Napo, on the eastern slopes of the Andes, and are
+in great part grouped about the missions; the Jivaros who inhabit the
+valley of the Pastaza; the Zaparos who occupy the forest region between
+the Pastaza and Napo; the Piojes of the middle Napo, and eastward to the
+Putumayo; and the Iquitos and Mazanes of the lower Napo and Tigre,
+chiefly in territory occupied by Peru. The Jivaros are the best known of
+these tribes because of their successful resistance to the Spanish
+invaders. They are still independent of political control, live in
+permanent settlements, till the soil (producing Indian corn, beans,
+yucca and plantains), and have developed some rude manufactures. The
+Zaparos are less homogeneous, some of their hordes living in a state of
+complete savagery. They are classified with the Guaranis of Brazil, whom
+they resemble in many particulars. The Piojes live in permanent
+communities and cultivate the soil. The total number of "aucas" or
+uncivilized Indians in the republic has been estimated at about 200,000,
+but this estimate covered a larger area than Ecuador actually occupies
+and is evidently too high. Their settlements are usually small and very
+much scattered, and their aggregate number is evidently much under the
+earlier estimates. An official estimate given to Mr Whymper in 1880,
+however, places the population of Oriente (the eastern territory) at
+80,000, which is probably more nearly correct.
+
+No general census has ever been taken in Ecuador, and estimates are
+little better than vague conjectures. One of these estimates, that
+published by P.F. Cevallos for 1889, which has been generally accepted,
+gave the total population as 1,272,161, and these figures have been used
+with but slight changes for various later estimates. A later official
+estimate appeared in 1900 in _La Republique de l'Equateur et sa
+participation a l'Exposition Universelle de 1900_, which gives for the
+provinces practically the same figures as those of Cevallos, and at the
+same time assumes the total for the whole republic to be 1,500,000. The
+white population is estimated at 100,000 to 120,000, which probably
+includes many of mixed ancestry, and the mixed bloods at 300,000 to
+450,000. The tendency is for the _mestizo_ who dwells in Indian
+communities to revert to the Indian type, and it is probable that the
+larger estimate is nearer the truth. On the other hand _mestizos_ who
+live among the whites and form new alliances with them eventually class
+themselves as whites wherever their social condition has been improved.
+As a rule, the _mestizos_ of Ecuador are ignorant, indolent and
+non-progressive. As in Colombia they are the artizans and small traders
+and the Indians are the farm labourers. The land is held by a few
+proprietors, and caste sentiment is strong among those who claim unmixed
+European descent; consequently the _mestizos_ have limited opportunities
+to improve their condition.
+
+The whites form an exclusive governing caste, as in Chile. The territory
+of the republic is divided among a very few of them, and its government
+is in their hands.
+
+In the hot seaboard districts there are a small number of negroes, and a
+somewhat larger number of their crosses with the other two races. The
+majority of these are to be found in the northern provinces. There are
+comparatively few negroes and mulattoes on the colder plateaus.
+Villavicencio estimated their numbers at 7831 pure negroes and 36,592
+mixed bloods, which is probably not far from the correct totals.
+
+The foreign population is small, the total being estimated at about
+6000, of which 5000 are natives of the neighbouring Latin republics, 700
+Europeans and Americans, and 300 Chinese.
+
+_Territorial Divisions and Towns._--The republic is divided into 15
+provinces and one territory. The Galapagos Islands were declared a
+dependency of the province of Guayas in 1885, but are practically
+independent and constitute a second territory under the administration
+of _jefe territorial_ appointed by the national executive.
+
+  The official estimate (_La Republique de l'Equateur et sa
+  participation a l'Exposition Universelle de 1900_) gives the data for
+  the provinces and their capitals, which are shown on the next page.
+
+  These population figures are very nearly the same as those given by
+  Cevallos for 1889. If the population of the Oriente be taken as
+  80,000, the aggretate is very nearly the same. The population of the
+  provincial capitals is in some cases over-estimated, especially for
+  Guayaquil and Quito, neither of which could have had 50,000 at the
+  date of this estimate. The population of Quito in May 1906 was 50,841,
+  of which 1365 were foreigners. As for the areas of the provinces the
+  figures need not be questioned except those for the Oriente territory,
+  which are much too large for the region actually occupied by Ecuador,
+  and for the Galapagos Islands which are described by competent
+  authorities as 2400 sq. m. The population of these islands was 400
+  (principally convicts) on Chatham Island in 1901, about 115 on
+  Albemarle and 3 on Charles Island in 1903. Besides the provincial
+  capitals already noted, there are no large and important towns in the
+  country. The largest of the smaller towns is probably Jipijapa, in the
+  province of Manabi, which is the centre of the Panama hat industry and
+  had in 1900 an estimated population of 6000, nearly all Indians.
+
+    +----------------+---------+-----------+------------+-----------+
+    |   Provinces.   |  Area.  |Population.|  Capital.  |Population.|
+    +----------------+---------+-----------+------------+-----------+
+    |                | sq. m.  |           |            |           |
+    | Carchi         |  1495   |   40,000  | Tulcan     |   5,000   |
+    | Imbabura       |  2416   |   68,000  | Ibarra     |   5,000   |
+    | Pichincha      |  6219   |  205,000  | Quito      |  80,000   |
+    | Leon           |  2595   |  109,600  | Latacunga  |  12,000   |
+    | Tunguragua     |  1686   |  103,000  | Ambato     |   8,000   |
+    | Chimborazo     |  2990   |  122,000  | Riobamba   |  12,000   |
+    | Bolivar        |  1260   |   43,000  | Guaranda   |   6,000   |
+    | Canar          |  1519   |   64,000  | Azogues    |   4,000   |
+    | Azuay          |  3874   |  132,400  | Cuenca     |  30,000   |
+    | Loja           |  3707   |   66,000  | Loja       |  10,000   |
+    | El Oro         |  2340   |   32,600  | Machala    |   3,200   |
+    | Guayas         |  8216   |   98,100  | Guayaquil  |  60,000   |
+    | Los Rios       |  2296   |   32,800  | Babahoyo   |   3,000   |
+    | Manabi         |  7893   |   64,100  | Portoviejo |   5,000   |
+    | Esmeraldas     |  5465   |   14,600  | Esmeraldas |   6,000   |
+    | Oriente (ter.) | unknown |           |            |           |
+    | Galapagos Is.  |  2865   |    2,000  |    . .     |    . .    |
+    +----------------+---------+-----------+------------+-----------+
+
+  _Communications._--The first railway to be completed in Ecuador was
+  the line between Guayaquil and Quito, 290 m. in length, the last
+  section of which was formally opened at Quito on the 25th of June
+  1908. It belongs to an American company, and had been under
+  construction for many years. Lines from Puerto Bolivar to Machala,
+  province of El Oro, and another from Bahia de Caraquez to Chone, were
+  under construction in 1908. Several lines were also projected, two to
+  penetrate the Ecuadorean _montana_. There is only one highway in the
+  country on which vehicles can be used, the paved road extending
+  southward from Quito 115 m. on the Guayaquil route, which was begun by
+  Garcia Moreno but has been allowed to fall into neglect. Other roads
+  have been projected to the coast and one to the eastern territory. The
+  ordinary roads are rough mule-tracks. These are difficult at all
+  times, and in the rainy season are quite impassable. On the Pacific
+  lowlands the rivers Guayas, Daule, Vinces and Yaguachi have about 200
+  m. of navigable channels in the rainy season, and are used for the
+  transportation of produce and merchandise. There are also several
+  short river channels along the coast which are used by planters for
+  the same purpose. A great part of the country, however, is still
+  compelled to use the most primitive means of communication--mule
+  paths, fords in the smaller streams in the dry season, and rude
+  suspension bridges across deep gorges and swift mountain torrents. The
+  latter are usually constructed from the tough fibre of the _Agave
+  americana_ and consist of one or more cables. When of one cable,
+  called the _taravita_, the passenger and his luggage are drawn across
+  in a rude kind of basket suspended from it; but when two or more
+  cables are used, transverse sticks of bamboo and reeds are laid upon
+  them, forming a rude prototype of the regular suspension bridge. Such
+  a bridge is called a _chimba-chaca_, and is very hazardous for an
+  unpractised foot. In 1907 there were 2564 m. of telegraph lines in
+  operation, connecting Quito with all the principal towns. The national
+  capital is connected with the submarine cable at Santa Elena (via
+  Guayaquil) and at Tumaco, in Colombia. Guayaquil is provided with
+  tramway and telephone lines. These public services are under the
+  general supervision of the Minister of Public Instruction, Posts and
+  Telegraphs.
+
+  _Commerce._--Ecuador has no merchant marine beyond a few small vessels
+  engaged in the coastwise traffic, some eighteen or twenty river
+  steamers on the Guayas and its tributaries, and a number of steam
+  launches, towboats and various descriptions of barges engaged in the
+  transportation of produce and goods on the rivers. The ocean-going
+  foreign trade of the country is carried wholly in foreign vessels, for
+  the regular lines of which Guayaquil is a principal port of call. Less
+  frequent calls are made at Esmeraldas and some of the other small
+  ports on the coast, of which there are nine in all. Most of these are
+  difficult of access and their trade is unimportant. The total trade of
+  the republic in 1905, according to returns published by the Guayaquil
+  Chamber of Commerce, amounted to only L3,429,955, of which L1,573,389
+  (15,733,891 sucres) were credited to imports, and L1,856,566
+  (18,565,668 sucres) to exports. Of these totals, all but L127,532 of
+  the imports and L441,679 of the exports passed through the port of
+  Guayaquil. The great poverty of the people has been a serious obstacle
+  to the development of a larger commerce.
+
+  _Agriculture._--The agricultural industries on which the export trade
+  depends are almost wholly restricted to the western lowlands, and
+  include cacao, coffee, cotton, sugar, tobacco, rice, yucca and sweet
+  potatoes. The Guayas basin and the district about Machala are
+  celebrated for their cacao, and produce about one-third of the world's
+  supply. It is the staple product of the country. Coffee is produced
+  on the lower slopes of the Cordilleras and is of excellent quality.
+  The production is small, but would be increased at remunerative
+  prices. During the American civil war the planters of Ecuador entered
+  largely into the production of cotton, which at that time yielded
+  large profits, but the industry has declined to very insignificant
+  proportions since then because of inability to compete with the lower
+  cost of production in the United States. The output of sugar and
+  tobacco is small, but could be largely increased, as the conditions of
+  soil and climate are favourable. Much of the sugar-cane produced is
+  turned into rum, which is consumed in the country. The tobacco grown
+  is of excellent quality. Efforts have been made to promote the
+  cultivation of indigo, but without much success. On the uplands,
+  wheat, Indian corn, oats, barley, potatoes and vegetables of many
+  kinds are successfully cultivated, but wholly for home consumption.
+  The vine is successfully grown in the warm upland valleys, both for
+  its fruit and for the production of wine. The staple foods for the
+  common people are potatoes on the plateau (which are chiefly consumed
+  in the form of _locro_, or potato-soup) and yucca- or cassava-meal in
+  the warmer regions. Although cattle and horses were not known before
+  the Spanish conquest, they have become since then important products
+  of the country. The best grazing lands are on the lower elevations
+  west of the Cordilleras in certain districts of the plateau and on the
+  slopes of some of the higher Andes, as on Chimborazo and Antisana.
+  Horses and mules are reared for export on a small scale, and sheep for
+  their wool, which is used in home manufactures.
+
+  _Forest Products._--The forest and other natural products include
+  rubber, cinchona bark, ivory-nuts, mocora and toquilla fibre for the
+  manufacture of hats, hammocks, &c., cabaya fibre for shoes and
+  cordage, vegetable wool (_Bombax ceiba_), sarsaparilla, vanilla,
+  cochineal, cabinet woods, fruit, resins, &c. The original source of
+  the Peruvian bark of commerce, the _Cinchona calisaya_, is completely
+  exhausted, and the "red bark" derived from _C. succirubra_, is now the
+  principal source of supply from Ecuador. Guaranda is the centre of the
+  industry, but bark gatherers are to be found everywhere in the forest
+  regions. The rubber-gathering industry is comparatively new. The
+  product is derived from the _Castilloa elastica_, the _Heveas_ not
+  being found west of the Andes.
+
+  _Minerals._--The mineral resources are much inferior to those of
+  Colombia and Peru. Gold is found in the province of El Oro, where the
+  great Zaruma and other companies have opened a number of mines. It is
+  also found in the provinces of Loja, Esmeraldas, and in the river-beds
+  along the eastern slopes of the Andes. Quicksilver has been mined at
+  Azogues, in the province of Canar, and is also to be found in Azuay.
+  Iron ores and lead are credited to several provinces, and platinum has
+  been found in Esmeraldas, where emerald mines have been worked ever
+  since the Spanish conquest. Coal of good quality has been found in
+  Azuay and at other points, and petroleum is known to exist in several
+  localities. Salt springs near Riobamba and at Salinas, in Imbabura,
+  have long been used by the natives in the manufacture of salt.
+
+  _Manufactures._--The manufacturing industries are chiefly of a
+  primitive character and have been developed to meet local necessities.
+  There are some cotton factories and sugar mills provided with modern
+  machinery, but the cotton and woollen cloths of the country are
+  commonly coarse and manufactured in the most primitive manner. Some of
+  these goods are sent into southern Colombia, but they are chiefly made
+  for the local market. Hats and hammocks are made from the fibres of
+  the mocora and toquilla palms, and sandals from the fibre of the
+  _Agave americana_. The hats are an article of export, and are known
+  abroad as Panama hats. Hand-made laces of admirable workmanship are
+  made in some localities, especially on the plateau about Quito. Among
+  other manufactories, all for the home market, may be mentioned:
+  flour-mills, sugar refineries, rum distilleries, breweries, chocolate
+  factories, a candle factory, saw-mills and tanneries.
+
+_Government._--Constitutionally, the government of Ecuador is that of a
+centralized republic, whose powers are defined by a written constitution
+and whose chief organs are an executive consisting of a president and
+vice-president, and a national congress consisting of two houses, a
+senate and a chamber of deputies. Revolutionary changes, however, have
+been very frequent in Ecuador, and no less than eleven constitutions
+were adopted between 1830 and 1909.
+
+  The constitution adopted in 1906 succeeded that of 1884 (amended in
+  1887 and 1897), and its terms may be given here, subject to what may
+  be regarded as the extra-constitutional powers vested in the
+  executive. Executive power is vested in a president and vice-president
+  elected for periods of four years by a direct vote of the people.
+  (Under the constitution of 1884 the official terms of these two
+  officers were not wholly synchronous, the vice-president's term
+  beginning with the president's third year.) These officials cannot be
+  re-elected to succeed themselves. The president, whose salary is
+  12,000 sucres per annum, has a limited veto power, and may convene
+  extraordinary sessions of Congress for a specified purpose, but he has
+  no further authority over that body. He appoints the diplomatic and
+  consular representatives of the republic and the governors of the
+  provinces, exercises a limited control over the administration of
+  justice and public instruction through the appointment of officials,
+  and is chief of the small military force maintained by the republic.
+  The construction of railways with public funds and under government
+  supervision also places him at the head of a very important public
+  service. The president is assisted by a cabinet of five
+  ministers:--foreign relations and justice; interior and public works;
+  finance; war; public instruction, posts and telegraphs--all of whom
+  may be impeached by congress. The executive authority is also
+  partially exercised by a council of state composed of 15 members,
+  including the five cabinet ministers, of which the vice-president is
+  _ex-officio_ president. The council has important advisory functions,
+  and must be consulted by the president on every important measure or
+  appointment. The provinces are administered by governors chosen by the
+  national executive; the departments by _jefes politicos_ (political
+  chiefs); and the municipalities by _tenientes politicos_ (political
+  lieutenants). The Galapagos Islands are under a _jefe territorial_
+  (territorial chief), Chatham Island being a penal colony and governed
+  by special laws.
+
+  The congressional organization is similar to that of the majority of
+  South American states. The senate is composed of 32 members (2 from
+  each province) elected for two years, one-half the number being
+  renewed each two years. The chamber is composed of 42 deputies, who
+  are elected by the provinces for a period of two years, on a basis of
+  one representative for each 30,000 inhabitants and one supplementary
+  representative for an additional 15,000. A senator must be at least 35
+  years of age, and a deputy 25. The elections are direct, and members
+  of both houses may be re-elected. The immunities of legislators begin
+  30 days before the opening session of congress, and terminate 30 days
+  after its dissolution. Congress meets at Quito on the 10th of August,
+  and remains in session for a period of 60 days, but its sessions may
+  be extended or extraordinary sessions called for specified purposes.
+  The right of suffrage is restricted to literate male adults.
+
+  The judicial branch of the government is composed of a supreme court,
+  located at Quito, consisting of 5 judges and a fiscal (public
+  prosecutor) appointed by the executive; six superior courts (in Quito,
+  Guayaquil, Cuenca, Riobamba, Loja and Portoviejo) with a total of 9
+  judges; _a Tribunal de Cuentas_ of seven members at Quito; and various
+  municipal courts, or _alcaldes_, in the chief towns of the
+  departments. There are civil courts of first and second instance in
+  the larger towns, and consular courts in Quito, Guayaquil and Cuenca
+  with jurisdiction in commercial cases. There are also police
+  commissaries in the departments and justices of the peace in the
+  municipalities, the latter having jurisdiction in civil cases where
+  the amount involved does not exceed 200 sucres. The laws of Ecuador
+  are based on the old Spanish laws and procedure, and include civil,
+  criminal and commercial codes.
+
+  _Army._--The army, according to an official report of 1900, consisted
+  of 4 battalions of infantry (about 3690 strong), 3 brigades of
+  artillery (1362), and 2 regiments of cavalry (468), in all, about 5520
+  men, rank and file. In 1908 this force was reported to comprise 4350
+  men. The national guard is composed of three classes: actives--all
+  enrolled citizens of 20 to 38 years; auxiliaries--enrolled citizens of
+  38 to 44 years; and passives--enrolled citizens of 44 to 50 years.
+  These were estimated at 95,329 men. There is a military school at
+  Quito and a naval school at Guayaquil.
+
+  _Education._--Although primary instruction is free, and is obligatory
+  for children of 6 to 12 years, a considerable part Of the population
+  is unprovided with schools and is indifferent in regard to them. An
+  official report for 1900 gives the number of primary schools as 1297,
+  and the number of pupils in attendance as about 80,000. The secondary
+  schools numbered 37, with 371 teachers and about 4500 pupils. Higher
+  instruction includes the technical and professional schools with the
+  three universities of Quito, Guayaquil and Cuenca, and 6 schools of
+  "trades and professions" (_artes y oficios_) in as many provinces. The
+  old University of Quito has a staff of 32 professors divided into 5
+  faculties: Philosophy and Belles-Lettres, Law, Medicine, Physical and
+  Natural Sciences and Mathematics. There are also in Quito a school of
+  agriculture, astronomical observatory, botanical garden, museum and
+  national printing office, all apparently under the supervision of the
+  University.
+
+  _Church._--According to the constitution of 1884, "the religion of the
+  Republic is the Roman Catholic Apostolic, and all others are
+  excluded." The only opposition which the Church has ever had to
+  encounter has been from the "liberal" element within itself, and thus
+  has arisen, seemingly from political motives, a desire to restrict
+  clerical influence in political affairs. This influence has been
+  exercised to an extreme in Ecuador, so much so, in fact, that its
+  government at times was more nearly a theocracy than a republic. The
+  growth of liberalism finally began to produce results. In 1889 the
+  tithes from which the Church revenues had been derived were abolished,
+  and a tax of 3 per mil. on real estate was substituted. In 1902 a
+  signal victory was won in a law permitting civil marriage, but in 1904
+  a social revolution was effected by legislation, which placed the
+  Church under State control, forbade the foundation of new religious
+  orders and admission into the country of new religious communities,
+  and provided that the members of the episcopate must be citizens of
+  Ecuador. The higher dignitaries of the Church are an archbishop at
+  Quito, and six suffragan bishops at Cuenca, Loja, Ibarra, Riobamba,
+  Guayaquil and Manabi.
+
+  _Finance._--The revenues of the republic are derived from import and
+  export duties, liquor, tobacco and stamp taxes, inheritance tax, salt,
+  gunpowder and playing cards monopolies, consular charges, and sundry
+  miscellaneous receipts, including those from posts, telegraphs and
+  railways. Up to 1907 the customs duties were increased by surtaxes
+  amounting at that time to 100%. The minister of finance proposed to
+  abolish these surtaxes and double all the rates of duties involved. On
+  exports, however, all the duties were to be abolished except those on
+  cacao, coffee, hides, rubber, tagua (ivory nuts), hat fibre, hammock
+  fibre and tobacco. For 1907 the revenues were L1,424,770 and the
+  expenditures L1,383,122.
+
+  On the 10th of October 1906, when the report of the provisional
+  government created by the revolution of the preceding January
+  presented its financial report to a national assembly, the total
+  obligations of the country were stated to be:--
+
+                                             Sucres.
+    Railway bonds, 12,282,000 sucres gold
+      at 107% premium                      25,423,740
+    Banco del Ecuador, advances             3,000,000
+    Banco Comercial y Agrocola, idem        2,400,000
+    Internal debt                             739,575
+    Condor bonds                              757,000
+    French Finance Corporation                887,000
+                                            ---------
+                             Total         33,207,315
+        In L sterling at 10 sucres per L    3,320,731
+
+  The foreign debt of the republic, which in 1898 stood at L693,160 in
+  bonds, was assumed by the Guayaquil & Quito Railway Co. under
+  contracts of 1897, 1898, 1899 and 1900, the government guaranteeing
+  interest on the sum of L2,520,000 railway mortgage bonds for 33 years
+  and recognizing the external debt at 35% of its face value. This debt
+  originated in 1830, when Ecuador seceded from the Colombian
+  confederacy and was charged with 21-1/2% of the indebtedness of the
+  three states. In 1855 the amount was fixed at L1,824,000, and in 1892
+  it was converted into a new consolidated debt of L750,000. Payments of
+  interest and amortization had been very irregular, and its transfer to
+  a foreign company as the price of a railway concession put an end to a
+  transaction which had been a serious discredit to the country. The
+  amount outstanding on the 31st of December 1907 was 10,808,000 sucres
+  (L1,080,800). It should be said that the difficulties in regard to
+  this debt arose from a feeling in Ecuador that the part assigned to it
+  in 1830 was much too large, and that it was contracted almost wholly
+  for the benefit of the two northern republics, Colombia and Venezuela.
+
+  _Money and Measures._--Under the law of 1898, which came into effect
+  on the 4th of June 1900, gold is made the monetary standard in
+  Ecuador, the legal tender of silver being limited to 10 sucres, and
+  banks of issue being required to hold at least one-half their metallic
+  reserves in gold coin. Previously there had been much confusion in the
+  circulating medium because of the depreciated value of the Quito
+  currency in comparison with that of Guayaquil, but the new law has
+  corrected the anomaly and has given a simple and uniform medium for
+  the whole country. The coinage under the law of 1898 consists of the
+  gold _condor_, of 10 _sucres_, which weighs 8.136 grams, contains
+  7.3224 grams of fine gold, and is equal to the English pound sterling
+  in value; the silver _sucre_, of 100 centavos, equivalent to 24d. in
+  value; and smaller coins of silver, nickel and copper, the
+  denominations being decimal parts of the sucre. The sucre received its
+  name from the portrait of General Sucre engraved on the coin, and is
+  legal tender up to 10 sucres. The paper money circulation consists of
+  the issues of two Guayaquil banks--the Banco del Ecuador, and the
+  Banco Comercial y Agricola, whose united issues on June 30th, 1906,
+  amounted to 7,414,140 sucres (L741,414). The Bank of Quito at one time
+  issued notes which, according to Whymper, were not current at and
+  south of Riobamba, but it does not appear that this bank is authorized
+  to issue its notes under the new law. The metallic money nominally in
+  circulation on the 30th of June 1906, amounted to 2,587,667 sucres
+  gold and 2,522,802 sucres silver. Although the metric system was
+  adopted in 1856, the old Spanish weights and measures--the quintal,
+  libra, vara and fanega--are still in use, the quintal being equivalent
+  to about 101 lb.
+
+  _Antiquities._--Throughout Ecuador there are still considerable
+  remains of the architectural and artistic skill of the ante-European
+  period. At Canar, to the north-east of Cuenca, stands the Incapirca, a
+  circular rampart of finely hewn stone, enclosing an open area with a
+  roofless but well-preserved building in the centre; not far off is the
+  Inca-chungana, a very much smaller enclosure, probably the remains of
+  a pavilion; and in the same neighbourhood the image of the sun and a
+  small cabinet are carved on the face of a rock called Intihuaicu. On
+  one of the hills running from Pichincha to the Esmeraldas there are
+  remains at Paltatamba of a temple and a conical tower, the buttresses
+  of a bridge composed of stone and bitumen, portions of a great
+  causeway, and numerous tombs from which mummies and plates of silver
+  have been obtained. At Hantuntaqui similar sepulchral mounds, called
+  _tolas_, may be seen, as well as traces of military structures. On the
+  plain of Callo, near Cotopaxi, at a height of 8658 ft., the ruins of
+  an Incarial palace, Pachusala, are utilized by the _hacienda_; and a
+  conical hill at its side is supposed to be of artificial
+  construction. The remains of another fortress and palace are preserved
+  at Pomallacta, and in the neighbouring pueblo of Achupallas an ancient
+  temple of the sun now serves as parish church. In many localities,
+  especially in Imbabura, pottery and various objects are found
+  belonging to the pre-Colombian period, among which five and six rayed
+  stars (_casse-tetes_) are very numerous. (A. J. L.)
+
+_History._--The territory of the republic of Ecuador, when first it
+becomes dimly visible in the grey dawn of American history, appears to
+be inhabited by upwards of fifty independent tribes, among which the
+Quitus seem to hold the most important position. About A.D. 280 a
+foreign tribe is said to have forced their way inland up the valley of
+the Esmeraldas; and the kingdom which they founded at Quito lasted for
+about 1200 years, and was gradually extended, both by war and alliance,
+over many of the neighbouring dominions. In 1460, during the reign of
+the fourteenth _Caran Shyri_, or king of the Cara nation, Hualcopo
+Duchisela, the conquest of Quito was undertaken by Tupac Yupanqui, the
+Inca of Peru; and his ambitious schemes were, not long after his death,
+successfully carried out by his son Huayna-Capac, who inflicted a
+decisive defeat on the Quitonians in the battle of Hatuntaqui, and
+secured his position by marrying Pacha, the daughter of the late Shyri.
+By his will the conqueror left the kingdom of Quito to Atahuallpa, his
+son by this alliance; while the Peruvian throne was assigned to Huascar,
+an elder son by his Peruvian consort. War soon broke out between the two
+kingdoms, owing to Huascar's pretensions to supremacy over his brother;
+but it ended in the defeat and imprisonment of the usurper, and the
+establishment of Atahuallpa as master both of Quito and Cuzco. The
+fortunate monarch, however, had not long to enjoy his success; for
+Pizarro and his Spaniards were already at the door, and by 1533 the fate
+of the country was sealed. As soon as the confusions and rivalries of
+the first occupation were suppressed, the recent kingdom of Quito was
+made a presidency of the Spanish viceroyalty of Peru, and no change of
+importance took place till 1710. In that year it was attached to the
+viceroyalty of Santa Fe; but it was restored to Peru in 1722. When,
+towards the close of the century, the desire for independence began to
+manifest itself throughout the Spanish colonies of South America, Quito
+did not remain altogether indifferent. The Quitonian doctor Eugenio
+Espejo, and his fellow-citizen Don Juan Pio Montufar, entered into
+hearty co-operation with Narino and Zea, the leaders of the
+revolutionary movement at Santa Fe; and it was at Espejo's suggestion
+that the political association called the _Escuela de Concordia_ was
+instituted at Quito. It was not till 1809, however, that the Quitonians
+made a real attempt to throw off the Spanish yoke; and both on that
+occasion and in 1812 the royal general succeeded in crushing the
+insurrection. In 1820 the people of Guayaquil took up the cry of
+liberty; and in spite of several defeats they continued the contest,
+till at length, under Antonio Jose de Sucre, who had been sent to their
+assistance by Bolivar, and reinforced by a Peruvian contingent under
+Andres de Santa Cruz, they gained a complete victory on May 22, 1822, in
+a battle fought on the side of Mount Pichincha, at a height of 10,200
+ft. above the sea. Two days after, the Spanish president of Quito, Don
+Melchor de Aymeric, capitulated, and the independence of the country was
+secured. A political union was at once effected with New Granada and
+Venezuela on the basis of the republican constitution instituted at
+Cucuta in July 1821--the triple confederation taking the name of
+Colombia.
+
+A disagreement with Peru in 1828 resulted in the invasion of Ecuador and
+the temporary occupation of Cuenca and Guayaquil by Peruvian forces; but
+peace was restored in the following year after the Ecuadorian victory at
+Tarqui. In the early part of 1830 a separation was effected from the
+Colombian federation, and the country was proclaimed an independent
+republic. General Juan Jose Flores was the first president, and in spite
+of many difficulties, both domestic and foreign, he managed to maintain
+a powerful position in the state for about 15 years. Succeeded in 1835
+by Vicente Rocafuerte, he regained the presidency in 1839, and was
+elected for the third time in 1843; but shortly afterwards he accepted
+the title of generalissimo and a sum of 20,000 pesos, and left the
+country to his rivals. One of the most important measures of his second
+presidency was the establishment of peace and friendship with Spain.
+Roca, who next attained to power, effected a temporary settlement with
+Colombia, concluded a convention with England against the slave trade,
+and made a commercial treaty with Belgium. Diego Noboa, elected in 1850
+after a period of great confusion, recalled the Jesuits, produced a
+rupture with New Granada by receiving conservative refugees, and thus
+brought about his own deposition and exile. The democratic Urbina now
+became practically dictator, and as the attempt of Flores to reinstate
+Noboa proved a total failure, he was quickly succeeded in 1856 by
+General Francisco Robles, who, among other progressive measures, secured
+the adoption of the French system of coinage, weights and measures. He
+abdicated in 1859 and left the country, after refusing to ratify the
+treaty with Peru, by which the defender of Guayaquil had obtained the
+raising of the siege. Dr Gabriel Garcia Moreno, professor of chemistry,
+the recognized leader of the conservative party at Quito, was ultimately
+elected by the national convention of 1861. Distrust in his policy,
+however, was excited by the publication of some of his private
+correspondence, in which he spoke favourably of a French protectorate,
+and the army which he sent under Flores to resist the encroachments of
+Mosquera, the president of New Granada, was completely routed. His first
+resignation in 1864 was refused; but the despotic acts by which he
+sought to establish a dictatorship only embittered his opponents, and in
+September 1865 he retired from office. While he had endeavoured to
+develop the material resources of the country, he had at the same time
+introduced retrograde measures in regard to religion and education. The
+principal event in the short presidency of his successor, Geronimo
+Carrion (May 1865-Nov. 1867), was the alliance with Chile and Peru
+against Spain, and the banishment of all Spanish subjects. Several
+important changes were made by congress in the period between his
+resignation and the election of Xavier Espinosa, January 1868: the power
+of the president to imprison persons regarded as dangerous to public
+order was annulled; and the immediate naturalization of Bolivians,
+Chilians, Peruvians and Colombians was authorized. Espinosa had hardly
+entered on his office when, in August 1868, the country was visited by
+an earthquake, in which 30,000 people are said to have perished
+throughout South America. The public buildings of Quito were laid in
+ruins; and Ibarra, Otavalo, Cotacachi and several other towns were
+completely destroyed. Next year a revolution at Quito, under Moreno,
+brought Espinosa's presidency to a close; and though the national
+convention appointed Carvajal to the vacant office, Moreno succeeded in
+securing his own election in 1870 for a term of six years. His policy
+had undergone no alteration since 1865: the same persistent endeavour
+was made to establish a religious despotism, in which the supremacy of
+the president should be subordinate only to the higher supremacy of the
+clergy.
+
+President Moreno was eventually assassinated at Quito, in August 1875,
+and Dr Borrero was elected to the presidency, but his tenure of power
+was short. A revolution headed by General Veintemilla, the Radical
+leader, then military commandant at Guayaquil, broke out in 1876, and on
+the 14th of December of that year the government forces under General
+Aparicio were completely routed at Galte. Veintemilla was proclaimed
+president, and in 1877 was duly elected by the cortes. He altered the
+constitution in a more Liberal direction, and struck various blows at
+the Clerical party, among other things abolishing the concordat with
+Rome. In 1878 Veintemilla caused himself to be declared elected as
+president for a term of four years. At the expiration of this period the
+president assumed dictatorial powers and remained in office as chief of
+the executive. This action on the part of General Veintemilla led to a
+union between the Clericals and Moderate Liberals, and resulted in a
+popular rising throughout the republic, ending in his defeat and
+overthrow. His power was first restricted to Guayaquil and Esmeraldas,
+and finally General Rinaldo Flores drove him from Guayaquil, and
+Veintemilla fled (July 1883) to Peru. Dr Placido Caamano was then called
+upon to take charge temporarily, and on the 17th of February 1884 was
+definitely elected for the presidential period terminating in 1888.
+Several revolutionary outbreaks occurred during the Caamano
+administration, but were successfully suppressed. In 1888 Dr Antonio
+Flores succeeded Caamano, the four years following being passed in
+peaceful conditions. In 1892 Dr Luis Cordero was elected, his
+administration again plunging the country into an epoch of internal
+disturbance.
+
+The cause of the troubles under President Cordero was the assistance
+lent by Ecuador to Chile in the matter of the sale of the cruiser
+_Esmeralda_ to the Japanese government in 1894, in the middle of the
+Japanese-Chinese War. The government of Chile arranged the sale of the
+_Esmeralda_, but wished to be free from all danger of international
+complications in the affair. To this end the transfer of the vessel was
+made to Ecuador, and she proceeded to Ecuadorian waters. On arriving at
+the Galapagos Islands the flag of Ecuador was replaced by that of Japan
+and the vessel handed over to the representatives of that nation sent
+for the purpose. When the part played by President Cordero in this
+transaction became known, an outburst of popular indignation occurred.
+An insurrection, headed by General Eloy Alfaro, followed; and after
+desultory skirmishing extending over a period of nearly a year the
+government forces were finally routed, President Cordero abandoning his
+office and escaping from the country.
+
+General Alfaro then assumed dictatorial powers as supreme chief of the
+nation, continuing in this capacity until the 6th of February 1897, on
+which date he was declared to be elected president of the republic. A
+series of revolutionary movements against the administration of
+President Alfaro occurred in the course of the next few years. Many of
+these risings were due to the intrigues of the Church party, and in view
+of these circumstances President Alfaro curtailed the influence of the
+clergy in several directions. On the 31st of August 1901 General Alfaro
+peacefully handed over the presidency to his elected successor, General
+Leonidas Plaza.
+
+General Plaza continued the anticlerical policy of his predecessor.
+Civil marriage and divorce were introduced, and in 1904 all religions
+were placed on a position of equality in the eye of the law, and the
+foundation of new monasteries and convents was forbidden. The final year
+of Plaza's tenure of office was marked by a still stronger measure, all
+the property of the church being declared to be national property, and
+let to the highest bidders. In 1905 the Opposition made an effort to
+effect a change of policy, and were successful in obtaining the election
+of Lizaro Garcia, a well-to-do merchant and a director of the Banco
+commercial y Agricola. General Alfaro, however, appealed to arms,
+ejected Garcia from office, and made himself ruler with practically
+dictatorial powers.
+
+The more recent history of Ecuador would not be complete without a
+reference to the work of Mr Archer Harman (b. 1860), an American railway
+builder and financier whose connexion with the construction of the
+Guayaquil and Quito railway began in 1897. To his personal energy and
+enterprise, as manager of the railway company, was largely due the
+continued prosecution of this difficult engineering undertaking, in
+connexion with which he was responsible for a thorough reconstruction of
+Ecuador finance. He thus came to exercise a powerful influence on the
+internal progress of the country.
+
+  See C.E. Akers, _History of South America, 1854-1904_ (London, 1904);
+  H.W. Bates, _Central and South America_ (London, 1882); Pedro F.
+  Cevallos, _Resumen de la historia del Ecuador_ (Guayaquil, 1886); Hans
+  Meyer, _In den Hoch-Anden von Ecuador_ (Berlin 1907); A.H. Keane,
+  _Stanford's Compendium_, vol. i. (1904); W. Reiss and A. Stubel, _Das
+  Hochgebirge der Republik Ecuador_ (Berlin, 1892-1898); Edward Whymper,
+  _Travels amongst the Great Andes of the Equator_ (London, 1892); T.
+  Wolf, _Geografia y geologia del Ecuador_ (Leipzig, 1892); A. Stubel,
+  _Skizzen aus Ecuador_ (Berlin, 1886); _Die Vulkanberge von Ecuador_
+  (Berlin, 1897); _Handbook of Ecuador_ (Bureau of the American
+  Republics, Washington, 1892); _The World's Work_, vol. ii. pp.
+  1271-1277; _Engineering News_ (New York), vol. 52, pp. 117-119;
+  _Bulletin of Internat. Bureau of American Republics_ for July 1900, p.
+  26, and for August 1908, pp. 280-282; _Thirty-fifth Annual Report of
+  the Council of Foreign Bondholders_, pp. 115, 117.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] See J. Siemiradzki, "Geologische Reisenotizen aus Ecuador,"
+    _Neues Jahrb. f. Min._, Beil. Band iv. (1886, pp. 195-227, pl. vii.);
+    Th. Wolf, _Geografia y geologia del Ecuador, publicada por orden del
+    Supremo Gobierno de la Republica_ (Leipzig, 1892); W. Reiss and A.
+    Stubel, _Reisen in Sud-America. Das Hochgebirge der Republik Ecuador_
+    (Berlin, 1892-1902).
+
+
+
+
+ECZEMA (Gr. [Greek: ekzema], a cutaneous eruption), one of the most
+common and important of all skin diseases, consisting of a catarrhal
+inflammation of the skin originating without visible external
+irritation, and characterized in some stage of its evolution by a serous
+exudation. This definition excludes all those forms of inflammation of
+the skin (dermatitis), which though they may be identical in course and
+manifestation are yet caused by chemical or mechanical irritants. For an
+attack of eczema two conditions are necessary: a predisposition or
+special irritability of the skin, and a directly exciting cause. The
+first of these conditions is usually inherited or depends on some
+underlying constitutional state. Thus any organic lesion which may
+produce oedema and malnutrition of the cutis and epidermis as in kidney
+diseases, any condition of imperfect metabolism as in dyspepsia or
+malnutrition, or seborrhoea, may be the predisposing cause. Another
+influence that has received increasing attention from skin specialists
+is that of any nervous shock or prolonged mental strain. A "chill" is
+followed in most people by an ordinary cold, but in some by an attack of
+eczema. Again, it may be caused by reflex nervous irritation from the
+uterus, stomach, &c. In some women it always accompanies menstruation,
+and in others pregnancy. It is of common occurrence in infancy, being
+attributed by some specialists to dentition, but by others to
+seborrhoea. Also there is an undoubted relationship between eczema and
+certain forms of functional neurosis, of which perhaps asthma is the
+most striking illustration, some physicians considering the latter
+trouble to be eczema of the bronchial tubes. Sufferers from rheumatism
+and gout are also specially prone to eczema, though the exact
+relationship is a much disputed point. There are yet other cases that
+are undoubtedly microbic, but the micro-organism cannot produce the
+lesion unless the soil is suitable. As a rule it is not contagious,
+though when complicated by micro-organisms it may be auto-inoculable, or
+more rarely inoculable from one patient to another. Except between the
+ages of ten and twenty years when menstruation is becoming established,
+and again at the menopause, males are more liable to be attacked than
+females. In old age the sex influence is lost.
+
+An attack of eczema is usually described as acute or chronic, but the
+only distinction lies in the greater or less intensity of the
+inflammation at the time of description: it has nothing to do with the
+length of time that the disease has lasted. The illness usually begins
+with a feeling of itching and burning at the site of the lesion. The
+skin becomes covered with an erythematous blush, on which numerous tiny
+vesicles form. Swelling, heat, redness and tension are all present. The
+vesicles grow larger, run together, and either burst or are broken by
+the patient's scratching, a clear fluid exuding which stiffens linen.
+The discharge does not dry up at once, but continues to exude--hence the
+name of "weeping eczema" when this is a prominent symptom. In mild cases
+the symptoms begin to subside in a few days, the exudation growing less
+and scales and scabs forming, under which new skin is formed. But where
+the attack is more acute fresh crops of vesicles spring up and the
+process repeats itself. In some cases papules are the predominant
+lesions, but in others, especially when the face is attacked, the
+erythematous condition is more marked. A severe attack of eczema is
+usually accompanied by some slight constitutional disturbance, but the
+general health seldom suffers appreciably, unless, as occasionally, the
+itching is so bad as to make sleep impossible. The irritation and local
+heat may be out of all proportion to visible changes in the skin, and in
+neurotic patients the nervous excitement may be extreme. The attack may
+centre itself on any part of the body, but there are certain places
+where it more usually begins, such as the bends of the elbows, the backs
+of the knees and the groins; the groove behind the ears, the scalp, the
+palms or the soles, and the breasts of women. According to its position
+the form of the eczema is somewhat modified. On the front of the legs
+and arms, from the uniform redness it exhibits in these positions, it is
+known as eczema rubrum. On the scalp it is generally of the seborrhoeic
+type, and in children, especially when pediculi are present, it will
+become pustular from microbic infection. On the palms and soles it
+brings about a thickening of the epidermis which leads to the formation
+of cracks, and is hence called eczema rimosum.
+
+The disease can best be treated by a combination of internal and
+external remedies. Internally, when the inflammation is acute, nothing
+is so good as antimony, since this relieves the arterial tension and
+thus reduces the local inflammation. But this must never be given when
+the patient is suffering from depression. In other cases, especially for
+babies and children, small doses of calomel are very beneficial;
+strychnine, phosphorus and ergot are all useful at times. When nervous
+excitement is marked it must be treated with sedatives. Arsenic and iron
+are both contra-indicated in this disease, since they increase blood
+formation and hence stimulate the eczematous process. Internal treatment
+is always best when combined with local treatment, but as a preliminary
+to this all crusts and scales must first be removed to allow the remedy
+free access to the disease. Locally the aim is (1) to overcome any
+source of irritation, (2) to protect the inflamed surface from the air
+and from microbic infection, and (3) to relieve the itching. The diet
+should be simple but nourishing, and all hygienic precautions must be
+taken.
+
+
+
+
+EDAM, a town of Holland in the province of North Holland, close to the
+Zuider Zee, about 13 m. N.N.E. of Amsterdam by steam tramway. It is
+connected with the Zuider Zee by a fine canal protected by a large
+sea-lock (1828), and has regular steam-boat communication in various
+directions. Pop. (1900) 6444. The many quaint old brick houses form the
+chief feature of interest in the town. The facades are frequently
+adorned with carvings and inscriptions, one of which records the legend
+of the capture of a siren in 1403, who lived for some time among the
+people of Edam, but escaped again to the sea. The Great Church of St
+Nicholas, probably founded in the 14th century, was largely rebuilt
+after a fire in 1602, which, originating in the church, destroyed nearly
+the whole town. It contains some fine stained glass and carved woodwork
+of this period. The Little Church (15th century) was demolished in 1883,
+except for a portion of the nave and the old tower and steeple, from
+which the bells curiously project. The town hall dates from 1737, and
+there is a museum founded in 1895. Edam has some trade in timber, while
+shipbuilding, rope-spinning and salt-boiling are also carried on. It
+gives its name to the description of "sweet-milk cheese" (_zoetemelks
+kaas_) made throughout North Holland, which is familiar on account of
+its round shape and red rind.
+
+Edam took its name and origin from the dam built on the little river Ye
+which joined the great Purmer lake close by. Free access to the Zuider
+Zee was obtained by the construction of a new dock in 1357, in which
+year the town also received civic rights from William V. of Bavaria,
+count of Holland. Owing to the danger of the extension of the Purmer and
+Beemster lakes, Philip II. of Spain caused a sluice to be built into the
+dock in 1567. In the next century Edam was a great shipbuilding centre,
+and nearly the whole of Admiral de Ruyter's fleet was built here; but in
+the same century the harbour began to get blocked up, and the importance
+and industrial activity of the city slowly waned.
+
+
+
+
+EDDA, the title given to two very remarkable collections of old
+Icelandic literature. Of these only one bears that title from antiquity;
+the other is called _Edda_ by a comparatively modern misnomer. The word
+is unknown to any ancient northern language, and is first met with in
+_Rigspula_, a fragmentary poem at the end of Codex Wormianus, dated
+about 1200, where it is introduced as the name or title of a
+great-grandmother. From the 14th to the 17th century, this word--but no
+one has formed a reasonable conjecture why--was used to signify the
+technical laws of Icelandic court metre, _Eddu regla_, and "Never to
+have seen Edda" was a modest apology for ignorance of the highest poetic
+art. The only work known by this name to the ancients was the
+miscellaneous group of writings put together by Snorri Sturlason (q.v.;
+1178-1241), the greatest name in old Scandinavian literature. It is
+believed that the _Edda_, as he left it, was completed about 1222.
+Whether he gave this name to the work is doubtful; the title first
+occurs in the Upsala Codex, transcribed about fifty years after his
+death. The collection of Snorri is now known as the _Prose or Younger
+Edda_, the title of the _Elder Edda_ being given to a book of ancient
+mythological poems, discovered by the Icelandic bishop of Skalaholt,
+Brynjulf Sveinsson, in 1643, and erroneously named by him the _Edda of
+Saemund_.
+
+1. The Prose _Edda_, properly known as _Edda Snorra Sturlusonar_, was
+arranged and modified by Snorri, but actually composed, as has been
+conjectured, between the years 1140 and 1160. It is divided into five
+parts, the Preface or _Formali_, _Gylfaginning_, _Bragaraedur_,
+_Skaldskaparmal_ and _Hattatal_. The preface bears a very modern
+character, and simply gives a history of the world from Adam and Eve, in
+accordance with the Christian tradition. _Gylfaginning_, or the Delusion
+of Gylfi, on the other hand, is the most precious compendium which we
+possess of the mythological system of the ancient inhabitants of
+Scandinavia. Commencing with the adventures of a mythical king Gylfi and
+the giantess Gefion, and the miraculous formation of the island of
+Zealand, it tells us that the Aesir, led by Odin, invaded Svithjod or
+Sweden, the land of Gylfi, and settled there. It is from the
+_Ynglingasaga_ and from the _Gylfaginning_ that we gain all the
+information we possess about the conquering deities or heroes who set
+their stamp upon the religion of the North. Advancing from the Black Sea
+northwards through Russia, and westward through Esthonia, the Aesir seem
+to have overrun the south lands of Scandinavia, not as a horde but as an
+immigrant aristocracy. The Eddaic version, however, of the history of
+the gods is not so circumstantial as that in the _Ynglingasaga_; it is,
+on the other hand, distinguished by an exquisite simplicity and archaic
+force of style, which give an entirely classical character to its
+mythical legends of Odin and of Loki. The _Gylfaginning_ is written in
+prose, with brief poetic insertions. The _Bragaraedur_, or sayings of
+Bragi, are further legends of the deities, attributed to Bragi, the god
+of poetry, or to a poet of the same name. The _Skaldskaparmal_, or Art
+of Poetry, commonly called _Skalda_, contains the instructions given by
+Bragi to Aegir, and consists of the rules and theories of ancient verse,
+exemplified in copious extracts from Eyvindr Skaldaspillir and other
+eminent Icelandic poets. The word _Skaldskapr_ refers to the form rather
+than the substance of verse, and this treatise is almost solely
+technical in character. It is by far the largest of the sections of the
+_Edda_ of Snorri, and comprises not only extracts but some long poems,
+notably the _Thorsdrapa_ of Eilifr Gudrunarson and the _Haustlaung_ of
+Thjodolfr. The fifth section of the _Edda_, the _Hattatal_, or Number of
+Metres, is a running technical commentary on the text of Snorri's three
+poems written in honour of Haakon, king of Norway. Affixed to some MS.
+of the _Younger Edda_ are a list of poets, and a number of philological
+treatises and grammatical studies. These belong, however, to a later
+period than the life of Snorri Sturlason.
+
+  The three oldest MSS. of the prose _Edda_ all belong to the beginning
+  of the 14th century. The Wurm MS. was sent to Ole Wurm in 1628; the
+  Codex Regius was discovered by the indefatigable bishop Brynjulf
+  Sveinsson in 1640. The most important, however, of these MSS. is the
+  Upsala Codex, an octavo volume written probably about the year 1300.
+  There have been several good editions of the _Edda Snorra
+  Sturlusonar_, of which perhaps the best is that published by the
+  Arne-Magnaean Society in Copenhagen in 1848-1852, in two vols., edited
+  by a group of scholars under the direction of Jon Sigurdsson. There
+  are English translations by T. Percy, _Northern Antiquities_, from the
+  French by P.H. Mallet (1770); by G. Webbe Dasent (Stockholm, 1842); by
+  R.B. Anderson (Chicago, 1880).
+
+2. The Elder _Edda_, Poetic _Edda_ or _Saemundar Edda hins froda_ was
+entirely unknown until about 1643, when it came into the hands of
+Brynjulf Sveinsson, who, puzzled to classify it, gave it the title of
+_Edda Saemundi multiscii_. Saemund Sigfusson, who was thus credited with
+the collection of these poems, was a scion of the royal house of Norway,
+and lived from about 1055 to 1132 in Iceland. The poems themselves date
+in all probability from the 10th and 11th centuries, and are many of
+them only fragments of longer heroic chants now otherwise entirely lost.
+They treat of mythical and religious legends of an early Scandinavian
+civilization, and are composed in the simplest and most archaic forms of
+Icelandic verse. The author of no one of them is mentioned. It is
+evident that they were collected from oral tradition; and the fact that
+the same story is occasionally repeated, in varied form, and that some
+of the poems themselves bear internal evidence of being more ancient
+than others, proves that the present collection is only a gathering made
+early in the middle ages, long after the composition of the pieces, and
+in no critical spirit. Sophus Bugge, indeed, one of the greatest
+authorities, absolutely rejects the name of Saemund, and is of opinion
+that the poetic _Edda_, as we at present hold it, dates from about 1240.
+There is no doubt that it was collected in Iceland, and by an Icelander.
+
+The most remarkable and the most ancient of the poems in this priceless
+collection is that with which it commences, the _Voluspa_, or prophecy
+of the Volva or Sibyl. In this chant we listen to an inspired
+prophetess, "seated on her high seat, and addressing Odin, while the
+gods listen to her words."
+
+She sings of the world before the gods were made, of the coming and the
+meeting of the Aesir, of the origin of the giants, dwarfs and men, of
+the happy beginning of all things, and the sad ending that shall be in
+the chaos of Ragnarok. The latter part of the poem is understood to be a
+kind of necromancy--according to Vigfusson, "the raising of a dead
+volva"; but the mystical language of the whole, its abrupt transitions
+and terse condensations, and above all the extinct and mysterious
+cosmology, an acquaintance with which it presupposes, make the exact
+interpretation of the _Voluspa_ extremely difficult. The charm and
+solemn beauty of the style, however, are irresistible, and we are
+constrained to listen and revere as if we were the auditors of some
+fugual music devised in honour of a primal and long-buried deity. The
+melodies of this earliest Icelandic verse, elaborate in their extreme
+and severe simplicity, are wholly rhythmical and alliterative, and
+return upon themselves like a solemn incantation. _Havamal_, the Lesson
+of the High One, or Odin, follows next; this contains proverbs and wise
+saws, and a series of stories, some of them comical, told by Odin
+against himself. The _Vafprudnismal_, or Lesson of Vafprudnir, is
+written in the same mystical vein as _Voluspa_; in it the giant who
+gives his name to the poem is visited by Odin in disguise, and is
+questioned by him about the cosmogony and chronology of the Norse
+religion. _Grimnismal_, or the Sayings of The Hooded One, which is
+partly in prose, is a story of Odin's imprisonment and torture by King
+Geirrod. _For Skirnis_, or the Journey of Skirnir, _Harbardsliod_, or
+the Lay of Hoarbeard, _Hymiskvida_, or the Song of Hymir, and
+_Aegisdrekka_, or the Brewing of Aegir, are poems, frequently composed
+as dialogue, containing legends of the gods, some of which are so
+ludicrous that it has been suggested that they were intentionally
+burlesque. _Thrymskvida_, or the Song of Thrym, possesses far more
+poetic interest; it recounts in language of singular force and
+directness how Thor lost his hammer, stolen by Thrym the giant, how the
+latter refused to give it up unless the goddess Freyia was given him in
+marriage, and how Thor, dressed in women's raiment, personated Freyia,
+and, slaying Thrym, recovered his hammer. _Alvissmal_, or the Wisdom of
+Allwise, is actually a philological exercise under the semblance of a
+dialogue between Thor and Alvis the dwarf. In _Vegtamskvida_, or the
+Song of Vegtam, Odin questions a volva with regard to the meaning of the
+sinister dreams of Balder. _Rigsmal_, or more properly _Rigspula_,
+records how the god Heimdall, disguised as a man called Rig, wandered by
+the sea-shore, where he met the original dwarf pair, Ai and Edda, to
+whom he gave the power of child-bearing, and thence sprung the whole
+race of thralls; then he went on and met with Afi and Amma, and made
+them the parents of the race of churls; then he proceeded until he came
+to Fadir and Modir, to whom he gave Jarl, the first of free men, whom he
+himself brought up, teaching him to shoot and snare, and to use the
+sword and runes. It is much to be lamented that of this most
+characteristic and picturesque poem we possess only a fragment. In
+_Hyndluljod_, the Lay of Hyndla, the goddess Freyia rides to question
+the volva Hyndla with regard to the ancestry of her young paramour
+Ottar; a very fine quarrel ensues between the prophetess and her
+visitor. With this poem, the first or wholly mythological portion of the
+collection closes. What follows is heroic and pseudo-historic. The
+_Volundarkvida_, or Song of Volundr, is engaged with the adventures of
+Volundr, the smith-king, during his stay with Nidud, king of Sweden.
+Volundr, identical with the Anglo-Saxon Weland and the German Wieland
+(O.H.G. _Wiolant_), is sometimes confused with Odin, the master-smith.
+This poem contains the beautiful figure of Svanhvit, the swan-maiden,
+who stays seven winters with Volundr, and then, yearning for her
+fatherland, flies away home through the dark forest. _Helgakvida,
+Hiorvards sonar_, the Song of Helgi, the Son of Hiorvard, which is
+largely in prose, celebrates the wooing by Helgi of Svava, who, like
+Atalanta, ends by loving the man with whom she has fought in battle. Two
+Songs of Helgi the Hunding's Bane, _Helgakvida Hundingsbana_, open the
+long and very important series of lays relating to the two heroic
+families of the Volsungs and the Niblungs. Including the poems just
+mentioned, there are about twenty distinct pieces in the poetic _Edda_
+which deal more or less directly with this chain of stories. It is
+hardly necessary to give the titles of these poems here in detail,
+especially as they are, in their present form, manifestly only fragments
+of a great poetic saga, possibly the earliest coherent form of the story
+so universal among the Teutonic peoples. We happily possess a somewhat
+later prose version of this lost poem in the _Volsungasaga_, where the
+story is completely worked out. In many places the prose of the
+_Volsungasaga_ follows the verse of the Eddaic fragments with the
+greatest precision, often making use of the very same expressions. At
+the same time there are poems in the _Edda_ which the author of the saga
+does not seem to have seen. But if we compare the central portions of
+the myth, namely Sigurd's conversation with Fafnir, the death of Regin,
+the speech of the birds and the meeting with the Valkyrje, we are struck
+with the extreme fidelity of the prose romancer to his poetic precursors
+in the _Sigurdarkvida Fafnisbana_; in passing on to the death of Sigurd,
+we perceive that the version in the _Volsungasaga_ must be based upon a
+poem now entirely lost. Of the origin of the myth and its independent
+development in medieval Germany, this is not the place for discussion
+(see NIBELUNGENLIED). Suffice to say that in no modernized or Germanized
+form does the legend attain such an exquisite colouring of heroic poetry
+as in these earliest fragments of Icelandic song. A very curious poem,
+in some MSS. attributed directly to Saemund, is the Song of the Sun,
+_Solarliod_, which forms a kind of appendix to the poetic _Edda_. In
+this the spirit of a dead father addresses his living son, and exhorts
+him, with maxims that resemble those of _Havamal_, to righteousness of
+life. The tone of the poem is strangely confused between Christianity
+and Paganism, and it has been assumed to be the composition of a writer
+in the act of transition between the old creed and the new. It may,
+however, not impossibly, be altogether spurious as a poem of great
+antiquity, and may merely be the production of some Icelandic monk,
+anxious to imitate the Eddaic form and spirit. Finally _Forspjallsljod_,
+or the Preamble, formerly known as the Song of Odin's Raven, is an
+extremely obscure fragment, of which little is understood, although
+infinite scholarship has been expended on it. With this the poetic
+_Edda_ closes.
+
+  The principal MS. of this _Edda_ is the Codex Regius in the royal
+  library at Copenhagen, written continuously, without regard to prose
+  or verse, on 45 vellum leaves. This is that found by Bishop Brynjulf.
+  Another valuable fragment exists in the Arne-Magnaean collection in
+  the University of Copenhagen, consisting of four sheets, 22 leaves in
+  all. These are the only MSS. older than the 17th century which contain
+  a collection of the ancient mythico-heroic lays, but fragments occur
+  in various other works, and especially in the _Edda_ of Snorri. It is
+  believed to have been written between 1260 and 1280. The poetic _Edda_
+  was translated into English verse by Amos Cottle in 1797; the poet
+  Gray produced a version of the _Vegtamskvida_; but the first good
+  translation of the whole was that published by Benjamin Thorpe in
+  1866. An excellent edition of the Icelandic text has been prepared by
+  Th. Mobius, but the standard of the original orthography will be found
+  in the admirable edition of Sophus Bugge, _Norroen Fornkvaedi_,
+  published at Christiania in 1867.
+
+  The Eddaic poems were rearranged, on a system of their own which
+  differs entirely from that of the early MSS., by Gudbrand Vigfusson
+  and F. York Powell, in their _Corpus poeticum boreale_ (Oxford, 1883).
+  This is a collection, not of _Edda_ only but of all existing fragments
+  of the vast lyrical literature of ancient Iceland. It supplies a prose
+  translation.     (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+EDDIUS (AEDDI), a Kentish choirmaster, summoned by Wilfrid (c. 634-709),
+bishop of York, to help in organizing church services in Northumbria. He
+wrote the _Life_ of his patron, and this biography of St Wilfrid is the
+earliest extant historical work compiled by an Anglo-Saxon author. He is
+a strong partisan and very credulous, but the _Vita Wilfridi_ is
+nevertheless invaluable for the period it treats. Its date is little
+after the first decade of the 8th century, and it was used by Bede in
+compiling his _Historia_.
+
+  See Eddius, _Vita Wilfridi_ (Raine, _Historians of Church of York_,
+  London, 1879-1894), 14; Bede, _Hist. Eccl._ (Plummer, Oxford, 1896),
+  iii. 2.
+
+
+
+
+EDELINCK, GERARD (1649-1707), Flemish copper-plate engraver, was born at
+Antwerp. The rudiments of the art, which he was to carry to a higher
+pitch of excellence than it had previously reached, he acquired in his
+native town under the engraver Cornelisz Galle. But he was not long in
+reaching the limits of his master's attainments; and then he went to
+Paris to improve himself under the teaching of De Poilly. This master
+likewise had soon done all he could to help him onwards, and Edelinck
+ultimately took the first rank among line engravers. His excellence was
+generally acknowledged; and having become known to Louis XIV. he was
+appointed, on the recommendation of Le Brun, teacher at the academy
+established at the Gobelins for the training of workers in tapestry. He
+was also entrusted with the execution of several important works. In
+1677 he was admitted member of the Paris Academy of Painting and
+Sculpture. The work of this great engraver constitutes an epoch in the
+art. His prints number more than four hundred.
+
+Edelinck stands above and apart from his predecessors and contemporaries
+in that he excelled, not in some one respect, but in all respects,--that
+while one engraver attained excellence in correct form, and another in
+rendering light and shade, and others in giving colour to their prints
+and the texture of surfaces, he, as supreme master of the burin,
+possessed and displayed all these separate qualities, in so complete a
+harmony that the eye is not attracted by any one of them in particular,
+but rests in the satisfying whole. Edelinck was the first to break
+through the custom of making prints square, and to execute them in the
+lozenge shape. Among his most famous works are a "Holy Family," after
+Raphael; a "Penitent Magdalene," after Charles le Brun; "Alexander at
+the Tent of Darius," after Le Brun; a "Combat of Four Knights," after
+Leonardo da Vinci; "Christ surrounded with Angels"; "St Louis praying";
+and "St Charles Borromeo before a crucifix,"--the last three after Le
+Brun. Edelinck was especially good as an engraver of portraits, and
+executed prints of many of the most eminent persons of his time. Among
+these are those of Le Brun, Rigaud, Philippe de Champagne (which the
+engraver thought his best), Santeuil, La Fontaine, Colbert, John Dryden,
+Descartes, &c. He died at Paris in 1707. His younger brother John, and
+his son Nicholas, were also engravers, but did not attain to his
+excellence.
+
+
+
+
+EDELWEISS, known botanically as _Leontopodium alpinum_, a member of the
+family _Compositae_, a native of the Alps of Central Europe. It is a
+small herb reaching about 6 in. high, with narrow white woolly leaves,
+and terminal flower-heads enveloped in woolly bracts. The woolly
+covering enables the plant to thrive in the exposed situations in which
+it is found, by protecting it from cold and from drying up through
+excessive loss of moisture. It is grown in Britain as a rock-plant.
+
+
+
+
+EDEN, SIR ASHLEY (1831-1887), Anglo-Indian official and diplomatist,
+third son of Robert John Eden, third Lord Auckland and bishop of Bath
+and Wells, was born on the 13th of November 1831, and was educated at
+Rugby, Winchester and the East India Company's college at Haileybury,
+entering the Indian civil service in 1852. In 1855 he gained distinction
+as assistant to the special commissioner for the suppression of the
+Santal rising, and in 1860 was appointed secretary to the Bengal
+government with an _ex officio_ seat on the legislative council, a
+position he held for eleven years. In 1861 he negotiated, as political
+agent, a treaty with the raja of Sikkim. His success led to his being
+sent on a similar mission to Bhutan in 1863; but, being unaccompanied by
+any armed force, his demands were rejected and he was forced under
+circumstances of personal insult to come to an arrangement highly
+favourable to the Bhutias. The result was the repudiation of the treaty
+by the Indian government and the declaration of war against Bhutan. In
+1871 Eden became the first civilian governor of British Burma, which
+post he held until his appointment in 1877 as lieutenant-governor of
+Bengal. In 1878 he was made a K.C.S.I., and in 1882 resigned the
+lieutenant-governorship and returned to England on his appointment to
+the council of the secretary of state for India, of which he remained a
+member till his death on the 8th of July 1887. The success of his
+administration of Bengal was attested by the statue erected in his
+honour at Calcutta after his retirement.
+
+
+
+
+EDEN, the name of the region in which, according to the Hebrew
+paradise-tradition in its present form, God planted a garden (or park),
+wherein he put the man whom he had formed (Gen. ii. 8). Research into
+primitive beliefs, guided by the comparative method, leads to the view
+that the "garden" was originally a celestial locality (see PARADISE),
+and we cannot therefore be surprised if, now that paradise has been
+brought down to earth, the geographical details given in the Bible are
+rather difficult to work into a consistent picture. The fantastic
+geography of the (Indian) _Vishnu Purana_ and the (Iranian) _Bundahish_
+will, in this case, be a striking parallel.
+
+Let us now take the details of Eden as they occur. In Gen. ii. 8 we read
+that the garden lay "in Eden eastward," where "eastward" is generally
+taken to mean "in the east of the earth." This, however, seems
+inconsistent with Isa. xiv. 13, where the "mountain of God," which
+corresponds (see Ezek. xxviii. 13, 14 and the article ADAM) to the
+"garden in Eden," is said to have been "in the uttermost parts of the
+north" (so R.V.). The former statement ("eastward") suits Babylonia,
+where Friedrich Delitzsch[1] places Eden; the latter does not. We are
+further told (v. 10) that "a river went out from Eden to water the
+garden," and that "from thence it parted itself (?), and became four
+heads (?)," which is commonly understood to mean that the river was so
+large that, soon after leaving the garden ("from thence" is all that the
+text says), it could still supply four considerable streams (the text
+says, not "streams," but "heads," i.e. perhaps "beginnings" or
+"starting-points"). In _vv._ 11-14 the names of four rivers are given,
+but in spite of the descriptive supplements attached to three of them,
+only that one which has no supplement can be identified with much
+probability. In fact, Perath may without any obvious difficulty be
+"Euphrates," except in Jer. xiii., where a more southerly stream seems
+indicated, but to the identification of "Hiddekel" with "Tigris"
+(Babylonian Diglat) the presence of the initial _Hi_ in the Hebrew is an
+objection. Now as to "Pishon" and "Gihon." If a moderately early
+tradition may be trusted, the "Gihon" is another name for the "Shihor,"
+which was either in or beside "Mizraim" (= Egypt) or Mizrim (= the North
+Arabian Musri), and indeed according to most scholars means the Nile in
+Jer. ii. 18, where the Septuagint substitutes for it Geon, i.e. Gihon.
+For "Pishon" few plausible suggestions have been made; it is not,
+however, a hopeless problem from the point of view which recognizes Eden
+in Arabia.
+
+For details of the interesting descriptive supplements of the names
+Pishon, Gihon, and Hiddekel, on which there is much difference of
+opinion, it must suffice to refer to the _Encyclopaedia Biblica_ and
+Hasting's _Dictionary of the Bible_. We must, however, mention a widely
+held explanation of the name _Eden_. Plausible as it is to interpret
+this name as "delight"--indeed, the Septuagint translates in Gen. iii.
+23 f. [Greek: ho paradeisos tes tryphes]--this cannot have been the
+original meaning. Hence Delitzsch (_Wo lag das Paradies?_ p. 79)
+suggested that "Eden" might be a Hebraized form of the Babylonian
+_edinu_, "field, plain, desert." But whereas Delitzsch takes "Eden" to
+be the entire plain of Babylonia, Hommel thinks that it is rather the
+plain about the sacred city of Eridu. It is the latter scholar to whom
+the "Arabian theory" of Paradise in its best-known form is due. The
+rivers (apart from Perath, "Euphrates") he locates in northern and
+central Arabia, the "Cush" and "Asshur" of Genesis being, according to
+him, central Arabia and Edom respectively (_Ancient Hebrew Traditions_,
+pp. 314-316; _Aufsatze u. Abhandlungen_, iii. 281-284, 335-339). These
+rivers, in short, become Arabian wadis, on which see Hast. _D.B._ i.
+132a (foot). Cheyne, on the other hand, rejects the Babylonian
+explanation of Eden as = "field, plain," on the ground that "Eden" was
+originally regarded as a mountainous tract.
+
+  See further Driver, _Book of Genesis_ (1904), pp. 57-60; _Ency. Bib._
+  "Paradise"; and the commentaries of Gunkel (2nd ed., 1902), and Cheyne
+  (1907).     (T. K. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] _Wo lag das Paradies?_ p. 66. A Sumerian name of Babylon was
+    Tin-ter, "dwelling of life." Cf. Babilu, Babili, "gate of God."
+
+
+
+
+EDENBRIDGE, a market town in the south-western parliamentary division of
+Kent, England, 26 m. S.S.E. of London, on the South-Eastern & Chatham,
+and the London, Brighton & South Coast railways. Pop. (1901) 2546. It is
+pleasantly situated on the river Eden, an affluent of the Medway, in a
+valley between the Ragstone Hills and the Forest Ridges. The church of
+St Peter and St Paul is principally Perpendicular. The town, which has
+considerable agricultural trade, possesses a chalybeate spring, but this
+is little used. Two miles from the town is Hever Castle, a beautiful
+moated mansion dating from the 15th and 16th centuries, but occupying
+the site of an earlier structure. This was rebuilt by Sir Geoffrey
+Boleyn, whose grandson, Sir Thomas, was father of Anne, second wife of
+Henry VIII., who here spent much of her life before her marriage, and
+was visited several times by the king. There is a chapel of her family
+in the fine parish church of Hever. Not far distant is the modern
+Chiddingstone Castle, on an ancient site. A block of sandstone in the
+park is called the "chiding stone," tradition asserting it to be a
+prehistoric seat of judgment.
+
+
+
+
+EDEN HALL, LUCK OF, an old painted drinking goblet preserved at Eden
+Hall, Cumberland, the seat of the Musgrave family. It is of enamelled or
+painted glass and is believed to date from the 10th century. It is of
+fair size and has the letters I.H.S. on the top. Round the vase is the
+famous verse given below. A legend involving the fortunes of the
+Musgraves attaches to this cup. In the grounds of Eden Hall is a spring
+called St Cuthbert's Well, and the story is that one of the earliest of
+the Musgraves surprised the fairies feasting and making merry round the
+well. He snatched at the goblet from which the Fairy King was drinking
+and made off with it. The fairies pursued him to his castle, but failed
+to catch him. The Fairy King acknowledged his defeat and gave the cup as
+a prize to Musgrave, but warned him that the gift carried with it a
+condition:--
+
+  "When this cup shall break or fall.
+   Farewell the luck of Eden Hall."
+
+There are variants of this legend, but substantially they agree.
+Possessed of the lucky cup the knight of Musgrave is said to have at
+once prospered in a love-suit which had till then gone against him.
+There is a curious poem on the cup called "The Drinking Match at Eden
+Hall," by Philip, duke of Wharton, a parody on the ballad of Chevy
+Chase. This is reprinted in full in Edward Walford's _Tales of Great
+Families_ (1877, vol. 11), under the heading, "The witty Duke of
+Wharton." In Longfellow's famous poem the goblet is represented as
+having been broken.
+
+
+
+
+EDENKOBEN, a town of Germany, in the Bavarian Palatinate, 6 m. N. from
+Landau, on the railway to Weissenburg. Pop. 5300. It has a Roman
+Catholic and a Protestant church, several high-grade schools and a
+sulphur-spring. Its industries comprise linen- and damask-weaving,
+ironworks, and the manufacture of machinery, furniture and cigars. It
+has also a considerable trade in wine.
+
+
+
+
+EDENTATA, the name assigned by Cuvier to an order of placental mammals
+apparently typified by the South American anteater, but likewise
+including the sloths and armadillos of the same country, and the Old
+World aard-varks and pangolins. Only the anteaters and pangolins are
+absolutely without teeth (Lat. _e_, out, _dens_, tooth), and the name is
+strictly applicable only to those two groups; but in all the existing
+representatives of the order teeth are absent from the front of the
+jaws, while the cheek-teeth are devoid of roots and of enamel, and only
+very exceptionally have deciduous predecessors. Practically this is all
+the definition that can be given to the assemblage, which is possibly an
+artificial one. It may be mentioned, however, that there is not
+unfrequently a separate coracoid bone.
+
+Edentates may be divided into three distinct sections or suborders,
+firstly the Xenarthra, or Edentata Vera, of America, secondly the
+Tubulidenta, represented by the African aard-varks, and thirdly the
+Pholidota, which includes only the pangolins common to Africa and Asia.
+The Xenarthra are essentially a South and Central American group, some
+of the members of which have effected an entrance into North America.
+The three families by which they are now represented are widely
+sundered, both as regards habits and structure; but two of them--the
+sloths and the anteaters--are intimately connected by means of the
+extinct ground-sloths. As regards the presumed relationship of the Old
+World to the New World types, it is noteworthy that in the early
+Tertiary deposits of France and Germany are found certain fossil remains
+apparently referable to armadillos, aard-varks and pangolins, some of
+the armadillos coming very close to South American forms. This
+assemblage of three groups of edentates in the countries fringing
+northern Africa is suggestive that the latter continent may have been
+the original home of the group, which reached South America by means of
+a direct land connexion.
+
+_Xenarthra._--The typical American edentates, or Xenarthra, are
+characterized by the circumstance that the last dorsal and all the
+lumbar vertebrae carry additional articular facets, or abnormal
+articulations (xenarthral). Teeth may be absent or present, and when
+developed either all similar (homaeodont) or to some extent
+differentiated. The bodily covering may take the form either of coarse
+hairs, or of bony plates, with a larger or smaller intermixture of
+hairs.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Skull of Unau or Two-toed Sloth (_Choloepus
+didactylus_).]
+
+Of the three existing families of this group, the first is that of the
+_Bradypodidae_, or sloths, characterized by the presence of five pairs
+of upper and four of lower teeth, the normally-formed tongue and the
+rudimentary tail. The species are arboreal and feed on leaves; all being
+confined to the forests of tropical America. Externally sloths are
+clothed with long coarse, crisp hair; the head is short and rounded, and
+the external ears inconspicuous. The teeth are subcylindrical, of
+persistent growth, consisting of a central axis of vasodentine, with a
+thin investment of hard dentine, and a thick outer coating of cement;
+without any succession. Fore-limbs greatly longer than the hind-limbs;
+the extremities terminating in narrow, curved feet; with the digits
+never exceeding three in number, and encased for nearly their whole
+length in a common integument, and armed with long, strong claws.
+Stomach complex. No caecum. Placenta deciduate and dome-like, composed
+of an aggregation of numerous discoidal lobes.
+
+A remarkable feature connected with sloths is the development of a green
+colour in their hair, due to the growth of an alga. According to Dr
+W.G. Ridewood, in the three-toed sloth the hair is invested with a thick
+extra-cortical layer. "The hair has a tendency to crack in a transverse
+direction, and in the cracks there come to lodge unicellular algae, to
+which Kuhn has given the name _Pleurococcus bradypi_. The moisture of
+the climate in which _Bradypus_ lives enables the alga to live and
+propagate in this curious position, and the sloth acquires a general
+green tint which must render it very difficult to distinguish as it
+hangs among the green foliage." In the two-toed sloth, on the other
+hand, the bulk of the hair is composed of an outer coat, or cortex,
+which is longitudinally fluted or grooved, the grooves being filled with
+strands of extra-cortex in which flourishes an alga (_Pleurococcus
+choloepi_) distinct from the one infesting the hairs of the three-toed
+species. Of quite a different type are the hairs of the extinct
+ground-sloths (see MYLODON), which are smooth and solid, Dr Ridewood
+rejecting the idea that they were originally coated with a cortex that
+has disappeared.
+
+The typical genus _Bradypus_ is represented by the various species of
+ai, or three-toed sloth, in which none of the teeth project greatly
+beyond the others; the first in the upper jaw is much smaller than any
+of the others, while the first in the lower jaw is broad and compressed,
+and the grinding surfaces of all are much cupped. Vertebrae: C 9, D and
+L 20 (of which 15 to 17 bear ribs), S 6, Ca 11. All the species present
+the peculiarity of possessing nine cervical vertebrae; but the ninth,
+and sometimes the eighth, bears a pair of short movable ribs. The
+fore-limbs are considerably longer than the hind-legs, and the bones of
+the fore-arm are complete, free and capable of pronation and supination.
+The fore-feet are long, very narrow, habitually curved and terminate in
+three pointed curved claws, in close apposition to each other; they are,
+in fact, incapable of being divaricated, so that the foot is reduced to
+the condition of a triple hook, fit only for the function of suspension
+from the boughs of trees. The hind-foot closely resembles the fore-foot
+in general structure and mode of use, and has the sole habitually turned
+inwards so that it cannot be applied to the ground in walking. The
+tongue is short and soft, and the stomach large and complex, bearing
+some resemblance to that of ruminants. The windpipe or trachea has the
+remarkable peculiarity--not unfrequent among birds and reptiles--of
+being folded on itself before it reaches the lungs. The two teats are
+pectoral in position. The premaxilla is rudimentary and loosely attached
+to the maxilla. Except in _B. torquatus_, there is no perforation in the
+lower end of the humerus. Some of the species are covered uniformly with
+a grey or greyish-brown coat; others have a dark collar of elongated
+hairs around the shoulders (_B. torquatus_); some have the hair of the
+face shorter than that of the rest of the head and neck; and others have
+a remarkable-looking patch of soft, short hair on the back between the
+shoulders, consisting, when best marked, of a median stripe of glossy
+black, bordered on each side by bright orange, yellow or white. There
+are also structural differences in the skulls, as in the amount of
+inflation of the pterygoid bones. The habits of all are apparently
+alike. They are natives of Guiana, Brazil and Peru, and two species (_B.
+infuscatus_ and _B. castaneiceps_) extend north of the Isthmus of Panama
+as far as Nicaragua. Of the former of these a specimen in captivity
+uttered a shrill sound like a monkey when forcibly pulled away from the
+tree to which it was holding.
+
+In the species of unau, or two-toed sloths, _Choloepus_, the front tooth
+in both jaws is separated by an interval from the others, and is large
+and caniniform, wearing to a sharp bevelled edge against the opposing
+tooth, the upper shutting in front of the lower when the mouth is
+closed, unlike true canines. Vertebrae: C 6 or 7, D 23-24, L 3, S 7-8,
+Ca 4-6. One species (_C. didactylus_) has the ordinary number of
+vertebrae in the neck; but an otherwise closely allied form (_C.
+hoffmanni_) has but six. The tail is very rudimentary. The fore-feet
+generally resemble those of _Bradypus_, but there are only two
+functional digits, with claws; these answering to the second and third
+of the typical five-toed limb. The structure of the hind-limb generally
+resembles that of _Bradypus_, the appellation "two-toed" referring only
+to the anterior limb, for in the foot the three middle toes are
+functionally developed and of nearly equal size. The premaxilla is well
+developed, and firmly attached to the maxilla; and there is always a
+perforation, or foramen, on the inner side of the lower end of the
+humerus. _C. didactylus_, which has been longest known, and is commonly
+called by the native name of unau, inhabits the forests of Brazil. _C.
+hoffmanni_ has a more northern geographical range, extending from
+Ecuador through Panama to Costa Rica. Its voice, which is seldom heard,
+is like the bleat of a sheep, and if the animal is seized it snorts
+violently. Both species are very variable in external coloration (see
+SLOTH).
+
+The second family is that of the anteaters, _Myrmecophagidae_,
+distinguished from the last by the absence of teeth, the elongated
+tongue and the long tail. The long and slender head has a tubular mouth,
+with a small terminal aperture through which the worm-like tongue,
+covered with the sticky secretion of the enormous submaxillary salivary
+glands, is rapidly protruded in feeding, and withdrawn again with the
+adhering particles of food which are then sucked into the gullet. In the
+foot the third toe is greatly developed, and has a long sickle-like
+claw; the others are reduced or suppressed. The hind-foot has four or
+five subequal digits with claws. The long tail is sometimes prehensile.
+Placenta dome-like or discoidal. Externally the body is covered with
+hair. Anteaters feed exclusively on animal substances, mostly insects.
+One species is terrestrial, the others arboreal; none burrow in the
+ground. They are all inhabitants of tropical America. In the typical
+genus _Myrmecophaga_ the skull is remarkably elongated and narrow, with
+its upper surface smooth and cylindriform. Anteriorly the face is
+produced into a long tubular rostrum, rounded above and flattened below,
+with terminal nostrils, and composed of the mesethmoid (ossified for
+more than half its length), the vomer, the maxillae, and the long and
+narrow nasal bones, the premaxillae being extremely short and confined
+to the margin of the nostrils. The zygomatic arch is incomplete, the
+rod-like jugal only articulating with the maxilla in front, and not
+reaching the short zygomatic process of the squamosal. The lachrymal
+foramen is in front of the margin of the orbit. There are no
+post-orbital processes to the frontals or any other demarcation between
+the orbits and the temporal fossae. Palate extremely elongated, and
+produced backwards as far as the level of the external auditory meatus
+by the meeting in the middle line of the largely developed pterygoids.
+The glenoid fossa for the lower jaw, a shallow oval facet, with its long
+diameter from before backwards. Lower jaw long and slender, with an
+exceedingly short symphysis, no distinct coronoid process, and a
+slightly elevated, elongated, flattened, condylar articular surface.
+Vertebrae: C 7, D 15-16, L 3-2, S 6, Ca 31. Clavicles rudimentary. In
+the fore-foot the first digit is very slender, the second also slender,
+with compressed phalanges of nearly equal length, but the third is
+immensely developed, though its first phalanx is extremely short, while
+the terminal one is so long that the entire length of the digit exceeds
+that of the second. The fourth has a long and rather slender metacarpal,
+and three phalanges diminishing in size, the terminal phalange being
+very small. The fifth has the metacarpal nearly as long, but not so
+stout as the fourth, and followed by two small phalanges, the last
+rudimentary and conical. Claws are developed upon all but the fifth. In
+walking the toes are kept bent, with their points turned upwards and
+inwards, the weight being supported on a pad over the end of the fifth
+digit, and the upper surfaces of the third and fourth digits. The hind
+feet are short and rather broad, with five subequal claws, the fourth
+rather longest, the first shortest; the whole sole is placed on the
+ground in walking. Body rather compressed, clothed with long, coarse
+hair. Tail about as long as the body, and covered with very long hair;
+not prehensile. Ears small, oval, erect. Eyes very small. Stomach
+consisting of a sub-globular, thin-walled, cardiac portion, and a
+muscular pyloric gizzard with dense epithelial lining. No ileocolic
+valve; but a short, wide, ill-defined caecum. The two teats are
+pectoral.
+
+The tamandua anteaters (_Tamandua_, or _Uroleptes_), of which several
+species (or races) are now recognized, are smaller animals than the
+last, in which the head is much less elongated, the fur short and
+bristly, and the tail, tapering, prehensile, with the under side
+throughout, and the whole of the terminal portion naked and scaly. The
+stomach is similar to that of _Myrmecophaga_, but with the muscular
+pyloric gizzard less strongly developed. There is a distinct ileocolic
+valve and short globular caecum. The fore-foot has a very large claw on
+the third toe, moderate-sized claws on the second and fourth, a minute
+one on the first, and none on the fifth, which is entirely concealed
+within the skin. The hind-foot has five subequal claws. Vertebrae: C 7,
+D 17, L 2, S 5, Ca 37. There are very rudimentary clavicles.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Tamandua Anteater (_Tamandua tetradactyla_).]
+
+The last representative of the family is the tiny golden-haired pigmy or
+two-toed anteater, _Cyclopes_ (or _Cycloturus_) _didactylus_, in which
+the skull is much shorter even than in the preceding genus, and arched
+considerably in the longitudinal direction. It differs from that of the
+other members of the family mainly in the long canal for the posterior
+nostrils not being closed by bone below, as the greater part of the
+palatines and the pterygoids do not meet in the middle line. The lower
+jaw has a prominent, narrow, recurved coronoid, and a well-developed
+angular process, and is strongly decurved in front. Vertebrae: C 7, D
+16, L 2, S 4, Ca 40. Ribs remarkably broad and flat. Clavicles well
+developed. Fore-foot remarkably modified, having the third digit greatly
+developed at the expense of all the others; it has a short stout
+metacarpal and but two phalanges, of which the terminal one is large,
+compressed, pointed and much curved, with a strong hook-like claw. The
+second digit has the same number of phalanges, and bears a claw, but is
+much more slender than the third. The fourth is represented only by the
+metacarpal, and one nailless phalange, the first and fifth only by
+rudimentary metacarpals. The hind-foot is also modified into a climbing
+organ, the first toe being rudimentary and consisting of a metatarsal
+and one phalange concealed beneath the skin, but the other four toes
+subequal and much curved, with long, pointed, compressed claws. The
+tuberosity of the heel-bone or calcaneum is directed towards the sole,
+and parallel with it and extending to about double its length is a
+greatly elongated sesamoid ossicle. These together support a prominent
+cushion to which the nails are opposed in climbing. Stomach pyriform,
+with muscular walls, but no distinct gizzard-like portion. The
+commencement of the colon provided with two small caeca, narrow at the
+base, but rather dilated at their terminal blind ends, and communicating
+with the general cavity by very minute apertures. Tail longer than the
+body, tapering, bare on the under surface and prehensile. Fur soft and
+silky.
+
+The third and last existing family of the Xenarthra is that of the
+armadillos, or _Dasypodidae_, in which there are at least seven pairs of
+teeth in each jaw, while the tongue is normal, the tail generally long,
+and the body covered with an armour of bony plates overlain by horny
+scales. All the species are terrestrial, and insectivorous or more or
+less omnivorous.
+
+The union of the numerous polygonal bony shields on the back and sides
+forms a hard shield, usually consisting of an anterior (scapular) and
+posterior (pelvic) solid portion (which overhang on each side the parts
+of the body they respectively cover, forming chambers into which the
+limbs are withdrawn), and a variable number of rings between, connected
+by soft flexible skin so as to allow of curvature of the body. The top
+of the head has also a similar shield, and the tail is usually encased
+in bony rings or plates. The outer or exposed surfaces of the limbs are
+protected by irregular bony plates, not united at their margins; but the
+skin of the inner surface of the limbs and under side of the body is
+soft and more or less clothed with hair. Hairs also in many species
+project through apertures between the bony plates of the back. The bony
+plates are covered by a layer of horny epidermis. Teeth numerous,
+simple, of persistent growth and usually without milk predecessors.
+Zygomatic arch of skull complete. Cervical vertebrae with extremely
+short, broad and depressed bodies; the first free, but the second and
+third, and often several of the others united together both by their
+bodies and arches. Clavicles well developed. A third trochanter on the
+femur. Tibia and fibula united at their lower extremities. Fore-feet
+with strongly developed, curved claws, adapted for digging and
+scratching, three, four or five in number. Hind-feet plantigrade, with
+five toes, all provided with nails. Tongue long, pointed and extensile,
+though to a less degree than in the anteaters. Submaxillary glands
+largely developed. Stomach simple. Placenta discoidal and deciduate.
+
+The typical genus _Dasypus_, with several others, represents the
+subfamily _Dasypodinae_, which usually have all five toes developed and
+with nails, though the first and fifth may be suppressed. The first and
+second are long and slender, with the normal number and relative length
+of phalanges, the others stout, with short broad metacarpals, and the
+phalanges reduced in length and generally in number by coalescence; the
+terminal phalange of the third being large, that of the others gradually
+diminishing to the fifth. _Dasypus_ has the most normal form of
+fore-foot, but the modifications developed in all the others
+(culminating in _Tolypeutes_) are foreshadowed. Ears wide apart. Teats,
+one pair, pectoral. In _Dasypus_ the teeth are 9/10 or 8/9, of which the
+first in the upper jaw is usually implanted in the premaxillary bone.
+The series extends posteriorly some distance behind the anterior root of
+the zygoma, almost level with the hind edge of the palate. The teeth are
+large, subcylindrical, slightly compressed, diminishing in size towards
+each end of the series; the anterior two in the lower jaw smaller and
+more compressed than the others. Cranial portion of the skull broad and
+depressed, facial portion triangular, broad in front and depressed.
+Auditory bulla completely ossified, perforated on the inner side by the
+carotid canal, and continued externally into an elongated bony meatus
+auditorius, with its aperture directed upwards and backwards. (In all
+the other genera of _Dasypodinae_ the tympanic bone is a mere half-ring,
+loosely attached to the cranium.) Lower jaw with a high ascending
+branch, broad transversely placed condyle, and high slender coronoid
+process. Vertebrae: C 7, D 11-12, L 3, S 8, Ca 17-18. Head broad and
+flat above, with the muzzle obtusely pointed. Ears of moderate size or
+rather small, placed laterally far apart. Body broad and depressed.
+Armour with six or seven movable bands between the scapular and pelvic
+shields. Tail shorter than the body, tapering, covered with plates
+forming distinct rings near the base. Fore-feet with five toes; the
+first much more slender than the others, and with a smaller ungual
+phalange and nail; the second, though the longest, also slender. The
+third, fourth and fifth gradually diminishing in length, all armed with
+strong, slightly curved compressed claws, sloping from an elevated,
+rounded inner border to a sharp, outer and inferior edge. The hind-foot
+is rather short, and has all five toes armed with stout, compressed,
+slightly curved, obtusely pointed claws--the third the longest, the
+second nearly equal to it, the fourth the next, the first and fifth
+shorter and nearly equal.
+
+To this genus belongs one of the best-known species of the group, the
+six-banded armadillo or encoubert (_D. sexcinctus_) of Brazil and
+Paraguay; a very similar species, _D. villosus_, the hairy armadillo,
+replacing it south of the Rio Plata. There are also two small species,
+_D. vellerosus_ and _D. minutus_, from the Argentine Republic and North
+Patagonia; the latter, which differs from the other three in having no
+tooth implanted in the premaxillary bone and is often referred to a
+genus apart, as _Zaedius_.
+
+In _Tatoua_ (_Cabassous_ or _Lysiurus_) the teeth are 9/9 or 8/8, of
+moderate size and subcylindrical: the most posterior placed a little way
+behind the anterior root of the zygoma, but far from the hinder margin
+of the palate. Skull somewhat elongated, much constricted behind the
+orbits, and immediately in front of the constriction considerably
+dilated. Lower jaw slender, with the coronoid process small and sharp
+pointed, sometimes obsolete. Vertebrae: C 7, D 12-13, L 5, S 10, Ca 18.
+Head broad behind. Ears rather large and rounded, wide apart. Movable
+bands of armour 12-13. Tail considerably shorter than the body, and
+slender, covered with nearly naked skin, with a few small, scattered,
+bony plates, chiefly on the under surface and near the apex. On the
+fore-feet the first and second toes are long and slender, with small
+claws and the normal number of phalanges. The other toes have but two
+phalanges; the third has an immense sickle-like claw; the fourth and
+fifth similar but smaller claws. The hind-feet are comparatively small,
+with five toes, and small, triangular, blunt nails; the third longest,
+the first shortest. The best-known species of this genus, the tatouay or
+cabassou, _T. unicinctus_, is, after _Priodon gigas_, the largest of the
+group. It is found, though not abundantly, in Surinam, Brazil and
+Paraguay. Others, such as _T. hispidus_ and _T. lugubris_, have been
+described.
+
+In the giant armadillo (_Priodon gigas_) the teeth are variable in
+number, and generally differ on the two sides of each jaw, being usually
+from 20 to 25 on each side above and below, so that as many as a hundred
+may be present altogether; but as life advances the anterior teeth fall
+out, and all traces of their sockets disappear. The series extends as
+far back as the hinder edge of the anterior root of the zygoma. They are
+all very small, in the anterior half of each series strongly compressed,
+with flat sides and a straight free edge, but posteriorly more
+cylindrical, with flat, truncated, free surfaces. Vertebrae: C 7, D 12,
+L 3, S 10, Ca 23. Head small, elongated, conical. Ears moderate, ovate.
+Armour with 12-13 movable bands. Tail nearly equal to the body in
+length, gradually tapering, closely covered with quadrangular scales,
+arranged in a quincunx pattern. Fore-feet with five toes, formed on the
+same plan as those of _Tatoua_, but with the claw of the third of still
+greater size, and that of the others, especially the fifth,
+proportionally reduced. Hind-foot short and rounded, with five very
+short toes, and short, broad, flat obtuse nails. The giant armadillo is
+by far the largest existing member of the family, measuring rather more
+than 3 ft. from the tip of the nose to the root of the tail, the tail
+being about 20 in. long. It inhabits the forest of Surinam and Brazil.
+The powerful claws of its fore-feet enable it to dig with great
+facility; and its food consists chiefly of termites and other insects,
+although it is said to attack and uproot newly-made graves for the
+purpose of devouring the flesh of the bodies contained in them.
+
+The apar (_Tolypeutes tricinctus_) typifies a genus in which the teeth
+are 9/9 or 8/9, and are rather large in proportion to the size of the
+skull, with the hinder end of the series reaching nearly to the
+posterior margin of the palate. Vertebrae: C 7, D 11, L 3, S 12, Ca 13.
+Ears placed low on the sides of the head, rather large, broadly ovate.
+Armour with its scapular and pelvic shields very free at the sides of
+the body, forming large chambers into which the limbs can be readily
+withdrawn, and only three movable bands. Tail short, conical, covered
+with large bony tubercles. The fore-feet formed on the same type as in
+the last genus, but the peculiarities carried to a still greater extent.
+The claw of the third toe is very long, while those of the first and
+fifth are greatly reduced and sometimes wanting. On the hind-foot the
+three middle toes have broad, flat, subequal nails, forming together a
+kind of tripartite hoof; the first and fifth much shorter, with more
+compressed nails.
+
+The armadillos of this genus have the power of rolling themselves up
+into a ball, the shield on the top of the head and the tuberculated
+dorsal surface of the tail exactly fitting into and filling up the
+apertures left by the notches at either end of the body-armour. This
+appears to be their usual means of defence when frightened or surprised,
+as they do not burrow like the other species. They run very quickly,
+with a very peculiar gait, only the tips of the claws of the fore-feet
+touching the ground. In addition to the apar, there are the Argentine
+and Bolivian _T. conurus_, and _T. muriei_ from Argentina or Patagonia.
+
+The last group of existing armadillos forms the genus _Tatusia_ and the
+subfamily _Tatusiinae_; the subfamily rank being based on the fact that
+of the seven or eight pairs of small subcylindrical teeth, all but the
+last, which is considerably smaller than the rest, are preceded by
+milk-teeth not changed until the animal has nearly attained full size.
+Vertebrae: C 7, D 9-11, L 5, S 8, Ca 20-27. Head narrow, with a long,
+narrow, subcylindrical obliquely truncated snout. Ears rather large,
+ovate and erect, placed close together on the occiput. Armour with seven
+to nine distinct movable bands. Body generally elongated and narrow.
+Tail moderate, or long, gradually tapering; its plates forming distinct
+rings for the greater part of its length. Fore-feet with four visible
+toes, and a concealed clawless rudiment of the fifth; the claws long,
+slightly curved, and slender, the third and fourth subequal and alike,
+the first and fourth much shorter. Hind-feet with five toes, armed with
+strong, slightly curved, conical, obtusely pointed nails, and the third
+longest, then the second and fourth, and the first and fifth much
+shorter than the others. This genus differs from all the other
+armadillos in having a pair of inguinal teats in addition to the usual
+pectoral pair, and in producing a large number (4 to 10) of young at a
+birth, all the others having usually but one or two. The peba armadillo,
+_T. septemcincta_, is a well-known species, having an extensive range
+from Texas to Paraguay. It is replaced in the more southern regions of
+South America by a smaller species, with shorter tail, the mulita (_T.
+hybrida_) so called from the resemblance of its head and ears to those
+of a mule. _T. kappleri_ is a large species from Guiana.
+
+Finally we have the pichiciago, or fairy armadillo, _Chlamydophorus
+truncatus_, typifying the subfamily _Chlamydophorinae_. In most
+anatomical characters, especially the structure of the fore-foot, this
+group resembles the _Dasypodinae_, but it differs remarkably from all
+other known armadillos, living or extinct, in the peculiar modification
+of the armour.
+
+The teeth, which number 8/(8-9), are subcylindrical, somewhat
+compressed, moderate in size, and smaller at each end (especially in
+front) than at the middle of the series. Skull broad and rounded behind,
+pointed in front. Muzzle subcylindrical and depressed. A conspicuous
+rounded rough prominence on the frontal bone, just before each orbit.
+Tympanic prolonged into a tubular auditory meatus, curving upwards round
+the base of the zygoma. Vertebrae: C 7, D 11, L 3, S 10, Ca 15. Upper
+part of head and trunk covered with four-sided horny plates (with small
+thin ossifications beneath), forming a shield, free and overhanging the
+sides of the trunk, and attached only along the middle line of the back.
+The plates are arranged in a series of distinct transverse bands, about
+twenty in number between the occiput and the posterior truncated end,
+and not divided into solid scapular and pelvic shields with movable
+bands between. The hinder end of the body is abruptly truncated and
+covered by a vertically placed, strong, solid, bony shield, of an oval
+(transversely extended) form, covered by thin horny plates. This shield
+is firmly welded by five bony processes to the hinder part of the
+pelvis. Through a notch in the middle of its lower border the tail
+passes out. The latter is rather short, cylindrical in its proximal
+half, and expanded and depressed or spatulate in its terminal portion,
+and covered with horny plates. The dorsal surfaces of the fore and
+hind-feet are also covered with horny plates. The remainder of the limbs
+and under surface and sides of the body beneath the overlapping lateral
+parts of the back shield are clothed with rather long, soft silky hair.
+Eyes and ears very small, and concealed by the hair. Extremities short.
+Feet large, each with five well-developed claws, those on the fore-feet
+very long, stout and subcompressed, the structure of the digits being
+essentially the same as those of _Tatoua_ and _Priodon_. Teats two,
+pectoral. Visceral anatomy closely resembling that of _Dasypus_, the
+caecum being broad, short and bifid. The pichiciago, a burrowing animal,
+about 5 in. long, inhabits the sandy plains of western Argentina,
+especially the vicinity of Mendoza. Its horny covering is pinkish, and
+its silky hair white. A second species, _C. retusus_, from Bolivia is
+rather larger and has the dorsal shield attached to the skin of the back
+as far as its edge, instead of only along the median line. (See
+ARMADILLO.)
+
+_Tubulidentata._--The second suborder of edentates, namely the
+Tubulidentata, is represented at the present day only by the aard-varks,
+or ant-bears, of Africa, constituting the family _Orycteropodidae_ and
+the genus _Orycteropus_. Together with the following group, they differ
+from the Xenarthra in the absence of additional articular facets to the
+lumbar vertebrae; for which reason the term Nomarthra has been proposed
+for the Tubulidentata and Pholidota as collectively distinct from the
+Xenarthra. In the present group the external surface is scantily covered
+with bristle-like hairs. The teeth are numerous, and traversed by a
+number of parallel vertical pulp-canals. Femur with a third trochanter.
+Fore-feet without the first toe, but all the other digits well
+developed, with strong moderate-sized nails, suited to digging, the
+plantar surfaces of which rest on the ground in walking. Hind-feet with
+five subequal toes. Placenta broadly zonular. The brain is very like
+that of the Ungulata; and there are two pairs of teats, one abdominal,
+and the other inguinal. Aard-varks feed on animal substances; and are
+terrestrial and fossorial in habits. The total number of teeth is from
+eight to ten in each side of the upper, and eight in the lower jaw; but
+they are never all in place at one time, as the small anterior ones are
+shed before the series is completed behind. In the adult they number
+usually five on each side above and below, of which the first two are
+simple and compressed, the next two larger and longitudinally grooved at
+the sides, the most posterior simple and cylindrical. Their summits are
+rounded before they are worn; their bases do not taper to a root, but
+are evenly truncated and continually growing. Each tooth is made up of
+an aggregation of parallel dental systems, having a slender pulp cavity
+in the centre, from which the dentinal tubes radiate outwards, and being
+closely packed together each system assumes a polygonal outline as seen
+in transverse section. A series of milk-teeth is developed. Skull
+moderately elongated with the facial portion subcylindrical and slightly
+tapering, and the zygoma complete and slender. The palate ends
+posteriorly in the thickened transverse border of the palatines, and is
+not continued back by the pterygoids. The tympanic is annular, and not
+welded to the surrounding bones. The lower jaw is slender anteriorly,
+but rises high posteriorly, with a slender recurved coronoid, and an
+ascending pointed process on the hinder edge below the condyle, which is
+small, oval, and looks forward as much as upwards. Vertebrae: C 7, D 13,
+L 8, S 6, Ca 25. The large number of lumbar vertebrae is peculiar among
+Edentates. The tongue is less worm-like than in _Myrmecophaga_, being
+thick and fleshy at the base and gradually tapering to the apex. The
+salivary apparatus is developed much in the same manner as in that
+genus, but the duct of the submaxillary gland has no reservoir. The
+stomach consists of a large subglobular cardaic portion, with a thick,
+soft, and corrugated lining membrane, and a smaller muscular, pyloric
+part, with a comparatively thin and smooth lining. There is a distinct
+ileocaecal valve and a considerable sized caecum; also a gall-bladder.
+Head elongated, with a tubular snout, terminal nostrils and small
+mouth-opening. Ears large, pointed, erect. Tall nearly as long as the
+body, cylindrical, thick at the base, tapering to the extremity.
+
+According to the researches of Dr E. Lonnberg, the teeth of the
+aard-varks correspond only to the roots of those of other mammals, the
+crowns being unrepresented, except to a very small degree when the teeth
+first cut the gum. This explanation renders the peculiar internal
+structure of these teeth much less difficult to understand than if they
+represented both crown and root. In Dr Lonnberg's opinion, the teeth
+indicate the descent of the aard-vark from an ungulate stock,--a view in
+harmony with the evidence of the brain. If this idea prove well
+founded, and if the aard-varks are rightly classed with the Edentata,
+the whole order must apparently be regarded as an offshoot from
+primitive Ungulata. The fact of the frequent distinctness of the
+coracoid bone requires, however, explanation in connexion with such a
+descent (see AARD-VARK).
+
+_Pholidota._--The Pholidota, constituting the third and last group of
+the Edentata, are represented by the pangolins, or scaly anteaters, of
+Asia and Africa, all of which are included in the family _Manidae_ and
+the genus _Manis_. Pangolins differ from all other mammals by the armour
+of overlapping horny scales (often with hairs growing between them)
+which invests the whole animal, with the exception of the under surface
+of the body, and sometimes a small patch near the tip of the under side
+of the tail. There are no teeth; and although the tongue is long and
+worm-like, it is not extensile. The scaphoid and lunar bones of the
+carpus are united. The uterus is bicornuate, and the placenta diffused
+and non-deciduate. The skull has somewhat the form of an elongated cone,
+with the small end turned forwards, and is smooth and free from crests
+and ridges. No distinction between the orbits and temporal fossae. The
+zygomatic arch usually incomplete, owing to the absence of the jugal
+bone; no distinct lacrymal bone; and the palate long and narrow. The
+pterygoids extend backwards as far as the tympanics, but do not meet in
+the middle line below. Tympanic welded to the surrounding bones, and
+more or less bladder-like, but not produced into a tubular auditory
+meatus. Two halves of lower jaw very slender and straight, without any
+angle or coronoid process, on the anterior extremity of the upper edge a
+sharp, conical, tooth-like process projecting upwards and outwards. No
+clavicles. No third trochanter to the femur. Terminal phalanges cleft at
+the tip. Caudal vertebrae with very long transverse processes and
+numerous chevron-bones. Stomach with thick muscular walls and lining
+membrane, and a special gland near the middle of the great curvature,
+consisting of a mass of complex secreting follicles, the ducts of which
+terminate in a common orifice. No caecum, but a gall-bladder. Head
+small, depressed, narrow, and pointed in front, with a very small
+mouth-opening. Eyes and ears very small. Body elongated, narrow. Tail
+more or less elongated, convex above, flat underneath. Limbs short, and
+in walking the surface and outer sides of the phalanges of the two outer
+digits of the front feet alone rest on the ground, with the points of
+the nails turning upwards and inwards. The third toe the longest, with a
+powerful compressed curved claw, the second and fourth with similar but
+smaller claws, but that of the first toe often almost rudimentary.
+Hind-feet plantigrade with the first toe very short, and the four other
+toes subequal, and carrying moderate, curved, compressed nails.
+Pangolins are of small or moderate size, terrestrial and burrowing, and
+feed mainly on termites or white ants; some of the species being more or
+less arboreal. They can roll themselves up in a ball when in danger.
+Their peculiar elongated form, short limbs, long tapering tail, and
+scaly covering give them on a superficial inspection more the appearance
+of reptiles than of mammals. The species are not numerous and may be
+divided into two sections, one comprising the Asiatic species, such as
+_M. javanica_, _M. aurita_ of China, and the Indian _M. pentadactyla_,
+and the other the African, as represented by the large _M. gigantea_,
+_M. temminchi_, the long-tailed _M. macrura_, and the small arboreal _M.
+tricuspis_. In the Asiatic group the middle series of scales continues
+to the tip of the tail; but in the African forms this row splits into
+two a few inches from the tail-tip. The latter have also no hairs
+between the scales and no external ears. The climbing species have a
+small bare patch on the under side of the tail near the tip (see
+PANGOLIN).
+
+
+_Extinct Edentates._
+
+Beyond remains of species closely allied to or identical with the
+existing forms, the sloths and anteaters appear to be unknown in a
+fossil state. On the other hand the extinct family of ground sloths, or
+_Megatheriidae_, which includes the largest of all edentates, is an
+exceedingly large one, and extends in South America from the Miocene to
+the Pleistocene, and was also represented during the latter epoch in
+North America. It serves to connect the _Bradypodidae_ with
+_Myrmecophagidae_. The alleged occurrence of an allied form in
+Madagascar is somewhat doubtful (see MEGATHERIUM and MYLODON).
+
+Of _Dasypodidae_ numerous representatives occur in the South American
+Tertiaries. From the higher beds many of the species are referable to
+existing genera, such as _Dasypus_ and _Tatusia_, although some are much
+larger than any living forms, the skull in one case being nearly a foot
+in length. In other instances, when lower formations are reached, the
+genera are also distinct, _Eutatus_ having the whole armour divided into
+movable bands, and the allied _Stegotherium_ representing the group in
+the Santa Cruz formation of Patagonia. Even in the Argentine Pleistocene
+there is an extinct genus, _Chlamydotherium_, represented by a species
+of the size of a rhinoceros, with grooved teeth approximating to those
+of the glyptodonts. The latter represent a family (_Glyptodontidae_) by
+themselves, and typically may be described as giant solid-shelled
+armadillos, although some of their smaller Santa Cruz representatives
+(_Propalaeohoplophorus_) approximate in some degree to true armadillos
+(see GLYPTODON).
+
+A very remarkable Santa Cruz armadillo, _Peltephilus_, has an altogether
+peculiar type of head-shield, developed into horns in front of the eyes;
+and, what is still more noteworthy, teeth in the front of the jaws,
+thereby rendering the ordinary definition of the order Edentata
+incorrect. It has been made the type of a distinct family,
+_Peltephilidae_.
+
+The past history of the armadillo group does not, however, by any means
+end here. True armadillos, it should be observed, are known in North
+America as far north as Texas, from the Pleistocene onwards; but in
+formations of middle Tertiary age are unrepresented. Recent discoveries
+apparently indicate, however, the occurrence of armadillos of a
+primitive type in the lower Tertiary or Eocene formations of Wyoming.
+The first evidence of these Eocene armadillos was afforded by portions
+of the jaws, which, together with a leg-bone of a totally different
+animal, were believed to indicate creatures nearly allied to the aye-aye
+(_Chiromys_) of Madagascar, and for which the name _Metachiromys_ was
+consequently proposed. According to modern usage, this name, in spite of
+its inappropriate nature, is retained for the armadillos, although in
+the writer's opinion it ought to be replaced. According to Professor
+H.F. Osborn, by whom their remains have been described, the North
+American fossil armadillos were closely related to the existing members
+of the group, from which they differ chiefly by the armour, or shield,
+having probably been formed of tough leathery skin instead of bony
+plates, by the presence of a single pair of large enamel-capped
+tusk-like teeth in each jaw, and by the degeneration of the other teeth.
+If these determinations are trustworthy, the question arises whether we
+should regard the armadillos of South America as the descendants of
+North American forms which migrated southwards before that separation of
+the two continents was established, which lasted for a large portion of
+the Tertiary period, or whether a migration took place at the same early
+epoch in the opposite direction.
+
+More interesting still is the occurrence of remains of reputed
+armadillos (_Necrodasypus_) from the Oligocene of France and Germany. In
+the opinion of Dr F. Ameghino these Oligocene armadillos, which had bony
+shields on both the head and body, were near akin to some of the modern
+South American forms.
+
+Passing on to the aard-varks (_Orycteropodidae_), we find these
+represented by a species closely allied to the existing ones in the
+Lower Pliocene formations of Spain, France, Hungary, Samos and Asia
+Minor. A single tibia from the French Oligocene is identified by Dr
+Ameghino with the present family, and the genus _Archaeorycteropus_
+established for its reception; this genus, in its founder's opinion,
+being also represented in the Santa Cruz beds of Patagonia. As regards
+the pangolins, the only fossils referred to this group (apart from a few
+discovered in a cave in India) appear to be certain limb-bones from the
+Oligocene of France and Germany, for which the names _Necromanis_ and
+_Teutomanis_ have been proposed. The occurrence of the characteristic
+cleft terminal toe-bones among these remains seems to leave little
+doubt as to the correctness of the determination.
+
+The alleged occurrence of remains of giant pangolins in the upper
+Tertiary of Europe is due to misidentification (see ANCYLOPODA). By some
+authorities the Eocene group of Ganodonta has been affiliated to the
+Edentata, but this reference is not accepted by Prof. W.B. Scott.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The above article is to some extent based on the
+  articles by Sir W.H. Flower in the 9th edition of this work. See also
+  O. Thomas, "A Milk-dentition in _Orycteropus_," _Proc. Royal Soc._
+  vol. xlvii. (1890); R. Lydekker, "The Extinct Edentates of Argentina,"
+  _Palaeont. Argentina_, vol. iii., An. Mus. (La Plata, 1894); C.W.
+  Andrews, "On a Skull of _Orycteropus gaudryi_ from Samos," _Proc.
+  Zool. Soc. London_ (1896); G.E. Smith, "The Brain in the Edentata,"
+  _Trans. Linn. Soc. London_, vol. vii. (1899); W.B. Scott, "Mammalia of
+  the Santa Cruz Beds--_Dasypoda_," _Rep. Princeton Exped. to
+  Patagonia_, vol. v. (1903); H.F. Osborn, "An Armadillo from the Middle
+  Eocene of North America," _Bull. Amer. Mus._ vol. xx. art. 12 (1904);
+  J.A. Allen, "The Tamandua Anteaters," _T.C._, art. 33 (1904); F.
+  Ameghino, "Les Edentes fossiles de France et d'Allemagne," _Ann. Mus.
+  Buenos Aires_, vol. xiii. (1905); E. Lonnberg, "On a new
+  _Orycteropus_," and "Remarks on the dentition of the Tubulidentata,"
+  _Archiv fur Zoologie_, vol. iii. No. 3 (1906).     (R. L.*)
+
+
+
+
+EDENTON, a town and the county-seat of Chowan county, North Carolina,
+U.S.A., on Edenton Bay, an estuary of Albemarle sound, near the mouth of
+Chowan river, in the N.E. part of the state. Pop. (1890) 2205; (1900)
+3046 (2090 negroes); (1910) 2789. It is served by the Norfolk & Southern
+railway, and by the Albemarle Steam Navigation Co. In 1907 the former
+projected a great bridge across Albemarle sound near the city. Edenton
+is an old and interesting town, has a number of fine old homesteads, and
+has broad and well-shaded streets. Lumbering and the shad and herring
+fisheries are the most important industrial interests, and the town is a
+shipping point for fish, truck and other farm products, cotton and
+peanuts. There is a Fish Cultural Station here, established by the
+Federal government. The court-house was built about 1750.
+
+Edenton was settled about 1658, and was for some time known as the
+"Towne on Queen Anne's Creek" or the "Port of Roanoke"; in 1722 the
+present name was adopted in honour of Governor Charles Eden (1673-1722),
+whose grave is in St Paul's churchyard here. Throughout the 18th century
+Edenton was a place of considerable social and political importance; the
+legislative assembly of North Carolina met here occasionally, and here
+lived the royal governors and various well-known citizens of the
+province, among them: Joseph Hewes (1730-1779), a signer of the
+Declaration of Independence; James Iredell, Sr. (1750-1799), a
+Federalist leader and after 1790 a justice of the United States Supreme
+Court, and his son James Iredell, Jr. (1788-1853), a prominent lawyer,
+for many years a member of the state legislature, governor of North
+Carolina in 1827-1828, and a member of the United States Senate in
+1828-1831. Near Edenton lived Samuel Johnston (1733-1816), a prominent
+leader of the American Whigs preceding and during the War of American
+Independence, a member of the Continental Congress in 1780-1782,
+governor of North Carolina in 1787-1789, and a Federalist member of the
+United States Senate in 1790-1793. In 1907 the Hewes, Iredell and
+Johnston homesteads were still standing. In a house facing the
+court-house green the famous "Edenton Tea Party" of fifty-one ladies met
+on the 24th of October 1774 and signed resolutions that they would not
+conform "to that Pernicious Custom of Drinking Tea" and would not
+"promote the wear of any manufacture from England" until the tax on tea
+should be repealed. Near Edenton the Confederate ram "Albemarle," on
+emerging from the Roanoke river, was met by the Union "double-enders,"
+"Sassacus," "Mattabesett," and "Miami," on the 5th of May 1864; the
+battle, which resulted in favour of the Confederates, was a duel between
+the Confederate ironclad and the Union wooden side-wheeler, the
+"Sassacus," which rammed the "Albemarle" and had her bows, fitted with a
+three-ton bronze beak, twisted off and carried away.
+
+
+
+
+EDESSA (mod. _Vodena_), the ancient capital of Macedonia, previously
+known as Aegae, situated 46 m. W. of Thessalonica on the banks of a
+beautiful stream in the very centre of the kingdom, and at the head of a
+defile commanding the approaches from the coast to the interior. It was
+the original residence of the Macedonian kings; and even after the seat
+of government was removed by Philip II. to the more accessible Pella, it
+continued to be the burial-place of the royal family. At the celebration
+of his daughter's marriage here, Philip II. was murdered by Pausanias in
+336 B.C. His son Alexander was buried at Memphis through the contrivance
+of Ptolemy; but the bodies of his granddaughter Eurydice and her husband
+Arrhidaeus were removed by Cassander to the ancestral sepulchre. On the
+occupation of the town by Pyrrhus the royal tombs were plundered by the
+Gallic mercenaries. Owing to its position commanding the Via Egnatia,
+the town retained its importance during the Roman and Byzantine periods.
+For its present condition, see VODENA.
+
+
+
+
+EDESSA, the Greek name of an ancient city of N.W. Mesopotamia (in 37 deg.
+21' N. lat. and 39 deg. 6' E. long.), suggested perhaps by a comparison of
+its site, or its water supply,[1] with that of its Macedonian namesake.
+It still bears its earlier name, modified since the 15th century (by the
+Turks?) to Urfa.
+
+  The oldest certain form is the Aramaic _Urhai_ ("Western"
+  pronunciation _Urhoi_), which appears in Greek as an adjective as
+  [Greek: Horrhoenhe][2], [Greek: -noi][3] (perhaps also as a fortress
+  with spring, as [Greek: Orrha]),[4] and in Latin as Orr(h)ei,[5] and
+  (in the inscription on Abgar's grave) _Orrhenoru(m)_.[6] The Syriac
+  Chronicle ascribed to Dionysius of Tell-mahre derives the name from a
+  first king Urhai, son of Hewya, whom Procopius (_De bello persico_, i.
+  17) calls Osroes (cf. below), connected by Bayer[7] with Chosroes,[8]
+  from which G. Hoffmann would also derive the Syriac Urhai (_Z.D.M.G._
+  xxxii. 742). The Syriac town name has, however, the form of an ethnic,
+  and we may therefore with Duval leave it unexplained (_Hist._ 22). The
+  fact that the Arabic name is Ruha supports the hint of the
+  Graeco-Latin forms that there was a vowel between the R and the H.
+  There is little plausibility in the suggestion of Assemani and others
+  that Ruha comes from [Greek: rhoe] of Callirrhoe. A gentilic of the
+  form Ru-u-ai occurs in a letter (of an Assyrian king?) to chiefs in a
+  (Babylonian?) town as the designation of three captives (Harper, _Ass.
+  and Bab. Letters_, No. 287 [= K 94], line 6; cf. Bezold, _Die
+  Achamenideninschriften_, p. xii.), who have Semitic names; and
+  Ru-'-u-a is the name of an Aramaic people mentioned with other
+  Aramaeans by Tiglath-pileser IV., Sargon and Sennacherib. It is not
+  impossible that some such people may have settled at Urhai and given
+  it their name, although the Ru-'-u-a are always mentioned in
+  connexions that imply seats near the Persian Gulf.[9] The district
+  name Osroene for [Greek: Orrhoenhe], is Greek, perhaps due to analogy
+  of Chosroes. It occurs but rarely in Syriac (Uzroina); e.g. Chronicle
+  of Edessa. S 35;[10] elsewhere Beth-Urhaye (e.g. Cureton, _Spicileg.
+  Syr._ 20). In the time of Tiglath-pileser I. (c. 1100 B.C.) the name
+  seems to have been "District of (not Edessa, but) Harran" (Annals, vi.
+  71). The Arabs pronounced the name er-Ruha (see above), and that form
+  prevailed till it gave place to Urfa in the 15th century.
+
+  The Greek name Edessa appears in the Jerusalem Targum to Gen. x. 10 as
+  Hadas ([Hebrew: hadas], myrtle); it has been proposed (cf. Duval,
+  _Hist. d'Edesse_, 23) to derive Edessa from Aram. [Hebrew: hadat], as
+  though = Carthage, New Town; but Syriac writers, when they
+  occasionally [11] use the name (Edessa, [Hebrew: adasa]; so Yaqut,
+  Adasa), show no suspicion of its being Semitic. According to Pliny, v.
+  86, Edessa was also called Antioch, and coins of Antiochus IV.
+  Epiphanes with the legend "Antioch on the Callirrhoe" may imply that
+  he rebuilt and renamed the place (so Ed. Meyer in Pauly-Wissowa,
+  _Realencyclopadie_, col. 1933, 66; otherwise Duval, _Hist._ 23; cf.
+  art. OSROENE). Pliny indeed seems to call the city itself Callirrhoe,
+  and S. Funk finds it so named in the Talmud (_Bab. Mez._, 18a [Hebrew:
+  raal raham bahara shuiar meta]: _Die Juden in Babylonien 200-500_, ii.
+  148; 1908); but K. Regling (_Klio_, i. 459 n. 1) may be right in his
+  emendation which applies the title in Pliny to the sacred spring.
+
+_History: Pre-Hellenistic._--Until excavation gives us more definite
+data we can only infer from its position on one of the main
+thoroughfares between the Mediterranean and the East (see MESOPOTAMIA)
+that Urhai-Edessa, possibly bearing some other name, was already a town
+of some importance in the early Babylonian-Assyrian age. Whatever may
+have been the ethnographical type of the early inhabitants, it must by
+the beginning of the second last millennium B.C. have included Hittites
+in the large sense of the term, probably Aryans, and certainly Semites
+of some of the types characteristic of early Assyrian history. Most
+probably its people belonged to the domain of the then more famous
+Harran-Carrhae, between which and Samosata (on the Euphrates) Urhai lies
+midway (some 25-30 m. distant from each) in the district watered by the
+Balih. Although at Edessa itself no cuneiform documents have yet been
+found, a little more than four hours journey eastwards, at Anaz (=
+Gullab?) = Dur of Tiglath-pileser IV. was found in 1901 a slab with a
+bas-relief and an inscription; and 15-20 min. W. of Eski-Harran, in 1906
+a very interesting 6th-century Assyrian inscription (see MESOPOTAMIA).
+
+In the later Assyrian empire the population was largely
+Aramaic-speaking; but S. Schiffer's theory (Beiheft I. zur
+_Orientalistischen Litteratur-Zeitung_) finds contemporary evidence of
+Israelites settled in the neighbourhood of Edessa in the second half of
+the 7th century B.C. At the fall of Nineveh many towns in Mesopotamia
+suffered severely at the hands of the Medes. The period remains dark,
+notwithstanding the obscure light that has been thrown on it lately
+(Pognon, _Inscriptions_). When Aramaic began to take the place of
+Assyrian in written documents is not known; but just across the
+Euphrates the change had occurred as early as the 8th century B.C.
+(Zengirli, Hamath; see also Pognon). Certain it is that the earliest
+documents that have survived in Syriac, or Edessene Aramaic, do not
+represent an experimental stage. Moreover, although the Syriac of the
+Story of Ahiqar is of a late type, the sources of the story, traces of
+which are to be found in the Hebrew Tobit (q.v.), go back to the
+pre-Hellenistic period.
+
+_Graeco-Roman Times._--According to a credible tradition found in
+Eusebius (_Excerpta_, 179), the Syriac Chronicle ascribed to Dionysius
+of Tell-mahre (Tullberg, 61), and elsewhere, Urhai was renovated, like
+other Mesopotamian sites, in 304 B.C. by Seleucus I. Nicator, who gave
+it its Greek name.[12] It would share in the Hellenistic culture of
+Syria, although the language of the common people would continue to be
+Aramaic (E.R. Bevan, _House of Seleucus_, i. 227 f. with reff.). With
+the decay of the Seleucid power, weakened by Rome and Parthia, the old
+influx from the desert would recommence, and an Arabic element begin to
+show. Von Gutschmid (_Untersuch._, cf. Duval, ch. iii. end) argues
+plausibly that it was in 132 B.C., in the reign of Antiochus VII.
+Sidetes, that Edessa became the seat of a dynasty of some thirty local
+kings, whose succession has been preserved in native sources. The name
+of the first king, however, appears in different forms (cf. above), and
+one (Osroes-Orhai) is so like that of the town that Ed. Meyer suspects
+the historicity of the first reign, of five years. The names of the
+other kings--Abgar, Ma'nu, Bekr, &c.--are for the most part Arabic, as
+the people (in whose inscriptions the same mixture of names occurs) are
+called by classical authors; but the rulers, among whom an occasional
+Iranian name betrays the influence of the dominant Parthians,[13] would
+hardly maintain their distinctness from the Aramaic populace. This state
+which lasted for three centuries and a half, naturally varied in
+extent.[14] Bounded on the W. and the N. by the Euphrates, it reached at
+its widest as far as the Tigris. At such times, therefore, it included
+such towns as Harran (Carrhae), Nisibis, Sarug, Zeugma-Birejik, Resaena,
+Singara, Tigranocerta, Samosata, Melitene. Its position "on the
+dangerous verge of two contending empires," Parthia and Rome,
+determined its changeful fortunes. Parthian predominance yielded for a
+time to Armenian (Tigranes, 88-86 B.C.). Then, at the time of the
+expeditions of Lucullus, Pompey and Crassus, Edessa was an ally of Rome,
+though Abgar II. Ariamnes (68-53) played an ambiguous part. In A.D. 114
+Abgar VII. entertained Trajan on his way back to Syria (Dio Cass. xviii.
+21); but in 116, in consequence of a general rising, his consul L.
+Quietus sacked the city, Abgar perhaps dying in the flames, and made the
+state tributary. Hadrian, however, abandoning Trajan's forward policy in
+favour of a Euphrates boundary, restored it as a dependency of Rome.
+When L. Verus (163-165) recovered Mesopotamia from Parthia, it was not
+Edessa but Harran that was chosen as the site of a Roman colony, and
+made the metropolis by Marcus Aurelius (172).
+
+To one of the native kings doubtless is to be ascribed the Syriac
+inscription[15] on one of the pair of pillars, 50 ft. high, which stood,
+no doubt, in front of a temple connected with some local cult.
+Trustworthy data for determining its nature are lacking. One or both of
+the pools below the citadel containing sacred fish may have been sacred
+to Atargatis (q.v.), an Ishtar-Venus deity; and according to the
+_Doctrine of Addai_, alongside of Venus were worshipped the sun and the
+moon.[16] Nergal and Sin were known as "twins," and connected with the
+sign Gemini, under the name _ellamme_, "the youths" (cf. Zimmern,
+_K.A.T._ 363). This makes more plausible than it otherwise would be the
+suggestion of J. Rendel Harris that the great twin pillars were
+connected with the cult of the Dioscuri, and that in the Acts of Thomas
+is to be seen a later attempt to substitute other "twins," viz. Jesus
+and Judas-Thomas (Addai), whom legend buried "in Britio Edessenorum"
+(explained by Harnack as the Edessan citadel: Aram. _birtha_).[17]
+
+Whether it was at Edessa that a Jewish translation of the Old Testament
+into Syriac was made,[18] under the encouragement perhaps of the favour
+of the royal house of Adiabene (Josephus, _Bell. Jud._ ii. 19. 4), or
+whether that work was done _in_ Adiabene,[19] cannot be discussed here.
+That the translation did not share the fate of the other non-Christian
+Syriac writings, which did not survive the 13th century (see SYRIAC
+LITERATURE), is due to the fact that it was adopted (after being
+revised) by the Christians, and thus rescued. Although the beginnings of
+Christianity at Edessa are enshrouded in the mists of legend, and the
+first mention of Christian communities in Osrhoene and the towns there
+is connected with the part they played in the paschal controversy (c.
+A.D. 192), it has been reasonably urged that the legends imply a fact,
+namely that Christianity began in the Jewish colony, perhaps by the
+middle of the 2nd century, although the earliest seat of the Syrian
+church may have been farther east, in Adiabene.[20] Parts of the New
+Testament were certainly translated into Syriac in the 2nd century,
+although whether the "Old Syriac" (so e.g. Hjelt) or the Diatessaron (so
+Burkitt) came first is uncertain. About the end of the 2nd century
+Edessene Christianity seems to have made a fresh beginning: the
+ordination of Palut by Serapion of Antioch may mean that things
+ecclesiastical took a westward trend, and it is possible (so Burkitt)
+that the "Old Syriac" New Testament version was now introduced. A strong
+man offered himself in Bardaisan (q.v.; Bardesanes), to whom perhaps we
+owe the finest Syriac poem extant, the "Hymn of the Soul," though
+orthodoxy rejected him. He was a contemporary of Abgar IX., at whose
+court Julius Africanus stayed for a while. A Syrian official record from
+this reign, preserved in the _Edessene Chronicle_, gives a somewhat
+detailed account of a violent flood (autumn, 201) of the Daisan river
+which did much damage, destroying amongst other things "the palace of
+Abgar the Great," rebuilt as a summer palace by Abgar IX., and "the
+temple of the church of the Christians." The form of this last statement
+shows that at the time of writing (206) the rulers had not adopted
+Christianity themselves. Abgar IX. is now commonly supposed to be the
+ruler to whom the famous legend was first attached (see ABGAR); but
+though he visited Rome there is no proof that he ever became a Christian
+(Gomperz, in _Archaologisch-epigraphische Mitteilungen aus
+Osterreich-Ungarn_, xix. 154-157). It was at Edessa that Caracalla, who
+made it a military colony under the style of Colonia Marcia Edessenorum,
+spent the winter of 216-217, and near there that he was murdered. The
+religious philosophical treatise preserved under the title of _Book of
+the Laws of the Lands_ was probably produced at this time by a pupil of
+Bardesanes, and the _Acts of Thomas_ in its original form may have
+followed not long after.
+
+_Sassanian Period._--In 226 the Parthian empire gave place to the new
+kingdom of the Sassanidae, whose claim to the ancient Achaemenian empire
+led to constant struggle with Rome in which Edessa naturally suffered.
+The native state was restored by Gordian in 242; but in 244 it became
+again directly subject to Rome. The Edessan martyrs Sharbel and
+Barsamya, whose "Acts" in legendary form have come down to us, may have
+perished in the Decian persecution. In 260 the city was besieged by the
+Persians under Shapur I., and Valerian was defeated and made prisoner by
+its gates. Odaenathus of Palmyra (d. 267), however, wrested Mesopotamia
+from the Persians; but Aurelian defeated his successor Zenobia at Emesa
+(273), and Carus, who died in 283 in an expedition against the Persians,
+and Galerius (297) carried the frontier again to the Tigris.
+Diocletian's persecution secured the martyr's crown for the Edessenes
+Shamona, Guria (297), and Habbib (309), and shortly thereafter Lucian
+"the martyr," who though born at Samosata received his training at
+Edessa; but the bishop Qona, who laid the foundations of "the great
+church" by the sacred pool, somehow escaped. Edessa can claim no share
+in "the Persian Sage" Aphrahat or Afrahat (Aphraates); but Ephraem,
+after bewailing in Nisibis the sufferings of the great Persian war under
+Constantius and Julian, when Jovian in 363 ceded most of Mesopotamia to
+Shapur II., the persecutor of the Christians, settled in Edessa, which
+as the seat of his famous school (called "the Persian") grew greatly in
+importance, and attracted scholars from all directions. He taught and
+wrote vigorously against the Arians and other heretics, and although
+just after his death (373) the emperor Valens banished the orthodox from
+Edessa, they returned on the emperor's death in 378. Under Zenobius,
+disciple of Ephraem, studied the voluminous writer, Isaac of Antioch (d.
+circ. 460). Rabbula perhaps owed his elevation to the see of Edessa
+(411-435), in the year which produced the oldest dated Syriac MS., to
+his asceticism, and it was to his time that the sojourn there of the
+"Man of God" (Alexis) was assigned; but he won from the Nestorians the
+title of the Tyrant of Edessa. In particular he exerted himself to stamp
+out the use of the Diatessaron in favour of the four Gospels, the Syriac
+version of which probably now took the form known as the Peshitta. When
+the popular Nestorianism of the Syrians was condemned at Ephesus (431)
+it began to gravitate eastwards, Nisibis becoming its eventual
+headquarters; but Edessa and the western Syrians refused to bow to the
+Council of Chalcedon (451) when it condemned Monophysitism. In and
+around Edessa the theological strife raged hotly.[21] When, however,
+Zeno's edict (489) ordered the closing of the school of the Persians at
+Edessa, East and West drifted apart more and more; the ecclesiastical
+writer Narsai, "the Harp of the Holy Spirit," fled to Nisibis about 489.
+Till about this time Syriac influence was strong in Armenia, and some
+Syriac works have survived only in Armenian translations. In the opening
+years of the 6th century the Persian-Roman War (502-506) found a
+chronicler in the anonymous Edessene history known till recently as the
+Chronicle of Joshua Stylites. Whether Edessa received from the emperor
+Justin I. the additional name of Justinopolis may be uncertain (see
+Hallier, _op. cit._ p. 128); but it seems to have been renewed and
+fortified after the "fourth" flood in 525 (Procop. _Pers._ ii. 27; _De
+aedific._ ii. 7). About this time, according to Noldeke, an anonymous
+Edessene wrote the Romance of Julian the Apostate, which so many Arab
+writers use as a history. Chosroes I. Anushirwan succeeded in 540,
+according to the last entry in the Edessene Chronicle, in exacting a
+large tribute from Edessa; but in 544 he besieged it in vain. A few
+years later Jacob Baradaeus, with Edessa as centre of his bishopric, was
+carrying on the propaganda of Monophysitism which won for the adherents
+of that creed the name of Jacobites (q.v.). The valuable Syriac
+Chronicle just referred to probably was compiled in the latter half of
+this century.
+
+_Islam._--In the first decade of the next century Edessa was taken by
+Chosroes II., and a large part of the population transported to eastern
+Persia. Within a score of years it was recovered by the emperor
+Heraclius, who reviewed a large army under its walls. The prophet of
+Islam was now, however, building up his power in Arabia, and although
+Heraclius paid no heed to the letter demanding his adhesion which he
+received from Medina (628), and the deputation of fifteen Rahawiyin who
+paid homage in 630 were not Edessenes but South Arabians, a few years
+later (636?) Heraclius's attempts, from Edessa as a centre, to effect an
+organized opposition to the victorious Arabs were defeated by Sa'd, and
+he fell back on Samosata. The terms on which Edessa definitely passed
+into the hands of the Moslems (638) under Riyad are not certain
+(Baladhuri). As it now ceased to be a frontier city it lost in
+importance. In 668 occurred another destructive flood (Theophanes, p.
+537), and in 678 an earthquake which destroyed part of the "old church,"
+which the caliph Mo'awiya I. is said to have repaired. To the latter
+part of the century belongs the activity of Edessa's bishop Jacob, whose
+chronicle is unfortunately lost. It may have been the impulse given by
+the final supremacy of the caliphate to the long process which
+eventually substituted a new branch of Semitic speech for the Aramaic
+(which had now prevailed for a millennium and a half), that led Jacob to
+adopt the Greek vowel signs for use in Syriac. A century later
+Theophilus of Edessa (d. 785), author of a lost history, translated into
+Syriac "the two books of the poet Homer on the Conquest of the city of
+Ilion." When the Bagdad caliphs lost control of their dominions, Edessa
+shared the fortunes of western Mesopotamia, changing with the rise and
+fall of Egyptian dynasties and Arab chieftains. In the 10th century
+al-Mas'udi, writing in the very year in which it happened, tells how the
+Mahommedan ruler of Edessa, with the permission of the caliph, purchased
+peace of the emperor Romanus Lecapenus by surrendering to him the napkin
+of Jesus of Nazareth, wherewith he had dried himself after his baptism.
+The translation of the Holy Icon of Christ from Edessa is commemorated
+on the 16th of August (Cal. Byzant). A few years later Ibn Haukal (978)
+estimates the number of churches in the city at more than 300, and
+al-Mokaddasi (985) describes its cathedral, with vaulted ceiling covered
+with mosaics, as one of the four wonders of the world. In 1031 the
+emperor recovered Edessa; but in 1040 it fell into the hands of the
+Seljuks, whose progress had added a large element of Armenian refugees
+to the population of Osrhoene. There is no reason, therefore, to
+discredit Maqrizi's statement that it was three brother architects from
+Edessa that the Armenian minister Badr al-Gamali employed to build three
+of the fine city gates of Cairo (1087-1091). The empire soon recovered
+Edessa, but the resident made himself independent. Thoros applied for
+help to Baldwin, brother and successor of Godfrey of Bouillon in the
+First Crusade, who in 1098 took possession of the town and made it the
+capital of a Burgundian countship, which included Samosata and Sarug',
+and was for half a century the eastern bulwark of the kingdom of
+Jerusalem.[22] The local Armenian historian, however, Matthew of Edessa,
+tells of oppression, decrease of population, ruin of churches, neglect
+of agriculture. With the campaign of Maudud in 1110 fortune began to
+favour the Moslems. Edessa had to endure siege after siege. Finally, in
+1144 it was stormed, Matthew being among the slain, by 'Imad ud-Din
+Zengi, ruler of Mosul, under Joscelin II., an achievement celebrated as
+"the conquest of conquests," for laying the responsibility of which not
+on God but on the absence of the Frankish troops, an Edessan monk, John,
+bishop of Harran (d. 1165), brought down upon himself the whole bench of
+bishops. Edessa suffered still more in 1146 after an attempt to recover
+it. Churches were now turned into mosques. The consternation produced in
+Europe by the news of its fate led to "the Second Crusade." In 1182 it
+fell to Saladin, whose nephew recovered it when it had temporarily
+passed (1234) to the sultan of Rum; but the "Eye of Mesopotamia" never
+recovered the brilliance of earlier days. The names it contributed to
+Arabic literature are unimportant. By timely surrender (1268) it escaped
+the sufferings inflicted by Hulaku and his Monguls on Saru'g
+(Barhebraeus, _Chron. Arab._, Beirut ed., 486). Mostaufi describes a
+great cupola of finely worked stone still standing by a court over a
+hundred yards square (1340). Ali b. Yazd in his account of the campaigns
+of Timur, who reduced Mesopotamia in 1393, still calls the city (1425)
+Ruha. In 1637, when Amurath IV. conquered Bagdad and annexed
+Mesopotamia, it passed finally into the hands of the Turks, by whom it
+is called Urfa.
+
+_The Modern Town._--Urfa lies north-east of the Nimrud Dagh. It is
+surrounded by a wall, strengthened by square towers at distances of
+18-20 steps, probably dating in its present condition from medieval
+Mahommedan times. On a height in a corner towards the west, overtopping
+the town by 100-200 ft., are the remains of the old citadel, and the two
+famous Corinthian columns[23] known as "the Throne of Nimrud." In the
+hollow between this height and the town rise two springs which form
+ponds, the farther removed of which from the citadel is known as Birket
+al-Khalil, doubtless the Callirrhoe of the classical writers, and
+contains the sacred fish, estimated by J.S. Buckingham at 20,000, and
+the nearer as 'Ain Zalkha (i.e. Zuleikha, the wife of Potiphar). On the
+north edge of the Birket al-Khalil (see plan in Sachau, p. 197) is the
+great mosque of Abraham, the interior of which is described by J.S.
+Buckingham (_Travels_, pp. 108-110). Diagonally opposite the mosque is a
+house with a square tower, which is locally believed to occupy the place
+of the famous ancient school. The waters of the two pools make their way
+in a single stream southwards out of the town. The once dangerous stream
+Daisan ([Greek: Skirtos]) no longer flows southwards through the town,
+but encircles it on the north and east in the channel of the old moat.
+This stream, now called Kara Kuyun, and the other are exhausted in the
+irrigation of the gardens lying south-east of the town, except when
+fuller than usual, when they reach the Balih. Not far east of the sacred
+pool is the largest building in the town, the recent Armenian Gregorian
+cathedral, whose American bells were first heard during Sachau's visit
+in 1879. About the middle of the town is the largest mosque, Ulu 'Gami
+(parts of it probably pre-Islamic), which probably occupies the site of
+the Christian church reckoned by the early Mahommedan writers as one of
+the wonders of the world. In the bazaar, which lies between the chief
+mosque and the sacred pool, and contains several streets, are displayed
+not only the native woollen stuffs, pottery and silver work, but also a
+considerable variety of European goods, especially cloth stuffs. The
+principal manufactures are fine cotton stuffs and yellow leather. The
+streets are of course narrow and winding; but the houses are well built
+of stone. The outskirts are occupied by melon gardens, vineyards and
+mulberry plantations. The fertile plain south of the town is noted for
+its wheat and fine pasture. The climate is healthy except in summer; the
+"Aleppo button" (see BAGDAD, vilayet), a painful boil, is common. The
+rocky heights south and west of the town, whence the building material
+is largely obtained, are full of natural and artificial caverns, once
+used as dwellings, cloisters and graves, where are most of the
+inscriptions published by Sachau, who also visited and describes (pp.
+204-206) the Der Ya'qub, nearly two hours distant.
+
+Urfa is the capital of a sanjak of the same name, in the vilayet of
+Aleppo. The population was estimated by Olivier in 1796 at 20,000 to
+24,000, by Buckingham at 50,000, by Chernik in 1873 at 40,000, by Sachau
+in 1879 at 50,000, in Baedeker's Handbook in 1906 at 30,000. Vice-Consul
+Fitzmaurice said that before December 1895 it was close on 65,000, of
+whom about 20,000 were Armenian, 3000 or 4000 Jacobites,
+Syrian-Catholic, Greek-Catholic, Maronites and Jews, and the remaining
+40,000 Turkish, Kurdian and Arab Mahommedans. Two barbarous massacres
+occurred on the 28th and 29th of October and the 28th and 29th of
+December 1895; 126 Armenian families were absolutely wiped out. He
+believes that 8000 Armenians perished in the second massacre. The
+Deutsche Orient-Mission has its chief seat in Urfa, and there have for
+years been American and French missions. The Germans have an orphanage
+with 300 Armenian children, a carpet factory and a medical station. The
+American school had some years ago 250 pupils.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Inscriptional: H. Pognon, _Inscriptions semitiques de la
+  Syrie, de la Mesopotamie et de la region de Mossoul_ (1907, 1908);
+  Sachau, "Edessenische Inschriften," in _Z.D.M.G._ xxxvi. 142-167; F.C.
+  Burkitt, "The Throne of Nimrod," in _P.S.B.A._ xxviii. 149-155 (1906);
+  J. Rendel Harris, _The Cult of the Heavenly Twins_ (1906); Noldeke,
+  "Syrische Inschriften," in _Z.A._ xxi. 151-161, 375-388 (1908).
+  Literary: Ludwig Hallier, _Untersuchungen uber die Edessenische
+  Chronik mit dem Syrischen Text_ (1892); F. Nau, _Analyse des parties
+  inedites de la chronique attribuee a Denys de Tell-mahre_ (1898);
+  J.-B. Chabot, _Chronique de Denys de Tell-Mahre, quatrieme partie_
+  (1895); W. Wright, _The Chronicle of Joshua the Stylite_ (1882);
+  Bayer, _Historia Osrhoena et Edessena_ (St Petersburg, 1784), collects
+  the references in classical authors; for the coinage see references in
+  von Gutschmid (see below). Discussions: A. von Gutschmid,
+  "Untersuchungen uber die Geschichte des Konigreichs Osroene" (in
+  _Memoires de l'acad. imper. des sciences de St-Petersb._ vii. ser.
+  tome 35, No. 1, 1887); L.-J. Tixeront, _Les Origines de l'eglise
+  d'Edesse et la legende d'Abgar_ (1888); R.A. Lipsius, _Die
+  Edessenische Abgarsage kritisch untersucht_ (1880); K.C.A. Matthes,
+  _Die Edess. Abgarsage auf ihre Fortbildung untersucht_ (1882); F. Nau,
+  _Une Biographie inedite de Bardesane l'astrologue_ (1897); _Bardesane
+  l'astrologue: le livre des Lois des Pays_ (1899); A. Hilgenfeld,
+  _Bardesanes, der letzte Gnostiker_ (1864); A.A. Bevan, "The Hymn of
+  the Soul" (in _Texts and Studies_, 1897); F.C. Burkitt, _Early Eastern
+  Christianity_ (1904); J.R. Harris, _The Dioscuri in Christian Legend_
+  (1903), and _The Cult of the Heavenly Twins_ (1906); the histories of
+  Rome, Persia, Crusades, Mongols, &c.; Rubens Duval, _Histoire
+  politique, religieuse et litteraire d'Edesse jusqu'a la premiere
+  croisade_ (1892), a useful compilation reprinted from the _Journ.
+  As._; the excellent article by E. Meyer in Pauly-Wissowa,
+  _Realencyclopadie_, 1933-1938. Topography: J.S. Buckingham, _Travels
+  in Mesopotamia_ (1827); E. Sachau, _Reise in Syrien u. Mesopotamien_
+  (1883), 189-210; cf. Duval, _op. cit._ chap, i.; C. Ritter,
+  _Erdkunde_, xi. 315-356. Map of town in Niebuhr, _Voyage en Arabie_,
+  reproduced with modifications in Wright, _Chron. Josh. Styl._; also a
+  map in Reclus, _Univ. Geog._ ix. 232. Four pictures of the town in
+  Burkitt, _Early East. Christ._     (H. W. H.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] So Appian, _Syr._ 57; cp. Steph. Byz., s.v. [Greek: Edessa: dia
+    ten ton hudaton rhumen.]
+
+  [2] Steph. Byz., s.v. [Greek: Batnai].
+
+  [3] Dio, _passim._
+
+  [4] Isidore Charac. 1 (Muller, _Geog. Gr. Min._, i. 246).
+
+  [5] Several times in Pliny, _Nat. Hist._
+
+  [6] _CIL._ vi. 1797.
+
+  [7] _Hist. Osrhoena et Edessena_, p. 33.
+
+  [8] Written [Greek: Osroes] in Dio Cassius, _Excerpta_, lxviii. 22.
+
+  [9] See the reff. collected by M. Streck, _M.V.G._, 1906. The name
+    occurs in the same company in the fragmentary tablet K. 1904. The
+    mountain Ru-u-[a], mentioned thrice by Tiglath-pileser IV., is placed
+    by Billerbeck near Hamadan (_Sandschak Suleimania_, 82, 86, and map,
+    1898).
+
+  [10] See further Payne Smith, _Thesaurus_ 110 b.
+
+  [11] In translating from the Greek; also in Ephraim (Duval, _Hist._
+    22, n. 4) and the Acts of Sharbil (Cureton, _Anc. Syr. Doc._ 41).
+
+  [12] On a possible restoration under the name of "Antioch on the
+    Callirrhoe" see above.
+
+  [13] The Edessans used to call their town "the city," or "the
+    daughter," "of the Parthians" (Cureton, _Anc. Syr. Doc._, 41 ult., 97
+    l. 7; 106 l. 12).
+
+  [14] The portion of the Mesopotamian steppe under Osrhoenic influence
+    was, according to Noldeke (_Zeitsch. Ass._ xxi. 153, 1908), called
+    'Arabh in Syriac.
+
+  [15] The inscription, which is difficult to read, connects the
+    structure with Shalmat the queen, daughter of Ma'nu, who cannot be
+    identified with certainty, and refers to some image(s), which
+    probably excited the pious vandalism of the Arabs.
+
+  [16] Nebo and Bel (_Doctr. Addai_, 31) may come from the Old
+    Testament (Burkitt).
+
+  [17] _S.B.A.W._, 1904, 910 ff.
+
+  [18] So, e.g. F.C. Burkitt, _Early Eastern Christianity_, 72.
+
+  [19] Marquart, _Ostasiat. und osteurop. Streitzuge_, 292 ff.
+
+  [20] Marquart, _op. cit._
+
+  [21] Some one found time, however, to produce the oldest _dated_ MS.
+    of a portion of the Bible in any language.
+
+  [22] The counts were: Baldwin I. (1098), Baldwin II. (1100), Joscelin
+    I. (1119), Joscelin II. (1131-1147).
+
+  [23] Pictures in Burkitt, _Early East. Christ._, frontispiece;
+    _P.S.B.A._ xxviii. 151 f.; J.R. Harris, _The Heavenly Twins_.
+
+
+
+
+EDFU, in Coptic _Atbo_, a town of Upper Egypt, 484 m. S.S.E. of Cairo by
+rail, on the W. bank of the Nile, the railway station being on the
+opposite side of the river. Pop. (1907) 19,262. The inhabitants
+manufacture earthenware, which finds ready sale all through Egypt. The
+ancient Atbo (_Apollinopolis Magna_) was capital of the second nome of
+Upper Egypt. The great sandstone temple is practically complete (see
+ARCHITECTURE: _Egypt_). It was built on the site of an earlier structure
+entirely in the time of the Ptolemies. The central part of the building,
+begun by Ptolemy III. Euergetes in 237 B.C., was finished by his
+successor in 212; the portico, court, pylons and surrounding wall were
+added by Ptolemy Euergetes II., Soter II. and Alexander I.; but the
+decoration was not finished till 57 B.C. in the reign of Ptolemy XIII.
+Neos Dionysus. The god of Atbo was a form of Horus (Apollo) as the
+sun-god; his most characteristic representation is as the disk of the
+sun with outspread wings, so often seen over the doors of shrines, at
+the top of stelae, &c. In the temple, where he is often figured as a
+falcon-headed man, he is associated with Hathor of Dendera and the child
+Harsemteus.
+
+  See Baedeker's _Egypt_; Ed. Naville, _Textes relatifs au mythe d'Horus
+  recueillis dans le temple d'Edfou_.     (F. Ll. G.)
+
+
+
+
+EDGAR (EADGAR), king of the English (944-975), was the younger son of
+Edmund the Magnificent and Aelfgifu. As early as 955 he signed a charter
+of his uncle Eadred, and in 957 the Mercian nobles, discontented with
+the rule of his elder brother Eadwig, made him king of England north of
+the Thames. On the death of his brother in October 959 Edgar became king
+of a united England. Immediately on his accession to the throne of
+Mercia Edgar recalled St Dunstan from exile and bestowed on him first
+the bishopric of Worcester, and then that of London. In 961 Dunstan was
+translated to Canterbury, and throughout Edgar's reign he was his chief
+adviser, and to him must be attributed much of the peace and prosperity
+of this time.
+
+The reign of Edgar was somewhat uneventful, but two things stand out
+clearly: his ecclesiastical policy and his imperial position in Britain.
+Edgar and Dunstan were alike determined to reform the great monastic
+houses, and to secure that they should be restored once more to their
+true owners and not remain in the hands of the secular priests or
+_canonici_, whose life and discipline alike seem to have been extremely
+lax. In this reform Edgar was helped not only by St Dunstan but also by
+Oswald of Worcester and Aethelwold of Winchester. The priests of the old
+and new monasteries at Winchester, at Chertsey and at Milton Abbas were
+replaced by monks, and in monastic discipline the old rule of St
+Benedict was restored in all its strictness.
+
+The coronation of Edgar was, for some unexplained reason, delayed till
+the Whitsunday of 973. It took place with much ceremony at Bath, and was
+followed shortly after by a general submission to Edgar at Chester. Six,
+or (according to later chroniclers) eight kings, including the kings of
+Scotland and Strathclyde, plighted their faith that they would be the
+king's fellow-workers on sea and land. The historical truth of this
+story has been much questioned; there seems to be little doubt that it
+is true in its main outlines, though we need not accept the details
+about Edgar's having been rowed on the Dee by eight kings.
+
+Two isolated and unexplained incidents are also recorded in the
+chronicle: first, the ravaging of Westmorland by the Scandinavian
+Thored, son of Gunnere, in 967; and second, the ravaging of Thanet by
+Edgar's own command in 970.
+
+Edgar's death took place in the year 975, and he was buried at
+Glastonbury. By his vigorous rule and his statesmanlike policy Edgar won
+the approval of his people, and in the Saxon chronicle we have poems
+commemorating his coronation and death, and describing his general
+character. The only fault ascribed to him is a too great love for
+foreigners and for foreign customs. Edgar strengthened the hands of the
+provincial administration, and to him has been attributed the
+reorganization of the English fleet. The characteristic feature of his
+rule was his love of peace, and by efficient administration he secured
+it.
+
+Edgar formed an irregular union in 961 with Wulfthryth, an inmate of the
+convent at Wilton, who bore him a daughter Eadgyth. He next married
+Aethelflaed, "the white duck," daughter of Earl Ordmaer, who bore him a
+son, afterwards known as Edward the Martyr. Finally he was united to
+Aelfthryth, daughter of Earl Ordgar, who became the mother of the
+Aetheling Edmund (d. 971) and of Aethelred the Unready.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--_Saxon Chronicle_ (ed. Plummer and Earle, Oxford), _sub.
+  ann._; _Vita Sancti Oswaldi_ (_Historians of the Church of York_, ed.
+  Raine, Rolls Series); William of Malmesbury, _Gesta regum_ (ed.
+  Stubbs, Rolls Series); Birch, _Cartularium Saxonicum_, vol. iii. Nos.
+  1047-1319; F. Liebermann, _A.-S. Laws_, i. 192-216; "Florence of
+  Worcester" (_Mon. Hist. Brit._); E.W. Robertson, _Historical Essays_,
+  pp. 189-215.     (A. Mw.)
+
+
+
+
+EDGAR, or EADGAR (c. 1050-c. 1130), called the Aetheling, was the son of
+Edward, a son of the English king Edmund Ironside, by his wife Agatha, a
+kinswoman of the emperor Henry II., and was born probably in Hungary
+some time before 1057, the year of his father's death. After the death
+of Harold in 1066, Archbishop Aldred and the citizens of London desired
+to make him king, but on the advance of William, Edgar and his
+supporters made their submission. In 1068, after the failure of the
+first rising of the north, Edgar retired to Scotland, when his sister
+Margaret married the Scottish king, Malcolm Canmore. Next year he
+returned to take part in the second rising, but, this proving no more
+successful than the first, he again took refuge in Scotland. In 1074 he
+went to Normandy and made peace with William. In the struggle between
+Henry I. and Robert of Normandy, Edgar sided with the latter. He was
+taken prisoner at the battle of Tinchebrai in 1106, but was subsequently
+released. The date of his death is uncertain, but he was certainly alive
+about 1125.
+
+
+
+
+EDGECUMBE, or EDGECOMBE, the name of a celebrated west of England
+family, taken from the manor of Edgecumbe in Cornwall. One of its
+earlier members was Sir Richard Edgecumbe (d. 1489), who was descended
+from a Richard Edgecumbe who flourished during the reign of Edward I.
+Richard was a member of parliament in 1467; afterwards he joined Henry,
+earl of Richmond, in Brittany, returned with the earl to England, and
+fought at Bosworth, where he was knighted. He received rich rewards from
+Henry, now King Henry VII., who also sent him on errands to Scotland, to
+Ireland and to Brittany, and he died at Morlaix on the 8th of September
+1489. His son and successor, Sir Piers Edgecumbe, went to France with
+Henry VIII. in 1513, and when he died on the 14th of August 1539 he left
+with other issue a son, Sir Richard Edgecumbe (1499-1562), a cultured
+and hospitable man, who is celebrated through Richard Carew's _Friendly
+Remembrance of Sir Richard Edgecumbe_. Sir Richard's eldest son, Piers
+or Peter Edgecumbe (1536-1607), was a member of parliament under
+Elizabeth for about thirty years.
+
+Another famous member of this family was Richard, 1st baron Edgecumbe
+(1680-1758), a son of Sir Richard Edgecumbe. Educated at Trinity
+College, Cambridge, he was successively member of parliament for St
+Germans, Plympton and Lostwithiel from 1701 to 1742; on two occasions he
+served as a lord of the treasury; and from 1724 to 1742 he was
+paymaster-general for Ireland, becoming chancellor of the duchy of
+Lancaster in 1743. Edgecumbe was a faithful follower of Sir Robert
+Walpole, in whose interests he managed the elections for the Cornish
+boroughs, and his elevation to the peerage, which took place in 1742,
+was designed to prevent him from giving evidence about Walpole's
+expenditure of the secret service money. He died on the 22nd of November
+1758. His son and successor, Richard, the 2nd baron (1716-1761), was
+comptroller of the royal household, a member of parliament, and a
+major-general in the army. A wit, a writer of verse, a gambler and an
+intimate friend of Horace Walpole, "Dick Edgecumbe" died unmarried on
+the 10th of May 1761.
+
+Edgecumbe's brother, George, 1st earl of Mount Edgecumbe (1721-1795),
+was a naval officer who saw a great deal of service during the Seven
+Years' War. Succeeding to the barony on the 1st baron's death in 1761 he
+became an admiral and treasurer of the royal household; he was created
+Viscount Mount-Edgecumbe in 1781 and earl of Mount-Edgecumbe in 1789. He
+died on the 4th of February 1795, his only son being his successor,
+Richard, the 2nd earl (1764-1839), the ancestor of the present earl and
+the author of _Musical Reminiscences of an Old Amateur_. He died on the
+26th of September 1839. His son, Ernest Augustus, the 3rd earl
+(1797-1861), wrote _Extracts from Journals kept during the Revolutions
+at Rome and Palermo_.
+
+
+
+
+EDGE HILL, an elevated ridge in Warwickshire, England, near the border
+of Oxfordshire. The north-western face is an abrupt escarpment of the
+lias, and the summit of the ridge is almost level for nearly 2 m., at a
+height somewhat exceeding 700 ft. The escarpment overlooks a rich
+lowland watered by streams tributary to the Avon; the gentle eastern
+slope sends its waters to the Cherwell, and the ridge thus forms part of
+the divide between the basins of the Severn and the Thames. Edge Hill
+gave name to the first battle of the Great Rebellion (q.v.), fought on
+the 23rd of October 1642. Charles I., marching on London from the
+north-west, was here met by the parliamentary forces under Robert
+Devereux, earl of Essex. The royalists were posted on the hill while the
+enemy was in the plain before Kineton. But the rash advice of Prince
+Rupert determined the king to give up the advantage of position; he
+descended to the attack, and though Rupert himself was successful
+against the opposing cavalry, he was checked by the arrival of a
+regiment with artillery under Hampden, and, in the meantime, the
+royalist infantry was driven back. The parliamentarians, however, lost
+the more heavily, and though both sides claimed the advantage, the king
+was able to advance and occupy Banbury.
+
+
+
+
+EDGEWORTH, MARIA (1767-1849), Irish novelist, second child and eldest
+daughter of Richard Lovell Edgeworth (q.v.) and his first wife, Anna
+Maria Elers, was born in the house of her maternal grandparents at Black
+Bourton, Oxfordshire, on the 1st of January 1767. Her early efforts in
+fiction were of a sufficiently melodramatic character; for she
+recollected one of her schoolgirl compositions, in which the hero wore a
+mask made of the dried skin taken from a dead man's face. Her holidays
+were often spent in the house of the eccentric Thomas Day, for whom she
+entertained a genuine respect. She had ample opportunities for society
+among her father's neighbours in Ireland, among whom were the second
+Lord Longford, whose daughter, "Kitty" Pakenham, became later duchess of
+Wellington, Lady Moira at Castle Forbes, and Maria's aunt, Margaret
+Ruxton, at Black Castle. She gained a first-hand experience of the Irish
+peasantry by acting as her father's assistant in the management of the
+estate. The Edgeworths were in Ireland from 1793 onwards through that
+dangerous period, and Maria's letters, always gay and natural, make very
+light of their anxieties and their real perils.
+
+Mr Edgeworth encouraged his daughter's literary instincts. It has been
+the fashion to regard his influence over Maria's work as altogether
+deplorable, but against the disadvantages arising from his interference
+must be weighed the stimulus she undoubtedly derived from his powerful
+mind. Her first publication was a plea for female education, _Letters to
+Literary Ladies_ (1795), and in 1796 appeared the collection of stories
+known as _The Parent's Assistant_ (2nd ed., 6 vols., 1800), an
+unpromising title which was not chosen by the author. The stories had
+been submitted as they were written to the juvenile critics of the
+Edgeworth nursery. They were therefore children's stories for children,
+even though the morals were Mr Edgeworth's. In 1798 Mr Edgeworth's
+fourth marriage threatened the family harmony, but Maria soon became a
+close friend of her stepmother. _Practical Education_ (2 vols., 1798)
+was written in conjunction with her father, who also collaborated with
+her in the _Essay on Irish Bulls_ (1802). Miss Edgeworth's first novel,
+_Castle Rackrent, an Hibernian Tale taken from Facts, and from the
+Manners of the Irish Squires before the year 1782_, was written without
+her father's supervision, and appeared anonymously in 1800. It is the
+story of an Irish estate and its owners, the Rackrents, as told by
+Thady, the steward. Its success was immediate, and a second edition soon
+appeared with the author's name. Perhaps because of the absence of
+Richard Lovell Edgeworth's co-operation, the book is the most natural
+and vigorous of her novels. The course of the story is not altered to
+suit any moral, and the personages appear to be drawn immediately from
+the natives of Edgeworthstown, though Miss Edgeworth asserts that only
+Thady himself was an actual portrait. In her realistic pictures of Irish
+peasant life she opened up a new vein in fiction, and even if the
+unquestionable excellences of _Castle Rackrent_ were less, it would
+still be a noteworthy book. In the "General Preface" to the 1829 edition
+of his novels Sir Walter Scott, writing of the publication of
+_Waverley_, says: "I felt that something might be attempted for my own
+country, of the same kind with that which Miss Edgeworth so fortunately
+achieved for Ireland," and in the "Postscript, which should have been a
+preface," in the original edition of _Waverley_, he describes his aim as
+being "in some distant degree to emulate the admirable Irish portraits
+of Miss Edgeworth, so different from the 'Teagues' and 'dear joys' who
+so long, with the most perfect family resemblance to each other,
+occupied the drama and the novel." _Belinda_ (1801) is a society novel,
+and one of her best books. Mr Saintsbury thinks that Miss Austen's
+heroines owe something of their naturalness to Belinda, who was one of
+the earliest to break with the tradition of fainting and blushing.
+_Moral Tales for Young People_ (5 vols.) and _Early Lessons_, which
+included "Harry and Lucy," "Rosamond" and "Frank," appeared in 1801.
+
+In 1802 the Edgeworths went abroad, first to Brussels and then to Paris.
+They had already connexions in Paris through their kinsman, the abbe
+Henri Allen Edgeworth de Firmont, who was, however, then in exile. They
+met all the notabilities in Paris, and Maria refused an offer of
+marriage from a Swedish count named Edelcrantz. Although _Leonora_, not
+published until four years later, is said to have been written to meet
+his taste, she apparently remained then and always heart-whole; but her
+stepmother thought otherwise, and maintained that she suffered severely
+for her decision (_Memoir_, i. 144). Returning to Edgeworthstown, Miss
+Edgeworth resumed her writing, which was always done in the rooms
+commonly used by the whole family. _Popular Tales_ was published in
+1804, and _The Modern Griselda_ in the same year; _Leonora_ in 1806; and
+in 1809 the first series of _Tales of Fashionable Life_, three volumes
+containing "Ennui," "Madame de Fleury," "Almeria," "The Dun" and
+"Manoeuvring"; the second series (3 vols., 1812) included "The
+Absentee," one of her best tales, which was originally designed as a
+play, "Vivian" and "Emilie de Coulanges." In 1813 Maria and her parents
+spent a considerable time in London, and her society was much sought
+after. When _Waverley_ was published, Miss Edgeworth received a copy
+from the publishers, and at once recognized the authorship. She wrote a
+long letter of appreciation (23rd of October 1814) to "the author of
+_Waverley_," which she began with the phrase _aut Scotus, aut diabolus_,
+but the letter was merely acknowledged by the publishers. _Patronage_ (4
+vols., 1814), the longest of her novels, and _Harrington, a tale_, and
+_Ormond, a tale_ (3 vols., 1817) complete the list of the works which
+received what her father called his _imprimatur_.
+
+After his death in 1817 Miss Edgeworth occupied herself with completing
+his _Memoirs_, which were published in 1820. The book was the excuse for
+an attack on Mr Edgeworth's reputation in the July number of the
+_Quarterly Review_, which Miss Edgeworth had the courage to leave
+unread. Her life at Edgeworthstown was varied by visits to London, to
+Lord Lansdowne at Bowood, Wiltshire, to the Misses Sneyd in
+Staffordshire, and to many other friends. In 1820 she was again in
+Paris, and in 1823 she spent a happy fortnight with the Scotts at
+Abbotsford. In 1825 Scott went to Edgeworthstown, and their relations
+were always cordial.
+
+Miss Edgeworth's production was less after her father's death. Sequels
+to "Rosamond," "Frank," "Harry and Lucy" in the _Early Lessons_ were
+published in 1822-1825. _Comic Dramas_ appeared in 1817, and _Helen_ in
+1834. She worked to the last, and in 1846 laboured strenuously for the
+relief of the famine-stricken Irish peasants. She died on the 22nd of
+May 1849.
+
+Miss Edgeworth's novels are distinguished by good sense, humour and an
+easy flowing style. As the construction of a plot is not her strong
+point, she is generally more successful in tales than in lengthy novels.
+The vivacity of her dialogues is extraordinary; and in them her
+characters reveal themselves in the most natural way possible. Her books
+are character-studies rather than intensely interesting narratives.
+Sobriety of judgment is seen throughout; and passion, romance and poetry
+rarely, if ever, shed their lustre on her pages. Three of her aims were
+to paint national manners, to enforce morality, and to teach fashionable
+society by satirizing the lives of the idle and worldly. She expressly
+calls some of her stories "Moral Tales"; but they all fall under this
+category. In her pages the heroic virtues give place to prudence,
+industry, kindness and sweetness of temper. There are few instances of
+overwhelming emotions or tumultuous passions in her works; and it is
+remarkable how little the love of nature appears. She never uses
+material which does not yield some direct moral lesson. But the
+freshness of her stories, her insight into character, lively dialogues,
+originality of invention, and delightfully clear style render it quite
+possible to read her works in succession without any sense of
+weariness. Among the many sweet memories her unsullied pages have
+bequeathed to the world, not the least precious is her own noble
+character, which ever responded to all that is best and most enduring in
+human nature.
+
+  See _A Memoir of Maria Edgeworth, with a Selection from her Letters_
+  (1867), by her stepmother, F.A. Edgeworth, privately printed. A
+  selection from this was made by Augustus J.C. Hare, and printed under
+  the title of _The Life and Letters of Maria Edgeworth_ (2 vols.,
+  1894). See also _Maria Edgeworth_ (1883), by Helen Zimmern, in the
+  "Eminent Women" series; Grace A. Oliver, _A Study of Maria Edgeworth_
+  ... (3rd ed., Boston, U.S.A., 1882); and _Maria Edgeworth_ (1904), by
+  the Hon. Emily Lawless in the "English Men of Letters" series. Among
+  the numerous shorter articles dealing with Maria Edgeworth and the
+  family circle at Edgeworthstown may be mentioned a friendly
+  appreciation of Miss Edgeworth's novels by George Saintsbury in
+  _Macmillan's Magazine_ (July 1895), and a charming description of her
+  family circle and surroundings in the preface supplied by Lady
+  Thackeray Ritchie to Macmillan's edition of the novels (1895).
+
+
+
+
+EDGEWORTH, RICHARD LOVELL (1744-1817), British writer, was born at Bath
+on the 31st of May 1744. The greater part of his life, however, was
+spent at Edgeworthtown, or Edgeworthstown, in the county of Longford,
+Ireland, where the Edgeworth family had been settled for upwards of 150
+years. He was of gentle blood--his father being the son of Colonel
+Francis Edgeworth, and his mother, Jane Lovell, being the daughter of
+Samuel Lovell, a Welsh judge. Richard's mother taught him to read at a
+very early age; and from childhood he had a strong love for mechanical
+science. The Rev. Patrick Hughes initiated him in Lilye's _Latin
+Grammar_--an office he also performed for Goldsmith, who was born on the
+property of the Edgeworths--and his public education began, in August
+1752, in a school at Warwick. He subsequently attended Drogheda school,
+then reputed the best in Ireland; and, after spending two years at a
+school in Longford, entered Trinity College, Dublin, in April 1761, but
+was transferred to Corpus Christi College, Oxford, in October of the
+same year. While still at college, he made a runaway match, marrying at
+Gretna Green, Anna Maria, one of the daughters of Paul Elers of Black
+Bourton, Oxfordshire, an old friend of his father. His eldest son was
+born before Edgeworth reached his twentieth birthday, and his daughter
+Maria in 1767.
+
+Shortly after the birth of his son, he and his wife went to
+Edgeworthstown, but in 1765 they took a house at Hare Hatch, near
+Maidenhead. Edgeworth devoted much time to scientific reading and
+experiments; and he made an attempt to establish telegraphic
+communication (_Memoirs_, 2nd edition, i. 144). He also invented a
+turnip-cutter, a one-wheeled chaise and other contrivances. In the
+pursuit of his mechanical inventions he visited Erasmus Darwin at
+Lichfield, where he met Anna Seward, and her cousin, Honora Sneyd. His
+home was now at Hare Hatch, in Berkshire, where he endeavoured to
+educate his son according to the method explained in Rousseau's _Emile_.
+In later life, however, the ill-success of this experiment led him to
+doubt many of Rousseau's views (_Memoirs_, ii. 374). At the same time he
+kept terms at the Temple, and formed the greatest friendship of his life
+with Thomas Day, the author of _Sandford and Merton_, which was written
+at Edgeworth's suggestion. In 1769, on the death of his father, he gave
+up the idea of being a barrister; but, instead of immediately settling
+on his Irish estate, he spent a considerable time in England and France,
+mainly in Day's company. In Lyons, where he resided for about two years,
+he took an active part in the management of public works intended to
+turn the course of the Rhone. He was summoned to England by the death of
+his wife (March 1773), with whom he was far from happy. Edgeworth
+hurried to Lichfield, to Dr Erasmus Darwin's, and at once declared his
+passion for Honora Sneyd, which had been the cause of his flight to
+France two years before. Miss Sneyd had been the object of attention
+from Thomas Day, but her views on marriage were not submissive enough to
+please him. She had other suitors, among them the unfortunate Major
+Andre. She married Edgeworth (July 1773), and after residing at
+Edgeworthstown for three years, they settled at Northchurch, in
+Hertfordshire. After six years of domestic happiness, Honora Edgeworth
+died (April 1780), recommending her husband to marry her sister
+Elizabeth; and they were actually married on Christmas Day, 1780.
+
+In 1782 Edgeworth returned to Ireland, determined to improve his estate,
+educate his seven children, and ameliorate the condition of the tenants.
+Up to this point Edgeworth has told his own story in his _Memoirs_. The
+rest of his life is written by his daughter, who opens with a lengthy
+panegyric on her father as a model landlord (_Memoirs_, ii. 12-36). In
+1785 he was associated with others in founding the Royal Irish Academy;
+and, during the two succeeding years, mechanics and agriculture occupied
+most of his time. In October 1789 his friend Day was killed by a fall
+from his horse, and this trial was soon followed by the loss of his
+daughter Honora, who had just reached her fifteenth year. In 1792 the
+health of one of Edgeworth's sons took him to Clifton, where he remained
+with his family for about two years, returning in 1794 to
+Edgeworthstown. Ireland was, at that time, harassed by internal
+disturbances, and threats of a French invasion, and Edgeworth offered to
+establish telegraphic communication of his own invention throughout the
+country. This offer was declined. A full account of the matter is given
+in Edgeworth's _Letter to Lord Charlemont on the Telegraph_; and his
+apparatus is explained in an "Essay on the art of Conveying Swift and
+Secret Intelligence," published in the sixth volume of the _Transactions
+of the Royal Irish Academy_. In the autumn of 1797 the third Mrs
+Edgeworth died.
+
+_Practical Education_ (1798) was written in collaboration with his
+daughter Maria, and embodied the experience of the authors in dealing
+with children. "So commenced," says Miss Edgeworth, "that literary
+partnership which, for so many years, was the pride and joy of my life"
+(_Memoirs_, ii. 170). This book, generally regarded as old-fashioned,
+has a real value in the history of education. Mr Edgeworth's interest in
+the subject had been inspired by the study of Rousseau and by his
+friendship with Thomas Day. But he went beyond Rousseau, who developed
+his theories from his own ingenious mind and related an imaginary
+process. The Edgeworths brought a scientific method to their work. The
+second Mrs Edgeworth (Honora Sneyd) began the collection of actual
+examples of conversations between the children and their elders. This
+was continued patiently by the writers of the book; and their reasonings
+were thus founded on an accurate record of childish methods of thought.
+They deprecated especially any measures that interrupted the child's own
+chain of reasoning. The chapters on special subjects of study,
+chronology, geometry, &c., were written by Richard Lovell Edgeworth;
+those on toys, on rewards and punishments, on temper, &c., by his
+daughter.[1]
+
+In 1798 Edgeworth married Miss Beaufort, and was elected M.P. for the
+borough of St John's Town, Longford. The same year, too, saw a hostile
+landing of the French and a formidable rebellion; and for a short time
+the Edgeworths took refuge in Longford. The winter of 1802 they spent in
+Paris. In 1804 the government accepted his telegraphic apparatus, but
+the installation was left incomplete when the fear of invasion was past.
+In 1802 appeared the _Essay on Irish Bulls_ by Mr and Miss Edgeworth;
+and in 1806 Edgeworth was elected a member of the board of commissioners
+to inquire into Irish education. From 1807 till 1809 much of his time
+was spent on mechanical experiments and in writing the story of his
+life. In 1808 appeared _Professional Education_, and in 1813 his _Essay
+on the Construction of Roads and Carriages_. He died on the 13th of June
+1817, and was buried in the family vault in Edgeworthstown churchyard.
+
+Many of Edgeworth's works were suggested by his zeal for the education
+of his own children. Such were _Poetry Explained for Young People_
+(1802), _Readings in Poetry_ (1816), _A Rational Primer_ (unpublished),
+and the parts of _Early Lessons_ contributed by him. His speeches in the
+Irish parliament have also been published; and numerous essays, mostly
+on scientific subjects, have appeared in the _Philosophical
+Transactions_, the _Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy_, the
+_Monthly Magazine_ and _Nicholson's Journal_. The story of his early
+life, told by himself, is fully as entertaining as the continuation by
+Maria, as it contains less dissertation and more incident. One of his
+daughters by his first marriage, Anna Maria, married Dr Beddoes and
+became the mother of T.L. Beddoes, the poet.
+
+  See _Memoirs of Richard Lovell Edgeworth, Esq._, begun by himself and
+  concluded by his daughter, Maria Edgeworth (2 vols., 1820, 3rd and
+  revised ed. 1844). A selection from this, giving an optimistic view of
+  him, _Richard Lovell Edgeworth_ (1896), was edited by Mrs Lionel
+  Tollemache.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] For an appreciation of the two Edgeworths from the teacher's
+    point of view, see Prof. L.C. Miall in the _Journal of Education_
+    (August 1, 1894).
+
+
+
+
+EDGEWORTH DE FIRMONT, HENRY ESSEX (1745-1807), last confessor to Louis
+XVI., was the son of Robert Edgeworth, rector of Edgeworthstown in
+Ireland, his mother being a granddaughter of Archbishop Ussher. When he
+was three years old his father became a Roman Catholic, resigned his
+living and emigrated to Toulouse, where the boy was brought up by the
+Jesuits. In 1769, after his father's death, he went to Paris to be
+trained for the priesthood. On taking orders he assumed the additional
+surname of de Firmont, from the family estate of Firmount near
+Edgeworthstown. Though originally studying with a view to becoming a
+missionary, he decided to remain in Paris, devoting himself especially
+to the Irish and English Roman Catholics. In 1791 he became confessor to
+the princess Elizabeth, sister of Louis XVI., and earned the respect
+even of the _sans-culottes_ by his courage and devotion. By Madame
+Elizabeth he was recommended to the king when his trial was impending;
+and after Louis' condemnation to death he was able to obtain permission
+to celebrate mass for him and attend him on the scaffold, where he
+recommended the king to allow his hands to be tied, with the words:
+"Sire, in this new outrage I see only the last trait of resemblance
+between your Majesty and the God who will be your reward." It is said
+that at the moment of the execution, the confessor uttered the
+celebrated words: "Son of St Louis, ascend to heaven." But it is certain
+that the phrase was never spoken. The abbe himself does not quote it,
+either in his memoirs or in a letter written in 1796 to his brother, in
+which he describes the death of the king. Moreover, Edgeworth declared
+to several persons who asked him about it, that the words were not his.
+In spite of the danger he now ran, Edgeworth refused to leave France so
+long as he could be of any service to Madame Elizabeth, with whom he
+still managed to correspond. At length, in 1795, his mother having
+meanwhile died in prison, where his sister was also confined, he
+succeeded in escaping to England, carrying with him Elizabeth's last
+message to her brother, the future King Charles X. whom he found in
+Edinburgh. He afterwards went with some papers to Monsieur (Louis
+XVIII.) at Blankenburg in Brunswick, by whom he was induced to accompany
+him to Mittau, where, on the 22nd of May 1807, he died of a fever
+contracted while attending some French prisoners.
+
+  Edgeworth's _Memories_, edited by C.S. Edgeworth, were first published
+  in English (London, 1815), and a French translation (really the
+  letters and some miscellaneous notes, &c.) was published in Paris in
+  1816. A translation of the _Lettres de l'abbe Edgeworth avec des
+  memoires sur sa vie_ was published by Madame Elizabeth de Bow in Paris
+  in 1818, and _Letters from the Abbe Edgeworth to his Friends, with
+  Memoirs of his Life_, edited by T.B. England, in London in 1818. See
+  J.B.A. Hanet-Clery, _Journal de ce qui s'est passe, &c._ (Paris,
+  1825); A.H. du D. de Beauchesne, _Vie de Madame Elisabeth_ (Paris,
+  1869); J.C.D. de Lacretelle, _Precis historique de la Revolution
+  francaise_ (Paris, 1801-1806).
+
+
+
+
+EDGREN-LEFFLER, ANNE CHARLOTTE, duchess of Cajanello (1849-1892),
+Swedish author, daughter of the mathematician Prof. C.O. Leffler, was
+born on the 1st of October 1849. Her first volume of stories appeared in
+1869, but the first to which she attached her name was _Ur Lifvet_
+("From Life," 1882), a series of realistic sketches of the upper circles
+of Swedish society, followed by three other collections with the same
+title. Her earliest plays, _Skadespelerskan_ ("The Actress," 1873), and
+its successors, were produced anonymously in Stockholm, but in 1883 her
+reputation was established by the success of _Sanna Kvinnor_ ("True
+Women"), and _En Raddande engel_ ("An Angel of Deliverance"). _Sanna
+Kvinnor_ is directed against false femininity, and was well received in
+Germany as well as in Sweden. Anne Leffler had married in 1872 G.
+Edgren, but about 1884 she was separated from her husband, who did not
+share her advanced views. She spent some time in England, and in 1885
+produced her _Hur man gor godt_ ("How men do good"), followed in 1888 by
+_Kampen for lyckan_ ("The Struggle for Happiness"), in which she had the
+help of Sophie Kovalevsky. Another volume of the _Ur Lisvet_ series
+appeared in 1889; and _Familjelycka_ ("Domestic Happiness," 1891) was
+produced in the year after her second marriage, with the Italian
+mathematician, Pasquale del Pezzo, duca di Cajanello. She died at Naples
+on the 21st of October 1892. Her dramatic method forms a connecting link
+between Ibsen and Strindberg, and its masculine directness, freedom from
+prejudice, and frankness gave her work a high estimation in Sweden. Her
+last book was a biography (1892) of her friend Sophie (Sonya)
+Kovalevsky, by way of introduction to Sonya's autobiography. An English
+translation (1895) by A. de Furnhjelm and A.M. Clive Bayley contains a
+biographical note on Fru Edgren-Leffler by Lily Wolffsohn, based on
+private sources.
+
+  See also Ellen Key, _Anne Charlotte Leffler_ (Stockholm, 1893).
+
+
+
+
+EDHEM PASHA (c. 1815-1893), Turkish statesman, was of Greek origin, and
+is said to have been taken into a Turkish household at the time of the
+Chio massacre in 1822, and to have been brought up as a Mussulman. He
+entered the Turkish government service and rose to high office, being
+successively minister of public works, grand vizier for eleven months
+(1878), ambassador at Vienna (1879) and minister of the interior. He was
+quick-tempered, but of kindly disposition, intelligent and patriotic,
+and he left a reputation of unblemished honesty and uprightness.
+
+
+
+
+EDICT (Lat. _edictum_, from _e_, out, and _dicere_, to say, speak), an
+order or proclamation issued under authority and having the force of
+law. The word is especially used of the promulgations of the Roman
+praetor (q.v.), of the Roman emperors, and also of the kings of France
+(see also ROMAN LAW).
+
+
+
+
+EDINBURGH, a city and royal burgh, and county of itself, the capital of
+Scotland, and county town of Edinburghshire or Midlothian, situated to
+the south of the Firth of Forth, 396 m. by rail N. of London. The old
+Royal Observatory on Calton Hill stands in 55 deg. 57' 23" N. and 12
+deg. 43' 05" W. Edinburgh occupies a group of hills of moderate height
+and the valleys between. In the centre is a bold rock, crowned by the
+castle, between which and the new town lies a ravine that once contained
+the Nor' Loch, but is now covered with the gardens of Princes Street. To
+the east rises Calton Hill (355 ft.) with several conspicuous monuments,
+the city prison and the Calton cemetery. On the south-east, beyond the
+Canongate limits, stands the hill of Arthur's Seat (822 ft.). Towards
+the north the site of the city slopes gently to the Firth of Forth and
+the port of Leith; while to the south, Liberton Hill, Blackford Hill,
+Braid Hills and Craiglockhart Hills roughly mark the city bounds, as
+Corstorphine Hill and the Water of Leith do the western limits. The
+views of the city and environs from the castle or any of the hills are
+very beautiful, and it is undoubtedly one of the most picturesque
+capitals in the world. Its situation, general plan and literary
+associations suggested a comparison that gave Edinburgh the name of "the
+modern Athens"; but it has a homelier nickname of "Auld Reekie," from
+the cloud of smoke (reek) which often hangs over the low-lying quarters.
+
+_Chief Buildings._--Of the castle, the oldest building is St Margaret's
+chapel, believed to be the chapel where Queen Margaret, wife of Malcolm
+Canmore, worshipped, and belonging at latest to the reign of her
+youngest son, David I. (1124-1153). Near it is the parliament and
+banqueting hall, restored (1889-1892) by the generosity of William
+Nelson (1817-1887) the publisher, which contains a fine collection of
+Scottish armour, weapons and regimental colours, while, emblazoned on
+the windows, are the heraldic bearings of royal and other figures
+distinguished in national history. Other buildings in the Palace Yard
+include the apartments occupied by the regent, Mary of Guise, and her
+daughter Mary, queen of Scots, and the room in which James VI. was born.
+Here also are deposited the Scottish regalia ("The Honours of
+Scotland"), with the sword of state presented to James IV. by Pope
+Julius II., and the jewels restored to Scotland on the death (1807) of
+Cardinal York, the last of the Stuarts. The arsenal, a modern building
+on the west side of the rock, is capable of storing 30,000 stand of
+arms. In the armoury is a collection of arms of various dates; and on
+the Argyll battery stands a huge piece of ancient artillery, called Mons
+Meg, of which repeated mention is made in Scottish history. Argyll
+Tower, in which Archibald, 9th earl of Argyll, spent his last days
+(1685), was also restored in 1892 by Mr William Nelson.
+
+Holyrood Palace was originally an abbey of canons regular of the rule of
+St Augustine, founded by David I. in 1128, and the ruined nave of the
+abbey church still shows parts of the original structure. Connected with
+this is a part of the royal palace erected by James IV. and James V.,
+including the apartments occupied by Queen Mary, the scene of the murder
+of Rizzio in 1566. The abbey suffered repeatedly in invasions. It was
+sacked and burnt by the English under the earl of Hertford in 1544, and
+again in 1547. In a map of 1544, preserved among the Cotton MSS. in the
+British Museum, the present north-west tower of the palace is shown
+standing apart, and only joined to the abbey by a low cloister. Beyond
+this is an irregular group of buildings, which were replaced at a later
+date by additions more in accordance with a royal residence. But the
+whole of this latter structure was destroyed by fire in 1650 while in
+occupation by the soldiers of Cromwell; and the more modern parts were
+begun during the Protectorate, and completed in the reign of Charles II.
+by Robert Milne, after the designs of Sir William Bruce of Kinross. They
+include the picture gallery, 150 ft. in length, with 106 mythical
+portraits of Scottish kings, and a triptych (c. 1484) containing
+portraits of James III. and his queen, which is believed to have formed
+the altar-piece of the collegiate church of the Holy Trinity, founded by
+the widowed queen of James II. in 1462, demolished in 1848, and
+afterwards rebuilt, stone for stone, in Jeffrey Street. The picture
+gallery is associated with the festive scenes that occurred during the
+short residence of Prince Charles in 1745; and in it the election of
+representative peers for Scotland takes place. Escaping from France at
+the revolution of 1789, the comte d'Artois, afterwards Charles X. of
+France, had apartments granted for the use of himself and the emigrant
+nobles of his suite, who continued to reside in the palace till August
+1799. When driven from the French throne by the revolution of 1830,
+Charles once more found a home in the ancient palace of the Stuarts.
+George IV. was received there in 1822, and Queen Victoria and the prince
+consort occupied the palace for brief periods on several occasions, and
+in 1903 Edward VII., during residence at Dalkeith Palace, held his court
+within its walls. A fountain, after the original design of that in the
+quadrangle of Linlithgow Palace, was erected in front of the entrance by
+the prince consort. The royal vault in the Chapel Royal, which had
+fallen into a dilapidated condition, has been put in order; Clockmill
+House and grounds have been added to the area of the parade ground, and
+the abbey precincts generally and the approaches to the King's Park have
+been improved. With the abolition of imprisonment for debt in 1881 the
+privileges of sanctuary came to an end.
+
+Parliament House, begun in 1632 and completed in 1640, in which the
+later assemblies of the Scottish estates took place until the
+dissolution of the parliament by the Act of Union of 1707, has since
+been set apart as the meeting-place of the supreme courts of law. The
+great hall, with its fine open-timbered oak roof, is adorned with a
+splendid stained-glass window and several statues of notable men,
+including one (by Louis Francois Roubiliac) of Duncan Forbes of
+Culloden, lord president of the court of session (1685-1747), and now
+forms the ante-room for lawyers and their clients. The surrounding
+buildings, including the courtrooms, the Advocates' and the Signet
+libraries, are all modern additions. The Advocates' library is the
+finest in Scotland. Founded in 1682, at the instance of Sir George
+Mackenzie, king's advocate under Charles II., and then dean of the
+faculty, it is regarded as the national library, and is one of the five
+entitled by the Copyright Act to receive a copy of every work published
+in Great Britain.
+
+[Illustration: Map of Edinburgh.]
+
+The General Register House for Scotland, begun in 1774 from designs by
+Robert Adam, stands at the east end of Princes Street. It contains, in
+addition to the ancient national records, adequate accommodation, in
+fireproof chambers, for all Scottish title-deeds, entails, contracts and
+mortgages, and for general statistics, including those of births, deaths
+and marriages.
+
+The Royal Institution, in the Doric style, surmounted by a colossal
+stone statue Of Queen Victoria by Sir John Steell, formerly furnished
+official accommodation for the Board of Trustees for Manufactures and
+the Board of Fishery, and also for the school of art, and the libraries
+and public meetings of the Royal Society (founded in 1783), and the
+Society of Antiquaries of Scotland (founded in 1780). In 1910 it was
+renamed and appropriated to the uses of the Royal Scottish Academy of
+Painting, Sculpture and Architecture, which was instituted in 1826, and
+incorporated by royal charter in 1838, on the model of the Royal Academy
+in London. It is situated on the Mound close to the National Gallery, of
+which the prince consort laid the foundation stone in 1850. These
+collections, especially rich in Raeburn's works, include also Alexander
+Nasmyth's portrait of Robert Burns, Gainsborough's "The Hon. Mrs.
+Graham" (see PAINTING, Plate VI. fig. 20), Sir Noel Paton's "Quarrel"
+and "Reconciliation of Oberon and Titania," several works by William
+Etty, Robert Scott Lauder and Sam Bough, Sir Edwin Landseer's "Rent Day
+in the Wilderness," and the diploma pictures of the academicians,
+besides many specimens of the modern Scottish school. The National
+Portrait Gallery and Antiquarian Museum are housed in Queen Street, in a
+building designed by Sir Rowand Anderson and constructed at the expense
+of J.R. Findlay of Aberlour (1824-1898), the government providing the
+site.
+
+_Churches._--In conformity with the motto of the city, _Nisi Dominus
+frustra_, there are numerous handsome places of public worship. St
+Giles's church, which was effectively restored (1879-1883) by the
+liberality of Dr William Chambers the publisher, has interesting
+historical and literary associations. The regent Moray, the marquess of
+Montrose, and Napier of Merchiston were buried within its walls and are
+commemorated by monuments, and among the memorial tablets is one to R.L.
+Stevenson by Augustus St Gaudens. The choir (restored in 1873 by public
+subscription) is a fine example of 15th-century architecture, and the
+Gothic crown surmounting the central tower forms one of the most
+characteristic features in every view of the city. Just outside the
+church in Parliament Square, the supposed grave of John Knox is
+indicated by a stone set in the pavement bearing his initials, and in
+the pavement to the west a heart indicates the site of the old
+Tolbooth,[1] which figures prominently in Scott's _Heart of Midlothian_.
+Other churches having historical associations are the two Greyfriars
+churches, which occupy the two halves of one building; Tron church, the
+scene of midnight hilarity at the new year; St Cuthbert's church; St
+Andrew's church in George Street, whence set out, on a memorable day in
+1843, that long procession of ministers and elders to Tanfield Hall
+which ended in the founding of the Free Church; St George's church in
+Charlotte Square, a good example of the work of Robert Adam. The United
+Free Church claims no buildings of much historic interest, but St
+George's Free was the scene of the ministrations of Dr Robert S.
+Candlish (1806-1873), Dr Oswald Dykes (b. 1835), Dr Alexander Whyte (b.
+1837), a man of great mark and influence in the city, and his successor
+Hugh Black (b. 1868). Preachers like Robert Candlish, Thomas Guthrie
+(1803-1873), Marcus Dods (b. 1834), occupied many pulpits, besides those
+of the particular congregations whom each served. The most imposing
+structure belonging to the Scottish Episcopal Church is St Mary's
+cathedral, built on ground and chiefly from funds left by the Misses
+Walker of Coates, and opened for worship in 1879. It is in the Early
+Pointed style, by Sir Gilbert Scott, is 278 ft. long, and is surmounted
+by a spire 275 ft. high. The old-fashioned mansion of East Coates,
+dating from the 17th century, still stands in the close, and is occupied
+by functionaries of the cathedral. St John's Episcopal church at the
+west end of Princes Street was the scene of the ministrations of Dean
+Ramsay, and St Paul's Episcopal church of the Rev. Archibald Alison,
+father of the historian. The Catholic Apostolic church at the foot of
+Broughton Street is architecturally noticeable, and one of its features
+is a set of mural paintings executed by Mrs Traquair. The Central Hall
+at Tollcross testifies to Methodist energy. John Knox's house at the
+east end of High Street is kept in excellent repair, and contains
+several articles of furniture that belonged to the reformer. The
+Canongate Tolbooth adjoins the parish church, in the burial-ground of
+which is the tombstone raised by Burns to the memory of Robert
+Fergusson, and where Dugald Stewart, Adam Smith and other men of note
+were buried. Almost opposite to it stands Moray House, from the balcony
+of which the 8th earl of Argyll watched Montrose led to execution
+(1650). The city gaol, a castellated structure on the black rock of
+Calton Hill, forms one of the most striking groups of buildings in the
+town. In the Music Hall in George Street, Carlyle, as lord rector of the
+university, delivered his stimulating address on books to the students,
+and Gladstone addressed the electors in his Midlothian campaigns. St
+Bernard's Well, on the Water of Leith, was embellished and restored
+(1888) at the cost of Mr William Nelson. A sum of L100,000 was
+bequeathed by Mr Andrew Usher (1826-1898) for a hall to be called the
+Usher Hall and to supplement the municipal buildings. The library of
+the solicitors to the supreme courts presents to the Cowgate a lofty
+elevation in red sandstone. The Sheriff Court Buildings stand on George
+IV. Bridge, and facing them is Mr Andrew Carnegie's free library
+(1887-1889). At the corner of High Street and George IV. Bridge stand
+the County buildings. The _Scotsman_ newspaper is housed in an ornate
+structure in North Bridge Street, the building of which necessitated the
+demolition of many old alleys and wynds, such as Fleshmarket Close and
+Milne Square. Ramsay Gardens, a students' quarter fostered by Prof.
+Patrick Geddes (b. 1854), grew out of the "goose-pie" house where Allan
+Ramsay lived, and with its red-tiled roof and effective lines adds
+warmth to the view of the Old Town from Princes Street. Not the least
+interesting structure is the old City Cross (restored at the cost of
+W.E. Gladstone), which stands in High Street, adjoining St Giles's.
+Several of the quaint groups of buildings of Auld Reekie have been
+carefully restored, such as the White Horse Close in the Canongate; the
+mass of alleys on the north side of the Lawnmarket, from Paterson's
+Close to James's Court have been connected, and here Lord Rosebery
+acquired and restored the 17th-century dwelling which figures in the
+legend of _My Aunt Margaret's Mirror_. Another model restoration of a
+historic close is found in Riddle's Close, which contains a students'
+settlement. If these and other improvements have led to the
+disappearance of such old-world picturesque buildings as Allan Ramsay's
+shop "at the sign of the Mercury, opposite Niddry Wynd," Cardinal
+Beaton's palace, the old Cunzie House, or mint, the beautiful
+timber-fronted "land" that stood at the head of the West Bow, and even
+such "howffs" as Clerihugh's tavern, where Mr Counsellor Pleydell and
+the rest played the "high jinks" described in _Guy Mannering_, it must
+be conceded that the changes in the Old Town (many of a drastic nature)
+have been carried out with due regard to the character of their
+environment.
+
+_Monuments._--Edinburgh is particularly rich in monuments of every
+description and quality. Of these by far the most remarkable is the
+Scott monument in East Princes Street Gardens, designed by George Meikle
+Kemp (1795-1844); it is in the form of a spiral Gothic cross with a
+central canopy beneath which is a seated statue of Scott with his dog
+"Maida" at his side, by Sir John Steell, the niches being occupied by
+characters in Sir Walter's writings. A column, 136 ft. high, surmounted
+by a colossal figure of Viscount Melville, Pitt's first lord of the
+Admiralty, rises from the centre of St Andrew Square. At the west end of
+George Street, in the centre of Charlotte Square, stands the Albert
+Memorial, an equestrian statue of the prince consort, with groups at
+each of the four angles of the base. Burns's monument, in the style of a
+Greek temple, occupies a prominent position on the Regent Road, on the
+southern brow of the lower terrace of Calton Hill. It was originally
+intended to form a shrine for Flaxman's marble statue of the poet (now
+in the National Portrait Gallery), but it proved to be too confined to
+afford a satisfactory view of the sculptor's work and was at length
+converted into a museum of Burnsiana (afterwards removed to the
+municipal buildings). On Calton Hill are a number of finely placed
+monuments. The stateliest is the national monument to commemorate the
+victory of Waterloo, originally intended to be a reproduction of the
+Parthenon. The plan was abandoned for lack of funds, after twelve out of
+the twenty-four Greek pillars had been erected, but it is perhaps more
+effective in its unfinished state than if it had been completed. The
+Nelson monument, an elongated turreted structure, stands on the highest
+cliff of the hill. Close by is the monument to Dugald Stewart, a copy of
+the choragic monument of Lysicrates. Sir John Steell's equestrian statue
+of the duke of Wellington stands in front of the Register House, and in
+Princes Street Gardens are statues of Livingstone, Christopher North,
+Allan Ramsay, Adam Black and Sir J.Y. Simpson. In George Street are
+Chantrey's figures of Pitt and George IV., and a statue of Dr Chalmers;
+the 5th duke of Buccleuch stands beside St Giles's. Charles II. surveys
+the spot where Knox was buried; the reformer himself is in the
+quadrangle of New College: Sir David Brewster adorns the quadrangle of
+the university; Dr William Chambers is in Chambers Street, and
+Frederick, duke of York (1763-1827), and the 4th earl of Hopetoun are
+also commemorated.
+
+_Cemeteries._--Obviously the churchyards surrounding the older and more
+important parish churches--such as Greyfriars', St Cuthbert's and the
+Canongate, contain the greatest number of memorials of the illustrious
+dead. In Greyfriars' churchyard the Solemn League and Covenant was
+signed, and among its many monuments are the Martyrs' monument,
+recording the merits of the murdered covenanters, and the tomb of
+"Bluidy" Mackenzie. To the three named should be added the Calton
+burying-ground, with its Roman tomb of David Hume, and the obelisk
+raised in 1844 to the memory of Maurice Margarot, Thomas Muir
+(1765-1798), Thomas Fyshe Palmer (1747-1802), William Skirving and
+Joseph Gerrald (1765-1796), the political martyrs transported towards
+the end of the 18th century for advocating parliamentary reform. The
+Scottish dead in the American Civil War are commemorated in a monument
+bearing a life-sized figure of Abraham Lincoln and a freed slave. The
+cemeteries are all modern. In Warriston cemetery (opened in 1843) in the
+New Town, were buried Sir James Young Simpson, Alexander Smith the poet,
+Horatio McCulloch, R.S.A., the landscape painter, the Rev. James Millar,
+the last Presbyterian chaplain of the castle, and the Rev. James Peddie,
+the pastor of Bristo Street church. In Dean cemetery, partly laid out on
+the banks of the Water of Leith, and considered the most beautiful in
+the city (opened 1845), were interred Lords Cockburn, Jeffrey and
+Rutherford; "Christopher North," Professor Aytoun, Edward Forbes the
+naturalist, John Goodsir the anatomist; Sir William Allan, Sam Bough,
+George Paul Chalmers, the painters; George Combe, the phrenologist;
+Playfair, the architect; Alexander Russel, editor of the _Scotsman_; Sir
+Archibald Alison, the historian; Captain John Grant, the last survivor
+of the old Peninsular Gordon Highlanders; Captain Charles Gray, of the
+Royal Marines, writer of Scottish songs; Lieutenant John Irving, of the
+Franklin expedition, whose remains were sent home many years after his
+death by Lieut. Frederick Schwatka, U.S. navy; and Sir Hector Macdonald,
+"Fighting Mac" of Omdurman. In the south side are the Grange, Newington
+or Echobank, and Morningside cemeteries. In the Grange repose the ashes
+of Chalmers, Guthrie and Lee, Sir Thomas Dick Lauder, Sir Hope Grant,
+Hugh Miller and the 2nd Lord Dunfermline.
+
+_Parks and Open Spaces._--Edinburgh is exceptionally well provided with
+parks and open spaces. The older are Princes Street Gardens, covering
+the old Nor' Loch, Calton Hill, the Meadows and the Bruntsfield Links.
+The municipal golf links are on the Braid Hills. On the southern side
+Blackford Hill has been set apart for public use. Here stands the Royal
+Observatory, in which the great Dunecht telescope was erected in 1896.
+Harrison Park is a breathing spot for the congested district of
+Fountainbridge, and the park at Saughton Hall, opened in 1905, for the
+western district of the city. To the north of the Water of Leith lie
+Inverleith Park, the Arboretum and the Royal Botanical Garden. This
+institution has undergone four changes of site since its foundation in
+1670 by Sir Andrew Balfour and Sir Robert Sibbald, and now occupies an
+area of 34 acres in Inverleith Row. It includes a herbarium and palm
+house, with an extensive range of hot-houses, a museum of economic
+botany, a lecture-room and other requisites for the study of botany. The
+most important open spaces, however, surround Arthur's Seat (822 ft.).
+This basaltic hill, the name of which is believed to commemorate the
+British king Arthur, who from its height is said to have watched the
+defeat of the Picts by his followers, is shaped like a lion _couchant_,
+with head towards the north. It is separated from the narrow valley, in
+which lie the Canongate and Holyrood Palace, by Salisbury Crags, named
+after Edward III.'s general William Montacute, 1st earl of Salisbury
+(1301-1344). At their base is the Queen's Drive (3-1/2 m. long), named
+by Queen Victoria. Adjoining Holyrood Palace is the King's Park, used as
+a parade ground. Facing the crags on the south-west are the spots
+familiar to readers of _The Heart of Midlothian_, where stood Jeanie
+Deans's cottage, and between the crags and Arthur's Seat lies Hunter's
+Bog, used as a shooting range. Near here too are three small lakes,
+Duddingston, Dunsappie and St Margaret's, the last overlooked by the
+ruins of St Anthony's chapel.
+
+_Environs._--In several directions many places once to be described
+among the environs have practically become suburbs of Edinburgh.
+Newhaven (population of parish, 7636), so called from the harbour
+constructed in the reign of James IV., had a shipbuilding yard of some
+repute in former times. The village has always been a fishing-place of
+importance, the "fishwives" in their picturesque garb being, till
+recently, conspicuous figures in the streets of the capital. It used to
+be a popular resort for fish dinners, and it plays a prominent part in
+Charles Reade's novel of _Christie Johnstone_. To the west lies Granton
+(pop. 1728), where the 5th duke of Buccleuch constructed a magnificent
+harbour. Before the building of the Forth Bridge the customary approach
+to Fifeshire and the north-east of Scotland was by means of a steam
+ferry from Granton to Burntisland, which is still used to some extent.
+There is regular communication with Iceland, the continental ports and
+London. A marine station here was established by Sir John Murray, but
+has been discontinued. Still farther west lies the village of Cramond
+(pop. of parish, 3815), at the mouth of the river Almond, where Roman
+remains have often been found. It was the birthplace of several
+well-known persons, among others of John Law (1671-1729), originator of
+the Mississippi scheme, Lauriston Castle being situated in the parish.
+Cramond Brig was the scene of one of the "roving" adventures of James
+V., when the life of the "Gudeman of Ballengeich" was saved by Jock
+Howieson of the Braehead. Corstorphine (pop. 2725), once noted for its
+cream and also as a spa, is now to all intents and purposes a western
+suburb of the capital. The parish church contains the tombs of the
+Forresters, of old the leading family of the district, with full-length
+sculptured figures, and at the base of Corstorphine Hill--from one point
+of which ("Rest and be Thankful") is to be had one of the best views of
+Edinburgh--are the seats of several well-known families. Among these are
+Craigcrook Castle (where Lord Jeffrey spent many happy years, and the
+gardens of which are said to have given Scott a hint for Tullyveolan in
+_Waverley_), and Ravelston House, the home of the Keiths. To the south
+of the metropolis are Colinton (pop. 5499), on the Water of Leith, with
+several mansions that once belonged to famous men, such as Dreghorn
+Castle and Bonally Tower; and Currie (pop. 2513), which was a Roman
+station and near which are Curriehill Castle (held by the rebels against
+Queen Mary), the ruins of Lennox Tower, and Riccarton, the seat of the
+Gibson-Craigs, one of the best-known Midlothian families. At Dalmahoy
+Castle, near Ratho (pop. 1946), the seat of the earl of Morton, are
+preserved the only extant copy of the bible of the Scottish parliament
+and the original warrant for committing Queen Mary to Lochleven Castle
+in Kinross-shire. Craigmillar, though situated in the parish of
+Liberton, is really a part of Edinburgh. Its picturesque castle, at
+least the oldest portion of it, probably dates from the 12th century.
+Its principal owners were first the Prestons and latterly the Gilmours.
+After playing a varied role in local and national story, now as
+banqueting-house and now as prison, it fell gradually into disrepair. It
+was advertised as to let in 1761, and early in the 19th century, along
+with the chapel adjoining, was in ruins, but has been restored by
+Colonel Gordon-Gilmour. It was a favourite residence of Mary Stuart, and
+its associations with the hapless queen give it a romantic interest.
+Duddingston (pop. 2023), once a quiet village, has become a centre of
+the distilling and brewing industries. The parish church, effectively
+situated on an eminence by the side of the lake, was the scene of the
+ministration of the Rev. John Thomson (1778-1840), the landscape
+painter, who numbered Sir Walter Scott among his elders. Duddingston
+House is a seat of the duke of Abercorn. Liberton (pop. of parish,
+7233), a name that recalls the previous existence of a leper's hospital,
+is prominently situated on the rising ground to the south of Edinburgh,
+the parish church being a conspicuous landmark. Adjoining is the village
+of Gilmerton (pop. 1482), which used to supply Edinburgh with yellow
+sand, when sanded floors were a feature in the humbler class of houses.
+Portobello (pop. 9180), being within 3 m. of the capital, must always
+enjoy a large share of public patronage, though it is not in such favour
+as a watering-place as it once was. Its beautiful stretch of sands is
+flanked by a promenade extending all the way to Joppa. The beach was at
+one time used for the purpose of reviews of the yeomanry. The town dates
+from the middle of the 18th century, when a cottage was built by a
+sailor and named Portobello in commemoration of Admiral Vernon's victory
+in 1739. The place does a considerable trade in the making of bricks,
+bottles, earthenware, pottery, tiles and paper. Joppa, which adjoins it,
+has salt works, but is chiefly a residential neighbourhood. Inveresk
+(pop. 2939), finely situated on the Esk some 6 m. from Edinburgh, is a
+quaint village with several old-fashioned mansions and beautiful
+gardens. Alexander Carlyle, the famous divine (1772-1805), whose
+_Memorials of his Times_ still affords fascinating reading, ministered
+for fifty-five years in the parish church, in the graveyard of which
+lies David Macbeth Moir (1798-1851), who under the pen-name of "Delta"
+wrote _Mansie Wauch_, a masterpiece of Scots humour and pathos. Lasswade
+(pop. of parish, 9708), partly in the Pentlands, famous for its oatmeal,
+was often the summer resort of Edinburgh worthies. Here Sir Walter Scott
+lived for six years and De Quincey for nineteen, and William Tennant
+(1784-1848), author of _Anster Fair_, was the parish dominie. Many
+interesting mansions were and are in the vicinity, amongst them Melville
+Castle, the seat of the Dundas Melvilles, and Auchendinny, where Henry
+Mackenzie, author of _The Man of Feeling_, resided. The two most
+celebrated resorts, however, amongst the environs of Edinburgh are
+Roslin (pop. 1805) and Hawthornden. Roslin Castle is romantically
+situated on the beautifully wooded precipitous banks of the Esk. It
+dates from the 12th century and is a plain, massive ruin,
+architecturally insignificant. Partially destroyed by fire in 1447 and
+afterwards rebuilt, it was sacked in 1650 and again in 1688, and then
+gradually fell into decay. The chapel, higher up the bank, a relic of
+great beauty, was founded in 1446 by William St Clair, 3rd earl of
+Orkney. It is believed to be the chancel of what was intended to be a
+large church. Although it suffered at the hands of revolutionary
+fanatics in 1688, the damage was confined mainly to the external
+ornament, and the chapel, owing to restoration in judicious taste, is
+now in perfect condition. The Gothic details are wonderful examples of
+the carver's skill, the wreathed "Prentice's pillar" being the subject
+of a well-known legend. The walk to Hawthornden, about 1-1/2 m. distant,
+through the lovely glen by the river-side, leads to the mansion of the
+Drummonds, perched high on a lofty cliff falling sheer to the stream.
+The caverns in the sides of the precipice are said to have afforded
+Wallace and other heroes (or outlaws) refuge in time of trouble, but the
+old house is most memorable as the home of the poet William Drummond,
+who here welcomed Ben Jonson; the tree beneath which the two poets sat
+still stands. Near Swanston, on the slopes of the Pentlands, where R.L.
+Stevenson when a boy used to make holiday occasionally, is a golf-course
+which was laid out by the Lothianburn Club. The Pentland range contains
+many points of interest and beauty, but these are mostly accessible only
+to the pedestrian, although the hills are crossed by roads, of which the
+chief are those by Glencorse burn and the Cauld Stane Slap. Habbie's
+Howe, the scene of Allan Ramsay's pastoral _The Gentle Shepherd_, is
+some 2 m. from Carlops, and Rullion Green is noted as the field on which
+the Covenanters were defeated in 1666. At Penicuik (pop. 5097), where
+the Clerks were long the ruling family, S.R. Crockett was minister until
+he formally devoted himself to fiction. The town is, industrially,
+remarkable for its paper mills and mines of coal and other minerals.
+
+_Communications._--The two trunk railways serving Edinburgh are the
+North British and the Caledonian. The North British station is Waverley,
+to which the trains of the Great Northern, North Eastern and the Midland
+systems run from England. The Caledonian station is Princes Street,
+where the through trains from the London & North-Western system of
+England arrive. Leith, Granton and Grangemouth serve as the chief
+passenger seaports for Edinburgh. Tramways connect the different parts
+of the city with Leith, Newhaven, Portobello and Joppa; and the Suburban
+railway, starting from Waverley station, returns by way of Restalrig,
+Portobello, Duddingston, Morningside and Haymarket. In summer, steamers
+ply between Leith and Aberdour and other pleasure resorts; and there is
+also a service to Alloa and Stirling. In the season brakes constantly
+run to Queensferry (for the Forth Bridge) and to Roslin, and coaches to
+Dalkeith, Loanhead and some Pentland villages.
+
+_Population._--In 1801 the number of inhabitants was 66,544; in 1851 it
+was 160,302; in 1881 it was 234,402; and in 1901 it was 316,479. In 1900
+the birth-rate was 26.90 per thousand, 7.8% of the births being
+illegitimate; the death-rate was 19.40 per thousand, and the
+marriage-rate 10 per thousand.
+
+The area of the city has been enlarged by successive extensions of its
+municipal boundaries, especially towards the west and south. An
+important accession of territory was gained in 1896, when portions of
+the parishes of Liberton and Duddingston and the police burgh of
+Portobello were incorporated. Under the Edinburgh Corporation Act 1900,
+a further addition of nearly 1800 acres was made. This embraced portions
+of South Leith parish (landward) and of Duddingston parish, including
+the village of Restalrig and the ground lying on both sides of the main
+road from Edinburgh to Portobello; and also part of Cramond parish, in
+which is contained the village and harbour of Granton. The total area of
+the city is 10,597-1/2 acres. The increase in wealth may best be
+measured by the rise in assessed valuation. In 1880 the city rental was
+L1,727,740, in 1890 it was L2,106,395, and in 1900-1901 L2,807,122.
+
+_Government._--By the Redistribution Act of 1885 the city was divided
+for parliamentary purposes into East, West, Central and South Edinburgh,
+each returning one member; the parliamentary and municipal boundaries
+are almost identical. The town council, which has its headquarters in
+the Municipal Buildings in the Royal Exchange, consists of fifty
+members, a lord provost, seven bailies, a dean of guild, a treasurer, a
+convener of trades, seven judges of police, and thirty-two councillors.
+The corporation has acquired the gas-works, the cable tramways (leased
+to a company), the electric lighting of the streets, and the
+water-supply from the Pentlands (reinforced by additional sources in the
+Moorfoot Hills and Talla Water). Among other duties, the corporation has
+a share in the management of the university, and maintains the Calton
+Hill observatory.
+
+_May Meetings._--During the establishment of Episcopacy in Scotland,
+Edinburgh was the seat of a bishop, and the ancient collegiate church of
+St Giles rose to the dignity of a cathedral. But the annual meeting of
+the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland at Edinburgh is now the
+public manifestation of the predominance of Presbyterianism as the
+national church. In May each year the sovereign appoints a
+representative as lord high commissioner to the General Assembly of the
+Established Church, who takes up his abode usually in the palace of
+Holyrood, and thence proceeds to the High Church, and so to the assembly
+hall on the Castle Hill. The lord provost and magistrates offer to him
+the keys of the city, and levees, receptions and state dinners revive in
+some degree the ancient glories of Holyrood. The General Assembly of the
+United Free Church is usually held at the same time.
+
+_University._--The university of Edinburgh, the youngest of the Scottish
+universities, was founded in 1583 by a royal charter granted by James
+IV., and its rights, immunities and privileges have been remodelled,
+ratified and extended at various periods. In 1621 an act of the Scottish
+parliament accorded to the university all rights and privileges enjoyed
+by other universities in the kingdom, and these were renewed under fresh
+guarantees in the treaty of union between England and Scotland, and in
+the Act of Security. Important changes were made in the constitution by
+acts passed in 1858 and 1889. It was one of the first universities to
+admit women students to its classes and degrees, and its _alumni_ are
+brought into close bonds of sympathy and activity by a students' union.
+The number of students averages nearly three thousand a year. As a
+corporation it consists of a chancellor, vice-chancellor, lord rector
+(elected by the students every three years), principal, professors,
+registered graduates and matriculated students. The chancellor is
+elected for life by the general council, of which he is head; and the
+rights of the city as the original founder have been recognized by
+giving to the town council the election of four of the seven curators,
+with whom rest the appointment of the principal, the patronage of
+seventeen of the chairs, and a share in other appointments. Along with
+that of St Andrews, the university sends one member to parliament. While
+the college, as such, bears the name of the College of King James, or
+King's college, and James VI. is spoken of as its founder, it really
+originated in the liberality of the citizens of Edinburgh. William
+Little of Craigmillar, and his brother Clement Little, advocate, along
+with James Lawson, the colleague and successor of John Knox, may justly
+be regarded as true founders. In 1580 Clement Little gave all his books,
+three hundred volumes, for the beginning of a library, and this was
+augmented by other valuable benefactions, one of the most interesting of
+which was the library of Drummond of Hawthornden. The library now
+contains upwards of 220,000 volumes, and more than 7000 MSS. The
+buildings of the university occupy the site of the ancient collegiate
+church of St. Mary in the Field (the "Kirk of Field"), the scene of the
+murder of Darnley. The present structure, the foundation-stone of which
+was laid in 1789, is a classical building, enclosing an extensive
+quadrangle. The older parts of it, including the east front, are from
+the design of Robert Adam, his plans being revised and modified by W.H.
+Playfair (1789-1857), but it was not till 1883 that the building was
+completed by the dome, crowned by the bronze figure of Youth bearing the
+torch of Knowledge, on the facade in South Bridge Street. This edifice
+affords accommodation for the lecture rooms in the faculties of arts,
+law and theology, and for the museums and library. The opening up of the
+wide thoroughfare of Chambers Street, on the site of College Wynd and
+Brown and Argyll Squares, cleared the precincts of unsightly
+obstructions and unsavoury neighbours. The Royal Scottish Museum,
+structurally united to the university, contains collections illustrative
+of industry, art, science and natural history; and Minto House college
+and Heriot-Watt college are practically adjuncts of the university. The
+library hall was restored and decorated, largely through the generosity
+of Sir William Priestley (1829-1900), formerly M.P. for the university;
+while munificent additions to the academic funds and resources were made
+by the 15th earl of Moray (1840-1901), Sir William Fraser (1816-1898),
+and others. The university benefits also, like the other Scottish
+universities, from Mr Andrew Carnegie's endowment fund. The medical
+school stands in Teviot Row, adjoining George Square and the Meadows. To
+this spacious and well-equipped group of buildings the faculty of
+medicine was removed from the college. The medical school is in the
+Italian Renaissance style from the designs of Sir Rowand Anderson. The
+magnificent hall used for academic and public functions was the gift of
+William M'Ewan, some time M.P. for the Central division of Edinburgh.
+Closely associated with the medical school, and separated from it by the
+Middle Meadow Walk, is the Royal Infirmary, designed by David Bryce,
+R.S.A. (1803-1876), removed hither from Infirmary Street. Its wards, in
+which nearly ten thousand patients receive treatment annually, are
+lodged in a series of turreted pavilions, and cover a large space of
+ground on the margin of the Meadows, from which, to make room for it,
+George Watson's College--the most important of the Merchant Company
+schools--was removed to a site farther west, while the Sick Children's
+hospital was moved to the southern side of the Meadows.
+
+_Scientific Institutions._--The old Observatory is a quaint structure on
+Calton Hill, overlooking the district at the head of Leith Walk. The
+City Observatory stands close by, and on Blackford Hill is the newer
+building of the Royal Observatory. The Astronomer-Royal for Scotland
+also holds the chair of practical astronomy.
+
+The museum and lecture-rooms of the Royal College of Surgeons occupy a
+handsome classical building in Nicolson Street. The college is an
+ancient corporate body, with a charter of the year 1505, and exercises
+the powers of instructing in surgery and of giving degrees. Its
+graduates also give lectures on the various branches of medicine and
+science requisite for the degree of doctor of medicine, and those
+extra-academical courses are recognized, under certain restrictions, by
+the University Court, as qualifying for the degree. The museum contains
+a valuable collection of anatomical and surgical preparations.
+
+The Royal College of Physicians is another learned body organized, with
+special privileges, by a charter of incorporation granted by Charles II.
+in 1681. In their hall in Queen Street are a valuable library and a
+museum of materia medica. But the college as such takes no part in the
+educational work of the university.
+
+_Educational Institutions._--After the Disruption in 1843, and the
+formation of the Free Church, New College was founded in connexion with
+it for training students in theology. Since the amalgamation of the
+United Presbyterian and the Free Churches, under the designation of the
+United Free Church of Scotland, New College is utilized by both bodies.
+New College buildings, designed in the Pointed style of the 16th
+century, and erected on the site of the palace of Mary of Guise, occupy
+a prominent position at the head of the Mound.
+
+Edinburgh has always possessed exceptional educational facilities. The
+Royal high school, the burgh school _par excellence_, dates from the
+16th century, but the beautiful Grecian buildings on the southern face
+of Calton Hill, opened in 1829, are its third habitation. It was not
+until 1825, when the Edinburgh Academy was opened, that it encountered
+serious rivalry. Fettes College, an imposing structure in a 16th-century
+semi-Gothic style, designed by David Bryce and called after its founder
+Sir William Fettes (1750-1836), is organized on the model of the great
+English public schools. Merchiston Academy, housed in the old castle of
+Napier, the inventor of logarithms, is another institution conducted on
+English public school lines. For many generations the charitable
+foundations for the teaching and training of youth were a conspicuous
+feature in the economy of the city. Foremost among them was the hospital
+founded by George Heriot--the "Jingling Geordie" of Scott's _Fortunes of
+Nigel_--the goldsmith and banker of James VI. At his death in 1624
+Heriot left his estate in trust to the magistrates and ministers of
+Edinburgh for the maintenance and teaching of poor fatherless sons of
+freemen. The quadrangular edifice in Lauriston, sometimes ascribed to
+Inigo Jones, is one of the noblest buildings in the city. Even earlier
+than Heriot's hospital was the Merchant Maiden hospital, dating from
+1605, which gave to the daughters of merchants similar advantages to
+those which Heriot's secured for burgesses' sons. In 1738 George
+Watson's hospital for boys was founded; then followed the Trades' Maiden
+hospital for burgesses' daughters, John Watson's, Daniel Stewart's, the
+Orphans', Gillespie's,[2] Donaldson's[3] hospitals, and other
+institutions founded by successful merchants of the city, in which poor
+children of various classes were lodged, boarded and educated. Nearly
+all these buildings are characterized by remarkable distinction and
+beauty of design. This is especially true of Donaldson's hospital at the
+Haymarket, which has accommodation for three hundred children. As the
+New Town expanded, the Heriot Trust--whose revenues were greatly
+benefited thereby--erected day-schools in different districts, in which
+thousands of infants and older children received a free education, and,
+in cases of extreme poverty, a money grant towards maintenance. Public
+opinion as to the "hospital" system of board and education, however,
+underwent a revolutionary change after the Education Act of 1872
+introduced school boards, and the Merchant Company--acting as governors
+for most of the institutions--determined to board out the children on
+the foundation with families in the town, and convert the buildings into
+adequately equipped primary and secondary day-schools. This
+root-and-branch policy proved enormously successful, and George Watson's
+college, Stewart's college, Queen Street ladies' college, George Square
+ladies' college, Gillespie's school, and others, rapidly took a high
+place among the educational institutions of the city. Nor did the Heriot
+Trust neglect the claims of technical and higher education. The
+Heriot-Watt college is subsidized by the Trust, and Heriot's hospital is
+occupied as a technical school. Concurrently with this activity in
+higher branches, the school board provided a large number of handsome
+buildings in healthy surroundings. The Church of Scotland and the United
+Free Church have training colleges.
+
+_Charities._--Besides the Royal Infirmary there are a considerable
+number of more or less specialized institutions, two of the most
+important being situated at Craiglockhart. On the Easter Hill stands the
+Royal Edinburgh asylum for the insane, which formerly occupied a site in
+Morningside, while the City infectious diseases hospital is situated at
+Colinton Mains. The Royal blind asylum at Powburn in its earlier days
+tenanted humbler quarters in Nicolson Street. Chalmers's hospital in
+Lauriston was founded in 1836 by George Chalmers for the reception of
+the sick and injured. The home for incurables is situated in Salisbury
+Place. The infirmary convalescents are sent to the convalescent house in
+Corstorphine. Other institutions are the Royal hospital for sick
+children, the home for crippled children, the Royal maternity hospital,
+and the deaf and dumb asylum. Though Trinity hospital no longer exists
+as a hospital with resident pensioners, the trustees disburse annually
+pensions to certain poor burgesses and their wives and children; and the
+trust controlling the benevolent branch of the Gillespie hospital
+endowment is similarly administered.
+
+_Industries._--Although Edinburgh is a residential rather than a
+manufacturing or commercial centre, the industries which it has are
+important and flourishing. From 1507, when Walter Chapman, the Scottish
+Caxton, set up the first press, to the present day, printing has enjoyed
+a career of almost continuous vitality, and the great houses of R. & R.
+Clark, T. & A. Constable, the Ballantyne Press, Morrison & Gibb,
+Turnbull & Spears, and others, admirably maintain the traditional
+reputation of the Edinburgh press. Publishing, on the other hand, has
+drifted away, only a few leading houses--such as those of Blackwood,
+Chambers and Nelson--still making the Scottish capital their
+headquarters. Mapmakers, typefounders, bookbinders and lithographers all
+contribute their share to the prosperity of the city. Brewing is an
+industry of exceptional vigour, Edinburgh ale being proverbially good.
+The brewers and distillers, such as M'Ewan, Usher and Ure, have been
+amongst the most generous benefactors of the city. The arts and crafts
+associated with furniture work, paper-making and coach-building may also
+be specified, whilst tanneries, glassworks, india-rubber and vulcanite
+factories, brass-founding, machinery works, the making of biscuits,
+tea-bread and confectionery are all prominent. In consequence of the
+large influx of tourists every year the North British and Caledonian
+railway companies give employment to an enormous staff. Building and the
+allied trades are chronically brisk, owing to the constant development
+of the city. Fine white freestone abounds in the immediate vicinity (as
+at Craigleith, from the vast quarry of which, now passing into disuse,
+the stone for much of the New Town was obtained) and furnishes excellent
+building material; while the hard trap rock, with which the stratified
+sandstones of the Coal formation have been extensively broken up and
+overlaid, supplies good materials for paving and road-making. On this
+account quarrying is another industry which is seldom dormant. Owing to
+the great changes effected during the latter part of the 19th century,
+some of the old markets were demolished and the system of centralizing
+trade was not wholly revived. The Waverley Market for vegetables and
+fruit presents a busy scene in the early morning, and is used for
+monster meetings and promenade and popular concerts. Slaughter-houses,
+cattle markets and grain markets have been erected at Gorgie, thus
+obviating the driving of flocks and herds through the streets, which was
+constantly objected to. An infantry regiment is always stationed in the
+castle, and there are in addition the barracks at Piers-hill (or "Jock's
+Lodge"), half-way between Edinburgh and Portobello.
+
+_Social Life._--Edinburgh society still retains a certain old-fashioned
+Scottish exclusiveness. It has been said that the city is "east-windy"
+and the folk "west-endy." But this criticism needs judicious
+qualification. The local patriotism and good taste of the citizens have
+regulated recreation and have also preserved in pristine vigour many
+peculiarly Scottish customs and pastimes. Classical concerts and
+concerts of the better sort, chiefly held in the M'Ewan and Music Halls,
+are well attended, and lectures are patronized to a degree unknown in
+most towns. In theatrical matters in the old days of stock companies the
+verdict of an Edinburgh audience was held to make or mar an actor or a
+play. This is no longer the case, but the Lyceum theatre in Grindlay
+Street and the Theatre Royal at the head of Leith Walk give good
+performances. Variety entertainments are also in vogue, and in Nicolson
+Street and elsewhere there are good music halls. Outdoor recreations
+have always been pursued with zest. The public golf-course on Braid
+Hills and the private courses of the Lothianburn club at Swanston and
+the Barnton club at Barnton are usually full on Saturdays and holidays.
+The numerous bowling-greens are regularly frequented and are among the
+best in Scotland--the first Australian team of bowlers that visited the
+mother country (in 1901) pronouncing the green in Lutton Place the
+finest on which they had played. Cricket is played by the university
+students, at the schools, and by private clubs, of which the Grange is
+the oldest and best. In winter the game of curling is played on
+Duddingston Loch, and Dunsappie, St Margaret's Loch, Lochend and other
+sheets of water are covered with skaters. Rugby football is in high
+favour, Edinburgh being commonly the scene of the international matches
+when the _venue_ falls to Scotland. Hockey claims many votaries, there
+usually being on New Year's day a match at shinty, or _camanachd_,
+between opposing teams of Highlanders resident in the city. The central
+public baths in Infirmary Street, with branch establishments in other
+parts of the town, including Portobello, are largely resorted to, and
+the proximity of the Firth of Forth induces the keener swimmers to visit
+Granton every morning. Facilities for boating are limited (excepting on
+the Forth), but rowing clubs find opportunity for practice and races on
+the Union Canal, where, however, sailing is scarcely possible. Edinburgh
+maintains few newspapers, but the _Scotsman_, which may be said to reign
+alone, has enjoyed a career of almost uninterrupted prosperity, largely
+in consequence of a succession of able editors, like Charles Maclaren,
+Alexander Russel, Robert Wallace and Charles Cooper. The _Edinburgh
+Evening News_ and the _Evening Dispatch_ are popular sheets. In the past
+the _Edinburgh Evening Courant_, the chief organ of the Tory party, of
+which James Hannay was editor for a few years, had a high reputation.
+_The Witness_, edited by Hugh Miller, the _Daily Review_, edited first
+by J.B. Manson and afterwards by Henry Kingsley, and the _Scottish
+Leader_, were conducted more or less as Liberal organs with a distinct
+bias in favour of the then Free Church, but none of these was
+long-lived. Volunteering has always attracted the younger men, and the
+highest awards at Wimbledon and Bisley have been won by the Queen's
+Edinburgh.
+
+_History._--In remote times the seaboard from the Tyne to the Forth was
+occupied by the Ottadeni, a Welsh tribe of the Brigantes, the territory
+immediately to the west of it being peopled by the Gadeni. It is
+probable that the Ottadeni built a fort or camp on the rock on which
+Edinburgh Castle now stands, which was thus the nucleus around which, in
+course of time, grew a considerable village. Under the protection of
+the hill-fort, a native settlement was established on the ridge running
+down to the valley at the foot of Salisbury Crags, and another hamlet,
+according to William Maitland (1693-1757), the earliest historian of
+Edinburgh, was founded in the area at the north-western base of the
+rock, a district that afterwards became the parish of St Cuthbert, the
+oldest in the city. The Romans occupied the country for more than three
+hundred years, as is evidenced by various remains; but James Grant
+(1822-1887), in _Old and New Edinburgh_, doubts whether they ever built
+on the castle rock. When they withdrew, the British tribes reasserted
+their sway, and some authorities go so far as to suggest that Arthur was
+one of their kings. The southern Picts ultimately subdued the Britons,
+and the castle became their chief stronghold until they were overthrown
+in 617 (or 629) by the Saxons under Edwin, king of Northumbria, from
+whom the name of Edinburgh is derived. Symeon of Durham (854) calls it
+Edwinesburch, and includes the church of St Cuthbert within the
+bishopric of Lindisfarne. Its Gaelic name was Dunedin. This name is
+probably a translation of the Saxon name. James Grant's view that it may
+have been the earlier name of the castle, from _dun_ ("the fort"), and
+_edin_ ("on the slope"), conflicts with the more generally received
+opinion that the Britons knew the fortress as _Castelh Mynedh Agnedh_
+("the hill of the plain"), a designation once wrongly interpreted as the
+"castle of the maidens" (_castrum puellarum_), in allusion to the
+supposed fact that the Pictish princesses were lodged within it during
+their education. In the 16th century the latinized form Edina was
+invented and has been used chiefly by poets, once notably by Burns,
+whose "Address" begins "Edina! Scotia's darling seat." Long after
+Edwin's conquest the lowland continued to be debatable territory held by
+uncertain tenure, but at length it was to a large extent settled anew by
+Anglo-Saxon and Norman colonists under Malcolm Canmore and his sons.
+
+In the reign of Malcolm Canmore the castle included the king's palace.
+There his pious queen, Margaret, the grand-niece of Edward the
+Confessor, died in 1093. It continued to be a royal residence during the
+reigns of her three sons, and hence the first rapid growth of the upper
+town may be referred to the 12th century. The parish church of St Giles
+is believed to have been erected in the reign of Alexander I., about
+1110, and the huge Norman keep of the castle, built by his younger
+brother, David I., continued to be known as David's Tower till its
+destruction in the siege of 1572. Soon after his accession to the
+Scottish throne David I. founded the abbey of Holyrood (1128), which
+from an early date received the court as its guests. But notwithstanding
+the attractions of the abbey and the neighbouring chase, the royal
+palace continued for centuries to be within the fortress, and there both
+the Celtic and Stuart kings frequently resided. Edinburgh was long an
+exposed frontier town within a territory only ceded to Malcolm II. about
+1020; and even under the earlier Stuart kings it was still regarded as a
+border stronghold. Hence, though the village of Canongate grew up beside
+the abbey of David I., and Edinburgh was a place of sufficient
+importance to be reckoned one of the four principal burghs as a
+judicatory for all commercial matters, nevertheless, even so late as
+1450, when it became for the first time a walled town, it did not extend
+beyond the upper part of the ridge which slopes eastwards from the
+castle. So long, however, as its walls formed the boundary, and space
+therefore was limited, the citizens had to provide house-room by
+building dwellings of many storeys. These tall tenements on both sides
+of what is now High Street and Canongate are still a prominent
+characteristic of the Old Town. The streets were mostly very narrow, the
+main street from the castle to Holyrood Palace and the Cowgate alone
+permitting the passage of wheeled carriages. In the narrow "wynds" the
+nobility and gentry paid their visits in sedan chairs, and proceeded in
+full dress to the assemblies and balls, which were conducted with
+aristocratic exclusiveness in an alley on the south side of High Street,
+called the Assembly Close, and in the assembly rooms in the West Bow.
+Beyond the walls lay the burghs of Calton, Easter and Wester Portsburgh,
+the villages of St Cuthbert's, Moutrie's Hill, Broughton, Canonmills,
+Silvermills and Deanhaugh--all successively swallowed up in the
+extension of the modern city. The seaport of Leith, though a distinct
+burgh, governed by its own magistrates, and electing its own
+representative to parliament, has also on its southern side become
+practically united to its great neighbour.
+
+The other three royal burghs associated with Edinburgh were Stirling,
+Roxburgh and Berwick; and their enactments form the earliest existing
+collected body of Scots law. The determination of Edinburgh as the
+national capital, and as the most frequent scene of parliamentary
+assemblies, dates from the death of James I. in 1436. Of the thirteen
+parliaments summoned by that sovereign, only one, the last, was held at
+Edinburgh, but his assassination in the Blackfriars' monastery at Perth
+led to the abrupt transfer of the court and capital from the Tay to the
+Forth. The coronation of James II. was celebrated in Holyrood Abbey
+instead of at Scone, and the widowed queen took up her residence, with
+the young king, in the castle. Of fourteen parliaments summoned during
+this reign, only one was held at Perth, five met at Stirling and the
+rest at Edinburgh; and, notwithstanding the favour shown for Stirling as
+a royal residence in the following reign, every one of the parliaments
+of James III. was held at Edinburgh. James II. conferred on the city
+various privileges relating to the holding of fairs and markets, and the
+levying of customs; and by a royal charter of 1452 he gave it
+pre-eminence over the other burghs. Further immunities and privileges
+were granted by James III.; and by a precept of 1482, known as the
+Golden Charter, he bestowed on the provost and magistrates the
+hereditary office of sheriff, with power to hold courts, to levy fines,
+and to impose duties on all merchandise landed at the port of Leith.
+Those privileges were renewed and extended by various sovereigns, and
+especially by a general charter granted by James VI. in 1603.
+
+James III. was a great builder, and, in the prosperous era which
+followed his son's accession to the throne, the town reached the open
+valley to the south, with the Cowgate as its chief thoroughfare. But the
+death of James IV. in 1513, along with other disastrous results of the
+battle of Flodden, brought this era of prosperity to an abrupt close.
+The citizens hastened to construct a second line of wall, enclosing the
+Cowgate and the heights beyond, since occupied by Greyfriars churches
+and Heriot's hospital, but still excluding the Canongate, as pertaining
+to the abbey of Holyrood. In the 16th century the movements connected
+with John Knox and Mary, queen of Scots, made Edinburgh a castle of much
+activity. With the departure, however, of the sixth James to fill the
+English throne in 1603, the town lost for a long period its influence
+and prestige. Matters were not bettered by the Act of Union signed in a
+cellar in High Street in 1707, amidst the execrations of the people, and
+it was not till the hopes of the Jacobites were blasted at Culloden
+(1746) that the townsfolk began to accept the inevitable. This epoch,
+when grass grew even in High Street, long lingered in the popular memory
+as the "dark age."
+
+By the accession of George III. (1760), Edinburgh showed signs of
+revived enterprise. In 1763 the first North Bridge, connecting the Old
+Town with the sloping ground on which afterwards stood the Register
+House and the theatre in Shakespeare Square, was opened; a little later
+the Nor' Loch was partially drained, and the bridging of the Cowgate in
+1785 encouraged expansion southwards. Towards the end of the 18th
+century the New Town began to take shape on the grand, if formal, lines
+which had been planned by James Craig (d. 1795), the architect, nephew
+of the poet Thomson, and the erection of Regent Bridge in Waterloo Place
+(formally opened in 1819 on the occasion of the visit of Prince Leopold,
+afterwards king of the Belgians) gave access to Calton Hill. The
+creation of Princes Street, one of the most beautiful thoroughfares in
+the world, led to further improvement. The earth and debris from the
+excavation of the sites for the houses in this and adjoining streets had
+been "dumped" in the centre of the drained Nor' Loch. This unsightly
+mass of rubbish lay for a while as an eye-sore, until the happy thought
+arose of converting it into a broad way joining the new road at Hanover
+Street with the Old Town at the Lawnmarket. Upon this street, which
+divides Princes Street and its gardens into east and west, and which
+received the title of the Mound, were erected the National Gallery and
+the Royal Institution. Speaking generally, the New Town was resorted to
+by professional men--lawyers, doctors and artists,--and in its principal
+streets will be found the head offices of the leading banks and
+insurance offices, all lodged in buildings of remarkable architectural
+pretensions. The Commercial, the Union and the Clydesdale banks are in
+George Street, the National Bank of Scotland, the Royal Bank of
+Scotland, and the British Linen Company's Bank are in St Andrew Square,
+the Bank of Scotland is at the head of the Mound. The extensive building
+operations engaged in by the town council in the early part of the 19th
+century resulted in the insolvency of the city in 1833. The property of
+the corporation was valued at L271,658 against a debt of L425,195, which
+was compounded for by the issue of 3% annuity bonds--the loss to the
+creditors amounting to 25% of their claims.
+
+Meanwhile the progress of letters, science and learning manifested the
+recovery of the city. The names of Knox (d. 1572), Buchanan (1582),
+Alexander Montgomery (1605), Drummond of Hawthornden (1649), Allan
+Ramsay (1757), Smollett (1771), Fergusson (1774), and Burns (1796),
+carried on the literary associations of the Scottish capital nearly to
+the close of the 18th century, when various causes combined to give them
+new significance and value. The university was served by a body of
+teachers and investigators who won for it a prominent position among
+European schools. Then succeeded the era of Scott's _Marmion_ and _The
+Lady of the Lake_, followed by the Waverley novels and the foundation of
+_Blackwood's Magazine_ and the _Edinburgh Review_.
+
+Modern conditions have changed the character of Edinburgh society. In
+Scott's early days a journey to London was beset with difficulties and
+even dangers; but railways have now brought it within a few hours'
+distance, and Scottish artists and literary men are tempted to seek a
+wider field. Nevertheless, the influence of the past survives in many
+ways. Edinburgh is not markedly a manufacturing city, but preserves its
+character as the Scottish capital.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--James Grant, _Old and New Edinburgh_ (London, 1880 et
+  seq.); W. Maitland, _History of Edinburgh_ (1753); Hugo Arnot,
+  _History of Edinburgh_ (1789); B. Chambers, _Traditions of Edinburgh_
+  (1824); D. Wilson, _Memorials of Edinburgh in the Olden Time_
+  (1846-1848); O. Smeaton, _Edinburgh and its Story_ (1904). _The
+  Municipal Buildings of Edinburgh_, by Robert Miller, Lord Dean of
+  Guild, printed by order of the town council (Edinburgh, 1895); _Royal
+  Edinburgh_, by Mrs Oliphant, illustrations by Sir George Reid, R.S.A.
+  (London, 1890).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The original Tolbooth was completed in 1501, but a new one took
+    its place in 1563-1564, and was subsequently altered. At first
+    occupied by the parliament and courts of justice, it served later as
+    a prison, and was removed in 1817.
+
+  [2] James Gillespie (1726-1797) was a tobacco and snuff manufacturer,
+    and when he set up his carriage Henry Erskine suggested as a motto
+    the homely couplet:--
+
+      "Wha wad hae thocht it,
+       That noses wad bocht it?"
+
+  [3] James Donaldson (1751-1830) was a printer who bequeathed nearly
+    the whole of his large fortune for the purposes of a hospital for
+    poor boys and girls, and the trustees have usually selected half of
+    the children admitted from the ranks of the deaf and dumb.
+
+
+
+
+EDINBURGHSHIRE, or MIDLOTHIAN, a county of Scotland, bounded N. by the
+Firth of Forth, E. by the shires of Haddington, or East Lothian, and
+Berwick, S.E. by Roxburghshire, S. by Selkirkshire, Peeblesshire and
+Lanarkshire, S.W. by Lanarkshire, and W. by Linlithgowshire or West
+Lothian. Its area is 234,339 acres or 3662 sq. m. The island of Cramond
+belongs to the county. There are no mountains, but the Pentland Hills
+advance boldly from the south-west to within 5 m. of the sea. The
+loftiest summits are Scald Law (1898 ft.), Carnethy (1881), West and
+East Cairn Hill (1844 and 1839), and West Kip (1806). They are generally
+of rounded form, and covered with heath or grass. The Moorfoot Hills, in
+the south-east, are a continuation of the Lammermuirs, and attain in
+Blackhope Scar a height of 2136 ft. Of more or less isolated eminences
+there are the Braid Hills (698 ft.), Blackford Hill (500), Arthur's Seat
+(822), Corstorphine Hill (500)--all practically within Edinburgh--and
+Dalmahoy Craig (800), 7 m. south-west of the city. Of the rivers the
+Gala rises on the south-east of the Moorfoot Hills and flows south to
+join the Tweed, and the Tyne after a course of 7 m. passes into
+Haddingtonshire. All the others flow into the Firth of Forth. Of these
+the Esk, which is the longest, drains the district between the Pentlands
+and the Moorfoot Hills, and empties into the sea at Musselburgh. The
+southern branch has its source near Blackhope Scar, receives on its
+right Gore Water and, on its left, Dalhousie Burn, and flows past
+Newbattle Abbey; the northern rises in the Pentlands, and proceeds
+through much picturesque scenery past Penicuik, Roslin, Hawthornden and
+Lasswade; the two streams uniting within the grounds of Dalkeith Palace.
+Braid Burn from Capelaw Hill passes between the Braid Hills and
+Blackford Hill, and reaches the sea at Portobello. The Water of Leith,
+with its head streams on the western slope of the Pentlands, flows past
+Balerno, Currie, Juniper Green, Colinton, Edinburgh and Leith. The
+Almond, rising in Lanarkshire, and its right-hand tributary, Breich
+Water, form the boundary between Midlothian and Linlithgowshire. Several
+of these streams, especially the Esk and the Water of Leith, furnish
+much water power. The only loch is that at Duddingston, but there are
+several large reservoirs connected with the water supply of Edinburgh.
+Cobbinshaw reservoir, situated at the head of Bog Burn, a tributary of
+the Almond, is used for the supply of the Union Canal connecting the
+Forth with the Clyde.
+
+  _Geology._--The southern portion of the county, embracing the Moorfoot
+  Hills and a large part of the catchment basin of the Gala Water, lies
+  within the Silurian tableland of the south of Scotland. From Bowland
+  northwards to Crookston in the Gala valley the Silurian strata are
+  mainly of Tarannon age and consist of greywackes, grits, flags and
+  shales, with thin dark seams which yield graptolites sparingly. To the
+  north of this area, older sediments, comprising Arenig cherts, black
+  shales, greywackes and grits of Llandeilo and Caradoc age, rise from
+  underneath the Tarannon strata and spread over the hills north to the
+  margin of the tableland. In some of the folds of Arenig cherts diabase
+  lavas appear, which occupy small lenticular areas. All the Silurian
+  strata are repeated by folds striking north-east and south-west and
+  frequently dipping in one direction, to the north-west as in the Gala
+  valley. North of the Silurian tableland and within the area occupied
+  by the younger palaeozoic rocks of the Pentland Hills, there are
+  various inliers of Upper Silurian strata. These isolated patches occur
+  (1) in the North Esk section, (2) at Loganlee reservoir, (3) near
+  Bavelaw Castle, and (4) in Bavelaw Burn. The section in the North Esk
+  is by far the most complete, as the strata embrace Wenlock, Ludlow and
+  Downtonian rocks with a north-east strike similar to that of the beds
+  in the Silurian tableland. The Wenlock rocks have yielded a rich suite
+  of organic remains. In the Pentland Hills the folded and denuded
+  Silurian strata are covered unconformably by Lower Old Red Sandstone
+  rocks, comprising conglomerates and red sandstones, which are
+  succeeded by a great volcanic series, the latter extending from the
+  West Kip Hill to the Braid Hills. The pebbles of the basal
+  conglomerates are derived chiefly from the underlying platform of
+  greywackes and shales and from the Radiolarian cherts and volcanic
+  rocks in the tableland to the south. The contemporaneous igneous rocks
+  include olivine basalts, andesites, trachytes, rhyolites and tuffs,
+  which are pierced by the microgranite of the Black Hill and by several
+  vents filled with agglomerate, as near Swanston.
+
+  The Upper Old Red Sandstone rests unconformably on all older
+  formations. The red sandstones and cornstones of this division form
+  the Cairn Hills, and are traceable north-eastwards along the
+  north-west slope of the Pentland Hills towards the Clubbiedean
+  reservoir, where they are overlapped by Carboniferous strata. They
+  occupy the south part of the city of Edinburgh, they occur in the
+  lower slope of Salisbury Crags, and south by Craigmillar and Liberton
+  towards Mortonhall. Recently the horizon of these beds has been proved
+  by the discovery of fish remains (_Holoptychius_), a zonal form of the
+  Upper Old Red Sandstone. The remainder of the county embracing the
+  fertile low ground west of the city of Edinburgh and along the basin
+  of the Esk is occupied by Carboniferous strata and various igneous
+  rocks associated with that formation. The Pentland Hills, formed of
+  older Palaeozoic deposits, appear as a prominent ridge, throwing off
+  the Carboniferous beds to the north-west and south-east. In the former
+  direction only the Calciferous Sandstone series is represented, and in
+  the latter all the Carboniferous divisions are well developed. The
+  lowest subdivision of the Calciferous Sandstone series, consisting of
+  sandstones, red and green shales, marls and cement-stones, appears in
+  the ridge of the old part of the city between the Castle and Holyrood,
+  in the Hunter's Bog and on the north-west side of the Pentland Hills.
+  Intercalated in this series near the top, there are interbedded
+  volcanic rocks, comprising olivine basalts, mugearites, tuffs and
+  agglomerates, which form conspicuous features on Arthur's Seat, on
+  Calton Hill, at Craiglockhart and Corston Hill south of Mid Calder.
+  Next in order come the Granton sandstones and Wardie shales, which are
+  best seen on the shore at Granton, and extend up the Water of Leith in
+  the direction of Colinton, where they are succeeded by the Hailes
+  sandstone. The upper portion of the Calciferous Sandstone series,
+  overlying the Hailes sandstone, embraces the valuable oil-shales,
+  which give rise to one of the chief industries of the Lothians.
+  Recently, however, it has been proved that some of the bands in the
+  Wardie shales give a low yield of oil and sulphate of ammonia. The
+  oil-shale-fields in the county lie partly along its west margin from
+  Mid Calder south to Breich and also on the south-east side of the
+  Pentland Hills between Straiton and Carlops along the west side of the
+  Midlothian basin. From an economic point of view the Midlothian
+  coalfield is of special importance, the strata being arranged in a
+  syncline, the long axis of which trends north-north-east and
+  south-south-west. In the centre of the basin lie the Coal-Measures
+  covered by the barren red sandstone of Dalkeith, probably on the same
+  horizon as the red sandstones of Wemyss in Fife (Middle
+  Coal-Measures). The underlying Millstone Grit and Carboniferous
+  Limestone series with its middle-coal-bearing group rise from
+  underneath the Coal-Measures, forming parallel bands curving round the
+  basin. Along the west side of the syncline, the strata dip at high
+  angles to the south-east, are sometimes vertical and even in some
+  cases inverted, while in the centre they become flat and rise at
+  gentle angles towards the east. The Coal Measures and the coal-bearing
+  group of the Carboniferous Limestone series contain numerous valuable
+  coals and ironstones, and there still remains a large field for
+  development. The intrusive igneous rocks forming prominent features in
+  the county are divisible into two main groups, which are separated
+  from each other by a considerable interval of time. The coarse
+  agglomerate filling the old volcano on the top of Arthur's Seat is
+  associated with the eruption of the volcanic rocks of Calciferous
+  Sandstone age near Edinburgh. The fine grained basalt appearing as a
+  plug on the Castle Rock closely resembles the basalt on the top of
+  Arthur's Seat, and is likewise of the same age. The intrusive sheets
+  of Salisbury Crags and Corstorphine Hill composed of olivine-dolerite
+  belong to the same general period. But the quartz-dolerites
+  represented by the Ratho sill are in all probability of late
+  Carboniferous age.
+
+_Climate and Agriculture._--In the hill country the average rainfall is
+37.4 in., but on the coast only 28.4 in. The average temperature ranges
+from 38 deg. F. in January to 59 deg.5 in July, the mean for the year
+being 47.7. The north-east and easterly winds prevailing in spring are,
+especially in Edinburgh and its vicinity, remarkable for their cold and
+blighting character. Excepting in the uplands, snow seldom lies long,
+but frosts sometimes occur at night as late as the beginning of June,
+and severe enough to destroy the young shoots of seedling trees in
+nurseries. But the winter is often astonishingly mild. The common
+snowdrop (_Galanthus nivalis_) blossoms as early as the 25th of January,
+the kidney liverleaf (_Hepatica triloba_) by the 31st of January and the
+rhododendron (_R. nobleanum_) by the 25th of February. On the shores of
+the Forth along the Almond and the Esk, and on some of the richer flats,
+grain crops ripen early; 2 m. nearer the hills and 200 ft. higher the
+harvest is ten days later; and at 600 ft. still another week later. High
+farming is the rule in the three Lothians. All the area on which wheat
+can be profitably grown is so occupied; oats, however, is the
+predominant grain crop, though barley is also raised. Turnips and
+potatoes are the chief roots, and beans are grown to a limited extent. A
+large area is occupied by pasture and sown grasses, fallow land having
+practically disappeared. Near Edinburgh sewage farming has been largely
+developed. There are 200 acres at Craigentinny between Restalrig and the
+Forth, besides smaller tracts under similar treatment at Lochend, Dalry
+and the Grange. The produce consists principally of natural grasses.
+Sheep and cattle raising is an important pursuit. In the neighbourhood
+of the capital dairy farming is conducted on an extensive scale. Horse
+breeding flourishes, several of the studs being of excellent character,
+Clydesdales predominating. Pig-keeping has grown considerably and
+poultry-farming is carried on near Edinburgh. The nursery gardens are
+extensive, and, besides market gardening, which prospers near the
+capital, there are many orchards.
+
+_Other Industries._--Though as a whole not a mining county, Midlothian
+possesses some mineral wealth. Coal is extensively mined at various
+points on the North Esk, like Penicuik, Loanhead, Bonnyrigg, Eskbank and
+at Gorebridge, Newbattle, Newbigging, Niddrie, Gilmerton, Mid and West
+Calder. Ironstone is obtained chiefly at Lasswade and Penicuik and
+fire-clay occurs at various points. In the vicinity of West Calder there
+is a large amount of valuable oil-bearing shale. Limestone is of
+frequent occurrence--at Esperston, Cousland, Crichton near Dalkeith,
+Burdiehouse, Gilmerton near Edinburgh, the Camps in Kirknewton parish,
+and at Muirieston and Leven Seat in the south-west. Freestone is
+quarried at Craigleith, Hailes, Redhall and Craigmillar. It is used for
+pavements and stairs, and for the great docks at Leith. Barnton Mount
+supplies large blocks of whinstone, also used for docks and for
+fortifications; the causeway stones for the streets of Edinburgh are
+mainly procured from the quarries at Ratho; and a number of smaller
+quarries for the supply of road-material are scattered throughout the
+county. Owing no doubt to the growth of printing and publishing in the
+metropolis, the chief manufacturing industry in Midlothian is
+paper-making. Most of the mills are extensive and equipped with the most
+modern processes and have an enormous yearly output. The most important
+mills, some of them dating from the beginning of the 18th century, are
+situated on the North Esk between Penicuik and Musselburgh, and on the
+South Esk at Newbattle. At Balerno, Currie, Colinton and elsewhere on
+the Water of Leith there are several mills, as well as near Mid Calder
+and at Portobello. The ancient vat-mill called Peggy's Mill, at Cramond,
+produces handmade papers. There are carpet factories on the Esk at
+Roslin and at Lasswade. The manufacture of gunpowder is also carried on
+at Roslin, the works being distributed in recesses on the Esk. Iron
+foundries exist at Dalkeith, Westfield, Loanhead, Penicuik, Millerhill
+and in the suburbs of Edinburgh; brick and tile works at Portobello,
+Millerhill, Newbattle, Bonnyrigg and Rosewell; and candle works at
+Dalkeith and Loanhead. Leather also is tanned at Edinburgh and Dalkeith.
+The shipping trade is concentrated at Leith and Granton, and Newhaven is
+still an important fishery centre, while there are also fleets at
+Fisherrow and Granton.
+
+_Population and Government._--The population in 1891 was 434,276, and in
+1901 488,796, of whom 5765 spoke both Gaelic and English, and 75 Gaelic
+only. The chief towns, besides Edinburgh, the capital (pop. in 1901,
+316,837), are Bonnyrigg (1924), Dalkeith (6812), Leith (77,439),
+Loanhead (3071), Musselburgh (11,711), Newton Grange (2406), Penicuik
+(3574), and West Calder (2652). The county forms a single parliamentary
+constituency, exclusive of Edinburgh city and Leith burghs. It has been
+divided by the county council into four county districts (Calder, Gala
+Water, Lasswade, Suburban) for the purposes of the Roads and Bridges Act
+1878, and the Public Health Acts. The management of special districts
+formed for water supply, drainage and other sanitary purposes is
+entrusted to sub committees appointed by the respective district
+committees. The grant under the Local Taxation (Customs and Excise) Act
+is administered by the Technical Education Committee appointed by the
+Council; and, subject to the same authority, the Secondary Education
+Committee provides for the distribution of the grant under the Local
+Taxation (Scotland) Act. In respect of education the shire is under
+school-board jurisdiction.
+
+_History and Antiquities._--Cramond was once a Roman seaport, and
+various objects of Roman art and workmanship have been discovered in its
+vicinity and along the banks of the Almond. On several heights are
+remains of early military works--the most important being that on
+Dalmahoy Hill, Braidwood Castle in the parish of Penicuik, and Castle
+Greg on the Harburn estate in Mid Calder parish. Picts' houses are found
+at Crichton Mains, at Borthwick Castle, near Middleton House and
+elsewhere, the first being especially interesting from the fact that
+some of the stones bear marks of Roman masonry. There are hut-circles
+and a fort on Kaimes Hill, near Ratho; a large tumulus, with three
+upright stones, at Old Liston; a smaller tumulus at Newbattle; a
+cistvaen or stone burial chest at Carlowrie; and standing stones at
+Lochend, at Comiston (the Caiy stone), and the "Cat Stane" near
+Kirkliston. Temple, on the South Esk, was at one time the chief seat of
+the Knights Templars in Scotland for whom David I. here built a church,
+now in ruins.
+
+The history of the county is almost identical with that of the capital.
+Traces of Celtic occupation are obvious in such names as Inveresk,
+Almond, Leith, Dalry, Dalmahoy, Dalkeith and others; though most of the
+villages, hamlets and castles received their present designation from
+Saxon possessors. The termination _ton_ is very frequent. Following upon
+the withdrawal of the Romans the land was the scene of intertribal
+strife, but it was in a measure subdued by the Saxons and passed under
+the rule of the Northumbrian kings, who held it till 1020, when the
+Lothians were handed over to the Scottish king, Malcolm II. The people
+of the Lothians, however, stipulated that they were to retain their
+manners and customs, and in this way the south-eastern lowlands became
+the centre from which Anglo-Saxon and Norman civilization gradually
+spread throughout Scotland, and hence, too, was assured the pre-eminence
+of Edinburgh. Within the county lie the battlefields of Roslin, where
+(in 1303) the English suffered three reverses in one day; Burghmuir,
+where the English were defeated by the earl of Moray in 1334; Pinkie
+near Inveresk, where (in 1547) the duke of Somerset inflicted heavy loss
+upon the Scots; and Rullion Green, on the eastern slopes of the
+Pentlands, where (in 1666) the Covenanters were routed by the royal
+troops under General Dalziel.
+
+  See James Grant, _Old and New Edinburgh_ (London, 1880 et seq.); Miss
+  Warrender, _Walks near Edinburgh_ (Edinburgh, 1890); J.C. Oliphant,
+  _Rambles round Edinburgh_ (Edinburgh, 1892); J.M. Bell, _Castles of
+  the Lothians_ (Edinburgh, 1893); W. Baird, _Annals of Duddingston and
+  Portobello_ (Edinburgh, 1898); J. Geddie, _The Water of Leith_
+  (Edinburgh, 1896); Rev. J. Dickson, _Ruined Castles of Midlothian_
+  (Edinburgh, 1895); _The Islands of the Forth_ (Edinburgh 1899).
+
+
+
+
+EDISON, THOMAS ALVA (1847-   ), American inventor, was born on the 11th
+of February 1847, at Milan, Erie county, Ohio, of mixed Dutch and
+Scottish descent; but his parents moved to Port Huron, Michigan, when he
+was seven years old. At the age of twelve he became a train news-boy on
+the railway to Detroit, and managed to gratify his youthful interest in
+chemistry by performing experiments while travelling. At fifteen he
+became a telegraph operator, and was employed in many cities in the
+United States and Canada, but frequently neglected his duties in order
+to carry on studies and experiments in electrical science. Before he was
+twenty-one he had constructed an automatic repeater, by means of which a
+message could be transferred from one wire to another without the aid of
+an operator; and he had also directed his attention to the problem of
+duplex telegraphy, of which he later invented a successful system. In
+1869 Edison came to New York city, and soon afterwards became connected
+with the Gold & Stock Company. He invented an improved printing
+telegraph for stock quotations, for which he received $40,000. He then
+established a laboratory and factory in Newark, N.J., for further
+experiments and for the manufacture of his inventions. In 1876 he
+removed to Menlo Park, and later to West Orange, N.J., where he
+continued his experiments. Since then his name has been prominently
+associated with all kinds of novelties in practical electricity. Among
+his principal inventions are his system of duplex telegraphy, which he
+later developed into quadruplex and sextuplex transmission; his carbon
+telephone transmitter; the microtasimeter, for the detection of small
+variations in temperature; the phonograph, which records and reproduces
+all manner of sounds; the cinematograph, which his improvements made
+practicable; and his method of preparing carbon filaments for the
+incandescent electric lamp. In 1878 Edison was made a chevalier of the
+Legion of Honour by the French government.
+
+
+
+
+EDMONTON, the capital city of the province of Alberta, Canada, which was
+constituted in 1905. Pop. (1901) 2652; (1906) 11,167. It is
+picturesquely situated on the north bank of the North Saskatchewan river
+in 113 deg. 37' W. and 53 deg. 32' N. It is on a high tableland which
+rises 200 ft. above the river, and overlooks the thickly wooded valley
+of the North Saskatchewan river--at this point a mile in width, the
+river itself being one-eighth of a mile wide. Directly opposite Edmonton
+on the south bank of the river stands Strathcona, a town with a
+population of 2927. The streets of Edmonton are wide and laid out in
+rectangular form. Its excellent drainage makes street grading an easy
+matter. In 1896 it was scarcely a village; in 1901 it assumed some
+importance, but three-quarters of the city were built between 1901 and
+1906. Its choice as capital in 1905 gave it a great impetus. The
+buildings, largely of brick, give a substantial appearance to the place.
+The public school buildings, high school and Alberta College are
+attractive. The church buildings, many in number, include several
+architecturally beautiful. Three well planned and commodious hospital
+buildings represent the benevolent work of the community. The banks and
+the wholesale warehouses are well built, and many beautiful private
+residences are worthy of note. Its growth may be realized from the fact
+that during a part of 1906, $806,015 worth of building permits were
+granted; the customs receipts, $57,994 in 1905, grew to $104,416 in
+1906; the mail parcels handled increased from 6800 to 12,079; and the
+express parcels handled from 1277 to 2347. Edmonton is the depot of the
+fur traders for the great region on the north and west. The Hudson's Bay
+Company has great interest in Edmonton, but is vigorously opposed by a
+strong French firm, Revillon Freres of Paris. These two companies have
+their posts wide spread over the north country. The city, being
+incorporated, is governed by a mayor and a board of aldermen. It
+operates its own water service, electric light plant, and telephone
+system. Its schools are managed by an elected public school board.
+
+Edmonton was begun as a post of the North West Company about the year
+1778. Early in the 19th century the Hudson's Bay Company also
+established a fort at this point. On the union of the two companies
+under the name of the latter, Fort Edmonton sprang into new importance.
+It became a north-western centre, and in its neighbourhood many
+employees of the fur company, both Scottish and French, took up land as
+settlers. As freighters for the Hudson's Bay Company many of these
+settlers made, with their ox or pony carts, the long journey over the
+natural prairie roads to Fort Garry, fording or swimming the streams,
+carrying furs for a thousand miles or more on the eastern trip, and
+returning brought loads of merchandise for the company. Its
+inaccessibility made the Edmonton settlement grow very slowly, so that
+its great increase in population belongs to the period subsequent to
+1896.
+
+
+
+
+EDMONTON, an urban district in the Enfield parliamentary division of
+Middlesex, England, suburban to London, 7-1/2 m. N. of London Bridge, on
+the Old North Road, on the west side of the Lea Valley. Pop. (1891)
+25,381; (1901) 46,899. There are numerous factories in the valley, and
+Edmonton consists largely of the cottages of artisans. The church of All
+Saints has been extensively restored, but retains part of the ancient
+fabric of Perpendicular and earlier date. It contains brasses of
+interest, and in the churchyard is the memorial of Charles Lamb, who
+lived and died (1834) at Edmonton, and his sister. Cowper and Keats were
+also residents, and the Bell Inn is famed through Cowper's poem _John
+Gilpin_.
+
+
+
+
+EDMUND, SAINT [EDMUND RICH] (d. 1240), English saint and archbishop of
+Canterbury, was born at Abingdon, near Oxford, about 1175. His father
+was a merchant of that town who retired, with his wife's consent, to the
+monastery of Eynsham, leaving in her hands the education of their
+family. Her name was Mabel; she was a devout woman who lived an ascetic
+life and encouraged her children to do the same. Both her daughters took
+the veil; three of her sons served the church in different capacities.
+Edmund, her first-born, began his education in a grammar school at
+Oxford. Of weak health and a contemplative disposition, he showed, from
+his earliest years, a remarkable taste for learning and religious
+exercises. He saw visions while still at school, and at the age of
+twelve took a vow of perpetual chastity in the Virgin's church at
+Oxford. Later he was sent, with his brother Robert, to study the liberal
+arts at Paris. His mother's death and family affairs recalled him for a
+time to England; but he afterwards graduated at Paris. For six years he
+lectured in the liberal arts, partly in Paris and partly in Oxford; his
+career as an Oxford teacher commenced before 1205, and is noteworthy for
+the fact that he was the first who lectured there on Aristotle. He then
+returned to Paris for a course of theological studies, and rapidly made
+himself proficient in that branch of learning.
+
+After spending a year in retirement with the Augustinian canons of
+Merton (Surrey) he became a theological lecturer in Oxford. In this
+capacity he gained some reputation, and it is related that his audience
+were often moved to tears by his eloquence. He spent the fees which he
+received in charity, and refused to spend upon himself the revenues
+which he derived from several benefices. He not infrequently retired
+for solitude to Reading Abbey; it is probable that he would have become
+a monk if that profession had afforded more scope for his gifts as a
+preacher and expositor. As his fame increased he became alarmed by the
+temptations which it threw in his way. He ceased to lecture in Oxford,
+and about 1222 accepted, at the invitation of Bishop Richard Poore, the
+treasurership of Salisbury cathedral. Little is known of his life for
+the next ten years. But he attracted the notice of the Roman court, and
+was appointed in 1227 to preach the Crusade in England; he formed a
+friendship with Ella, countess of Salisbury, and her husband, William
+Longsword, and he won general admiration by his works of charity and the
+austerity of his life.
+
+In 1233 he was elected archbishop of Canterbury at the express
+suggestion of Gregory IX., after the monks of Canterbury had in vain
+suggested three other candidates for the pope's approval. Edmund at once
+leaped into prominence by the outspoken manner in which he rebuked the
+king for following the advice of foreign favourites. In common with the
+baronial opposition he treated Henry III. as responsible for the tragic
+fate of Richard Marshal, earl of Pembroke, and threatened the king with
+excommunication. The king bowed before the storm, dismissed the foreign
+counsellors, made peace with Marshal's adherents, and was publicly
+reconciled with the barons. But the new ministers were as unpopular as
+the old; nor was the archbishop allowed that political influence which
+he claimed in virtue of his office. It was with the object of
+emancipating himself from Edmund's control that the king asked the pope
+to send him a legate (1236). On the arrival of Cardinal Otho (1237) the
+archbishop found himself thwarted and insulted at every point. The
+marriage between Simon de Montfort and the Princess Eleanor, which
+Edmund had pronounced invalid, was ratified at Rome upon appeal. The
+king and legate upheld the monks of Canterbury in their opposition to
+the archbishop's authority. On all public occasions the legate took
+precedence of the archbishop. By the advice of his suffragans Edmund
+laid a protest before the king, and excommunicated in general terms all
+who had infringed the liberties of Canterbury. These measures led to no
+result; nor could the pope be moved to reverse the legate's decisions.
+Edmund complained that the discipline of the national church was ruined
+by this conflict of powers, and began to meditate retiring. He was
+confirmed in this intention by the papal encroachments of the year 1240,
+when the English clergy were required to pay a subsidy of a fifth for
+the war against Frederick II., and simultaneously three hundred Romans
+were "provided" with English benefices in return for their political
+services to the Holy See. Edmund withdrew to Pontigny in the summer of
+1240. A little later the state of his health compelled him to seek the
+cooler air of Soissy (near Provins). Here he died on the 16th of
+November 1240.
+
+His canonization was at once demanded by his admirers, and only delayed
+(till 1247) through the opposition of Henry III. The honour was well
+deserved. He is one of the most saintly and attractive figures in the
+history of the English church. It was his misfortune to be placed at the
+head of the national hierarchy in a crisis for which he had not been
+prepared by practical training or experience. As archbishop he showed no
+great capacity or force of character; but the purity of his motives and
+the loftiness of his ideals commanded universal respect.
+
+  See the Life printed by Martene and Durand in the _Thesaurus novus
+  anecdotorum_ (1717). Other lives of importance exist in manuscript at
+  the British Museum, in the Cambridge University library and in that of
+  St John's College, Cambridge. The last-named is printed by W. Wallace
+  in the appendix to his _Life of St Edmund_ (1893). An account of the
+  manuscript lives and many extracts (translated) will be found in the
+  Rev. B. Ward's _St Edmund_ (1903). See also _St Edmund of Abingdon_
+  (1898), by the Baroness Paravicini; and the _English Historical
+  Review_, xxii. pp. 84 ff.     (H. W. C. D.)
+
+
+
+
+EDMUND, king of East Anglia (c. 840-870), succeeded to the East Anglian
+throne in 855 while he was yet but a boy. According to Abbo, followed by
+Florence of Worcester, he was "_ex antiquorum Saxonum prosapia_," which
+would seem to mean that he was of foreign origin and that he belonged to
+the Old Saxons of the continent. This very doubtful tradition was
+expanded later into a fuller legend which spoke of his Old Saxon
+parentage, his birth at Nuremberg, his nomination as successor to Offa,
+king of East Anglia, and his landing at Hunstanton to claim his kingdom.
+His coronation took place in the next year at "Burna" (i.e. probably
+Bures St Mary, Suffolk), which was then the royal capital.
+
+Of the life of St Edmund during the next fourteen years we know nothing.
+In the year 870 the Danes, who had been wintering at York, marched
+through Mercia into East Anglia and took up their quarters at Thetford.
+Edward engaged them fiercely in battle, but the Danes under their
+leaders Ubba and Inguar were victorious and remained in possession of
+the field of battle. The king himself was slain, whether on the actual
+field of battle or in later martyrdom is not certain, but the widely
+current version of the story which makes him fall a martyr to the Danish
+arrows when he had refused to renounce his faith or hold his kingdom as
+a vassal from the heathen overlords, may very probably be true. The
+story is a very old one, and according to Abbo of Fleury (945-1004), St
+Edmund's earliest biographer, it was told him by Dunstan, who heard it
+from the lips of Edmund's own standard-bearer. This is chronologically
+just possible, but that is all. The battle was fought at Hoxne, some 20
+m. south-east of Thetford, and the king's body was ultimately interred
+at Beadoricesworth, the modern Bury St Edmunds. The shrine of Edmund
+soon became one of the most famous in England and the reputation of the
+saint was European. The date of his canonization is unknown, but
+churches dedicated to his memory are found all over England.
+
+  See _Asser's Life of Alfred_, ed. W.H. Stevenson; _Annals of St
+  Neots_; _Saxon Chronicle_; _Memorials of St Edmund's Abbey_ (Rolls
+  Series), including the _Passio Sancti Edmundi_ of Abbo of Fleury; and
+  the _Corolla Sancti Eadmundi_, edited by Lord Francis Hervey (1907).
+       (A. Mw.)
+
+
+
+
+EDMUND I., king of the English (d. 946), was the son of Eadgifu, third
+wife of Edward the Elder, and half-brother to his predecessor Aethelstan.
+He succeeded to the throne in 940, but had already played an active part
+in the previous reign, especially when he fought by the side of his
+half-brother in the great battle of Brunanburh.
+
+In the first year of his reign Edmund had trouble with Olaf or Anlaf
+Sihtricsson, called Cuaran. The latter had just crossed from Ireland and
+had been chosen king by the Northumbrians, who threw off their
+allegiance to Edmund. Anlaf took York, besieged Northampton and
+destroyed Tamworth, but was met by Edmund at Leicester. The enemy
+escaped, but a peaceful settlement was made by the good offices of Odo
+of Canterbury and Wulfstan of York. Simeon of Durham states that a
+division of the kingdom was now made, whereby Edmund took England south
+of Watling Street and Anlaf the rest. This division seems incredible,
+especially in face of the poem inserted in the chronicle (_sub anno_
+942). There can be little doubt that the story told there of the
+reconquest of Northern Mercia by Edmund refers to the compact with
+Anlaf, made as a result of the campaign, and it is probable that
+Simeon's statement is a wide exaggeration, due in part at least to a
+confused reminiscence of the earlier pact between Alfred and Guthrum.
+All Mercia south of a line from Dore (near Sheffield), through Whitwell
+to the Humber, was now in Edmund's hands, and the five Danish boroughs,
+which had for some time been exposed to raids from the Norwegian kings
+of Northumbria, were now freed from that fear. The peace was confirmed
+by the baptism of Kings Anlaf and Raegenald, Edmund standing as sponsor,
+but in 944 or 945 the peace was broken and Edmund expelled Anlaf and
+Raegenald from Northumbria.
+
+In 945 Edmund ravaged Strathclyde, and entrusted it all to Malcolm, king
+of Scotland, "on condition that he should be his fellow-worker by sea
+and land," the object of this policy being apparently to detach the king
+of Scots from any possible confederacy such as had been formed in 937.
+
+On the 26th of May 946 Edmund's brief but energetic reign came to a
+tragic conclusion when he was stabbed at the royal villa of
+Pucklechurch, in Gloucestershire, by an exiled robber named Liofa, who
+had returned to the court unbidden. Edmund, the "deed-doer" as the
+chronicle calls him, "Edmundus magnificus" as Florence of Worcester
+describes him, perhaps translating the Saxon epithet, was buried at
+Glastonbury, an abbey which he had entrusted in 943 to the famous
+Dunstan.
+
+Edmund was twice married; first to Aelfgifu, the mother of Eadwig and
+Edgar; second to Aethelflaed "aet Damerhame" (i.e. of Damerham, Co. Wilts).
+Aelfgifu died in 944, according to Ethelwerd.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--_Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_ (ed. Earle and Plummer, Oxford);
+  _Simeon of Durham_ (Rolls Series); _A.S. Laws_, ed. Liebermann, pp.
+  184-191; Birch, _Cartularium Saxonicum_, Nos. 745-817; _Dictionary of
+  National Biography_, s.v.     (A. Mw.)
+
+
+
+
+EDMUND, or EADMUND (c. 980-1016), called IRONSIDE, king of the English,
+was the son of Aethelred II. by his first wife Aelfgifu. When Canute
+invaded England in 1015, Edmund sought to resist him, but, paralysed by
+the treachery and desertion of the ealdorman Edric, he could do nothing,
+and Wessex submitted to the Danish king. Next year Canute and Edric
+together harried Mercia, while Edmund with infinite difficulty gathered
+an army. Returning into Northumbria, he in his turn harried the
+districts which had submitted to the invader, but a march northward by
+Canute brought about the speedy submission of Northumbria and the return
+of Edmund to London. The death of Aethelred on the 23rd of April 1016 was
+followed by a double election to the English crown. The citizens of
+London and those members of the Witan who were present in the city chose
+Edmund, the rest of the Witan meeting at Southampton elected Canute. In
+the warfare which ensued Edmund fought at the severest disadvantage, for
+his armies dispersed after every engagement, whatever its issue. Canute
+at once fiercely besieged London, but the citizens successfully resisted
+all attacks. Edmund meanwhile marched through Wessex and received its
+submission. At Pen in Somersetshire he engaged the Danes and defeated
+them. Canute now raised the siege of London and soon afterwards
+encountered Edmund at Sherston in Wiltshire. The battle was indecisive,
+but Canute marched back to London and left Edmund in possession of
+Wessex. Edmund hastened after him and relieved London, which he had
+again besieged. He defeated the Danes at Brentford and again at Otford,
+and drove them into Sheppey. He was now joined by Edric, in conjunction
+with whom he followed the Danes into Essex, overtaking them at Assandun
+(or Ashington). In the battle which ensued Edric again played the
+traitor, and the English were routed with terrible slaughter. Edmund
+retired into Gloucestershire, whither he was followed by Canute. He
+himself was anxious to continue the struggle, but Edric and the Witan
+persuaded him to accept a reconciliation. At Olney the two rivals swore
+friendship, and a division of the kingdom was effected--Canute taking
+the north, Edmund the south. Soon afterwards Edmund died (30th of
+November 1016), probably from natural causes, though later historians
+hint at foul play.     (C. S. P.*)
+
+
+
+
+EDMUND, king of Sicily and earl of Lancaster (1245-1296), was the second
+son of Henry III. of England by Eleanor of Provence. At ten years of age
+Edmund was invested by Pope Alexander IV. with the kingdom of Sicily
+(April 1255); the pecuniary obligations which Henry III. undertook on
+his son's behalf were not the least among the causes which led to the
+Provisions of Oxford and the Barons' War. Alexander annulled his grant
+in 1258, but still pressed Henry for the discharge of unpaid arrears of
+subsidies. In 1265, after Montfort's fall, Edmund received the earldom
+of Leicester, and two years later was created earl of Lancaster. He
+joined the crusade of his elder brother, the Lord Edward (1271-1272);
+and Edward, on his accession, found in Edmund a loyal supporter. In
+1275, two years after the death of his first wife, Aveline de Fortibus,
+Edmund married Blanche of Artois, the widow of Henry III. of Navarre and
+Champagne. Although the county of Champagne had descended to his wife's
+infant daughter, Joan, Edmund assumed the title "Count Palatine of
+Champagne and Brie," and is described in the English patent rolls as
+earl of Lancaster and Champagne. Until 1284 he held, in his wife's
+right, the custody of Champagne. This he was compelled to renounce upon
+the marriage of Joan to Philip the Fair, the heir to the crown of
+France. But he retained the possession of his wife's dowerlands in
+Champagne, and is described in an official document of Champagne so late
+as the year 1287, as "the Count Edmund." He was employed by his brother
+as a mediator with Philip the Fair in 1293-1294. When Philip's court
+pronounced that the king of England had forfeited Gascony, Edmund
+renounced his homage to Philip and withdrew with his wife to England. He
+was appointed lieutenant of Gascony in 1296, but died in the same year,
+leaving a son Thomas to succeed him in his English possessions.
+
+  See "Edmund, Earl of Lancaster," by W.E. Rhodes, in the _English
+  Historical Review_, vol. x. pp. 19, 209.
+
+
+
+
+EDMUNDS, GEORGE FRANKLIN (1828-), American lawyer and political leader,
+was born in Richmond, Vermont, on the 1st of February 1828. He began the
+practice of law in 1849. He was a member of the Vermont House of
+Representatives in 1854, 1855, 1857, 1858 and 1859, acting for the last
+two years as speaker, and was a member and president _pro tem._ of the
+state Senate in 1861-1862. In 1866 he became a member, as a Republican,
+of the United States Senate, where he remained until 1891, when he
+resigned in order to have more time for the practice of his profession.
+He took an active part in the attempt to impeach President Johnson. He
+was influential in providing for the electoral commission to decide the
+disputed presidential election of 1876, and became one of the
+commissioners. In the national Republican nominating conventions of 1880
+and 1884 he was a candidate for the presidential nomination. From 1882
+to 1885 he was president _pro tem._ of the Senate. As senator he was
+conspicuous on account of his legal and parliamentary attainments, his
+industry and his liberal opinions. He was the author of the so-called
+Edmunds Act (22nd of March 1882) for the suppression of polygamy in
+Utah, and of the anti-trust law of 1890, popularly known as the Sherman
+Act.
+
+
+
+
+EDOM, the district situated to the south of Palestine, between the Dead
+Sea and the Gulf of 'Akaba (Aelanitic Gulf), the inhabitants of which
+were regarded by the Israelites as a "brother" people (see ESAU). On the
+E. it touched Moab, the tribes of the great desert and the northern part
+of Arabia; on the W. its boundaries were determined by the Sinaitic
+peninsula, Egypt and Israel. Both Kadesh and Mt. Hor (perhaps Jebel
+Madera) are represented as lying on its border (Num. xx. 16, 22), and
+the modern Wadi el-Fikreh, in which the "Scorpion pass" was probably
+situated (Judg. i. 36; Num. xxxiv. 4), may have marked its limits from
+Jebel Madera north-west towards the southern extremity of the Dead Sea.
+Kadesh (_'Ain Kadis_), however, lies about 50 m. south of Beersheba (the
+southern end of Israel as opposed to Dan in the north), and the precise
+borders must always have been determined by political conditions: by the
+relations between Edom and its neighbours, Judah, the Philistine states,
+Moab, and the restless desert tribes with which Edom was always very
+closely allied.
+
+  The northern part of Edom became known by a separate name as Gebalene
+  (Gebal in Ps. lxxxiii. 7), the modern Jibal, "mountain country." Seir
+  or Mt. Seir, a synonym for Edom, not to be confused with the Judaean
+  locality (Josh. xv. 10), has been identified with the modern
+  _es-sarah_, the hilly region to the south of Petra; though its use
+  probably varied in ancient times as much as that of Edom certainly
+  did. Mt. Halak, apparently one of its offshoots (Josh. xi. 17, xii.
+  7), is of uncertain identification, nor can the exact position of
+  Paran (probably desert of _et-Tih_) or Zin (Sin) be precisely
+  determined. The chief Edomite cities extended from north to south on
+  or adjoining an important trade-route (see below); they include Bozrah
+  (Buseire), Shobek, Petra (the capital), and Ma'an; farther to the
+  south lay the important seaports Ezion-Geber (mod. 'Ain el-Ghudyan,
+  now 15 m. north of the head of the Aelanitic Gulf) and Elath (whence
+  the gulf derives its name). Petra (q.v.) is usually identified with
+  the biblical Sela, unless this latter is to be placed at the south end
+  of the Dead Sea (Judg. i. 36). The sites of Teman and Dedan, which
+  also were closely associated with Edom (Jer. xlix. 7 seq.; Ez. xxv.
+  13), are uncertain. No doubt, as a general rule, the relations between
+  Edomites and the "sons of the east" (Ezek. xxv. 10; Job i. 3) and the
+  "kingdoms of Hazor" (nomad states; Jer. xlix. 28, 30, 33) varied
+  considerably throughout the period of O.T. history.
+
+
+The land of Edom is unfruitful and forbidding, with the notable
+exception of fertile districts immediately south of the Dead Sea and
+along its eastern border. It was traversed by an important trade-route
+from Elath (the junction for routes to Egypt and Arabia) which ran
+northwards by Ma'an and Moab; but cross-routes turned from Ma'an and
+Petra to Gaza or up the Ghor (south end of Dead Sea) to Hebron and
+Jerusalem.[1] Thus Edom formed a prominent centre for traffic from
+Arabia and its seats of culture to Egypt, the Philistine towns,
+Palestine and the Syrian states, and it enjoyed a commercial importance
+which made it a significant factor in Palestinian history.
+
+The earliest history of Edom is that of the "sand-dwellers," "archers"
+or _Shasu_ (perhaps "marauders"), whose conflicts with ancient Egypt are
+not infrequently mentioned. The first clear reference is in the eighth
+year of Mineptah II. (close of 13th century B.C.), when a tribe of Shasu
+from Aduma received permission to enter Egypt and feed their flocks.[2]
+A little more than a century later Rameses III. claims to have
+overthrown the Saaru among the tribes of the Shasu, and the
+identification of this name with Seir is usually recognized, although it
+is naturally uncertain whether the Edomites of Old Testament tradition
+are meant. According to the latter, the Edomites were a new race who
+drove out the Horites from Mt. Seir. The designation suggests that these
+were "cave-dwellers," but although many caves and hollows have been
+found about Petra (and also in Palestine), this tradition probably
+"serves only to express the idea entertained by later generations
+concerning their predecessors" (Noldeke).
+
+Not only is Edom as a nation recognized as older than Israel, but a list
+of eight kings, who reigned before the Israelite monarchy, is preserved
+in Gen. xxxvi.
+
+  The first Bela, son of Beor, is often identified with Balaam, but the
+  traditions of the Exodus are not precise enough to warrant the
+  assumption that the seer was the king of a hostile land in Num. xx. 14
+  sqq., which in Deut. ii. 1-8 appears to have been peaceful; see
+  BALAAM; EXODUS. In Husham, the third king, several scholars (Gratz,
+  Klostermann, Marquart, &c.) have recognized the true adversary of
+  Othniel (q.v.; Judg. iii.). The defeat of Midian in the land of Moab
+  by his successor Hadad has been associated with the Midianite invasion
+  in the time of Gideon (q.v.; Judg. vi. sqq.). The sixth is Shaul,
+  whose name happens to be identical with Saul, king of Israel, whilst
+  the last Hadad (so 1 Chron. i. 50) of Pau (or Peor in Moab, so the
+  Septuagint) should belong to the time of David. The list, whatever its
+  value, together with the other evidence in Gen. xxxvi., implies that
+  the Edomites consisted of a number of local groups with chieftains,
+  with a monarchy which, however, was not hereditary but due to the
+  supremacy of stronger leaders. The tradition thus finds an analogy in
+  the Israelite "judges" before the time of Saul and David.
+
+Saul, the first king of Israel, conquered Edom (1 Sam. xiv. 47).[3] Of
+the conquest of Edom by David, the first king of the united Judah and
+Israel, several details are given (2 Sam. viii. 13 seq.; 1 Kings xi. 14
+sqq.; 1 Chron. xviii. 11 seq.; cf. Ps. lx. title and ver. 8 seq.),
+although the account of the slaughter is certainly exaggerated. The
+scene was the valley of Salt, probably to the south of the Dead Sea. Of
+the escape of the Edomite prince Hadad, and of his residence in Egypt, a
+twofold account is preserved.[4] After the death of David he returned
+to Edom; if, as the narrative implies, he became a troublesome adversary
+to Solomon, nothing is known of his achievements, and if the royal
+trading-journeys from Ezion-geber were maintained, Edom could have done
+little. However, in the first half of the 9th century Edom was under the
+rule of Jehoshaphat of Judah, and this king together with Israel held
+Ezion-geber (1 Kings xxii. 47 sqq.; 2 Chron. xx. 35 sqq.). But some
+catastrophe befell the fleet, and shortly afterwards Jehoshaphat's son
+Jehoram had to face a revolt in which Edom and the men of Libnah (the
+Philistines) were concerned. It was about this period that Israel had
+conquered Moab, thrusting it farther south towards Edom, and the
+subsequent success of Moab in throwing off the yoke, and the
+unsuccessful attempt of Jehoram of Israel to regain the position, may
+show that Edom was also in alliance with Moab.[5] In the time of
+Adad-nirari of Assyria (812-783 B.C.) Edom is mentioned as an
+independent tributary with Beth-Omri (Israel) and Palashtu (Philistia);
+the absence of Judah is perplexing. Amaziah of Judah had gained a signal
+victory over Edom in the valley of Salt (2 Kings xiv. 7), but after his
+defeat by Jehoash of Israel there is a gap and the situation is obscure.
+Consequently it is uncertain whether Edom was the vassal of the next
+great Israelite king Jeroboam II., or whether the Assyrian evidence for
+its independent position belongs to this later time. However, Uzziah, a
+contemporary of Jeroboam II., and one of the most successful of Judaean
+kings, overcame Edom and its natural allies (2 Chron. xxvi. 6 sqq.), and
+at this stage Edomite history becomes more prominent. It joined the
+great coalition in which Philistia and Israel were leagued against
+Assyria, and drove out the Judaeans who had been in possession of
+Elath.[6] On the events that followed see AHAZ; HEZEKIAH; PHILISTINES.
+The Assyrian inscriptions name as tributary kings of Edom, Kaus-melek
+(time of Tiglath-Pileser IV.), Malik (?)-ram (701 B.C.), and Kaus-gabri
+(7th century). In the middle of the 7th century both Edom and Moab
+suffered from the restlessness of the desert tribes, and after another
+period of obscurity, they joined in the attempt made by Zedekiah of
+Judah to revolt against Nebuchadrezzar (Jer. xxvii. 3). In the last
+years before the fall of Jerusalem many of the Jews found a refuge in
+Edom (Jer. xl. 11), although other traditions throw another light upon
+the attitude of Edom during these disasters.
+
+  That Edomites burned the temple after the destruction of Jerusalem (1
+  Esd. iv. 45, cf. v. 50) is on a line with the repeated denunciation of
+  their "unbrotherly" conduct in later writings. Certainly the weak
+  state of Palestine invited attacks from the outlying tribes, but the
+  tone of certain late writings implies a preliminary period of, at
+  least, neutrality (cf. Deut. ii. 4 sqq., xxiii. 7 seq.; the omission
+  of Edom in xxiii. 3; Neh. xiii. 1; and in Ezra ix. 1--contrast 1 Esd.
+  viii. 69). Subsequently Edom is execrated for revengeful attacks upon
+  the Jews, and its speedy destruction is foretold; but the passages
+  appear to be much later than the disaster of 587 B.C., and may even
+  imply conditions after the restoration (Ob. 10 sqq.; Ezek. xxv. 12-14;
+  Jer. xlix. 7; Ps. cxxxvii. 7; Lam. iv. 21 seq., v. 2 sqq.). But at
+  length the day of reckoning came (cf. Is. xxxiv. 5; lxiii. 1-6), and
+  the fate of Edom is still fresh in the mind of Malachi (i. 1-5).
+
+The problem is complicated by the possibility that during the ages over
+which the references can range many changes of fortune could have
+occurred. The pressure of the Nabataeans (q.v.) forced Edom to leave its
+former seats and advance into the south of Judah with Hebron as the
+capital. This had been fully accomplished by 312 B.C., but the date of
+the first occupation cannot be ascertained from the literary evidence
+alone. Thus the district in question is Jewish in the time of Nehemiah
+(Neh. xi. 25-30), but it is uncertain whether the Edomite occupation was
+earlier (a fusion being assumed) or later, or whether the passage may be
+untrustworthy. Henceforth, the new home of the Edomites is consequently
+known as Idumaea. See, for further history, HEROD; JEWS.[7]
+
+Although but little is known of the inhabitants of Edom, their close
+relationship to Judah and their kinship with the surrounding tribes
+invest them with particular interest. The ties which united Lot (the
+"father" of Ammon and Moab), Ishmael, Midian and Edom (Esau) with the
+southern tribes Judah and Simeon, as manifested in the genealogical
+lists, are intelligible enough on geographical grounds alone, and the
+significance of this for the history of Judah and Palestine cannot be
+ignored. The traditions recording the separation of Lot from Abraham, of
+Hagar and Ishmael from Isaac, and of Esau from Jacob, although at
+present arranged in a descending scheme of family relationship, are the
+result of systematic grouping and cannot express any chronological order
+of events (see GENESIS). Many motives have worked to bring these legends
+into their present form, and while they depict the character of Israel's
+wilder neighbours, they represent the recurrent alternating periods of
+hostility and fellowship between it and Edom which mark the history.
+Esau (Edom) although the older, loses his superiority, and if the
+oracles declare that the elder shall serve the younger (Jacob, i.e.
+Israel), the final independence of Esau (Gen. xxv. 23, xxvii. 39 seq.),
+as foretold, obviously alludes to some successful Edomite revolt. As an
+enemy, Edom in alliance with the tribes along the trade-routes
+(Philistines, Moabites, &c.) was responsible for many injuries, and in
+frequent forays carried away Judaeans as slaves for Gaza and Tyre (Am.
+i. 6 seq., 9). As an ally or vassal, it was in touch with the wealth of
+Arabia (Ezek. xxvii. 16, read "Edom" for "Aram"), and Judah and Israel
+as well as Gaza and Damascus enjoyed the fruits of its commerce. In view
+of the evidence for the advanced culture of early Arabia, the question
+of Edom is extremely suggestive, and although speculation at this stage
+would be premature, it is interesting to observe that Edomite and allied
+tribes were famed for their wisdom,[8] and that apart from the
+_possibility_ of Arabian influence upon Israelite culture, the influence
+of Midian and related tribes is _certain_ from the traditions of Moses
+and of his work (see JETHRO; KENITES; MOSES), and the Edomite district
+was a traditional home of Yahweh himself (Deut. xxxiii. 2; Judg. v. 4;
+Hab. iii. 3); see HEBREW RELIGION. It should be added, however, that the
+Edomite names and other evidence point to the cult of other gods, viz.
+Baal, Hadad, Malik (cf. MOLOCH), Kaus, or Kus, and Kozeh (Jos. _Ant._
+xv. 7, 9), who was probably a sky or lightning deity.
+
+  The names Esau and Edom are possibly old divine names; see ESAU and
+  _Ency. Bib._ s.v. "Obed edom" (the name appears to mean "servant of
+  Edom"). For Kaus, see Baethgen, _Beitr. z. semit.
+  Religionsgeschichte_, p. 11 seq.; G.A. Cooke, _N. Sem. Inscr._ p. 234;
+  _Ency. Bib._ col. 2682, n. 2 and 2688 (s.v. "Kushaiah"); and Zimmern,
+  _Keilinschr. u. d. alte Test._^3, pp. 472 seq. On the question of
+  early Arabian civilization see YEMEN. That the name Mizraim (Misraim),
+  "Egypt," was extended eastwards of the Delta is in itself probable,
+  but it is still uncertain whether the term (also Ass. Musri) was
+  applied to Edom. The evidence (which is of mixed value) makes the view
+  a plausible one, but the theory has often been exaggerated (see
+  MIZRAIM). For Edom see, generally, Buhl, _Gesch. d. Edomiter_ (1893);
+  Noldeke's article in _Ency. Bib._; W. Libbey and F.E. Hoskins, _The
+  Jordan Valley and Petra_ (1905); the conjectural sketch by I. Levy in
+  _Rev. d'etudes juives_ (Jan. 1906). For the history and culture of the
+  latest period, see J.P. Peters and Thiersch, _Painted Tombs in the
+  Necropolis of Marissa_ (1905), ch. i.     (S. A. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See further, E. Robinson, _Biblical Researches_, vol. ii.; E.
+    Hull, _Mt. Seir_; E.H. Palmer, _Desert of the Exodus_; Baedeker's
+    _Palestine and Syria_; C.W. Wilson, "Quart. Stat." (_Pal. Explor.
+    Fund_), 1899, p. 307, and G.A. Smith, _Ency. Bib._ col. 5162 seq.
+
+  [2] In the old story of Sinuhit (ascribed to the 12th dyn.) the hero
+    visits the land of _Kedem_, which, it was suggested, lay to the
+    south-east or south of the Dead Sea; see, however, now A.H. Gardiner,
+    _Sitz.-Ber._ of the Berlin Academy, 1907, pp. 142 sqq. The suggestion
+    that the city Udumu, in the land of Gar, mentioned in the 15th
+    century (_Amarna Tablets_, ed. Winckler, No. 237), is Edom, Gar being
+    the Eg. _Kharu_ (Palestine) and the O.T. Horites (see above), is
+    extremely hazardous. That the name Aduma (above) refers to Etham (so
+    Naville, &c.) is improbable.
+
+  [3] That the Edomites preserved this tradition of Saul's sovereignty
+    and (from their standpoint) enrolled him among their kings (Gen.
+    xxxvi. 37) cannot of course be proved. The account of the ferocious
+    slaughter of the priests of Nob at Saul's command by Doeg the Edomite
+    is a secondary tradition and probably of late origin (1 Sam. xxi.
+    1-9, xxii. 6-23); cf. the hostility of Edom in exilic and post-exilic
+    times (p. 878, col. 1).
+
+  [4] 1 Kings l.c., see the Septuagint and, especially, H. Winckler,
+    _Alttest. Untersuch._, pp. 1-15; C.F. Burney, _Kings_, pp. 158 sqq.;
+    J. Skinner, _Kings_, pp. 443 sqq.; Ed. Meyer, _Israeliten_, pp. 358
+    sqq.
+
+  [5] On 2 Kings iii. see JEHORAM; JEHOSHAPHAT; MOAB; and for the
+    biblical traditions relating to this period see KINGS (Book) and
+    JEWS: _History_. The chronicler's account of Judaean successes (2
+    Chron. xvii. 10 seq.; xx.) and reverses (xxi. 16, xxii. 1) may rest
+    originally upon the source from which 1 Kings xxii. 47 seq.; 2 Kings
+    viii. 20, 22, have been abbreviated. It is hardly probable that there
+    was enmity between Edom and Moab as 2 Kings iii. now implies,
+    although hostile relations at other periods are likely (cf. Am. ii.
+    1); for Edom in Moabite territory see above on Gen. xxxvi. and
+    "Quart. Stat." (_Pal. Explor. Fund_), 1902, pp. 10 sqq.
+
+  [6] 2 Kings xvi. 6; on the text see the commentaries.
+
+  [7] For the Jewish hatred of Edom in later times see the book of
+    Enoch lxxxix. 11-12; Jubilees, xxxvii. 22 seq., and on the Talmudic
+    custom of applying to the Romans the references to Edom or Esau, see
+    _Jewish Ency._ vol. v. p. 41.
+
+  [8] Ob. 8; Jer. xlix. 7 sqq.; Baruch iii. 22, cf. 1 Kings iv. 30; see
+    also JOB.
+
+
+
+
+EDRED (EADRED), king of the English (d. 955), was the youngest son of
+Edward the Elder and his wife Eadgifu. He succeeded his brother Edmund
+in the year 946 and at this time received the formal submission both of
+the Northumbrians and Scots. In the next year Edred himself went to
+Tanshelf, near Pontefract, in Yorkshire, where he received from
+Wulfstan, archbishop of York, and the Northumbrian "witan" confirmation
+of their submission. Shortly after they threw their pledges to the winds
+and took the Norwegian Eric Bloodaxe, son of Harold Fairhair (Harald
+Harfagar), as their king. Edred recklessly ravaged all Northumbria in
+revenge, burning Ripon during his march. On his return home Edred's
+rearguard was attacked at Castleford, and the infuriated king once more
+turned to ravage Northumbria, which was only saved by its abandonment of
+Eric and by compensation made to Edred. Archbishop Wulfstan seems to
+have been a centre of disaffection in the north, and in 952 Edred caused
+him to be imprisoned in the castle of "Judanburh," while in the same
+year the king, in revenge for the slaying of Abbot Eadelm, slew many of
+the citizens of Thetford. After the brief rule of Anlaf Cuaran in
+Northumbria, Eric was once more restored, probably in 950, only to be
+expelled again in 953 or 954, when Edred took the Northumbrian kingdom
+into his own hands. In the same year Wulfstan was liberated and
+appointed to the Mercian bishopric of Dorchester. Edred died on the 23rd
+of November 955 at Frome, in Somersetshire, and was buried in the old
+minster at Winchester. During the whole of his life Edred was troubled
+by ill-health, a fact which may help to explain some of the more
+passionate acts of violence attributed to him. The king was throughout
+his life on terms of personal intimacy with St Dunstan, and his public
+policy was largely guided by that prelate and by his own mother Eadgifu.
+So far as we know, Edred was never married.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The _Saxon Chronicle_ (ed. Earle and Plummer, Oxford),
+  _sub ann._; _Memorials of St Dunstan_ (Rolls Series, ed. Stubbs);
+  Florence of Worcester; Birch, _Cartularium Saxonicum_, vol. iii., Nos.
+  815-834 and 860-931; _D.N.B._, art. _sub voce_.     (A. Mw.)
+
+
+
+
+EDRIC, or EADRIC, STREONA (d. 1017), ealdorman of the Mercians, was a
+man of ignoble birth who was advanced to high dignity through the favour
+of the English king Aethelred II. In 1007 he became ealdorman of the
+Mercians, and subsequently married Aethelred's daughter Eadgyth. In the
+struggle between the English and the Danes he appears in the character
+of an arch-traitor. When Aethelred in 1009 proposed a great attack on the
+Danes, Edric dissuaded him from carrying it into effect. Again, on the
+invasion of England by Canute in 1015 Edric deserted Edmund Ironside and
+joined him. After the battle of Otford he returned to Edmund, but only
+by his treachery at the battle of Assandun to secure the utter defeat of
+the national cause. When peace was at length made, Canute restored to
+Edric the earldom of Mercia; but at Christmas 1017, fearing further
+treachery, he had him slain--"very rightly" says the _Saxon Chronicle_.
+
+
+
+
+EDUCATION. In the following treatment of this subject, the theory and
+early history of education is first dealt with, and secondly the modern
+organization of education as a national concern. Many definitions have
+been given of the word "education," but underlying them all is the
+conception that it denotes an attempt on the part of the adult members
+of a human society to shape the development of the coming generation in
+accordance with its own ideals of life. It is true that the word has not
+infrequently been used in wider senses than this. For example, J.S. Mill
+included under it everything which "helps to shape the human being";
+and, with some poetic licence, we speak of the education of a people or
+even of the whole human race. But all such usages are rhetorical
+extensions of the commonly accepted sense of the term, which includes,
+as an essential element, the idea of deliberate direction and training
+(Lat. _educare_, to bring up; _educere_, to draw out, lead forth). No
+doubt, all education is effected through the experiences of the
+educated, and much of it is indirect, consisting mainly in the
+determination of the form of experiences other than those of direct
+precept, compulsion and instruction. But it does not follow that all
+experiences are educative. Whether an experience is part of an
+individual's education or not is determined by its origin. Whatever be
+its effect, it is educative in so far as its form has been arranged with
+greater or less deliberation by those who are concerned with the
+training of him whose experience it is. It follows that an education may
+be good or bad, and that its goodness or badness will be relative to
+the virtue, wisdom and intelligence of the educator. It is good only
+when it aims at the right kind of product, and when the means it adopts
+are well adapted to secure the intended result and are applied
+intelligently, consistently and persistently.
+
+Education is, thus, a definitely personal work, and will vary between
+wide extremes of effectiveness and worth in any given society. For in
+all times and places there are wide differences in virtue, wisdom and
+capacity among those who have in their hands the care and nurture of the
+young. But the inference that, therefore, no comparative estimate of the
+education of different times and places can be made would be fallacious.
+For, despite all differences in conception and efficiency among
+individual educators, each expresses, more or less perfectly and
+clearly, the common conception and energy of his age and country. As
+these rise or fall the general level of the actual educative practice
+rises or sinks with them. The first essential for successful educative
+effort is, then, that the community as a whole should have a true
+estimate of the nature and value of education.
+
+
+I. EDUCATIONAL THEORY
+
+In any comparative estimate of different places and times, as tested by
+the standard just given, it must be borne in mind that, except in the
+most general and abstract form, we cannot speak of an ideally best
+education. Looking at the individual to be educated, we may say with
+Plato that the aim of education is "to develop in the body and in the
+soul all the beauty and all the perfection of which they are capable,"
+but this leaves quite undecided the nature and form of that beauty and
+perfection, and on such points there has never been universal agreement
+at any one time, while successive ages have shown marked differences of
+estimate. We get nearer to the point when we reflect that individual
+beauty and perfection are shown, and only shown, in actual life, and
+that such life has to be lived under definite conditions of time, place,
+culture, religion, national aspirations and mastery over material
+conditions. Perfection of life, then, in the Athens of the age of Plato
+would show a very different form from that which it would take in the
+London or Paris of to-day. So an individualistic statement of the
+purpose of education leads on analysis to considerations that are not,
+in themselves, individualistic. The personal life is throughout a
+relation between individual promptings to activity and the environment
+in which alone such promptings can, by being actualized, become part of
+life. And the perfection of the life is to be sought in the perfection
+of the relations thus established. So far, then, as any conception of
+education can give guidance to the actual process it must be relative in
+every way to the state of development of the society in which it is
+given. Indeed, looked at in the mass, education may be said to be the
+efforts made by the community to impose its culture upon the growing
+generation. Here again is room for difference. The culture in question
+may be accepted as absolute at least in its essentials, and then the
+ideal of education will be to secure its stability and perpetuation, or
+it may be regarded as a stage in a process of development, and then the
+ideal will be to facilitate the advance of the next generation beyond
+the point reached by the present. So some ages will show a relatively
+fixed conception of the educative process, others will be times of
+unrest and change in this as in other modes of social and intellectual
+life.
+
+It is in these latter times that the actual work of education is apt to
+lose touch with the culture of the community. For schools (q.v.) and
+universities (q.v.), which are the ordinary channels through which adult
+culture reaches the young, are naturally conservative and bound by
+tradition. They are slow to leave the old paths which have hitherto led
+to the desired goal, and to enter on new and untried ways. If the
+opposition to change is absolute, there must come a time when the
+instruments of education are out of true relation to the desired end.
+For change in culture ideals means change in the specific form of the
+goal of education, and consequently the paths of educative effort need
+readjustment. When the goal of the past is no longer the goal of the
+present, to follow the ways which led to the former is to fail to reach
+the latter. Continuous readjustment, by small and almost imperceptible
+degrees, is the ideal at which the educator should aim. When this is not
+secured, the educational domain is liable to sudden and violent
+revolutions which are destructive of successful educative effort at the
+time they occur, however beneficial their results may be in the future.
+
+But the relation of adjustment is not entirely one-sided. The tone of
+thought and feeling and the direction of will induced by education
+necessarily affect the common ideals of the next generation, and may
+make them better or worse than those of the present. Hence, the educator
+must not blindly accept all current views of life, but rather select the
+highest. For the average thought of every community is obviously below
+its best thought; and may, in some points at any rate, be lower than the
+best thought of a past age. While, then, all true education must be in
+direct relation with the culture of its age and country, yet, especially
+on the ethical side, it should aim at transcending the average thought
+and tone.
+
+Still more does this imply that education strives to transcend the
+present condition of the educated by making their life more rational,
+more volitional, and more attracted by goodness and beauty than it would
+otherwise be. It can never be a passive watching of the child's
+development. No more fundamental error can be made than the assumption
+that education can be determined wholly, or even mainly, by the
+tendencies and impulses with which a child is endowed. Its real guiding
+principle must be a conception of the nature to which the child may
+attain, not a knowledge of that with which it starts. The educator
+studies the original endowment of the child and the early stages in the
+development of that innate nature in order that he may, wisely and
+successfully, employ appropriate means to direct further development and
+to accelerate its progress towards a more rational, complete and worthy
+life; not that he may the more skilfully give facilities to the child to
+drift about on the unregulated currents of caprice.
+
+Such considerations show the importance of an insight into the theory of
+education on the part of all who are practically concerned with its
+direction. But the theory required is no system of abstract ideas
+ignoring the real concrete conditions of the life for which the actual
+education it is to guide is a preparation. To approach the subject only
+from the standpoint of the mental sciences which underlie it is to run
+the risk of setting up such a body of abstractions, whose relation to
+real life is neither very close nor very direct. The most profitable way
+of developing an educational theory for the present is to trace how in
+the past education has consciously adapted itself, more or less truly
+and fully, to the conditions of culture and social life; and by analysis
+to discover the reasons for comparative success or failure in the degree
+of clearness with which the end to be sought was apprehended and the
+nature of the children to be trained was understood.
+
+In all ages the claims of the individual and those of the community have
+struggled for the mastery as the ultimate principles of life. As one or
+the other has prevailed the conception of education has emphasized
+social service or individual success as the primary end. The true
+harmony of human life will only be attained when these two impulses,
+contradictory on their own level, are united in a higher synthesis which
+sees each as the complement of the other in a life whose purpose is
+neither simple egoism nor pure altruism. Until that conception of life
+is attained and held generally there can be no sure and universally
+accepted conception of the aim and function of education. Much of the
+interest of the history of education[1] turns on the relation of these
+two principles as determinants of its aim.
+
+
+  Old Greek education.
+
+In ancient Greece the supremacy of the state was generally unquestioned,
+and, especially in the earlier times, the good man was identified with
+the good citizen. No doubt, in later days philosophers, such as Plato
+and Aristotle, saw clearly that the round of the duties of citizenship
+did not exhaust the life of the individual. With them the highest life
+was one of cultured leisure in which the energies were mainly
+concentrated on the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake. But this
+"diagogic" life was only for the select few; for the undistinguished
+many the fulfilment by each of the duties of his station remained the
+measure of worthy life, though such duties were regarded as affecting
+the individual and private relations of the citizens in a much more
+intimate way than in former and ruder ages. And for those who devoted
+their lives to the highest culture, the essential preliminary condition
+was the existence of such a state as would form the most favourable
+environment for their pursuits and the most stable foundation for their
+leisured life. Thus Greek thought was saturated with the conception of
+life as essentially a set of relations between the individual and the
+city-state of which he formed an integral part. The first aim of
+education was therefore to train the young as citizens.
+
+This training must, of necessity, be of a specific kind; for, like other
+small communities, the Greek city-states showed a life fundamentally one
+in conception, under various specific forms. Each state had its special
+character, and to this character the education given in it must conform
+if it were to be an effective instrument for training the citizens. From
+these fundamental conceptions flowed the demands of Plato and Aristotle
+that education should be regulated in all its details by the state
+authority, should be compulsory on all free citizens, and should be
+uniform--at any rate in its earlier stages--for all. In the _Republic_
+and the _Laws_, Plato shows to what extreme lengths theory may go when
+it neglects to take account of some of the most pertinent facts of life.
+For the guardian-citizens of the ideal state family life and family ties
+are abolished; no lower community is to be allowed to enter into
+competition with the state. Aristotle, indeed, did not go to these
+extreme lengths; he allowed the family to remain, but he seems to have
+regarded it as likely to affect children more for evil than for good.
+
+In the essential principles laid down by both philosophers as to the
+relation of the state to education, and in the corollaries they drew
+from that relation, they were not at variance with the accepted Greek
+theory on the subject. It is true that the actual practice of Greek
+states departed, and often widely, from this ideal, for, especially in
+later centuries, the Greek always tended to live his own life. The
+nearest approach to the theory was found in Sparta, where the end of the
+state as a military organization was kept steadily in view, and where,
+after early childhood, the young citizens were trained directly by the
+state in a kind of barrack life--the boys to become warriors, the girls
+the mothers of warriors. It was this feature of Spartan education,
+together with the rude simplicity of life it enforced, which attracted
+Plato, and, to a less extent, Aristotle. In Athens there had of old been
+state laws insisting on the attendance of the children of the free
+citizens at school, and, in some degree, regulating the schools
+themselves. But at the time of Plato these had fallen into desuetude,
+and the state directly concerned itself only with the training of the
+ephebi, for which, we learn from Aristotle's _Constitution of Athens_,
+somewhat elaborate provisions were made by the appointment of officers,
+and the regulation of both intellectual and physical pursuits. For
+children and youths under the ephebic age there was no practical
+regulation of schools or palaestra by the state. Yet there is no doubt
+that the education really given was in conformity with Athenian ideals
+of culture and life, and that it was generally received by the children
+of free citizens, though of course the sons of the wealthy, then as now,
+could and did continue their attendance at school to a later age than
+their poorer brethren. The education of girls was essentially a domestic
+training. What Plato and Aristotle, with the theorist's love of official
+systematic regulation, regarded as the greatest defect of Athenian
+education was in reality its strongest point. In practice, the harmony
+between individual liberty and social claims was much more nearly
+attained under a system of free working out of common thoughts and
+ideals than would have been the case under one of the irresistible
+imposition from without of a rigid mould.
+
+The instruments of education everywhere found to be in harmony with the
+Greek conception of life and culture were essentially twofold,--"music"
+([Greek: mousike]), or literary and artistic culture, for the mind, and
+systematic gymnastic ([Greek: gymnastike]) for the body. Plato, in the
+_Republic_, shows that the latter, as well as the former, affects the
+character, and doubtless, though not formulated, this was generally more
+or less vaguely felt. But Greek gymnastic was really an individual
+training, and therefore made only indirectly for the aim of cultivating
+the social bonds of citizenship. Ancient Greece had nothing
+corresponding in value in this respect to the organized games which form
+so important a feature in the school life of modern England. The
+"musical" training was essentially in the national literature and music
+of Greece, and this could obviously be carried to very different
+lengths. The elements of mathematical science were also commonly taught.
+The essential purpose throughout was the development of the character of
+a loyal citizen of Athens. As Athenian culture advanced, increasing
+attention was paid to diagogic studies, especially in the ephebic age,
+with a corresponding decrease of attention to merely physical pursuits;
+hence the complaints of such satirists as Aristophanes of a growing
+luxury, effeminacy and corruption of youths: complaints apparently based
+on a comparison of the worst features of the actual present with an
+idealized and imaginative picture of the virtues of the past. Such
+comparison is, indeed, implicit in much of Plato and Aristotle as well
+as in Aristophanes.
+
+But a disintegrating force was already at work in the educational system
+of Greece which Plato and Aristotle vainly opposed. This was the
+rhetorical training of the Sophists, the narrowly practical and
+individualistic aim of which was entirely out of harmony with the older
+Greek ideals of life and culture. In a democratic city-state the orator
+easily became a demagogue, and generally oratory was the readiest path
+to influence and power. Thus oratory opened the way to personal
+ambition, and young men who were moved by that passion eagerly attended
+the Sophist schools where their dominant motive was strengthened.
+
+Further, the closer relations between the Greek states, both in nearer
+and farther Hellas, led naturally to the diminution of differences
+between civic ideals, and, as a consequence, to a more cosmopolitan
+conception of higher education. This process was completed by the loss
+of political independence of the city-states under the Macedonian
+domination. Henceforth, higher education became purely intellectual, and
+its relation to political and social life increasingly remote. This,
+combined with the growing rhetorical tendency already noticed, accounts
+for the sterility of Greek thought during the succeeding centuries. The
+means of higher education were, indeed, more fully organized. The
+university of Athens was the outcome of a fusion of the private
+philosophical schools with the state organization for the training of
+the ephebi, and there were other such centres of higher culture,
+especially in after years at Alexandria, where the contact of Greek
+thought with the religions and philosophies of Egypt and the East gave
+birth in time to the more or less mystical philosophies which culminated
+in Neo-platonism. But at Athens itself thought became more and more
+sterile, and education more and more a mere training in unreal rhetoric,
+till the dissolution of the university by Justinian in A.D. 529.
+
+
+  Old Roman education.
+
+Thus when Rome conquered Greece, Greek education had lost that reality
+which is drawn from intimate relation to civic life, and the fashionable
+individualistic schools of philosophy could do nothing to replace the
+loss. It was, then, an education which had largely lost its life-springs
+that was transferred to Rome. In the earlier centuries of the republic,
+Roman education was given entirely in family and public life. The father
+had unlimited power over his son's life, and was open to public censure
+if he failed to train him in the ordinary moral, civic and religious
+duties. But it is doubtful if there were any schools (q.v.), and it is
+certain there was no national literature to furnish an instrument of
+culture. A Roman boy learnt to reverence the gods, to read, to bear
+himself well in manly exercises, and to know enough of the laws of his
+country to regulate his conduct. This last he acquired directly by
+hearing his father decide the cases of his clients every morning in his
+hall. The rules of courtesy he learnt similarly by accompanying his
+father to the social gatherings to which he was invited. Thus early
+Roman education was essentially practical, civic and moral, but its
+intellectual outlook was extremely narrow.
+
+
+  Hellenized Roman education.
+
+When a wider culture was imported from Greece it was, however, the form
+rather than the spirit of true Hellenic education that was transferred.
+This was, indeed, to some extent inevitable from the decadent state of
+Greek education at the time, but it was accentuated by the essentially
+practical character of the Roman mind. The instrument of education first
+introduced was Greek literature, much of which was soon translated into
+Latin. In time the schools of the _grammatici_, teaching grammar and
+literature, were supplemented by schools of rhetoric and philosophy,
+though the philosophy taught in them was itself little more than
+rhetorical declamation. These furnished the means of higher culture for
+those youths who did not study at Alexandria or Athens, and were also
+preparatory to studies at those universities. Under the Empire the
+rhetorical schools were gradually organized into a state system, the
+general principles of administration being laid down by imperial decree,
+and even such details as the appointment and rate of payment of the
+professors, at first left to the municipalities, being in time assumed
+by the central government. There is no evidence of any state regulation
+or support of the lower schools. This widening of culture affected both
+boys and girls, the domestic education of the latter being supplemented
+by a study of literature. But it is the higher training in rhetoric
+which is especially characteristic of Hellenized Roman education.
+
+The conception of a rhetorical culture is seen at its best in
+Quintilian's _Institutio oratoria_, the most systematic treatise on
+education produced by the ancient world. With Quintilian the ideal of an
+orator was a widely cultured, wise and honourable man. And at first the
+teaching of rhetoric undoubtedly made for higher and true culture. But
+with the autocracy, soon passing into tyranny, of the empire, rhetoric
+ceased to be a preparation for real life. The true function of oratory
+is to persuade a free people. When it cannot be applied to this purpose
+it becomes little more than a means of intellectual frivolity, or, at
+the best, an exhibition of cultured ingenuity. Under the empire a
+rhetorical training was, indeed, turned in not a few instances to
+practical but most unworthy uses by the delators; a result made possible
+by the legal system which rewarded delation with a considerable portion
+of the estate of the condemned. Even apart from this, the education in
+rhetoric had an increasingly evil effect both on the culture and on the
+character of the higher classes in the Roman empire. Out of real
+connexion with life as it was, it sought its subjects in the realms of
+the fanciful and the trivial, and with unreality of topic went of
+necessity deterioration of style. The vivid presentment of living
+thought gave way to that inflated and bombastic abuse of meretricious
+ornament and far-fetched metaphor in which human speech is always
+involved when it sets forth ideas, or shadows of ideas, which grow out
+of no conviction in the speaker and are expected to carry no conviction
+to the hearer. Imitation of the form of great models, without the
+substance of thought which underlay them, led to a general unreality and
+essential falseness of mental life. Further, the continual gazing with
+admiration on the productions of the past, and the conception of
+excellence as consisting in closeness of imitation, induced a servile
+attitude of mind towards authority in all too close agreement with the
+political servility which marked the Roman court. Such an attitude was
+essentially hostile to mental initiative, and thus rhetoric became not
+merely an art of expression but a type of character.
+
+Nor was there anything in the general conditions of society to
+counterbalance the ill effects of school and university education.
+Quintilian lamented that, even in his time, the old Roman family
+education by example was corrupted; and the moral degradation of later
+times, though it has doubtless been exaggerated, was certainly real and
+widespread. Nor does the religious revival of Paganism which
+synchronized with the early centuries of Christianity appear to have
+effected any reform in life. Alexandria, the birthplace of Neo-platonism
+and the intellectual centre of the later empire, was also a very sink of
+moral obliquity.
+
+
+  Christianity and Pagan education.
+
+It was into such a decaying civilization, which by its want of vitality
+sterilized education, oppressing it under the weight of a dead
+tradition, that Christianity brought new life. Of course, careful
+instruction in the Faith was given in catechetical schools, of which
+that at Alexandria was the most famous. But the question as to the
+attitude of Christians towards the ordinary classical culture was
+important. On the one hand, literature was saturated with Paganism, and
+the Pagan festivals formed a regular part of school life. On the other
+hand, the Pagan education offered the only means of higher culture, and
+thus furnished the only weapon with which Christians could successfully
+meet their controversial antagonists. Quite at first, no doubt, when the
+converts to the new faith were few and obscure, the question scarcely
+arose; but as men of culture and position were attracted to the Church
+it became urgent. The answers given by the Christian leaders were
+various, and largely the outcome of temperament and previous training.
+The Greek Fathers, especially Clement of Alexandria (150-217) and Origen
+(185-253), regarded Christianity as essentially the culmination of
+philosophy, to which the way must be found through liberal culture.
+Without a liberal education the Christian could live a life of faith and
+obedience but could not attain an intellectual understanding of the
+mysteries of the Faith. On the other hand, Tertullian (160-240) was very
+suspicious of Pagan culture; though he granted the necessity of
+employing it as a means of education, yet he did so with regret, and
+would forbid Christians to teach it in the public schools, where some
+recognition of Paganism would be implied. The general practice of the
+Christians, however, did not conform to Tertullian's exhortations.
+Indeed, many of the cultivated Christians of the 3rd and 4th centuries
+were little more than nominal adherents to the Faith, and the
+intercourse between Christian and Pagan was often close and friendly.
+The general attitude of Christians towards the traditional education is
+evidenced by the protest raised against the edict of Julian, which
+forbade them to teach in the public schools. The ultimate outcome seems
+to be fairly expressed in the writings of St Augustine (354-430) and St
+Jerome (346-420), who held that literary and rhetorical culture is good
+so long as it is kept subservient to the Christian life.
+
+In another way Greek philosophy exercised an abiding influence over the
+culture of future ages. The early centuries of Christianity felt the
+need of formulating the Faith to preserve it from disintegration into a
+mass of fluid opinions, and such formulation was of necessity made under
+the influence of the philosophy in which the early Fathers had been
+trained--that Neo-platonism which was the last effort of Paganism to
+attain a conception of life and of God. In the West, this formulation
+had to be translated into Latin, for Greek was no longer generally
+understood in Italy, and thus the juristic trend of Roman thought also
+became a factor in the exposition of Christian doctrine. This
+formulation of the Faith was one of the chief legacies the transition
+centuries passed on to the middle ages.
+
+Had classical culture been less formal than it was during the early
+centuries of Christianity, the innate antagonism of the Pagan and
+Christian views of life and character must have been so apparent that
+the education which prepared for the one could not have been accepted by
+the other. It was only because rhetorical culture was so emphatically
+intellectual, and so little, if at all, moral in its aims, that its
+inherent opposition to the Christian conception of character was not
+obvious. That its antagonistic influence was not inoperative is shown by
+the not infrequent perversions of cultured Christians to Paganism. But
+generally the opposition was so obscured that the ethical writings of St
+Ambrose (340-397) are largely Stoic in conception and reasoning. Yet the
+Pagan ideal of life, especially as it had been developed in the
+individualistic ethics which had prevailed for more than six centuries,
+was antithetical in essence to that of the Christian Church. The former
+was essentially an ethics of self-reliance and self-control showing
+itself in moderation and proportion in all expressions of life. An
+essential feature in such a character was high-mindedness and a
+self-respect which was of the nature of pride. On the contrary,
+Christian teaching exalted humility as one of the highest virtues, and
+regarded pride and self-confidence as the deadliest of sins. It
+recognized no doctrine of limitation; what was to be condemned could not
+be abhorred too violently, nor could what was good be too strongly
+desired or too ardently sought. The highest state attainable by man was
+absorption in loving ecstasy in the mystic contemplation of God. The
+practical attempt to realize this gave rise to monasticism, with its
+minutely regulated life expressing unlimited obedience and the
+renunciation of private will at every moment. The monastic life was
+regarded as the nearest approach to the ideal which a Christian could
+make on earth. Naturally, as this conception gathered strength in
+generations nurtured in it, the value of classical culture became less
+and less apparent, and by the time of St Gregory the Great (d. 604) the
+use of classical literature except as means of an education having quite
+another end than classical culture was discouraged.
+
+
+  Effect of barbarian inroads.
+
+Of course, during these centuries, the gradual subjugation of the
+western empire by the barbarians had been powerfully operative in the
+obscuring of culture. Most of the public schools disappeared, and
+generally the light of learning was kept burning only in monasteries,
+and in them more and more faintly as they became more or less isolated
+units exposed to attack by ruthless foes or living in continual dread of
+such attack. Though the barbarians absorbed the old culture in various
+degrees of imperfection, yet the four centuries following the death of
+St Augustine were plunged in intellectual darkness, relieved by
+transitory gleams of light in Britain and by a more enduring flame in
+Ireland. The utmost that could be done was to preserve to some extent
+the heritage of the past. This, indeed, was essentially the work of men
+like Boethius, Cassiodorus, Isidore and Bede.
+
+
+  Modification of Latin.
+
+During these same centuries another process had been advancing with
+accelerating steps. This was the modification of the Latin language. In
+the early centuries of Christianity literary Latin was already very
+different from colloquial Latin, especially in the provinces; and, as
+has been said, the literary output of the last age of Paganism was
+marked by sterility of thought and meretricious redundancy of
+expression. On the other hand, the writings of Christianity show a real
+living force seeking to find appropriate expression in new forms. Thus,
+with Christian writers, slavish imitation of the past gradually gave way
+to the evolution of a new and living Latin, which showed itself more and
+more regardless of classical models. To express the new ideas to which
+Christianity gave birth fresh words were coined, or borrowed from
+colloquial speech or from the Hebrew and Greek Scriptures. This
+Christian Latin was a real living instrument of expression, which
+conformed itself in its structure much more closely to the mode of
+thought and expression of actual life than did the artificial imitation
+of antiquity in which the literary productions of Paganism were clothed.
+It is the Latin in which St Jerome wrote the Vulgate. But with the
+obscuring of culture during the barbarian invasions this current Latin
+became more and more oblivious of even such elements of form as
+grammatical inflexions and concords.
+
+
+  The Carolingian revival.
+
+It was to the reformation of this corrupt Latin by a return to classical
+models, and to the more general spread of culture, especially among
+clergy and nobles, that the Carolingian revival addressed itself. The
+movement was essentially practical and conservative. Alcuin (735-804),
+who was Charlemagne's educational adviser and chief executive officer in
+scholastic matters, was probably the best scholar of his time, and
+himself loved the classical writings with which he was acquainted; but
+the text-books he wrote were but imperfect summaries of existing
+compendia, and the intellectual condition of his pupils forbade a very
+generous literary diet even had he thought it desirable, of which there
+is some doubt. The most valuable outcome of the movement was the
+establishment of the palace school, and of bishops' schools and
+monastic schools throughout the empire. Of these the latter were the
+most important, and each of the chief monasteries had from the time of
+Charlemagne an external school for pupils not proposing to enter the
+order as well as an internal school for novices. Thus, the educational
+system north of the Alps was pre-eminently ecclesiastical in its
+organization and profoundly religious in its aims. For two centuries the
+new intellectual life was obscured by the troubled times which followed
+the death of Charlemagne, but the learning which the Carolingian revival
+had restored was preserved here and there in cathedral and monastic
+schools, and the sequence of well-educated ecclesiastics was never
+altogether interrupted.
+
+
+  The medieval curriculum.
+
+The scope of that learning was comprised within the seven liberal arts
+and philosophy, on the secular side, together with some dogmatic
+instruction in the doctrines of the Church, the early fathers, and the
+Scriptures. Theology was as yet not organized into a philosophical
+system: that was the great work the middle ages had to perform. The
+seven liberal arts (divided into the _Trivium_--grammar, dialectic,
+rhetoric; and the more advanced _Quadrivium_--geometry, arithmetic,
+music, astronomy) were a legacy from old Roman education through the
+transition centuries. They appear in the _Disciplinarum libri IX._ of
+Varro in the 2nd century B.C., where are added to them the more
+utilitarian arts of medicine and architecture. But they reached the
+middle ages chiefly through the summaries of writers in the transition
+centuries, of which the best known were the _De nuptiis Philologiae et
+Mercurii_ of the Neo-platonist Martianus Capella, who wrote probably
+early in the 5th century; the _De artibus ac disciplinis liberalium
+litterarum_ of the Christian Cassiodorus (468-562); and the
+_Etymologiarum libri XX._ of St Isidore of Seville (570-636).
+
+The scope of the arts was wider than their names would suggest in modern
+times. Under grammar was included the study of the content and form of
+literature; and in practice the teaching varied from a liberal literary
+culture to a dry and perfunctory study of just enough grammar to give
+some facility in the use of Latin. Dialectic was mainly formal logic.
+Rhetoric covered the study of law, as well as composition in prose and
+verse. Geometry was rather what is now understood by geography and
+natural history, together with the medicinal properties of plants.
+Arithmetic, with the cumbrous Roman notation, included little more than
+the simplest practical calculations required in ordinary life and the
+computation of the calendar. Music embraced the rules of the plain-song
+of the Church, some theory of sound, and the connexion of harmony and
+numbers. Astronomy dealt with the courses of the heavenly bodies, and
+was seldom kept free from astrology. In philosophy the current
+text-books were the _De consolatione philosophiae_ of Boethius
+(470-524), an eclectic summary of pagan ethics from the standpoint of
+the Christian view of life, and the same writer's adapted translations
+of the _Categories_ and _De interpretatione_ of Aristotle and of
+Porphyry's _Introduction to the Categories_.
+
+It is evident that though such a scheme of studies might in practice,
+during ages of intellectual stagnation and general ignorance, be arid in
+the extreme, it was capable in time of revival of giving scope to the
+widest extension of culture. It was, indeed, at once comprehensive and
+unified in conception, and well adapted to educate for the perfectly
+definite and clear view of life which the Church set before men.
+
+
+  The scholastic revival.
+
+In the 11th century Europe had settled down, after centuries of war and
+invasion, into a condition of comparative political stability,
+ecclesiastical discipline, and social tranquillity: the barbarians had
+been converted, and, as in the case of the Normans, had pressed to the
+forefront of civilization; civic life had developed in the fortified
+towns of Italy, raised as defences against the pressure of Saracen and
+Hungarian invasions. Soon, communication with the East by trade and in
+the Crusades, and with the highly cultivated Moors in Spain, further
+stimulated the new burst of intellectual life. Arabic renderings of some
+of the works of Aristotle and commentaries on them were translated into
+Latin and exercised a profound influence on the trend of culture. A new
+translation of Aristotle's _Metaphysics_ appeared in 1167, and by the
+beginning of the 13th century all his physical, metaphysical and ethical
+treatises were available, and during the next half century the
+translations from Arabic versions were superseded by renderings direct
+from the original Greek. As expositions of the real doctrines of
+Aristotle the translations from the Arabic left much to be desired.
+Renan calls the medieval edition of the _Commentaries_ of Averroes "a
+Latin translation of a Hebrew translation of a commentary made upon an
+Arabic translation of a Syriac translation of a Greek text." The study
+of such works often led to the enunciation of doctrines held heretical
+by the theologians, and it was only when the real Aristotle was known
+that it was found possible to bring the Peripatetic philosophy into the
+service of theology.
+
+There were thus two broad stages in the educational revival commonly
+known as scholasticism. In the first the controversies were essentially
+metaphysical, and centred round the question of the nature of
+universals; the orthodox theological party generally supporting realism,
+or the doctrine that the universal is the true reality, of which
+particulars and individuals are only appearances; while the opposite
+doctrine of nominalism--that universals are "mere sounds" and
+particulars the only true existences--showed a continual disposition to
+lapse into heresies on the most fundamental doctrines of the Church. The
+second stage was essentially constructive; the opposition of philosophy
+to theology was negated, and philosophy gave a systematic form to
+theology itself. The most characteristic figure of the former period was
+Abelard (1079-1142), of the latter St Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274). The
+former knew little of Aristotle beyond the translations and adaptations
+of Boethius, but he was essentially a dialectician who applied his logic
+to investigating the fundamental doctrines of the Church and bringing
+everything to the bar of reason. This innate rationalism appeared to
+bring theology under the sway of philosophy, and led to frequent
+condemnations of his doctrines as heretical. With St Thomas, on the
+other hand, the essential dogmas of Christianity must be unquestioned.
+In his _Summa theologiae_ he presents all the doctrines of the Church
+systematized in a mould derived from the Aristotelian philosophy.
+
+
+  Scholastic education.
+
+It is evident, then, that during the period of the scholastic revival,
+men's interests were specially occupied with questions concerning the
+spiritual and the unseen, and that the great instrument of thought was
+syllogistic logic, by which consequences were deduced from premises
+received as unquestionably true. There was a general acceptance of the
+authority of the Church in matters of belief and conduct, and of that of
+Aristotle, as approved by the Church, in all that related to knowledge
+of this world.
+
+Before the rediscovery of Aristotle exerted such a general influence on
+the form of education, there was a real revival of classical literary
+culture at Chartres and a few other schools, and John of Salisbury (d.
+1182) in his _Metalogicus_ advocated literature as an instrument of
+education and lamented the barrenness of a training confined to the
+subtleties of formal logic. But the recrudescence of Aristotle
+accelerated the movement in favour of dialectic, though at the same time
+it furnished topics on which logic could be exercised which only a bare
+materialism can esteem unimportant. The weaknesses of the general
+educational system which grew up within scholasticism were that haste to
+begin dialectic led to an undue curtailment of previous liberal culture,
+and that exclusive attention to philosophical and theological questions
+caused a neglect of the study of the physical world and a disregard of
+the critical functions of the intellect. Doubtless there were
+exceptions, of which perhaps the most striking is the work in physical
+science done at Oxford by Roger Bacon (1214-1294). But Albertus Magnus
+(1193-1280), the master of St Thomas, was also a student of nature and
+an authority for his day on both the natural and the physical sciences.
+And the work of Grosseteste (d. 1253), as chancellor of the university
+of Oxford, shows that care for a liberal literary culture was by no
+means unknown. Always there were such examples. But too often boys
+hastened to enter upon dialectic and philosophy as soon as they had
+acquired sufficient smattering of colloquial Latin to engage in the
+disputes of the schools. A deterioration of Latin was the unavoidable
+consequence of such premature specialization. The seven liberal arts
+were often not pursued in their entirety, and students remained
+satisfied with desiccated compendia of accepted opinions. Thus the
+encyclopaedias of general information which were in general use during
+the middle ages show little or no advance in positive knowledge upon the
+treatment of similar subjects in Isidore of Seville.
+
+
+  The foundation of universities.
+
+The services of scholasticism to the cause of education, however, cannot
+well be overestimated, and the content of scholastic studies was in
+fundamental harmony with the intellectual interests of the time. Above
+all other benefits owed by future ages to scholasticism is the
+foundation of the universities of western Europe. The intellectual
+activity of the 11th century led everywhere to a great increase in the
+number of scholars attending the monastic and cathedral schools. Round
+famous teachers, such as Abelard, gathered crowds of students from every
+country. In the 12th century the need for organizing such bodies of
+teachers and students was imperative, and thus the earlier universities
+arose in Italy, France and England, not by deliberate foundation of
+secular or ecclesiastical ruler, but as spontaneous manifestations of
+the characteristic medieval impulse to organize into institutions.
+Afterwards, charters conferring powers and privileges were sought from
+both Church and state, but these only confirmed the self-governing
+character the universities had borne from the first. Each of the early
+universities was a specialized school of higher study: Salerno was a
+school of medicine; Bologna was the centre of that revival of Roman law
+which wrought so profound an effect upon the legal systems of France and
+Germany towards the close of the medieval period. But the greatest of
+medieval universities was that of Paris, emphatically the home of
+philosophy and theology, which was the model upon which many other
+universities, including Oxford and Cambridge, were organized.
+
+The German universities were of later origin, the earliest being Prague
+(1348) and Vienna (1365). They indicate the more recognized position the
+movement had attained; for nearly all were founded by the civic
+authority, and then obtained the recognition of the Church and charters
+from the emperor.
+
+
+  University work and life.
+
+The concentration of higher instruction in universities was not
+antagonistic to the medieval conception of the Church as the teacher of
+mankind. University life was modelled on that of the cloister, though
+the monastic ideal could not be fully realized, and the scholars not
+infrequently exhibited considerable licence in life. This was inevitable
+with the very large numbers of the scholars and the great variations of
+age among them. Moreover students, and to a less extent teachers, passed
+from university to university, so that the universities of medieval
+Europe formed a free confederacy of learning in close relation to the
+Church but untrammelled by state control. Nevertheless, they were less
+definitely ecclesiastical than the cathedral seminaries which they
+largely supplanted, and the introduction of studies derived from the
+Greeks through the Arabians led to an increased freedom of thought, at
+first within authorized limits, but prepared, when occasion served, to
+transcend those limits.
+
+The scheme of instruction was arranged on the assumption that special
+studies should be based on a wide general culture. Thus of the four
+faculties into which university teaching was organized, that of arts,
+with its degrees of _Baccalaureat_ and _Magister_, was regarded as
+propaedeutic to those of theology, law and medicine. It often included,
+indeed, quite young boys, for the distinction between grammar school and
+university was not clearly drawn. Attention was concentrated on those
+subjects which treat of man and his relations to his fellow-men and to
+God, and no attempt was made to extend the bounds of knowledge. The aim
+was to pass on a body of acquired knowledge regarded as embracing all
+that was possible of attainment, and the authority of Aristotle in
+physics as well as in philosophy, and of Galen and Hippocrates in
+medicine was absolute. The methods of instruction--by lecture, or
+commentary on received texts; and by disputation, in which the scholars
+acquired dexterity in the use of the knowledge they had absorbed--were
+in harmony with this conception, and were undoubtedly thoroughly well
+suited to the requirements of an age in which the ideal of human thought
+was not discovery but order, and in which knowledge was regarded as a
+set of established propositions, the work of reason being to harmonize
+these propositions in subordination to the authoritative doctrines of
+the Church.
+
+
+  Medieval schools.
+
+Such an extension of the means of higher education as was given by the
+universities was naturally accompanied by a corresponding increase in
+schools of lower rank. Not only were there grammar schools at cathedral
+and collegiate churches, but many others were founded in connexion with
+chantries, and by some of the many gilds into which medieval
+middle-class life organized itself. The Dominican and Franciscan friars
+were enthusiastic promoters of learning both in universities and in
+schools, and in the Netherlands the Brethren of the Common Life, founded
+by Gerard Groote and approved by Eugenius IV. in 1431, regarded school
+teaching as one of their main functions, and the promotion of learning
+by the multiplication of manuscripts as another. The curriculum was
+represented broadly by the _Trivium_. The greatest attention was paid to
+grammar, which included very various amounts of reading of classical and
+Christian authors, the most commonly included being Virgil, parts of
+Ovid and Cicero, and Boethius. The text-books in grammar were the
+elementary catechism on the eight parts of speech by Donatus, a Roman of
+the 4th century, said to have been the tutor of St Jerome, and the more
+advanced treatise of Priscian, a schoolmaster of Constantinople about
+A.D. 500, which remained the standard text-book for over a thousand
+years. In rhetoric Cicero's _De oratore_ was read, and dialectic was
+practised, as in the universities, by means of disputations.
+
+In addition to the grammar schools were writing and song schools of an
+elementary type, in which instruction was usually in the vernacular.
+Girls were taught in women's monasteries and in the home, and those of
+the upper classes at least very generally learned to read, write and
+keep accounts, as well as fine needlework, household duties and
+management, and such elementary surgery and medicine as served in cases
+of slight daily accidents and illnesses. Even those boys and girls who
+did not receive formal scholastic instruction were instructed orally by
+the parish priests in the doctrines and duties of the Faith; while the
+pictures and statues with which the churches were adorned aided the
+direct teaching of sermons and catechizing in giving a general knowledge
+of Bible history and of the legends of the saints.
+
+No doubt, in times of spiritual and intellectual lethargy, the practice
+fell short of the theory; but on the whole it may be concluded that in
+medieval times the provision for higher instruction was adequate to the
+demand, and that, relatively to the culture of the time, the mass of the
+people were by no means sunk in brutish ignorance. Indeed, especially
+when the paucity of books before the invention of printing is borne in
+mind, the number of people who could read the vernacular, as evidenced
+by the demand for books in the vulgar tongue as soon as printing made
+them available, is clear proof that the latter part of the middle ages
+was by no means a time of general illiteracy.
+
+
+  Education of chivalry.
+
+Feudalism, the other characteristic aspect of medieval society, had also
+its system of education, expressing its own view of life, and preparing
+for the adequate performance of its duties. This was the training in
+chivalry given to pages and squires in the halls and castles of the
+great. Hallam has well said: "There are, if I may so say, three powerful
+spirits which have from time to time moved over the face of the waters,
+and given a predominant impulse to the moral sentiments and energies of
+mankind. These are the spirits of liberty, of religion and of honour. It
+was the principal business of chivalry to animate and cherish the last
+of these." And this was not in opposition to the spirit of religion
+which animated the scholastic education which went on side by side with
+it. Throughout chivalry was sanctified by the offices of the Church. The
+education of chivalry aimed at fitting the noble youth to be a worthy
+knight, a just and wise master, and a prudent manager of an estate. Much
+was acquired by daily experience of a knightly household, but in
+addition the page received direct instruction in reading and writing;
+courtly amusements, such as chess and playing the lute, singing and
+making verses; the rules and usages of courtesy; and the knightly
+conception of duty. As a squire he practised more assiduously the
+knightly exercises of war and peace, and in the management of large or
+small bodies of men he attained the capacity of command.
+
+
+  Decadence of scholasticism.
+
+With the unification of existing knowledge and the systematization of
+theology the constructive work of scholasticism was done. At the same
+time the growth of national feeling was slowly but surely undermining
+feudalism. Moreover, deep resentment was accumulating throughout western
+Europe against the practical abuses which had become prevalent in the
+Church, and especially in the court of Rome and in the prince-bishoprics
+of Germany. In short, Europe was out-growing medieval institutions,
+which appeared more and more as empty forms unable to satisfy the needs
+and longings of the human soul. In such conditions, the customary and
+traditional education of school and university tended to lose touch more
+and more completely with the new aspirations and views of life which
+were everywhere gathering adherents among the keenest and most active
+intellects. Had a new cultural movement not begun, the education of
+Europe threatened to become as arid as the rhetorical education of the
+last centuries of the Roman empire had been. From this it was saved by
+the renaissance of classical studies which began in the 14th century.
+
+
+  The Renaissance.
+
+Italy, by its greater wealth and its more intimate commerce with the
+eastern empire, was the seed-plot of this new tree of knowledge. Ever
+since the 11th century the cities of northern Italy had been in advance
+of Europe beyond the Alps both in culture and in material progress. The
+old classical spirit and the feeling of Roman citizenship had never
+quite died out, and the _Divina Commedia_ of Dante (1265-1321) furnishes
+evidence that the poet of the scholastic philosophical theology was also
+a keen student and lover of the old Latin poets. But the greatest
+impulse to the revived study of the classics was given by Petrarch
+(1304-1374) and Boccaccio (1313-1375). Generally throughout western
+Europe the 14th century, though full of war and political unrest, was a
+time of considerable intellectual activity, shown in the increase of
+schools and universities, as well as in the literary and artistic
+revival in Italy, in the social and theological movement in England and
+Bohemia associated with the names of Wycliffe and Huss, and in the more
+or less perfect substitution of Roman law everywhere except in England
+for the law of custom which had hitherto prevailed.
+
+But it was the literary movement which most affected education, and
+indeed the whole life of Europe. A decisive step was taken when Manuel
+Chrysoloras was invited to teach Greek in the university of Florence in
+1397. The enthusiasm for classical culture, to which Petrarch had given
+so great an impetus, gathered force and extended over the whole of
+Italy, though, of course, felt only by a select few and leaving the mass
+of the people little, if at all, affected. From Italy it spread
+gradually to countries north of the Alps. In the old writers men found
+full expression of that new spirit of self-conscious freedom which was
+vaguely striving for expression throughout the whole of Christendom. In
+the free political atmosphere of the Italian communes, with their
+wealthy and leisured merchant class, that spirit could flourish much
+more readily than in the feudalized Europe across the Alps. Moreover,
+the antique spirit was in direct line of ancestry with that of medieval
+Italy. Thus, for a couple of centuries, Italy stood in the van of
+European culture.
+
+The stages of the movement cannot be traced here: suffice it to say it
+showed itself especially in an enthusiastic search for manuscripts,
+followed by their multiplication and wider distribution; in an intense
+devotion to literary form; in a revival of classic taste in
+architecture; in a wonderful development of painting and sculpture from
+symbolism of spiritual qualities towards naturalism and romanticism; in
+a return to Platonism in philosophy; in a contempt, often unreasoning
+and wanting a foundation in knowledge, for the scholastic Aristotelian
+philosophy itself, and not simply for the trivialities into which its
+actual exercise had so commonly degenerated. The invention of printing
+necessarily gave the movement both a stronger and a wider influence than
+it could otherwise have attained. And in its search after knowledge it
+was in full harmony with the spirit of adventure which marked the age,
+and by the discovery of the New World wrought so profound a change in
+the relative importance and prosperity of the countries of western
+Europe.
+
+
+  Influence of the Renaissance on education.
+
+It is the spirit of the movement which is of interest to the student of
+education. And that spirit was essentially one of opposition to
+authority and of assertion of individual liberty, which worked itself
+out in various forms among peoples of different temperaments. In Italy
+the form was literary and artistic, and the full development of the
+Renaissance spirit was seen in a practical Paganism which substituted
+the attractions of art for the claims of religion and morality, and
+eventuated in deep and widespread immorality and a contemptuous
+tolerance of the outward observances of religion without faith in the
+doctrines they symbolized. The movement became an attempt to
+reconstitute the past intellectual life of Italy, and, as such, was
+foredoomed to sterility as soon as the work of re-discovery was
+completed; for the revived forms were not inspired with the vital spirit
+which had once made them realities, and consequently men's minds once
+again were occupied with mere verbal subtleties. The really valuable
+service of the Italian humanists to Europe was the restoration to man of
+the heritage of knowledge which he had allowed to slip from his grasp,
+and the leading the way to a freer intellectual atmosphere. In Germany
+the spirit manifested itself in a rebellion against the doctrinal system
+of the Church as the only effectual means of attaining reform of
+ecclesiastical abuses. The Protestant reformation of Luther was the real
+German outcome of the Renaissance. In no other country of Europe did the
+movement take so distinctive a form.
+
+It was, then, not merely the revival of interest in classical studies
+which so profoundly affected the life and education of western Europe.
+It was rather that in those literatures men found a response to
+intellectual and moral cravings which had been blindly gathering force
+for generations, and which found themselves formulated and objectified
+in the writings which set forth the Pagan view of life with its
+assumption of the essential worth and self-reliance of the individual
+and its frank delight in all the pleasures of existence. It was, in
+short, in proportion as men not only found delight in Pagan literature
+but returned in essence to the Pagan view of individual worth and the
+supremacy of the human intellect, that the Church realized the danger to
+herself which lurked in the new movement.
+
+At first the revival of interest in the classical literatures did not
+show any antagonism to Catholic faith and practice, and its warmest
+supporters were faithful sons of the Church. The view of the relation of
+classical literature to Christianity adopted by the great humanist
+schoolmaster Vittorino da Feltre (1378-1446) was broadly that of the
+early Fathers, and in his school at Mantua he showed that culture was
+not inconsistent with loyalty to the Church or with purity of life. With
+him classical literature was not the end and sum of education, but was a
+means of implanting ideas, of developing taste, and of acquiring
+knowledge, all as helps and ornaments of a Christian life. Though Pagan
+literature was the means of education, the Pagan spirit had not
+supplanted that of Christianity. The school at Mantua may, indeed, be
+said to have exhibited in practice a Christianized application of the
+doctrines of Quintilian and Plutarch.
+
+So was it in the other countries of Christendom. In the Netherlands the
+Brethren of the Common Life introduced humanistic studies into their
+schools side by side with definite religious teaching and observances
+and their work was always dominated by the Christian spirit. The
+earlier German humanists, such as Nicholas de Cusa, Hegius, Agricola and
+Wimpheling, adopted the same attitude, and Erasmus himself, bitterly as
+he attacked the practical abuses of the Church, remained in communion
+with it, and aimed at harmonizing classical culture with the Christian
+life. In England the same love of culture combined with devotion to the
+Church was seen in Selling, prior of Christ Church, Canterbury, the
+first real English humanist, in Grocyn, Linacre, More, Fisher, Colet and
+many others whose enthusiasm for culture was as undoubted as was their
+loyalty to Catholicism. It seemed, then, at first as if the greatest
+educational effect of the classical revival would be the deepening of
+literary culture, and the substitution of real inquiry for dialectic
+subtleties in the courses of schools and universities, without any break
+with established religious teaching. It is true that the majority of
+schools were but little affected, and many of the universities had given
+but a half-hearted welcome to humanistic studies when the religious
+revolt in Germany under the leadership of Luther threw the whole of
+Europe into two hostile camps. But even the conservative university of
+Paris--the headquarters of scholastic philosophical theology--had
+permitted the teaching of Greek as early as 1458, and both Oxford and
+Cambridge had welcomed the new studies. That the influence of the new
+movement for classical study was gradually permeating the schools is
+shown not only by the practice of the Brethren of the Common Life but by
+the curriculum laid down by the statutes of the schools refounded by
+Wolsey at Ipswich and by Colet at St Paul's.
+
+
+  Immediate influence of the Reformation on education.
+
+The immediate effect of the religious controversies of the 16th century
+on education was emphatically, if unintentionally, disastrous. The
+secularization of ecclesiastical property too often absorbed the
+endowments of the schools, so that, both in Germany and in England, the
+majority of grammar schools either disappeared or continued a starved
+existence with diminished funds; the doctrine of salvation by faith
+alone and the futility of good works dried up the source from which such
+endowments had flowed; the violent fulminations of the German reformers
+against the universities as the homes of the hated scholastic theology
+and philosophy found an echo in minds fired with the renaissance
+enthusiasm for poetry and oratory, and correlative distaste for the more
+severe and abstract speculations of logic and philosophy, which
+expressed itself in abstention from those seats of learning; the
+preoccupation of men's minds with theological speculations and quarrels
+led those few who did resort to the universities to neglect their
+appointed studies and to devote their energies to interminable wrangling
+over the points in dispute. This decadence in culture was attended by an
+outbreak of licence and immorality, especially among the young, which
+called forth violent denunciations from Luther and many of his followers
+in Germany, and from Latimer and other reformers in England. In some
+respects these results were only transitory. Humanism and Protestantism,
+which had so far diverged that Erasmus (1467-1536) had declared that
+where Lutheranism flourished learning decayed, were brought together
+again by Melanchthon (1497-1560) under whose influence universities were
+founded or reorganized and schools re-established in Protestant German
+states; and in England the reign of Elizabeth saw many new educational
+foundations. But this restoration of the means of education was only
+partial, and the doctrine of the worthlessness of "carnal knowledge,"
+which led the Barebones Parliament to propose the suppression of the
+English universities, was held by many fervent Protestants both in
+England and in Germany all through the 17th century.
+
+
+  Protestant schools.
+
+Moreover, the schools established a tradition of curriculum and
+instruction which ignored the new directions of men's thoughts and the
+new view of knowledge as something to be enlarged, and not merely a
+deposit to be handed down from generation to generation. The later
+humanist theories of education, which the schools continued to follow
+generally for over two centuries, and in many cases for another hundred
+years after that, were drawn mainly from Erasmus and Melanchthon, who
+found in the classical languages and literatures, and especially in
+Latin, the only essential instruments of education. General knowledge of
+natural facts might be desirable to the cultured man as ornaments to his
+rhetoric, but it was to be sought in the writings of antiquity. Even so
+revolutionary a thinker on education as Rabelais (1495-1553) with all
+his demand for an encyclopaedic curriculum, held the writings of the
+ancients as authoritative on natural phenomena. Melanchthon, whose
+conception of instruction was much narrower, exercised enormous
+influence in the moulding of Protestant universities and secondary
+schools, both directly and through such disciples as Trotzendorf and
+Neander, but especially through his friend Sturm (1507-1589), whose
+Latin gymnasium at Strassburg became the model which the grammar schools
+of Protestant Europe strove to imitate. In this school nearly the whole
+of the energies of the boys was given to acquiring a mastery of the
+Latin language after the model of Cicero. Sturm, indeed, did not go to
+the extreme length of the Ciceronians, opposed and satirized by Erasmus,
+who would allow no word or construction which could not be found in the
+extant writings of their master, but a like spirit dominated him.
+
+
+  The Society of Jesus.
+
+In Catholic countries the Church retained control of education. The
+practical reformation of abuses by the Council of Trent, and the energy
+and skill of the Society of Jesus, founded by St Ignatius Loyola, in
+1534, brought back most of south Germany into the fold of the Church.
+Everywhere Catholic universities were mainly taught by Jesuit fathers;
+and under their influence, scholasticism, purged from the excretions
+which had degraded it, was restored, and continued to satisfy the
+longings of minds which felt the need of an authoritative harmonizing of
+faith and knowledge. Everywhere the society established schools, which,
+by their success in teaching and the mildness of their discipline,
+attracted thousands of pupils who came even from Protestant homes. Their
+curriculum was purely classical, but it was elaborated with much skill,
+and the methods of instruction and discipline were made the subject of
+much thought and of long-continued experiment. In the methods thus
+determined all Jesuit fathers were trained, so that the teachers in
+Jesuit schools attained a degree of skill in their art which was too
+generally wanting elsewhere.
+
+
+  Early proposals for reform.
+
+So long as Latin remained the language of learning, and new fields of
+knowledge were not appropriated, the schools remained in harmony with
+the culture of their time, though, as Mulcaster (1530-1611) pointed out,
+such a training was not of value to the majority of boys. For them he
+urged an elementary education in the vernacular; but neither in this nor
+in his advocacy of the training of teachers was his advice followed.
+
+In the 17th century the dislocation between the Latin schools and the
+needs of life began to be accentuated as Latin gradually ceased to be
+the language of learning; and, as a consequence, the numbers attending
+the schools decreased, and the mass of the people sunk continually lower
+in ignorance. In vain Hoole urged the establishment of a universal
+system of elementary schools giving instruction in the vernacular, Petty
+put forth his plan for elementary trade schools, and Cowley proposed the
+establishment of a college devoted to research. Ideas of reform were in
+the air, but the main current of scholastic practice flowed on
+unaffected by them. Some attention was, indeed, paid to the conservative
+reforms advocated by the Port Royalists, of which the most important was
+the inclusion of the vernacular as a branch of instruction, but the cry
+for more fundamental changes based on the philosophy of Bacon was
+unheeded. Of these, none was a more active propagandist than Comenius
+(1571-1635). Unfortunately his _Great Didactic_, in which he set forth
+his general principles, attracted little attention and won less
+adherence, though his school books, in which he attempted with very
+little success to apply his principles, were widely used in schools. But
+these were little more than bald summaries of real and supposed facts,
+stated in Latin and the vernacular in parallel columns. In content they
+differed from such medieval summaries of knowledge as the well-known
+work of Bartholomew Anglicus, which had been widely used since the 13th
+century, chiefly by their greater baldness and aridity of statement.
+
+
+  Decadence of universities.
+
+In the universities, too, the 16th and 17th centuries saw a continuous
+decadence. The 16th century was not ripe for real intellectual freedom;
+and Protestantism, having based its revolt on the right of private
+judgment, soon produced a number of conflicting theological systems,
+vying with each other in rigidity and narrowness, which, as Paulsen
+says, "nearly stifled the intellectual life of the German people."
+Further, the idea of national autonomy, which exercised so great an
+effect on the politics of the time, included the universal adherence of
+the citizens to the religion of the state. Hence, till the end of the
+17th century the universities of Protestant Europe were regarded mainly
+as instruments for securing adhesion to the national theological system
+on the part of future clergy and officials, and the state interfered
+more and more with their organization and work. Theology occupied the
+most important place in the higher studies pursued, which for the rest
+differed little in content and less in spirit from those of preceding
+centuries, except that more attention was paid to the study of classical
+literature. Even that decayed into formal linguistics as the Renaissance
+enthusiasm for poetry and oratory died out, and interest in logical and
+philosophical questions, fostered by the dominance of dogmatic
+controversial theology, again became dominant. In Paris, on the other
+hand, the faculty of theology had decayed through the withdrawal of
+those preparing for the priesthood into episcopal seminaries, and the
+higher studies pursued were mainly law and medicine. Thus, generally,
+the universities were less and less fulfilling the function of providing
+a general liberal education. Another change, due to the same causes and
+making for the same results, was the isolation of universities, often
+directly fostered by the state governments, which for the universal
+interchange of medieval thought substituted a narrow provincial culture
+and outlook. It is no wonder that numbers everywhere decayed and that
+complaints as to the habits of the students were loud and frequent.
+
+
+  Education of the higher classes.
+
+At the close of the 17th century, then, universities as well as schools
+had reached a very low level of efficiency and were held in little
+respect by the cultured. Indeed, from the middle of the century, the
+main current of intellectual life had drifted away from the orthodox
+centres of learning. The formation of the Berlin Academy in Germany and
+of the Royal Society in England, and the refusal of Leibnitz to accept a
+chair in any German university, were signs of the times. In France, and
+later in Germany, the education of the noble youth was increasingly
+carried on apart from the schools, and was really an outgrowth from the
+education of chivalry. In the 16th century Castiglione and Montaigne had
+advocated a training directly adapted to prepare for polite life, and
+Elyot wrote on similar lines. But the most important movement in this
+direction was the formation of the courtly academies which flourished in
+France in the 17th century, and were soon imitated in the
+_Ritterakademien_ of Germany. In these schools of the nobility French
+was more honoured than classics, and the other subjects were chosen as
+directly adapted to prepare for the life of a noble at the court. Milton
+in his _Tractate_ advocated the foundation of such academies in England,
+though he proposed a curriculum far more extensive than had ever been
+found possible. More and more, too, foreign travel had, from the middle
+of the 16th century, been looked upon as a better mode of finishing the
+education of a gentleman than a course at a university.
+
+
+  Revival of university life.
+
+The later years of the 17th century saw a revival of university life in
+Cambridge, through the work of Newton and the increasing attention paid
+to mathematics and the physical sciences, though the number of students
+continued very small. In Germany, also, a new era opened with the
+foundation of the universities of Halle (1694) and Gottingen (1737),
+which from the first discarded the old conception that the function of a
+university is to pass on knowledge already complete, and so opened the
+door of the German universities to the new culture and philosophy. It
+was soon seen that students could thus be attracted, and the influence
+spread to the other German universities, which by the end of the 18th
+century had regained their position as homes of the highest German
+thought.
+
+
+  Education of the poor.
+
+At Halle, too, was set the example by Francke of providing for the
+education of the children of the poor, and to his disciple Hecker
+Germany owes the first _Realschule_. Simultaneous movements for the
+education of the poor were made by St Jean-Baptiste de la Salle and the
+Brothers of the Christian Schools in France, and by the Society for the
+Promotion of Christian Knowledge in England. But the total results were
+not great; the mass of the people in every European country remained
+without schooling throughout the 18th century.
+
+
+  18th-century thought and education.
+
+The intellectual movements of that century were, indeed, essentially
+aristocratic. Voltaire and the Encyclopaedists aimed at the
+enlightenment of the select few, and Rousseau declared baldly that the
+poor need no education. That these movements influenced education
+profoundly is undoubted. The individualistic and abstract rationalism of
+Voltaire, derived from the sensationist philosophy of Locke through the
+more thorough-going Condillac, and finding its logical outcome in the
+materialistic atheism of La Mettrie and the refined selfishness of
+Rochefoucault, infected the more cultured classes. In Lord
+Chesterfield's _Letters to his Son_ is shown its educational outcome--a
+veneer of superficial culture and artificial politeness covering, but
+not hiding, the most cold-blooded selfishness. Against this fashionable
+artificiality, as well as against the obvious social and political
+abuses of the time, Rousseau's call for a return to nature was a needed
+protest.
+
+
+  Rousseauism.
+
+Rousseauism, however, was not merely a transitory revolt against a
+conventionality of life that had become unbearable; it was emphatically
+the voicing of a view of life and of education which has profoundly
+influenced Europe ever since. In that Rousseau (1712-1778) attempted to
+look at life as a whole he was on truer ground than were the
+intellectualists of the "Enlightenment"; but in that he found the
+essence of life in the gratification of the desires and impulses of the
+moment, he enunciated a doctrine which banished high principle and
+strenuous effort from life and consequently from education. In the
+_Emile_ is presented a purely fantastic scheme of education based on a
+psychology of development so crude as to be absolutely false, and
+producing a young man utterly unable to guide his own life or to control
+his emotions and impulses. Rousseauism is, indeed, in its essence the
+application to education of the doctrines of naturalism--the philosophy
+which regards human life as a mere continuation of physical process, and
+consequently as determined wholly by environment. So Rousseau would
+abolish all moral training and leave the child to the reactions of the
+physical world upon his actions.
+
+
+  Kant.
+
+Against this position the educational teaching of Kant (1724-1804),
+influenced though he was by the _Emile_, is essentially a protest. The
+most necessary element in education, according to Kant, is constraint,
+which by the formation of habit prepares the young to receive as
+principles of conduct the laws at first imposed upon them from without.
+And the supreme guide of life is the law of duty which is always more or
+less opposed to the promptings of inclination. Kant exaggerates the
+dualism: Rousseau would abolish it by ignoring the more important of the
+two antitheses.
+
+
+  Educational outcome of the Revolution.
+
+The French Revolution--the natural outcome of the teachings of Voltaire
+and of Rousseau--was the second stage in the movement of which the
+Reformation was the first. It was essentially the assertion of the
+natural rights of man, and, as a logical sequence, of the right of every
+child to be properly trained for life. The reaction due to the excesses
+of the revolutionists no doubt delayed the acknowledgment for a time,
+but its gradual recognition is emphatically the characteristic mark of
+the educational history of the 19th century.
+
+
+  State education.
+
+Preached and practised by Pestalozzi (1746-1827) in Switzerland, the
+general education of the poor was first made a reality by Prussia after
+the crushing defeat of Jena. In France and England it remained for
+nearly three-quarters of the century the work of the Church and other
+voluntary agencies, though aided by the state. Finally a state system of
+schools has been more or less fully set up in every state of western
+Europe and in America, and subjected to more or less state regulation
+and control. Equally marked has been the growing care for the scholastic
+education of girls as well as boys, though only in America are the two
+regarded as practically identical in form and content.
+
+Thus the 19th century saw the final working out of the idea that the
+state should be substituted for the Church as the official agent of
+education, an idea which had its roots in the Renaissance conception of
+the right of man to direct his life apart from theological
+determinations. The more direct outcome of the same idea is apparent in
+the absolute liberty with which the presuppositions of knowledge are
+questioned, and the maxim of Descartes--to prove everything by the
+reason and to accept nothing which fails to stand the test--is acted
+upon. No greater contrast is possible than that between the medieval
+student and the modern searcher after truth.
+
+
+  Methods of instruction.
+
+The influence of the same spirit has wrought an equally momentous change
+in the methods of instruction. The impetus given by the exaggerated
+doctrine of Rousseau to the view that the nature of the child should
+determine the means of education, led to more thorough-going attempts
+than had hitherto been made to base educational method on a knowledge of
+child psychology. Pestalozzi and Froebel (1782-1852), by their
+insistence on the need of educating a child through his own activity,
+and by their widespread influence, made the new view of method an
+actuality. The influence of Rousseau has, thus, passed into modern
+educational practice in a form that, in its essence, is true, though in
+practice it has shown itself apt to run into the same excess of emphasis
+on impulse and feeling which vitiated the teaching of Rousseau himself.
+The influence of Herbart (1776-1841) has tended to counteract this. The
+essence of Herbartianism is that mental life consists of presentations,
+or reactions of the mind on the environment, and that will springs from
+the circle of thought thus developed. The emphasis is therefore placed
+on intellect and instruction while in Froebelianism it is placed on
+spontaneous activity and on the arrangement of the environment. Each
+exaggerates the function of the one factor in concrete experience which
+it makes the centre of interest, and each is tinged with the
+individualistic conception of life which characterized the 18th and
+early 19th century.
+
+
+  Curriculum of instruction.
+
+The most marked change in the outward aspect of education has been the
+modification of the curriculum of school and university by the
+introduction of various branches of natural science. Conjointly with
+this has been much increase of specialization, and that not only in the
+university but in the school. There is no longer a universally
+recognized circle of knowledge constituting a liberal education
+preparatory to specialist studies, as there was in the middle ages. Nor
+is there general agreement as to what such educational institutions as
+schools and universities should attempt to do, or even as to the end
+that should be sought by education as a whole. Nor can agreement on such
+points be expected while men differ widely as to the meaning and purpose
+of life. The work of the organization of the material means of education
+has largely been accomplished by the civilized world: that of
+determining the true theory and practice of the educative process itself
+is still incomplete. To that, both discussion of the philosophy of life
+and of the relative values in life, of various kinds of experience and
+experiment in the light of the conclusions reached, are needed. The
+problem will never be absolutely solved, for that would imply an
+absolutely best education irrespective of conditions, but its practical
+solution will be reached when a true adjustment is made between the
+process of education and the life for which that education is intended
+to be a preparation.
+
+  See also the articles ACADEMIES; CLASSICS; CO-EDUCATION; EXAMINATIONS;
+  POLYTECHNIC; SCHOOLS; TECHNICAL EDUCATION; UNIVERSITIES; WOMEN; &c.
+       (J. Wn.)
+
+
+II. NATIONAL SYSTEMS OF PUBLIC EDUCATION
+
+A statement of the principles commonly recognized by modern communities
+as governing the action of the state in relation to education may
+facilitate at the outset a clearer understanding of the problems which
+the organization of public education presents. The cardinal doctrine of
+state interference in the educational domain is universally accepted by
+all the great nations of the modern world; and in regard to its extent
+and limits a large measure of agreement has now been reached.
+
+
+  Principles of state interference.
+
+In the first place, it is recognized as the duty of the state to insist
+upon a certain minimum of education for every future citizen. This does
+not necessitate a monopoly of education on the part of the state, such
+as was claimed by the Napoleonic despotism under the traditional
+influence (it would seem) of the old authoritative Gallo-Roman
+tradition, transformed in its outward manifestation but not in its
+inward spirit by the French Revolution. Such a monopoly would be plainly
+repugnant to the spirit of Anglo-Saxon individualism, and it is
+interesting to note that attempts to reassert it have in recent times
+been repudiated in republican France by some of the best exponents of
+modern free thought, as an infringement of personal liberty not
+calculated to justify itself by any corresponding public gain.
+Nevertheless, the recognition of this primary duty of the state plainly
+implies a state system of at least elementary education. The masses of
+the industrial population cannot afford the necessary minimum of
+instruction which the public interest demands, and private and voluntary
+effort cannot efficiently supply the want resulting from the unequal
+distribution of wealth. But it is in the nature of things that, so far
+as private effort attempts anything in this direction, it should be
+motived in the main by religion and associated with the great historical
+religious organizations; thus it comes about that the moment the state
+steps in to make good the deficiency of voluntary effort a fruitful and
+embittering source of difficulty and friction is disclosed. Hence, in
+England, the history of public elementary education since the beginning
+of the 19th century has been very largely the history of what is called
+the religious difficulty. Here we find ourselves in the region of acute
+controversy in which it is useless to do more than note empirically the
+various solutions adopted by different states. Perhaps all that can
+safely be indicated as commanding universal acceptance is the principle
+that the state must not impose upon an individual citizen in the person
+of his child any form of religious instruction to which he
+conscientiously objects. Modern controversies show the difficulty of
+applying even this rudimentary principle to the complicated
+circumstances of a free community split up into a number of groups
+differing profoundly in religious sentiment, and zealous each for the
+recognition of its own ideal within the common system. So far, however,
+as secular instruction (i.e. the teaching of other subjects than
+religion) is concerned it is now generally accepted that the elementary
+minimum must be both compulsory and free for every individual child
+whose parents will not or cannot (as the case may be) provide such
+instruction for it efficiently elsewhere than in the state-supported
+schools.
+
+Next, the action of the modern state cannot stop short at elementary
+education. The principle of "the career open to talent" is no longer a
+matter of abstract humanitarian theory, a fantastical aspiration of
+revolutionary dreamers; for the great industrial communities of the
+modern world it is a cogent practical necessity imposed by the fierce
+international competition which prevails in the arts and industries of
+life. The nation that is not to fail in the struggle for commercial
+success, with all that this implies for national life and civilization,
+must needs see that its industries are fed with a constant supply of
+workers adequately equipped in respect both of general intelligence and
+technical training.
+
+On political grounds too, the increasing democratization of
+institutions renders a wide diffusion of knowledge and the cultivation
+of a high standard of intelligence among the people a necessary
+precaution of prudent statesmanship, especially for the great imperial
+states which confide the most momentous issues of world policy to the
+arbitrament of the popular voice. The state then must satisfy itself
+that the means of education are placed within the reach of all, in
+grades adapted to the varying degrees of intelligence and educational
+opportunity to be found among a community upon the majority of whose
+members is imposed the necessity of entering upon the practical business
+of life at a more or less early age. The organization of the higher
+grades of education constitutes a task of less formidable magnitude than
+the organization of elementary education, for the reason that, at any
+rate in the prevailing social conditions, it is only a minority who can
+benefit by it, and that of this minority a large proportion can afford
+the whole or a considerable portion of the cost in each individual case.
+The class, however, whose education must needs be assisted by the state
+if it is not to remain inefficient must always be considerable; and
+account must be taken also of the necessities of the further class whose
+exceptional mental development is such as to make it worth while for the
+state to bestow gratuitously an education higher than elementary at the
+public expense. University education is distinguished from education of
+the lower grades by the fact that, being necessarily restricted to an
+elite of intellect or birth, it cannot, save in very exceptional
+circumstances, usefully be organized locally. Although universities are
+the necessary complement of a public educational system they do not in
+strictness or necessity form part of such a system, and in so far as
+they are brought within the purview of public authority it must be as a
+matter of national, rather than municipal or provincial, concern.
+Accordingly university education is separately treated (see
+UNIVERSITIES), and will not be referred to, save incidentally, in the
+present article.
+
+Reserving to a final section the history of education in the United
+States of America, a brief description is given here of the educational
+systems of the leading European countries by way of introduction to a
+more detailed, but still summary, historical sketch of public education
+in England. The highly organized educational systems of France and
+Prussia (as representing Germany) are manifestly suitable for the
+purposes of a general study of the principles of educational polity as
+worked out upon logical and consistently thought-out plans by highly
+centralized states. As to other European countries, a brief mention must
+suffice of certain features of special interest presented by smaller
+progressive states of such different types as Switzerland, Belgium and
+Holland. Similarly, in the case of the United Kingdom, considerations of
+space forbid more than a brief notice of the educational systems of
+Scotland (q.v.) and Ireland (q.v.). For other countries see the sections
+in the articles under the headings of the respective states.
+
+
+_France._
+
+France (q.v.) presents the most complete type of a state system of
+education organized under a strongly centralized administration in all
+grades. This centralized administration in education, as in other
+departments, represents the Napoleonic heritage of the Republic, and,
+although there has been an increasing tendency of recent years to study
+local conditions in the internal organization of schools, anything
+approaching to local autonomy is unknown in educational affairs. The
+necessary checks upon bureaucracy are supplied not by popularly elected
+municipal bodies but by a strong infusion of the pedagogic element in
+the administrative machinery. The pedagogic element in turn does but
+represent another side of the collective activities of the state. The
+teaching profession both in the primary and higher spheres--and the two
+are sharply marked off from one another--consists of a highly organized
+body of state functionaries, united by a strong _esprit de corps_ and
+actuated by ideals and aims which are inspired by the state. The
+importance of this condition of things lies in the fact that the
+Republic is something more than a form of government: it is the social
+and moral expression of the democratic ideal as conceived by a people
+profoundly imbued by tradition with the sense of social solidarity, or
+collectivism; and nowhere has this expression been more characteristic
+or more complete than in the domain of public education. Yet the
+educational system of modern France is by no means exclusively the
+creation of the Third Republic, and the main stages in its development
+deserve to be traced historically.
+
+
+  Freres de la Doctrine chretienne.
+
+No historical sketch, however slight, of French education can ignore the
+great Catholic religious educator of the 18th century, Jean Baptiste de
+la Salle, the founder of _Les Freres de la Doctrine chretienne_,
+commonly known as the "Christian Brothers." The Brothers were not merely
+pioneers of elementary education, they may also be regarded (as M.
+Buisson, formerly director of public instruction, has shown) as the
+originators of higher primary instruction. Under the Restoration they
+upheld the method of simultaneous teaching against the partisans of the
+mutual (or monitorial) method, successfully demonstrating the
+superiority of the trained teacher. The unfortunate effects of the
+monitorial system upon English education show the reality of the service
+which this religious congregation rendered to the national pedagogy in
+France.
+
+
+  The Revolution and Napoleon.
+
+The Constitution of 1791 decreed that primary instruction should be
+compulsory and gratuitous. (It may be explained that the term "free
+education," _instruction libre_, does not bear the same meaning in
+France as in England. In France a free school means a school not under
+state control and not forming part of the state system.) In this as in
+much else the Revolution was powerless to do more than enunciate general
+principles which it left for later generations, in the present instance
+after the lapse of nearly a century, to carry into effect. True to its
+theories of individualistic liberty, the Revolution admitted liberty of
+teaching. Napoleon, on the other hand, by the law of 1806, centralized
+all forms of education in one official teaching body under the name of
+the Imperial University, thus securing a monopoly of teaching to the
+state. The Napoleonic idea of the university, doubtless because a true
+expression of the national genius, has never ceased to exert a profound
+influence upon French education, an influence which of late years has
+been revivified and reinforced by the modern ideal of social solidarity.
+
+
+  Reforms of Guizot.
+
+Under the Restoration education fell inevitably under the control of the
+church, but under the Liberal Monarchy Guizot in 1833 passed a law which
+laid the foundations of modern primary instruction, obliging the
+communes to maintain schools and pay the teachers. It is also to the
+credit of Guizot as an educational reformer that he perceived the
+necessity for the higher primary as distinct from the secondary school.
+The higher primary schools which he founded were unfortunately
+suppressed by the _Loi Falloux_; their restoration constitutes one of
+the great positive services rendered by the Third Republic to the cause
+of popular education.
+
+
+  Loi Falloux.
+
+The _Loi Falloux_ of 1850, passed by the Second Republic under the
+influence of the prince president, is chiefly memorable for its
+restoration of the liberty of teaching, which in a Catholic country
+means in effect free scope for priestly schools. This law also made
+provision for separate communal schools for girls, for adult classes and
+for the technical instruction of apprentices. In 1854 France was divided
+for purposes of educational administration into sixteen academies, each
+administered by a rector with an academy inspector under him for each
+department. This organization survives to-day, with the difference that
+for each academy (except Chambery) there is now a local teaching
+university.
+
+
+  Ministry of M. Duruy.
+
+The ministry of the well-known educationist M. Duruy (1865-1869),
+corresponding to the period of the Liberal Empire, was notable for
+marked administrative progress. A permanent memorial of this epoch is
+the enactment rendering primary schools for girls obligatory in communes
+of over 500 inhabitants. Duruy also provided for the introduction of
+gratuitous instruction at the option of the commune.
+
+
+  The Third Republic.
+
+The task of educational reform imposed itself upon the republic by a
+twofold necessity. The wars of 1866 and 1870 were victories for the
+Prussian schoolmaster, and aroused all western Europe to the national
+importance of popular education. For France then the reform of popular
+education was an essential part of the work of national restoration. For
+the republic too, menaced by older and hostile traditions, the creation
+of a national system of education inspired by its own spirit was an
+essential condition of the permanence and security of its government and
+the social ideals of which that government was the expression. Hence the
+energy with which the republican state addressed itself to the
+organization of primary instruction, "obligatory, gratuitous, secular."
+
+
+  Acquisition of elementary school buildings and organization of teaching
+  profession.
+
+By the law of June 1, 1878, there was imposed upon the communes the
+obligation of acquiring their school buildings; and as a grant in aid a
+sum of L2,400,000 was set aside for this purpose by the state. In 1879 a
+law was passed compelling every department to maintain a training college
+for male and female teachers respectively. The two higher normal schools
+of Fontenay and St Cloud were also founded to supply the training
+colleges with professors. During the same period, among other
+_certificats_ or professional diplomas, there were established the
+_certificat d'aptitude pedagogique_, which qualifies probationer-teachers
+(_stagiaires_) for appointment as teachers in full standing
+(_titulaires_), and the _certificat d'aptitude_ for primary inspectors
+and heads of normal schools. The law of June 16, 1881, rendered
+obligatory for all teachers, whether public or private, the _brevet de
+capacite_. It was found impracticable to carry this law into immediate
+effect, and as late as 1902 only about 60% of the men and 52% of the
+women were provided with the professional certificate necessary for
+becoming _titulaires_.
+
+
+  Reforms of Jules Ferry. Laicization.
+
+The laws making primary education gratuitous, compulsory and secular,
+are indissolubly associated with the name of Jules Ferry. The law of
+June 16, 1881, abolished fees in all primary schools and training
+colleges, the law of 1882 established compulsory attendance, and finally
+the law of October 30, 1886, enacted that none but lay persons should
+teach in the public schools, and abolished in those schools all
+distinctively religious teaching. In the boys' schools members of
+religious communities were to be displaced within five years, but in
+girls' schools the _religieuses_ might remain till death or resignation.
+
+
+  Moral instruction.
+
+Religious teaching was replaced in the state schools under the Ferry law
+by moral instruction according to official curricula, a change which has
+been described by M. Seailles (_Education ou revolution_) as a
+revolution of the profoundest philosophical meaning. The difficult and
+delicate topics of the relation of the state school to religion and the
+value of the substituted moral instruction have recently received
+illuminating and objective treatment from different points of view in
+the series of reports on _Moral Instruction and Training in Schools_,
+edited by Professor M.E. Sadler (1908, vol. ii.); the barest reference
+to the questions at issue must here suffice. As regards the character of
+the moral instruction, it would appear to have shifted from a Kantian to
+a purely sociological basis. Roman Catholic opinion is at least not
+unanimous in regarding the "lay" or neutral school as essentially or
+necessarily anti-religious, and plainly there is no inherent reason why
+the neutrality should not be a real neutrality, but with the existing
+relations between the Catholic Church and modern thought in France the
+influence of the Normalist teachers is in fact apt to be anti-religious,
+and moreover no system of independent moral doctrine, whether based upon
+a priori or inductive reasoning, can be acceptable to the Roman Catholic
+Church. In whatever degree the blame may be rightly apportionable
+between church and state, the fact is that the two find themselves in
+acute conflict, and that from the conflict there has resulted a certain
+moral confusion which Christian and non-Christian moralists alike view
+with alarm. It may be that the mischief would have been mitigated had
+more moderate counsels prevailed at the time of the Ferry law, and had
+the church been willing to accept (as the Republic might then have been
+willing to concede) right of entry for the clergy into the schools. But
+the real causes of the trouble lie deep in the philosophical and
+religious problems of our time, and in the constant and self-sacrificing
+devotion of the French to logical ideals on either side. Perhaps it is
+not too sanguine to discern in the growing tendency to idealism in
+French philosophy, and to liberal ideas in French and Catholic religious
+thought, the promise of a happier state of things. In the meantime, the
+religious difficulty in the schools divides the nation into two hostile
+camps (_les deux Frances_, as a Swiss Protestant writer puts it) in the
+shape of the state secular schools on the one side and the private
+religious schools on the other.
+
+In the year 1903-1904 the total number of pupils in private primary
+schools was 1,298,591, as against 4,935,000 in the public primary
+schools, but these figures were liable to be materially affected by the
+rigorous enforcement of the laws against the religious orders.
+
+
+  Financial reform of 1889.
+
+In 1889 an important change was made in educational finance by
+transferring the cost of teachers' salaries in primary schools from the
+communes to the state, a right consequence of the changes which made the
+teacher a state official. Thus the state assumed the greater part of the
+burden of primary instruction, leaving to the communes merely the cost
+of fabric, and to the department the maintenance of the fabric of the
+normal schools and certain expenses of inspection.
+
+
+  Administrative machinery. Minister and conseil superieur.
+
+At this point it will be convenient to describe shortly the various
+central and local authorities that constitute the official machine. The
+minister, the head of the entire hierarchy, is assisted by a _conseil
+superieur_ consisting of fifty-seven members, of whom the majority are
+elected by the higher teaching profession, while a few are nominated by
+the president, including a small number to represent private schools,
+and a few are elected by the primary teachers. Practically the ordinary
+work of the council is carried on by a sub-committee consisting of the
+nine nominees of the president and six others designated for this
+purpose by the minister. The council has administrative, judicial and
+disciplinary, as well as advisory, powers which enable it to exert a
+direct influence upon the internal organization of schools. There is
+also a pedagogic _comite consultatif_ and a legal _comite contentieux_,
+whose respective functions are purely advisory.
+
+
+  Inspecteurs generaux.
+
+The _inspecteurs generaux_ "act," says Mr Brereton in his official
+report to the English Board of Education, "as the eyes and ears of the
+central authority." Their duties are: first to inspect the normal
+schools; next to supervise the work of the ordinary inspectorate; lastly
+to give general and comparative information on the progress of primary
+instruction in the various parts of France. For the purpose of general
+inspection France is divided into seven districts.
+
+
+  Rector and council of academy.
+
+As already indicated, for the purpose of educational administration, the
+departments of France are grouped in seventeen divisions called
+academies. At the head of each academy is the rector. He is appointed
+directly by the president and must hold the doctor's degree. He is not
+only the head of the local teaching university, but is also charged in a
+general way with the oversight of all three departments of education,
+superior, secondary and primary; in regard to the last, however, his
+functions are confined to the pedagogic side. The direct share of the
+rector in administration is mainly confined to the normal schools and
+the higher primary schools. The rector is assisted by an academic
+council composed almost exclusively of pedagogic elements.
+
+
+  The academy inspector.
+
+Each department of France has an academy inspector appointed by the
+minister. The duties of the academy inspector embrace both higher and
+primary education. In the latter sphere he is the real head of the local
+administration, and the primary inspectors are his subordinate officers.
+He appoints the probationer-teachers and nominates the regular teachers
+for appointment by the _prefet_.
+
+
+  Prefet and conseil departemental.
+
+The _prefet_, the chief administrative officer of each department, not
+only appoints the teachers upon the proposition of the academy
+inspector, he is also as president of the _conseil departemental_
+concerned generally with the externa of school administration, including
+the supply of schools. The _conseil departemental_ with respect to its
+powers corresponds in some degree to our own local education
+authorities, but as regards its constitution it is in no sense a
+municipal body, the representatives of the _conseil general_ of the
+department (which corresponds to the county council) being greatly
+outnumbered by the pedagogical members.
+
+
+  Primary inspectors.
+
+The inspectors of primary schools, as has already been stated, act under
+the academy inspector. They are appointed upon the result of examination
+and not by direct nomination as in England. The examination is severe,
+and it is from the body of the professors of the normal schools rather
+than from the ranks of the primary teachers that the successful
+candidates are chiefly drawn.
+
+
+  Minor local authorities.
+
+Very limited powers are entrusted to certain communal and cantonal
+authorities. The _commission scolaire_ is a committee organized in each
+commune for the purpose of improving school attendance, to which end
+they administer a _caisse des ecoles_ or school fund for supplying
+clothing and meals to needy children. The _maire_ of the commune has the
+right of visiting the schools, but neither he nor any of the minor local
+authorities can interfere with the teaching. Similar duties are assigned
+to the _delegues cantonaux_, who are appointed by the _conseil
+departemental_ for each canton (a wider area than the commune), and can
+best be described as local visitors or visiting committees rather than
+managers in our sense of the word. "All this hierarchy of central and
+local officials," says Mr Brereton, "will doubtless seem complicated to
+English minds. The extraordinary thing is that, so far as I could learn,
+the machine, for all its complexity, works smoothly enough. The truth is
+that the province of each particular functionary is so clearly defined
+that there is no debateable ground over which ambitious rival
+authorities can wrangle."
+
+
+  Conception of secondary education.
+
+In proceeding to sketch the French system of higher primary and
+secondary schools, it may be observed that European systems of higher
+education have generally been framed upon the view that the divisions of
+education are longitudinal, not latitudinal, and that secondary
+education is a training complete in itself from the preparatory stage to
+the university, with aims and ideals of general culture which
+differentiate it radically and at the very outset from education of the
+elementary type. On the other hand, in the United States the view has
+prevailed that the divisions of education must be latitudinal, that the
+secondary school must be complementary to the elementary school, in
+which even the elite must receive their preparatory or elementary
+training. At any rate down to the reform of 1902, which will presently
+be explained, the French system could be regarded as a typical and even
+extreme example of the European theory, little consistent as this might
+seem to be with the broader principles of democracy. This view of the
+matter is expressed by the French terminology, by which what in England
+is called "elementary" is in France termed "primary" education.
+
+
+  Higher primary schools.
+
+The thoroughness with which the principle of the autonomous character of
+the two divisions of education was carried out undoubtedly favoured in a
+special degree the complete organization given to higher primary
+instruction in the _ecoles primaires superieures_ under the Third
+Republic. The aim of these schools is to fill the void which must
+otherwise exist for those who need a higher education than the primary
+school can give, but for whose subsequent careers secondary education
+would be ill-adapted and injudicious. Throughout the organization of
+primary education the French have kept steadily in view the danger of
+creating an intellectual proletariate. "Nous poursuivons la culture
+generale du caractere et de l'esprit, mais nous cherchons en meme temps
+a orienter l'enfant vers la vie pratique," says an official report. The
+aim of the higher primary school is to continue education in this
+spirit up to the age of sixteen so as to prepare the scholar to take an
+honourable place in the higher ranks of skilled industry rather than to
+deflect him towards a professional career or intellectual pursuits for
+which he is unfitted, not so much by the accidents of birth and social
+circumstance as by his own natural aptitudes. Within the limits
+necessarily marked out for them the higher primary schools of France
+have aimed at imparting what may be termed a general culture as distinct
+from purely technical or trade teaching, and this development has been
+greatly furthered by the separate organization given to the latter
+teaching in the _ecoles professionnelles_. At the same time, prominence
+is given in the higher primary schools to practical training of an
+educational character with special reference to the industries and
+circumstances of the locality, and in the rural districts a special
+agricultural bias is imparted to the curriculum. It is interesting to
+note that the institution of the higher primary schools was due in large
+part to the spontaneous initiative of the municipalities, and that in
+the later phases of state organization special care has been taken to
+avoid anything in the nature of a rigid uniformity in these schools.
+
+
+  Supplementary courses.
+
+A wider extension has been given to higher primary instruction by the
+establishment of _cours complementaires_ in certain schools, at centres
+at which it would be impossible to organize separate higher primary
+schools. A similar solution of the continuation school problem has
+recently commended itself to the consultative committee of the Board of
+Education for England.
+
+Admission to the higher primary schools in France is only accorded to
+those who have obtained the elementary school leaving certificate,
+_certificat d'etudes primaires_. A feature of importance for
+continuation work in rural districts is the provision made for boarding
+scholars in attendance at these schools. The boarding arrangements are
+generally, as in the case of the secondary schools, left to the head
+teacher, but in some instances municipal hostels have been provided. No
+fees may be charged for higher primary instruction, and scholarships
+(_bourses_) are provided to a certain extent in the form either of
+boarding scholarships or maintenance allowances to compensate the parent
+for the loss of the child's labour. The number of scholars in the public
+higher primary schools for the year 1903-1904 was 34,084, and in _cours
+complementaires_ 21,777, making a total of 55,861. In addition there
+were 8891 scholars in receipt of higher primary instruction in private
+schools.
+
+
+  Secondary schools, lycees and colleges.
+
+French secondary education is given in the _lycees_ which are
+first-grade schools maintained and controlled by the state, and the
+_colleges_, which are schools of the second grade maintained partly by
+the state and partly by the municipality. A considerable number of
+scholars pass annually from the colleges to the lycees. In both grades
+of schools the teachers are paid by the state and nominated directly or
+indirectly by the minister of education. They are required to possess
+certain specified academic qualifications which can only be obtained
+from the _universite_, but failing teachers with the prescribed
+qualifications the classes are taught by teachers styled _charges de
+cours_ as distinct from professors.
+
+
+  Ecole Normale Superieure.
+
+With a view to supplying teachers for the secondary schools, the state
+maintains the Ecole Normale Superieure, a college in which instruction,
+board and lodging are given free to a number of scholars selected by
+competition from the best secondary school boys, though residence in the
+institution is no longer compulsory. By the decrees of November 10,
+1903, and May 10, 1904, the Ecole Normale became practically the College
+of Pedagogy of the University of Paris. Its students are entered as
+students of the university, and study for their qualifying examination
+as teachers in secondary schools (_agregation_) under university
+professors, partly at the Sorbonne, partly at the Ecole Normale, while
+their professional preparation is entrusted solely to the latter
+institution.
+
+
+  Classical and modern education. Reform of 1902.
+
+The Republic has not reorganized secondary education by a comprehensive
+law; it has, however, introduced by decree, under parliamentary
+authority, an important reform in the internal organization of the
+schools which marks a notable departure from the traditional view of
+secondary education as a self-contained whole. Article 1 of the decree
+of May 31, 1902, declares that secondary education is co-ordinated with
+primary education in such a way as to constitute a continuation of a
+course of primary studies of a normal duration of four years. The decree
+goes on to provide for a full course of secondary studies of seven
+years' duration, divided into two cycles of four and three years
+respectively. In the first cycle the scholar has two options. In section
+1 Latin is obligatory and Greek optional from the beginning of the third
+year (_classe iv._). In section 2 there is no Latin. At the end of the
+first cycle the state grants a _certificat d'etudes secondaires du
+premier degre_. In the second cycle one of four courses may be taken;
+section 1 with Latin and Greek continues the old classical education;
+section 2 with Latin and modern languages corresponds to the German
+Realgymnasium; section 3 with Latin and science, and section 4 with
+modern languages and science, to the Oberrealschule. The _baccalaureat_,
+or secondary school-leaving examination, conducted by the university, is
+adapted to all the courses on the principle that courses of study of
+equal length, whether classical or modern, literary or scientific, are
+entitled to equal advantages. This system of alternative courses with
+leaving examinations of equal value is mainly German in origin, and may
+be said to represent the results of the best European thought upon the
+problem of the organization of secondary education.
+
+
+  Religious instruction in lycees.
+
+It is remarkable in view of the thoroughness with which the principle of
+laicization has been applied to the primary schools that the lycees
+still retain their chaplains (_aumoniers_) for the purpose of giving
+religious instruction. This difference of treatment is apparently based
+upon the consideration that the gratuitous and compulsory character of
+primary education demanded a much stricter interpretation of the
+principle of the neutrality of the state than was necessary in the case
+of secondary education, which is neither compulsory nor gratuitous.
+
+
+  Private secondary schools.
+
+In addition to the state schools there have until lately been in France
+a large number of private secondary schools, the most important of which
+have been associated with the Catholic religious orders. The enforcement
+of the laws against these communities has resulted in the closure of a
+number of these schools, and in the reorganization of others under a lay
+teaching staff. It is conceivable that the action of the Republic may
+largely forward the movement, otherwise perceptible in the Roman
+Catholic Church, to transfer education, even when combined with specific
+religious teaching, from ecclesiastical to lay hands. Evidence of this
+tendency is to be found in the boarding-schools (some four in number)
+founded upon the plan of M. Demolins (author of _A quoi tient la
+superiorite des Anglo-Saxons_) after the English public school model,
+but with a distinctly Catholic colouring.
+
+Apart from the position of the religious orders, the future of private
+education in France is far from secure at the present time. The liberty
+of teaching secured by the _Loi Falloux_ is regarded as a pseudo-liberty
+by the advanced republican educationists, and the principle that
+education is a function of the state and not a matter of supply and
+demand is deeply rooted in the public mind. Proposals have been mooted
+for making the baccalaureat strictly a school leaving examination
+attached to the state schools. The adoption of any such measure would
+practically destroy liberty of teaching by reason of the power which the
+baccalaureat secures to the state as the key to the professions.
+
+
+  Secondary education for girls.
+
+The foundation of secondary schools for girls in connexion with the
+educational reform of Jules Ferry is in its way one of the most notable
+achievements of the republic. There is little doubt that the expulsion
+of the religious orders is destined to exercise a profound influence
+upon the education of women in France. The place of the closed convent
+schools is being taken either by new state schools or by Catholic
+schools under lay teachers, and the number of scholars affected by this
+process of laicization is far larger in the case of girls than of boys.
+This change is calculated to produce far-reaching effects in the social
+and religious order, by no means necessarily, however, of an
+anti-Catholic or irreligious kind.
+
+For an account of the resuscitation by the Republic of the local
+universities under the one great state teaching body collectively known
+as the University, see UNIVERSITIES.
+
+
+_Germany._
+
+Under the German empire education is left to the exclusive control of
+each of the federated states. The only point of direct contact between
+the Empire and education lies in the mutual undertaking of the federated
+states to bring the law of compulsory school attendance to bear upon all
+subjects of the empire resident within their respective borders. Of far
+greater moment is the moral influence exerted upon the other states by
+the Prussian hegemony, in virtue of which the Prussian educational
+system comes to be in all essential characteristics typical and
+representative of Germany as a whole. It is remarkable that though, as
+Matthew Arnold was able to report to the Schools Inquiry Commission in
+1866, "the school system of Germany in its completeness and carefulness
+is such as to excite the foreigner's admiration," neither Prussia
+herself, nor Bavaria, nor several other of the principal states of the
+Empire, have found it practicable to pass a comprehensive education law,
+owing to the religious and political difficulties with which any general
+legislative assertion of principle is attended in Germany as in England.
+The consequence is that the Prussian system in particular is the result
+of a long and complicated series of special laws, decrees and
+administrative regulations. In such circumstances it is inevitable that,
+especially in secondary education, some considerable local variations
+and anomalies should remain, but the centralized authority of the state
+has confined these to questions of patronage and external
+administration, and even within this sphere has successfully asserted
+its own ultimate supremacy as the guardian of the educational interests
+of its citizens. A detailed historical study would bring out clearly the
+intimate connexion between the development of the educational system and
+the growth of the Prussian state, and again between these and the
+expansion of the national life of the German people; incidentally it
+would exhibit the supremacy of Prussia in the modern Empire as the
+inevitable result not merely of military force but of a genuine hegemony
+of intellect and culture.
+
+
+  Influence of Luther.
+
+Stress is rightly laid by all educational writers upon Luther's famous
+letter to the German municipalities in 1524, urging upon them the duty
+of providing schools and upon parents the duty of sending their children
+to school. An attempt to give effect to this teaching was at once made
+by the electoral government of Saxony, which by a school ordinance of
+1528 provided for the establishment in every town and village of Latin
+schools, for in Germany as in England the influence of the Protestant
+reformers was solidly on the side of classical education as the key to
+the study of the Scriptures and theological learning. All the more
+remarkable, therefore, was the initiative of the electorate of
+Wurttemberg, whose school ordinance of 1559 represents the first
+systematic attempt to make provision for both elementary and higher
+education, directing that elementary schools should be set up throughout
+the country, and _Particularschulen_ or Latin schools in every
+considerable centre of population. The educational efforts both of the
+early Reformers and of the remarkable Jesuit educationists, who
+contributed so largely to the partial reconquest of south Germany for
+the Catholic Church, were brought to naught amid the troublous times of
+the Thirty Years' War, and the desolation and national decadence which
+that calamity brought in its train. To this result the aridity of the
+Protestant scholastics who succeeded Luther and Melanchthon, and the
+frivolity, incompetence and petty despotism of the small German courts,
+contributed in no slight measure. The permanent and positive value of
+Luther's pronouncement of 1524 consists not so much in the direct
+effects which it produced as in the hallowed association which it
+established for Protestant Germany between the national religion and the
+educational duties of the individual and the state, and doubtless this
+association largely contributed to the creation of that healthy public
+opinion which in Prussia rendered the principle of compulsory school
+attendance easy of acceptance at a much earlier date than in England and
+elsewhere, save only Scotland, where a similar historical religious
+influence was supplied by John Knox.
+
+
+  Early Prussian measures.
+
+State interference in education is almost coincident with the rise of
+the Prussian state. Already in 1717 Frederick William I. ordered all
+children to attend school where schools existed, and fixed the fee at 5
+pf. (1/2d.) a week. This was followed in 1736 by edicts for the
+establishment of schools in certain provinces and by a royal grant of
+50,000 thalers for that purpose in the following year. In 1763 the
+_General Landschulreglement_ of Frederick the Great laid down the broad
+lines upon which the Prussian state has since proceeded, asserting the
+principle of compulsory school attendance, fixing the fees, with
+provision for the assistance of very poor children, prescribing the
+course of instruction, and giving directions for the examination and
+supervision of teachers. Much progress was made, more especially in the
+organization of higher education, under Baron von Zedlitz, who was
+appointed minister for Lutheran church and school affairs by Frederick
+the Great in 1771, and retired under Frederick William II. in 1788. The
+last-mentioned year saw the establishment of the _Abiturientenexamen_,
+or leaving examinations, which form the determining element in the state
+organization of secondary education in Germany. As in England, the fear
+of the French Revolution produced a corresponding reaction in
+educational affairs, and the policy of Frederick William II. was to bind
+ever closer school and church in a system practically independent of
+state control. The first departure from this policy was marked by the
+_Allgemeines Landrecht_ of 1794, which boldly proclaims that schools and
+educational institutions may be founded only with the knowledge and
+consent of the state, and must always be under its supervision and
+subject to its examination and control. This law also laid upon heads of
+families in every place the duty of providing and maintaining schools.
+
+
+  Reconstruction after Jena.
+
+It was not till the disaster of Jena and the prostration of Prussia at
+the feet of Napoleon awoke the dormant spirit of patriotism, and
+concentrated all the intellectual forces of north Germany upon the task
+of national regeneration, that the principles of the _Allgemeines
+Landrecht_ of 1794 bore full fruit. "The organization of the Prussian
+school system," says Dr James E. Russell in his work on _German Higher
+Schools_, "waited on the reorganization of the Prussian State." One of
+the first acts of the great patriotic minister von Stein, upon his
+assuming control of the civil administration in 1807, was to abolish the
+semi-ecclesiastical Oberschulkollegium which had been set up as the
+central authority under the churchly policy of Frederick William II.,
+and to place education under the Ministry of the Interior as a special
+section. Wilhelm von Humboldt was placed at the head of this section in
+1809, and the work which this "great master of the science and art of
+education" (as Professor Seeley terms him in his _Life of Stein_)
+inaugurated in his one year of office entitles him to be ranked among
+the founders of German unity. Humboldt's greatest positive
+achievements--the foundation of the university of Berlin and its
+organization under a professorial staff which included Fichte,
+Schleiermacher, Savigny, Wolf and Niebuhr, as also the internal reform
+of secondary schools undertaken with the pedagogical assistance of Wolf
+and under the inspiration of Fichte--lie beyond the scope of this
+article. It may, however, be observed that Humboldt's policy in
+secondary education represents a compromise between the narrow
+philological pedantry of the old Latin schools and the large demands of
+the new humanism of the period; and the recent reform of the Prussian
+secondary schools may be said to represent a return to the spirit of
+Humboldt in this respect. The measure introduced by Humboldt in 1810 for
+the state examination and certification of teachers checked the then
+common practice of permitting unqualified theological students to teach
+in the schools, and at once raised the teaching profession to a high
+level of dignity and efficiency which of itself sufficed to place
+Prussia in the forefront of educational progress. It was due also to
+the initiative of Humboldt that the methods of Pestalozzi were
+introduced into the teachers' seminaries, through them to vitalize the
+elementary schools. To the period of the national struggle belong the
+revival in 1812 of the Abiturientenexamen which had fallen into
+abeyance, and the institution about the same time of the local
+authorities called _Schulvorstande_ for the country and
+_Schuldeputationen_ for the towns.
+
+
+  Reforms of 1825 and 1834. Abiturientenexamen.
+
+Though the period which succeeded the peace of 1815 was one of political
+reaction, the cabinet order of Frederick William III. in 1825
+strengthened the law of compulsory attendance and carried on the work of
+administrative organization by defining the duties of the
+Provinzial-Schul-Kollegium and the Regierung. In 1834 an important
+development was given to secondary education by making it necessary for
+candidates for the learned professions as well as for the civil service,
+and for university studies, to have passed the leaving examination of
+the gymnasia. Thus through the leaving examination the state holds the
+key to the liberal careers, and has thereby been able to impose its own
+standard upon all secondary schools. Apart from the privileges relative
+to professional studies, the system of leaving examinations has exerted
+a wide influence upon popular education in connexion with the
+institution of compulsory military service, in virtue of a regulation
+which entitles those who pass the leaving examination of any of the
+recognized kinds of secondary schools to the much-coveted privilege of
+service for one year as a "volunteer" instead of two years as an
+ordinary conscript.
+
+The revolutionary and national movement of 1848 was followed by a period
+of further educational activity. The Act of Constitution of 1850
+declared teachers civil servants and elementary education free. In
+practice, the abolition of school fees did not become general until
+1888. Since then the view has more and more prevailed that elementary
+education must be free,[2] and, broadly speaking, fees in elementary
+schools are now charged only for children attending from another school
+district.
+
+
+  Kulturkampf and the confessional system.
+
+In connexion with the _Kulturkampf_, or struggle between the state and
+the Roman Catholic Church, the _Schulaufsichtsgesetz_ of 1872 reasserted
+the absolute right of the state alone to the supervision of the schools;
+but the severity of this law as a measure against Roman Catholic
+clerical education was considerably modified as a result of the
+subsequent reconciliation with the papacy under Leo XIII., and the
+Prussian system remains to-day both for Catholics and Protestants
+essentially denominational. All schools, whether elementary or
+secondary, are Evangelical, Catholic, Jewish or mixed. In the elementary
+sphere, in particular, recourse is only had to the mixed school
+(_Simultanschule_ or _paritatische Schule_), where the creeds are so
+intermingled that a confessional school is impracticable. In all cases
+the teachers are appointed with reference to religious faith; religious
+instruction is given compulsorily in school hours and is inspected by
+the clergy. The general purport of the Prussian school law of 1906 is to
+strengthen the system of separate confessional schools, which it extends
+to certain provinces where it had not previously been in operation.
+
+In financial respects the last-mentioned law effected some readjustment
+of burdens by charging a proportion of the expenditure upon landed
+property. Other recent changes relate to the reform of secondary
+education referred to below. The system of educational administration as
+it stood in 1909 may shortly be described as follows.
+
+
+  Administrative machinery.
+
+Under the ministerium in Berlin stands the Provinzial-Schul-Kollegium,
+the chairman of which is the _Ober-Prasident_ of the province, composed
+of four or five _Rate_ or councillors, generally selected from the
+directors of training colleges and gymnasia. This body is concerned
+mainly with higher education.
+
+Each province is divided for purposes of general administration into two
+_Regierungen_ or governments, and in each Regierung there is a section
+of usually three or four Schulrate, which controls the elementary
+schools. This council is usually recruited from the ranks of directors
+of training colleges and from the inspectorate. The Regierung is divided
+into _Kreise_ or districts, and in each district an administrative
+officer, called the _Landrat_, represents the government. The Landrat is
+concerned with the provision and repair of elementary school buildings;
+as regards internal organization, the elementary schools are under the
+Kreisschulinspektor.
+
+
+  Inspection.
+
+In the Protestant districts the inspectors (_Kreisschulinspektoren_) are
+usually Evangelical clergymen holding the position of superintendent in
+the Lutheran Church. In the Catholic and certain other exceptional
+districts inspectors with pedagogical qualifications and the status of
+full government inspectors are appointed. Every candidate for Lutheran
+ordination is required to spend six months at a training college, but
+pedagogical opinion is hostile to the system, which must be regarded as
+a survival of the traditional union of church and state in educational
+affairs, retained at the present day from motives of economy and a
+desire to conciliate the church.
+
+For every school there is an _Ortsschulinspektor_, usually the clergyman
+of the parish, who discharges the duties of local manager and
+correspondent. This local inspector is also chairman of the
+_Schulvorstand_ or committee, elected by the _Schulgemeinde_, and
+charged with questions of attendance and maintenance rather than with
+internal affairs. The Schulgemeinde need not coincide with the civil
+parish. Parishes may unite to provide one school, or within one parish
+different religious communities may form separate school "parishes."
+
+Thus the administrative system of Prussia in education as in other
+matters may be described in general as a decentralized bureaucracy. This
+bureaucracy is somewhat checked by the rights of patronage attaching to
+the local boards in certain cases, but the exercise of such rights is in
+all cases subject to government approval. As regards higher-grade
+elementary and secondary schools, the local boards in the towns
+(_Schuldeputationen_) are able to exert a considerable influence in the
+way of selection of the type of school, and even of suggestion for the
+modification of recognized types, as is shown by the cases of the famous
+"reformed" secondary curricula of Altona and Frankfort. Still, the legal
+powers of the local board are restricted to the establishment of an
+approved type of school, the control of externa, and the right of
+nominating teachers.
+
+
+  Peculiarities of elementary education.
+
+_Elementary Schools._--The single-class school (_Einklassige Schule_)
+and the half-day school (_Halbtagsschule_) are features of the Prussian
+elementary system which require notice. The Einklassige Schule is a
+school taught by a single teacher, who may teach a maximum number of
+eighty children. The Halbtagsschule is a single-class school of which
+half the children are taught in the morning and half in the afternoon.
+During the summer months, owing to the exigencies of agricultural
+labour, many single-class schools are taught as half-day schools. The
+system of course is regarded as a makeshift, but in this, as in the
+matter of buildings for rural elementary schools, the Prussian
+administration attaches great weight to the consideration of financial
+economy. As regards staff, a large measure of economy is rendered
+possible by the high average standard of merit reached by German
+elementary teachers, whose powers of oral exposition have struck English
+observers as specially remarkable, and again by the national readiness
+to be content with a moderate salary in return for official status. A
+survival of the old close connexion between church and school is to be
+found in the _Kirchendienste_, the duties of training the choir, playing
+the organ, &c., which are attached in many cases to the post of
+schoolmaster, and afford an additional source of emolument, rendered
+feasible by the practical absence of religious dissent.
+
+For the preliminary training of elementary teachers there are special
+schools called _Praparanden-Anstalten_, of which most are state
+institutions, some are municipal, and a few are private. The training
+colleges themselves are provided by the state and have a three years'
+course.
+
+
+  Continuative education.
+
+_Continuation Schools (Fortbildungsschulen)._--Germans have been
+foremost to realize the truth which is gradually being brought home to
+English educationists, that adequate value for the heavy expenditure of
+public funds upon education can only be obtained by providing for the
+continued education for two or three years of the children of the
+working classes who leave school at fourteen years of age. One of the
+educational results of the war of 1870, with its great lesson of the
+importance of national education, was the Saxon law of 1873 making
+attendance at continuation schools compulsory for three years (i.e. up
+to seventeen) in that kingdom: The Saxon law appears to have been
+justified by the experience of nearly a generation. It must suffice here
+to note the following features of its working. (1) The schools are
+taught by the primary teachers, supplemented in the towns by some
+technical instructors. (2) The school session may be either for the
+whole year or for only half the year, and may also be held on Sunday,
+like the old English secular Sunday schools. (3) The schools are brought
+into close relation with trades, not only for purposes of curriculum,
+but also with a view to considering the exigencies and meeting the
+convenience of employers with respect to hours of attendance. (4) The
+discipline of the continuation school is extended to supervision out of
+school hours. "Visits to dancing-halls and all such exhibitions as are
+dangerous to uprightness and purity are forbidden to scholars of
+continuation schools." Further, useful institutions such as savings
+banks, and also associations for social intercourse and the promotion of
+_esprit de corps_, are organized in connexion with continuation schools.
+There is no doubt that in this matter of continuation schools, as in so
+many other fields of social organization, the adoption of compulsion has
+been facilitated by the habituation of the working classes to compulsory
+military service, which has made the German workman more disciplined,
+more "organizable" as a social unit, more accustomed to subordinate the
+principle of individual freedom and self-will to the collective claims
+of the state, than the workman reared in the traditions of Anglo-Saxon
+individualism.
+
+Attendance at continuation schools is now compulsory by state law in 12
+states, including (besides Saxony) Baden, Wurttemberg and Bavaria. The
+city of Munich is notable for its highly organized system of technical
+continuation schools for apprentices. In Prussia compulsory attendance
+is still the exception (save in the provinces of Posen and West Prussia,
+where it is enforced by state law), but the permissive act is being
+rapidly adopted by the great cities, including Berlin.
+
+
+  Grading of secondary schools.
+
+_Secondary Education._--The official classification or grading according
+to the type of curriculum of secondary schools in Prussia (and indeed
+throughout Germany) is very precise. The following are the officially
+recognized types. I. Classical schools: (a) Gymnasium, with nine years'
+course; (b) Progymnasium, with six years' course. II. Modern schools:
+(a) with Latin (semi-classical)--(i.) Realgymnasium (nine years'
+course), (ii.) Realprogymnasium (six years' course); (b) without Latin
+(non-classical)--(i.) Oberrealschule (nine years' course), (ii.)
+Realschule (six years' course). The six-year classical and
+semi-classical schools are comparatively unimportant subdivisions in
+smaller towns.
+
+
+  Co-ordination of elementary and secondary education.
+
+_Lower-grade Secondary Education._--Inasmuch as French is taught in the
+lowest class of the Realschule under the official curriculum (English,
+on the other hand, beginning in Tertia, the fourth class from the
+lowest), it follows that this, the lowest type of secondary school, is
+not directly co-ordinated with the elementary school. The Realschulen of
+Berlin, however, form an important exception to the general rule; their
+curriculum, sanctioned by the ministry at the instance of the Berlin
+municipality, provides for the beginning of French in Quarta (the third
+class from the bottom) and English in Secunda. The consequence is that
+in Berlin a very large number of pupils pass from the elementary schools
+to the Realschulen, which take the place of the Mittelschulen or
+higher-grade elementary schools that are to be found in some towns,
+though something in the nature of higher elementary education is
+afforded by the top sections of the elementary schools.
+
+
+  First grade secondary schools.
+
+_First-grade Schools._--One of the most striking features of German
+secondary education is the careful differentiation of schools according
+to the type of curriculum adopted. Thus, every German school is a
+homogeneous unit with a definite educational aim and organization,
+conforming to a common standard approved by public authority for the
+particular type to which it belongs. Hence the importance attached by
+the Germans to nomenclature; so that in selecting a Gymnasium, a
+Realgymnasium or an Oberrealschule, the parent knows exactly the type of
+education he is going to secure for his son. In England, on the other
+hand, as has often been observed, a great school tends to multiply
+within itself different types of curricula in a haphazard way according
+to the demand of parents, whose original choice of school is based
+rather on social than on educational grounds. Modern sides, army classes
+and engineering classes grow up as excrescences upon an originally
+classical type, with the waste of power that results from loss of
+consistency and concentration of purpose. The difference between the
+English and German systems is due ultimately to the adoption in Germany
+of the day-school system and the absence, very remarkable in an
+otherwise aristocratically governed country, of the caste spirit in
+education above the elementary level, thanks to which the nobly born are
+not ashamed to sit on the school bench side by side with the children of
+the trading classes. On the other hand, the English boarding-school
+system, despite all the want of social solidarity, and all the class
+jealousy and exclusiveness with which it is inevitably associated, has
+admittedly favoured those ideals of the cultivation of character as
+distinct from book-learning which give a special value to what is in
+England called a public school education.
+
+
+  Rise of semi-classical schools.
+
+The present differentiation of first-grade schools in Prussia is the
+result of a natural educational development corresponding with the
+economic changes which have transformed Prussia and the empire from an
+agricultural to an industrial state. It was in 1855 that semi-classical
+schools (teaching Latin without Greek) were first recognized for a nine
+years' course under the title of Realschule I. Ordnung, and in 1871
+pupils possessing their leaving certificates were admitted to
+mathematical studies in the universities. The Latinless Realschule II.
+Ordnung is the direct product of the great industrial development of the
+modern empire. In 1882 the Realschule I. Ordnung received the title of
+Realgymnasium, and the Realschule II. Ordnung that of Oberrealschule,
+both types being at the same time admitted to certain privileges in the
+universities, schools of technology and civil service.
+
+
+  The "reform school" movement.
+
+About the same period official recognition was obtained for reformed
+secondary curricula, first at Altona and afterwards (1892) at Frankfort.
+These two types differ from each other in detail, but the feature which
+distinguishes both from the older types is the postponement of Latin to
+Untertertia. The design is to secure for all types of secondary
+education a common non-classical base coextensive with the first three
+years of school life, followed by a trifurcation or threefold choice
+between the classical, semi-classical and non-classical types. The
+principle of the "reform-school" has been adopted in a considerable
+number of German (chiefly Prussian) schools, but it would be premature
+to see in it at present more than a new variety of Realgymnasium or
+semi-classical school; it can hardly be said as yet to have affected the
+course of classical studies in the full sense. The widespread sentiment
+of discontent with the old philological type of classical school was
+vigorously expressed in a private letter written by the emperor William
+II. as crown prince of Prussia in 1885, but not published until
+some-years later. In December 1890 the Prussian ministry convoked a
+conference at Berlin of secondary school experts, and the emperor
+presided in person at the opening session. His majesty delivered a
+speech criticizing the Gymnasia as wanting a national basis. "It is our
+duty to educate young men to become young Germans and not young Greeks
+or Romans" was the keynote of the imperial discourse. The outcome of the
+conference was a shortening of the hours allowed to Latin in the
+Gymnasia, a reduction of the hours of study in view of over-pressure,
+and an expression of official opinion adverse to the Realgymnasium.
+These changes, introduced in 1892, did not go far enough to satisfy the
+reformers, whilst the reduction of the hours allowed for Latin caused
+misgivings among the upholders of the traditional Gymnasium. Moreover,
+the Realgymnasium showed greater vitality among the large towns than its
+official critics anticipated. The ensuing decade witnessed a certain
+reaction in favour of the classical humanities as a barrier against the
+materialistic influences of the new industrialism. At the same time the
+protagonists of the classics came to recognize that side by side with
+the old humanities there must be accorded to modern and scientific
+subjects that place in the high-grade schools which the practical
+exigencies of industrial life demanded. Thus, the opinion grew that the
+best line of defence for the classical schools lay in the concession of
+equal privileges to the non-classical types; in this way only could the
+classical schools be kept safe from demands upon their time that could
+not be conceded without endangering their proper work. It was upon this
+basis that an agreement was reached between the contending parties at a
+second school conference that met in Berlin in June 1900. As the result
+of this conference there was issued a royal decree laying down certain
+general principles, of which the following are the most important. (1)
+There must be equality of privileges as between classical,
+semi-classical and non-classical first-grade schools. The decree
+recognizes, however, that this principle must be applied with a certain
+elasticity and with due regard to the necessity for training in
+particular branches of knowledge as a preliminary to certain lines of
+university study and certain professional pursuits. Consequently the
+Prussian system of privileges has become extremely complicated, and it
+is truer to speak, as the decree goes on to do, of an extension of the
+privileges of the non-classical schools, rather than of absolute
+equality. (2) "In thus acknowledging the equality of the three types of
+higher institutions, it will be possible more thoroughly to strengthen
+the special characteristics of each type. In this connexion," the royal
+decree proceeds, "I shall offer no objection to an increase in the
+number of hours devoted to Latin in the Gymnasium and Realgymnasium."
+Thus, both as to the place of Latin in the curriculum of classical
+schools and as to the status of semi-classical schools, the decree of
+1900 involves a reversal of the policy of 1890. (3) The decree expresses
+approval of the reformed curricula of Altona and Frankfort, and a desire
+for an extension of the experiment where the conditions are suitable.
+
+Notwithstanding the growing official encouragement of education upon
+semi-classical or non-classical lines, the upper and professional
+classes of Germany continue to show a marked preference for the fully
+classical Gymnasium; hence, in Germany as in England, the tendency for a
+widening gulf to disclose itself between the education of the directing
+classes in politics and administration and the bulk of the industrial
+population, which suggests that the problem of combining in just
+proportions the liberal and practical elements in a thoroughly national
+system of education has not yet reached the solution that the needs of
+the age require.
+
+
+_Switzerland._
+
+  Educational influence of federal constitution.
+
+Switzerland affords perhaps the best type of a democratic system of
+local authorities. The central authority is the canton, not the
+federation. The interference of the federal authority is confined to the
+imposition of certain broad principles by the constitution, to the
+indirect influence exerted by the examination of recruits for the
+national army, and to financial grants for technical instruction, its
+most important direct educational work being the support of the
+technological university at Zurich. The federal constitution (1) states
+that primary instruction must be under the control of the canton (an
+important point in view of the strength of ecclesiastical influence in
+some of the Catholic cantons), and must be compulsory and gratuitous;
+(2) declares that it must be possible for the public schools to be
+attended by the adherents of all creeds without hurting their freedom of
+conscience; (3) forbids the employment of child labour before completion
+of the fourteenth year, with a provision that in the fifteenth and
+sixteenth years factory work, together with the time given to school and
+religious instruction, must not exceed eleven hours a day. (4) All
+recruits for the federal army (in which service is compulsory on a
+militia basis) are examined in their twentieth year, and the results are
+published. This examination affords an instructive index to the state of
+education in the several cantons and promotes a healthy emulation among
+them.
+
+
+  Cantonal organization.
+
+The cantonal organization of education presents the variety which the
+extraordinary diversity of race, language, religion and physical
+conditions of the component states of the federation would lead one to
+expect. The large canton of Bern may be instanced as the type of a
+strong central authority. The commune or parish is the unit for
+elementary education. The communal council nominates a school board of
+at least five members, whose function is to spend the money voted for
+school purposes by the general communal council. Several communes in
+combination form a district authority for the support of what are in
+reality higher primary schools, though called in Switzerland
+_Sekundarschulen_, maintained by the district. The maintenance both of
+the primary and higher primary schools is aided by grants from the
+central authority. The true secondary schools, called middle or higher
+schools, are maintained and controlled by the central or cantonal
+authority. The existence of separate local authorities for each grade of
+education is characteristic of Switzerland generally, this system being
+the opposite to that adopted in England in 1902.
+
+The central grants in Switzerland always take the form of payments to
+the local authorities of a proportion of the teachers' salaries; they
+are never, as in England, assessed upon the number of children in
+attendance, nor are they dependent, as was formerly the case in England,
+upon the results of examination, nor again are grants made in respect of
+particular subjects as is the case with the grants for special, i.e.
+practical, instruction in England.
+
+Religious instruction in the Swiss communal schools generally follows
+the faith of the majority; in a few cantons separate schools being
+provided for minorities if sufficiently numerous. In the town of
+Lucerne, Catholic instruction is given in school hours and Protestant
+instruction is provided out of school and out of hours for the
+Protestant minority.
+
+In 19 out of the 25 cantons attendance at continuation schools is
+compulsory (at least in some districts) for boys up to 17, and in 3
+cantons it is compulsory also wholly or in part for girls.
+
+
+_Belgium._
+
+  Belgian treatment of religious question.
+
+The interesting feature in Belgian education is the treatment of the
+religious question in successive laws.
+
+1. The law of 1842 obliged the communes to provide primary instruction,
+which was to be free in the case of poor children. The state made grants
+in aid, subject to inspection. Subject to a conscience clause, religious
+instruction was obligatory, and was placed under ecclesiastical
+inspection.
+
+2. The law of 1879 removed religious instruction from the curriculum,
+and provided for facilities to the clergy to give such instruction
+outside school hours. This law furnishes a striking instance of the
+futility of a parliamentary majority legislating in a sense opposed to
+the convictions of a considerable section of the community. The law
+evoked a storm of opposition in the country, still profoundly Catholic
+and attached to ecclesiastical traditions, and within eighteen months
+the Catholics founded private elementary schools with 455,000 scholars.
+In 1883 the Catholic private schools numbered 622,000 scholars, whilst
+the attendance at the communal schools had sunk to 324,000. Their
+doctrinaire treatment of the education question resulted in the
+political annihilation of the Belgian Liberals, and was responsible for
+the strongest and most persistent Roman Catholic reaction that has been
+witnessed in western Europe since the beginning of the 19th century.
+
+3. The law of 1884 was the work of the moderate Catholic party. It did
+not make religious instruction obligatory, but it gave liberty to the
+communes to provide for the giving of religious and moral instruction at
+the beginning or end of school hours, subject to a conscience clause.
+Power was given to the communes to "adopt" private confessional schools
+and maintain them. Provision was further made entitling any twenty
+parents of children of school age to demand a school of the normal
+communal type as against a proposal to adopt a confessional school.
+Power was also given to a like number of parents to compel the adoption
+of a confessional school in the case of the commune refusing to provide
+religious instruction of the type demanded by them, or putting obstacles
+in the way of its being given by the clergy or their representatives.
+
+4. The law of 1895 is the work of the more authoritarian Catholics, and
+makes religious instruction obligatory, placing it directly under the
+control of the clergy. It also increased the subsidies to private
+schools. This law was passed in face of opposition from the moderate
+section, who saw in it an exaltation of state authority which might be
+turned by opponents to the disadvantage of the religious interest. It is
+by no means clear that Belgium has yet attained a final solution of the
+religious difficulty; the life of the present law is probably to be
+measured by that of the Catholic political majority.
+
+
+_Holland._
+
+The outstanding feature of public education in Holland is the strength
+of the private primary schools. Under the law of 1857 secular teaching
+alone was provided in the primary schools at the public cost. The law of
+1878 allowed communes to make grants to private schools on condition of
+their becoming neutral in the matter of religion. The law of 1889
+allowed private denominational schools to receive government grants
+while retaining their denominational character, but forbade further
+grants to such schools by the communes.
+
+In 1905 there were 566,460 children in the public and 278,632 in the
+private schools.
+
+
+_Scotland._
+
+The diverse religious and social conditions of the three constituent
+parts of the United Kingdom must necessarily cause the education problem
+to assume a different shape and to receive different solutions in
+England, Scotland and Ireland respectively; latterly also the special
+conditions obtaining in Wales have received partial recognition at the
+hands both of the legislature and the executive. In Scotland the
+conditions have been less complex than in England. The practical
+unanimity of the people in religious faith, which has remained
+undisturbed by the institutional divisions of recent times, the wider
+diffusion of a sense of the value of education, the greater simplicity
+of life which has rendered all classes largely content to avail
+themselves of the preparatory education afforded by the common school
+and favoured the development in the secondary sphere of day rather than
+boarding schools, are among the causes which have contributed to the
+early building up of a national system which in some respects resembles
+the continental rather than the English type.
+
+
+  Historical development.
+
+The national appreciation of education is found marked already before
+the Reformation in a statute of James IV. (1494) requiring all
+freeholders of substance to send their heirs to school and to keep them
+there until they had perfect Latin. The Reformation, asserting itself by
+common consent under one ecclesiastical form, and free from the
+divisions of religious organization which tended to neutralize it as an
+educational force in England, put fresh life into the educational
+aspirations of the people. As early as 1560 the Church Assembly, largely
+under the influence of John Knox, put forth the _Book of Discipline_,
+providing that "every several kirk" in a town "of any reputation" was to
+have its Latin school, that the "upaland" or country parts were to have
+a teacher of the "first rudiments" in every parish, and that each
+"notable" town was to have "a college for logic, rhetoric and the
+tongues." Practical effect was later given to this scheme by an act of
+the Scottish parliament in 1696, under which parish schools were set up
+in connexion with the Established Church of Scotland. This system was
+extended by an act of 1803, which made better provision for teachers'
+salaries and also confirmed the position of the parish school as an
+adjunct of the parish church. The system of inspection and state aid
+introduced in England in 1839 was made applicable to Scotland, thus
+grafting upon Scotland the English system of voluntary state-aided
+schools. At the same period another new factor was imported into
+Scottish education by the ecclesiastical disruption of 1843. As a result
+of these changes in 1861 a new act was passed which relaxed, though it
+did not sever, the ties which bound the parish school to the church.
+
+
+  Scottish school boards and school attendance law.
+
+The Education (Scotland) Act of 1872 set up elective school boards for
+parishes and boroughs, and vested in them the existing parish and burgh
+schools. Long prior to the act it had been the practice of the Church of
+Scotland to allow exemption in the schools from religious instruction;
+consequently in imposing a compulsory conscience clause the act did
+little more than confirm existing usage. The school boards were left
+full liberty as to the religious instruction to be given in their
+schools, and in practice school boards universally adopt the Shorter
+Catechism, which is acceptable to all denominations of Presbyterians.
+The act made the school boards responsible for the supply of school
+accommodation, and introduced compulsory attendance, for which opinion
+in England was not at that time ripe. By the act of 1901, the age of
+compulsory attendance was raised to fourteen, with provision for
+exemption after twelve.
+
+
+  Administrative progress.
+
+The experience of the Scottish Education Department, like that of the
+English, has led to the gradual abandonment of individual examination as
+the basis for the payment of grants. The institution of the merit
+certificate is one of the features in which the Scottish system differs
+from the English. Prior to the code of 1903 the merit certificate,
+awarded on examination after the age of twelve, was properly described
+as the leaving certificate of the elementary school. Under the more
+recent codes merit certificates are awarded under a system designed to
+encourage the transference of promising pupils at an early age to
+supplementary courses or higher-grade departments. Under this system the
+fitness of the pupil to enter upon a course of higher studies is
+determined not solely by the results of a single examination, but by the
+whole character of his work during the preceding school course.
+
+
+  Higher-grade schools.
+
+A notable factor historically in Scottish education was the extent to
+which the parish schools supplied their best pupils with higher or
+further education. The administrative changes last mentioned have led to
+a remarkable development of organized higher-grade schools and
+departments. These departments have now been organized upon the lines of
+the higher primary schools of France, "to continue a stage further"
+(says the report of the Scottish Education Department) "the general
+education of that considerable body of pupils who, under new conditions,
+may be expected to remain at school till fifteen or sixteen." The
+function "of giving something of the nature of a specialized education
+to pupils who will leave school at a comparatively early age" is now
+discharged by the supplementary courses.
+
+
+  Free education.
+
+Elementary education has generally been rendered free by the fee grants
+under the parliamentary vote, and by the sums accruing under the Local
+Taxation (Customs and Excise) Act 1890 and the Education and Local
+Taxation (Scotland) Act 1892.
+
+Voluntary schools are not numerous, being chiefly those of the Roman
+Catholic Church. The average cost of maintenance per child in average
+attendance in public schools (according to the official report
+1907-1908) was L3, 11s. 1-1/4d., of which L2, 4s. 4-1/2d. was met by
+government grants for elementary education. In voluntary schools the
+average cost of maintenance was L2, 15s. 1-3/4d., of which L2, 2s. 7d.
+was met by elementary grants, including a special aid grant of 3s. per
+head under the Education (Scotland) Act 1897.
+
+The total number of children (1907-1908) in average attendance in
+grant-earning schools was 712,076, and the percentage of attendances to
+numbers on the register was 87.66%. As regards teaching power, 81.52% of
+the male teachers and 56.71% of the female teachers in the elementary
+teachers had been trained in training colleges.
+
+
+  Education (Scotland) Act 1908.
+
+Certain miscellaneous additional powers are conferred upon school boards
+by the Education (Scotland) Act 1908, including powers to provide school
+meals; in outlying parts, to provide means of conveyance, or pay
+travelling expenses of teachers or pupils, or defray the cost of lodging
+pupils in convenient proximity to a school; to provide for medical
+inspection; and as to children neglected by reason of the ill-health or
+poverty of the parent, to supply food, clothing and personal attention.
+
+
+  Compulsory continuation classes.
+
+Perhaps the most noteworthy provision in the act of 1908 is that which
+enables (not obliges) school boards to make bye-laws requiring
+attendance at continuation classes up to the age of seventeen years.
+Apart from compulsory attendance, the act lays upon school boards the
+duty of making suitable provision of continuation classes with reference
+to the crafts and industries practised in the district.
+
+
+  Secondary education.
+
+The Scottish Education Act of 1872 distinguished certain burgh and
+parish schools as "higher class public" or secondary schools. The act of
+1908 deals in some detail with secondary education, modifying and
+strengthening the framework in various ways, but without introducing
+organic changes. "Secondary" schools are distinguished from
+"intermediate," the former being defined as providing at least a five
+years' course; the latter as providing at least a three years' course in
+languages, mathematics, science and such other subjects as may from time
+to time be deemed suitable for the instruction of pupils who have
+reached a certain standard of attainment in elementary subjects under
+the code. Intermediate and secondary schools may be provided and
+maintained either by school boards or otherwise, and provision is
+contained in the act for the transfer of endowed schools to the school
+board. Thus secondary (as well as elementary and continuative) education
+is organized upon the basis of the parish or burgh; it receives,
+however, grants in aid through the agency of county (or large urban)
+authorities (called district committees) constituted under schemes of
+the Scottish Education Department. For the purpose of such grants in aid
+the funds available under the various local taxation acts, together with
+parliamentary grants, other than a fee grant at the rate of 12s. per
+child in average attendance, form a fund called the Education (Scotland)
+Fund. After provision has been made for (_inter alia_) grants for
+universities, higher technical education and training colleges, the fund
+is allocated to the district committees according to a scheme laid
+before parliament and approved by the king in council. Out of the
+"district education fund" the school board receives (ordinarily) a sum
+equal to one-half of the amount by which the net cost to the school
+board (after deducting income from grants made by the department and
+from fees) exceeds the amount which would be produced by such rate per
+pound upon the district of the school board as the committee may
+determine, not being more than a rate of twopence in the pound.
+Important powers are also conferred upon the district committee for
+organizing and aiding within their district the provision by the school
+boards of medical examination and supervision of school children, the
+supply of bursaries for purposes of all forms of higher education, and
+the provision of instruction in special subjects, such as agriculture,
+&c.
+
+
+_Ireland._
+
+  Special difficulties of Irish education.
+
+The full development of a system of public education in Ireland has been
+hampered and retarded by the general difficulties inherent in the
+problem of Irish government. In consequence of the fundamentally
+different social, religious and political conditions in the two
+countries, the English and Irish systems have developed down to the
+present time upon divergent lines. In England, popular education was
+founded in the first instance upon individual initiative combining in
+organized voluntary effort, and, though the voluntary agencies have been
+first supplemented and latterly to a large extent supplanted by public
+action, the tendency has been in the direction of municipalization
+rather than in that of central state control. In Ireland, on the other
+hand, education has suffered in the past from the general absence of
+individual initiative and local interest almost as seriously as from the
+mistakes of the English government. These causes, more directly perhaps
+than the prevailing poverty of the country, made it necessary to throw
+the burden of supporting the schools to an increasing extent upon the
+state, while the want of local self-government precluded any devolution
+of powers and duties upon municipal authorities.
+
+
+  Historic retrospect.
+
+State intervention is actually of earlier date in Ireland than in
+England. From the reign of Elizabeth onwards, English Protestant schools
+were founded by the government in a sporadic and intermittent fashion in
+pursuance of its Anglicizing policy. To mention briefly one or two
+historical features, the great religious educational enterprise of
+Edmond Rice in founding the well-known Irish Catholic order of the
+Christian Brothers in 1802 forms an exception to the general lack of
+initiative among the people themselves. About the same period the
+Kildare Place Society (founded in 1811 while the first commission of
+inquiry into Irish education was sitting) attempted to grapple with the
+peculiar difficulties of the religious situation upon lines somewhat
+similar to those just laid down by Lancaster and his followers in
+England. This organization comprised both Roman Catholic and Protestant
+schools upon a common religious basis of Bible reading without note or
+comment, and received government grants which rose to L30,000 a year
+before they were discontinued in 1833. The religious compromise which
+the system embodied broke down in consequence of Catholic
+dissatisfaction, and that it was at first fairly successful may seem
+extraordinary in view of the later attitude of the Catholic Church
+towards the question of common schools and combined religious
+instruction.
+
+
+  The national system.
+
+In 1833, as the result of a second commission of inquiry (1824) and a
+select committee of the House of Commons (1828), Mr Stanley inaugurated
+the national system of elementary schools under a board of commissioners
+nominated from the different religious denominations. The government
+appears from the outset to have aimed at combined secular and separate
+religious instruction for Roman Catholics and Protestants. At the same
+time, an attempt was inconsistently made to provide an ethical basis for
+the secular instruction by means of Bible extracts. The story of the
+preparation of these extracts by an ingenious compound of the Protestant
+Authorized and Douai versions of Scripture is in its way one of the
+curiosities of religious history. The extracts were designed to meet the
+recognized Catholic objection to the indiscriminate reading of the Bible
+without note or comment. In practice they were chiefly used in the
+Protestant schools (in which their use is now practically extinct), and
+the growing Catholic objection to the policy of the National Board in
+this respect found authoritative, though somewhat cautiously worded,
+expression in a decree of the Roman Congregation De Propaganda Fide of
+January 11, 1846, declaring that non-sectarian religious instruction was
+dangerous to youth. "Tutius multo esse ut literarum tantummodo humanarum
+magisterium fiat in scholis promiscuis, quam ut fundamentales, ut aiunt,
+et communes religionis Christianae articuli restricte tradantur,
+reservata singulis sestis peculiari seorsum eruditione. Ita enim cum
+pueris agere periculosum valde videtur." The religious difficulty in
+Irish elementary education may be said to have been solved in process of
+time by the conversion of the national system in practice, though not in
+theory, into a system strongly denominational and therefore widely
+different from the design of its founders, combined Biblical instruction
+being discarded, and separate schools for the most part taking the place
+of common schools for the two creeds. In the latter respect the like
+tendency has been noted in the case of Germany.
+
+The following are the chief specific points upon which the Irish system
+of elementary education differs from the English.
+
+
+  Irish elementary education.
+
+_Finance._--The state still makes building grants to the extent of
+two-thirds of the cost. Such grants are only made to what are called
+vested schools, that is to say, schools of which the premises are vested
+in trustees or in the commissioners themselves. The state further pays
+in the case of all national schools the entire cost of maintenance
+except only the upkeep of the building, and the provision of books after
+the exhaustion of a first free grant.
+
+_Appointment and Payment of Teachers._--For the purpose of promotion the
+state through its inspectors undertakes the duty of classifying the
+individual teachers in four grades, passage from one grade to another
+being secured by examination. Appointments of teachers to schools are
+made by the school managers subject to the approval of the
+commissioners. Rights of dismissal are reserved to the local managers
+and also to the commissioners independently. Lastly, the teachers'
+salaries are now paid directly by the state. The old system of payment
+by results was abandoned in 1900, and the teacher is paid (a) a fixed
+salary according to grade, (b) a continued good service salary which may
+be increased triennially, (c) a capitation payment.
+
+_Convent Schools._--In addition to the national schools supported as
+above, there are a considerable number of convent or monastery schools
+which receive capitation grants after the English plan, but not direct
+salaries. There were 308 such schools in 1908, with an average
+attendance of 70,003. There were also 83 other convent or monastery
+schools paid by personal salaries, with an average attendance of 11,075.
+
+_School Attendance and Free Education._--The Irish Education Act 1892
+provided for compulsory attendance in towns and for the adoption of
+compulsion in other districts. In virtue of the financial sections of
+this act, which provided an increased grant for salaries, most national
+schools have become free.
+
+_General Elementary-School Statistics._--In 1908 the average number of
+scholars on the rolls of all the schools was 708,992, and the average
+daily attendance was 494,662, or 69.8% as compared with the number on
+the rolls. As regards religious denomination, 74.42% of the scholars on
+the rolls were Roman Catholics; 28.6% were in schools attended by both
+Roman Catholic and Protestant children and 71.4% in schools attended
+solely by Roman Catholics or solely by Protestants. The total
+expenditure on the schools and teaching staffs was L1,591,214, of which
+L1,451,139, equivalent to L2, 19s. 3d. per scholar, was contributed from
+state grants, and L140,074, equivalent to 5s. 9d. per scholar, from
+local (i.e. voluntary) sources, the rate per scholar from all sources
+being L3, 5s.
+
+_Training of Teachers._--Salaried monitors are employed in the Irish
+schools, but, unlike the English pupil teachers, are not explicitly
+recognized as forming part of the school staff. There are now seven
+training colleges, viz. one undenominational college maintained by the
+commissioners, five Roman Catholic colleges, and one college in
+connexion with the Protestant Episcopal Church of Ireland. Of the
+scholars in the undenominational college, 73 out of 312 were Roman
+Catholics. The total number of students in training was 1189, viz. 514
+men and 675 women. The percentage of trained teachers to the total
+number of teachers was 64.7. A special training college for the
+instruction of teachers in Irish has been recognized.
+
+
+  Secondary education.
+
+One of the chief desiderata in Irish education is a single central
+authority for all branches of education, elementary, secondary (or
+"intermediate") and technical. There are two central authorities
+dealing with secondary education, viz. the Intermediate Education Board
+and the Department for Agriculture and Technical Instruction. The
+Intermediate Board administers sums available under the Intermediate
+Education Act of 1878 from the Irish Church Surplus, and also the sum
+allocated under the Local Taxation Act 1890. The vice of the system in
+the opinion of educational experts lies in the statutory obligation to
+award grants on the result of an individual examination of the scholars.
+As a result of the vice-regal commission of 1898, power was taken to
+introduce a system of school inspection, though not to dispense with the
+individual examination as the basis for the award of the grants; this
+measure of reform was ultimately carried out in 1909. The sum
+distributed in result grants is about L50,000 per annum.
+
+Prior to the Agriculture and Technical Instruction (Ireland) Act 1899,
+science and art grants were administered by the Science and Art
+Department in England; by this act they were transferred to the new
+Irish Department for Agriculture and Technical Instruction. This
+department makes block grants to secondary schools in respect of science
+and art teaching, and manual instruction or domestic economy. Measures
+have been taken for the co-ordination of the duties of the Technical
+Department and the Intermediate Board, and the impetus given to the
+teaching of experimental science by grants for the erection of
+laboratories represents a reform of undoubted value for higher education
+in Ireland, especially when considered in connexion with the enlistment
+of the local interest of the technical education committees in the
+intermediate schools. Nevertheless, in the absence of a reform of the
+results system of intermediate grants, the special subsidizing of
+science teaching has tended to put an undue premium upon this subject to
+the detriment of the rest of the curriculum.
+
+Ireland possesses no such system of scholarships for assisting the
+passage of scholars from the elementary to the secondary school as
+England enjoys as a result of the municipalization of the educational
+system. Nevertheless, Irish children as a fact pass much more freely
+from the elementary to the secondary school than is the case in England
+where social prejudices are stronger. The schools of the Christian
+Brothers are usually organized in two departments, primary and
+intermediate, and thus supply for the Roman Catholic population the
+demand for the cheap type of secondary day school represented by the
+municipal schools in England. It must be added that the Irish
+intermediate schools are purely denominational. The widespread demand
+for secondary education among the people, to which the report of Messrs
+Dale and Stephens bears witness, is a gratifying feature of Irish life,
+while the recent establishment (1908) of the long-deferred national
+university, and the perceptible quickening of intellectual interests
+throughout the country in connexion with the Celtic revival, point to
+better conditions for higher education and to the development of a
+wider, deeper and truer, because more national, culture.
+
+
+_England._
+
+It was justly observed by Sir Joshua Fitch (_Ency. Brit._, 10th ed.,
+xxvii. p. 655) that "the public provision for the education of the
+people in England is not the product of any theory or plan formulated
+beforehand by statesmen or philosophers; it has come into existence
+through a long course of experiments, compromises, traditions,
+successes, failures and religious controversies. What has been done in
+this department of public policy is the resultant of many diverse forces
+and of slow evolution and growth rather than of pure purpose and
+well-defined national aims. It has been effected in different degrees by
+philanthropy, by private enterprise, by religious zeal, by ancient
+universities and endowed foundations, by municipal and local effort, and
+only to a small extent by legislation. The genius--or rather
+characteristic habit--of the English people is averse from the
+philosophical system, and is disposed to regard education, not as a
+science, but as a body of expedients to be discovered empirically and
+amended from time to time as occasion may require." Clearly, then, the
+English system of public education, as it results from successive acts
+of the administration and the legislature, is one which can only
+adequately be appreciated in the light of an historical survey of the
+various stages which have led up to it and the social conditions by
+which they were determined. The history of state education in England
+begins tardily in 1832, when after a generation of hesitation and
+controversy a beginning was made upon an exceedingly modest scale with
+the system of treasury grants in aid of elementary schools. The diverse
+forces which were at that date at work in the education of the nation as
+a whole, retarding state interference and marking out the limits within
+which it was long to be confined, derive their origin from a much
+remoter period.
+
+
+  Influence of the English Reformation.
+
+The apprenticeship laws of Henry VIII. contain the earliest germ of
+state interference. These laws obliged children between five and
+thirteen years of age who were found begging or idle to be bound
+apprentices to some handicraft. If the immediate object was the
+prevention of crime rather than education as such, this early
+legislation is at least significant of the primary and intimate
+connexion that exists between popular education and industrial and
+economic needs. Yet in the shaping of the educational system the
+original influences were religious rather than economic; hence the
+importance of the canons of 1604, which secured the control of education
+to the Established Church. This of course was no novel doctrine, but
+merely the reaffirmation by the Reformed Church of the Catholic
+tradition of religious exclusiveness, presenting itself to the mind of
+contemporaries rather as the recognition of a national, that was also a
+religious, duty than as the assumption of an ecclesiastical privilege.
+Whatever mischief the Tudor statesmen wrought by indiscriminate
+destruction of chantries and other foundations which combined
+educational work with observances that the new religion branded as
+superstitions, however far the English Reformation fell short of the
+organized enthusiasm for popular education and culture that marked the
+first most vigorous and constructive period of Lutheranism in Germany,
+the Protestant, and especially the Puritan, spirit unquestionably
+inspired a considerable volume of individual educational effort during
+the latter half of the 16th and the first half of the 17th centuries.
+Here, as in Germany, the influence of the Reformation was wholly on the
+side of classicism, the dead languages being the key to the theological
+learning which was of primary concern to the men of that theological
+age. The conception of elementary education as a system complete in
+itself and adapted to the needs of the masses of the people was
+unfamiliar at this date. The earliest elementary schools were _petits_
+schools, which (as the name implies) were really preparatory departments
+of the grammar-schools. Education in fact was still regarded as the
+privilege of an elite, but, as in the middle ages, the elite for whom it
+was sought to provide a ladder to the university by means of the endowed
+schools so numerously founded about this time was an elite of intellect
+and not of mere wealth; the class feeling which became so marked a
+feature of English higher education was of much later growth.
+
+
+  Rise of elementary education.
+
+Towards the end of the 17th century elementary education began to
+differentiate itself, partly by way of reaction against the unnatural
+classicism of the preceding age, but more especially as the result of
+the growth of towns and the creation of a considerable industrial
+population. At the close of the century the moral evils attendant upon
+industrialism alarmed the religious conscience and prompted one of the
+great educational movements that stand to the credit of the national
+church. In 1699 Dr Bray founded the Society for Promoting Christian
+Knowledge, and the movement thereby initiated may be traced in the
+numerous "charity" or "Blue Coat" schools scattered plentifully
+throughout the country and especially in the great centres of
+population. The foundation of these schools, which was pushed forward
+with vigour during the early years of the 18th century, represents an
+energetic and well-planned attempt to cope with the social evil of
+poverty by educational means. The instruction was elementary, the
+scholars were clothed as well as taught free, and the schools in the
+first instance were supported not so much by permanent endowment as by
+voluntary effort, so that with this movement the voluntary system may be
+said to make its appearance. Lastly, all these philanthropic efforts
+were inspired by a solid but sober piety nurtured by a church which came
+nearer than at any other period of its history to enjoying the undivided
+allegiance of the people. Another notable movement in connexion with the
+church was one confined to Wales, that of the Welsh "circulating
+schools" established by Griffith Jones about 1730, consisting of an
+organized staff of schoolmasters who went round teaching adults to read
+the Bible in Welsh. In the English rural parishes the comparative
+religious unanimity favoured the quiet development of elementary
+education in a small way upon less specifically religious lines.
+Numerous small endowments for the elementary education of poor children
+were provided by well-to-do parishioners; indeed to such an extent did
+the practice of making charitable (and largely educational) bequests
+increase that the legislature intervened in the interest of private
+inheritance by reviving the law of mortmain in an act of 1736. The
+village schoolmaster became a feature of rural life, frequently enjoying
+a schoolhouse provided sometimes by endowment and sometimes even
+directly by the parishioners at the cost of the rate levied by the
+vestry, but more often aided only by a little stipend from an endowment
+for teaching poor children, and eking out an always scanty subsistence
+by the fees of such paying scholars as he could succeed in getting
+together.
+
+
+  The Sunday-school movement.
+
+Towards the end of the 18th century the emergency of the industrial
+revolution evoked a fresh religious effort upon a more highly organized
+scale in the shape of the Sunday-school movement, which may be said to
+represent the educational contribution of the Evangelical revival Robert
+Raikes, the founder of the Sunday School Union, established his first
+Sunday school in 1782. The idea of the Sunday school did not originate
+with Raikes; among earlier pioneers in this field were John Wesley, who
+held Sunday classes at Savannah in 1737; Theophilus Lindsey at Catterick
+in the North Riding of Yorkshire, about 1769; Hannah Ball at High
+Wycombe in 1769; and Jenkin Morgan near Llanidloes in 1770. Sunday
+schools, too, had been founded in England by Joseph Alleine, the Puritan
+Father, in the 17th century, and in Catholic Italy and France by St
+Charles Borromeo and Jean Baptiste de la Salle in the 16th and 17th
+centuries respectively. Nevertheless, in virtue of his achievement in
+organization, Raikes is rightly regarded as the founder of the English
+Sunday school. The peculiar value of the Sunday-school system in its
+early days lay in the combination of secular with religious instruction;
+in many cases the school was held on Saturday as well as Sunday, and its
+restriction to the one day or two days was due to the prevalence of
+child labour under stress of the great industrial expansion. With better
+economic conditions and with the development of day schools the Sunday
+schools gradually became restricted in function to purely religious
+instruction. Even with this limitation there is no doubt that the great
+Sunday-school organizations of the various churches still deserve to be
+reckoned among the educational assets of the nation, and as agencies
+both of religious instruction and of general culture they may tend,
+under modern educational and religious developments, to play an
+increasingly important part.
+
+
+  Movements of Lancaster and Bell, and rise of the religious controversy.
+
+At the end of the 18th century the development of industry and the
+social unrest which followed the French Revolution combined to bring
+home to the public mind the need of a national system of day schools.
+Unfortunately, just at this moment the revival of Nonconformity as the
+result of the religious vitality of the Evangelical movement shattered
+the religious peace of the early Hanoverian period and divided the
+nation once more into hostile camps, to which class distinctions lent
+additional bitterness. The famous controversy between Andrew Bell and
+Joseph Lancaster and their respective followers in the opening years of
+the 19th century served to define the religious difficulty substantially
+in the form in which it exists after the lapse of a century for the
+present generation. Both these remarkable men conceived independently
+the idea of a national system of popular education upon a voluntary
+basis; both concurred in extolling the merits of the monitorial system,
+which each claimed to have originated. The controversy between them,
+begun upon personal grounds, resolved itself into a national contest of
+rival principles of religious teaching. Lancaster as a young Quaker
+schoolmaster, confronted with pupils drawn from various religious
+bodies, planned his religious instruction upon the lines of doctrine
+common to all the orthodox Christian denominations. Thus he is the
+father of the undenominational religious teaching which later formed the
+basis of the Cowper-Temple compromise. But whereas the Cowper-Temple
+clause is purely negative in form and so seems to point to an undogmatic
+religion, the Lancasterian teaching was essentially positive and
+dogmatic within its limits. In 1805 Mrs Trimmer opened the attack upon
+Lancaster's system with a work bearing the expressive title of _A
+Comparative View of the New Plan of Education promulgated by Mr Joseph
+Lancaster and of the System of Christian Instruction founded by our
+Forefathers for the initiation of the young members of the Established
+Church in the Principles of the Reformed Religion_. The church as a
+whole refused to co-operate in religious teaching upon the basis of a
+common Christianity, and joined issue with Lancaster and his Whig and
+Nonconformist following not merely upon the question of the exclusion of
+dogmatic formularies, but also upon the question of the control of
+whatever religious teaching should be given. In fact the vital question
+at this period was whether the clergy of the Established Church were to
+control the national education. The religious issue was prominent in
+connexion with the remarkable attempt at legislation made by the Whig
+statesman Mr Whitbread in his Parochial Schools Bill of 1807. As
+originally introduced, the bill proposed to make it compulsory on
+parochial vestries to levy rates for the support of schools for teaching
+reading, writing and arithmetic. The compulsory provisions were dropped
+in the House of Commons, but the bill was rejected by the Lords, mainly
+on the ground that it did not place education on a religious basis or
+sufficiently secure control to the minister of the parish.
+
+
+  Foundation of voluntary schools.
+
+The failure of the liberal proposals of Whitbread, and the strength of
+the Dissenting opposition to any settlement on purely church lines (such
+as that advocated by Bell in 1808 for establishing schools under the
+control of the parochial clergy), rendered recourse to voluntary effort
+inevitable. In 1808 the Royal Lancasterian Society was formed to carry
+on the work of Lancaster, the name being afterwards changed, owing to
+personal difficulties due to the wayward character of Lancaster, to the
+British and Foreign School Society. In the following year the National
+Society for Promoting the Education of the Poor in the Principles of the
+Established Church throughout England and Wales was formed, with Bell as
+its superintendent. In voluntary effort on a grand scale the church
+easily outdistanced her opponents, and in 1831 the National Society was
+able to show that there were in all over 13,000 schools in connexion
+with the church, of which 6470 were both day and Sunday schools, having
+a total attendance of 409,000.
+
+
+  Monitorial system.
+
+The rapid development of the voluntary school system was no doubt
+greatly facilitated by the monitorial plan of teaching, upon which Bell
+and Lancaster equally relied. Probably the first idea of utilizing the
+older pupils to teach the younger presented itself independently to
+Lancaster in the Borough Road and to Bell in Madras. The monitorial plan
+never rested upon any educational theory; it was simply a makeshift, a
+rough-and-ready expedient for overcoming the practical difficulty caused
+by the dearth of competent teachers. Historically it is important as the
+precursor of the pupil-teacher system which so long formed the exclusive
+basis of the English elementary system.
+
+
+  Activities of Brougham.
+
+Meantime a further political move was attempted by Brougham, who
+included educational reform among his multifarious activities. In 1816
+he procured the appointment of a general commission of inquiry into
+endowed charities. The labours of this great inquisition lasted for
+twenty years and led to the reformation of many cases of abuse or waste
+of wealthy endowments, and eventually to the establishment of the
+Charity Commission in 1853. In 1820 Brougham introduced a remarkable
+bill which proposed to make the magistrates in quarter sessions the
+rating authority, to require teachers to be members of the Church of
+England and to be appointed upon a certificate from the parochial
+clergyman, and on the other hand to prohibit religious formularies and
+to confine religious instruction to Bible reading without comment. The
+bill naturally failed through the opposition cf the Dissenters, and
+served only to accentuate the religious impasse.
+
+
+  Treasury grants.
+
+In 1832 the Whig government which passed the Reform Bill placed on the
+Estimates a sum of L20,000 for public education, thus initiating the
+system of the annual grant voted by parliament and dispensed under
+regulations framed by administrative act. The grant of 1832 was
+administered by the treasury and not by a special department, under
+certain conditions laid down by treasury minute of August 30, 1833. The
+chief of these were that grants were confined to the erection of school
+buildings, and were to be administered only through the National and the
+British and Foreign School societies; there was a provision for audit,
+but no condition of inspection.
+
+
+  Establishment of State-aided system.
+
+In 1839 Lord Melbourne's government by means of an order in council
+established a separate education office under the style of the Committee
+of Council on Education, and the sum voted by parliament was increased
+to L39,000. The original intention of the government was to establish a
+state normal school or training college as the foundation of a national
+system of education. Unfortunately this design had to be abandoned in
+view of the religious difficulty, with the result (so fruitful in
+controversy at the present time) that the training of elementary
+teachers was left in private hands and became a stronghold of the
+voluntary and denominational interests. In view of the limited resources
+placed at their disposal by parliament, the Committee of Council were at
+first compelled to confine their assistance to capital grants in aid of
+the provision of school buildings, but in the distribution of the money
+three important conditions were at once imposed. In the first place, the
+continuing right of inspection was required in all cases; secondly,
+promoters were obliged to conform to a fixed standard of structural
+efficiency; thirdly, the building must be settled upon trusts
+permanently securing it to the education of poor children.
+
+
+  Concordat with the church.
+
+By the minute of August 10, 1840, the Committee of Council concluded
+what came to be known as the concordat with the church. Under this
+minute no appointment was to be made of any person to inspect schools in
+connexion with the Church of England without the concurrence of the
+archbishop of the province, and, what seems still more extraordinary to
+modern ideas, any such appointment was to be revoked should the
+archbishop at any time withdraw his concurrence. The inspectors were
+charged with the duty of inspecting religious teaching, but under
+instructions to be framed by the archbishop, and their reports were to
+be transmitted in duplicate to the archbishop and the bishop for the
+information of these authorities. Further, the general instructions of
+the Committee of Council themselves were to be communicated to the
+archbishop before being finally sanctioned. The march of events, and in
+particular the altered financial relations between the state and the
+voluntary managers brought about by the institution of maintenance
+grants, soon rendered this concordat obsolete, but it remains
+historically important as showing how at the outset the denominational
+principle was recognized and fostered by the state.
+
+
+  Trust deeds.
+
+Among the first acts of the Committee of Council was the promulgation of
+a set of model trusts deeds, one or other of which applicants for
+building grants were required to adopt for the settlement of their
+school premises. The necessary conditions were the permanent
+appropriation of the site to purposes of education, and the permanent
+right of government inspection; it must, however, be noted that this
+latter right was generally limited in terms to the inspection provided
+for by the minute of August 10, 1840. A conscience clause was not
+obligatory, and indeed was only offered in the limited form of exemption
+from instruction in formularies and attendance at Sunday school or
+public worship. A more systematic attempt to promote public control by
+means of trust deeds in 1846 led the Committee of Council into a
+controversy with the National Society which extended over a period of
+three years, turning chiefly upon the management clauses and the
+question of appeals, and resulting in compromises which constituted a
+fresh concordat with the church. In point of fact, the management
+clauses proved to be of little practical consequence, save in a few
+controversial cases, until the act of 1902, which had the effect of
+bringing them once more into prominence in connexion with the
+constitution of statutory bodies of foundation managers. The act of 1902
+also dealt specifically with two other points arising upon the old trust
+deeds, viz. the control of religious instruction and the appeal to the
+bishop in religious questions. Special facilities for the conveyance of
+land for school purposes were afforded to limited owners by the School
+Sites Acts of 1841 and subsequent years. The landed gentry responded
+with great public spirit to the call thus made upon their generosity by
+the state, with the result that the vast majority of rural, and many
+urban, parishes were freely endowed with sites for elementary schools.
+
+
+  Grammar Schools Act 1840.
+
+The Grammar Schools Act of 1840, which was passed to deal with the case
+of the decayed "grammar" (i.e. classical) schools which abounded
+throughout the country, belongs to the history of elementary rather than
+secondary education. It expressly empowered the Court of Chancery, where
+the endowment was insufficient for a classical school, to substitute
+subjects of useful learning analogous to those contained in the original
+trusts. As a result of this act a considerable number of ancient
+endowments were reorganized so as to afford an improved elementary
+instead of an inefficient classical education, and the schemes made
+under the act constituted an early, but not very successful, experiment
+in the direction of higher elementary schools.
+
+
+  Training-college grants.
+
+In 1843 the Committee of Council decided to make grants in aid of the
+erection of normal schools or training colleges in connexion with the
+National Society and the British and Foreign School societies, thus
+marking the definite abandonment of the provision of training colleges
+to voluntary effort.
+
+
+  Pupil-teacher system.
+
+In 1846 an important step forwards was taken in the foundation of the
+pupil-teacher system. The regulations of this year inaugurated annual
+maintenance grants in the form of stipends for apprenticed pupil
+teachers receiving a prescribed course of instruction under the head
+teacher, and a lower grade of stipendiary monitors in schools where such
+instruction could not be provided. These regulations inaugurated the
+system of Queen's Scholarships to assist pupil teachers to proceed to a
+training college; they also established capitation grants for the
+support of such colleges, and annual grants to elementary schools under
+government inspection of from L15 to L30 in aid of the salary of every
+trained teacher employed. Provision was at the same time made for
+retiring pensions to elementary teachers.
+
+
+  Extension of state aid to Wesleyans, Roman Catholics and Jews.
+
+Down to 1847 state aid was confined to two religious categories of
+schools: those giving specifically Church of England teaching, and those
+in connexion with the British and Foreign School Society giving simple
+Bible teaching. To facilitate the recognition of other denominational
+schools the Committee of Council in 1847 issued a minute dispensing
+schools not connected with the Established Church from inquiries
+concerning their religious condition, and in the same year state aid was
+extended to Wesleyan and Roman Catholic schools. The settlement of model
+trust deeds gave occasion for each of these two great religious bodies
+to negotiate a kind of concordat with respect to school management, and
+the Roman Catholic deed was only settled after a controversy, similar to
+that which had arisen with the National Society, as to the rights of
+ecclesiastical authority. Jewish schools received recognition in 1851
+upon condition that the Scriptures of the Old Testament should be daily
+read in them.
+
+
+  Bills of 1842-57.
+
+During the middle years of the century various unsuccessful legislative
+attempts were made to establish a national system of elementary schools
+upon the basis of rate-aid. These attempts began with the education
+clauses of Sir Robert Peel's Factory Bill of 1842, and were renewed in a
+series of bills from 1853 to 1857, of which one set was introduced by
+Lord John Russell on behalf of the Whig government, whilst a second was
+promoted by an organization called the Manchester and Salford Committee
+on Education, in the denominational interest, and a third set by an
+organization called the Lancashire (afterwards the National) Public
+Schools Association, in the secular interest. The only one of these
+attempts which calls for notice here is the bill introduced by Lord John
+Russell (called the Borough Bill, on account of its being restricted to
+municipal boroughs) in 1853, and forming part of a comprehensive scheme
+of legislative and administrative reform of which a portion was actually
+carried into effect. The bill as a measure for elementary education was
+supplemented by an administrative system of capitation grants for rural
+areas. The government scheme also comprised a measure dealing with the
+administration of charitable trusts (which took shape as the Charitable
+Trusts Act 1853), the constitution of the Department of Science and Art,
+and university reform upon the lines recommended by the Oxford and
+Cambridge commissions. The Borough Bill left it optional with
+municipalities to adopt the act. It provided for the appointment of a
+school committee, one half of whose members might be non-members of the
+council. The school committee was merely given power to assist existing
+voluntary schools out of the rates. No provision was made for public
+control beyond the requirement of audit; the sole condition as to
+religious instruction was the acceptance of a conscience clause.
+
+
+  Capitation grants.
+
+The failure of the Borough Bill did not affect the new system of
+capitation grants which was introduced by minute of the Committee of
+Council dated April 2, 1853. These grants were fixed at a scale varying
+from 3s. to 6s. per head, payable upon certain conditions, of which the
+most important were that the school must be under a certificated
+teacher, and that three-fourths of the children must pass a prescribed
+examination. In consequence of the failure of the several fresh bills
+introduced in 1855 by the government, the church party and the secular
+party respectively amplifying the proposals previously brought forward,
+the capitation grant was, by minute of January 26, 1856, extended to
+urban areas. As in the case of all the early grants, the regulations
+governing the distribution of the capitation grants were framed upon the
+principle that subventions of public money must be met by local funds
+derived from voluntary contributions, endowments and school fees; thus
+the basis of the denominational system as fostered by the state at this
+stage was one of financial partnership.
+
+
+  Education minister, 1856.
+
+In 1856 a purely administrative bill was passed, establishing the office
+of vice-president of the Committee of Council on Education as a minister
+responsible to parliament. At the same time, the Science and Art
+Department was transferred from the Board of Trade to the Committee of
+Council.
+
+
+  Newcastle Commission.
+
+The progress of state-aided education during this period may be measured
+by the increase of the annual parliamentary grant, which rose from
+L30,000 in 1839 to L100,000 in 1846, L150,000 in 1851, L396,000 in 1855,
+and L663,400 in 1858. This expansion was viewed with misgiving by the
+friends of the denominational system, and by the strong individualist
+school of that day, who upon wider grounds clung to the old ideal of
+voluntary initiative. These sections combined with the advocates of
+further state intervention to press for a commission of inquiry, and at
+the instance of Sir John Pakington (the eminent Conservative
+educationist who was responsible for the denominational bills of the
+'fifties) a royal commission was appointed in 1858, under the
+chairmanship of the duke of Newcastle, to inquire into the state of
+popular education in England, and to consider and report what measures,
+if any, were required for the extension of sound and cheap elementary
+instruction to all classes of the people. The _Report_ of the Newcastle
+Commission, issued in 1861, contains an exhaustive account of the
+existing condition of elementary education, and, with due allowance for
+the grave defects revealed, and in particular the glaring inefficiency
+of the numerous little private-venture schools kept by "dames" and
+others, the graphic picture drawn by the commissioners constitutes a
+striking tribute to the sterling qualities of self-help and religious
+earnestness which were so characteristic of the early Victorian period.
+It was found that in round numbers about 2,500,000 children were
+attending day schools, the proportion to population being 1 in 7, as
+compared with 1 in 9 in France, 1 in 8 in Holland, and 1 in 6 in
+Prussia, where education was compulsory. On the other hand, of this
+number only 1,675,000 were in public schools of all kinds, only
+1,100,000 in schools liable to inspection, and 917,000 in schools
+receiving annual grant. The result was that only one child in every
+twenty was attending a school whose efficiency could be in any way
+guaranteed by the state. In the constructive portion of their work the
+comments and recommendations of the commissioners reflected the
+prevailing perplexity of the public mind. A consistent individualistic
+minority considered that the annual grant should be withdrawn
+altogether, and that any further state aid should be confined to
+building grants, which they would concede not as desirable in themselves
+but as necessitated out of considerations of fairness to the parishes
+that had not yet received such aid. The commissioners as a body rejected
+free and compulsory education in view of the religious difficulty and
+upon general grounds of individualistic principle. Of the religious
+difficulty itself the commissioners had some wise words to say which
+hold good in substance at the present time. In their judgment the
+considerable evidence they had amassed conclusively proved that the
+religious difficulty originated with the managers, promoters and
+organizers of the schools, and not with the parents themselves; yet the
+indifferent or comparatively passive attitude of the people nowise
+materially diminished the practical difficulty of introducing a
+comprehensive system, since it was not with the body of the people but
+with the founders and supporters of schools that legislators would
+always have to deal. In view of the solution adopted in 1902 it is of
+interest to note that the Newcastle Commissioners deliberately rejected
+the parish as unfit to be taken as the unit of elementary education upon
+the ground that management by parochial ratepayers must tend to be
+illiberal and niggardly, bent upon economy of the rates to the detriment
+of educational interests; accordingly they recommended the constitution
+of county boards (which in the absence of elective councils must needs
+originate with quarter sessions) clothed with power to levy a rate for
+the aid of existing voluntary schools.
+
+
+  Payment by results.
+
+The one definite achievement of the Newcastle Commission was the famous
+system of payment by results, which may be said to have excited a keener
+and more prolonged controversy than any other measure of a purely
+educational character. Impressed by the defects of the existing
+teaching, the commissioners reported that there was only one way of
+securing efficiency, and that was to institute a searching examination
+by competent authority of every child in every school to which grants
+were to be paid, with the view of ascertaining whether the indispensable
+elements of knowledge were thoroughly acquired, and to make the
+prospects and position of the teacher dependent to a considerable extent
+upon the results of this examination. Thus the commissioners hoped to
+counteract what appeared to them to be the crying defect of the existing
+training college system, viz. that it tended mainly to adapt the young
+schoolmaster to advance his higher, rather than to thoroughly ground his
+junior, pupils. They recognized that to raise the character of the
+children, both morally and intellectually, was and must always be the
+highest aim of education, and they were far from desiring to supersede
+this by any plan of a mere examination into the more mechanical work of
+elementary education, the reading, writing and arithmetic of young
+children; but they thought that the importance of this training, which
+must be the foundation of all other teaching, had been lost sight of,
+and that there was justice in the common complaint that while a fourth
+of the scholars were really taught, three-fourths after leaving school
+forgot everything they had learnt there.
+
+
+  Revised Code.
+
+Mr Lowe (Lord Sherbrooke) as vice-president of the Committee of Council
+(1859-1864) adopted the system of payment by results in what became
+famous in history as the Revised Code, issued in 1862 and so called
+because it was a revision of the minutes and regulations of the
+Committee of Council, which were first collected and issued in the form
+of a code in 1860. The Revised Code provided for the payment of a grant
+of 4s. upon the old principle and a further grant of not more than 8s.
+upon the result of examination. Mr Lowe declared of the system in the
+House of Commons that "if it was costly it should at least be efficient;
+and if it was inefficient it should at least be cheap." In fact, it
+proved to be cheap; the giant fell from L813,400 in 1861 to L636,800 in
+1865. The upholders of the existing system denounced the Revised Code as
+an undeserved slight upon the voluntary managers, and even as a breach
+of faith with the great religious denominations. On purely educational
+grounds, which need not be here re-capitulated, it was at once viewed
+with misgiving by many authorities, including Matthew Arnold. To meet
+objections, some modifications were introduced in the code under the
+Conservative government in 1867. The system of paying grant upon the
+result of individual examination of the scholars was not finally
+abolished till 1904.
+
+
+  Proceedings preliminary to the act of 1870.
+
+The years immediately preceding 1870 were occupied with discussion and
+preparation for the great legislative measure for which the time was now
+felt to have arrived. Good work was done in this direction by the Select
+Committee of the House of Commons in 1866, over which Sir John Pakington
+presided. For reasons connected with the political situation of the
+moment this committee never reported, but the minutes of evidence and
+the draft report prepared by Sir John Pakington contained much valuable
+material in the way of criticism of the existing system and suggestion
+for the coming settlement; in particular the draft report insisted upon
+the inevitableness of an education rate. In 1868 the Conservative
+government brought in, but did not proceed with, an education bill
+deliberately discarding the principle of rate-aid on the ground that it
+would destroy voluntary contributions and gradually starve out the
+denominational schools. In 1867 and again in 1868 Mr Bruce (afterwards
+Lord Aberdare), Mr W.E. Forster and Mr Algernon Egerton introduced a
+bill which formed the basis of the measure of 1870. As redrafted in 1868
+the bill of Mr Bruce and his coadjutors proposed a universal system of
+municipal and parochial rating with liberty for voluntary schools to
+unite themselves to the rate-aided system under their existing
+management, subject to the acceptance of a conscience clause. The bill
+also proposed to empower town councils to co-opt outsiders upon their
+education committees. Thus both in the principle of co-optation and in
+the extension of rate aid to schools not under public control the bill
+of these Liberal statesmen in 1868 anticipated certain controverted
+features of Mr Balfour's Education Act of 1902. In the meantime, in the
+country the Education League, originated at Birmingham, was carrying on
+a propaganda in favour of free secular schools, whilst the Education
+Union, formed to counteract the influence of the league, urged a
+settlement upon the old lines. As a concession to the popular feeling
+against secularism, the league proposed to allow Bible reading without
+doctrinal exposition. Thus opinion was sufficiently focussed to enable
+Mr Gladstone's administration in 1870 to undertake the comprehensive
+measure of educational reform for which the country had had to wait so
+long.
+
+
+  Act of 1870.
+
+The Elementary Education Act of 1870 bore in every respect the marks of
+compromise. As Mr Forster explained in introducing the bill, the object
+of the government was "to complete the voluntary system and to fill up
+gaps," not to supplant it. To this end the Education Department was
+charged with the duty of ascertaining whether or not there was in every
+parish a deficiency of public school accommodation, and provision made
+for the formation of school boards in every school district (i.e. parish
+or municipal borough) requiring further public school accommodation.
+Such accommodation might consist either of public elementary schools as
+defined by the act, or other schools giving efficient and suitable
+elementary education. The definition of public elementary school
+contained in section 7 of the act is still in force. Shortly, a public
+elementary school is a school subject to a conscience clause entitling
+scholars to complete exemption from all religious instruction and
+observance whatsoever. Any religious instruction or observance in the
+school must be either at the beginning or the end of the school meeting.
+The school must also be open at all times to the government inspectors
+and must be conducted in accordance with the conditions required to be
+fulfilled in order to obtain an annual parliamentary grant. In the same
+connexion an important change was made in the conditions of inspection
+by declaring that it should be no part of the duties of the inspector to
+inquire into religious instruction, whilst a later section of the act
+provided that no parliamentary grant should be made in respect of any
+religious instruction.
+
+Three important changes were made in the measure during its passage
+through parliament. As at first proposed, (1) the school boards were not
+to be directly elected by the ratepayers, but were to be appointed by
+the town council or the vestry. (2) These nominated boards were
+empowered either to provide schools themselves or to assist existing
+public elementary schools, provided that such assistance was granted on
+equal terms to all such schools, upon conditions to be approved by the
+Education Department. Thus the school board, if it exercised the option
+of assisting denominational schools, would have been obliged to assist
+all or none. (3) With regard to its own schools, the school board was to
+settle the form of religious instruction. These proposals raised serious
+opposition in the country, and when the committee stage of the bill was
+reached two fundamental changes were made in the policy of the bill. In
+the first place, as Mr Gladstone put it, the government had decided "to
+sever altogether the tie between the local board and the voluntary
+schools." In lieu of the suggested rate-aid they proposed an increased
+grant from the treasury, that is to say, the voluntary schools were left
+standing as state-aided schools under private management, side by side
+with the new rate-supported schools.
+
+
+  Cowper-Temple clause.
+
+Next, the character of the religious instruction in the board schools
+was determined upon an undenominational basis by a provision which has
+become known to history after the name of its author, then Mr
+Cowper-Temple, as the Cowper-Temple clause (section 14 of the act),
+directing that "no religious catechism or religious formulary which is
+distinctive of any particular denomination shall be taught in the
+school." The clause was not intended to exclude doctrinal exposition,
+and was in fact a compromise not merely between absolute secularism and
+denominationalism, but between denominationalism and the view of those
+who would have the Bible read without note or comment. The Apostles'
+Creed as a symbol common to all denominations of Christians was held by
+Mr Forster (at the suggestion of Mr Gladstone) not to be excluded under
+the Cowper-Temple clause. The result was the establishment in the
+schools, upon the lines laid down by Joseph Lancaster at the beginning
+of the 19th century, of what may be termed the common Protestantism of
+the English nation; and though Mr Disraeli urged that a religion without
+formularies was in fact a new religion, and that in leaving its
+exposition to the teachers we were creating a new sacerdotal class, the
+Cowper-Temple compromise, notwithstanding its inherent want of logic,
+stood the test of experience for more than a generation against the
+consistent denominationalists on the one hand and the party of secular
+education on the other. It is important to observe that the act of 1870
+left the giving of religious instruction, whether in voluntary schools
+(in which its inclusion might be assumed as of course) or in board
+schools, purely permissive. In practice it was only in Wales that school
+boards availed themselves to any extent of the liberty to abstain from
+giving religious instruction, and this comparative secularism of Wales
+certainly argued no lack of religious life among the people.
+
+The third change in the bill was the substitution of the _ad hoc_ school
+board for the municipally appointed board originally proposed, a change
+which commended itself in view of the special difficulty presented by
+the case of London. These boards were elected by the system of
+cumulative voting under which each elector had as many votes as there
+were candidates to be elected, with liberty to give all his votes to one
+candidate or to distribute them amongst the candidates as he thought
+fit. This system was much criticized as being unduly favourable to
+minorities, whose representation it was devised to secure; it continued,
+however, until the supersession of the _ad hoc_ authorities by
+committees of the county and urban councils under the act of 1902.
+
+School boards were empowered not only to acquire sites for schools under
+powers of compulsory purchase, but also to take transfers of existing
+voluntary schools from their managers. The section which enables
+managers to transfer schools to the school board or local education
+authority for the purpose of board or council schools freed from
+religious trusts unquestionably marks an important inroad by the state
+upon the sanctity of trusts. Thus though the act of 1870 did not itself
+introduce the principle of compulsory transfer, it formed the point of
+departure for the proposals in this direction which were the basis of
+the unsuccessful bills of 1906 and 1908. The act of 1870 did not
+introduce either direct compulsory attendance or free education, but it
+took a distinct step forward in each direction by enabling school boards
+to frame by-laws rendering attendance compulsory, and also to pay the
+school fees in the case of poverty of the parent.
+
+The policy of compromise between the two systems of voluntary and
+rate-established schools was carried out in the provisions relating to
+the future supply of schools. On the one hand, building grants were
+continued temporarily for the benefit of those who applied (as voluntary
+managers alone could apply) before the 31st of December 1870. On the
+other hand, the Education Department was authorized to refuse
+parliamentary grants to schools established in school board districts
+after the passing of the act if they thought such schools unnecessary.
+
+
+  Progress under the act of 1870.
+
+The following figures are of interest as showing the progress made under
+the act of 1870. In the year 1870 there was accommodation in inspected
+day schools for about 2,000,000 children; the average attendance was
+1,168,000, and the number on the books about 1,500,000. It was computed,
+however, that there were, exclusive of the well-to-do classes, at least
+1,500,000 children who attended no school at all or schools not under
+inspection. In 1876 accommodation had been provided for nearly
+3,500,000, and of the 1,500,000 new places nearly two-thirds were
+provided by voluntary agencies. "These voluntary agencies," says Sir H.
+Craik, "had received grants in aid for about one-third of the schools
+they had built, the grants defraying about one-fifth of the cost of the
+aided schools." On the other hand, the growth of school boards was rapid
+and continuous, notwithstanding the permissive character of the act and
+the strenuous efforts of the voluntaryists to keep pace with the new
+demands. In 1872, 9,700,000 of the population were under school boards,
+and of these 8,142,000 were under by-laws; in 1876 the numbers were
+respectively 12,500,000 and 10,400,000. In the same period the annual
+grants increased from L894,000 in 1870 to L1,600,000 in 1876.
+
+
+  Act of 1876.
+
+The development evidenced by the above figures, and in particular the
+fact that 52% of the population were subject to by-laws, enabled Mr
+Disraeli's government in 1876 to take a notable step forward in the
+direction of universal direct compulsion. The act of 1876 embodied the
+declaration that "it shall be the duty of the parent of every child to
+cause such child to receive efficient elementary instruction in
+reading, writing and arithmetic, and if such parent fail to perform
+such duty he shall be liable to such orders and penalties as are
+provided by the Act"; next, it rendered an employer liable to a penalty
+who took into his employment a child under the age of ten years, or a
+child between the ages of ten and fourteen years who had not obtained
+the required certificate of proficiency in reading, writing and
+arithmetic, or of previous attendance at a certified efficient school.
+In order to complete the machinery for compulsion, the act directed
+that, in every district where there was no school board, a school
+attendance committee should be appointed by the local authority. The law
+as to school attendance, resting upon this and subsequent enactments, is
+complicated and in some details obscure. The subject was dealt with in
+the report of an inter-departmental committee in 1909, who recommended
+the abolition of the partial exemptions permitted, and the raising of
+the age of exemption to 13.
+
+
+  Act of 1880.
+
+In 1880 Mr Mundella, as vice-president of the Council in Mr Gladstone's
+administration, passed a short act which made the framing of by-laws
+compulsory upon school boards and school attendance committees, thus
+completing the system of universal direct compulsion. Under the acts of
+1876 and 1880 the average attendance increased from 2,000,000 in 1876 to
+3,500,000 in 1878 and 4,000,000 in 1881; in terms of percentage to
+population, 8.06 in 1876, 9.60 in 1878, and 10.69 in 1881. In the
+last-mentioned year the annual grant rose to L2,200,000, having more
+than doubled in the decade.
+
+
+  Development of public opinion.
+
+With the passing of the Elementary Education Act 1880 the education
+question entered upon a new phase. The country was now possessed of a
+national system of elementary education, in the sense that provision was
+made for the supply of efficient schools and for compulsory attendance.
+The question of free education was brought within the range of practical
+politics by the adoption of universal compulsion, but as yet it was
+advocated only by a small political group of pronounced collectivist
+tendencies. Whilst opinion was maturing on this topic, there began to
+force itself upon the public mind the vastly more difficult problem of
+combining the two systems of voluntary, denominational, state-aided
+schools on the one hand, and public, undenominational, rate-supported
+schools on the other. From the denominational point of view the problem
+presented itself as that of a burden imposed and a danger threatened in
+ever-increasing degree by the competition of the board schools, a
+competition that was felt not so much by direct rivalry of school with
+school as indirectly by the steady raising of the standard of efficiency
+with respect to buildings, equipment, salaries of teachers and
+educational attainment which inevitably resulted from the establishment
+of authorities with power to draw upon the rates. On the other hand,
+from the purely educational point of view, it was seen that the dual
+system tended in practice to an illicit but almost inevitable
+recognition of two standards of efficiency, the lower being conceded to
+voluntary schools in consideration of their comparative poverty.
+Experience, too, of the shortcomings of small country school boards was
+beginning to confirm the misgivings entertained long before by the
+Newcastle Commissioners as to the wisdom of entrusting autonomous powers
+to the parish, when the reform of local government by the creation of
+popularly elected county authorities turned attention once more to the
+question of organizing education upon a county basis.
+
+
+  Cross Commission, 1887.
+
+In 1887 a royal commission under the presidency of Viscount Cross was
+appointed to inquire into the working of the education acts. The labours
+of this commission produced a thorough discussion of the educational
+problem in all its aspects, political, administrative, scholastic and
+religious. For any clear recommendations with regard to the
+reorganization of education generally the moment was not opportune,
+inasmuch as the commission just preceded the establishment of the new
+county authorities and the powers with respect to instruction other than
+elementary which parliament was shortly to confide to them under the
+Technical Instruction Acts. Nevertheless the report of the majority of
+the commissioners pointed unmistakably towards the solution adopted in
+the act of 1902, and their definite recommendation that voluntary
+schools should be accorded rate-aid without the imposition of the
+Cowper-Temple clause, served as the basis of that legislation. The
+commission brought into strong relief the opposing currents of thought
+in educational politics, the majority report, representing the
+principles of denominationalism, being balanced by a strong minority
+report embodying the views of those who looked for progress along the
+lines of the school-board system. Taken together, the two reports form a
+comprehensive survey of the difficulties which still in the main beset
+public education in this country.
+
+
+  Elementary Education Act 1891.
+
+Of the developments which followed the Cross report, it is convenient to
+mention in the first place, out of chronological sequence, the practical
+establishment of free education by the act of 1891, not by the absolute
+prohibition of school fees but by the device of a special grant payable
+by parliament in lieu of fees, called the fee grant. The result of this
+legislation and of subsequent administrative action was to place free
+education within the reach of every child, fees being retained (with few
+exceptions) only where some instruction of a higher elementary type was
+given.
+
+
+  Education other than elementary.
+
+The establishment of county councils by the Local Government Act 1888
+introduced a new factor which was destined to exert a determining
+influence upon subsequent developments of public education. In the first
+place, it at once rendered possible the partial and experimental
+provision for higher education attempted by the Technical Instruction
+Acts, which affected secondary education as well as technical education
+in the proper sense of the term. In order to understand the state of
+secondary education at this period, it is necessary to refer back to the
+first attempts made to deal with secondary education a generation
+earlier.
+
+
+  Public Schools Commission, 1861.
+
+In 1861, that is to say, nearly thirty years after the state began to
+concern itself with elementary education, the first step in the way of
+intervention in what is now called secondary or intermediate education
+was taken by the appointment of a royal commission, presided over by
+Lord Clarendon, to inquire into the condition of nine of the chief
+endowed schools in the country, viz. Eton, Winchester, Westminster,
+Charterhouse, St Paul's, Merchant Taylors, Harrow, Rugby and Shrewsbury.
+The report of this commission led to a statute, the Public Schools Act
+of 1864, which introduced certain reforms in the administration of seven
+of these schools, leaving the two great London day schools, St Paul's
+and Merchant Taylors, outside its operation. The results achieved were
+seen to be important enough to call for a further and much wider
+inquiry.
+
+
+  Schools Inquiry Commission, 1864-68.
+
+Accordingly in 1864 the Schools Inquiry Commission was appointed under
+the presidency of Lord Taunton to inquire into all the schools which had
+not been included either in the commission of 1861 or the Popular
+Education Commission of 1858. It included several men of eminent
+distinction, such as Dr Temple (afterwards archbishop of Canterbury), Mr
+W.E. Forster, Dean Hook, and Sir Stafford Northcote; and it was
+singularly fortunate in its staff of assistant commissioners, among whom
+were numbered Mr James Bryce, Mr Matthew Arnold, and Mr (afterwards Sir
+Joshua) Fitch. It thoroughly explored the field of secondary education,
+discussing all the problems, administrative and pedagogic, which the
+subject presents, and "its luminous and exhaustive report" (to quote the
+words of Mr Bryce's Commission of 1894) remains the best introduction to
+the problem of public secondary education in England. The existence of
+numerous and frequently very wealthy endowments arising from private
+benefactions and bequests has at all times been a feature in education
+as in other departments of English social life. In the organization of
+secondary education in particular, private endowments have played and
+continue still to play a part which cannot be paralleled in any other
+country. This circumstance has undoubtedly resulted in a great economy
+of resources, though in numerous instances the difficulties occasioned
+by the haphazard distribution of endowments and the local jealousies
+invariably aroused by any attempt to readjust their areas to modern
+conditions have obstructed useful reform and proved a source of
+misdirected and wasted effort. At the date of the Schools Inquiry
+Commission the state of the ancient endowments was largely one of abuse.
+Very many endowments intended for advanced education were applied for
+instruction of a purely elementary character, and that of an inferior
+kind; indeed the possession of an endowment in a rural locality not
+infrequently operated to prevent the establishment of an efficient
+state-aided school. The evidence showed that the proportion of scholars
+in the country grammar-schools who were receiving some tincture of the
+classical education intended by the founders was steadily decreasing,
+and nothing had been done to bring the curriculum into harmony with the
+actual needs of the time. No doubt a small elite of classical scholars
+were sent to the older universities by these schools, but in the main
+they were in a feeble and decadent state, giving, more or less
+inefficiently, an education wholly unsuited to the wants of the class to
+whom they ministered. In addition to the general inelasticity of the
+curriculum, the special evils from which the grammar-schools suffered
+were the want of effective governing bodies and the freehold tenure of
+the headmasterships.
+
+
+  Endowed Schools Acts 1869-74.
+
+The commission was singularly successful in bringing about the reform of
+these abuses, its report being immediately followed in 1869 by the
+Endowed Schools Act, which was based upon its recommendations and
+conferred upon a special commission (united in 1874 with the Charity
+Commission) very wide and drastic powers of reorganizing ancient
+endowments. A direction for extending the benefits of endowments to
+girls did much to assist the movement for the secondary education of
+girls. The Endowed Schools Acts 1869-1874 introduced modifications of
+importance and general interest into the law of trusts. Under the
+existing rules of the court of chancery, which rules were also binding
+upon the Charity Commissioners, educational endowments were generally
+treated, in the absence of evidence to the contrary, as subject to a
+trust for instruction in the doctrines of the Church of England. Under
+the Endowed Schools Acts the presumption is reversed, and ancient trusts
+are treated as free from denominational restrictions, save in virtue of
+express conditions imposed by or under the authority of the founder. The
+result was that in framing schemes for the reorganization of ancient
+endowed schools the commissioners found themselves able to treat the
+majority of cases as undenominational. In such cases the general
+practice was to direct that instruction should, subject to a strict
+conscience clause, be given in the principles of the Christian faith;
+this provision corresponded in a way to the Cowper-Temple clause in
+elementary education, with the important distinction that it was
+positive, not negative, and did not exclude special doctrinal
+instruction.
+
+
+  Schools Inquiry Commission's proposals for reform of secondary
+  education.
+
+Besides the recommendations for the reform of endowed schools, to which
+substantial effect was given directly or indirectly by means of the
+Endowed Schools Acts, the Schools Inquiry Commission also submitted
+proposals for the general administrative organization of a system of
+secondary education. They recommended the establishment of three
+authorities--(1) a central authority; (2) a local or provincial
+authority, representing the county or a group of counties, with a
+certain jurisdiction both in proposing schemes for the reform of endowed
+schools in their area (such as that afterwards conferred upon the joint
+education committees under the Welsh Intermediate Education Act), and in
+administering these schools; and (3) a central council of education
+charged with examination duties. Further, it was proposed to raise the
+level of proprietary and private schools by offering them inspection and
+examination and by establishing a system of school registration. Lastly,
+in order that the supply of public secondary schools might not be
+dependent upon endowments, it was proposed to confer upon towns and
+parishes powers of rating for the establishment of new schools. For
+these proposals as a whole the time was not ripe. The bill of 1869 as
+originally introduced in the House of Commons attempted to give effect,
+with some variations, to one of these suggestions, namely, that for the
+creation of a central council, but exigencies of parliamentary time made
+it necessary to drop this part of the measure; the result was that the
+plan of the commissioners was only half carried out. Nevertheless, owing
+to the multiplicity and wealth of endowments, the work accomplished was
+sufficient to exert a considerable influence upon the secondary
+education of the country. Thus in 1895 Mr Bryce's Commission was able to
+report that schemes under the Endowed Schools Acts had been made for 902
+endowments in England, excluding Wales and Monmouth, leaving only 546
+endowments out of the total of 1448 endowments in England known to be
+subject to the Endowed Schools Acts, which had not felt the reforming
+hand of the commissioners. The total income of the endowments known to
+be Subject to the Endowed Schools Acts, and therefore available for
+purposes of secondary education, according to the estimate of the
+Secondary Education Commission (still in 1909 the latest available
+source of complete information), was in 1895 about L735,000 gross.
+
+
+  Technical Instruction Acts 1889, &c.
+
+Twenty years after the Schools Inquiry Commission the creation by the
+Local Government Act in 1888 of the representative and popular county
+authorities of which the need had been felt by reformers alike in
+secondary and elementary education, rendered the first step in the
+direction of the municipalization of secondary instruction at last
+possible. In 1889 the Technical Instruction Act (extended in some
+particulars by an act of 1891) empowered the councils of counties,
+boroughs and urban districts to levy a rate (not exceeding a penny in
+the pound) for the support or aid of technical or manual instruction.
+Comparatively few councils were prepared to resort to their rating
+powers, but progress under these acts was greatly facilitated by the
+Local Taxation (Customs and Excise) Act of 1890, which mentioned
+technical instruction as one of the purposes to which the imperial
+contribution paid to local authorities in respect of the beer and spirit
+duties might be applied. By virtue of the very liberal interpretation
+given to technical instruction by these acts the financial assistance
+afforded under them was extended to cover the whole field of
+mathematical and physical science, as well as modern languages.
+
+
+  Grants of science and art department.
+
+The Department of Science and Art acted as an agency in the development
+of secondary education upon the same lines as the Technical Instruction
+Acts, administering a parliamentary grant which was gradually extended
+with a view to encouraging literary studies as well as the scientific
+and mathematical subjects to the promotion of which it was primarily
+directed. Thus the combined effect of the local resources available
+under the Technical Instruction Act and the imperial grant administered
+by the department was gradually to develop a national system of
+secondary education with a marked bias on the side of physical science.
+
+
+  Influence of new university colleges.
+
+An undoubted stimulus was given to secondary education in the great
+centres of industry during the last quarter of the 19th century by the
+rise of the new university colleges, among which must be reckoned those
+established expressly for women. In the main the influence of these new
+institutions made for a non-classical and scientific type of curriculum
+in the popular secondary schools.
+
+
+  Influence of school boards.
+
+At the same time, the pressure of the school boards influenced secondary
+education in two ways. In the first place, the elementary schools were
+found to act as feeders for schools of a higher type, and the idea of
+the "educational ladder" began to play a leading part in plans for the
+organization of national education. It was seen that there must be
+schools to which the more advanced scholars could pass from the public
+elementary schools, and scholarships to assist such scholars to continue
+their education in this way. In the next place, it was recognized that
+to provide adequately for the further education of public elementary
+scholars a new type of school was required. Thus there came into being
+through the initiative of the great school boards what were known as
+higher-grade elementary schools. These were really secondary schools of
+the third grade, and, as the Commission on Secondary Education observed,
+the school boards simply stepped in to fill the educational void which
+the Schools Inquiry Commissioners had proposed to fill by schools of
+that name. The happy obscurity of the legal definition of elementary
+education left these schools free to develop during the long years of
+the neglect of secondary education by the state, and when in 1901 the
+famous judgment in the test case of _Rex_ v. _Cockerton_ pronounced them
+to be illegal, it was at once recognized that the legislature must
+without delay step in to secure the educational work which the
+undoubtedly correct principles of judicial interpretation had placed in
+jeopardy.
+
+
+  Secondary Education Commission, 1894.
+
+Such were the agencies at work in the domain of secondary education when
+in 1894 a royal commission was appointed under the presidency of Mr
+Bryce to inquire into this branch of education. The terms of reference
+excluded elementary education, and the report may be taken as embodying
+the views of that school of educational statesmen who held that progress
+would best be attained by keeping elementary and secondary education
+entirely separate for purposes of local administration, the parish being
+regarded as the natural unit for elementary and the county for secondary
+education, a topic to which it will be necessary to revert in connexion
+with the act of 1902. The principal recommendations of the commission
+were: (1) the unification of the existing central authorities, viz. the
+Department of Science and Art, the Charity Commission (so far as it
+dealt with educational endowments), and the Education Department, in one
+central office, and the establishment of an educational council to
+advise the minister of education in certain professional matters; (2)
+the establishment of local authorities, to consist of committees of the
+county councils with co-opted elements; (3) the formation of a register
+of teachers with a view to the encouragement of professional training,
+and a system of school registration upon the basis of inspection and
+examination. The first of these recommendations was carried out by the
+Board of Education Act 1899, as mentioned below, and under the same act
+an attempt was made to give some effect to the third-named object,
+which, though it unfortunately fell short of success, may serve as a
+point of departure for further efforts. The realization of the second,
+and the most important, of the recommendations was deferred till 1902,
+when it was brought about as a part of a wider reorganization of the
+educational system.
+
+
+  Agitation on behalf of voluntary schools.
+
+The religious difficulty in elementary education during the period
+immediately succeeding the report of Mr Bryce's Commission in 1895 once
+more reached an acute stage, and this circumstance was immediately
+unfavourable to a resolute handling of educational problems as such,
+public attention being largely concentrated upon the demand of the
+supporters of voluntary schools for relief from the growing financial
+burden which was laid upon them by that steady raising of the standard
+to which reference has been made above. In 1896 an endeavour was made to
+meet the demands of the voluntary managers by means of a bill introduced
+by Sir John Gorst on behalf of the Conservative government. This bill
+with its provision for a special aid grant to be administered by county
+education authorities, which were to exist side by side with the school
+boards, represented a kind of compromise between the systems of 1870 and
+1902. It encountered opposition in all quarters and was withdrawn. In
+1897, however, the position of the denominational schools was
+strengthened by the Voluntary Schools Act, which provided for a special
+aid grant of five shillings per head of the scholars in average
+attendance in these schools.
+
+
+  Board of Education Act 1899.
+
+In view of the difficulties which beset any comprehensive treatment of
+the education question, partial effect was given to the recommendations
+of the Secondary Education Commission by the Board of Education Act of
+1899, which abolished the office of vice-president of the council,
+united the Department of Science and Art with the Education Department
+in one central office under the title of the Board of Education, with a
+president and parliamentary secretary; and provided for the transfer to
+this board of the powers of the Charity Commissioners in relation to
+educational endowments; also for the association with the board of a
+consultative committee, consisting as to not less than two-thirds of
+persons qualified to represent the views of university and other bodies
+interested in education, for the purpose (1) of framing a register of
+qualified teachers, and (2) of advising the Board of Education upon any
+matters referred to the committee by the board. The administrative
+reorganization of the Education Office was completed shortly after the
+passing of the act of 1902, when a tripartite division was adopted to
+correspond with the three branches of education with which the Board of
+Education is concerned, viz. elementary, secondary and technological.
+
+
+  Act of 1902, general principles.
+
+No law of recent years has excited an acuter or more prolonged
+controversy than the Education Act of 1902, and amid the dust of
+religious and political strife it is not easy for contemporaries to view
+it objectively and in its true proportions. Nevertheless, considered
+historically, the act becomes intelligible as the product of the forces,
+partly religious and partly educational, which have been already
+described. The immediate impulse for this measure must be sought in the
+agitation that during the preceding decade had been gathering force
+among the adherents of the Established and Roman Catholic churches for
+equality of financial treatment as between voluntary and board schools.
+It must be placed to the credit of the constructive statesmanship of the
+Conservative party that it availed itself of an ecclesiastical agitation
+to take an important step forward in the organization of national
+education. The difficulty inherent in such a measure was the admitted
+difficulty of securing public control, as a necessary concomitant of
+public maintenance, without jeopardizing or destroying the special
+religious character of the voluntary schools. The act of 1902 sought to
+solve this problem, so difficult of solution under democratic
+conditions, upon the principle of a division of financial responsibility
+justifying a corresponding division of control between the voluntary
+managers and the local authority. The constitution of the local
+authority to be charged not only with the delicate duty of participating
+in the dual control of the voluntary public elementary schools, but also
+with the responsible task of co-ordinating public higher with public
+elementary education, presented features of controversy only less
+formidable than the purely religious question itself. Boldly reversing
+the settlement of 1870, the act of 1902 abolished the parochial school
+boards, and with them the system of _ad hoc_ election, and made the
+county councils, already seised of technical and secondary education
+under the Technical Instruction Acts, the local authorities for all
+forms of education, thus reverting to the solution propounded by
+Conservative statesmanship in the middle period of the 19th century and
+endorsed by an important memorandum contributed by Lord Sandford
+(formerly permanent secretary of the Education Department) to the report
+of the Cross Commission. The unquestionable niggardliness and
+inefficiency of many small country school boards, which had been
+foretold by the prescience of the Newcastle Commissioners, constituted
+the chief educational argument for the selection of the wider area so
+far as the interests of elementary education alone were concerned. On
+the other hand, experience has shown that in the rural districts against
+the undoubted gain in general efficiency there must be set a certain
+loss on account of the decay of local and personal interest consequent
+upon the centralization of authority in the hands of the county
+councils. Account, too, must be taken of the comparative heaviness with
+which a uniform county rate is apt to press upon sparsely populated
+agricultural parishes, especially in counties which include considerable
+industrial districts. Notwithstanding these minor drawbacks, it may be
+said that upon the whole the best opinion has endorsed the policy of
+1902 with respect to the area of administration. At any rate it has been
+necessary to recognize the impracticability of disestablishing the
+strongly organized provincial authorities which the act brought into
+being, and proposals for amendment in this particular have been
+confined to schemes, favoured in principle by all parties, for securing
+some measure of decentralization and delegation of powers calculated to
+restore and stimulate local interest without derogating from the
+financial and administrative responsibility of the county council.
+
+The principal provisions of the act of 1902 may be summarized as
+follows:--
+
+
+    Act of 1902, summary of provisions.
+
+  Part I. Local Education Authority. The council of every county and of
+  every county borough is the local education authority for the purposes
+  of the act, i.e. for both higher and elementary education, but for the
+  purpose of elementary education autonomous powers are conferred upon
+  boroughs with a population of over 10,000, and urban districts with a
+  population of over 20,000 (S 1).
+
+  Part II. Higher Education. "The L.E.A. (local education authority)
+  shall consider the educational needs of their area and take such steps
+  as seem to them desirable, after consultation with the Board of
+  Education, to supply or aid the supply of education other than
+  elementary, and to promote the general co-ordination of all forms of
+  education." For this purpose the application of the money received by
+  the local authority under the Local Taxation (Customs and Excise) Act
+  1890, heretofore optional, is made compulsory, and power is given to
+  levy a rate which in the case of a county is not to exceed two pence
+  in the pound, or such higher rate as the county council with the
+  consent of the Local Government Board may fix (S 2). Concurrent powers
+  are given to the councils of non-county boroughs and urban districts,
+  with the limit of a penny rate (S 3). A council must not require any
+  particular form of religious instruction or observance, but the usual
+  conscience clause in schools, colleges, or hostels provided by the
+  council is modified by a provision for facilities for any particular
+  religious instruction to be given at the request of parents of
+  scholars at such times and under such conditions as the council think
+  desirable, otherwise than at the cost of the council (S 4).
+
+  Part III. Elementary Education. (1) Powers and duties. School boards
+  and school attendance committees are abolished and their powers and
+  duties are transferred to the L.E.A., who are also to be responsible
+  for and have the control of all secular instruction in public
+  elementary schools not provided by them (S 5).
+
+  (2) Management of schools. (a) For public elementary schools provided
+  by the L.E.A. (now officially styled "council schools"): (1) in
+  counties, there is to be a body of six managers, viz. four appointed
+  by the county council and two by the borough or urban district
+  council, or parish council or parish meeting as the case may be,
+  called in the act the minor local authority; (2) in non-county areas,
+  the L.E.A. (being the borough or urban district council) may, if they
+  think fit, appoint a body of managers consisting of such number as
+  they may determine (S 6 [1]).
+
+  (b) For schools not provided by the L.E.A. (voluntary schools) the act
+  directs that there shall be a body of six managers, of whom four are
+  to be "foundation managers," and two are to be appointed as follows:
+  in counties, one by the L.E.A. and one by the minor local authority,
+  and in autonomous boroughs or urban districts both by the borough or
+  urban district council (S 6 [2]). Directions for the appointment of
+  foundation managers are given by S 11, which in effect declares that,
+  unless the trust deed of the school provides for the appointment of
+  the required number, the foundation managers must be appointed under
+  an order of the Board of Education, in making which the board are to
+  have regard to the ownership of the school building and to the
+  principles on which the education given in the school had been
+  conducted in the past. It was found necessary for the board to make
+  over 11,000 of these orders, a heavy task which was rendered the more
+  formidable by the controversial character of the questions arising
+  upon trust deeds as to the mode of appointment and the qualifications
+  of managers.
+
+  (3) Maintenance of schools (S 7). (a) Powers. The L.E.A. are required
+  to maintain and keep efficient all public elementary schools which
+  were necessary (i.e. which, as defined by S 9, have an average
+  attendance of not less than thirty), under certain specified
+  conditions, of which the most material are as follows. The managers
+  must carry out the directions of the L.E.A. as to the secular
+  instruction to be given in the school, including any directions with
+  respect to the number and educational qualifications of the teachers,
+  and for the dismissal of any teacher on educational grounds (S 7 [1]
+  [a]). The consent of the L.E.A. is required to the appointment of
+  teachers, but that consent may not be withheld except on educational
+  grounds; and the consent of the authority is also required to the
+  dismissal of a teacher unless the dismissal is on grounds connected
+  with the giving of religious instruction (S7 [1] [c]).
+
+  (b) Liabilities. The managers are required to provide the school
+  premises to the L.E.A. for use as a public elementary school free of
+  charge, except that a rent is payable for the teacher's residence
+  where one exists; and the managers are further required out of funds
+  provided by them to keep the school premises in good repair and to
+  make such alterations and improvements in the buildings as might
+  reasonably be required by the L.E.A. On the other hand, the L.E.A. are
+  required to make good such damage as they consider to be due to fair
+  wear and tear of rooms used by them (S 7 [1] [d]). Thus, by virtue of
+  the teacher's house rent and the wear-and-tear allowance the voluntary
+  managers secured a valuable set-off against the cost of ordinary
+  repairs.
+
+  Any question arising under this section (S 7) between the L.E.A. and
+  the managers of a voluntary school is to be determined by the Board of
+  Education (S 7 [3]).
+
+  It is further provided with respect to teachers in voluntary schools
+  that assistant teachers and pupil teachers may be appointed "if it is
+  thought fit" without reference to religious creed and denomination,
+  and in any case in which there are more candidates for the post of
+  pupil teacher than there are places to be filled, the appointment is
+  to be made by the L.E.A. (S 7. [5]).
+
+  A provision, S 7 (6), known from the name of its author (d. 1908),
+  Colonel Kenyon Slaney, M.P., as the Kenyon-Slaney clause, attracted
+  considerable attention and formed the subject of much ecclesiastical
+  controversy during the passage of the bill through parliament. The
+  Kenyon-Slaney clause requires the religious instruction in voluntary
+  schools to be in accordance with the provisions (if any) of the trust
+  deed, but also to be under the control of the managers as a whole,
+  whereas the common form of trust deed of the National Society reserves
+  the control of religious instruction to the clergyman, whilst the
+  clause was equally in conflict with the well-known sacerdotal
+  principles of the Roman Catholic Church. Thus the clause represented a
+  revival, as did the questions with respect to foundation managers, of
+  the early controversy over the management clauses of the Committee of
+  Council on Education. Its special interest lies, not so much in its
+  intrinsic importance, as in the precedent it affords, specially
+  notable as emanating from a Conservative source, for the overruling of
+  trust deeds upon grounds of public policy. By way of saving another
+  familiar provision of the trust deeds, a proviso to the Kenyon-Slaney
+  clause reserves the existing trust-deed rights of appeal to the bishop
+  or other denominational authority as to the character of the religious
+  instruction.
+
+  _Provision of New Schools._--New schools may be provided either by the
+  L.E.A. or any other persons, subject to the issue of three months'
+  public notice, and to a right of appeal on the part of the managers of
+  any existing school, the L.E.A. (in the case of proposed voluntary
+  schools) or any ten ratepayers of the district, to the Board of
+  Education on the ground that the proposed school is not required, or
+  that a school provided by the L.E.A., or not so provided, as the case
+  might be, is better suited to meet the wants of the district than the
+  proposed school. Any enlargement of a public elementary school which
+  in the opinion of the Board of Education is such as to amount to the
+  provision of a new school is to be so treated for the purposes of the
+  section, and any transfer of a school to or from the L.E.A. must be
+  treated as the provision of a new school. In deciding appeals as to
+  new schools and in determining a case of dispute whether a school was
+  necessary or not, the board are directed to have regard to the
+  interest of secular instruction, the wishes of parents as to the
+  education of children, and the economy of the rates, but existing
+  schools are not to be considered unnecessary if the average attendance
+  is not less than thirty (SS 8-9). The last-mentioned canons have
+  played a prominent part in subsequent discussions. Experience of these
+  sections has shown that though it is extremely difficult to set up new
+  voluntary schools in face of opposition from the L.E.A., such
+  opposition is rarely offered or pressed where any really strong local
+  demand is shown to exist.
+
+  _Aid Grant._--Section 10 provides a new aid grant payable to the
+  L.E.A. in respect of the number of scholars in average attendance in
+  schools maintained by them. This new grant, calculated by an elaborate
+  method which need not here be set out, took the place of the grants
+  under the Voluntary Schools Act 1897, and S 97 of the act of 1870 as
+  amended by the Elementary Education Act 1897.
+
+  _Education Committees._--The constitution of education committees is
+  dealt with by S 17. All councils having powers under the act, except
+  those having concurrent powers as to higher education only, must
+  establish education committees in accordance with schemes made by the
+  councils and approved by the Board of Education (S 17 [1]). A scheme
+  may provide for more than one education committee under a single
+  council, but before approving such a scheme the board must satisfy
+  themselves that due regard is paid to the importance of the general
+  co-ordination of all forms of education (S 17 [6]). All matters
+  relating to the exercise by a council of their powers under the act,
+  except the power of raising a rate or borrowing money, stand referred
+  to the education committee; the council may also delegate to the
+  education committee any of their powers other than financial powers as
+  above (S 17 [2]). Every scheme must provide (a) for the appointment of
+  a majority of the committee by the council, the persons so appointed
+  to be persons who are members of the council unless in the case of a
+  county the council otherwise determine; (b) for the appointment by the
+  council, on the nomination or recommendation, where it appears
+  desirable, of other bodies (including associations of voluntary
+  schools) of persons of experience in education, and of persons
+  acquainted with the needs of the various kinds of schools in the area
+  of the council; (c) for the inclusion of women. Provision was also
+  made (d) for the representation in the first instance of members of
+  existing school boards (S 17 [3]).
+
+  _Expenses._--All parliamentary grants are made payable to the L.E.A.
+  instead of as previously to the managers (S 18 [2]). The county
+  council must charge a proportion of all capital expenditure and
+  liabilities, including rent, on account of the provision or
+  improvement of any public elementary school on the parish or parishes
+  which in the opinion of the council are served by the school, such
+  proportion to be not less than one-half or more than three-fourths as
+  the council think fit (S 18 [1] [c] [d]). The county council may also
+  if they think fit charge on the parishes benefited any expenses
+  incurred with respect to education other than elementary (S 18 [1]
+  [a]).
+
+  _Endowments._--The act introduced a new principle into the
+  administration of endowments by directing that their income so far as
+  necessarily applicable in any case for those purposes of a public
+  elementary school for which the local authority are liable must be
+  paid to that authority for the relief of the parochial rate (S 13). As
+  the result of technicalities of legal interpretation the section has
+  been found to have in practice a narrower scope than had been
+  generally anticipated.
+
+  The act of 1902 was extended to London by a separate act in 1903,
+  containing certain special provisions of only minor importance.
+
+
+  "Passive resistance" to 1902 act. Default Act 1904.
+
+The hostility of Nonconformists to the extension of rate-aid to
+denominational schools led to the organization upon a considerable scale
+of what became known as the "Passive Resistance" movement, a number of
+Nonconformist rate-payers refusing to pay the education rate on the
+ground that their consciences forbade their supporting the religious
+teaching in denominational schools; and their willingness to become
+subject to distraint and consequent inconveniences rather than pay the
+rates became the foundation of a widespread political campaign. In
+Wales, where in the rural districts the schools were commonly Anglican
+whilst the population was Nonconformist, particular difficulties arose
+in administering the act in consequence of the hostile attitude of the
+county authorities. Friction likewise manifested itself in one or two
+English areas, which reflected militant Nonconformist views. Accordingly
+the government passed the Local Education (Local Authority Default) Act
+1904, empowering the Board of Education, in the case of default by the
+local authority, to make payments direct to the managers of the school
+and to deduct the amount from the sums payable to the defaulting
+authority on account of parliamentary grants.
+
+
+  Bill of 1906.
+
+When the liberal party came into power again in 1906, Mr Birrell as
+president of the Board of Education in Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman's
+administration introduced a bill to amend the Education Acts 1902-1903,
+with the object of securing full public control of all rate-aided
+schools and the appointment of teachers without reference to religious
+belief. The bill was of a highly complex character; its principal
+features were,--compulsory transfer of existing voluntary schools to the
+local authority, facilities for the giving of denominational instruction
+in transferred schools out of school hours by persons other than the
+regular teachers, and the recognition in populous districts, upon the
+demand of parents, of special publicly maintained schools in which
+denominational teaching could be included in the curriculum; the latter
+schools might (according to the bill as finally amended) in the last
+resort, i.e. if the local authority refused to maintain them, be
+recognized as state-aided schools. The bill encountered strong
+opposition from Anglicans and Catholics (though the Catholic Irish
+members finally voted for it as amended); it passed the House of Commons
+by a large majority, but after unavailing attempts at compromise upon
+the amendments introduced in the House of Lords, the two Houses failed
+to agree and the measure was lost.
+
+
+  Bills of 1908.
+
+Mr Birrell was soon transferred to another office, and nothing more was
+done to amend the act of 1902 till early in the session of 1908, his
+successor Mr McKenna introduced a bill based on what was known as
+"contracting out." In single-school parishes the existing schools were
+to be compulsorily transferred, subject to the grant of denominational
+facilities out of school hours; elsewhere a sufficiency of places in
+schools with Cowper-Temple teaching, which the bill proposed to make
+compulsory in all provided schools, must be supplied by the local
+authority, while existing voluntary schools might become state-aided
+schools upon terms of receiving a grant of 47s. per head. The bill was
+accompanied by a financial scheme for a new system of allocating the
+parliamentary grant. In view of the improbability of its passing into
+law the bill was not pressed beyond the stage of second reading.
+Meanwhile, when Mr Asquith reorganized the cabinet, Mr Runciman
+succeeded Mr McKenna at the education office, and in the autumn he
+introduced a fresh measure framed as the result of negotiations between
+the government and the archbishop of Canterbury (Dr Randall Davidson)
+and designed to be passed rapidly through parliament by consent of all
+parties. Mr Runciman's bill, like his predecessor's, was based upon the
+principle of compulsory transfer in single-school parishes and
+contracting out elsewhere, but it gave a right of entry for
+denominational teaching on two days a week during school hours in all
+council schools whether transferred voluntary schools or otherwise, with
+liberty to employ for this purpose assistant teachers, but not (save
+temporarily at first in transferred schools) head teachers. Provision
+was also made for the payment of a small rent which would be applicable
+for or towards the cost of the denominational instruction.
+Unfortunately, the compromise failed at the last moment for want of
+agreement as to the financial terms of "contracting out," the government
+offering 50s. per head and the Church demanding 7s. more. It is obvious
+that "contracting out" is open to serious objection upon educational and
+economic grounds, and that if resorted to upon any very considerable
+scale it would involve a disruption of the public elementary system, and
+a duplication of schools which would constitute a wasteful drain upon
+the national exchequer. Upon such a system, therefore, some check is
+necessary, and, once decided that the check should take the form of
+financial pressure, rather than request of parents as in Mr Birrell's
+bill, or some form of administrative control, the question of pecuniary
+terms became one of principle and not merely of financial detail.
+Moreover, the difficulty of adjusting differences was intensified by the
+opposition of the extremists on either side, which daily gathered force,
+and the bill was withdrawn by the government when in committee of the
+House of Commons. The conciliatory efforts of Mr Runciman and Dr Randall
+Davidson revealed the existence of a considerable body of influential
+opinion among all schools of thought in favour of a national compromise,
+and the proposals embodied in the bill marked on the part both of
+Churchmen and Nonconformists important concessions to each other's
+views, engendering reasonable hopes of an ultimate settlement being
+reached at no distant date.
+
+
+  Feeding of school children.
+
+Two subsidiary points as regards educational machinery have to be noted.
+The Education (Provision of Meals) Act 1906 enabled local education
+authorities to aid voluntary agencies in the provision of meals for
+children attending public elementary schools, and in certain cases with
+the consent of the Board of Education to defray the cost of the food
+themselves. In 1907-1908 forty, and in 1908-1909 seventy-five
+authorities in England and Wales were authorized by the board to expend
+moneys from the rates on food under this act. In addition, a number of
+authorities expended funds on equipment and service.
+
+
+  Medical inspection.
+
+In 1907 an uncontroversial act entitled the Education (Administrative
+Provisions) Act, besides dealing with various matters of technical and
+administrative detail, laid upon local education authorities the new
+duty of providing for the medical inspection of all children attending
+public elementary schools. In connexion with this act the Board of
+Education established a medical department to advise and assist them in
+supervising local education authorities in carrying out their statutory
+duties in this regard. The whole departure is significant of the new
+sense of the importance of physical culture and hygiene which has been
+one of the remarkable features in recent educational developments.
+
+
+  General progress in elementary education.
+
+Sir Joshua Fitch, in his article on education in the 10th edition of
+this work, describes how experience had led the Education Department to
+abandon the system of payment by results, to establish "in place of
+testing the proficiency of individual scholars,... one summary estimate
+of the work of the school; in place of an annual examination, occasional
+inspection without notice; in place of a variable grant dependent on a
+report in detail on the several subjects of instruction and on
+particular educational merits and defects, one block grant payable to
+all schools alike." He at the same time expressed some misgiving as to
+the effect of "so large a relaxation of the conditions by which it had
+hitherto been sought to secure accuracy and thoroughness in teaching."
+The act of 1902, by placing secular education in public elementary
+schools under the control of strongly organized local education
+authorities may be said to have largely removed such dangers as were to
+be apprehended from the relaxation in question. Thus it was possible for
+the Board of Education in the code of 1904 to abolish the last traces of
+the system of payment by results, by setting forth (in the language of
+their report for 1903-1904) "a properly co-ordinated curriculum suitable
+to the needs of the children, with an indication of the relation which
+the various subjects of instruction should bear to each other, in place
+of the relatively haphazard list of possible branches of knowledge which
+were formerly presented to the choice of individual schools or
+authorities." In the new code also the board for the first time
+endeavoured to state for the guidance of teachers and parents the proper
+aim of the public elementary school, laying stress upon that element of
+the training of character which the system of payment by results had so
+unfortunately obscured. The new spirit was strikingly manifested in the
+volume of _Suggestions for the Considerations of Teachers_, issued by
+the Board of Education in 1905. This volume represented a notable
+attempt to connect administration with educational theory, without in
+any way seeking to crush individual initiative, or to impose a
+bureaucratic uniformity of method upon those engaged in the actual work
+of the schools. Apprehension of the true aim of elementary education as
+essentially and primarily a preparation for practical life has led to a
+corresponding development of instruction of a practical character,
+observation lessons and nature study being treated as a necessary
+element in the curriculum, while handicraft and gardening, and domestic
+subjects (for girls), are encouraged by special grants. Particular
+attention has been bestowed both by the central and local authorities
+upon the problem of rural instruction, and much has been done in many
+areas to bring the schools into closer relations with the needs of
+agricultural and rural life generally. In this way the old and perhaps
+not altogether ill-founded distrust of popular education as tending to
+unfit the working classes for industrial pursuits is being broken down
+and a public opinion more favourable to educational progress in the
+widest sense is being created.
+
+According to the official returns for 1907-1908, the total number of
+scholars on the registers (England only) was as follows:--council
+schools, 2,991,741; voluntary schools, 2,566,030; total, 5,557,771, and
+the total attendance upon which grant was paid was 4,928,659. The
+percentage of actual average attendance to average number on the
+registers was 88.50%. The parliamentary grant (England and Wales) for
+elementary schools, other than higher elementary, amounted to
+L11,023,433.
+
+
+  Higher elementary schools.
+
+The development of higher elementary education in England is now
+proceeding very much upon the lines that have been noted in France. The
+old higher-grade board-schools (declared illegal under the Elementary
+Education Acts by the judgment in the case of _Rex_ v. _Cockerton_ in
+1901, and legalized temporarily by an act passed for the purpose in the
+same year) were mostly converted into municipal secondary schools under
+the act of 1902. In the succeeding years provision was made in the code
+for higher elementary schools of a specialized and technical type
+intended only for industrial districts. In 1906, as the result of the
+recommendations of the Consultative Committee, a new type of higher
+elementary school was admitted for children over twelve, corresponding
+generally to the French _ecole primaire superieure_, described as having
+"for its object the development of the education given in the ordinary
+public elementary school, and the provision of special instruction
+bearing on the future occupations of the scholars, whether boys or
+girls." It may be possible to supplement this system in the rural areas
+to some extent by "higher tops" to the ordinary elementary schools in
+cases where it is not practicable to establish a fully organised higher
+elementary school; but for such "higher tops" no central grant is
+available. The total number of scholars upon the registers of higher
+elementary schools (England) in 1907-1908 was: New Type, 3178 (against
+2715 in the previous year); Old Type, 4492 (against 5866 in the previous
+year).
+
+
+  Expenditure on elementary education.
+
+The total expenditure (exclusive of capital outlay) of the local
+authorities (1906-1907) in England only upon elementary education,
+including "industrial" and "special" schools, was L19,776,733, of which
+(a) L10,408,242 was met by the ordinary parliamentary grant, and (b)
+L8,930,468 was the balance required to be met by rates, the difference
+being represented by receipts from various sources. The average cost per
+child of elementary schools in England and Wales (excluding London) may
+be taken at L3 (including London L3, 4s. 10d.), and the average central
+grant (excluding grants for special purposes) at 41s., leaving 19s. to
+be raised locally.
+
+
+  Preliminary training of elementary teachers.
+
+The training of teachers for the two great branches of public education,
+elementary and secondary respectively, is an important part of the
+general administrative problem. Since the middle of the 19th century
+there has been a great development of public opinion with regard to
+their professional qualifications. Sir Joshua Fitch (_Ency. Brit._ 10th
+ed.) pointed out that the full appreciation of the importance of
+training began at the lower end of the social scale. Shuttleworth and
+Tufnell in 1846 urged the necessity of special training for the primary
+teacher, and hoped to establish State Training Colleges to supply this
+want; but the one college at Battersea which was founded as an
+experiment was soon transferred to the National Society (the "National
+Society for educating the poor in the principles of the Established
+Church": founded in 1811). Before this, Bell and Lancaster had made
+arrangements in their model schools for the reception of a few young
+people to learn the system by practice. In Glasgow, David Stow, who
+founded in 1826 the Normal Seminary which afterwards became the Free
+Church College, was one of the first to insist on the need of systematic
+professional preparation. The religious bodies in England, notably the
+Established Church, availed themselves promptly of the failure of the
+central government, and a number of diocesan colleges for men, and
+separately for women, were gradually established. In 1854 the British
+and Foreign School Society (founded 1808) placed their institutes at the
+Borough Road and Stockwell on a collegiate footing, and subsequently
+founded other colleges at Swansea, Bangor, Darlington and Saffron
+Walden; the Roman Catholic Church provided two for women and one for
+men; and the Wesleyans two, one for each sex. The new provincial
+colleges of university rank were invited by the Education Department to
+attach normal classes to their ordinary course and to make provision for
+special training and suitable practice in schools for those students who
+desired to become teachers. Thus the government came to recognize two
+kinds of training schools--the residential colleges of the old type and
+the day colleges attached to institutions of university rank; both were
+subsidized by grants from the Treasury, and regularly inspected. As the
+need of special training for teachers became further recognized by the
+consideration of the same question as regards teachers in higher and
+intermediate schools (Cambridge instituting in 1879 examinations for a
+teacher's diploma, and other universities providing courses for
+secondary as well as primary teachers, and establishing professorships
+of education), the attitude of the government, i.e. the Board of
+Education, towards the problem gradually became more and more a subject
+of controversy and of public interest, as indicated by the clause in the
+Act of 1899 providing for a public registration of qualified teachers
+and for the gradual elimination from the profession of those who were
+unqualified. And meanwhile the increased solidarity of the National
+Union of Teachers (founded in 1870), the trade union, so to speak, of
+the teachers, brought an important body of professional opinion to bear
+on the discussion of their own interests.
+
+The question of the preliminary education of elementary teachers had
+after some years of discussion reached a critical stage in 1909. The
+history of pupil teachership as a method of concurrent instruction and
+employment shows that it was in its inception something in the nature of
+a makeshift; the ideal placed before local education authorities in the
+recent regulations and reports of the Board of Education is the
+alternative system whereby with the aid of national bursaries
+(instituted in 1907) "the general education of future teachers may be
+continued in secondary schools until the age of seventeen or eighteen,
+and all attempts to obtain a practical experience of elementary school
+work may be deferred until the training college is entered, or at least
+until an examination making a natural break in that general education
+and qualifying for an admission to a training college has been passed."
+Under the revised pupil-teacher system established by the regulations of
+1903 provision is made for the instruction of pupil teachers in centres
+which as far as possible are attached to secondary schools receiving
+grants from the Board of Education under the regulations for secondary
+schools, about two-thirds of the secondary schools on the grant list
+undertaking this work. Accordingly, the result of recent changes is to
+modify the old system in two ways: first by providing the alternative of
+a full course of secondary education, secondly by associating pupil
+teachership itself as far as possible with part-time attendance at a
+secondary school. The total number of pupil teachers recognized during
+the year 1907-1908 was 20,571, and of these 9770 were in centres forming
+integral parts of secondary schools. The number of bursars who passed
+the leaving examination was 1486.
+
+
+  Training colleges.
+
+One of the principal difficulties which confronted the state and the
+local authorities in their task of organizing an improved system of
+public education under the act of 1902 lay in the deficiency of training
+colleges in view of the increased number of teachers. Local authorities
+naturally hesitated to burden themselves with the cost of providing such
+institutions in view of the fact that there is nothing to prevent
+teachers trained at great expense by one authority taking service under
+a less public-spirited authority who had contributed nothing to such
+training; hence a widespread feeling that the provision of training
+colleges should be undertaken by the state as a matter of national
+concern. Under these circumstances a new system of building grants in
+aid of the establishment of training colleges was instituted in 1905. In
+1906 these grants were raised from 25 to 75% of the capital expenditure,
+but were limited to colleges provided by local authorities. A further
+difficulty in view of the municipalization of education arose from the
+fact that the majority of the residential colleges were in the hands of
+denominational trusts which did not admit a conscience clause. Under the
+presidency of Mr McKenna in 1907, the Board of Education, in regulations
+which excited much controversy, "with a view to throwing open as far as
+possible the advantages of a course of training in colleges supported
+mainly by public funds to all students who are qualified to profit by it
+irrespective of religious creed or social status," laid down that the
+application of a candidate might in no circumstances be rejected on any
+religious ground, nor on the ground of social antecedents or the like.
+The same regulations provided that no new training colleges would be
+recognized except on terms of compliance with certain conditions as to
+freedom from denominational restrictions or requirements. The obligation
+as to religious exemptions has since been limited to 50% of the
+admissions. There were in attendance (_Statistics_, England, 1907-1908)
+in the various colleges, 6561 women and 2835 men, of whom 1619 women and
+335 men were in colleges provided by local education authorities. The
+grants made by the Board of Education for training colleges were as
+follows: maintenance grants L383,851; building grants L45,000. These
+figures include Wales.
+
+
+  Continuative education.
+
+The fear has been widely entertained that a considerable part of the
+national expenditure upon elementary education is wasted for want of an
+effective system of continuative instruction to be given out of working
+hours to adolescents engaged in industrial employment. The whole subject
+was exhaustively treated by the report in 1909 of the Consultative
+Committee of the Board of Education. This report seeks to base an
+efficient continuative system upon the improvement of elementary
+education by reducing the size of the classes in the elementary schools
+upon the lines now laid down by the new staffing regulations of 1909; by
+increasing the amount of instruction in hand-work with a view to
+rendering the curriculum less bookish and more efficient as a training
+for industrial and agricultural life; and by legislation to reform the
+system of half-time attendance and raise the age of compulsory
+attendance to thirteen and ultimately fourteen. Upon the foundation of
+an improved and prolonged elementary education there would be reared a
+superstructure of continuative schools or classes, attendance at which
+up to seventeen would be compulsory under bye-laws adoptive locally at
+the option of the local education authorities. In 1906-1907 about 21 per
+thousand of the population of England and Wales attended evening schools
+and classes inspected by the Board of Education, and grant amounting to
+L361,596 was paid in respect of 440,718 regular attendants.
+
+
+  Secondary education.
+
+The most marked progress has undoubtedly been in secondary education,
+and in no direction has the act of 1902 proved more fruitful. At the end
+of the 19th century secondary instruction in England was still provided
+chiefly by endowed grammar-schools, by proprietary schools established
+by religious bodies or joint-stock companies, and by private enterprise.
+No public provision was made for secondary education as such; what
+financial assistance was forthcoming from municipal sources was given
+indirectly under cover of the grants under the Technical Instruction
+Acts, while in the administration of central grants for the first years
+of the working of the Board of Education Act 1899, no absolute
+differentiation between secondary and technological functions was
+recognized. The establishment of local authorities with direct duties in
+respect of secondary education, and the reorganization of the central
+office with reference to the three branches of education, elementary,
+secondary and technological, rendered possible for the first time an
+adequate treatment of the problem of public secondary education as a
+whole. "The regulations for secondary schools," says the prefatory
+memorandum to the regulations of the Board of Education, "grew up round
+the old provisions of the Directory of the Science and Art Department.
+Detached science classes were gradually built up into schools of
+science. Schools of science were subsequently widened into schools of
+what was known as the 'Division A' type, providing a course of
+instruction in science in connexion with, and as part of, a course of
+general education. Aid was afterwards extended to schools of the
+'Division B' type in which science did not form the preponderating
+element of the instruction given. In 1904 the board recast the
+regulations so as to bring all schools aided by grants within the
+general definition of a school offering a general education up to and
+beyond the age of sixteen through a complete graded course of
+instruction, the object of which should be to develop all the faculties,
+and to form the habit of exercising them."
+
+Two main tendencies distinguish the recent development: on the one hand
+the tendency to municipalization, or at least to the establishment of
+public control; on the other hand the tendency (marked especially by the
+regulations of 1907) to greater elasticity in regard to curricula, and
+so to the freer encouragement of local initiative and local effort.
+
+In 1907 the government of Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman placed greatly
+increased funds at the disposal of the Board of Education for the
+purpose of secondary education. The regulations under which the
+increased grant was administered imposed conditions in respect of
+freedom from denominational restrictions or requirements, representative
+local control, and accessibility to all classes of the people, which,
+like the analogous rules with regard to training colleges, roused
+considerable controversy. With regard to religious instruction, the
+requirement was made that no catechism or formulary distinctive of any
+particular religious denomination might be taught in the school except
+upon the request in writing of the parent or guardian and at the cost of
+funds other than grants of public money. Power was at the same time
+reserved to the board to waive the new conditions in the event of the
+local education authority passing a resolution that the school was in
+their view required as part of the secondary school provision for their
+area, and that the conditions, or one or more of them, might be waived
+with advantage in view of the educational needs of the area. It will be
+noticed that one effect of the regulations (as of the training college
+regulations) was to recognize as a kind of established religion those
+elements of Christianity which are shared in common by the various
+Protestant churches, according to the system of Lancaster and the
+Cowper-Temple compromise. Normally schools are required to provide 25%
+of free places for scholars from public elementary schools, and, with a
+view to encouraging the transference of children from the public
+elementary school at an early age, a grant of L2 was made payable on
+account of ex-public elementary scholars between ten and twelve years of
+age. The full scale of grants is L2 for ex-public elementary scholars
+between ten and twelve, and L5 for scholars between twelve and eighteen.
+To schools previously recognized and failing to comply with the new
+conditions, grant may be paid on the lower scale of L2 and L2, 10s.
+respectively.
+
+Secondary school grants are assessed upon average attendance, and
+efficiency is guaranteed by inspection and not by individual
+examination. All recognized schools must provide at least the
+substantial equivalent of the four-years' course formerly required, and
+recognition is withheld or withdrawn if an adequate number of the
+scholars do not remain at least four years in the school, or do not
+remain up to sixteen; in rural areas, however, and small towns, a school
+life of three years and a leaving age of fifteen may be accepted. "The
+board are now in a position, through their inspectorate, to keep a watch
+and exercise a guidance which were previously impossible over the
+planning and working of school curricula. Detailed reports following
+upon full inspections, and the more constant if less obvious influence
+exercised through informal visits, conferences, reports and suggestions,
+may now be relied upon to guard against the risks of one-sided
+education, of ill-balanced schemes of instruction, and of premature or
+excessive specialization" (Report of Board of Education, 1906-1907, page
+68). The curriculum must provide instruction duly graded and duly
+continuous, in the English language and literature, in geography and
+history, in mathematics, science and drawing, and in at least one
+language other than English. Where two languages other than English are
+taken, Latin must ordinarily be one. Provision must be made for
+organized games, physical exercises and manual instruction, and in
+girls' schools science and mathematics other than arithmetic may be
+replaced by an approved scheme of practical housewifery for girls over
+fifteen. The total number of secondary schools recognized for grant
+(_Statistics_, 1907-1908) was 736, of which only 220 were directly
+provided by local authorities. The number of pupils in attendance was
+68,104 boys and 56,359 girls, total 124,463. The government grants for
+1907-1908 amounted to L320,873 besides grants from local authorities.
+
+
+_Wales._
+
+Notwithstanding the important differences which exist between the social
+and especially the religious conditions of England and Wales
+respectively, Wales continued to be treated as one with England for
+purposes of educational administration down to quite recent years.
+Towards the end of the 19th century the striking revival of Welsh
+nationality, in itself largely an educational and a literary movement,
+led to a spontaneous demand among the Welsh people for the organization
+of a national system of higher education. In accordance with the
+recommendations of a special royal commission the Welsh Intermediate
+Education Act passed in 1889 provided for the creation in every county
+in Wales (including Monmouthshire) of joint education committees
+consisting of three nominees of the county council and two nominees of
+the lord president of the council. To these committees were entrusted
+the duties of framing (under the Charity Commissioners) schemes for the
+establishment of intermediate and technical schools and for the
+application of endowments, and for administering a 1/2d. county rate,
+which was supplemented by a treasury grant not exceeding the amount
+raised by the rate. Certain supervisory functions were entrusted to a
+Central Education Board, to which are committed the duties of inspection
+and examination. The joint education committees have now (except for the
+purpose of framing schemes for endowments) been superseded by the local
+education authorities under the act of 1902. The public assistance
+afforded to secondary education in Wales under the Intermediate Act is
+supplemented by the grants of the Board of Education, and the Board's
+revised Secondary School Regulations were applied to Wales in 1908.
+There were (1907-1908) 92 county secondary schools in Wales administered
+under schemes made under the Welsh Intermediate Act, attended by 6235
+boys and 6727 girls, total 12,962; and 12 other secondary schools, of
+which 8 were provided by local authorities. The total attendance at all
+secondary schools was 13,615, viz. 6819 boys and 6796 girls. The Board
+of Education grant amounted to L31,090. The expenditure of the local
+authorities for the year 1906-1907 was L85,242.
+
+The number of scholars on the registers of ordinary public elementary
+schools in Wales was (_Statistics_, 1907-1908), in council schools
+330,413, and in voluntary schools 100,290, total 430,703. The percentage
+of average attendance was 86.98. The ordinary parliamentary grant
+(1906-1907) was L794,161, and the net expenditure of local authorities
+L561,234.
+
+In 1907 a Welsh department of the Board of Education was established
+with a permanent secretary and a chief inspector, each responsible
+directly to the president. A movement was in progress in Wales in
+1908-1909 for the creation of a national council of education under an
+independent minister, but this change could in any case only be effected
+by legislation; and meanwhile the special religious and social
+conditions in Wales caused administrative difficulties in working an act
+(that of 1902) primarily designed to meet those prevailing in England.
+     (G. B. M. C.)
+
+
+_United States._
+
+  Beginnings.
+
+_History._--The first white settlers who came to North America were
+typical representatives of those European peoples who had made more
+progress in civilization than any other in the world. Those settlers, in
+particular those from England and from Holland, brought with them the
+most advanced ideas of the time on the subject of education. The
+conditions of life in the New World emphasized the need of schools and
+colleges, and among the earliest public acts of the settlers were
+provisions to establish them. The steps taken between 1619 and 1622 to
+provide schools for the colony of Virginia were frustrated by the Indian
+war which broke out in the latter year, and were never successfully
+renewed during the colonial period. In New York, where the influence of
+the Dutch was at first predominant, elementary schools were maintained
+at the public expense, and were intended for the education of all
+classes of the population. This policy reflected the very advanced views
+as to public elementary education which were then held in the
+Netherlands. The assumption of control in the colony of New York by the
+English was a distinct check to the development of public elementary
+education, and little or no further progress was made until after the
+Revolution. The most systematic educational policy was pursued in the
+colony of Massachusetts. As early as 1635, five years after it was
+founded, the town of Boston took action to the end that "our brother
+Philemon Pormort shall be entreated to become schoolmaster for the
+teaching and nurturing children with us." The General Court of the
+colony in 1636 made the first appropriation for what was to become
+Harvard College, taking its name in honour of the minister, John
+Harvard, who died in 1638, leaving his library and one-half of his
+property, having a value of L800, to the new institution. The amount of
+this appropriation of 1636 (L400) was remarkable in that it was probably
+equal to the whole colony tax for a year. In 1642 followed a legislative
+act which, while saying nothing of schools, gave to the selectmen in
+every town power to oversee both the education and the employment of
+children. It is made the duty of the selectmen to see that the children
+can read and understand the principles of religion and the capital laws
+of the country, and that they are put to some useful work.
+
+Five years later, in 1647, was enacted the law which is not only the
+real foundation of the Massachusetts school system, but the type of
+later legislation throughout the United States. This epoch-making act,
+the first of its kind in the world, represented the public opinion of a
+colony of about 20,000 persons, living in thirty towns. It required
+every town of fifty house-holders to establish a school, the master of
+which should be paid either by the parents of the children taught or by
+public tax, as the majority of the town committee might decide; and it
+further required every town of one hundred families or house-holders to
+set up a grammar school in which pupils might be prepared for the
+"University," as the new institution at Cambridge was designated.
+Moreover, a penalty was attached to neglect of this legislative
+requirement, in the form of a fine to be devoted to the maintenance of
+the nearest school. Horace Mann said of the act of 1647: "It is
+impossible for us adequately to conceive the boldness of the measure,
+which aimed at universal education through the establishment of free
+schools. As a fact it had no precedent in the world's history; and, as a
+theory, it could have been refuted and silenced by a more formidable
+array of argument and experience than was ever marshalled against any
+other institution of human origin. But time has ratified its soundness.
+Two centuries of successful operation now proclaim it to be as wise as
+it was courageous, and as beneficent as it was disinterested." The
+significance of these acts of 1642 and 1647 is that they foreshadow the
+whole American system of education, including elementary schools,
+secondary schools and colleges, and that they indicate the principles
+upon which that system rests. These principles as summarized by George
+H. Martin in his _Evolution of the Massachusetts Public School System_
+are the following:--(1) The universal education of youth is essential to
+the well-being of the state. (2) The obligation to furnish this
+education rests primarily upon the parent. (3) The state has a right to
+enforce this obligation. (4) The state may fix a standard which shall
+determine the kind of education and the minimum amount. (5) Public money
+raised by general tax may be used to provide such education as the state
+requires. The tax may be general, though the school attendance is not.
+(6) Education higher than the rudiments may be supplied by the state.
+Opportunity must be provided at the public expense for youths who wish
+to be fitted for college. These principles have now found expression in
+the public acts of every state, and upon them education in the United
+States is founded.
+
+
+  Development.
+
+Despite the praiseworthy attempts made in New York, New Jersey and
+Pennsylvania to develop schools and school systems, very little was
+accomplished in those colonies which was permanent. The sentiment in the
+more southern colonies was, as a rule, unfriendly to free schools, and
+nothing of importance was attempted in that section of the country until
+the time of Thomas Jefferson. Through religious zeal or philanthropy
+colleges were founded as far south as Virginia, and no fewer than ten of
+these institutions were in operation in 1776. Their present names and
+the dates of their foundation are: Harvard University, Massachusetts
+(1636); College of William and Mary, Virginia (1693); Yale University,
+Connecticut (1701); Princeton University, New Jersey (1746); Washington
+and Lee University, Virginia (1749); University of Pennsylvania,
+Pennsylvania (1749); Columbia University, New York (1754); Brown
+University, Rhode Island (1764); Rutgers College, New Jersey (1766); and
+Dartmouth College, New Hampshire (1769). In the colleges the
+ecclesiastical spirit was at first almost uniformly dominant. The
+greater number of their students were preparing for the ministry in some
+one of the branches of the Protestant Church. These facts caused the
+grammar schools to take on more and more the character of
+college-preparatory schools; and when this was brought about they
+supplied the educational needs of but one portion of the community. As
+time passed, the interdependence of governmental and ecclesiastical
+interests began to weaken in the colonies, and there arose among those
+who represented the new secularizing tendency a distrust of the colleges
+and their influence. This gave rise to a new and influential type of
+school, the academy, which took its name from the secondary schools
+established in England by the dissenting religious bodies during the
+latter part of the seventeenth century at the suggestion of Milton.
+These academies were intended to give an education which was thought to
+be more practical than that offered by the colleges, and they drew their
+students from the so-called middle classes of society. The older
+academies were usually endowed institutions, organized under the control
+of religious organizations or of self-perpetuating boards of trustees.
+Their programme of studies was less restricted than that of the grammar
+schools, and they gave new emphasis to the study of the English language
+and its literature, of mathematics and of the new sciences of nature.
+For two generations the academies were a most beneficent factor in
+American education, and they supplied a large number of the
+better-prepared teachers for work in other schools. These schools were
+in a sense public in that they were chartered, but they were not
+directly under public control in their management. Early in the 19th
+century there arose a well-defined demand for public secondary
+schools--high schools, as they are popularly known. They were the direct
+outgrowth of the elementary school system. Boston, Philadelphia,
+Baltimore and New York were the first of the large cities to establish
+schools of this type, and they spread rapidly. These public secondary
+schools met with opposition, however, springing partly from the friends
+of the academies, and partly from those who held that governmental
+agency should be restricted to the field of elementary education. The
+legal questions raised were settled by a decision of the supreme court
+of Michigan, which contained these words: "Neither in our state policy,
+in our constitution, nor in our laws do we find the primary school
+districts restricted in the branches of knowledge which their officers
+may cause to be taught, or the grade of instruction that may be given,
+if their voters consent, in regular form, to bear the expense and raise
+the taxes for the purpose." This decision gave marked impetus to the
+development of public secondary or high schools, and they have increased
+rapidly in number. The academies have relatively declined, and in the
+Western states are almost unknown.
+
+Meanwhile the elementary school system had grown rapidly. The school
+district, the smallest civil division, was created in Connecticut in
+1701, in Rhode Island about 1750, and in Massachusetts in 1789. From the
+point of view of efficient, well-supported schools, it has been felt
+since the time of Horace Mann that the substitution of the small school
+district for the town as the unit of school administration was a
+mistake. Yet the school district has exercised a profound influence for
+good upon the American people. In New York state, for example, there
+were in 1900 over eleven thousand school districts, and in Illinois over
+twelve thousand. The districts are small in extent and often sparsely
+settled. Their government is as democratic as possible. The resident
+legal voters, often including women, hold a meeting at least once a
+year. They elect trustees to represent them in the employment of the
+teacher and the management of the school. They determine whether a new
+schoolhouse shall be built, whether repairs shall be made, and what sum
+of money shall be raised for school purposes. In the rural districts
+this system has often been itself a school in patriotism and in the
+conduct of public affairs. Recently the tendency is to merge the school
+districts into the township, in order that larger and better schools may
+be maintained, and that educational advantages may be distributed more
+evenly among the people. Most of the southern states have the county
+system of school administration. This is because the county, rather than
+the township, has been the political unit in the south from the
+beginning. Special laws have been made for the school system in cities,
+and the form of these laws differs very much. In nearly every city there
+is a separate board of education, sometimes chosen by the voters,
+sometimes appointed by the mayor or other official, which board has
+full control of the schools. The city board of education has as its
+executive officer a superintendent of schools, who has become a most
+important factor in American educational administration. He exerts great
+influence in the selection of teachers, in the choice of text-books, in
+the arrangement of the programme of studies, and in the determination of
+questions of policy. Sometimes he is charged by law with the initiative
+in some or all of these matters. He is usually a trained administrator
+as well as an experienced teacher. The first superintendent was
+appointed in 1837 at Buffalo. Providence followed in 1839, New Orleans
+in 1841, Cleveland in 1844, Baltimore in 1849, Cincinnati in 1850,
+Boston in 1851, New York, San Francisco and Jersey City in 1852, Newark
+and Brooklyn in 1853, Chicago and St Louis in 1854, and Philadelphia in
+1883. In general, it may be said that the progress of public education
+in the United States is marked by (1) compulsory schools, (2) compulsory
+licensing of teachers, (3) compulsory school attendance, and (4)
+compulsory school supervision, and by the increasingly efficient
+administration of these provisions. The compulsion comes in each case
+from the state government, which alone, in the American system, has the
+power to prescribe it and to enforce it. Each state is therefore an
+independent educational unit, and there is no single, uniform American
+system of education in any legal sense. In fact, however, the great mass
+of the American people are in entire agreement as to the principles
+which should control public education; and the points in which the
+policies of the several states are in agreement are greater, both in
+number and in importance, than those in which they differ. An American
+educational system exists, therefore, in spirit and in substance, even
+though not in form.
+
+
+  National policy.
+
+Neither in the Declaration of Independence nor in the Constitution of
+the United States is there any mention of education. The founders of the
+nation were by no means indifferent to education, but they shared the
+common view of their time, which was that the real responsibility for
+the maintenance of schools and the expense of maintaining them should
+fall upon the several local communities. The relation of government to
+education was not then a subject of ordinary consideration or
+discussion. Later, when this question did arise and the power of
+taxation was involved, the several states assumed control of education,
+as it was necessary that they should do. Nevertheless, from the very
+beginning the national government has aided and supported education,
+while not controlling it. This policy dates from the 13th of July 1787,
+when there was passed the famous "Ordinance for the Government of the
+Territory of the United States North-West of the River Ohio," meaning
+the territory north and west of the Ohio river now represented by the
+states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, and the eastern
+side of Minnesota, embracing more than 265,000 sq. m. of territory. This
+ordinance contains this declaration: "Religion, morality, and knowledge
+being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools
+and the means of education shall for ever be encouraged." The Ordinance
+of 1787 also reaffirmed the provisions of the so-called Land Ordinance
+of 1785, by which section No. 16 in every township (a township consists
+of 36 numbered sections of 1 sq. m. each), or one thirty-sixth of the
+entire north-west territory, was set aside for the maintenance of public
+schools within the township. The funds derived from the sale and lease
+of these original "school lands" form the major portion of the public
+school endowment of the states formed out of the north-west territory.
+The precedent thus established became the policy of the nation. Each
+state admitted prior to 1848 reserved section No. 16 in every township
+of public land for common schools. Each state admitted since 1848 (Utah
+being an exception, and having four sections) has reserved sections No.
+16 and No. 36 in every township of public lands for this purpose. In
+addition, the national government has granted two townships in every
+state and territory containing public lands for seminaries or
+universities. A third land grant is that made in 1862 for colleges of
+agriculture and the mechanical arts. The sum total of these three land
+grants amounted in 1900 to 78,659,439 acres, to which there must be
+added various special grants made from time to time to the states and
+devoted to education. The portion of the public domain so set apart in
+1900 amounted in all to 86,138,473 acres, or 134,591 English sq. m. This
+is an area greater than those of the six New England states, New York,
+New Jersey, Maryland and Delaware added together. It is a portion of the
+earth's surface as great as the kingdom of Prussia, about seven-tenths
+as great as France, and considerably greater than the combined areas of
+Great Britain (including the Channel Islands) and the kingdom of
+Holland. Besides the enormous grants of land in aid of education, the
+national government has maintained since 1802 a military academy at West
+Point, New York, for the training of officers for the army, and since
+1845 a naval academy at Annapolis, Maryland, for the training of
+officers for the navy. It has also taken charge of the education of the
+children of uncivilized Indians, and of all children in Alaska. It has
+voted, by act of 1887, a perpetual endowment of $15,000 a year for each
+agricultural experiment station connected with a state agricultural
+college, and, by act of 1890, an additional endowment of $25,000 a year
+for each of the agricultural colleges themselves. The aggregate value of
+land and money given by the national government for education in the
+several states and territories is about $300,000,000.
+
+
+  Bureau of education.
+
+In 1867 the Congress established a bureau of education, presided over by
+a commissioner who is under the jurisdiction of the secretary of the
+interior, the purpose of which is declared to be to collect "such
+statistics and facts as shall show the condition and progress of
+education in the several states and territories, and of diffusing such
+information respecting the organization and management of school systems
+and methods of teaching as shall aid the people of the United States in
+the establishment and maintenance of efficient school systems, and
+otherwise promote the cause of education throughout the country." The
+bureau has therefore no direct power over the educational policy of the
+several states. It has, however, exercised a potent influence for good
+in its advisory capacity. Up to 1900 this bureau had published 360
+separate volumes and pamphlets, including 31 annual reports, covering
+from 800 to 2300 pages each; and the number has since been much
+increased. The annual reports alone of the Commissioner of Education are
+mines of information. These standard works of reference are distributed
+gratuitously in large numbers to libraries, school officials and other
+persons interested, and to foreign governments. The several
+commissioners of education have been: Henry Barnard, 1867-1870; John
+Eaton, 1870-1886; Nathaniel H.R. Dawson, 1886-1889; William T.
+Harris,[3] 1889-1906; Elmer Ellsworth Brown, 1906- .
+
+
+  State governments and education.
+
+In the United States the sovereign powers are not all lodged in one
+place. Such of those powers as are not granted by the Constitution to
+the national government are reserved to the states respectively, or to
+the people. The power to levy taxes for the support of public education
+has been almost universally held to be one of the powers so reserved.
+The inhabitants of the several local communities, however indisposed
+they may have been to relinquish absolute control of their own schools,
+have been compelled to yield to the authority of the state government
+whenever it has been asserted, for except under such authority no civil
+division--county, city, township, or school district--possesses the
+power to levy taxes for school purposes. Moreover, since the exercise of
+state authority has uniformly improved the quality of the schools, it
+has usually been welcomed, not resisted. In general, it may be said that
+the state has used its authority to prescribe a minimum of efficiency
+which schools and teachers must reach, and it enforces this minimum
+through inspection and the withholding of its proper share of the state
+school fund from any locality where schools or teachers are permitted to
+fall below the required standard. In extreme cases the state authorities
+have interfered directly to prevent the evil results of local
+inefficiency or contumacy. In addition, the states, almost without
+exception, maintain at their own expense schools for the training of
+teachers, known as normal schools. Many of the states also offer
+inducements to the cities, towns and districts to exceed the prescribed
+minimum of efficiency. Through the steady exercise of state supervision
+the school buildings have improved, the standard for entrance upon the
+work of teaching has been raised, the programme of studies has been made
+more effective and more uniform, and the length of the school term has
+increased. The Constitution of every state now contains some provision
+as to public education. Each state has an executive officer charged with
+the enforcement of the state school laws. Sometimes, as in New York,
+this official has plenary powers; sometimes, as in Massachusetts and
+Ohio, he is little more than an adviser. In twenty-nine states this
+official is known as the superintendent of public instruction; in
+Massachusetts and Connecticut he is called secretary of the state board
+of education; other titles used are commissioner of public schools,
+superintendent of common schools, and superintendent of public schools.
+The schools are administered, on behalf of the taxpayers, by an elected
+board of school trustees in rural school districts, and by an elected
+(though sometimes appointed) board of education or school committee in
+cities and towns. In 836 cities and towns there is a local
+superintendent of schools, who directs and supervises the educational
+work and acts as the executive officer of the board of education. The
+schools in the rural districts are under the direct supervision of a
+county superintendent of schools or similar official, who is often
+chosen by the people, but who sometimes is named by the state
+authorities. The county and city superintendents are often charged with
+the duty of holding examinations for entrance upon the work of teaching,
+and of issuing licences to those persons who pass the examinations. This
+system works best where it is carefully regulated by state law. Thirty
+states, one territory, and the District of Columbia have enacted
+compulsory education laws, but the enforcement of them is usually very
+lax. In fifteen states and territories there are no compulsory education
+laws, although there are in existence there fully organized school
+systems free to all children. The usual age during which school
+attendance is required is from 8 to 14. Provision is made in Maine, New
+Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New
+Jersey, Pennsylvania, Indiana, Minnesota and Michigan, for sending
+habitual truants to some special institution. Laws forbidding the
+employment of children under a specified minimum age in any mercantile
+or manufacturing establishment are in force in twelve states, and are
+usually administered in connexion with the compulsory education laws.
+
+The universal establishment in America of public secondary schools (high
+schools), and the existence of state universities in all of the states
+south and west of Pennsylvania, have brought into existence a system of
+state education which reaches from the kindergarten and the elementary
+school to the graduate instruction offered at state colleges and
+universities. This system includes (1) about 1500 free public
+kindergartens scattered over fifteen states; (2) free public elementary
+schools within reach of almost every home in the land; (3) free public
+secondary schools (high schools) in every considerable city or town and
+in not a few rural communities; (4) free land grant colleges, supported
+in large part by the proceeds of the nation's endowment of public lands,
+paying particular attention to agriculture and the mechanical arts, in
+all the states; (5) state universities, free or substantially so, in all
+the states south and west of Pennsylvania; (6) free public normal
+schools, for the professional training of teachers, in nearly every
+state; (7) free schools for the education of defectives in nearly all
+the states; and (8) the national academies at West Point and Annapolis
+for the professional training of military and naval officers
+respectively.
+
+
+  Kindergartens.
+
+Miss Susan E. Blow, herself the leading exponent of kindergarten
+principles in the United States, has pointed out that the history of the
+kindergarten movement reveals four distinct stages in its development:
+the pioneer stage, having Boston as its centre; the philanthropic stage,
+which began in the village of Florence, Mass., and reached its climax at
+San Francisco, California; the national or strictly educational stage,
+which began at St Louis; and the so-called maternal stage, which from
+Chicago as a centre is spreading over the entire country. During the
+first stage public attention was directed to a few of the most important
+aspects of Froebel's teaching. During the second stage the kindergarten
+was valued largely as a reformatory and redemptive influence. During the
+third stage the fundamental principles underlying kindergarten training
+were scientifically studied and expounded, and the kindergarten became
+part of the public school system of the country. The fourth stage,
+which, like the third, is fortunately still in existence, aims at making
+the kindergarten a link between the school and the home, and so to use
+it to strengthen the foundations and elevate the ideals of family life.
+By 1898 there were 4363 kindergartens in the United States (1365 of
+which were public), employing 9937 teachers (2532 in the public
+kindergartens) and enrolling 189,604 children (95,867 in the public
+kindergartens). Of the 164 public normal schools, 36 made provision for
+training kindergarten teachers. The scientific and literary activity of
+some of the private kindergarten training classes is very great, and
+they exert a beneficial and stimulating effect on teaching in the
+elementary schools. It is generally admitted that from the point of view
+of the children, of the teachers, of the schools, and of the community
+at large, the kindergarten has been and is an inspiration of
+incalculable value.
+
+
+  Elementary schools.
+
+The elementary school course is from six to nine years in length, the
+ordinary period being eight years. The pupils enter at about six years
+of age. In the cities the elementary schools are usually in session for
+five hours daily, except Saturday and Sunday, beginning at 9 A.M. There
+is an intermission, usually of an hour, at midday, and short recesses
+during the sessions. In the small rural schools the pupils are usually
+ungraded, and are taught singly or in varying groups. In the cities and
+towns there is a careful gradation of pupils, and promotions from grade
+to grade are made at intervals of a year or of a half-year. The best
+schools have the most elastic system of gradation and the most frequent
+promotions. In a number of states there are laws authorizing the
+conveyance of children to school at the public expense, when the
+schoolhouse is unduly distant from the homes of a portion of the school
+population. Co-education (q.v.) in the elementary school has been the
+salutary and almost uniform practice in the United States. The programme
+of studies in the elementary school includes English (reading, writing,
+spelling, grammar, composition), arithmetic (sometimes elementary
+algebra also, or plane geometry in the upper grades), geography, history
+of the United States, and elementary natural science, including human
+physiology and hygiene. Physical training, vocal music, drawing and
+manual training are often taught. Sometimes a foreign language (Latin,
+German or French) and the study of general history are begun. Formal
+instruction in manners and morals is not often found, but the discipline
+of the school offers the best possible training in the habits of
+truthfulness, honesty, obedience, regularity, punctuality and conformity
+to order. Religious teaching is not permitted, although the exercises of
+the day are often opened with reading from the Bible, the repetition of
+the Lord's Prayer and the singing of a hymn. Corporal punishment is not
+infrequent, but is forbidden by law in New Jersey, and in many states
+may be used only under restrictions. Text-books are used as the basis of
+the instruction given, and the pupils "recite" in class to the teacher,
+who, by use of illustration and comment, makes clear the subject-matter
+of the prescribed lesson. The purpose of the recitation method is to
+make the work of each pupil help that of his companion. Skilfully used,
+it is the most effectual instrument yet devised for elementary school
+instruction.
+
+
+  Secondary schools.
+
+The secondary school course is normally four years in length. The
+principal subjects studied are Latin, Greek, French, German, algebra,
+geometry, physics, chemistry, physical geography, physiology, rhetoric,
+English literature, civics and history. Although but 11.36% of the
+students in public high schools and 25.36% of those in private secondary
+schools are preparing for a college or scientific school, yet the
+conditions prescribed by the colleges for admission to their courses
+affect powerfully both the secondary school programme and the methods of
+teaching. Of late years no educational topic has been more widely
+discussed than that as to the proper relations of secondary schools and
+colleges. As a result, special examinations for admission to college are
+either greatly simplified or entirely abolished, and the secondary
+studies are much more substantial and better taught than formerly. An
+increasing proportion of secondary school teachers are college
+graduates. The most extraordinary characteristic of secondary education
+in recent years is the rapid increase in the number of students taking
+Latin as a school subject. Meanwhile the proportion of those studying
+physics and chemistry has fallen off slightly. The rate of increase in
+the number of pupils who study Latin is fully twice as great as the rate
+of increase in the number of secondary school students. Between 1890 and
+1896, while the number of students in private secondary schools
+increased 12%, the number of students in public secondary schools
+increased 87%. Since 1894 the number of students in private secondary
+schools has steadily declined.
+
+
+  The colleges.
+
+The American college, although it is the outgrowth of the English
+colleges of Oxford and of Cambridge, has developed into an institution
+which has no counterpart in Europe. The college course of study, at
+first three years in length, was soon extended to four years, and the
+classes are uniformly known as the freshman, the sophomore, the junior
+and the senior. The traditional degree which crowns the college course
+is that of Bachelor of Arts (A.B.). The studies ordinarily insisted on
+in the case of candidates for this degree are Latin, Greek, mathematics,
+English, philosophy, political economy, history, at least one modern
+European language (French or German), and at least one natural science.
+The degrees of Bachelor of Science (B.S.), Bachelor of Philosophy
+(Ph.B.), and Bachelor of Letters (B.L.) are often conferred by colleges
+upon students who have pursued systematic courses of study which do not
+include Greek or the amount of Latin required for the degree of Bachelor
+of Arts. The best colleges give instruction which is similar in
+character to that given in Germany in the three upper classes of the
+gymnasium and in the introductory courses at the universities, in France
+in the two upper classes of the lycee and in the first two years of
+university study, and in England in the upper form of the public schools
+and during the years of undergraduate residence at Oxford and Cambridge.
+Since 1870 the colleges have developed enormously. Their resources have
+multiplied, the number of their students has increased by leaps and
+bounds, the programme of studies has broadened and deepened, the
+standards have been raised, and the efficiency of the instruction has
+greatly increased. Rigidly prescribed courses of study have given way to
+elective courses, and a knowledge of Greek is no longer required for the
+degree of A.B. at such influential colleges as Harvard, Columbia,
+Cornell and Williams. A strong effort is being made to have the leading
+colleges give but one degree, that of Bachelor of Arts, and to confer
+that upon those who complete any substantial course of college studies.
+A marked change has taken place in the attitude of the college
+authorities toward the students. In 1870 the college president was a
+paterfamilias. He knew each student and came into direct personal
+contact with him. The president and the faculty had supervision not only
+of the studies of the students, but of their moral and religious life as
+well. The older type of college professor was not always a great
+scholar, but he was a student of human nature, with keen intuitions and
+shrewd insight. The new type, which had come into existence at the
+opening of the 20th century, was more scholarly in some special
+direction, often regarded teaching as a check upon opportunities for
+investigation, and disdained troubling himself with a student's personal
+concerns or intellectual and moral difficulties. The change was not
+altogether for the better, and a desirable reaction has been
+observable. Each college, however small or ill-equipped, exercises a
+helpful local influence. Ninety per cent of all college students attend
+an institution not more than one hundred miles from their own homes. Few
+colleges have a national constituency, and even in these cases an
+overwhelming preponderance of the students come from the immediate
+neighbourhood. This explains, in a measure, the powerful influence which
+the college has exercised in the life of the nation. While hardly more
+than one in a hundred of the white male youth of the country has had a
+college education, yet the college graduates have furnished one-half of
+all the presidents of the United States, most of the justices of the
+Supreme Court, about one-half of the cabinet officers and United States
+senators, and nearly one-third of the House of Representatives. Before
+the Revolution eleven colleges were founded. From 1776 to 1800, twelve
+more were added; from 1800 to 1830, thirty-three; from 1830 to 1865, one
+hundred and eighty; from 1865 to 1898, two hundred and thirty-six. Their
+standards, efficiency and equipment are very diverse, many of the
+so-called colleges being less effective than some of the better
+organized secondary schools. Except in New York and Pennsylvania, there
+is no statutory restriction upon the use of the name "college." This is
+an abuse to which public attention has in recent years been increasingly
+called.[4]
+
+
+  The universities.
+
+In the United States the title "university" is used indiscriminately of
+institutions which are in reality universities, of institutions which
+are colleges, and of institutions which are so ill-equipped as not to
+take rank with good secondary schools. Only time and a greatly increased
+capacity to distinguish the various types of higher schools will remedy
+this error. Putting aside tentative and unsuccessful attempts to develop
+genuine university instruction much earlier, it may safely be said that
+the opening of the Johns Hopkins University at Baltimore in 1876 began
+the present movement to organize carefully advanced study and research,
+requiring a college education of those who wish to enter upon it. This
+is university instruction properly so called, and though found
+elsewhere, it is given chiefly at fourteen institutions: California
+University, Catholic University of America, Chicago University, Clark
+University, Columbia University, Cornell University, Harvard University,
+Johns Hopkins University, Michigan University, Pennsylvania University,
+Princeton University, Leland Stanford Jr. University, Wisconsin
+University and Yale University. All of these institutions, except the
+Catholic University of America, are also colleges. The combination of
+collegiate and university instruction under one corporation and one
+executive administration is distinctive of higher education in the
+United States, and its chief source of strength. The crowning honour of
+the university student is the degree of Ph.D., although that of
+A.M.--obtainable in less time and much easier conditions--is also
+sought. The minimum period of study accepted for the degree of Ph.D. is
+two years after obtaining the bachelor's degree; but in practice, three,
+and even four, years of study are found necessary. In addition to
+carrying on an investigation in the field of his main subject of study,
+the candidate for the degree of Ph.D. is usually required to pass
+examinations on one or two subordinate subjects, to possess a reading
+knowledge of French and German (often of Latin as well), and to
+submit--usually in printed form--the dissertation which embodies the
+results of his researches. The methods of instruction in the
+universities are the lecture, discussion and work in laboratory or
+seminary--the latter transplanted from the German universities. The
+degree of Master of Arts is conferred upon students who, after one year
+of university residence and study, pass certain prescribed examinations.
+This degree, like those of D.D., S.T.D. and LL.D., is often conferred by
+colleges and universities as a purely honorary distinction. The degree
+of Ph.D. is not so conferred any longer by the best universities. Not a
+few of the universities maintain schools of law and medicine. Harvard
+and Yale universities maintain schools of theology as well. The learned
+publications issued by the universities, or under the direction of
+university professors, are of great importance, and constitute an
+imposing body of scientific literature. The national and state
+governments make increasing use of university officials for public
+service requiring special training or expert knowledge. In 1871-1872
+there were only 198 resident graduate (or university) students in the
+United States. In 1887 this number had risen to 1237, and in 1897 to
+4392. These figures are exclusive of professional students, and include
+only those who are studying in what would be called, in Germany, the
+philosophical faculty. (See also UNIVERSITIES.)
+
+Most extensive provision is made in America for professional, technical
+and special education of all kinds, and for the care and training of the
+dependent and defective classes (see BLINDNESS and DEAF AND DUMB), as
+well as for the education of the Indian (see INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN),
+and--in the Southern states--of the negro (q.v.). (N. M. B.)
+
+_Statistics._--Details as to education in each state of the American
+Union are given in the articles under state headings. But a more
+comprehensive view may be obtained here from the general statistics. The
+introduction to the statistical tables in vol. ii. of the Commissioner
+of Education's Report for 1907 may usefully be quoted. Mr Edward L.
+Thorndike, of the Teachers' College, Columbia University, there
+summarizes the national account as follows:--
+
+  "We use in formal school education a material plant valued at from
+  twelve to thirteen hundred million dollars, the labour of 550,000
+  teachers or other educational officers, and more or less of the time
+  of some eighteen million students.... We pay for the labour of these
+  teachers, many of whom work for only part of the normal city-school
+  year, about $300,000,000. We pay for fuel, light, janitorial services,
+  repairs, depreciation of books, school supplies, insurance and the
+  like, about $90,000,000. For depreciation of the plant not so charged
+  we should properly provide during the year a sinking fund of perhaps
+  $25,000,000. Adding an interest charge of 5% on the investment in the
+  plant, our annual bill for formal school education comes to over
+  $475,000,000. Additions to the plant were made [in 1906-1907] to the
+  extent of from ninety to a hundred million dollars. As a partial
+  estimate of the returns from this investment we may take the number of
+  students whose education has been carried to a specified standard of
+  accomplishment and power. Thus I estimate that, in 1907, 3000 students
+  reached the standard denoted by three years or more of academic,
+  technical or professional study in advance of a reputable college
+  degree; that 25,000 students reached the standard denoted by at least
+  three and not over four years of such study in advance of a four-year
+  high-school course; than an eighth of a million students reached the
+  standard denoted by at least three and not over four years of study in
+  advance of an eight-year elementary-school course; and that
+  three-quarters of a million students reached the standard of
+  completion of an elementary-school course of seven or eight years or
+  its equivalent.... Roughly, nine-tenths of elementary education and
+  the education of teachers, over two-thirds of secondary education, and
+  over a third of college and higher technical education are provided
+  and controlled by the public. Professional education, other than the
+  training of teachers and engineers, is still largely a function of
+  private provision and control.
+
+  "The following rough comparison may serve to define further the status
+  of education in the country at large. The plant used for formal
+  education is valued at 1% of our entire national wealth, or twice the
+  value of our telephone systems, or ten times the value of our Pullman
+  and private cars, or one-tenth the value of our railroads. The number
+  of teachers is approximately that of the clergymen, engineers, lawyers
+  and physicians together, five times that of the regular army and navy,
+  and about twice that of the saloon-keepers and bar-tenders and their
+  assistants. The annual expenditure for education, exclusive of
+  additions to the plant, is somewhat over twice the expenditure for the
+  war and navy departments of the national government. It is three and a
+  half times the expenditure of the national government in 1907 for
+  pensions. It is about one and a fourth times the cost (New York
+  wholesale prices) of the sugar and coffee we consume annually."
+
+The above comparison indicates perhaps, not inadequately, the "business"
+conception of the value of education prevailing in the United States,
+where its practical advantages are realized as in no other country, not
+even Germany.
+
+From the same report the following statistics may be cited for
+1906-1907.
+
+
+  _Common Schools (including Elementary and Secondary Public
+  Schools only)._
+
+    Total number of pupils of all ages             16,820,386[5]
+    Average number of days schools open            151.2
+    Average number of days attended by each pupil  106.2
+    Number of male teachers                        105,773
+    Number of female teachers                      369,465
+    Number of school houses                        259,115
+    Average monthly wage of male teachers          $56.10
+    Average monthly wage of female teachers        $43.67
+    Value of all school property                   $843,309,410
+    Income from permanent funds and rents           $16,579,551
+    Income from State taxes                         $46,281,501
+    Income from local taxes                        $230,424,554
+    Income from other sources                       $50,317,132
+    Expenditure on sites, buildings, furniture,
+       libraries and apparatus                      $65,817,870
+    Expenditure on salaries                        $196,980,919
+    Expenditure on other purposes                   $67,882,012
+    Expenditure per head of population             $3.90
+    Expenditure per pupil                          $27.98
+
+  The Bureau of Education in 1907 received reports from 606
+  universities, colleges and technological schools; they had a teaching
+  force of 24,679, and an enrolment of 293,343 students. The number of
+  public and private normal schools reporting was 259, with an enrolment
+  of 70,439 students in the regular training courses for teachers,
+  12,541 graduates and 3660 instructors. There were 148 manual and
+  industrial training schools (independently of the manual training
+  taught in the public schools and in 66 Indian schools), with 1692
+  teachers and an enrolment of 68,427 students; and 445 independent
+  commercial and business schools, with 2856 instructors and 137,364
+  students.     (X.)
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For the study of education as an aspect of religious,
+  social, moral and intellectual development, the material is
+  practically inexhaustible, and much of the most valuable does not
+  treat specifically of the education given in schools and colleges. The
+  most useful guide is E.P. Cubberley's _Syllabus of Lectures on the
+  History of Education_ (1902), which consists of an analytic outline of
+  topics with copious and detailed references to authorities. See also
+  W.S. Monroe's _Bibliography of Education_ (1897). The best general
+  history in English is P. Monroe's _Text-Book in the History of
+  Education_ (1905), which, like Davidson's much briefer _History of
+  Education_, treats the subject broadly and in relation to other
+  aspects of life. Williams's _History of Ancient, Medieval, and Modern
+  Education_ is a useful statement of the main facts of educational
+  progress taken somewhat by itself. In German the standard work is K.A.
+  Schmid's _Geschichte der Erziehung_, a comprehensive and detailed
+  treatment in which each period is dealt with by a specialist.
+  Ziegler's _Geschichte der Padagogik_ is a good short history. In
+  French, Letourneau's _L'Evolution de l'education_ is especially good
+  on ancient and non-European education. Draper's _Intellectual
+  Development of Europe_ is vigorous and interesting, but marred by its
+  depreciation of the work of the Church. Guizot's _History of
+  Civilization_ is still of value, as are parts of Hallam's _Literary
+  History_. Lecky's _History of the Rise and Influence of the Spirit of
+  Rationalism in Europe_, and Buckle's _History of Civilization_ in
+  England, contain much that is of value. The best encyclopaedias are W.
+  Rein's _Encyklopadisches Handbuch der Padagogik_, and F. Buisson's
+  _Dictionnaire de pedagogie, premiere partie_. Sir Henry Craik's _The
+  State and Education_ (1883) is an excellent text-book on national
+  education.
+
+  Of books dealing with special periods and topics, S. Laurie's
+  _Historical Sketch of Pre-Christian Education_, Freeman's _Schools of
+  Hellas_, Girard's _L'Education athenienne au V^e et au IV^e siecle
+  avant_ J.-C., Davidson's _Education of the Greek People_, Mahaffy's
+  _Old Greek Education_ and _Greek Life and Thought_, Nettleship's
+  article on "Education in Plato's Republic" in _Hellenica_, Capes's
+  _University Life in Athens_, Hobhouse's _Theory and Practice of
+  Ancient Education_, Grasberger's _Erziehung und Unterricht im
+  classischen Alterthum_, Wilkin's _Roman Education_, and Clarke's
+  _Education of Children at Rome_, are valuable for classical times.
+
+  For the somewhat obscure transition centuries there is much of value
+  in Taylor's _Classical Heritage of the Middle Ages_, Dill's _Roman
+  Society in the Last Century of the Western Empire_, especially the
+  chapter on "Culture in the 4th and 5th centuries," Boissier's _La Fin
+  du paganisme_, and Hatch's _Influence of Greek Thought upon the
+  Christian Church_.
+
+  The best general account of medieval education is in Drane's
+  _Christian Schools and Scholars_; and J.B. Mullinger's _Schools of
+  Charles the Great_ treats well of the Carolingian Revival. G.B.
+  Adams's _Civilization during the Middle Ages_ is excellent; and
+  Sandys's _History of Classical Scholarship_ is a valuable book of
+  reference. On the scholastic philosophy Turner's _History of
+  Philosophy_, and Haureau's _Histoire de la philosophie scolastique_,
+  are useful. Medieval schools are described in Furnivall's preface to
+  _The Babees Book_, which deals with "Education in Early England," and
+  in Leach's _Old Yorkshire Schools_ and _History of Winchester
+  College_. The most important books on the universities are Rashdall's
+  _Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages_, Jourdain's _Histoire de
+  l'universite de Paris aux XVII^e et XVIII^e siecles_, Lyte's _History
+  of the University of Oxford to 1530_, and Mullinger's _History of the
+  University of Cambridge to the Accession of Charles I._ Paulsen's
+  _Geschichte des gelehrten Unterrichts auf den deutschen Schulen und
+  Universitaten_ is the best history of education in Germany.
+
+  On the Renaissance in Italy, Villari's Introduction to his _Life and
+  Times of Machiavelli_, and Burckhardt's _Die Kultur der Renaissance in
+  Italien_ (translated into English), are of the first importance. Other
+  valuable books are the first volume of the _Cambridge Modern History_
+  and Symonds's great work on _The Renaissance in Italy_, especially the
+  volume on _The Revival of Learning_. Dealing more specifically with
+  education are Woodward's excellent monographs on _Education during the
+  Renaissance_, _Vittorino da Feltre_ and _Erasmus_. Janssen's
+  _Geschichte des deutschen Volkes_ (translated into English) gives a
+  good account of the social and intellectual condition of Germany in
+  the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries. Christie's _Life of Etienne Dolet_
+  is of value for the Renaissance in France. For the movement in England
+  Seebohm's _Oxford Reformers_, Gasquet's _Eve of the Reformation in
+  England_, Einstein's _The Italian Renaissance in England_, and Leach's
+  _English Schools at the Reformation, 1546-1548_, are particularly
+  important.
+
+  For later times the material is chiefly in the form of monographs, of
+  which the following, among others, are of value: Adamson's _Pioneers
+  of Modern Education_, Laas's _Die Padagogik des Johannes Sturm_,
+  Beard's _Port Royal_, vol. ii., Kuno Fischer's _Fr. Bacon und seine
+  Nachfolger_, Laurie's _John Amos Comenius_, Morley's _Rousseau_,
+  Pinloche's _La Reforme de l'education en Allemagne au dix-huitieme
+  siecle_, Biedermann's _Deutschlands geistige, sittliche, und gesellige
+  Zustande im XVIII. Jahrhundert_.
+
+  For the 19th century and after, the best sources of information are
+  the official Reports, such as those of the Royal Commissions on the
+  English Universities, the Public Schools, and the other English
+  secondary schools; the "Special Reports," issued by the English Board
+  of Education; the encyclopaedic annual Reports of the American
+  Commissioner of Education (dealing not only with the United States,
+  but with progress in other countries); monographs in the French _Musee
+  pedagogique_, and various German Reports.
+
+  For education in the United States, see also Boone's _History of
+  Education in U.S.A._ (1889); N.M. Butler (editor), _Education in the
+  U.S.A._ (1900), a series of monographs prepared for the Paris
+  Exposition; E.G. Dexter's _History of Education in the United States_
+  (1904); and the _Proceedings_ of the National Educational Association.
+
+  On the leading writers on education the monographs in the Great
+  Educator Series are useful, and editions and translations of the best
+  known of these writers are available. The greatest systematic
+  collection is the _Monumenta Germaniae paedagogica_. On the
+  development of the means of education, Montmorency's two books on
+  _State Intervention in English Education from the Earliest Times to
+  1833_, and _The Progress of Education in England_, Balfour's
+  _Educational Systems of Great Britain and Ireland_, Allain's
+  _L'Instruction primaire en France avant la Revolution_, Lantoine's
+  _Histoire de l'enseignement secondaire en France au XVIII^e et au
+  debut du XVIII^e siecle_, and Konrad Fischer's _Geschichte des
+  deutschen Volkschullehrerstands_, may be mentioned.     (J. Wn.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] For the evolution of the school as such from early times see
+    SCHOOLS.
+
+  [2] See especially _Das offentliche Unterrichtswesen Deutschlands_,
+    by Dr Paul Stotzner (Leipzig, 1901).
+
+  [3] A valuable bibliography of Mr Harris's contributions to
+    educational literature is given in the Report of the Commissioner of
+    Education for 1907 (Washington, 1908).
+
+  [4] See especially the second Annual Report of the President of the
+    Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching (pp. 76-80),
+    quoted in the Report for 1907 of the Commissioner of Education.
+
+  [5] In private schools there were also 1,304,547 pupils.
+
+
+
+
+EDWARD, "THE ELDER" (d. 924), king of the Angles and Saxons, was the
+second son of Alfred the Great, and with his sister Aethelflaed was
+carefully educated at the court of his father. During his father's
+lifetime he took an active part in the campaigns against the Danes,
+especially in that of 894, and as early as 898 he signs a charter as
+"rex," showing that he was definitely associated with his father in the
+kingship. He succeeded his father in October 899,[1] but not without
+opposition. The Aetheling Aethelwold, son of Alfred's elder brother
+Aethelred, seized Wimborne and Christchurch. Edward advanced against him,
+and Aethelwold took refuge among the Danes in Northumbria. In 904
+Aethelwold landed in Essex, and in the next year he enticed the East
+Anglian Danes to revolt. They ravaged all southern Mercia and, in spite
+of Edward's activity, returned home victorious, though Aethelwold fell in
+the battle of the Holme. In 905 or 906 Edward made a peace with the East
+Anglian and Northumbrian Danes at "Yttingaford," near Linslade in
+Buckinghamshire, perhaps the peace known as "the Laws of Edward and
+Guthrum." In 909 and 910 fresh campaigns took place owing to southerly
+raids by the Danes, and victories were won at Tettenhall and Wednesfield
+in Staffordshire.[2] From 907 onwards Edward and his sister Aethelflaed,
+the Lady of the Mercians, were busy strengthening their hold on Mercia
+and Wessex. Forts were built at Lincoln (907), "Bremesbyrig" (910),
+"Scergeat" and Bridgenorth (912), and when in the year 911 Aethelflaed's
+husband Aethelred died, Edward took over from Mercia the government of
+London and Oxford, with the lands belonging to them, i.e. probably
+Oxfordshire and Middlesex. The policy of constructing "burhs" or
+fortified towns was continued. Hertford was fortified in 911, Witham in
+912, while Aethelflaed fortified Cherbury in Shropshire, "Weardbyrig" and
+Runcorn (all in 915). In 913 the Danes in Eastern Mercia gave
+considerable trouble, and in 914 a fresh horde of pirates, coming from
+Brittany, sailed up the Severn. They raided southern Wales, but were
+hemmed in by the English forces and besieged until they promised to
+leave the king's territory. Edward watched the southern shores of the
+Bristol Channel so carefully that the Danes failed to secure a hold
+there, and were ultimately forced to sail to Ireland. In the same year
+Edward fortified Buckingham and received the submission of the jarls and
+chief men of Bedford. In 915 he fortified Bedford itself, Maldon in 916,
+and Towcester and "Wigingamere" in 917. In the last-mentioned year
+Edward captured and destroyed the Danish stronghold of Tempsford, and
+later in the year he took Colchester. An attack by the Danes on Maldon
+failed, and in 915 Edward went to Passenham and received the submission
+of the men of the "borough" of Northampton. The Danish strongholds of
+Huntingdon and Colchester were now restored and repaired, and Edward
+received the submission of the whole of the East Anglian Danes. Before
+midsummer of this year Edward had fortified Stamford, and on the death
+of his sister he received the submission of the Mercians at Tamworth.
+There also three kings of the North Welsh took Edward as their lord.
+Nottingham was now fortified; Thelwall in Cheshire (919) and Manchester
+soon followed; Nottingham was strengthened by a second fort; Bakewell
+was fortified and garrisoned, and then came the greatest triumph of
+Edward's reign. He was "chosen as father and lord" by the Scottish king
+and nation, by Raegenald, the Norwegian king of Northumbria, by Ealdred
+of Bamborough, and by the English, Danes or Norwegians in Northumbria,
+and by the Strathclyde Welsh.
+
+With the conclusion of his wars Edward's activity ceased, and we hear no
+more of him until in 924 he died at Farndon in Cheshire and was buried
+in the "New Minster" at Winchester. He was thrice married: (1) to
+Ecgwyn, a lady of rank, by whom he had a son Aethelstan, who succeeded
+him, and a daughter Eadgyth, who married Sihtric of Northumbria in 924.
+This marriage was probably an irregular one. (2) To Aelflaed, by whom he
+had two sons--Aelfweard, who died a fortnight after his father, and
+Eadwine, who was drowned in 933--and six daughters, Aethelflaed and
+Aethelhild nuns, and four others (see AeTHELSTAN). (3) To Eadgifu, the
+mother of Kings Edmund and Edred, and of two daughters.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--_Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_ (ed. Plummer and Earle, Oxford);
+  Florence of Worcester (Mon. Hist. Brit.); William of Malmesbury,
+  _Gesta regum_ (Rolls Series); Simeon of Durham (Rolls Series);
+  Ethelweard (Mon. Hist. Brit.); Birch, _Cartularium Saxonicum_, Nos.
+  588-635; _D.N.B._, s.v.     (A. Mw.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See Stevenson's article in _Eng. Hist. Rev._ vol. xiii. pp.
+    71-77. The whole chronology of this reign is very difficult and
+    certainly is often impossible of attainment.
+
+  [2] It is possible that these battles are one and the same; the
+    places are within 2 to 3 m. of each other.
+
+
+
+
+EDWARD, "THE MARTYR" (c. 926-978), king of the English, was the son of
+Edgar by his wife Aethelflaed. Edward's brief reign was marked by an
+anti-monastic reaction. Aelfhere, earl of Mercia, once more expelled many
+of the monks whom Bishop Aethelwold had installed. There seems also to
+have been some change in administrative policy, perhaps with regard to
+the Danes, for Earl Oslac, whom Edgar had appointed to Northumbria, was
+driven from his province. In ecclesiastical matters there were two
+parties in the kingdom, the monastic, which had its chief hold in Essex
+and East Anglia, and the anti-monastic, led by Aelfhere of Mercia.
+Conferences were held at Kirtlington in Oxfordshire and at Calne in
+Wiltshire in 977 and 978, but nothing definite seems to have been
+decided. On the 18th of March 978 Edward's reign was suddenly cut short
+by his assassination at Corfe Castle in Dorsetshire. The crime was
+probably inspired by his stepmother, Aelfthryth, who was anxious to
+secure the succession of her son Aelthelred. The body was hastily
+interred at Wareham and remained there till 980, when Archbishop Dunstan
+and Aelfhere of Mercia united in transferring it with great ceremony to
+Shaftesbury. Edward seems to have been personally popular, and the poem
+on his death in the chronicle calls his murder the worst deed in English
+history. Very shortly after his death he was popularly esteemed to be
+both saint and martyr.
+
+  See _Saxon Chronicle_; _Vita S. Oswaldi_ (_Hist. of Ch. of York_,
+  Rolls Series); _Memorials of St Dunstan_ (ed. Stubbs, Rolls Series).
+       (A. Mw.)
+
+
+
+
+EDWARD, "THE CONFESSOR" (d. 1066), so called on account of his
+reputation for sanctity, king of the English, was the son of Aethelred
+II. and Emma, daughter of Richard, duke of Normandy, and was born at
+Islip in Oxfordshire. On the recognition of Sweyn as king of England in
+1013, Aethelred, with his wife and family, took refuge in Normandy, and
+Edward continued to reside at the Norman court until he was recalled in
+1041 by Hardicanute. He appears to have been formally recognized as heir
+to the throne, if not actually associated in the kingship, and on the
+death of Hardicanute in 1042 "all folk received him to be king," though
+his actual coronation was delayed until Easter 1043. A few months later
+Edward, in conjunction with the three great earls of the kingdom, made a
+raid on the queen-mother Aelfgifu, or Emma, seized all her possessions
+and compelled her to live in retirement.
+
+In the earlier years of the reign the influence of Earl Godwine was
+predominant, though not unopposed. His daughter Edith or Eadgyth became
+Edward's queen in 1045. But the king's personal tastes inclined much
+more to foreigners than to Englishmen, and he fell more and more into
+the hands of favourites from beyond the sea. Between Godwine,
+representing the spirit of nationalism, and these favourites (especially
+their leader Robert of Jumieges, successively bishop of London and
+archbishop of Canterbury) there was war to the knife. In 1046 Magnus,
+king of Norway, who had succeeded Hardicanute in Denmark and claimed to
+succeed him in England as well, threatened an invasion, but the
+necessity of defending Denmark against his rival Sweyn Estrithson
+prevented him from carrying it into effect. In 1049, Godwine's son
+Sweyn, who had been outlawed for the seduction of the abbess of
+Leominster, returned and demanded his restoration. This was refused and
+Sweyn returned into exile, but not before he had with foulest treachery
+murdered his young kinsman Beorn. He was, however, inlawed next year.
+The influence of Godwine, already shaken, received a severe blow in 1051
+in the appointment of Robert of Jumieges to the archbishopric of
+Canterbury, and the same year saw the triumph of the foreigners for the
+moment complete. Edward, indignant at the resistance offered by the men
+of Dover to the insolence of his brother-in-law Eustace of Boulogne and
+his French followers, ordered Godwine to punish the town. Godwine
+refused. The king at the prompting of the archbishop then summoned a
+meeting of the witan, at which the old charge against Godwine of
+complicity in the murder of the Aetheling Alfred was to be revived. About
+the same time came news of a fresh outrage by the foreigners. Godwine
+gathered his forces and demanded redress, while the earls Leofric of
+Mercia and Siward of Northumbria hastened to the side of the king. Civil
+war seemed imminent, but at length a compromise was effected by which
+the matter was referred to a meeting of the witan to be held at London.
+At the appointed time Godwine presented himself at Southwark. But his
+followers were rapidly deserting him, nor would the king give hostages
+for his security. Alarmed for his safety, he fled to Flanders, while his
+son Harold went to Ireland. But their exile was brief. The tale of
+Godwine excited universal sympathy, for it was realized that he
+represented the cause of national independence. Encouraged by assurances
+from England, he sailed thither, and joining forces with Harold sailed
+along the south coast and up the Thames. The king would have resisted
+but found no support. Yielding to circumstances, he allowed himself to
+be reconciled, and Godwine and his house were restored to their old
+position. The queen at the same time was brought back from the monastery
+of Wherwell, whither she had been despatched after her father's flight.
+The foreigners had already ignominiously fled the country, and
+henceforth the influence of Godwine, and, after his death, of Harold,
+was supreme. In 1063 Harold made a great expedition into Wales, in which
+he crushed the power of King Gruffyd, who was killed by his own people.
+But despite his prowess and his power, he was the minister of the king
+rather than his personal favourite. This latter position belonged to his
+younger brother Tostig, who on the death of Siward in 1055 was appointed
+earl of Northumbria. Here his severity and arbitrary temper rendered him
+intensely unpopular, and in 1065 his subjects broke into revolt. They
+elected Morkere as their earl, then marching south demanded Tostig's
+banishment. Edward desired to crush the revolt by force of arms, but he
+was overborne and forced to submit. The election of Morkere was
+recognized, and Tostig went into exile. Intensely mortified at this
+humiliation, the king fell sick, and henceforth his health failed
+rapidly. He was unable to gratify his intense desire to be present at
+the consecration of his new abbey of Westminster, the foundation of
+which had been the chief interest of his closing years, and on the 5th
+of January 1066 he died.
+
+The virtues of Edward were monkish rather than kingly. In the qualities
+of a ruler he was conspicuously deficient; always dependent on others,
+he ever inclined to the unworthier master. But the charm of his
+character for the monastic biographer, and the natural tendency to
+glorify the days before the Norman oppression began, combined to cast
+about his figure a halo which had not attached to it in life. Allowed to
+keep her property by William the Conqueror, his widow, Edith, passed the
+remainder of her life at Winchester, dying on the 19th of December 1075.
+
+  SOURCES.--A number of lives of Edward are brought together in a volume
+  of the Rolls Series entitled _Lives of Edward the Confessor_, and
+  edited by Dr H.R. Luard (London, 1858). Of these by far the most
+  valuable is the contemporary _Vita Edwardi_, which would appear from
+  internal evidence to have been written by an unknown writer soon after
+  the Norman Conquest--some time between 1066 and 1074. The other chief
+  authorities for the reign are (1) the _Saxon Chronicle_, (C. Plummer,
+  Oxford, 1892-1899); (2) _Florence of Worcester_, ed. B. Thorpe,
+  English Historical Society (London, 1848-1849). Reference may also be
+  made to J.M. Kemble, _Codex diplomaticus aevi Saxonici_ (London,
+  1839-1848).     (C. S. P.*)
+
+
+
+
+EDWARD I. (1239-1307), king of England, born at Westminster on the 17th
+of June 1239, was the eldest son of Henry III. and Eleanor of Provence.
+He was baptized Edward after Edward the Confessor, for whom Henry had
+special veneration, and among his godfathers was Simon de Montfort, earl
+of Leicester, his aunt Eleanor's husband. His political career begins
+when the conclusion of a treaty with Alphonso X. of Castile, by which he
+was to marry the Spanish king's half sister Eleanor, necessitated the
+conferring on him of an adequate establishment. His father granted him
+the duchy of Gascony, the earldom of Chester, the king's lands in Wales
+and much else. The provision made was so liberal that Henry's subjects
+declared he was left no better than a mutilated king. In May 1254 Edward
+went to Gascony to take possession of his inheritance. He then crossed
+the Pyrenees, and in October was dubbed knight by Alphonso and married
+to Eleanor at the Cistercian convent of Las Huelgas, near Burgos. He
+remained in Gascony till November 1255, but his father was too jealous
+to allow him a free hand in its administration. After his return, the
+attempts of his agents to establish English laws in his Welsh
+possessions brought Edward into hostile relations with the Welsh. Here
+also his father would give him no help, and his first campaign brought
+him little result. Edward became extremely unpopular through his
+association with his Lusignan kinsfolk, his pride and violence, and the
+disorders of his household. In 1258 his strenuous opposition to the
+Provisions of Oxford further weakened his position, but, after the
+banishment of the foreigners, he began to take up a wiser line. In 1259
+he led the young nobles who insisted that the triumphant oligarchy
+should carry out the reforms to which it was pledged. For a moment it
+looked as if Edward and Leicester might make common cause, but Edward
+remained an enemy of Montfort, though he strove to infuse his father's
+party with a more liberal and national spirit. He was the soul of the
+reconstituted royalist party formed about 1263. In 1264 he took a
+prominent part in the fighting between the king and the barons. At the
+battle of Lewes his rash pursuit of the Londoners contributed to his
+father's defeat. Two days later Edward surrendered to Leicester as a
+hostage for the good behaviour of his allies. He was forced to give up
+his earldom of Chester to Leicester, but at Whitsuntide 1265 he escaped
+from his custodians, and joined the lords of the Welsh march who were
+still in arms. With their aid he defeated and slew Leicester at Evesham
+on the 4th of August 1265.
+
+For the rest of Henry III.'s reign Edward controlled his father's policy
+and appropriated enough of Leicester's ideals to make the royalist
+restoration no mere reaction. So peaceful became the outlook of affairs
+that in 1268 Edward took the cross, hoping to join the new crusade of St
+Louis. Want of money delayed his departure till 1270, by which time St
+Louis was dead, and a truce concluded with the infidel. Refusing to be a
+party to such treason to Christendom, Edward went with his personal
+followers to Acre, where he abode from May 1271 to August 1272. Despite
+his energy and valour he could do little to prop up the decaying
+crusading kingdom and he narrowly escaped assassination. At last the
+declining health of his father induced him to return to the West. He
+learned in Sicily the death of Henry III. on the 16th of November 1272.
+On the 20th of November, the day of Henry's funeral, he was recognized
+as king by the English barons, and from that day his regnal years were
+subsequently computed. Affairs in England were so peaceful that Edward
+did not hurry home. After a slow journey through Italy and France he did
+homage to his cousin Philip III. at Paris, on the 26th of July 1273. He
+then went to Gascony, where he stayed nearly a year. At last he landed
+at Dover on the 2nd of August 1274, and was crowned at Westminster on
+the 18th of the same month.
+
+Edward was thirty-five years old when he became king, and the rude
+schooling of his youth had developed his character and suggested the
+main lines of the policy which he was to carry out as monarch. He was a
+tall, well-proportioned and handsome man, extravagantly devoted to
+military exercises, tournaments and the rougher and more dangerous forms
+of hunting. He had learned to restrain the hot temper of his youth, and
+was proud of his love of justice and strict regard to his plighted word.
+His domestic life was unstained, he was devoted to his friends, and
+loyal to his subordinates. Without any great originality either as
+soldier or statesman, he was competent enough to appropriate the best
+ideas of the time and make them his own. His defects were a hardness of
+disposition which sometimes approached cruelty and a narrow and pedantic
+temper, which caused him to regard the letter rather than the spirit of
+his promises. His effectiveness and love of strong government stand in
+strong contrast to his father's weakness. Though he loved power, and
+never willingly surrendered it, he saw that to be successful he must
+make his policy popular. Thus he continued the system which Montfort had
+formed with the object of restraining the monarchy, because he saw in a
+close alliance with his people the best means of consolidating the power
+of the crown.
+
+The first years of Edward's reign were mainly occupied by his efforts to
+establish a really effective administration. In carrying out this task
+he derived great help from his chancellor, Robert Burnell, bishop of
+Bath and Wells. Administrative reform soon involved legislation, and
+from 1275 to 1290 nearly every year was marked by an important law. Few
+of these contained anything that was very new or original. They rather
+illustrate that policy which caused Dr Stubbs to describe his reign as a
+"period of definition." Yet the results of his conservative legislation
+were almost revolutionary. In particular he left the impress of his
+policy on the land laws of England, notably by the clause _De Donis_ of
+the Westminster statute of 1285, and the statute _Quia Emptores_ of
+1290. The general effect of his work was to eliminate feudalism from
+political life. At first he aimed at abolishing all franchises whose
+holders could not produce written warranty for them. This was the policy
+of the statute of Gloucester of 1278, but the baronial opposition was so
+resolute that Edward was forced to permit many immunities to remain.
+Though the most orthodox of churchmen, his dislike of authority not
+emanating from himself threatened to involve him in constant conflict
+with the Church, and notably with John Peckham, the Franciscan friar,
+who was archbishop of Canterbury from 1279 to 1292. The statute of
+Mortmain of 1279, which forbade the further grant of lands to
+ecclesiastical corporations without the royal consent, and the writ
+_Circumspecte Agatis_ of 1285, which limited the church courts to
+strictly ecclesiastical business, both provoked strong clerical
+opposition. However, Peckham gave way to some extent, and Edward
+prudently acquiesced in many clerical assumptions which he disliked. He
+was strong enough to refuse to pay the tribute to Rome which John had
+promised, and his reign saw the end of that papal overlordship over
+England which had greatly complicated the situation under his father.
+
+Besides administration and legislation, the other great event of the
+first fifteen years of Edward's reign was the conquest of the
+principality of Wales. It was part of Edward's policy of reconciliation
+after the battle of Evesham that in the treaty of Shrewsbury of 1267 he
+had fully recognized the great position which Llewelyn ab Gruffyd,
+prince of Wales, had gained as the ally of Simon de Montfort. However,
+Llewelyn's early successes had blinded the Welsh prince to the
+limitations of his power, and he profited by Edward's early absences
+from England to delay in performing his feudal obligations to the new
+king. Even after Edward's return Llewelyn continued to evade doing
+homage. At last Edward lost patience, and in 1277 invaded north Wales.
+He conducted his campaign like a great siege, blocking all the avenues
+to Snowdon, and forcing Llewelyn to surrender from lack of supplies. He
+thereupon reduced the Welsh prince to the position of a petty north
+Welsh chieftain strictly dependent on the English. For the next five
+years Edward did his best to set up the English system of government in
+the ceded districts. The Welsh resentment of this soon gave Llewelyn
+another chance, and compelled Edward to devote the years 1282-1283 to
+completing his conquest. In 1284 he issued the statute of Wales, which
+provided for a scheme for the future government of the principality.
+Edward is often called the conqueror of Wales, but in truth he only
+effected the conquest of Llewelyn's dominions. The march of Wales was
+only indirectly affected by his legislation, and remained subject to its
+feudal marcher lords until the 16th century.
+
+Edward was very careful in his foreign policy. Though preserving nominal
+peace with his cousin Philip III. of France, his relations with that
+country were constantly strained. After Philip III.'s death in 1285,
+Edward crossed the Channel in 1286, to perform homage to his successor,
+Philip the Fair. He remained abroad till 1289, busied in attempts to
+improve the administration of Gascony, and making repeated and finally
+successful efforts to end by his mediation the still continuing struggle
+between the houses of Anjou and Aragon. His long absence threw the
+government of England into confusion, and on his return in 1289 he was
+compelled to dismiss most of his judges and ministers for corruption. In
+1290 he expelled all Jews from England.
+
+The affairs of Scotland furnished Edward with his chief preoccupation
+for the rest of his reign. After the death of Alexander III., in 1286,
+Scotland was governed in the name of his granddaughter Margaret, the
+Maid of Norway. The English king had suggested that Edward of Carnarvon,
+his eldest surviving son, should marry the little queen of Scots, and
+thus bring about the union of the two countries. Unluckily the death of
+Margaret in 1290 frustrated the scheme. The Scottish throne was now
+disputed by many claimants, and the Scots asked Edward to arbitrate
+between them. Edward accepted the position, but insisted that, before he
+acted, the Scots should recognize him as their overlord. The claimants
+set the example of submission, and soon the chief Scots nobles followed.
+Thereupon Edward undertook the arbitration, and in 1292 adjudged the
+throne to John Baliol. The new king did homage to Edward, but his
+subjects soon began to resent the claims of jurisdiction over Scotland,
+which Edward declared were the natural results of his feudal supremacy.
+At last the Scots deprived John of nearly all his power, repudiated
+Edward's claims, and made an alliance with the French. During the years
+of the Scottish arbitration Edward had slowly been drifting into war
+with France. The chronic difficulties caused by French attempts to
+confine Edward's power in Gascony were now accentuated by the quarrels
+between the sailors and merchants of the two countries. In 1293 Edward
+was persuaded by his brother, Edmund, earl of Lancaster, to yield up
+Gascony temporarily to Philip the Fair. But Philip refused to restore
+the duchy, and Edward, seeing that he had been tricked, declared war
+against France, at the very moment when the Scottish resistance gave the
+French a firm ally in Britain. To make matters worse, the Welsh rose in
+rebellion. It was therefore quite impossible for Edward to recover
+Gascony.
+
+The most critical years of Edward's reign now began. He saw that he
+could only meet his difficulties by throwing himself on the support of
+his own subjects, and convoked, in 1295, a representative parliament of
+the three estates, which has been called in later times the Model
+Parliament, because it first illustrated the type which was to be
+perpetuated in all subsequent parliaments. "What touches all," ran
+Edward's writ of summons, "should be approved of all, and it is also
+clear that common dangers should be met by measures agreed upon in
+common." The parliamentary constitution of England was established as
+the result of Edward's action.
+
+Secure of his subjects' allegiance, Edward put down the Welsh revolt,
+and conquered Scotland in 1296. When quiet was restored to Britain, he
+hoped to throw all his energy into the recovery of Gascony, but new
+troubles arose at home which once more diverted him from his supreme
+purpose. Led by Archbishop Winchelsea, Peckham's successor, the clergy
+refused to pay taxes in obedience to the bull of Pope Boniface VIII.,
+called _Clericis Laicos_. Edward declared that if the clergy would not
+contribute to support the state, the state could afford them no
+protection. But the clerical opposition was soon joined by a baronial
+opposition. Headed by the earls of Hereford and Norfolk, many of the
+barons declined to join in an expedition to Gascony, and Edward was
+forced to sail to the French war, leaving them behind. Thereupon the
+recalcitrant barons forced upon the regency a fresh confirmation of the
+charters, to which new articles were added, safeguarding the people from
+arbitrary taxation. Edward at Ghent reluctantly accepted this
+_Confirmatio Cariarum_, but even his submission did not end the crisis.
+In the same year (1297), all Scotland rose in revolt under the popular
+hero William Wallace, and next year (1298), Edward was forced to
+undertake its reconquest. The battle of Falkirk, won on the 22nd of
+July, was the greatest of Edward's military triumphs; but, though it
+destroyed the power of Wallace, it did not put an end to Scottish
+resistance. Bitter experience taught Edward that he could not fight the
+French and the Scots at the same time, and in 1299 he made peace with
+Philip, and, Eleanor having died in November 1290, he married the French
+king's sister Margaret (c. 1282-1318), and some years later obtained the
+restitution of Gascony. In the same spirit he strove to destroy the
+clerical and baronial opposition. He did not succeed in the former task
+until a complacent pope arose in his own subject, Clement V., who
+abandoned Winchelsea to his anger, and suffered the archbishop to be
+driven into exile. The baronial leaders could not be wholly overthrown
+by force, and Edward was compelled to make them fresh concessions.
+
+It was not until 1303 that Edward was able to undertake seriously the
+conquest of Scotland. By 1305 the land was subdued, and Wallace beheaded
+as a traitor. But Edward had hardly organized the government of his new
+conquest when a fresh revolt broke out under Robert Bruce, grandson of
+the chief rival of Baliol in 1290. Bruce was soon crowned king of Scots,
+and at the age of seventy Edward had to face the prospect of conquering
+Scotland for the third time. He resolved to take the field in person;
+but the effort was too great, and on the 7th of July 1307 he died at
+Burgh-on-Sands, near Carlisle. His death destroyed the last faint hope
+of conquering Scotland, and showed that the chief ambition of his life
+was a failure. Yet his conquest of Wales, his legislation, his triumph
+over his barons, his ecclesiastics, and the greatest of French medieval
+kings indicate the strength and permanence of his work. He was buried
+at Westminster under a plain slab on which was inscribed _Edwardus
+primus Scottorum malleus hic est. Pactum serva._
+
+By Eleanor of Castile Edward had four sons, his successor Edward II. and
+three who died young, and nine daughters, including Joan, or Joanna
+(1272-1307), the wife of Gilbert de Clare, earl of Gloucester (d. 1295),
+and then of Ralph de Monthermer; Margaret (1275-1318), the wife of John
+II., duke of Brabant; and Eleanor (1282-1316), who married John I.,
+count of Holland, and then Humphrey Bohun, earl of Hereford (d. 1322).
+By Margaret of France the king had two sons: Thomas of Brotherton, earl
+of Norfolk, and Edmund of Woodstock, earl of Kent.
+
+  The principal modern authorities for this reign are: W. Stubbs,
+  _Constitutional History of England_, vol. ii. chaps. xiv. and xv.
+  (1896); T.F. Tout, _Edward I._ (1893), and _Political History of
+  England, 1216-1377_, pp. 136-235 (1905); R.B. Seeley, _Life and Reign
+  of Edward I._ (1872); R. Pauli, _Geschichte von England_, iv. pp.
+  1-198 (Hamburg, 1864-1875); W. Hunt, article on "Edward I." in
+  _Dictionary of National Biography_; J.E. Morris, _Welsh Wars of Edward
+  I._ (Oxford, 1901); and C.V. Langlois's _Philippe le Hardi_ (Paris,
+  1887).     (T. F. T.)
+
+
+
+
+EDWARD II. (1284-1327), "of Carnarvon," king of England, the fourth son
+of Edward I. by his first wife Eleanor of Castile, was born at Carnarvon
+Castle on the 25th of April 1284. The story that the king presented the
+new-born child to the Welsh as their future native prince is quite
+unfounded, for Edward was only made prince of Wales in the Lincoln
+parliament of 1301. When a few months old, he became by his elder
+brother's death the heir to the throne, and Edward I. took great pains
+to train him in warfare and statecraft. He took part in several Scots
+campaigns, but all his father's efforts could not prevent his acquiring
+the habits of extravagance and frivolity which he retained all through
+his life. The old king attributed his son's defects to the bad influence
+of his friend, the Gascon knight Piers Gaveston, and drove the favourite
+into exile. When Edward I. died, on the 7th of July 1307, the first act
+of the prince, now Edward II., was to recall Gaveston. His next was to
+abandon the Scots campaign on which his father had set his heart.
+
+The new king was physically almost as fine a man as Edward I. He was,
+however, destitute of any serious purpose, and was, as Dr Stubbs says,
+"the first king after the Conquest who was not a man of business." He
+cared for nothing but amusing himself, and found his chief delight in
+athletics and in the practice of mechanical crafts. He was not so much
+vicious as foolish, and wanting in all serious interests. He had so
+little confidence in himself that he was always in the hands of some
+favourite who possessed a stronger will than his own. In the early years
+of his reign Gaveston held this role, acting as regent when Edward went
+to France--where, on the 25th of January 1308, he married Isabella, the
+daughter of Philip the Fair--and receiving the earldom of Cornwall with
+the hand of the king's niece, Margaret of Gloucester. The barons soon
+grew indignant at Edward's devotion to his "brother Piers," and twice
+insisted on his banishment. On each occasion Edward soon recalled his
+friend, whereupon the barons, headed by the king's cousin Thomas, earl
+of Lancaster, went to war against king and favourite, and in 1312
+treacherously put Gaveston to death. Edward was not strong enough even
+to avenge his loss. He was forced to stand aside and suffer the realm to
+be governed by the baronial committee of twenty-one lords ordainers,
+who, in 1311, had drawn up a series of ordinances, whose effect was to
+substitute ordainers for the king as the effective government of the
+country. But in all the ordinances nothing was said about the commons
+and lower clergy. Parliament meant to the new rulers an assembly of
+barons just as it had done to the opponents of Henry III. in 1258. The
+effect of their triumph was to change England from a monarchy to a
+narrow oligarchy.
+
+During the quarrels between Edward and the ordainers, Robert Bruce was
+steadily conquering Scotland. His progress was so great that he had
+occupied all the fortresses save Stirling, which he closely besieged.
+The danger of losing Stirling shamed Edward and the barons into an
+attempt to retrieve their lost ground. In June 1314 Edward led a great
+army into Scotland in the hope of relieving Stirling. On the 24th of
+June his ill-disciplined and badly led host was completely defeated by
+Robert Bruce at Bannockburn. Henceforth Bruce was sure of his position
+as king of Scots, and his pitiless devastation of the northern counties
+of England was his wild vengeance for the sufferings his land had
+previously experienced from the English. Edward's disgraceful defeat
+made him more dependent on his barons than ever. His kinsman, Thomas of
+Lancaster, had now an opportunity of saving England from the
+consequences of the king's incompetence. He had shown some capacity as a
+leader of opposition, but though he had great wealth, and was lord of
+five earldoms, he had small ability and no constructive power. In his
+desire to keep the king weak, he was suspected to have made a secret
+understanding with Robert Bruce. Before long the opposition split up
+under his incompetent guidance into fiercely contending factions. Under
+Aymer of Valence, earl of Pembroke, a middle party arose, which hated
+Lancaster so much that it supported the king to put an end to
+Lancaster's rule. After 1318 the effect of its influence was to restore
+Edward to some portion of his authority. However, the king hated
+Pembroke almost as much as Lancaster. He now found a competent adviser
+in Hugh le Despenser, a baron of great experience. What was more
+important to him, he had in Despenser's son, Hugh le Despenser the
+younger, a personal friend and favourite, who was able in some measure
+to replace Gaveston. The fierce hatred which the barons manifested to
+the Despensers showed that they could hate a deserter as bitterly as
+they had hated the Gascon adventurer. They were indignant at the favours
+which Edward lavished upon the favourite and his father, and were
+especially alarmed when the younger Despenser strove to procure for
+himself the earldom of Gloucester in right of his wife, Edward's niece.
+
+At last, in 1321, the barons met in parliament, and under Lancaster's
+guidance procured the banishment of the Despensers. The disasters of his
+friends inspired Edward to unwonted activity. In 1322 he recalled them
+from exile, and waged war against the barons on their behalf. Triumph
+crowned his exertions. Lancaster, defeated at Boroughbridge, was
+executed at Pontefract. For the next five years the Despensers ruled
+England. Unlike the ordainers, they took pains to get the Commons on
+their side, and a parliament held at York in 1322 revoked the ordinances
+because they trenched upon the rights of the crown, and were drawn up by
+the barons only. From this time no statute was technically valid unless
+the Commons had agreed to it. This marks the most important step forward
+in Edward II.'s reign. But the rule of the Despensers soon fell away
+from this wise beginning. They thought only of heaping up wealth for
+themselves, and soon stirred up universal indignation. In particular,
+they excited the ill-will of the queen, Isabella of France. Craftily
+dissembling her indignation, Isabella kept silence until 1325, when she
+went to France in company with her eldest son, Edward of Windsor, who
+was sent to do homage for Aquitaine to her brother, the new French king.
+When her business was over, Isabella declined to return to her husband
+as long as the Despensers remained his favourites. She formed a criminal
+connexion with Roger Mortimer of Wigmore, one of the baronial exiles,
+and in September 1326 landed in Essex accompanied by Mortimer and her
+son, declaring that she was come to avenge the murder of Lancaster, and
+to expel the Despensers. Edward's followers deserted him, and on the 2nd
+of October he fled from London to the west, where he took refuge in the
+younger Despenser's estates in Glamorgan. His wife followed him, put to
+death both the Despensers, and, after a futile effort to escape by sea,
+Edward was captured on the 16th of November. He was imprisoned at
+Kenilworth Castle, and a parliament met at Westminster in January 1327,
+which chose his son to be king as Edward III. It was thought prudent to
+compel the captive king to resign the crown, and on the 20th of January
+Edward was forced to renounce his office before a committee of the
+estates. The government of Isabella and Mortimer was so weakly
+established that it dared not leave the deposed king alive. On the 3rd
+of April he was secretly removed from Kenilworth and entrusted to the
+custody of two dependants of Mortimer. After various wanderings he was
+imprisoned at Berkeley Castle in Gloucestershire. Every indignity was
+inflicted upon him, and he was systematically ill-treated in the hope
+that he would die of disease. When his strong constitution seemed likely
+to prevail over the ill-treatment of his enemies he was cruelly put to
+death on the 21st of September. It was announced that he had died a
+natural death, and he was buried in St Peter's Abbey at Gloucester, now
+the cathedral, where his son afterwards erected a magnificent tomb.
+
+Edward's wife, Isabella (c. 1292-1358), bore him two sons, Edward III.
+and John of Eltham, earl of Cornwall (1316-1336), and two daughters,
+Isabella and Joanna (1321-1362), wife of David II., king of Scotland.
+After the execution of her paramour, Roger Mortimer, in 1330, Isabella
+retired from public life; she died at Hertford on the 23rd of August
+1358.
+
+  See R. Pauli, _Geschichte von England_, iv. pp. 199-306; T.F. Tout,
+  _Political History of England_, 1216-1307, pp. 236-304, and article in
+  _Dictionary of National Biography_; W. Stubbs, _Constitutional
+  History_, vol. ii. pp. 319-386, and _Introductions to Chronicles of
+  the Reigns of Edward I. and Edward II._ in Rolls series.
+       (T. F. T.)
+
+
+
+
+EDWARD III. (1312-1377), "of Windsor," king of England, eldest son of
+Edward II. and Isabella of France, was born at Windsor on the 13th of
+November 1312. In 1320 he was made earl of Chester, and in 1325 duke of
+Aquitaine, but he never received the title of prince of Wales.
+Immediately after his appointment to Aquitaine, he was sent to France to
+do homage to his uncle Charles IV., and remained abroad until he
+accompanied his mother and Mortimer in their expedition to England. To
+raise funds for this he was betrothed to Philippa, daughter of the count
+of Hainaut. On the 26th of October 1326, after the fall of Bristol, he
+was proclaimed warden of the kingdom during his father's absence. On the
+13th of January 1327 parliament recognized him as king, and he was
+crowned on the 29th of the same month.
+
+For the next four years Isabella and Mortimer governed in his name,
+though nominally his guardian was Henry, earl of Lancaster. In the
+summer he took part in an abortive campaign against the Scots, and was
+married to Philippa at York on the 24th of January 1328. On the 15th of
+June 1330 his eldest child, Edward, the Black Prince, was born. Soon
+after, Edward made a successful effort to throw off his degrading
+dependence on his mother and her paramour. In October 1330 he entered
+Nottingham Castle by night, through a subterranean passage, and took
+Mortimer prisoner. On the 29th of November the execution of the
+favourite at Tyburn completed the young king's emancipation. Edward
+discreetly drew a veil over his mother's relations with Mortimer, and
+treated her with every respect. There is no truth in the stories that
+henceforth he kept her in honourable confinement, but her political
+influence was at an end.
+
+Edward III.'s real reign now begins. Young, ardent and active, he strove
+with all his might to win back for England something of the position
+which it had acquired under Edward I. He bitterly resented the
+concession of independence to Scotland by the treaty of Northampton of
+1328, and the death of Robert Bruce in 1329 gave him a chance of
+retrieving his position. The new king of Scots, David, who was his
+brother-in-law, was a mere boy, and the Scottish barons, exiled for
+their support of Robert Bruce, took advantage of the weakness of his
+rule to invade Scotland in 1332. At their head was Edward Baliol, whose
+victory at Dupplin Moor established him for a brief time as king of
+Scots. After four months Baliol was driven out by the Scots, whereupon
+Edward for the first time openly took up his cause. In 1333 the king won
+in person the battle of Halidon Hill over the Scots, but his victory did
+not restore Baliol to power. The Scots despised him as a puppet of the
+English king, and after a few years David was finally established in
+Scotland. During these years England gradually drifted into hostility
+with France. The chief cause of this was the impossible situation which
+resulted from Edward's position as duke of Gascony. Contributing causes
+were Philip's support of the Scots and Edward's alliance with the
+Flemish cities, which were then on bad terms with their French overlord,
+and the revival of Edward's claim, first made in 1328, to the French
+crown. War broke out in 1337, and in 1338 Edward visited Coblenz, where
+he made an alliance with the emperor Louis the Bavarian. In 1339 and
+1340 Edward endeavoured to invade France from the north with the help of
+his German and Flemish allies, but the only result of his campaigns was
+to reduce him to bankruptcy.
+
+In 1340, however, he took personal part in the great naval battle off
+Sluys, in which he absolutely destroyed the French navy. In the same
+year he assumed the title of king of France. At first he did this to
+gratify the Flemings, whose scruples in fighting their overlord, the
+French king, disappeared when they persuaded themselves that Edward was
+the rightful king of France. However, his pretensions to the French
+crown gradually became more important. The persistence with which he and
+his successors urged them made stable peace impossible for more than a
+century, and this made the struggle famous in history as the Hundred
+Years' War. Till the days of George III. every English king also called
+himself king of France.
+
+Despite his victory at Sluys, Edward was so exhausted by his land
+campaign that he was forced before the end of 1340 to make a truce and
+return to England. He unfairly blamed his chief minister, Archbishop
+Stratford, for his financial distress, and immediately on his return
+vindictively attacked him. Before the truce expired a disputed
+succession to the duchy of Brittany gave Edward an excuse for renewing
+hostilities with France. In 1342 he went to Brittany and fought an
+indecisive campaign against the French. He was back in England in 1343.
+In the following years he spent much time and money in rebuilding
+Windsor Castle, and instituting the order of the Garter, which he did in
+order to fulfil a vow that he had taken to restore the Round Table of
+Arthur. His finances, therefore, remained embarrassed despite the
+comparative pause in the war, although in 1339 he had repudiated his
+debt to his Italian creditors, a default that brought about widespread
+misery in Florence.
+
+A new phase of the French war begins when in July 1346 Edward landed in
+Normandy, accompanied by his eldest son, Edward, prince of Wales, a
+youth of sixteen. In a memorable campaign Edward marched from La Hogue
+to Caen, and from Caen almost to the gates of Paris. It was a plundering
+expedition on a large scale, and like most of Edward's campaigns showed
+some want of strategic purpose. But Edward's decisive victory over the
+French at Crecy, in Ponthieu, on the 26th of August, where he scattered
+the army with which Philip VI. attempted to stay his retreat from Paris
+to the northern frontier, signally demonstrated the tactical superiority
+of Edward's army over the French. Next year Edward effected the
+reduction of Calais. This was the most solid and lasting of his
+conquests, and its execution compelled him to greater efforts than the
+Crecy campaign. Other victories in Gascony and Brittany further
+emphasized his power. In 1346, David, king of Scots, was also defeated
+and taken prisoner at Neville's Cross, near Durham. In the midst of his
+successes, however, want of money forced Edward to make a new truce in
+1347. He was as far from the conquest of France as ever.
+
+Edward returned to England in October 1347. He celebrated his triumph by
+a series of splendid tournaments, and completed his scheme for the
+establishment of the order of the Garter. In 1348 he rejected an offer
+of the imperial throne. In the same year the Black Death first appeared
+in England, and raged until 1349. Yet the horrors which it wrought
+hardly checked the magnificent revels of Edward's court, and neither the
+plague nor the truce stayed the course of the French war, though what
+fighting there was was indecisive and on a small scale. Edward's martial
+exploits during the next years were those of a gallant knight rather
+than those of a responsible general. Conspicuous among them were his
+famous combat with Eustace de Ribemont, near Calais, in 1349, and the
+hard-fought naval victory over the Spaniards off Winchelsea, in 1350.
+Efforts to make peace, initiated by Pope Innocent VI., came to nothing,
+though the English commons were now weary of the war. The result of this
+failure was the renewal of war on a large scale. In 1355 Edward led an
+unsuccessful raid out of Calais, and in January and February 1356
+harried the Lothians, in the expedition famous as the Burned Candlemas.
+His exploits sank into insignificance as compared with those of his son,
+whose victory at Poitiers, on the 19th of September 1356, resulted in
+the captivity of King John, and forced the French to accept a new truce.
+Edward entertained his royal captive very magnificently, and in 1359
+concluded with him the treaty of London, by which John surrendered so
+much that the French repudiated the treaty. Edward thereupon resolved to
+invade France afresh and compel its acceptance. On the 28th of October
+he landed at Calais, and advanced to Reims, where he hoped to be crowned
+king of France. The strenuous resistance of the citizens frustrated this
+scheme, and Edward marched into Burgundy, whence he made his way back
+towards Paris. Failing in an attack on the capital, he was glad to
+conclude, on the 8th of May 1360, preliminaries of peace at Bretigny,
+near Chartres. This treaty, less onerous to France than that of London,
+took its final form in the treaty of Calais, ratified by King John on
+the 9th of October. By it Edward renounced his claim to France in return
+for the whole of Aquitaine.
+
+The treaty of Calais did not bring rest or prosperity either to England
+or France. Fresh visitations of the Black Death, in 1362 and 1369,
+intensified the social and economic disturbances which had begun with
+the first outbreak in 1348. Desperate, but not very successful, efforts
+were made to enforce the statute of Labourers, of 1351, by which it was
+sought to maintain prices and wages as they had been before the
+pestilence. Another feature of these years was the anti-papal, or rather
+anti-clerical, legislation embodied in the statutes of Provisors and
+Praemunire. These measures were first passed in 1351 and 1353, but often
+repeated. In 1366 Edward formally repudiated the feudal supremacy over
+England, still claimed by the papacy by reason of John's submission.
+Another feature of the time was the strenuous effort made by Edward to
+establish his numerous family without too great expense. In the end the
+estates of the houses of Lancaster, Kent, Bohun, Burgh and Mortimer
+swelled the revenues of Edward's children and grandchildren, in whose
+favour also the new title of duke was introduced.
+
+In 1369 the French king, Charles V., repudiated the treaty of Calais and
+renewed the war. Edward's French dominions gladly reverted to their old
+allegiance, and Edward showed little of his former vigour in meeting
+this new trouble. He resumed the title and arms of king of France, but
+left most of the fighting and administration of his foreign kingdoms to
+his sons, Edward and John. While the latter were struggling with little
+success against the rising tide of French national feeling, Edward's
+want of money made him a willing participator in the attack on the
+wealth and privileges of the Church. In 1371 a clerical ministry was
+driven from office, and replaced by laymen, who proved, however, less
+effective administrators than their predecessors. Meanwhile Aquitaine
+was gradually lost; the defeat of Pembroke off La Rochelle deprived
+England of the command of the sea, and Sir Owen ap Thomas, a
+grand-nephew of Llewelyn ab Gruffyd, planned, with French help, an
+abortive invasion of Wales. In 1371 the Black Prince came back to
+England with broken health, and in 1373 John of Lancaster marched to
+little purpose through France, from Calais to Bordeaux. In 1372 Edward
+made his final effort to lead an army, but contrary winds prevented his
+even landing his troops in France. In 1375 he was glad to make a truce,
+which lasted until his death. By it the only important possessions
+remaining in English hands were Calais, Bordeaux, Bayonne and Brest.
+
+Edward was now sinking into his dotage. After the death of Queen
+Philippa he fell entirely under the influence of a greedy mistress named
+Alice Perrers, while the Black Prince and John of Gaunt became the
+leaders of sharply divided parties in the court and council of the king.
+With the help of Alice Perrers John of Gaunt obtained the chief
+influence with his father, but his administration was neither
+honourable nor successful. His chief enemies were the higher
+ecclesiastics, headed by William of Wykeham, bishop of Winchester, who
+had been excluded from power in 1371. John further irritated the clergy
+by making an alliance with John Wycliffe. The opposition to John was led
+by the Black Prince and Edmund Mortimer, earl of March, the husband of
+Edward's grand-daughter, Philippa of Clarence. At last popular
+indignation against the courtiers came to a head in the famous Good
+Parliament of 1376. Alice Perrers was removed from court, and Duke
+John's subordinate instruments were impeached. But in the midst of the
+parliament the death of the Black Prince robbed the commons of their
+strongest support. John of Gaunt regained power, and in 1377 a new
+parliament, carefully packed by the courtiers, reversed the acts of the
+Good Parliament. Not long after Edward III. died, on the 21st of June
+1377.
+
+Edward III. was not a great man like Edward I. He was, however, an
+admirable tactician, a consummate knight, and he possessed extraordinary
+vigour and energy of temperament. His court, described at length in
+Froissart's famous chronicle, was the most brilliant in Europe, and he
+was himself well fitted to be the head of the magnificent chivalry that
+obtained fame in the French wars. Though his main ambition was military
+glory, he was not a bad ruler of England. He was liberal, kindly,
+good-tempered and easy of access, and his yielding to his subjects'
+wishes in order to obtain supplies for carrying on the French war
+contributed to the consolidation of the constitution. His weak points
+were his wanton breaches of good faith, his extravagance, his frivolity
+and his self-indulgence. Like that of Edward I. his ambition transcended
+his resources, and before he died even his subjects were aware of his
+failure.
+
+Edward had twelve children, seven sons and five daughters. Five of his
+sons played some part in the history of their time, these being Edward
+the Black Prince, Lionel of Antwerp, duke of Clarence, John of Gaunt,
+duke of Lancaster, Edmund of Langley, afterwards duke of York, and
+Thomas of Woodstock, afterwards duke of Gloucester. John and Edmund are
+also important as the founders of the rival houses of Lancaster and
+York. Each of the last four was named from the place of his birth, and
+for the same reason the Black Prince is sometimes called Edward of
+Woodstock. The king's two other sons both died in infancy. Of his
+daughters, three died unmarried; the others were Isabella, who married
+into the family of Coucy, and Mary, who married into that of Montfort.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The two chief modern lives of Edward III. are W.
+  Longman's _Life and Times of Edward III._, and J. Mackinnon's _History
+  of Edward III._ Neither work can be regarded as adequate, and in some
+  ways J. Barnes's quaint _History of Edward III._ (1688) is less
+  unsatisfactory. The general history of the time can be read in W.
+  Stubbs's _Constitutional History of England_, vol. ii. chapters xvi.
+  and xvii.; in T.F. Tout's _Political History of England_, 1216-1377,
+  pp. 301-441; in R. Pauli's _Geschichte von England_, iv. pp. 307-504;
+  and in Edward's life by W. Hunt in the _Dictionary of National
+  Biography_. For the Hundred Years' War, see E. Deprez's _Les
+  Preliminaires de la guerre de cent ans, 1328-1342_, and H. Denifle's
+  _La Desolation des eglises, monasteres et hopitaux en France pendant
+  la guerre de cent ans_. For economic and social history see W.J.
+  Ashley's _English Economic History_, and W. Cunningham's _Growth of
+  English Industry and Commerce during the Early and Middle Ages_. For
+  the end of the reign see S. Armitage Smith's _John of Gaunt_, J.
+  Lechler's _Wiclif und die Vorgeschichte der Reformation_, translated
+  as _Wycliffe and his English Precursors_, R.L. Poole's _Wycliffe and
+  Movements for Reform_, and G.M. Trevelyan's _England in the Age of
+  Wycliffe_.     (T. F. T.)
+
+
+
+
+EDWARD IV. (1442-1483), king of England, son of Richard, duke of York,
+by Cicely Neville, was born at Rouen on the 28th of April 1442. As a boy
+he was styled earl of March, and spent most of his time at Ludlow. After
+the Yorkist failure at Ludlow field in October 1459, Edward fled with
+the earls of Salisbury and Warwick, his uncle and cousin, to Calais.
+Thence in the following July he accompanied them in their successful
+invasion of England, to be welcomed in London, and to share in the
+victory over the Lancastrians at Northampton. After the acceptance of
+Richard of York as heir to the crown, Edward returned to the Welsh
+marches, where early in the new year he heard of his father's defeat
+and death at Wakefield. Hastily gathering an army he defeated the earls
+of Pembroke and Wiltshire at Mortimer's Cross on the 2nd of February
+1461, and then marched on London. He was acclaimed by the citizens in an
+assembly at Clerkenwell, declared king by a Yorkist council, and took
+possession of the regality on the 4th of March. Soon after the new king
+and the earl of Warwick went north, and on the 28th of March won a
+decisive victory at Towton.
+
+Edward owed his throne to his kinsmen the Nevilles, and he was content
+for the time to be guided by them. For himself he was young and fond of
+pleasure. Still he made frequent progresses, and took some part in the
+fighting that went on in the north during 1462 and 1463. But he was
+absent from the final victory at Hexham on the 14th of May 1464, and was
+at the very time engaged in contracting a secret marriage with
+Elizabeth, daughter of Richard Woodville, Lord Rivers, and widow of Sir
+John Grey of Groby (d. 1461). The marriage was disclosed at Michaelmas,
+much to the vexation of Warwick, who in pursuit of his foreign policy
+had projected a match with a French princess. Edward heaped favours on
+his new relatives; his father-in-law was made treasurer, and great
+marriages were found for his wife's sisters and brothers. In foreign
+affairs also Edward thwarted Warwick's plans by favouring an alliance
+with Burgundy rather than France. There was, however, no open breach
+till 1469, when Warwick, taking advantage of the unpopularity of the
+Woodvilles, and supported by the king's next brother George, duke of
+Clarence, appeared in arms. Edward was surprised and made prisoner at
+Middleham, and Rivers was beheaded. For six months Edward had to submit
+to Warwick's tutelage; then on the occasion of a rising in Lincolnshire
+he gathered an army of his own. Sir Robert Welles, the leader of this
+rebellion, made a confession implicating Warwick, who fled with Clarence
+to France. The king thought himself secure, but when Warwick and
+Clarence made terms with the Lancastrian exiles, Edward in his turn had
+to seek refuge in Holland (September 1470). His brother-in-law, Charles
+of Burgundy, at first refused him any assistance, but at last furnished
+him with money, and on the 14th of March 1471 Edward and his brother
+Richard landed with a small force at Ravenspur near Hull. Marching south
+he was welcomed at London on the 11th of April, defeated Warwick at
+Barnet three days later, and the Lancastrians at Tewkesbury on the 4th
+of May. From thenceforth Edward's possession of the crown was secure.
+His position was strengthened by the birth of a son (2nd of November
+1470, during his exile), and by the wealth which he acquired through the
+confiscation of the estates of his opponents. Clarence had made his
+peace with Edward, but was at enmity with his other brother Richard of
+Gloucester, who now married Warwick's second daughter and claimed a
+share in the Neville inheritance. Their rivalry and Clarence's continued
+intrigues furnished Edward with his chief domestic difficulty; the
+trouble was ended by the judicial murder of Clarence in 1478.
+
+The only serious enterprise of these latter years was the short French
+war of 1475, from which Edward was bought out by the treaty of
+Pecquigny. As foreign policy it was inglorious, and involved a departure
+from Edward's earlier plan of a Burgundian alliance. However, it shows a
+certain recognition of England's need to concentrate her energies on her
+own development. The annual subsidy which Louis XI. agreed to pay
+further served Edward's purposes by providing him with money for home
+government, and enabled him to avoid possible trouble through the
+necessity for too frequent parliaments and heavy taxation. So Edward's
+personal rule became in its character autocratic; but it was in the art
+of courting popularity and concealing despotism that he most shows
+himself as a type of tyranny. He lacked neither ambition nor capacity,
+but was indolent and only exerted himself spasmodically. He could be
+ruthless, but was not habitually cruel. His strongest weapons were the
+fine presence, the affable manners (even with citizens), and the love of
+pleasure and entertainments which secured his personal popularity. In
+his last years he was given to self-indulgence and scandalous excesses,
+which did not, however, alienate the London citizens, with whose wives
+he was too familiar. Most of the power at court was in the hands of the
+Woodvilles, in spite of their unpopularity; the more arduous work of
+administration in the north was left to Richard of Gloucester. If as a
+prince of the Renaissance Edward was the first to rule tyrannically in
+England, he also deserves credit as a patron of the new culture and
+friend of Caxton; he further resembles his Italian contemporaries in the
+commercial purposes to which he applied his wealth in partnership with
+London merchants.
+
+Edward died at Westminster on the 9th of April 1483, and was buried at
+Windsor. By Elizabeth Woodville, who died on the 8th of June 1492, he
+had two sons, Edward V. and Richard of York, who were murdered in the
+Tower; and five daughters, of whom the eldest, Elizabeth, married Henry
+VII. Of his numerous mistresses the most notorious was Jane Shore.
+Before his marriage he had been contracted to Lady Eleanor Butler, and
+this was alleged by Richard III. to have made his children by Elizabeth
+Woodville illegitimate.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Of original authorities for Edward's reign the chief
+  are the _Continuation of the Cropland Chronicle_ in Fulman's
+  _Scriptores_; the various London Chronicles, especially for the early
+  years _Gregory's Chronicle_; Warkworth's _Chronicle_, and the
+  _Arrivall of King Edward IV._ (a partisan account of events in
+  1470-1471), published by the Camden Society; the _Paston Letters_ with
+  Dr Gairdner's valuable Introduction; and for foreign affairs the
+  _Memoires_ of Philippe de Comines; the collection called _Chronicles
+  of the White Rose_ is useful. For modern authors, consult Sir James
+  Ramsay's _Lancaster and York_ (1892), and the _Political History of
+  England_, vol. iv. (1906), by Prof. C. Oman.     (C. L. K.)
+
+
+
+
+EDWARD V. (1470-1483), king of England, was the elder son of Edward IV.
+by his wife Elizabeth Woodville, and was born, during his father's
+temporary exile, in the sanctuary of Westminster Abbey on the 2nd of
+November 1470. In June 1471 he was created prince of Wales. When Edward
+IV. died in April 1483 a struggle for power took place between the young
+king's paternal uncle, Richard, duke of Gloucester, who had been
+appointed as his guardian by Edward IV., and his maternal uncle, Richard
+Woodville, Earl Rivers. Gloucester obtained possession of the king's
+person, and, having arrested Rivers and some of his supporters, assumed
+the crown himself after a very slight and feigned reluctance, on the
+ground that the marriage of Edward and Elizabeth Woodville was invalid,
+and consequently its issue was illegitimate. At this time Edward and his
+brother Richard, duke of York, were living in the Tower of London.
+Shortly afterwards a movement was organized to free them from captivity,
+and then it became known that they were already dead; but, though it was
+the general conviction that they had been murdered, it was twenty years
+before the manner of this deed was discovered. According to the
+narrative of Sir Thomas More, Sir Robert Brackenbury, the constable of
+the Tower, refused to obey Richard's command to put the young princes to
+death; but he complied with a warrant ordering him to give up his keys
+for one night to Sir James Tyrell, who had arranged for the
+assassination. Two men, Miles Forest and John Dighton, then smothered
+the youths under pillows while they were asleep. The murder was
+committed most probably in August or September 1483. Horace Walpole has
+attempted to cast doubts upon the murder of the princes, and Sir C.R.
+Markham has argued that the deed was committed by order of Henry VII.
+Both these views, however, have been traversed by James Gairdner, and
+there seems little doubt that Sir Thomas More's story is substantially
+correct.
+
+  See RICHARD III.; and in addition, Sir Thomas More, _History of
+  Richard III._, edited by J.R. Lumby (Cambridge, 1883); Horace Walpole,
+  _Historic Doubts on the Life and Reign of Richard III._ (London,
+  1768); J. Gairdner, _Richard III._ (Cambridge, 1898); J. Gairdner and
+  C.R. Markham in the _English Historical Review_, vol. vi. (London,
+  1891); Sir C.R. Markham, _Richard III._ (1907).
+
+
+
+
+EDWARD VI. (1537-1553), king of England and Ireland, born at Greenwich
+on the 12th of October 1537, was the only child of Henry VIII. by his
+third wife, Jane Seymour, who died of puerperal fever twelve days later.
+The story that the mother's life was deliberately sacrificed by the
+performance of Caesarean section is unfounded, although Jane's death
+was little noticed amid the rejoicings which greeted the advent of a
+male heir to the throne. But in spite of Holbein's vivacious portrait of
+Edward at the age of two (now at Hanover), he was a frail child, and a
+short life was anticipated for him from his early years. This did not
+prevent a strenuous education; until the age of six he was naturally
+left in the charge of women, but when he was only seven his tutor Dr
+Coxe, afterwards bishop of Ely, writes that he could decline any Latin
+noun and conjugate any regular verb (_L. and P._, 1544, ii. 726); "every
+day in the mass-time he readeth a portion of Solomon's Proverbs, wherein
+he delighteth much." Sir John Cheke, Sir Anthony Cooke and Roger Ascham
+all helped to teach him Latin, Greek and French; and by the age of
+thirteen he had read Aristotle's _Ethics_ in the original and was
+himself translating Cicero's _De philosophia_ into Greek.
+
+Edward was duke of Cornwall from his birth, but he was never prince of
+Wales, and he was only nine when he succeeded his father as king of
+England and Ireland and supreme head of the church (28th of January
+1546/7). His nonage threw power into the hands of Somerset and then of
+Northumberland, and enabled Gardiner and Bonner to maintain that the
+royal supremacy over the church was, or should be, in abeyance. Projects
+for his marriage were hardly even the occasion, but only the excuse, for
+Somerset's war on Scotland and Northumberland's subsequent alliance with
+France. All factions sought to control his person, not because of his
+personality but because of his position; he was like the Great Seal,
+only more so, an indispensable adjunct to the wielder of authority. The
+Protector's brother tried to bribe him with pocket-money; Northumberland
+was more subtle and established a complete dominion over his mind, and
+then put him forward at the age of fourteen as entitled to all the power
+of Henry VIII. But he was only Northumberland's mask; of his individual
+influence on the course of history during his reign there is hardly a
+trace. A posthumous effort was made to give him the credit of a humane
+desire to save Joan Bocher from the flames; but he recorded with
+apparently cold-blooded indifference the execution of both his uncles,
+and he certainly made no attempt to mitigate the harassing attentions
+which the council paid his sister Mary. This passed for piety with the
+zealots, and the persecutions of Mary's reign reflected a halo on that
+of the Protestant Josiah. So strong was the regret that rumours of his
+survival persisted, and hare-brained youths were found to personate him
+throughout Mary's and even far into Elizabeth's reign.
+
+It was well that they were false, for Edward showed signs of all the
+Tudor obstinacy, and he was a fanatic into the bargain, as no other
+Tudor was except Mary. The combination would probably have involved
+England in disasters far greater than any that ensued upon his premature
+death; and it was much better that the Anglican settlement of religion
+should have been left to the compromising temper of Elizabeth. As it
+was, he bequeathed a legacy of woe; his health began to fail in 1552,
+and in May 1553 it was known that he was dying. But his will and the
+various drafts of it only betray the agitated and illogical efforts of
+Northumberland to contrive some means whereby he might continue to
+control the government and prevent the administration of justice. Mary
+and Elizabeth were to be excluded from the throne, as not sufficiently
+pliant instruments; Mary Stuart was ignored as being under Scottish,
+Catholic and French influence; the duchess of Suffolk, Lady Jane's
+mother, was excluded because she was married, and the duke her husband
+might claim the crown matrimonial. In fact, all females were excluded,
+except Jane, on the ground that no woman could reign; even she was
+excluded in the first draft, and the crown was left to "the Lady Jane's
+heirs male." But this draft was manipulated so as to read "the Lady Jane
+and her heirs male." That Edward himself was responsible for these
+delirious provisions is improbable. But he had been so impregnated with
+the divine right of kings and the divine truth of Protestantism that he
+thought he was entitled and bound to override the succession as
+established by law and exclude a Catholic from the throne; and his last
+recorded words were vehement injunctions to Cranmer to sign the will.
+He died at Greenwich on the 6th of July 1553, and was buried in Henry
+VII.'s chapel by Cranmer with Protestant rites on the 8th of August,
+while Mary had Mass said for his soul in the Tower.
+
+  J.G. Nichols collected almost all that is known of Edward VI. in his
+  excellent edition of the king's _Journal_. A few additional facts and
+  suggestions can be gleaned from the _Letters and Papers of Henry
+  VIII._ vols. xii.-xxi.; _Acts of the Privy Council_, ed. Dasent, vols.
+  i.-iv.; Domestic, Spanish, Venetian and Foreign _Calendars of State
+  Papers_; Froude's _History_; Dixon's _Hist. Church of England_; A.F.
+  Pollard's _England under Somerset_ and _Life of Cranmer_; and _English
+  Historical Review_, xxiii. 286, &c. Sir Clements Markham's _Edward
+  VI._ (1907) emphasizes his interest in geography.     (A. F. P.)
+
+
+
+
+EDWARD VII. (ALBERT EDWARD) (1841-1910), king of Great Britain and
+Ireland, and of the British Dominions beyond the Seas, emperor of India,
+the eldest son and second child of Queen Victoria and of Albert, prince
+consort, was born at Buckingham Palace on the 9th of November 1841. He
+was created prince of Wales and earl of Chester on the 4th of December
+following, and was baptized on the 25th of January 1842. In his
+childhood he was educated by the dowager Lady Lyttelton; and in his
+boyhood successively by the Rev. Henry Mildred Birch, Mr F.W. Gibbes,
+the Rev. C.F. Tarver and Mr Herbert W. Fisher. He afterwards resided at
+Edinburgh, studying chemistry in its industrial applications under
+Professor (afterwards Lord) Playfair at the university; at Christ
+Church, Oxford; and at Trinity College, Cambridge. In November 1858 he
+was made a knight of the Garter and a colonel in the army. In 1859 he
+travelled in Italy and Spain, and in 1860 paid a visit as "Lord Renfrew"
+to the United States and Canada.
+
+Upon the completion of his Cambridge course in June 1861 he joined the
+camp at the Curragh. The prince consort died on the 13th of December,
+and in 1862 the prince of Wales went for a tour in the Holy Land
+(February-June) under the guidance of Arthur Penrhyn Stanley, afterwards
+dean of Westminster. Early in 1863 he was sworn of the privy council,
+and took his seat in the House of Lords as duke of Cornwall. The estate
+of Sandringham, in Norfolk, was purchased for him out of the savings of
+his minority, and his town residence was fixed at Marlborough House.
+
+His impending marriage to the princess Alexandra, daughter of Christian
+IX., king of Denmark (b. December 1, 1844), had already been announced,
+and took place on the 10th of March at Windsor, the beauty and grace of
+the princess captivating the heart of the nation. Parliament granted the
+prince an income of L40,000 a year, exclusive of the revenues of the
+duchy of Cornwall, and he relinquished his right of succession to the
+duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. Prince Albert Victor, afterwards duke of
+Clarence, was the first offspring of the marriage, being born on the 8th
+of January 1864. The births followed of Prince George Frederick Ernest
+Albert, afterwards duke of York (see GEORGE V.), on the 3rd of June
+1865; Princess Louise Victoria Alexandra Dagmar, by marriage duchess of
+Fife, princess royal, on the 20th of February 1867; Princess Victoria
+Alexandra Olga Mary, on the 6th of July 1868; and Princess Maud
+Charlotte Mary Victoria, afterwards queen of Norway, on the 26th of
+November 1869.
+
+From the time of their marriage the prince and princess were prominently
+before the country. Queen Victoria remained in retirement, but they
+filled her place at important public functions. The prince's readiness
+to promote every worthy cause was most marked; no one was a more
+constant attendant at meetings for objects of public utility of a
+non-political nature, and his speeches were always characterized by
+excellent sense. The most important external event of these years was a
+tour to Egypt, undertaken in 1869 in company with the duke of
+Sutherland, Sir Samuel Baker and others, an account of which was
+published by Mrs William Grey. The prince also visited Ireland more than
+once, and opened the International Exhibition of 1871.
+
+On the 23rd of November 1871 it was announced that the prince would be
+prevented from paying a visit which had been arranged to the Maharajah
+Dhuleep Singh by a feverish attack. It soon appeared that the malady was
+typhoid, contracted as was supposed, on a visit to Scarborough. The
+case became so serious that on November 29 the queen and Princess Alice
+hurried to Sandringham. On the 1st of December there was a slight rally,
+but on the 8th so serious a relapse occurred that for some days the
+prince's life was despaired of. Under the skilful treatment of Sir
+William Jenner, Sir William Gull and Sir James Paget, however, the
+crisis was surmounted by December 16, and by Christmas day the danger
+was regarded as virtually over. On the 27th of February 1872 a
+thanksgiving was held at St Paul's, amid imposing demonstrations of
+public joy.
+
+In January 1874 the prince of Wales attended the marriage at St.
+Petersburg of his brother, the duke of Edinburgh, with the grand-duchess
+Marie of Russia. In the same year he paid a historic visit to
+Birmingham, where Mr Joseph Chamberlain, not yet a member of parliament,
+received him officially as mayor. In March 1875 it was officially
+announced that he would make a visit to India, carrying out an idea
+originally conceived by the first Indian viceroy, Earl Canning. He was
+supposed to travel as heir-apparent, not as representative of the queen;
+but the characters could not be kept apart, and in fact the prince's
+visit was a political event of great importance. Leaving England on
+October 11, he was received at Bombay by the viceroy, Lord Northbrook.
+Here he met a very large number of Indian feudatory princes, whose
+acquaintance he subsequently improved by visiting at their courts during
+the seventeen weeks which he spent in the country. During these four
+months the prince travelled nearly 8000 m. by land and 2500 m. by sea,
+became acquainted with more rajahs than had all the viceroys who had
+reigned over India, and saw more of the country than any living
+Englishman. The visit led up to the queen's assumption of the title of
+empress of India in the following year.
+
+The prince's life after this date was full of conspicuous public
+appearances. In 1885 he visited Ireland at a time of much political
+excitement, and was received enthusiastically in many quarters and
+without symptoms of ill-will in any. In 1886 he filled the presidency of
+the Indian and Colonial Exhibition, opened the Mersey Tunnel, and laid
+the first stone of the Tower Bridge. In 1887 a large share of the
+arrangements for the queen's Jubilee devolved upon him. On the 27th of
+July 1589 his eldest daughter, Princess Louise, was married to the duke
+of Fife. In the autumn he paid a semi-incognito visit to Paris, where he
+was always highly popular, viewed the Exhibition, and ascended the
+Eiffel Tower. In 1890 he opened the Forth Bridge. On the 14th of January
+1892, however, a heavy blow fell upon him and his house by the death of
+his eldest son, Prince Albert Victor, duke of Clarence, after a brief
+illness. The young prince, who with his brother George had made the tour
+of the world (1879-1882) in H.M.S. "Bacchante," and after a short career
+at Oxford and Cambridge was just settling down to play his part in
+public life, had recently become engaged to Princess Victoria Mary of
+Teck (b. May 26, 1867), and the popularity of the heir to the crown had
+been increased by the expression of his satisfaction at his son's bride
+being an English princess. On the 6th of July 1893 the broken thread was
+reunited by her marriage to Prince George, duke of York.
+
+The year 1894 was a busy one for the prince of Wales, who became a
+member of the royal commission on the housing of the poor, opened the
+Tower Bridge, attended the Welsh Eisteddfod and was duly initiated, and
+paid two visits to Russia--one for the marriage of the grand-duchess
+Xenia, the other for the funeral of the tsar, his brother-in-law. In
+1896 he became first chancellor of the university of Wales, and his
+first act after his installation at Aberystwyth was to confer an
+honorary degree upon the princess. He had already been for some years a
+trustee of the British Museum. On the 22nd of July 1896 his daughter.
+Princess Maud, was married to Prince Charles of Denmark, who in 1905 was
+offered and accepted the crown of the new kingdom of Norway. The
+arrangements for the queen's Jubilee of 1897 depended upon the prince
+even more than those of the corresponding celebration in 1887: he rode
+on the queen's right at the great procession to St Paul's, and as an
+admiral of the fleet presided at the naval review at Spithead. In July
+1898 the prince had the misfortune to fracture his knee-cap while on a
+visit to Baron Ferdinand de Rothschild, but completely recovered from
+the effects of the accident. In December 1899, while passing through
+Brussels on his way to St Petersburg, he was fired at by a miserable lad
+named Sipido, crazed by reading anarchist literature. Fortunately no
+injury was done.
+
+It was the especial distinction of Albert Edward, while prince of Wales,
+to have been a substantial support of the throne before he was called
+upon to fill it. This cannot be said of any of his predecessors except
+Edward the Black Prince. He was exemplary in the discharge of his public
+duties, and in his scrupulous detachment from party politics. He was a
+keen patron of the theatre, and his thoroughly British taste for sport
+was as pronounced as his inclination for most of the contemporary
+amusements of society. The "Tranby Croft Case" (1890), in which Sir
+William Gordon Cumming brought an unsuccessful libel action for having
+been accused of cheating at a game of baccarat, caused some comment in
+connexion with the prince's appearance in the witness-box on behalf of
+the defendants. But it did him no disservice with the people to have
+twice won the Derby with his horses Persimmon (1896) and Diamond Jubilee
+(1900)--his third victory, in 1909, with Minoru, being the first
+occasion on which the race had been won by a reigning sovereign; and his
+interest in yacht-racing was conspicuously shown at all the important
+fixtures, his yacht "Britannia" being one of the best of her day. His
+activity in the life of the nation may be illustrated by his
+establishment (1897) of the Prince of Wales's (afterwards King Edward's)
+Hospital Fund, his devotion to the cause of Masonry (he was first
+elected grand master of the Freemasons of England in 1874), and his
+position as a bencher of the Middle Temple, where he also became (1887)
+treasurer.
+
+On the death of Queen Victoria on the 22nd of January 1901, the question
+what title the new king would assume was speedily set at rest by the
+popular announcement that he would be called Edward the Seventh. The new
+reign began auspiciously by the holding of a privy council at St James's
+Palace, at which the king announced his intention to follow in his
+predecessor's footsteps and to govern as a constitutional sovereign, and
+received the oaths of allegiance. On the 14th of February the king and
+queen opened parliament in state. Shortly afterwards it was announced
+that the visit of the duke and duchess of York to Australia, in order to
+inaugurate the new Commonwealth, which had been sanctioned by Queen
+Victoria, would be proceeded with; and on the 16th of March they set out
+on board the "Ophir" with a brilliant suite. The tour lasted till
+November 1, the duke and duchess having visited Australia, New Zealand,
+the Cape and Canada; and on their return the king, on November 9,
+created the duke prince of Wales and earl of Chester. Meanwhile
+parliament had settled the new civil list at L470,000 a year, and the
+royal title had been enlarged to include the colonial empire by an act
+enabling the king to style himself "Edward VII., by the grace of God, of
+the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and of all the British
+Dominions beyond the Seas, King, Defender of the Faith, Emperor of
+India." At the end of May 1902 the long-drawn-out war in South Africa
+came at last to an end, and the coronation was fixed for the 26th of
+June. But on the 24th, amid general consternation, the king was
+announced to be suffering from perityphlitis, necessitating the
+immediate performance of an operation; and the coronation, for which
+unprecedented preparations had been made, had to be postponed. The
+operation--performed by Sir Frederick Treves--was, however, so
+marvellously successful, and the king's progress towards recovery so
+rapid and uninterrupted, that within a fortnight he was pronounced out
+of danger, and soon afterwards it was decided to hold the coronation
+service on August 9. Though shorn of much of the magnificence which
+would have been added to it in June by the presence of foreign royalties
+and the preparations for a great procession through London, the
+solemnity duly took place on that date in Westminster Abbey amid great
+rejoicings. The king spent several weeks (partly in a yachting trip
+round the coast and up to Stornoway) in recruiting his health, and on
+the 25th of October he went in procession through the main streets of
+south London, when he was most enthusiastically received. Next day the
+king and queen attended St Paul's cathedral in state to return thanks
+for his restoration to health. On New Year's day 1903 the coronation was
+proclaimed in India at a magnificent durbar at Delhi.
+
+At home the king opened parliament in person in February 1903, and on
+the 31st of March he sailed from Portsmouth to pay a visit to the king
+of Portugal at Lisbon, leaving Lisbon for Gibraltar on the 7th of April.
+On the 11th he held a review of the garrison troops and next day left
+for Malta, and the tour was continued to Naples (23rd of April). On the
+27th of April he was received at Rome by the king of Italy--the first
+time an English king as such had been there; and two days later he paid
+a visit to Leo XIII. at the Vatican. On May day he was received in Paris
+by President Loubet. Later in the year return visits were paid to
+England by President Loubet (July) and the king and queen of Italy
+(November). On the 11th of May His Majesty paid his first formal visit
+to Edinburgh, and held courts at Holyrood. In July the king and queen
+went to Ireland, and though the Dublin corporation refused to vote a
+loyal address the reception was generally cordial. In September the king
+took his annual "cure" at Marienbad, and paid a visit to Vienna, where
+he was received by the Austrian emperor. In 1904 again the king and
+queen went to Ireland; in June the king was cordially received by the
+German emperor at the yacht-races at Kiel, and he included a visit to
+Hamburg, where the welcome was hearty. In November the king and queen of
+Portugal were entertained at Windsor and at the Guildhall.
+
+The success of King Edward as a promoter of international friendliness,
+and the advantage of so efficient a type of kingship, attracted
+universal attention, and treaties of arbitration were concluded by Great
+Britain with France, Spain, Italy, Germany and Portugal in 1903 and
+1904. In his first two years the king had already earned the title of
+Edward the Peacemaker, and established his position as a source of new
+strength to the state. This reputation was confirmed in the years which
+followed, during which the royal hand was to be seen in the progress of
+foreign affairs in a manner somewhat new to old-fashioned politicians.
+The _entente_ with France was promoted by his influence, notably by his
+reception of President Fallieres in England in 1908. It was noticed that
+the permanent under-secretary for foreign affairs, Sir Charles Hardinge,
+generally accompanied the king, as one of his suite, on his visits
+abroad: and the conclusion of the Anglo-Russian agreement (1907)--which
+was attributed with some reason to royal policy--was hotly criticized in
+Radical quarters. It was pointed out that neither the foreign secretary
+(Sir E. Grey) nor any other secretary of state accompanied the king on
+his foreign visits. These objections were, however, scouted by the
+government, and undeniably public opinion approved of the sovereign's
+personal activity in a sphere peculiarly his own. The strengthening of
+British influence in Europe, which was the marked result of the
+Anglo-French and Anglo-Russian _ententes_, and of the closer ties
+between England and countries like Portugal and Spain (whose young king
+Alfonso married Princess Ena of Battenberg, King Edward's niece), had,
+indeed, temporarily the effect of rousing German suspicion, the view
+taken being that the object of British foreign policy was to isolate
+Germany; and during 1907 and 1908 the political situation was coloured
+by the discussions in the press with regard to Anglo-German rivalry. But
+in February 1909 the king and queen paid a state visit to the Kaiser in
+Berlin, where the greatest cordiality was displayed on all sides; the
+event was prepared for, in both countries, as a means of dispelling the
+clouds which had gathered over the relations between England and
+Germany, and the success of the visit proved once more how powerful King
+Edward's personality could be as an agency for peace and international
+amity.
+
+During the year 1909, however, the political situation at home was
+developing into an acute constitutional crisis, which seemed likely to
+involve the Crown in serious difficulties. Mr Lloyd-George's budget
+convulsed the House of Commons and the country, and was eventually
+rejected by the House of Lords; and the Liberal government now put in
+the forefront of its programme the abolition of the Peers' "veto." As
+was hinted, not obscurely, later by the doctors, King Edward, although
+certainly not prejudiced against a Liberal ministry, was seriously
+disturbed in mind and health by the progress of events, which culminated
+in the return of Mr Asquith to office after the elections of January
+1910, and in his statement that, if necessary, guarantees would be
+sought from the Crown for the purpose of enforcing the will of the
+representative chamber. A remarkable sign of the king's discomfort was
+his insertion, in the official "King's Speech" at the opening of
+parliament, of the words "in the opinion of my advisers," in connexion
+with the passage dealing with the House of Lords. The king had been far
+from robust for some little time, and while he was taking change and
+rest at Biarritz in the early spring of 1910 he had a bronchial attack
+which caused some anxiety, although the public heard nothing of it. When
+he returned to England there is no doubt that he was acutely affected by
+the prospect of being forcibly dragged into the political conflict. In
+the country at large there was indeed considerable confidence that the
+king's tact and experience would help to bring order out of chaos; but
+this was not to be. Within two days the public heard with consternation
+that he was ill, and then was dead. On May 5 it was announced that he
+had bronchitis; and he died at 11.45 P.M. on the 6th, of heart failure.
+On May 17, 18 and 19 there was an impressive lying-in-state in
+Westminster Hall, attended by unprecedented crowds; and on May 20 the
+burial took place at Windsor, after a great funeral procession through
+London, the coffin being followed by the new king, George V., and by
+eight foreign sovereigns--the German emperor, the kings of Greece,
+Spain, Portugal, Denmark, Norway, Belgium and Bulgaria--besides the
+archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria (heir to the throne of
+Austria-Hungary), the prince consort of Holland and many other
+royalties, and a number of special ambassadors, including Mr Roosevelt
+as representative of the United States. Mourning was as sincere as it
+was universal; for not only England and the British Empire, but the
+world, had lost a king who was both a very human man and a tried and
+trusted statesman.
+
+Queen Victoria's long reign had solidly established the constitutional
+monarchy; it remained for her son to rehabilitate the idea of English
+kingship by showing how the sovereign could be no less constitutional
+but personally more monarchical. While prince of Wales he had had little
+real training in statecraft, but when he became king his genuine
+capacity for affairs was shown. Ably advised by such men as Lord Knollys
+and Lord Esher, he devoted himself to the work of removing the Throne
+from its former isolation, and bringing it into touch with all sections
+of the community for the promotion of social happiness and welfare. His
+own love of pageantry and his interest in the stately ordering of court
+functions responded, moreover, to a marked inclination on the part of
+the public and of "society" for such things. It was significant that
+even Radicals and Socialists began to advocate extensions of the
+prerogative, and to insist on the active part which the Crown should
+play in public life. The king won the genuine affection and confidence
+of the people; and in Queen Alexandra he had an ideal consort, to whom
+all hearts went out.     (H. Ch.)
+
+
+
+
+EDWARD, prince of Wales, known as "THE BLACK PRINCE" (1330-1376), the
+eldest son of Edward III. and Philippa of Hainaut, was born at Woodstock
+on the 15th of June 1330. Contemporaries called him Edward of Woodstock,
+and his surname of the Black Prince cannot be traced back earlier than
+the 16th century. It is supposed to have been derived from his wearing
+black armour. In 1333 he was made earl of Chester, and in 1337 duke of
+Cornwall, being the first duke ever created in England. Nominal warden
+of England during his father's absences abroad in 1338 and 1342, he was
+created prince of Wales in 1343, and in 1345 he first accompanied his
+father on a foreign expedition.
+
+His real career begins, however, with Edward III.'s Norman campaign of
+1346. On landing at La Hogue he was knighted by his father, and took a
+prominent part in the whole of the campaign. He commanded the right wing
+of the English forces at Crecy, and, though hard pressed for a time by
+the French, took his full share in gaining the victory. Next year he was
+at the siege of Calais, and returned to England in October 1347 with his
+father. He was one of the original knights of the Garter, and
+participated in his father's chivalrous adventures at Calais in 1349 and
+in the battle off Winchelsea in 1350. In September 1355 he was sent to
+Gascony at the head of an English army, having been appointed his
+father's lieutenant there in July. He was warmly welcomed by the
+Gascons, and at once led a foray through Armagnac and Languedoc. By
+November he had got as far as Narbonne, whence he returned to Bordeaux,
+where he kept his Christmas court. In August 1356 he started from
+Bergerac on another marauding expedition, this time in a northerly
+direction. He penetrated as far as the Loire, but was there compelled to
+retire before the superior forces of King John of France. On the 19th of
+September the two armies met in the battle of Poitiers, fought about 6
+m. south-east of the city. It was the hardest-fought and most important
+battle of the Hundred Years' War, and Edward's victory was due both to
+the excellence of his tactical disposition of his forces and to the
+superior fighting capacity of his army. The flank march of the Captal de
+Buch, which decided the fate of the day, was of Edward's own devising,
+and the captivity of King John attested the completeness of his triumph.
+He treated his prisoner with almost ostentatious magnanimity, and took
+him to Bordeaux, whence they sailed to England in May 1357. On the 24th
+of that month he led his prisoner in triumph through the streets of
+London. In 1359 he took part in his father's invasion of northern
+France, and had a large share in the negotiations at Bretigny and
+Calais.
+
+In October 1361 Edward married his cousin Joan, countess of Kent
+(1328-1385), the daughter and heiress of Edmund of Woodstock, earl of
+Kent, the younger son of Edward I. by his second wife Margaret of
+France. The lady, who enjoyed a great reputation for beauty, was in her
+thirty-third year, and the widow of Sir Thomas Holand, by whom she had
+had three children. Froissart says that the marriage was a love match,
+and that the king had no knowledge of it. However, Edward III. approved
+of his son's choice, and in July 1362 handed over to him all his
+dominions in southern France, with the title of prince of Aquitaine. In
+February 1363 Edward and Joan took ship for Gascony, which became his
+ordinary place of residence for the next eight years. He maintained a
+brilliant court at Bordeaux and Angouleme, and did his best to win the
+support of the Gascons. He was not, however, successful in winning over
+the greater nobles, who, with John, count of Armagnac, at their head,
+were dissatisfied with the separation from France, and looked with
+suspicion upon Edward's attempts to reform the administration as being
+likely to result in the curtailment of their feudal rights. Edward was
+better able to conciliate the towns, whose franchises he favoured and
+whose trade he fostered, hoping that they would prove a counterpoise to
+the aristocracy. He kept the chief posts of the administration mainly in
+English hands, and never really identified himself with the local life
+and traditions of his principality. He succeeded in clearing Aquitaine
+of the free companies, and kept good peace for nearly six years.
+
+In 1367 Peter the Cruel, the deposed king of Castile, visited Edward at
+Bordeaux, and persuaded him to restore him to his throne by force. In
+February 1367 Edward led an army into Spain over the pass of
+Roncesvalles. After a difficult and dangerous march Edward reached the
+Ebro, and on the 3rd of April defeated Bertrand du Guesclin at Najera,
+the last of his great victories. He then proceeded to Burgos, and
+restored Peter to the throne of Castile. He remained in Castile for four
+months, living principally at Valladolid. His army wasted away during
+the hot Spanish summer, and Edward himself contracted the beginnings of
+a mortal disease. In August 1367 Edward led the remnant of his troops
+back through the pass of Roncesvalles, and returned to Bordeaux early in
+September. He had exhausted all his resources on the Spanish expedition,
+and was forced to seek from the estates of Aquitaine extraordinary
+sources of supply. A hearth tax for five years was willingly granted to
+him, and generally paid. The greater barons, however, found in this
+impost a pretext for revolt. The count of Armagnac, who had already made
+a secret understanding with Charles V., appealed against the hearth tax
+to the parlement of Paris. Cited before this body in January 1369,
+Edward declared that he would answer at Paris with sixty thousand men
+behind him. War broke out again, and Edward III. resumed the title of
+king of France. Thereupon Charles V. declared that all the English
+possessions in France were forfeited, and before the end of 1369 all
+Aquitaine was in full revolt. With weak health and impaired resources,
+the Black Prince showed little activity in dealing with his insurgent
+subjects, or in warding off French invasion. Though too ill to ride on
+horseback, he insisted upon commanding his troops, and on the 19th of
+September 1370 won his last barren success, by capturing the revolted
+city of Limoges and putting the population to the sword. Early in 1371
+he returned to England, leaving the impossible task of holding Gascony
+to his brother John of Gaunt. In August 1372 he joined his father in an
+abortive expedition to France, but contrary winds prevented their
+landing, and he now abandoned military life for good. In October he
+resigned his principality on the ground that he could not afford to
+retain any longer so expensive a charge. His health now rapidly
+declined, but he still followed politics with interest, and did what he
+could to support the constitutional opposition of the great
+ecclesiastics to the administration of John of Gaunt and the
+anti-clerical courtiers. His last public act was to inspire the attack
+on Lancaster's influence made by the Good Parliament in the spring of
+1376. The famous parliament was still in session when he died at
+Westminster on the 8th of July. He was buried in the east end of
+Canterbury cathedral on the 29th of September, where his magnificent
+tomb, erected in accordance with the instructions in his will, may still
+be seen. By Joan, "the fair maid of Kent," who died on the 7th of August
+1385, the Black Prince left an only son, afterwards King Richard II.
+
+  For authorities see EDWARD III. To these may be added W. Hunt's
+  article in the _Dict. Nat. Biog._; A. Collins's _Life of Edward,
+  Prince of Wales_ (1740); G.P.R. James's _Life of Edward the Black
+  Prince_ (1839); J. Moisant's _Le Prince Noir en Aquitaine_ (1894); and
+  R.P. Dunn-Pattison's _The Black Prince_ (1910).     (T. F. T.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 8, Slice 10, by Various
+
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