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diff --git a/34992.txt b/34992.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f8b128e --- /dev/null +++ b/34992.txt @@ -0,0 +1,19333 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 8, Slice 10, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 8, Slice 10 + "Echinoderma" to "Edward" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: January 17, 2011 [EBook #34992] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 8 SL 10 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek + letters. + +(6) The letter 'Eth' is replaced by 'd'. + +(7) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + ARTICLE ECHTERNACH: "The origin of this festival is uncertain, but + it dates at least from the 13th century and was probably instituted + during an outbreak of cholera." 'an' amended from 'on'. + + ARTICLE ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY: "Among the Coleoptera or beetles there + is a group of world-wide pests, the Elateridae or click beetles, + the adults of the various 'wireworms.'" 'beetles' amended from + 'bettles'. + + ARTICLE EDUCATION: "... laid down that the application of a + candidate might in no circumstances be rejected on any religious + ground, nor on the ground of social antecedents or the like." 'be' + amended from 'he'. + + ARTICLE EDUCATION: "The public assistance afforded to secondary + education in Wales under the Intermediate Act is supplemented by + the grants of the Board of Education, and the Board's revised + Secondary School Regulations were applied to Wales in 1908." + 'education' amended from 'educaton'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME VIII, SLICE X + + Echinoderma to Edward + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + ECHINODERMA EDESSA (Macedonia) + ECHINUS EDESSA (Mesopotamia) + ECHIUROIDEA EDFU + ECHMIADZIN EDGAR (king of the English) + ECHO EDGAR (son of Edward) + ECHTERNACH EDGECUMBE + ECHUCA EDGE HILL + ECIJA EDGEWORTH, MARIA + ECK, JOHANN MAIER EDGEWORTH, RICHARD LOVELL + ECKERMANN, JOHANN PETER EDGEWORTH DE FIRMONT, HENRY ESSEX + ECKERNFORDE EDGREN-LEFFLER, ANNE CHARLOTTE + ECKERSBERG, KRISTOFFER EDHEM PASHA + ECKHART, JOHANNES EDICT + ECKHEL, JOSEPH HILARIUS EDINBURGH + ECKMUHL EDINBURGHSHIRE + ECLECTICISM EDISON, THOMAS ALVA + ECLIPSE EDMONTON (Alberta, Canada) + ECLIPTIC EDMONTON (England) + ECLOGITE EDMUND, SAINT + ECLOGUE EDMUND (king of East Anglia) + ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY EDMUND I. + ECONOMICS EDMUND (Ironside) + ECONOMY (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.) EDMUND (king of Sicily) + ECONOMY EDMUNDS, GEORGE FRANKLIN + ECSTASY EDOM + ECTOSPORA EDRED + ECUADOR EDRIC, STREONA + ECZEMA EDUCATION + EDAM EDWARD (The Elder) + EDDA EDWARD (The Martyr) + EDDIUS EDWARD (The Confessor) + EDELINCK, GERARD EDWARD I. + EDELWEISS EDWARD II. + EDEN, SIR ASHLEY EDWARD III. + EDEN EDWARD IV. + EDENBRIDGE EDWARD V. + EDEN HALL, LUCK OF EDWARD VI. + EDENKOBEN EDWARD VII. + EDENTATA EDWARD (prince of Wales) + EDENTON + + + +ECHINODERMA.[1] The [Greek: echinoderma], or "urchin-skinned" animals, +have long been a favourite subject of study with the collectors of +sea-animals or of fossils, since the lime deposited in their skins forms +hard tests or shells readily preserved in the cabinet. These were +described during the 18th and first half of the 19th centuries by many +eminent naturalists, such as J.T. Klein, J.H. Linck, C. Linnaeus, N.G. +Leske, J.S. Miller, L. v. Buch, E. Desor and L. Agassiz; but it was the +researches of Johannes Muller (1840-1850) that formed the groundwork of +scientific conceptions of the group, proving it one of the great phyla +of the animal kingdom. The anatomists and embryologists of the next +quarter of a century confirmed rather than expanded the views of Muller. +Thus, about 1875, the distinction of Echinoderms from such radiate +animals as jelly-fish and corals (see COELENTERA), by their possession +of a body-cavity ("coelom") distinct from the gut, was fully realized; +while their severance from the worms (especially Gephyrea), with which +some Echinoderrns were long confused, had been necessitated by the +recognition in all of a radial symmetry, impressed on the original +bilateral symmetry of the larva through the growth of a special division +of the coelom, known as the "hydrocoel," and giving rise to a set of +water-bearing canals--the water-vascular or ambulacral system. There was +also sufficient comprehension of the differences between the main +classes of Echinoderms--the sea-urchins or Echinoidea, the starfish or +Asteroidea, the brittle-stars and their allies known as Ophiuroidea, the +worm-like Holothurians, the feather-stars and sea-lilies called +Crinoidea, with their extinct relatives the sac-like Cystidea, the +bud-formed Blastoidea, and the flattened Edrioasteroidea--while within +the larger of these classes, such as Echinoidea and Crinoidea, fair +working classifications had been established. But the study that should +elucidate the fundamental similarities or homologies between the several +classes, and should suggest the relations of the Echinoderma to other +phyla, had scarcely begun. Indeed, the time was not ripe for such +discussions, still less for the tracing of lines of descent and their +embodiment in a genealogical classification. Since then exploring +expeditions have made known a host of new genera, often exhibiting +unfamiliar types of structure. + + Among these the abyssal starfish and holothurians described by W.P. + Sladen and H. Theel respectively, in the Report of the "Challenger" + Expedition, are most notable. The sea-urchins, ophiuroids and crinoids + also have yielded many important novelties to A. Agassiz + ("Challenger," "Blake," and "Albatross" Expeditions), T. Lyman + ("Challenger"), Sladen ("Astrophiura," _Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist._, 1879), + F.J. Bell (numerous papers in _Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist._ and in _Proc. + Zool. Soc._), E. Perrier ("Travailleur" and "Talisman," Cape Horn and + Monaco Expeditions), P.H. Carpenter "Challenger" Reports), and others. + The anatomical researches of these authors, as well as those of S. + Loven ("On Pourtalesia" and "Echinologica," published by the Swedish + Academy of Science), H. Ludwig (_Morphologische Studien_, Leipzig, + 1877-1882), O. Hamann (_Histologie der Echinodermen_, Jena, + 1883-1889), L. Cuenot ("Etudes morphologiques," _Arch. Biol._, 1891, + and papers therein referred to), P.M. Duncan ("Revision of the + Echinoidea," _Journ. Linn. Soc._, 1890), H. Prouho ("Sur Dorocidaris," + _Arch. Zool. Exper._, 1888), and many more, need only be mentioned to + recall the great advance that has been made. In physiology may be + instanced W.B. Carpenter's proof of the nervous nature of the + chambered organ and axial cords of crinoids (_Proc. Roy. Soc._, 1884), + the researches of H. Durham (_Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._, 1891) and + others into the wandering cells of the body-cavity, and the study of + the deposition of the skeletal substance ("stereom") by Theel (in + _Festskrift for Lilljeborg_, 1896). Knowledge of the development has + been enormously extended by numerous embryologists, e.g. Ludwig (_op. + cit._), E.W. MacBride ("Asterina gibbosa," _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._, + 1896), H. Bury (_Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._, 1889, 1895), Seeliger (on + "Antedon," _Zool. Jahrb._, 1893), S. Goto ("Asterias pallida," _Journ. + Coll. Sci. Japan_, 1896), C. Grave ("Ophiura," _Mem. Johns Hopkins + Univ._, 1899), Theel ("Echinocyamus," _Nov. Act. Soc. Sci. Upsala_, + 1892), R. Semon ("Synapta," _Jena. Zeitschr._, 1888), and Loven (_opp. + citt._); and though the theories based thereon may have been fantastic + and contradictory, we are now near the time when the results can be + co-ordinated and some agreement reached. But the scattered details of + comparative anatomy are capable of manifold arrangement, while the + palimpsest of individual development is not merely fragmentary, but + often has the fragments misplaced. The morphologist may propose + classifications, and the embryologist may erect genealogical trees, + but all schemes which do not agree with the direct evidence of fossils + must be abandoned; and it is this evidence, above all, that gained + enormously in volume and in value during the last quarter of the 19th + century. The Silurian crinoids and cystids of Sweden have been + illustrated in N.P. Angelin's _Iconographia crinoideorum_ (1878); the + Palaeozoic crinoids and cystids of Bohemia are dealt with in J. + Barrande's _Systeme silurien_ (1887 and 1899); P.H. Carpenter + published important papers on fossil crinoids in the _Journal_ of the + Geological Society, on Cystidea in that of the Linnean Society, 1891, + and, together with R. Etheridge, jun., compiled the large _Catalogue + of Blastoidea in the British Museum_, 1886; O. Jaekel, in addition to + valuable studies on crinoids and cystids appearing in the + _Zeitschrift_ of the German Geological Society, has published the + first volume of _Die Stammesgeschichte der Pelmatozoen_ (Berlin, + 1899), a richly suggestive work; the Mesozoic Echinoderms of France, + Switzerland and Portugal have been made known by P. de Loriol, G.H. + Cotteau, J. Lambert, V. Gauthier and others (see _Paleontologie + francaise_, _Mem. Soc. paleontol. de la Suisse_, _Trabalhos Comm. + Geol. Portugal_, &c.); a beautiful and interesting Devonian fauna from + Bundenbach has been described by O. Follmann, Jaekel, and especially + B. Sturtz (see _Verhandl. nat. Vereins preuss. Rheinlande, Palaont. + Abhandl._, and _Palaeontographica_); while the multitude of North + American palaeozoic crinoids has been attacked by C. Wachsmuth and F. + Springer in the _Proceedings_ (1879, 1881, 1885, 1886), of the + Philadelphia Academy and the _Memoirs_ (1897) of the Harvard Museum. + +The vast mass of material made known by these and many other +distinguished writers has to be included in our classification, and that +classification itself must be controlled by the story it reveals. Thus +it is that a change, characteristic of modern systematic zoology, is +affecting the subdivisions of the classes. It is not long since the main +lines of division corresponded roughly to gaps in geological history: +the orders were Palaeocrinoidea and Neocrinoidea, Palechinoidea and +Euechinoidea, Palaeasteroidea and Euasteroidea, and so forth. Or +divisions were based upon certain modifications of structure which, as +we now see, affected assemblages of diverse affinity: thus both +Blastoidea and Euechinoidea were divided into Regularia and Irregularia; +the Holothuroidea into Pneumophora and Apneumona; and Crinoids were +discussed under the heads "stalked" and "unstalked." The barriers +between these groups may be regarded as horizontal planes cutting across +the branches of the ascending tree of life at levels determined chiefly +by our ignorance; as knowledge increases, and as the conception of a +genealogical classification gains acceptance, they are being replaced by +vertical partitions which separate branch from branch. The changes may +be appreciated by comparing the systematic synopses at the end of this +article with the classification adopted in 1877 in the 9th edition of +the _Ency. Brit._ (vol. vii.), or in any zoological text-book +contemporary therewith. In the present stage of our knowledge these +minor divisions are the really important ones. For, whereas to one +brilliant suggestion of far-reaching homology another can always be +opposed, by the detailed comparison of individual growth-stages in +carefully selected series of fossils, and by the minute application to +these of the principle that individual history repeats race history, it +actually is possible to unfold lines of descent that do not admit of +doubt. The gradual linking up of these will manifest the true genealogy +of each class, and reconstruct its ancestral forms by proof instead of +conjecture. The problem of the interrelations of the classes will thus +be reduced to its simplest terms, and even questions as to the nature of +the primitive Echinoderm and its affinity to the ancestors of other +phyla may become more than exercises for the ingenuity of youth. Work +has been and is being done by the laborious methods here alluded to, and +though the diversity of opinion as to the broader groupings of +classification is still restricted only by the number of writers, we can +point to an ever-increasing body of assured knowledge on which all are +agreed. Unfortunately such allusion to these disconnected certainties as +alone might be introduced here would be too brief for comprehension, +and we are forced to select a few of the broader hypotheses for a +treatment that may seem dogmatic and prejudiced. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Diagram of a simple form of Crinoid, with five +arms, each forking once; the one nearest the observer is removed to +expose the tegmen of five orals. This crinoid has only two circlets of +plates in the cup, but the cup analysed in the adjoining diagram has in +addition infrabasals and a centrale C.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--An early stage in the development of _Antedon_, +showing the foot-plate or "dorso-central" _fp_ at the end of the stem +_col._ Some of the thecal plates, infrabasals _I B_, basals B, and orals +_O_ are forming around the body-cavities _r.pc_ and _l.pc_; _p_ is the +water-pore. (After Seeliger.)] + + _Calycinal Theory._--The theory which had most influence on the + conceptions of Echinoderms in the two concluding decades of the 19th + century was that of Loven, elaborated by P.H. Carpenter, Sladen and + others. This, which may be called the _calycinal_ theory, will be + appreciated by comparing the structure of a simple crinoid with that + of some other types. A crinoid reduced to its simplest elements + consists of three principal portions--(i.) a theca or test enclosing + the viscera; (ii.) five arms stretching upwards or outwards from the + theca, sometimes single, sometimes branching; (iii.) a stem stretching + downwards from the theca and attaching it to the sea-floor (see fig. + 1). That part of the theca below the origins of the free arms is + called the "dorsal cup"; the ventral part above the origins of the + arms, serving as cover to the cup, is known as the "tegmen." All these + parts are supported by plates or ossicles of crystalline carbonate of + lime. The cup, in its simplest form, consists of two circlets of five + plates. Each plate of the upper circlet supports an arm, and is called + a "radial"; the plates of the lower circlet, the "basals," rest on the + stem and alternate with those of the upper circlet, i.e. are + interradial in position. Some crinoids have yet another circlet below + these, the constituent plates of which are called "infrabasals," and + are situated radially. The tegmen in most primitive forms, as well as + in the embryonic stages of the living _Antedon_ (fig. 2), consists of + five large triangular plates, alternating with the radials, and called + "orals," because they roof over the mouth. In addition to these three + or four circlets of plates, two other elements were once supposed + essential to the ideal crinoid: the dorso-central and the oro-central. + The former term was applied to a flattened plate observed in the + embryonic stage of a single genus (_Antedon_) at that end of the stem + attached to the sea-floor, and comparable to the foot of a wine-glass + (fig. 2). In some crinoids which have no trace of a stem (e.g. + _Marsupites_) a pentagonal plate is found at the bottom of the cup, + where the stem would naturally have arisen ("centrale" in fig. 1); and + since it was believed that the stem always grew by addition of + ossicles immediately below the infrabasals, it was inferred that this + pentagonal plate was the centro-dorsal in its primitive position, as + though the wine-glass had been evolved from a tumbler by pulling the + bottom out to form the foot. The oro-central was, it must be admitted, + a theoretical conception due to a desire for symmetry, and was not + confirmed by anything better than some erroneous observations on + certain fossils, which were supposed to show a plate at the oral pole + between the five orals; but this plate, so far as it exists at all, is + now known to be nothing but an oral shifted in position. The theory + was that all the plates just described, and more particularly those of + the cup, which were termed "the calycinal system," could be traced, + not merely in all crinoids, but in all Echinoderms, whether fixed + forms such as cystids and blastoids, or free forms such as ophiuroids + and echinoids, even--with the eye of faith--in holothurians. It was + admitted that these elements might atrophy, or be displaced, or be + otherwise obscured; but their complete and symmetrical disposition was + regarded as typical and original. Thus the genera exhibiting it were + regarded as primitive, and those orders and classes in which it was + least obscured were supposed to approach most nearly the ancestral + Echinoderm. Every one knows that an "apical system," composed of two + circlets known as "genitals" or basals and "oculars" or radials, + occurs round the aboral pole of echinoids (fig. 3, A), and that a few + genera (e.g. _Salenia_, fig. 3, B) possess a sub-central plate (the + "suranal"), which might be identified with the centro-dorsal. It is + also the case that many asterids (fig. 3, D) and ophiurids (fig. 3, C) + have a similar arrangement of plates on the dorsal (i.e. aboral) + surface of the disk. Accepting the homology of these apical systems + with the calycinal system, the theory would regard the aboral pole of + a sea-urchin or starfish as corresponding in everything, except its + relations to the sea-floor, with the aboral pole of a fixed + echinoderm. + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.-Supposed calycinal systems of free-moving + Echinoderms. A, regular sea-urchin (_Cidaris_); B, sea-urchin with a + suranal plate (_Salenia_); C, developing ophiurid (_Amphiura_); D, + young starfish (_Zoroaster_).] + + The theory has been vigorously opposed, notably by Semon (_op. cit._), + who saw in the holothurians a nearer approach to the ancestral form + than was furnished by any calyculate echinoderm, and by the Sarasins, + who derived the echinoids from the holothurians through forms with + flexible tests (_Echinothuridae_, which, however, are now known to be + specialized in this respect). The support that appeared to be given to + the theory by the presence of supposed calycinal plates in the embryo + of echinoids and asteroids has been, in the opinion of many, + undermined by E.W. MacBride (_op. cit._), who has insisted that in the + fixed stage of the developing starfish, _Asterina_, the relations of + these plates to the stem are quite different from those which they + bear in the developing and adult crinoid. But, however correct the + observations and the homologies of MacBride may be, they do not, as + Bury (_op. cit._) has well pointed out, afford sufficient grounds for + his inference that the abactinal (i.e. aboral) poles of starfish and + crinoids are not comparable with one another, and that all conclusions + based on the supposed homology of the dorso-central of echinoids and + asteroids with that of crinoids are incorrect. Bury himself, however, + has inflicted a severe blow on the theory by his proof that the + so-called oculars of Echinoidea, which were supposed to represent the + radials, are homologous with the "terminals" (i.e. the plates at the + tips of the rays) in Asteroidea and Ophiuroidea, and therefore not + homologous with the radially disposed plates often seen around the + aboral pole of those animals. For, if these radial constituents of the + supposed apical system in an ophiurid have really some other origin, + why can we not say the same of the supposed basals? Indeed, Bury is + constrained to admit that the view of Semon and others may be correct, + and that these so-called calycinal systems may not be heirlooms from a + calyculate ancestor, but may have been independently developed in the + various classes owing to the action of similar causes. That this view + must be correct is urged by students of fossils. Palaeontology lends + no support to the idea that the dorso-central is a primitive element; + it exists in none of the early echinoids, and the suranal of + _Saleniidae_ arises from the minor plates around the anus. There is no + reason to suppose that the central apical plate of certain + free-swimming crinoids has any more to do with the distal foot-plate + of the larval _Antedon_ stem than has the so-called centro-dorsal of + _Antedon_ itself, which is nothing but the compressed proximal end of + the stem. As for the supposed basals of Echinoidea, Asteroidea and + Ophiuroidea, they are scarcely to be distinguished among the ten or + more small plates that surround the anus of _Bothriocidaris_, which is + the oldest and probably the most ancestral of fossil sea-urchins (fig. + 5). A calycinal system may be quite apparent in the later Ophiuroidea + and in a few Asteroidea, but there is no trace of it in the older + Palaeozoic types, unless we are to transfer the appellation to the + terminals. Those plates are perhaps constant throughout sea-urchins + and starfish (though it would puzzle any one to detect them in certain + Silurian echinoids), and they may be traced in some of the fixed + echinoderms; but there is no proof that they represent the radials of + a simple crinoid, and there are certainly many cystids in which no + such plates existed. Loven and M. Neumayr adduced the Triassic + sea-urchin _Tiarechinus_, in which the apical system forms half of the + test, as an argument for the origin of Echinoidea from an ancestor in + which the apical system was of great importance; but a genus appearing + so late in time, in an isolated sea, under conditions that dwarfed the + other echinoid dwellers therein, cannot seriously be thought to + elucidate the origin of pre-Silurian Echinoidea, and the recent + discovery of an intermediate form suggests that we have here nothing + but degenerate descendants of a well-known Palaeozoic family + (_Lepidocentridae_). But to pursue the tale of isolated instances + would be wearisome. The calycinal theory is not merely an assertion of + certain homologies, a few of which might be disputed without affecting + the rest: it governs our whole conception of the echinoderms, because + it implies their descent from a calyculate ancestor--not a + "crinoid-phantom," that bogey of the Sarasins, but a form with + definite plates subject to a quinqueradiate arrangement, with which + its internal organs must likewise have been correlated. To this + ingenious and plausible theory the revelations of the rocks are more + and more believed to be opposed. + + [Illustration: FIG. 4.--The _Pentactula_ stage in the development of + _Synapta_. + + T, The five interradial tentacles. + M, The water-pore, leading by the stone-canal stc to the water-ring, + from which hangs a Polian vesicle pb. + oc, Supposed otocysts. + m, Longitudinal muscles. + sk, Calcareous spicules. + st, Stomach. + (After Semon.)] + + _Pentactaea Theory._--In opposition to the calycinal theory has been + the _Pentactaea_ theory of R. Semon. There have always been many + zoologists prepared to ascribe an ancestral character to the + holothurians. The absence of an apical system of plates; the fact that + radial symmetry has not affected the generative organs, as it has in + all other recent classes; the well-developed muscles of the body-wall, + supposed to be directly inherited from some worm-like ancestor; the + presence on the inner walls of the body in the family _Synaptidae_ of + ciliated funnels, which have been rashly compared to the excretory + organs (nephridia) of many worms; the outgrowth from the rectum in + other genera of caeca (Cuvierian organs and respiratory trees), which + recall the anal glands of the Gephyrean worms; the absence of podia + (tube-feet) in many genera, and even of the radial water-vessels in + _Synaptidae_; the absence of that peculiar structure known in other + echinoderms by the names "axial organ," "ovoid gland," &c.; the + simpler form of the larva--all these features have, for good reason or + bad, been regarded as primitive. Some of the more striking of these + features are confined to _Synaptidae_; in that family too the absence + of the radial water-vessels from the adult is correlated with + continuity of the circular muscle-layer, while the gut runs almost + straight from the anterior mouth to the posterior anus. Early in the + life-history of _Synapta_ occurs a stage with five tentacles around + the mouth, and into these pass canals from the water-ring, the radial + canals to the body-wall making a subsequent, and only temporary, + appearance (fig. 4). Semon called this stage the _Pentactula_, and + supposed that, in its early history, the class had passed through a + similar stage, which he called the _Pentactaea_, and regarded as the + ancestor of all Echinoderms. It has since been proved that the five + tentacles with their canals are interradial, so that one can scarcely + look on the _Pentactula_ as a primitive stage, while the apparent + simplicity of the _Synaptidae_, at least as compared with other + holothurians, is now believed to be the result of regressive changes. + The _Pentactaea_, at all events as it sprang from the brain of Semon, + must pass to the limbo of mythological ancestors. + + _Pelmatozoic Theory._--The rejection of the calycinal and _Pentactaea_ + theories need not scatter our conceptions of Echinoderm structure back + into the chaos from which they seemed to have emerged. The idea of a + calyculate ancestor, though by no means connoting fixation, turned + men's minds in the direction of the fixed forms, simply because in + them the calyx was best developed. The _Pentactaea_ again suggested a + search for some primitive type in which quinqueradiate symmetry was + exhibited in circumoral appendages, but had not affected the nervous, + water-vascular, muscular or skeletal systems to any great extent, and + the generative organs not at all. Study of the earliest larval stages + has always led to the conclusion that the Echinoderms must have + descended from some freely-moving form with a bilateral symmetry, and, + connecting this with the ideas just mentioned, we reach the conception + that this supposed bilateral ancestor (or _Dipleurula_) may have + become fixed, and may have gradually acquired a radial symmetry in + consequence of its sedentary mode of life. The different extent of + quinqueradiate symmetry in the different classes would thus depend on + the period at which they diverged from the sedentary stock. The + tracing of this history, and the explanation of the general characters + of Echinoderms and of the differentiating features of the classes in + accordance therewith, constitutes the _Pelmatozoic_ theory. + + The word "Pelmatozoa" literally means "stalked animals," but the name + is now used to denote all Cystidea, Blastoidea, Crinoidea and + Edrioasteroidea, as opposed to the other classes, which may be called + Eleutherozoa. Many Pelmatozoa have, it is true, no stalk, while some + are freely-moving, but all agree in the possession of certain + characters obviously connected with a fixed mode of life. Thus, the + mouth is central and turned away from the sea-floor; the animal does + not seize its food by tentacles, limbs or jaws, neither does it move + in search of it, but a series of ciliated grooves which radiate from + the mouth sweep along currents of water, in the eddies of which minute + food-particles are caught up and carried down into the gullet; the + undigested food is driven out through an anus which is on the upper or + oral side of the theca, but as far distant as practicable from the + mouth and ciliated grooves. Such characters are found in any + primitive, sedentary group. More peculiarly Echinoderm features, in + which the Pelmatozoan nature is manifest, are the enclosing of the + viscera in a calcified and plated theca, for protection against those + enemies from which a fixed animal cannot flee; the development, at the + aboral pole of this theca, of a motor nerve-centre giving off branches + to the stroma connecting the various plates of the theca and of its + brachial, anal, and columnar extensions, and thus co-ordinating the + movements of the whole skeleton; the absence of suckers from the + podia, which, when present, are respiratory, not locomotor, in + function. There are other features of most, if not all, Pelmatozoa + that appear to be due to a fixed existence; but those are also found + in the Eleutherozoa. The Pelmatozoic theory thus regards the + Pelmatozoa as the more ancestral forms, and the Pelmatozoan stage as + one that must have been passed through by all Echinoderms during their + evolution from the _Dipleurula_. It might be possible to prove the + origin of all classes from Pelmatozoa, without thereby explaining the + origin of such fundamental features as radial symmetry, the + developmental metamorphosis, and the torsion that affects both gut and + body-cavities during that process; but the acceptance of a + _Dipleurula_ as the common ancestor necessitates an explanation of + these features. Such explanation is an integral part of the + Pelmatozoic theory, but is provided by no other. + + The evidence for the Pelmatozoic theory is supplied by palaeontology, + embryology, the comparative anatomy of the classes, and a + consideration of other phyla. Palaeontology, so far as it goes, is a + sure guide, but some of the oldest fossiliferous rocks yield remains + of distinctly differentiated crinoids, asteroids and echinoids, so + that the problem is not solved merely by collecting fossils. Two lines + of argument appear fruitful. First, a comparison of the relative + numbers of the representatives of the various classes at different + epochs; according to this they may be placed in the following order, + with the oldest first: Cystidea, Crinoidea, Blastoidea, Asteroidea, + Ophiuroidea, Echinoidea. As for Holothuroidea, the fossil evidence + allows us to say no more than that the class existed in early + Carboniferous times, if not before. The second method is to work out + by slow and sure steps the lines of descent of the different families, + orders, and classes, and so either to arrive at the ancestral form of + each class, or to plot out the curve of evolution, which may then + legitimately be projected into "the dark backward and abysm of time." + In this way the many highly modified orders of Cystidea may be traced + back to a simple, many-plated ancestor with little or no radiate + symmetry (see below). All the complicated structures of Blastoidea are + evolved from a fairly simple type, which in its turn is linked on to + one of the cystid orders. That the crinoids are all deducible from + some such simple form as that above described under the head + "calycinal theory," is now generally admitted. Although, in the + extreme correlation of the radial food-grooves, nerves, water-vessels, + and so forth, with a radiate symmetry of the theca, such a type + differs from the Cystidea, while in the possession of jointed + processes from the radial plates, bearing the grooves and the various + body-systems outwards from the theca, it differs from all other + Echinoderms, nevertheless ancient forms are known which, if they are + not themselves the actual links, suggest how the crinoid type may have + been evolved from some of the more regular cystids. The fourth class + of Pelmatozoa--the Edrioasteroidea--differs from the others in the + structure of its ambulacra. As in all Pelmatozoa these seem to have + borne ciliated food-grooves protected by movable covering-plates (fig. + 11). Beneath each food-groove was a radial water-vessel and probably a + nerve and blood-vessel, all which structures passed either between + certain regularly arranged thecal plates, or along a furrow floored by + those plates, which were then in two alternating series. The important + and distinctive feature is the presence of pores between the + flooring-plates, on either side of the groove; and these, we cannot + doubt, served for the passage of podia. Thus in a highly developed + edrioasteroid, such as _Edrioaster_ itself (fig. 11), there was a true + ambulacrum, apparently constructed like that of a starfish, but + differing in the possession of a ciliated food-groove protected by + covering-plates. The simpler forms of Edrioasteroidea, with their more + sac-like body and undifferentiated plates, may well have been derived + from early Cystidea of yet simpler structure, and there seems no + reason to follow Jaekel in regarding the class as itself the more + primitive. Turning to fossil Asteroidea, we find the earlier ophiurids + scarcely distinguishable from the asterids, while in the alternation + of the ambulacrals, which undoubtedly correspond to the + flooring-plates of _Edrioaster_, both groups approach the Pelmatozoan + type. These facts have been expressed by Sturtz in his names + Encrinasteriae and Ophio-encrinasteriae. There is no difficulty in + deducing the highly differentiated asterids and ophiurids of a later + day from these simpler types. The evolution of the modern Echinoidea + from their Palaeozoic ancestors is also well understood, but in this + case the ancestral form to which the palaeontologist is led does not + at first sight present many resemblances to the Pelmatozoa. It is, + however, characterized by simplicity of structure, and a short + description of it will serve to clear the problem from unnecessary + difficulties. _Bothriocidaris_ (fig. 5), a small echinoid from the + Ordovician rocks of Esthonia, is in essential structure just the form + demanded by comparative palaeontology to make a starting-point. It is + spheroidal, with the mouth and anus at opposite poles; there are five + ambulacra, and the ambulacral plates are large, simple and + alternating, each being pierced by two podial pores which lie in a + small oval depression; the ambulacrals next the mouth form a closed + ring of ten plates; the interambulacrals lie in single columns between + the ambulacra, and are separated from the mouth-area by the proximal + ambulacrals just mentioned, and sometimes by the second set of + ambulacrals also; the ambulacra end in the five oculars or terminals, + which meet in a ring around the anal area and have no podial pores, + but one of them serves as a madreporite; within this ring is a + star-shaped area filled with minute irregular plates, none of which + can safely be selected as the homologues of the so-called basals or + genitals of later forms; within the ring of ambulacrals around the + mouth are five somewhat pointed plates, which Jaekel regards as teeth, + but which can scarcely be homologous with the interradially placed + teeth of later echinoids, since they are radial in position; small + spines are present, especially around the podial pores. The position + of the pores near the centre of the ambulacrals in _Bothriocidaris_ + need not be regarded as primitive, since other early Palaeozoic + genera, not to mention the young of living forms, show that the podia + originally passed out between the plates, and were only gradually + surrounded by their substance; thus the original structure of the + echinoid ambulacra differed from that of the early asteroid in the + position of the radial vessels and nerves, which here lie beneath the + plates instead of outside them. To this point we shall recur; + palaeontology, though it suggests a clue, does not furnish an actual + link either between Echinoidea and Asteroidea, or between those + classes and Pelmatozoa. + + [Illustration: FIG. 5.--_Bothriocidaris globulus._ A, from the side; + B, the plates around the aboral pole. (After Jaekel.) The short spines + which were attached to the tubercles are not drawn.] + + The argument from embryology leads further back. First, as already + mentioned, it outlines the general features of the _Dipleurula_; + secondly, it indicates the way in which this free-moving form became + fixed, and how its internal organs were modified in consequence; but + when we seek, thirdly, for light on the relations of the classes, we + find the features of the adult coming in so rapidly that such + intermediate stages as may have existed are either squeezed out or + profoundly modified. The difficulty of rearing the larvae in an + aquarium towards the close of the metamorphosis may account for the + slight information available concerning the stages that immediately + follow the embryonic. Another difficulty is due to the fact that the + types studied, and especially the crinoid _Antedon_, are highly + specialized, so that some of the embryonic features are not really + primitive as regards the class, but only as regards each particular + genus. Thus inferences from embryonic development need to be checked + by palaeontology, and supplemented by comparison of the anatomy of + other living genera. + + Minute anatomical research has also aided to establish the Pelmatozoic + theory by the gradual recognition in other classes of features + formerly supposed to be confined to Pelmatozoa. Thus the elements of + the Pelmatozoan ventral groove are now detected in so different a + structure as the echinoid ambulacrum, while an aboral nervous system, + the diminished representative of that in crinoids, has been traced in + all Eleutherozoa except Holothurians. The broader theories of modern + zoology might seem to have little bearing on the Echinoderma, for it + is not long since the study of these animals was compared to a + landlocked sea undisturbed by such storms as rage around the origin of + the Vertebrata. This, however, is no more the case. The conception of + the _Dipleurula_ derives its chief weight from the fact that it is + comparable to the early larval forms of other primitive coelomate + animals, such as _Balanoglossus_, _Phoronis_, Chaetognatha, + Brachiopoda and Bryozoa. So too the explanation of radial symmetry and + torsion of organs as due to a Pelmatozoic mode of life finds + confirmation in many other phyla. Instead of discussing all these + questions separately, with the details necessary for an adequate + presentation of the argument, we shall now sketch the history of the + Echinoderms in accordance with the Pelmatozoic theory. Such a sketch + must pass lightly over debatable ground, and must consist largely of + suggestions still in need of confirmation; but if it serves as a frame + into which more precise and more detailed statements may be fitted as + they come to the ken of the reader, its object will be attained. + +_Evolution of the Echinoderms._--It is reasonable to suppose that the +Coelomata--animals in which the body-cavity is divided into a gut +passing from mouth to anus and a hollow (coelom) surrounding it--were +derived from the simpler Coelentera, in which the primitive body-cavity +(archenteron) is not so divided, and has only one aperture serving as +both mouth and anus. We may, with Sedgwick, suppose the coelom to have +originated by the enlargement and separation of pouches that pressed +outwards from the archenteron into the thickened body-wall (such +structures as the genital pouches of some Coelentera, not yet shut off +from the rest of the cavity), and they would probably have been four in +number and radially disposed about the central cavity. The evolution of +this cavity into a gut is foreshadowed in some Coelentera by the +elliptical shape of the aperture, and by the development at its ends of +a ciliated channel along which food is swept; we have only to suppose +the approximation of the sides of the ellipse and their eventual fusion, +to complete the transformation of the radially symmetrical Coelenterate +into a bilaterally symmetrical Coelomate with mouth and anus at opposite +ends of the long axis. We further suppose that of the four coelomic +pouches one was in front of the mouth, one behind the anus, and one on +each side. Such an animal, if it ever existed, probably lived near the +surface of the sea, and even here it may have changed its medusoid mode +of locomotion for one in the direction of its mouth. Thus the bilateral +symmetry would have been accentuated, and the organism shaped more +definitely into three segments, namely (1) a preoral segment or lobe, +containing the anterior coelomic cavity; (2) a middle segment, +containing the gut, and the two middle coelomic cavities; (3) a +posterior segment, containing the posterior coelomic cavity, which, +however, owing to the backward prolongation of the anus, became divided +into two--a right and left posterior coelom. Each of these cavities +presumably excreted waste products to the exterior by a pore. There was +probably a nervous area, with a tuft of cilia, at the anterior end; +while, at all events in forms that remained pelagic, the ciliated +nervous tracts of the rest of the body may be supposed to have become +arranged in bands around the body-segments. Such a form as this is +roughly represented to-day by the _Actinotrocha_ larva of _Phoronis_, +the importance of which has been brought out by Masterman. But only +slight modifications are required to produce the _Tornaria_ larva of the +Enteropneusta and other larvae, including the special type that is +inferred from the _Dipleurula_ larval stages of recent forms to have +characterized the ancestor of the Echinoderms. We cannot enter here +into all the details of comparison between these larval forms; amid much +that is hypothetical a few homologies are widely accepted, and the +preceding account will show the kind of relation that the Echinoderms +bear to other animals, including what are now usually regarded as the +ancestors of the Chordata (to which back-boned animals belong), as well +as the nature of the evidence that their study has been, or may be, made +to yield. How the hypothetical _Dipleurula_ became an Echinoderm, and +how the primitive Echinoderms diverged in structure so as to form the +various classes, are questions to which an answer is attempted in the +following paragraphs:-- + + Confining our attention to that form of Dipleurula (fig. 6) which, it + is supposed, gave rise to the Echinoderma, we infer from embryological + data that its special features were as follow:--The anterior coelomic + cavity was wholly or partially divided, and from each half a duct led + to the exterior, opening at a pore near the middle line of the back. + The middle cavities were smaller, and the ducts from them came to + unite with those from the anterior cavities, and no longer opened + directly to the exterior; whether these cavities were already + specialized as water-sacs cannot be asserted, but they certainly had + become so at a slightly later stage. The posterior cavities were the + largest, but what had become of their original opening to the exterior + is uncertain. The genital products were derived from the lining of the + coelomic cavities, but it would not be safe to say that any particular + region was as yet specialized for generation. The epithelium of the + outer surface was probably ciliated, and a portion of it in the + preoral lobe differentiated as a sense-organ, with longer cilia and + underlying nerve-centre, from which two nerves ran back below the + ventral surface. Into the space between the walls of the coelom and + the outer body-wall, originally filled with jelly, definite cells now + wandered, chiefly derived from the coelomic walls. Some of these cells + produced muscles and connective tissue; others absorbed and removed + waste products, iron salts, calcium carbonate and the like, and so + were ready to be utilized for the deposition of pigment or of skeletal + substance. In some of these respects the _Dipleurula_ may have + diverged from the ancestor of Enteropneusta and of other animals, but + it could not as yet have been recognized as echinodermal by a + zoologist, for it presented none of the structural peculiarities of + the modern adult echinoderm. + + [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Diagrammatic reconstruction of _Dipleurula_. + The creature is represented crawling on the sea-floor, but it may + equally well have been a floating animal. The ciliated bands are not + drawn.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Diagrammatic reconstruction of primitive + Pelmatozoon, seen from the side. The plates of the test are not drawn; + their probable appearance may be gathered from fig. 8.] + + Now ensued the great event that originated the phylum--the discovery + of the sea-floor. This being apprehended by the sensory anterior end, + it was by that end that the _Dipleurula_ attached itself; not, + however, by the pole, since that would have interfered at once with + the sensory organ, but a little to one side, the right side being the + one chosen for a reason we cannot now fathom; it may be that fixation + was facilitated by the presence of the pore on that side, and by the + utilization of the excretion from it as a cement. The first result was + that which is always seen to follow in such cases--the passage of the + mouth towards the upper surface (fig. 7). As it passed up along the + left side, the gut caught hold of the left water-sac and pulled it + upwards, curving it in the process; this being attached to the left + duct from the anterior body-cavity, this structure with its water-pore + was also pulled up, and the pore came to lie between mouth and anus. + The forward portion of the anterior coelom shared in the constriction + and elongation of the preoral lobe; but its hinder portion was dragged + up along with the water-pore and formed a canal lying along the outer + wall (the parietal canal). As the gut coiled, it pressed inwards the + middle of the left posterior coelom of the _Dipleurula_, and drew the + whole towards the mouth, while the corresponding cavity on the right + was pressed down by the stomach towards the fixed end of the animal + and became involved in the elongation of that region. These changes, + which may still be traced in the development of _Antedon_, resulted in + the primitive Pelmatozoon (fig. 7), represented in the rocks by such a + genus as _Aritocystis_ (fig. 8). The pear-shaped body is encased in a + theca formed by a number of polygonal plates, and is attached by its + narrow end. On the broad upper surface are four openings, that nearest + the centre being the mouth, which is slit-like, and that nearest the + periphery being the anus. The two other openings are minute, and + placed between those two; one close to the mouth is almost certainly + the water-pore, while that nearer the anus is regarded as a genital + aperture. Which of the coelomic cavities this last is connected with + is uncertain, for there is considerable doubt as to the origin of the + genital glands in the embryonic development of recent echinoderms. It + seems clear, however, that there was but a single duct and a single + bunch of reproductive cells, as in the holothurians, though perhaps + bifurcate, as in some of those animals. The line between mouth and + anus, along which these openings are situate, corresponds with the + plane of union between the two horns of the curved left posterior + coelom, the united walls of which form the "dorsal mesentery." Since + this must have, on our theory, enclosed the parietal canal from the + anterior coelom, it is possible that the genital products were + developed from the lining cells of that cavity, and that the genital + pore was nothing but its original pore not yet united with that from + the water-sac. The concrescence of these pores can be traced in other + cystids; but as the genital organs became affected by radial symmetry + the original function of the duct was lost, and the reproductive + elements escaped to the exterior in another way. _Aristocystis_ may + have had ciliated food-grooves leading to its mouth, but these have + left no traces on the structure of the test. Traces, however, are + perceptible in genera believed to be descended from such a simple + type, and the majority may be grouped under two heads. One group + includes those in which the grooves wander outwards from the mouth + over the thecal plates, which gradually become arranged regularly on + either side of the grooves, while further extensions ascend from the + grooves on small jointed processes called "brachioles" (fig. 9). In + the other group the grooves do not tend so much to stretch over the + theca as to be raised away from it on relatively larger brachioles, + arising close around the mouth (fig. 10). + + [Illustration: FIG. 8.--_Aristocystis bohemicus_; side-view of the + theca. The internal structure may be gathered from fig. 7.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 9.--_Fungocystis rarissima_, one of the + Diploporita, in which the thecal plates bordering the food-grooves are + not yet regularly arranged. The brachioles are not drawn.] + + These two types are, in the main, correlated with two gradual + differentiations in the minute structure of the thecal plates. + Originally the calcareous substance of the plates (stereom) was + pierced by irregular canals, more or less vertical, and containing + strands of the soft tissue (stroma) that deposited the stereom, as + well as spaces filled with fluid. In the former group (fig. 9) these + canals became connected in pairs (diplopores) still perpendicular to + the surface, and this structure, combined with that of the grooves, + characterizes the order--Diploporita. In the latter group (fig. 10) + the canals, that is to say, the stroma-strands, came to lie parallel + to the surface and to cross the sutures between the plates, which were + thus more flexibly and more strongly united: since the canals + crossing each suture naturally occupy a rhombic area, the order is + called Rhombifera. At first the grooves were three, one proceeding + from each end of the mouth-slit, and the third in a direction opposed + to the anus; with reference to the Pelmatozoan structure, the anal + side may be termed posterior, and this groove anterior. Eventually + each lateral groove forked, so that there were five grooves. These + gradually impressed themselves on the theca and influenced the + arrangement of the internal organs: it is fairly safe to assume that + nerves, blood-vessels and branches from the water-sac stretched out + along with these grooves, each system starting from a ring around the + gullet. At last a quinqueradiate symmetry influenced the plates of the + theca, partly through the development of a plate at the end of each + groove (terminal), partly through plates at the aboral pole of the + theca (basals and infrabasals) arising in response to mechanical + pressure, but soon intimately connected with the cords of an aboral + nervous system. Before the latter plates arose, the stem had developed + by the elongation and constriction of the fixed end of the theca, the + gradual regularization of the plates involved, and their coalescence + into rings. The crinoid type was differentiated by the extension of + the food-grooves and associated organs along radial outgrowths from + the theca itself. These constituted the arms (brachia), and five + definite radial plates of the theca were specialized for their + support. These radials may be homologous with the terminals already + mentioned, but this is neither necessary nor certain. In this + development of brachial extensions of the theca the genital organs + were involved, and their ripe products formed at the ends of the + brachia or in the branches therefrom. The remains of the original + genital gland within the theca became the "axial organ" surrounded by + the "axial sinus" derived from the anterior coelom, and this again by + structures derived from the right posterior coelom, which, as + explained above, had been depressed to the aboral pole. These last + structures formed a nervous sheath around the axial sinus with its + blood-vessels, and became divided into five lobes correlated with the + five basals (the "chambered organ") and forming the aboral + nerve-centre. Before these changes were complete the Holothurioidea + must have diverged, by the assumption of a crawling existence. Thus in + them the mouth and anus reverted to opposite poles, and only the + torsion of the gut and coelom, and the radial extensions of the + nervous, water-vascular and blood-vascular systems, testified to their + Pelmatozoan ancestry. The ciliated grooves, no longer needed for the + collection of food, closed over, and are still traceable as ciliated + canals overlying the radial nerves. At the same time the thecal plates + degenerated into spicules. The Edrioasteroidea followed a different + line from that of the cystids above mentioned and their descendants. + The theca became sessile, and in its later developments much flattened + (fig. 11). Mouth, water-pore and anus remained as in _Aristocystis_, + but the five ciliated grooves radiated from the mouth between the + thecal plates rather than over them, and were, as usual, protected by + covering-plates. The important feature was the extension of radial + canals from the water-sac along these grooves, with branches passing + between the flooring-plates of the grooves (fig. 12, A). The + resemblance of the flooring-plates to the ambulacral ossicles of a + starfish is so exact that one can explain it only by supposing similar + relations of the water-canals and their branches (podia). On the + thinly plated under surface of well-preserved specimens of + _Edrioaster_ are seen five interradial swellings (fig. 11, B). These + are likely to have been produced by the ripe genital glands, which may + have extruded their products directly through the membranous + integument of the under side. No other way out for them is apparent, + and it is clear that _Edrioaster_ was not permanently and solidly + fixed to the sea-floor. + + [Illustration: FIG. 10.--_Chirocrinus-alter_, one of the Rhombifera, + showing the reduced number and regular arrangement of the thecal + plates, and the concentration of the brachioles. (Adapted from + Jaekel.)] + + Now comes a great change, unfortunately difficult to follow whether in + the fossils or in the modern embryos. We suppose some such form as + _Edrioaster_, which appears to have lived near the shore, to have been + repeatedly overturned by waves. Those that were able to accommodate + themselves to this topsy-turvy existence, by taking food in directly + through the mouth, survived, and their podia gradually specialized as + sucking feet. Such a form as this, when once its covering-plates had + atrophied, would be a starfish without more ado (fig. 12, B); but the + sea-urchins present a more difficult problem, on which + _Bothriocidaris_ sheds no light. An Upper Silurian echinoid, however, + _Palaeodiscus_, is believed by W.J. Sollas and W.K. Spencer to have + had in its ambulacra an inner as well as an outer series of plates. If + this be correct, the only change from _Edrioaster_, as regards the + ambulacra, was that in _Palaeodiscus_ the covering-plates could no + longer open, but closed permanently over the whole groove, while the + podia issued through slits between them. In more typical echinoids the + covering-plates alone remained to form the ordinary ambulacral plates, + while the flooring-plates disappeared, the canals and other organs + remaining as before. In any case we have to admit a closure of the + integument over the ciliated groove (fig. 12, D, e) just as in + holothurians, since this is necessitated by anatomical evidence. The + genital organs in both Asteroidea and Echinoidea would retain the + interradial position they first assumed in _Edrioaster_; and in + Echinoidea their primitive temporary openings to the exterior were + converted into definite pores, correlated with five interradially + placed plates at the aboral pole. The anus also naturally moved to + this superior and aboral position. In the Echinoidea the water-canals + and associated structures, ending in the terminal plates, stretched + right up to these genital plates; but in the Asteroidea they never + reached the aboral surface, so that the terminals have always been + separated from the aboral pole by a number of plates. + +[Illustration: FIG. 11.--_Edrioaster._ A, upper or oral surface of _E. +Bigsbyi_, with the covering-plates on the anterior and left posterior +food-grooves, but removed from the others, which show only the +flooring-plates, between which are pores; B, under surface of _E. +Buchianus_, with covering-plates on right posterior and right anterior +food-grooves (left hand in the drawing). The * denotes the position of +the anal interradius.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 12.-Diagrammatic sections across the ambulacra of A, +C, PELMATOZOA, and B, D, ELEUTHEROZOA, placed in the same position for +comparison. _S_, Blood-spaces, of which the homology is still +uncertain.] + +_Analysis of Echinoderm Characters._--Regarding the Echinoderms as a +whole in the light of the foregoing account, we may give the following +analytic summary of the characters that distinguish them from other +coelomate animals:-- + + They live in salt or brackish water; a primitive bilateral symmetry is + still manifest in the right and left divisions of the coelom; the + middle coelomic cavities are primitively transformed into two + hydrocoels communicating with the exterior indirectly through a duct + or ducts of the anterior coelom; stereom, composed of crystalline + carbonate of lime, is, with few exceptions, deposited by special + amoebocytes in the meshes of a mesodermal stroma, chiefly in the + integument; reproductive cells are derived from the endothelium, + apparently of the anterior coelom; total segmentation of the ovum + produces a coeloblastula and gastrula by invagination; mesenchyme is + formed in the segmentation cavity by migration of cells, chiefly from + the hypoblast. Known Echinoderms show the following features, imagined + to be due to an ancestral pelmatozoic stage:--Increase in the coelomic + cavities of the left side, and atrophy of those on the right; the + dextral coil of the gut, recognizable in all classes, though often + obscured; an incomplete secondary bilateralism about the plane + including the main axis and the water-pore or its successor, the + madreporite, often obscured by one or other of various tertiary + bilateralisms; the change of the hydrocoel into a circumoral, arcuate + or ring canal; development through a free-swimming, bilaterally + symmetrical, ciliated larva, of which in many cases only a portion is + transformed into the adult Echinoderm (where care of the brood has + secondarily arisen, this larva is not developed). All living, and most + extinct, Echinoderms show the following features, almost certainly due + to an ancestral pelmatozoic stage:--An incomplete radial symmetry, of + which five is usually the dominant number, is superimposed on the + secondary bilateralism, owing to the outgrowth from the mouth region + of one unpaired and two paired ciliated grooves; these have a floor of + nervous epithelium, and are accompanied by subjacent radial canals + from the water-ring, giving off lateral podia and thus forming + ambulacra, and by a perihaemal system of canals apparently growing out + from coelomic cavities. All living Echinoderms have a lacunar, haemal + system of diverse origin; this, the ambulacral system, and the + coelomic cavities, contain a fluid holding albumen in solution and + carrying numerous amoebocytes, which are developed in special + lymph-glands and are capable of wandering through all tissues. The + Echinoderms may be divided into seven classes, whose probable + relations are thus indicated:-- + + / Cystidea------Edrioasteroidea + | | |\ + PELMATOZOA < | | \ Holothurioidea \ + | | | | + | Blastoidea | > ELEUTHEROZOA + \ Crinoidea | | + Stelliformia | + Echinoidea / + + Brief systematic accounts of these classes follow:-- + + Grade A. PELMATOZOA.--Echinoderma with the viscera enclosed in a + calcified and plated theca, of which the oral surface is uppermost, + and which is usually attached, either temporarily or permanently, by + the aboral surface. Food brought to the mouth by a subvective system + of ciliated grooves, radiating from the mouth either between the + plates of the theca (endothecal), or over the theca (epithecal), or + along processes from the theca (exothecal: arms, pinnules, &c.), or, + in part, and as a secondary development, below the theca (hypothecal). + Anus usually in the upper or oral half of the theca, and never aboral. + An aborally-placed motor nerve-centre gives off branches to the stroma + connecting the various plates of the theca and of its brachial, anal + and columnar extensions, and thus co-ordinates the movements of the + whole skeleton. The circumoesophageal water-ring communicates + indirectly with the exterior; the podia, when present, are + respiratory, not locomotor, in function. + + Class I. CYSTIDEA.--Pelmatozoa in which radial polymeric symmetry of + the theca is developed either not at all or not in complete + correlation with the radial symmetry of the ambulacra (such as obtains + in Blastoidea and Crinoidea); in which extensions of the food-grooves + are exothecal or epithecal or both combined, but neither endothecal + nor pierced by podia (as in some Edrioasteroidea) All Palaeozoic. + + This class shows much greater diversity of organization than any + other, and the classifications proposed by recent writers, such as E. + Haeckel, O. Jaekel and F.A. Bather, start from such different points + of view that no discussion of them can be attempted here. Following + the narrative given above, we recognize a primitive + group--Amphoridea--represented by _Aristocystis_ (fig. 8). From this + are derived the orders Diploporita (fig. 9) and Rhombifera (fig. 10) + and the class Edrioasteroidea, all which have already been described + as steps in the evolution of the phylum. But there were also + side-branches leading nowhere, and therefore placed in separate + orders--Aporita and Carpoidea. + + Order 1. _Amphoridea._--Radial symmetry has affected neither + food-grooves nor thecal plates; nor, probably, nerves, ambulacral + vessels, nor gonads. Canals or folds when present in the stereom are + irregular. Families: Aristocystidae (fig. 8); Eocystidae. + + Order 2. _Carpoidea._--Theca compressed in the oro-anal plane and a + bilateral symmetry thus induced, affecting the food-grooves and, + usually, the thecal plates and stem. Food-grooves in part epithecal + and may be continued on one or two exothecal processes. No pores or + folds in the stereom. Families: Anomalocystidae, Dendrocystidae. These + correspond to Jaekel's Carpoidea Heterostelea; he also includes, as + Eustelea, our Comarocystidae and Malocystidae. + + Order 3. _Rhombifera._--Radial symmetry affects the food-grooves and, + in the more advanced families, the thecal plates; probably also the + nerves and ambulacral vessels, but not the gonads. The food-grooves + are exothecal, i.e. are stretched out from the theca on jointed + skeletal processes (brachioles). These either are close to the mouth + or are removed from it upon a series of ambulacral or sub-ambulacral + plates not derived immediately from thecal plates, or are separated + from the oral centre by hypothecal passages passing beneath terminal + plates. The stereom and stroma become arranged in folds and strands at + right angles to the sutures of the thecal plates; in higher forms the + stereom-folds are in part specialized as pectini-rhombs. Families: + Echinosphaeridae; Comarocystidae; Macrocystellidae; Tiaracrinidae; + Malocystidae; Glyptocystidae, with sub-famm. Echinoencrininae, + Callocystinae, Glyptocystinae, of which examples are _Cheirocrinus_ + (fig. 10) and _Cystoblastus_ from which Jaekel deduces the blastoids; + Caryocrinidae. + + Order 4. _Aporita._--Pentamerous symmetry affects the food-grooves and + thecal plates; probably also the nerves and ambulacral vessels, but + not the gonads. Food-grooves exothecal and circumoral. The stereom + shows no trace of canals, folds, rhombs or diplopores. Family: + Cryptocrinidae. + + Order 5. _Diploporita._--Radial symmetry affects the food-grooves, and + by degrees the thecal plates connected therewith, but not the + interradial thecal plates; probably also the nerves and ambulacral + vessels, but not the gonads. The food-grooves are epithecal, i.e. are + extended over the thecal plates themselves without intermediate + flooring; they are also prolonged on exothecal brachioles, which line + the epithecal grooves. The stereom of the thecal plates may be thrown + into folds, but the mesostroma does not so much tend to lie in strands + traversing the sutures, nor are pectini-rhombs or pore-rhombs + developed; diplopores are always present in the mesostereom, but often + restricted to definite tracts or plates, especially in higher forms. + Families: Sphaeronidae; Glyptosphaeridae, e.g. _Fungocystis_ (fig. 9); + Protocrinidae; Mesocystidae; Gomphocystidae. + + The Protocrinidae lead up to _Proteroblastus_, in which the theca is + ovoid, sometimes prolonged into a stem, the plates differentiated into + (a) smooth, irregular, depressed interambulacrals, (b) transversely + elongate brachioliferous adambulacrals, to which the diplopores, which + lie at right angles to the main food-groove, are confined. This leads + almost without a break to the Protoblastoidea. + + Class II. BLASTOIDEA.--Pelmatozoa in which five (by atrophy four) + epithecal ciliated grooves, lying on a lancet-shaped plate (? always), + radiate from a central peristome between five interradial deltoid + plates, and are edged by alternating side-plates bearing brachioles, + to which side-branches pass from the grooves. Grooves and peristome + protected by small plates, which can open over the grooves. The + generative organs and coelom probably did not send extensions along + the rays into the brachioles; but apparently nerves from the aboral + centre, after passing through the thecal plates, met in a circumoral + ring, from which branches passed into the plate under each main + food-groove, and thence supplied the brachioles. The thecal plates, + however irregular in some species, always show defined basals and a + distinct plate ("radial") at the end of each ambulacrum; they are in + all cases so far affected by pentamerous symmetry that their sutures + never cross the ambulacra. All Palaeozoic. + + Division A. _Protoblastoidea._--Blastoidea without interambulacral + groups of hydrospire-folds hanging into the thecal cavity. Families: + Asteroblastidae, Blastoidocrinidae. The former might be placed with + Diploporita, were it not for a greater intimacy of correlation between + ambulacral and thecal structures than is found in Cystidea as here + defined. They form a link between the Protocrinidae and-- + + Division B. _Eublastoidea._--Blastoidea in which the thecal plates + have assumed a definite number and position in 3 circlets, as follows: + 3 basals, 2 large and 1 small; 5 radials, often fork-shaped, forming a + closed circlet; 5 deltoids, interradial in position, supported on the + shoulders or processes of the radials, and often surrounding the + peristome with their oral ends. The stereom of the radials and + deltoids on each side of the ambulacra is thrown into folds, running + across the radio-deltoid suture, and hanging down into the thecal + cavity as respiratory organs (hydrospires). + + [Illustration: FIG. 13.--A Eublastoid, _Pentremites_.] + + These are the forms to which the name Blastoidea is usually + restricted. They have been divided into Regulares and Irregulares, but + it seems possible to group them according to three series or lines of + descent, thus:-- + + Series a. _Codonoblastida._--Families: Codasteridae, Pentremitidae + (fig. 13). + + Series b. _Troostoblastida._--Families: Troostocrinidae, + Eleutherocrinidae. + + Series c. _Granatoblastida._--Families: Nucleocrinidae, + Orbitremitidae, Pentephyllidae, Zygocrinidae. + + Class III. CRINOIDEA.--Pelmatozoa in which epithecal extensions of the + food-grooves, ambulacrals, superficial oral nervous system, + blood-vascular and water-vascular systems, coelom and genital system + are continued exothecally upon jointed outgrowths of the abactinal + thecal plates (_brachia_), carrying with them extensions of the + abactinal nerve-system. The number of these processes is primitively + and normally five, but may become less by atrophy. The brachia rise + from a corresponding number of thecal plates, "radials (RR)." Below + these is always a circlet, or traces of a circlet, of plates + alternating with the radials, i.e. interradial, and called "basals + (BB)." Through all modifications, which are numerous and vastly + divergent, these elements persist. A circlet of radially situate + infrabasals (IBB) may also be present. Below BB or IBB there follows a + stem, which, however, may be atrophied or totally lost (see fig. 1). + + The classification here adopted is that of F.A. Bather (1899), which + departs from that of Wachsmuth and Springer mainly in the separation + of forms with infrabasals or traces thereof from those in which basals + only are present. These two series also differ from each other in the + relations of the abactinal nerve-system. O. Jaekel (1894) has divided + the crinoids into the orders Cladocrinoidea and Pentacrinoidea, the + former being the Camerata of Wachsmuth and Springer (Monocyclica + Camerata, Adunata and Dicyclica Camerata of the present + classification), and the latter comprising all the rest, in which the + arms are either free or only loosely incorporated in the dorsal cup. + In minor points there is fair agreement between the American, German + and British authors. The families are extinct, except when the + contrary is stated. + + Sub-class I. _Monocyclica._--Crinoidea in which the base consists of + BB only, the aboral prolongations of the chambered organ being + interradial; new columnals are introduced at the extreme proximal end + of the stem. + + Order 1. _Monocyclica Inadunata._--Monocyclica in which the dorsal cup + is confined to the patina and occasional intercalated anals; such + ambulacrals or interambulacrals as enter the tegmen remain + supra-tegminal and not rigidly united. Families: Hybocrinidae, + Stephanocrinidae, Heterocrinidae, Calceocrinidae, Pisocrinidae, + Zophocrinidae, Haplocrinidae, Allagecrinidae, Symbathocrinidae, + Belemnocrinidae, Plicatocrinidae, Hyocrinidae (recent), Saccocomidae. + + Order 2. _Adunata._--Monocyclica with dorsal cup primitively confined + to the patina and an occasional single anal; tegmen solid; portions of + the proximal brachials and their ambulacrals tend to be rigidly + incorporated in the theca. Arms fork once to thrice, and bear pinnules + on each or on every other brachial. BB fused to 3, 2 or 1. + (Eucladocrinus and Acrocrinidae offer peculiar exceptions to this + diagnosis.) Families: Platycrinidae, Hexacrinidae, Acrocrinidae. + + Order 3. _Monocyclica Camerata._--Monocyclica in which the first, and + often the succeeding, orders of brachials are incorporated by + interbrachials in the dorsal cup, while the corresponding ambulacrals + are either incorporated in, or pressed below, the tegmen by + interambulacrals; all thecal plates united by suture, somewhat loose + in the earliest forms, but speedily becoming close, and producing a + rigid theca; mouth and tegminal food-grooves closed; arms pinnulate. + + Sub-order i. _Melocrinoidea._--RR in contact all round; first + brachial usually quadrangular. Families: Glyptocrinidae, + Melocrinidae, Patelliocrinidae, Clonocrinidae, Eucalyptocrinidae, + Dolatocrinidae. + + Sub-order ii. _Batocrinoidea._--RR separated by a heptagonal anal; + first brachial usually quadrangular. Families: Tanaocrinidae, + Xenocrinidae, Carpocrinidae, Barrandeocrinidae, Coelocrinidae, + Batocrinidae, Periechocrinidae. + + Sub-order iii. _Actinocrinoidea._--RR separated by a hexagonal anal; + first brachial usually hexagonal. Families: Actinocrinidae, + Amphoracrinidae. + + Sub-class II. _Dicyclica._--Crinoidea in which the base consists of BB + and IBB, the latter being liable to atrophy or fusion with the + proximale, but the aboral prolongations of the chambered organ are + always radial; new columnals may or may not be introduced at the + proximal end of the stem. + + Order 1. _Dicyclica Inadunata._--Dicyclica in which the dorsal cup + primitively is confined to the patina and occasional intercalated + anals, and no other plates ever occur between RR (Grade: Distincta); + Br may be incorporated in the cup, with or without iBr, but never + rigidly, and their corresponding ambulacrals remain supra-tegminal + (Grade: Articulata); new columnals are introduced at the extreme + proximal end of the stem. + + Sub-order i. _Cyathocrinoidea._--Tegmen stout with conspicuous + orals. Families: Carabocrinidae, Palaeocrinidae. Euspirocrinidae, + Sphaerocrinidae, Cyathocrinidae, Petalocrinidae, Crotalocrinidae, + Codiacrinidae, Cupressocrinidae, Gasterocomidae. + + Sub-order ii. _Dendrocrinoidea._--Tegmen thin, flexible, with + inconspicuous orals. Families: Dendrocrinidae, Botryocrinidae, + Lophocrinidae, Scaphiocrinidae, Scytalecrinidae, Graphiocrinidae, + Cromyocrinidae, Encrinidae (preceding families are Distincta; the + rest Articulata), Pentacrinidae, including the recent _Isocrinus_ + (fig. 14), Uintacrinidae, Marsupitidae, Bathycrinidae (recent). + + Order 2. _Flexibilia._--Dicyclica in which proximal brachials are + incorporated in the dorsal cup, either by their own sides, or by + interbrachials, or by a finely plated skin, but never rigidly; plates + may occur between RR. Tegmen flexible, with distinct ambulacrals and + numerous small interambulacrals; mouth and food-grooves remain + supra-tegminal and open. Top columnal a persistent proximale, often + fusing with IBB, which are frequently atrophied in the adult. + + All the Palaeozoic representatives have non-pinnulate arms, while the + Mesozoic and later forms have them pinnulate. There are other points + of difference, so that it is not certain whether the latter really + descended from the former. But assuming such a relationship we arrange + them in two grades. + + Grade a. _Impinnata._--Families: Ichthyocrinidae, Sagenocrinidae, + and Taxocrinidae, perhaps capable of further division. + + Grade b. _Pinnata._--Families: Apiocrinidae with the recent + _Calamocrinus_, Bourgueticrinidae with recent _Rhizocrinus_, + Antedonidae, Atelecrinidae, Actinometridae, Thaumatocrinidae (these + four recent families include free-moving forms with atrophied stem, + probably derived from different ancestors), Eugeniacrinidae, + Holopodidae (recent), Eudesicrinidae. + + [Illustration: FIG. 14.--A living Pentacrinid, _Isocrinus asteria_; + the first specimen found, after Guettard's figure published in 1761.] + + Order 3. _Dicyclica Camerata._--Dicyclica in which the first, and + usually the second, orders of brachials are incorporated in the dorsal + cup by interbrachials, at first loosely, but afterwards by close + suture. IBB always the primitive 5. An anal plate always rests on the + posterior basal; mouth and tegminal food-grooves closed; arms + pinnulate. Families: Reteocrinidae, Dimerocrinidae, Lampterocrinidae, + Rhodocrinidae, Cleiocrinidae. + + Class IV. EDRIOASTEROIDEA.--Pelmatozoa in which the theca is composed + of an indefinite number of irregular plates, some of which are + variously differentiated in different genera; with no subvective + skeletal appendages, but with central mouth, from which there radiate + through the theca five unbranched ambulacra, composed of a double + series of alternating plates (covering-plates), sometimes supported by + an outer series of larger alternating plates (side-plates or + flooring-plates). In some forms at least, pores between (not through) + the ambulacral elements, or between them and the thecal plates, seem + to have permitted the passage of extensions from the perradial + water-vessels. Anus in posterior interradius, on oral surface, closed + by valvular pyramid. Hydropore (usually, if not always, present) + between mouth and anus. Families: Agelacrinidae, Cyathocystidae, + Edrioasteridae, Steganoblastidae. All Palaeozoic. The structure and + importance of _Edrioaster_ have been discussed above (figs. 11, 12). + + Grade B. ELEUTHEROZOA--Echinoderma in which the theca, which may be + but slightly or not at all calcified, is not attached by any portion + of its surface, but is usually placed with the oral surface downwards + or in the direction of forward locomotion. Food is not conveyed by a + subvective system of ciliated grooves, but is taken in directly by the + mouth. The anus when present is typically aboral, and approaches the + mouth only in a few specialized forms. The aboral nervous system, if + indeed it be present at all, is very slightly developed. The + circumoesophageal water-ring may lose its connexion with the exterior + medium; the podia (absent only in some exceptional forms) may be + locomotor, respiratory or sensory in function, but usually are + locomotor tube-feet. + + The classes of the Eleutherozoa probably arose independently from + different branches of the Pelmatozoan stem. The precise relation is + not clear, but the order in which they are here placed is believed to + be from the more primitive to the more specialized. + + Class I. HOLOTHURIOIDEA.--Eleutherozoa normally elongate along the + oro-anal axis, which axis and the dorsal hydropore lie in the sagittal + plane of a secondary bilateral symmetry. The calcareous skeleton, + which may be entirely absent, is usually in the form of minute + spicules, sometimes of small irregular plates with no trace of a + calycinal or apical system; to these is added a ring of pieces + radiately arranged round the oesophagus. Ambulacral appendages take + the form of: (1) circumoral tentacles, (2) sucking-feet, (3) papillae; + of these (1) alone is always present. The gonads are not radiately + disposed. + + The comparative anatomy of living forms, combined with the + evolutionary hypothesis sketched above, suggests that the early + holothurians possessed the following characters: subvective grooves + entirely closed; 5 radial canals, proceeding from the water-ring, gave + off branches furnished with ampullae to the podia on each side of + them, the 10 anterior podia being changed into cylindrical tentacles; + the transverse muscles of the body-wall formed a circular layer, + probably interrupted at the radii (though Ludwig believes the + contrary); longitudinal muscles as paired radial bands, without those + special retractors for withdrawing the anterior part of the body which + occur in many recent forms; a hydropore connected with the water-ring + by a canal in the dorsal mesentery; a gonopore behind the hydropore + connected by a single duct with a bunch of genital pouches on each + side of the mesentery; gut dextrally coiled, with a simple + blood-vascular system, and with an enlargement at the anus for + respiration, this eventually producing branched caeca called + "respiratory trees"; skeleton reduced to a ring of 5 radial and 5 + interradial plates round the gullet, and small plates, with a + hexagonally meshed network, dispersed through the integument. Such a + form gave rise to descendants differing _inter se_ as regards the + suppression of the radial canals and of the podia, the form of the + tentacles, and the development of respiratory trees. These anatomical + facts are represented in the following classification by H. Ludwig:-- + + Order 1. _Actinopoda._--Radial canals supplying tentacles and podia. + + A. With respiratory trees. + /Fam. 1, Holothuriidae. + (a) With podia < Fam. 4, Cucumariidae. + \Fam. 5, Molpadiidae. + (b) Without podia + + B. Without respiratory trees. + (a) With podia Fam. 2, Elpidiidae. + (b) Without podia Fam. 3, Pelagothuriidae. + + Order 2. _Paractinopoda._--Neither radial canals nor podia. Tentacles + supplied from circular canal. Fam. Synaptidae. + + It is admitted, however, that this scheme does not represent the + probable descent or relationship of the families. Consideration of the + views of Ludwig himself, of H. Ostergren, and especially of R. + Perrier, suggests the following as a more natural if less obvious + arrangement. + + [Illustration: FIG. 15.--An Aspidochirote Holothurian of the family + _Holothuriidae_, showing the mouth surrounded by tentacles, the anus + at the other end of the body, and three of the rows of podia.] + + Order 1. _Aspidochirota._--Tentacles more or less peltate; calcareous + ring when present simple and radially symmetrical; no retractors; + stone-canal often opens to exterior; genital tubes sometimes + restricted to left side in consequence of altered position of gut + (Fig. 15.) Families: Elpidiidae (deep-sea forms, with sub-famm. + Synallactinae, Deimatinae, Elpidiinae, Psychropotinae), Holothuriidae + (shallow water), Pelagothuriidae (pelagic). + + Order 2. _Dendrochirota._--Tentacles simple or branched, never + peltate; calcareous ring well developed, often bilaterally + symmetrical; retractor muscles usually present; stone-canal opens + internally; genital tubes in right and left tufts. + + Sub-order i. _Apoda._--No tube-feet or papillae, but tentacular + ampullae more or less developed. Mostly burrowers. Families: + Synaptidae (sub-famm. Synaptinae, Chirodotinae, Myriotrochinae), + Molpadiidae. + + Sub-order ii. _Eupoda._--Tube-feet present, but tentacular ampullae + rudimentary or absent. Families: Cucumariidae (climbers and + crawlers), Rhopalodinidae (burrowers). + + Class II. STELLIFORMIA (= ASTEROIDEA _sensu lato_).--Eleutherozoa with + a depressed stellate body composed of a central disk, whence radiate + five or more rays; this radiate symmetry affects all the systems of + organs, including the genital. The radial water-vessels lie in grooves + on the ventral side of flooring-plates (usually called "ambulacrals"); + they and their podia are limited to the oral surface of the body and + their extremities are separated from the apical plates by a stretch + of dorsal integument containing skeletal elements; the opening of the + water-vascular system (madreporite) is not connected with a definite + apical plate or system of plates. + + The starfish, brittle-stars and their allies (see STARFISH) have for + the last fifty years usually been divided into two classes--Asteroidea + and Ophiuroidea, each equivalent to the Holothurioidea or Echinoidea. + Recently, however, some authors, e.g. Gregory, have attempted to show + that these classes cannot be distinguished. It is true that some + specialized forms, such as the _Brisingidae_ among starfish, + _Astrophiura_ and _Ophioteresis_ among ophiurans, contravene the usual + diagnoses; but this neither obscures their systematic position, nor + does it alter the fact that since early Palaeozoic times these two + great groups of stellate echinoderms have evolved along separate + lines. If then we place these groups in a single class, it is not on + account of a few anomalous genera, but because the characters set + forth above sharply distinguish them from all other echinoderms, and + because we have good reason to believe that the ophiurans did not + arise independently but have descended from primitive starfish. For + that class Bell's name Stelliformia is selected since it avoids both + confusion and barbarism. + + Sub-class I. _Asterida._--Stelliformia in which the ambulacral groove + always remains open and the podia serve as tube-feet (fig. 12, B); the + rays as a rule pass gradually into the disk, and contain both genital + glands and caecal extensions of the digestive system; an anus usually + present; respiration is by tubular extensions from the body-cavity + (papulae); skeletal appendages, in addition to small spines, are + either small grasping organs (pedicellariae), or clumped spines + (paxillae), or branched spines bearing a membrane. + + No existing classification of the Asterida is satisfactory even for + the recent forms, still less when the older fossils are considered. A + separation of the latter as Palasterida, because of their alternating + ambulacrals, from the recent Euasterida with opposite ambulacrals, is + now discarded and an attempt made to arrange the Palasterida in + divisions originally established for Euasterida. Those divisions fall + under three schemes. C. Viguier has divided the starfish into: + _Asteries ambulacraires_, with plates of ambulacral origin prominent + in the mouth-skeleton, pedicellariae stalked, and straight or crossed, + podial pores usually quadriserial; _Asteries adambulacraires_, with + adambulacrals prominent in the mouth-skeleton, pedicellariae sessile, + and forcipiform or valvular, podial pores usually biserial. Perrier, + at first laying greater stress on the nature of the pedicellariae and + afterwards on the form of the mouth-skeleton, has gradually perfected + a scheme of five orders: (1) _Forcipulata_, with pedicellariae + stalked, and straight or crossed; (2) _Spinulosa_, with pedicellariae + sessile and forcipiform; (3) _Velata_, with membraniferous spines; (4) + _Paxillosa_, pedicellariae represented by an ossicle of the test and + the spines covering it, the whole forming a paxilla; (5) _Valvata_ or + _Granulosa_, with pedicellariae sessile and valvular or salt-cellar + shaped. A more widely accepted scheme is that of W.P. Sladen, who + divided the Euasterida into two orders; (1) _Phanerozonia_, with + marginals large and highly developed, the supero-marginals and + infero-marginals contiguous, with papulae confined to the dorsal + surface, with ambulacrals well spaced and usually broad, adambulacrals + prominent in the mouth-skeleton, with pedicellariae sessile; (2) + _Cryptozonia_, with marginals inconspicuous and somewhat atrophied in + the adult, the supero-marginals separated from the infero-marginals by + intercalated plates, with papulae distributed over the whole body, + with ambulacrals crowded and narrow, either ambulacrals or + adambulacrals prominent in the mouth-skeleton, with pedicellariae + stalked or sessile. + + We give here a list of the families separated into Sladen's orders and + grouped under Perrier's divisions, extinct families being marked [+]. + + [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Section across the arm-skeleton of a + Phanerozonate Asterid, _Astropecten_. + + a, Ambulacral plates. + b, Adambulacral plates. + c and d, Inferior and superior lateral plates. + e, Dorsal plates with paxillae. Certain supra-ambulacral plates, + which also exist, are not shown.] + + 1. _Phanerozonia._--_Unclassed Famm._, [+] Palaeasteridae, [+] + Palasterinidae, [+] Taeniasteridae, [+] Aspidosomatidae. _Paxillosa_, + Luidiidae, Astropectinidae (fig. 16), Archasteridae restr. Verrill, + Porcellanasteridae, Chaetasteridae. _Valvata_, Benthopectinidae, + Goniopectinidae, Plutonasteridae, Odontasteridae, Pentagonasteridae, + Antheneidae, Pentacerotidae, Gymnasteriidae. _Spinulosa_, Poraniidae, + Asterinidae. + + 2. _Cryptozonia._--_Unclassed Famm._, [+] Sturtzasteridae (= + Palaeocomidae Greg.), [+] Lepidasteridae, [+] Tropidasteridae. + _Valvata_, Linckiidae restr. Perr. _Spinulosa_, Echinasteridae, + Solasteridae (fig. 17), Korethrasteridae. _Velata_, [+] + Palasteriscidae, Pterasteridae, Pythonasteridae, Myxasteridae. + _Forcipulata_, Stichasteridae, Zoroasteridae (fig. 3, D), + Heliasteridae, Pedicellasteridae, Asteriidae, Brisingidae. + + [Illustration: FIG. 17.--A Cryptozonate Asterid, _Solaster papposus_, + from the upper or dorsal surface.] + + Sub-class II. _Ophiurida._--Stelliformia in which the ambulacral + groove, though open in the oldest forms, soon becomes closed, while + the podia cease to serve as tube-feet; the rays as a rule spring + abruptly from the disk and contain neither genital glands nor + digestive caeca; no anus; respiration may be through clefts at the + bases of the rays, but not by papulae; skeletal appendages confined to + spines, usually of simple structure. + + There is as yet no satisfactory classification of the Ophiurida into + orders expressing lines of descent; even as regards families, leading + writers are at variance. The following scheme is based on the attempts + of E. Haeckel, F.J. Bell, J.W. Gregory, B. Sturtz, J.O.E. Perrier, and + A.E. Verrill. Extinct families marked [+]. + + Grade A. _Palophiurae._--Ambulacrals not yet forming complete + vertebrae; plates of disk not yet specialized into mouth, radial or + genital shields. + + Stage a. _Allostichia_ (= Lysophiurae).--Ambulacrals alternating and + unfused, groove uncovered by ventral arm-plates. Families: [+] + Protasteridae, [+] Protophiuridae. + + Stage b. _Zygostichia._--Ambulacrals opposite and, except in + Ophiurinidae, fused; ventral arm-plates developed in some. Families: + [+] Ophiurinidae, [+] Lapworthuridae, [+] Furcasteridae, [+] + Palastropectinidae, [+] Eoluididae, [+] Palaeophiomyxidae. + + Grade B. _Colophiurae._--Ambulacral pairs fused to form vertebrae with + definite articular surfaces; mouth, radial and genital shields + developed, though not all need be present in any one form. + + Order 1. _Streptophiurae._--Rays simple and capable of coiling, since + the vertebrae articulate by a ball-and-socket joint; arm-plates + incompletely developed. Families: [+] Onychasteridae, Ophiohelidae, + Ophioscolecidae, Ophiomyxidae, Hemieuryalidae, Astrophiuridae; + unclassified genera, e.g. _Ophioteresis_, _Ophiosciasma_, + _Ophiogeron_. + + Order 2. _Zygophiurae._--Rays simple and prevented from coiling by + processes on the vertebral joints (fig. 18); dorsal, ventral and + lateral arm-plates present. + + [Illustration: FIG. 18.--A vertebral arm-ossicle (fused ambulacrals) + of a Zygophiuran, _Ophiolepis_. + + A, Proximal joint-face. + B, Distal joint-face. + c, Ventral groove, where lies the water-vessel, from which branches + pass through the ossicle, emerging as podia at e and e.] + + Sub-order i. _Brachyophiurae._--Spines short, simple, pointing + towards the end of the arm. Families: Pectinuridae (= + Ophiodermatidae), Ophiolepididae. + + Sub-order ii. _Nectophiurae._--Spines may be variously elaborated + and are set more at right angles to the arm-axis. Families: + Amphiuridae, Ophiacanthidae, Ophiocomidae, Ophiothrichidae. + + Order 3. _Cladophiurae_ (= Euryalae). Rays simple or branched, capable + of coiling, since the vertebrae articulate by surfaces of hour-glass + shape; ventral arm-plates, and often the others, much reduced; spines + reduced or absent. Families: Euryalidae, Gorgonocephalidae, + Astrochelidae, Astroschemidae, Astronycidae. + + The Silurian genera _Eucladia_ and _Euthemon_ have the rays greatly + reduced and merged in the disk, so that the ambulacrals are unseen. + There are a few large dorsal, lateral and ventral arm-plates, and at + the angles of the latter emerge huge podia with a granular or plated + skin. There are five prominent mouth-shields and a separate + madreporite on the ventral surface. These genera attained the + Colophiuran grade in respect of external plating, but it is unlikely + that they or their ancestors had acquired even the Streptophiuran + type of vertebra. Sollas has separated them as an order _Ophiocistia_. + + Class III. ECHINOIDEA.--Eleutherozoa with a test of roughly circular, + subpentagonal or elliptical outline, spheroidal, domed or flattened, + of primary pentameric symmetry affecting all systems of organs except + the gut. The radial water-vessels lie within the test through which + their podia pass (fig. 12, D); the ambulacra thus formed are + continuous from the peristome to the apical system of plates; the + hydropore is connected with a definite plate of that system, and thus + marks a secondary bilateral symmetry. An anus is present either within + the apical system (endocyclic, fig. 3, A and B), or outside it in an + interradius (exocyclic, fig. 19, 7), thus initiating yet another + bilateral symmetry. Skeletal appendages are spines (radioles), + pedicellariae, and, in some forms, minute sense-organs called + sphaeridia. + + The echinoids or sea-archins (see SEA-URCHIN) may be grouped under the + following orders, here named in the sequence of their appearance in + the rocks. + + Order 1. _Bothriocidaroida._--Ambulacrals simple, each with two pores + vertically superposed, 2 columns to each ambulacrum; interambulacrals + multi-tuberculate, in 1 column, none passing on to or resorbed by the + peristome; mouth central, jaws unknown, no external gills or + sphaeridia; anus aboral, endocyclic. Sole genus _Bothriocidaris_ (fig. + 5), Ordovician. + + Order 2. _Melonitoida._--Ambulacrals simple, each with two pores + horizontally juxtaposed, in 2 to 18 columns; interambulacrals + granulate with occasional tubercles, in 3 to 11 columns, not more than + one row passing on to the peristome; mouth central, with jaws, no + external gills or sphaeridia; anus aboral, endocyclic. Families: + Palechinidae (fig. 19, 1), Melonitidae and Lepidesthidae, Silurian to + Carboniferous. + + Order 3. _Cystocidaroida._--Ambulacrals simple, each with one or two + pores, which sometimes pass between rather than through the plates, in + 2 columns; interambulacrals, uni- or multi-tuberculate, in numerous + (say 10 or more) columns, none passing on to peristome; mouth central + with jaws, no external gills or sphaeridia; position of anus doubtful, + acyclic, i.e. no apical system so far as known. Include only + _Echinocystis_, _Palaeodiscus_ and (?) _Myriastiches_, all Upper + Silurian. + + Order 4. _Cidaroida._--Ambulacrals simple, each with two pores + horizontally juxtaposed, in 2 columns; interambulacrals + unituberculate, in 2 to 11 columns, some rows may pass on to the + peristome; mouth central, with jaws, no external gills or sphaeridia; + anus aboral, endocyclic. Families: Lepidocentridae and + Archaeocidaridae (fig. 19, 2), Devonian and Carboniferous; Cidaridae + (fig. 19, 3, 4). Permian to present; Diplocidaridae and Tiarechinidae, + Mesozoic. + + Order 5. _Diademoida._--Ambulacrals generally compound, with two pores + obliquely juxtaposed, in 2 columns as in all subsequent orders; + interambulacrals usually with large radioles surrounded by smaller + ones, as in Cidaroida, in 2 columns as in all subsequent orders, only + one plate resorbed; mouth central, with jaws and external gills, + sphaeridia present; anus aboral endocyclic. J.W. Gregory divides this + into four suborders, each representing a distinct evolutionary series; + i. _Calycina_, Saleniidae (fig. 19, 5) and Acrosaleniidae; ii. + _Arbacina_, Hemicidaridae and Arbaciidae; iii. _Diademina_, + Orthopsidae, Diadematidae, Diplopodiidae, Pedinidae, Cyphosomatidae, + and Echinothuridae; iv. _Echinina_, Temnopleuridae, Triplechinidae, + Strongylocentrotidae and Echinometridae. The order is Triassic to + Recent. + + [Illustration: FIG. 19.--Denuded tests of some fossil Echinoids. + + 1, _Palaeechinus_; Carboniferous. + 2, A plate and radiole of _Archaeocidaris_; Carboniferous. + 3, A radiole of _Cidaris_; Jurassic. + 4, _Hemicidaris_; Mid. Jurassic. + 5, _Salenia_; Cretaceous. + 6, _Dysaster_; Jurassic. + 7, _Enallaster_: Cretaceous. + 8, _Catopygus_; Cretaceous.] + + Order 6. _Holectypoida._--Ambulacrals sometimes compound, with one or + two pores to a plate, some dorsal podia begin to assume respiratory + function; interambulacrals multi-tuberculate, none resorbed; mouth + central, with jaws weak or wanting, with external gills and + sphaeridia; anus exocyclic. Families: Pygasteridae, Discoidiidae, + Galeritidae, Conoclypeidae; Jurassic to Recent. + + Order 7. _Spatangoida._--Ambulacrals simple, with two pores + juxtaposed, dorsal podia respiratory; interambulacrals bearing + numerous small spines, none resorbed; mouth central or shifted + forwards, with no jaws or external gills, sphaeridia numerous; anus + exocyclic. As the mouth moves forward and the anus downward, the + posterior interambulacrals between them are enlarged and strengthened + so as to form a sternum. The order may therefore be divided into: (i.) + _Asternata_, Famm. Echinoneidae, Nucleolitidae and Cassidulidae (fig. + 19, 8); (ii.) _Sternata_, Famm. Collyritidae (fig. 19, 6), + Echinocorytidae, Spatangidae (fig. 19, 7), Palaeostomidae, and + Pourtalesiidae; Jurassic to Recent. + + Order 8. _Clypeastroida._--Ambulacrals simple or compound, with two + pores juxtaposed, dorsal podia respiratory; interambulacrals + multi-tuberculate, none resorbed; mouth central with flattened unequal + jaws, reduced external gills, and few sphaeridia; anus exocyclic. + Families: Fibulariidae, Laganidae, Scutellidae, Clypeastridae; + Cretaceous to Recent. + _ + Cambrian | + | + | + Ordovician BOTHRIOCIDAROIDA (jaws unknown) | + / \ | + / \ columns + Silurian MELONITOIDEA \ unfixed + # CYSTO- \ in + ## CIDAR- \ number + ### OIDA \ | + Devonian ### CIDAROIDA | + ### # | + ### # | + Carboniferous ### ##\ _| + ## ## \ + ## ## \ _ + Permian # ## \ | + ## \ | + Trias ## DIADEMOIDA columns + ## # \ 20 + Jurassic ## ## \ HOLECTYPOIDA | + ## ### / # \ SPATANGOIDEA | + Cretacious ## ### CLYPEASTROIDEA # \ # | + ## ### # ## ## | + Tertiary ## ### ## ## ### | + ## ### ### # ### | + Recent ## ### ### # #### _| + + |----------jaws lofty--------| jaws flat-reduced ---- lost + + |------abranchiate-----| |-----branchiate-----| |-lipobranchiate-| + + |----no sphaeridia-----| |--------------sphaeridia---------------| + + |-------endocyclic---------| |------------exocyclic--------------| + + [Illustration: FIG. 20.] + + The probable relationship of these orders is shown in the annexed + table. Here the Cystocidaroida occupy an isolated position. It is, + however, quite possible that _Echinocystis_ may some day be referred + to the Cidaroida, and _Palaeodiscus_ to the Melonitoida. This would + leave the Echinoid scheme remarkably simple, with the Melonitoida and + Cidaroida as divergent branches from an ancestor like + _Bothriocidaris_; but while the former branch soon decayed, the latter + continues to flourish at the present day. To take the Echinoidea now + living, and to divide them into Endocyclica and Exocyclica, Branchiate + and Abranchiate, Gnathostomata and Atelostomata, is easy and + convenient; or again to distinguish as Palechinoidea those + pre-Jurassic genera which do not conform to the fixed type of twenty + vertical columns found in the later Euechinoidea, is to express an + interesting fact; but all such divisions obscure the true + relationships, and the corresponding terms should be recognized as + descriptive rather than classificatory. + + AUTHORITIES.--In addition to the works referred to at the beginning of + the article, the following deal with the general subject: Bather, + Gregory and Goodrich, "Echinoderma," in Lankester's _Treatise on + Zoology_ (London, 1900); F.J. Bell, _Catalogue of the British + Echinoderms in the British Museum_ (London, 1892); P.H. Carpenter, + "Notes on Echinoderm Morphology," _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._, + 1878-1887; Y. Delage and E. Herouard, _Traite de zoologie concrete, + iii., Echinodermes_ (Paris, 1904); A. Lang, _Text-Book of Comparative + Anatomy_, transl., part ii. (London, 1896); Ludwig and Hamann, + "Echinodermen," in Bronn's _Klassen und Ordnungen des Tierreichs_ + (Leipzig, 1889), in progress; M. Neumayr, _Die Stamme des Tierreiches_ + (Wien, 1889); P.B. and C.F. Sarasin, "Uber die Anatomie der + Echinothuriden und die Phylogenie der Echinodermen," _Ergebnisse + naturw. Forsch. auf Ceylon_, Bd. i Heft 3 (Wiesbaden, 1888); R. Semon, + "Die Homologien innerhalb des Echinodermenstammes," _Morph. Jahrb._ + (1889); W.P. Sladen, "Homologies of the Primary Larval Plates in the + Test of Brachiate Echinoderms," _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._, 1884; K.A. + v. Zittel, _Handbuch der ... Palaozoologie_, i. pp. 308-560 (Munchen, + 1879); also Grundzuge, translated and revised by C.R. Eastman as + _Text-Book of Palaeontology_ (New York and London, 1899). The larger + treatises here mentioned contain very full bibliographies, and a + complete analytical index to the annual literature of the Echinoderma + has for many years been published in the _Zoological Record_ (London). + (F. A. B.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Sometimes called "Echinodermata," a Greek name meaning + "sea-urchin-skins," which was invented by J.T. Klein (1734) to denote + the tests of the Echini or sea-urchins; its later use for the animals + themselves, or for the whole phylum, was an error in both history and + etymology. + + + + +ECHINUS (Gr. for "hedge-hog" or "sea-urchin"), in architecture, the +convex moulding which supports the abacus of the Doric column. The term +is sometimes given to the _ovolo_ of the Ionic capital, especially when +curved with the egg-and-tongue enrichment. The origin of this use of the +word in architecture, which comes down from ancient times, is uncertain. + + + + +ECHIUROIDEA (Gr. [Greek: echis], adder, and [Greek: oura], tail), the +zoological name for a small group of marine animals which show in their +larval life-history a certain degree of segmentation, and are therefore +grouped by some authorities as Annelids. Formerly, together with the +Sipunculoidea and Priapuloidea, they made up the class Gephyrea, but on +the ground that they retain in the adult a large preoral lobe (the +proboscis), that they have anal vesicles, that their anus is terminal, +that setae are found, and finally that they are segmented in the larval +stage, they have been removed from the class, which by the proposed +further separation of the Priapuloidea on account of their unique renal +and reproductive organs, has practically ceased to exist. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--A, _Bonellia viridis_, Rol., [female]; B, B. +_fuliginosa_. Both natural size. a, grooved proboscis; b, mouth; c, +ventral hooks; d, anus.] + +Echiuroids are animals of moderate size, varying roughly from one to six +or seven centimetres in length, exclusive of the proboscis. This organ +is capable of very considerable extension, and may attain a length in +_Bonellia viridis_ of about a metre and a half (fig. 1). It is grooved +ventrally and ciliated. At its attachment to the body the groove sinks +into the mouth. In _Bonellia_ the proboscis is forked at its free end, +but in the other genera it is short and unforked. The body is somewhat +sausage-shaped, with the anus at the posterior extremity, surrounded in +_Echiurus_ by a single or double ring of setae. The skin is usually +wrinkled, and in _B. viridis_, _Thalassema lankesteri_, _Th. baronii_, +_Hamingia arctica_, and in the larva of many species, is of a lively +green colour. A pair of curved bristles, formed in true setal sacs as in +Chaetopoda, project from the body a short distance behind the mouth, and +are moved by special muscles; they are of use in helping the animal to +move slowly about, and they take a large share in the burrowing +movements (C.B. Wilson, _Biol. Bull._, 1900), for some species tunnel in +the mud and sand and form more or less permanent burrows, the walls of +which are strengthened by mucus secreted from the skin. The openings of +the burrows become silted up, leaving, however, a small aperture through +which the proboscis is extruded. This organ carefully searches the +neighbourhood for particles of food. When these are found the grooved +proboscis folds its walls inwards, and the cilia pass the particles down +the tube thus formed to the mouth. Echiuroids also move by extending the +proboscis, which takes hold of some fixed object, and, then contracting, +draws the body forwards. Recently it has been shown that _Echiurus_ +swims freely at night-time, using for locomotion both the proboscis and +the contraction of the muscles of its body-wall. The motion is described +as "gyratory," and the anterior end is always carried foremost. Those +species which do not burrow usually conceal themselves in crevices of +the rocks or under stones, or at times in empty Mollusc or Echinid +shells. They are occasionally used by fishermen for bait. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Female _Bonellia viridis_, Rol. Opened along the +left side. + + a, Proboscis cut short. + b, Bristle passing through the mouth into the pharynx. + c, Coiled intestine. + d, Anal tufts or vesicles. + e, Ventral nerve cord. + f, Ovary borne on ventral vessel running parallel with e. + g, Position of anus. + h, Position of external opening of nephridium. + i, Nephridium--the line points towards, but does not reach, the + internal opening.] + + _Anatomy_ (fig. 2).--A thin cuticle covers the epidermis, which + contains mucus-secreting glands. Beneath the epidermis is a layer of + circular muscles, then a layer of longitudinal, and finally in some + cases a layer of oblique muscle-fibres. The inner face of this + muscular skin is lined by a layer of epithelium. The coelomic + body-cavity is spacious. It does not extend into the proboscis, which + is a solid organ traversed by the nervous and vascular rings, but + otherwise largely built up of muscle fibres and connective tissue. + Many sense-cells lie in the epidermis. The ciliated ventral groove of + the proboscis leads at its base into the simple mouth, which gives + access to the thin-walled alimentary canal. This is longer than the + body, and to tuck it away it is looped from side to side. The loops + are supported by strands of connective tissue, which in some species + are united so as to form a dorsal mesentery, whilst traces of a + ventral mesentery are met with anteriorly and posteriorly (H.L. + Jameson, _Zool. Jahrb. Anat._, 1899). The alimentary canal is + divisible into fore-gut, mid-gut and hind-gut, and the first-named can + be further divided into pharynx, oesophagus, gizzard and crop, mainly + on histological grounds. The mid-gut is characterized by the presence + of a ciliated groove, from which arises the collateral intestine or + siphon, a second tube which rejoins the alimentary canal lower down. + Similar collateral intestines are familiar in the Echinids and certain + Polychaets (Capitellidae). The rectum receives the openings of a pair + of very characteristic organs, the anal vesicles. Each consists of a + branching tube, the tips of whose twigs terminate in minute ciliated + funnels. The anal vesicles are thought to be excretory; whether this + be so or not, they undoubtedly have some influence on the amount of + fluid found in the coelom. The coelomic fluid contains as a rule both + amoeboid and rounded corpuscles, and, when ripe, the products of the + gonads. A closed system of vessels, usually called the vascular + system, is present. There are, however, no capillaries connected with + this, and it is confined to certain portions of the body. It can + possess few of the functions usually associated with a vascular + system, and its main use is probably to assist in the expansion of the + proboscis. The system consists of the following parts:--A dorsal + vessel applied to the alimentary canal is continued anteriorly into a + median vessel, which traverses the proboscis to its tip. Here the + vessel splits, and each half returns along the lateral edge of the + proboscis; they reunite around the oesophagus and form a single + ventral vessel, which lies above the ventral nerve-cord. The ventral + vessel, which ends solidly behind, sends off a branch which forms a + ring around the intestine and opens into the posterior extremity of + the dorsal vessel. In _Echiurus_ and _Thalassema_ the same vessel + forms a ring round a stout muscle, which connects the bases of the two + ventral setae before passing to surround the intestine. Amoeboid + corpuscles float in the fluid contents. The nephridia vary in number + from a single one in _Bonellia_ to three pairs in many species of + _Thalassema_. Their external openings are ventral, and on the same + level as the ciliated funnel-shaped nephrostomes. The posterior wall + of the organ is produced into a long blind sac, which is lined by + secretory cells. The nervous system is a single ventral cord, which + starts from a circumoesophageal ring. This ring is involved in the + growth of the proboscis, and is drawn out with it. Thus there is a + lateral nerve near each edge of the proboscis which unites with its + fellow dorsally above the oesophagus at the tip of the proboscis, and + ventrally beneath the oesophagus, where they fuse to form the ventral + nerve-cord. There are no specialized ganglia, but ganglion-cells are + scattered uniformly along the nerve-cords. The ventral cord gives off + rings, which run into the skin at regular intervals. The reproductive + cells are modified coelomic cells, which lie on the ventral vessel. + They escape into the coelomic fluid and there develop. When mature + they leave the body through the nephridia. _Bonellia_ and _Hamingia_ + are very interesting examples of sexual dimorphism. The female has the + normal Echiuroid structure, but the male is reduced to a minute, + flattened, planarian-like organism, which passes its life usually in + the company of two or three others in a special recess of the + nephridia of the female. Its structure may be gathered by a reference + to fig. 3. + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Adult male, _Bonellia viridis_, Rol. The + original was 1.5 mm. long. The nervous system is not shown. (After + Selenka.) + + a, Generative pore with spermatozoa coming out. + b, Anterior blind end of intestine attached to the parenchymatous + tissue by muscular strands. + c, Green wandering cells containing chlorophyll. + d, Parenchymatous connective tissue. + e, Epidermis. + i, Intestine. + j, Vas deferens. + l, Internal opening of vas deferens. + m, The left anal vesicle. + n, Spermatozoa in the body-cavity.] + + _Larva._--The larva is a typical trochosphere, which, although of a + temporary character, shows a distinct segmentation of the mesoblast, + of the nervous system, and of the ciliated and pigmented structures in + the skin, resembling that of Chaetopods. The preoral lobe persists as + the proboscis. The sexes of the larvae are not determinable in the + early stages, but when a certain growth has been reached in Bonellia + the males seek the proboscis of the adult females, and passing into + the mouth undergo there the transformation into the planarian-like + parasite which is the fully-formed male. This now creeps along the + body of the female and takes up its home in her nephridia. + +_Classification and Distribution._--The Echiuroidea consists of the +following genera:--(1) _Bonellia_ (Rol.), with four species, widely +distributed, but inhabiting the temperate and warmer waters of each +hemisphere. (2) _Echiurus_ (Guerin-Meneville), with four species. This +genus reaches from the Arctic waters of both hemispheres into the cooler +temperate regions. (3) _Hamingia_ (Kor. and Dan.), with one species, +which has been taken in the Arctic Sea and the Hardanger Fjord. (4) +_Saccosoma_ (Kor. and Dan.) was described from a single specimen dredged +about half-way between Iceland and Norway. (5) _Thalassema_ (Gaertner, +Lamarck), with twenty-one species. This genus is in the main a denizen +of the warmer waters of the globe. Sixteen species are found only in +tropical or subtropical seas, three species are Mediterranean (_Mt. +Stat. Neapel_, 1899), whilst three species are from the eastern +Atlantic, where the temperature is modified by the Gulf Stream (Shipley; +see Willey's _Zoological Results_, part iii. 1899; _Proc. Zool. Soc. +Lond._, 1898, 1899; and _Cambridge Natural History_, ii.). The following +are found in the British area:--_E. pallasii_ (Guerin-Meneville), _Th. +neptuni_ (Gaertner), and _Th. lankesteri_ (Herdman, _Q.J.M.S._, 1898). + +_Affinities._--The occurrence of trochosphere larva and the temporary +segmentation of the body have led to the belief that the Echiuroids are +more nearly allied to the Annelids than to any other phylum. This view +is strengthened by certain anatomical and histological resemblances to +the genus _Sternaspis_, which in one species, _S. spinosa_, is said to +carry a bifid proboscis resembling that of the Echiuroids. + (A. E. S.) + + + + +ECHMIADZIN, or ITSMIADSIN, a monastery of Russian Transcaucasia, in the +government of Erivan, the seat of the Catholicus or primate of the +Armenian church. It is situated close to the village of Vagarshapat, in +the plain of the Aras, 2840 ft. above the sea, 12 m. W. of Erivan and 40 +N. of Mount Ararat. The monastery comprises a pretty extensive complex +of buildings, and is surrounded by brick walls 30 ft. high, which with +their loopholes and towers present the appearance of a fortress. Its +architectural character has been considerably impaired by additions and +alterations in modern Russian style. On the western side of the +quadrangle is the residence of the primate, on the south the refectory +(1730-1735), on the east the lodgings for the monks, and on the north +the cells. The cathedral is a small but fine cruciform building with a +Byzantine cupola at the intersection. Its foundation is ascribed to St +Gregory the Illuminator in 302. Of special interest is the porch, built +of red porphyry, and profusely adorned with sculptured designs somewhat +of a Gothic character. The interior is decorated with Persian frescoes +of flowers, birds and scroll-work. It is here that the Catholicus +confers episcopal consecration by the sacred hand (relic) of St Gregory; +and here every seven years he prepares with great solemnity the holy oil +which is to be used throughout the churches of the Armenian communion. +Outside of the main entrance are the alabaster tombs of the primates +Alexander I. (1714), Alexander II. (1755), Daniel (1806) and Narses +(1857), and a white marble monument, erected by the English East India +Company to mark the resting-place of Sir John Macdonald Kinneir, who +died at Tabriz in 1830, while on an embassy to the Persian court. The +library of the monastery is a rich storehouse of Armenian literature +(see Brosset's _Catalogue de la bibliotheque d'Etchmiadzin_, St +Petersburg, 1840). Among the more remarkable manuscripts are a copy of +the gospels dating from the 10th or 11th century, and three bibles of +the 13th century. A type-foundry, a printing-press and a bookbinding +establishment are maintained by the monks who supply religious and +educational works for their co-religionists. + +To the east of the monastery is a modern college and seminary. Half a +mile to the east stand the churches of St Ripsime and St Gaiana, two of +the early martyrs of Armenian Christianity; the latter is the +burial-place of those primates who are not deemed worthy of interment +beside the cathedral. From a distance the three churches form a fairly +striking group, and accordingly the Turkish name for Echmiadzin is +Uch-Kilissi, or the Three Churches. The town of Vagarshapat dates from +the 6th century B.C.; it takes its name from King Vagarsh (Vologaeses), +who in the 2nd century A.D. chose it as his residence and surrounded it +with walls. Here the apostle of Armenia, St Gregory the Illuminator, +erected a church in 309 and with it the primacy was associated. In 344 +Vagarshapat ceased to be the Armenian capital, and in the 5th century +the patriarchal seat was removed to Dvin, and then to Ani. The monastery +was founded by Narses II., who ruled 524-533; and a restoration was +effected in 618. The present name of the monastery was adopted instead +of Vagarshapat in the 10th century. At length in 1441 the primate George +brought back the see to the original site. (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.) + + + + +ECHO (Gr. [Greek: echo]), in Greek mythology, one of the Oreades or +mountain nymphs, the personification of the acoustical phenomenon known +by this name. She was beloved by Pan, but rejected his advances. +Thereupon the angry god drove the shepherds of the district mad; they +tore Echo in pieces, and scattered her limbs broadcast, which still +retained the gift of song (Longus iii. 23). According to Ovid (_Metam._ +iii. 356-401), Echo by her incessant talking having prevented Juno from +surprising Jupiter with the Nymphs, Juno changed her into an "echo"--a +being who could not speak till she was spoken to, and then could only +repeat the last words of the speaker. While in this condition she fell +in love with Narcissus, and in grief at her unrequited affection wasted +away until nothing remained but her voice and bones, which were changed +into rocks. The legends of Echo are of late, probably Alexandrian, +origin, and she is first personified in Euripides. + +In acoustics an "echo" is a return of sound from a reflecting surface +(see SOUND: _Reflection_). + + See F. Wieseler, _Die Nymphe Echo_ (1854), and _Narkissos_ (1856); P. + Decharme in Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire des antiquites_. + + + + +ECHTERNACH, a town in the grand duchy of Luxemburg, on the Sure, close +to the Prussian frontier. Pop. (1905) 3484. It is the oldest town in +Luxemburg, and was the centre from which the English Saint Willibrord +converted the people to Christianity in the 7th century. There are the +Benedictine abbey, the hospital almshouse, which is said to be the +oldest hospital in Europe except the Hotel-Dieu in Paris, and the church +of St Peter and St Paul. The Benedictine abbey has been greatly shorn of +its original dimensions, but the basilica remains a fair monument of +Romano-Gothic art. The church of St Peter and St Paul stands on an +isolated mound, and for the ascent sixty steps have been built in the +side, and these are well worn by the tread of numerous pilgrims who come +in each succeeding year. The interior of the church is curious more than +imposing, and is specially noteworthy only for its gloom. Under the +altar, and below a white marble effigy of himself, lies Saint +Willibrord. + +Echternach is famous, however, in particular for the dancing procession +held on Whit-Tuesday every year. The origin of this festival is +uncertain, but it dates at least from the 13th century and was probably +instituted during an outbreak of cholera. Nowadays it is an occasion of +pilgrimage, among Germans and Belgians as well as Luxemburgers, for all +sick persons, but especially for the epileptic and those suffering from +St Vitus' dance. The ceremony is interesting, and the Roman Catholic +Church lends all its ritual to make it more imposing. The archbishop of +Trier attends to represent Germany, and the bishop of Luxemburg figures +for the grand duchy. There is a religious ceremony on the Prussian side +of the bridge over the Sure, and when it is over the congregation cross +into the duchy to join the procession, partly religious, partly popular, +through the streets of the town. The religious procession, carrying +cross and banners and attended by three hundred singers, comes first, +chanting St Willibrord's hymn. Next comes a band of miscellaneous +instruments playing as a rule the old German air "Adam had seven sons," +and then follow the dancers. Many of these are young and full of life +and health and dance for amusement, but many others are old or feeble +and dance in the hope of recovery or of escaping from some trouble, but +on all alike the conditions of the dance are incumbent. There are three +steps forward and two back; five steps are thus taken to make one in +advance. This becomes especially trying at the flight of steps mounting +to the little church where the procession ends in front of the shrine of +the great saint. There are sixty steps, but it takes three hundred to +reach the top for the final time. It is said that those who fall from +age or weariness have to be dragged out of the way by onlookers or they +would be trampled to death by the succeeding waves of dancers. The +procession, although it covers a distance of less than a mile, is said +to take as much as five hours in its accomplishment. In olden days the +abbey was the goal of the procession, and King William I. of the +Netherlands--great-grandfather of Queen Wilhelmina--changed the day from +Tuesday to Sunday so that a working day should not be lost. This reform +did not answer, and the ancient order was restored. Some critics see in +the dancing procession of Echternach merely the survival of the spring +dance of the heathen races, but at any rate it invests the little town +with an interest and importance that would otherwise be lacking. + + + + +ECHUCA, a borough of the county of Rodney, Victoria, Australia, 156 m. +by rail N. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901) 4075. It is situated on the river +Murray, across which it is connected by bridge with Moama, on the New +South Wales side, whence a railway runs to Deniliquin. The town is the +terminus of the Murray River railway and the entrepot of the overland +intercolonial trade; it has large wool stores, saw-mills, coach +factories, breweries and soap-works. The rich agricultural district is +noted for its vineyards. + + + + +ECIJA, a town of southern Spain, in the province of Seville; on the +Cadiz-Cordova railway and the left bank of the river Genil. Pop. (1900) +24,372. The river, thus far navigable, is here crossed by a fine old +bridge; and the antiquity of the town betrays itself by the irregularity +of its arrangement, by its walls and gateways, and by its numerous +inscriptions and other relics. Its chief buildings include no fewer than +twenty convents, mostly secularized. The principal square is surrounded +with pillared porticoes, and has a fountain in the centre; and along the +river bank there runs a fine promenade, planted with poplar trees and +adorned with statues. From an early period the shoemakers of Ecija have +been in high repute throughout Spain; woollen cloth, flannel, linen and +silks are also manufactured. The vicinity is fertile in corn and wine, +and cotton is cultivated. The heat is so great that the spot has +acquired the sobriquet of _El Sarten_, or the "Frying-pan" of Andalusia. +Ecija, called _Estija_ by the Arabs, is the ancient _Astigis_, which was +raised to the rank of a Roman colony with the title of _Augusta Firma_. +According to Pliny and Pomponius Mela, who both wrote in the 1st century +A.D., it was the rival of Cordova and Seville. If local tradition may be +believed, it was visited by the apostle Paul, who converted his hostess +Santa Xantippa; and, according to one version of his life, it was the +see of the famous St Crispin (q.v.) in the 3rd century. + + + + +ECK, JOHANN MAIER (1486-1543), German theologian, the most indefatigable +and important opponent of Martin Luther, was born on the 13th of +November 1486 at Eck in Swabia, from which place he derived his +additional surname, which he himself, after 1505, always modified into +Eckius or Eccius, i.e. "of Eck." His father, Michael Maier, was a +peasant and bailiff (_Amtmann_) of the village. The boy's education was +undertaken by his uncle Martin Maier, parish priest at Rothenburg on the +Neckar, who sent him at the age of twelve to the university of +Heidelberg, and subsequently to those of Tubingen, Cologne and Freiburg +in the Breisgau. His academic career was so rapidly successful that at +the age of twenty-four he was already doctor and professor of theology. +During this period he was distinguished for his opposition to the +scholastic philosophy; and, though he did not go to all lengths with the +"modernists" (_Moderni_) of his day, his first work--_Logices +exercitamenta_ (1507)--was distinctly on their side. This attitude +brought him into conflict with the senate of the university, a conflict +which Eck's masterful temper, increased by an extreme self-confidence +perhaps natural in one so young and so successful, did not serve to +allay. His position in Freiburg becoming intolerable, he accepted in +1510 an invitation from the duke of Bavaria to fill the theological +chair at Ingolstadt, where he was destined for thirty years to exercise +a profound influence as teacher and vice-chancellor (_Prokanzler_). + +A ducal commission, appointed to find a means for ending the +interminable strife between the rival academic parties, entrusted Eck +with the preparation of fresh commentaries on Aristotle and Petrus +Hispanus. He had a marvellous capacity for work, and between 1516 and +1520, in addition to all his other duties, he published commentaries on +the _Summulae_ of Petrus Hispanus, and on the _Dialectics_, _Physics_ +and lesser scientific works of Aristotle, which became the text-books of +the university. During these early years Eck was still reckoned among +the "modernists," and his commentaries are inspired with much of the +scientific spirit of the New Learning. His aim, however, had been to +find a _via media_ between the old and new; his temper was essentially +conservative, his imagination held captive by the splendid traditions of +the medieval church, and he had no sympathy with the revolutionary +attitude of the Reformers. Personal ambition, too, a desire to be +conspicuous in the great world of affairs, may have helped to throw him +into public opposition to Luther. He had won laurels in a public +disputation at Augsburg in 1514, when he had defended the lawfulness of +putting out capital at interest; again at Bologna in 1515, on the same +subject and on the question of predestination; and these triumphs had +been repeated at Vienna in 1516. By these successes he gained the +patronage of the Fuggers, and found himself fairly launched as the +recognized apologist of the established order in church and state. +Distinguished humanists might sneer at him as "a garrulous sophist"; but +from this time his ambition was not only to be the greatest scientific +authority in Germany but also the champion of the papacy and of the +traditional church order. The first-fruits of this new resolve were a +quite gratuitous attack on his old friend, the distinguished humanist +and jurist Ulrich Zasius (1461-1536), for a doctrine proclaimed ten +years before, and a simultaneous assault on Erasmus's _Annotationes in +Novum Testamentum_. + +It is, however, by his controversy with Luther and the other reformers +that Eck is best remembered. Luther, who had some personal acquaintance +with Eck, sent him in 1517 copies of his celebrated 95 theses. Eck made +no public reply; but in 1518 he circulated, privately at first, his +_Obelisci_, in which Luther was branded as a Hussite. Luther entrusted +his defence to Carlstadt, who, besides answering the insinuations of Eck +in 400 distinct theses, declared his readiness to meet him in a public +disputation. The challenge was accepted, and the disputation took place +at Leipzig in June and July 1519. On June 27 and 28 and on July 1 and 3 +Eck disputed with Carlstadt on the subjects of grace, free will and good +works, ably defending the Roman Semipelagian standpoint. From July 4 to +14 he engaged with Luther on the absolute supremacy of the papacy, +purgatory, penance, &c., showing a brilliant display of patristic and +conciliar learning against the reformer's appeals to Scripture. The +arbitrators declined to give a verdict, but the general impression was +that victory rested with Eck. He did, indeed, succeed in making Luther +admit that there was some truth in the Hussite opinions and declare +himself against the pope, but this success only embittered his animosity +against his opponents, and from that time his whole efforts were devoted +to Luther's overthrow. He induced the universities of Cologne and +Louvain to condemn the reformer's writings, but failed to enlist the +German princes, and in January 1520 went to Rome to obtain strict +regulations against those whom he called "Lutherans." He was created a +protonotary apostolic, and in July returned to Germany, as papal nuncio, +with the celebrated bull _Exsurge Domine_ directed against Luther's +writings. He now believed himself in a position to crush not only the +Lutheran heretics, but also his humanist critics. The effect of the +publication of the bull, however, soon undeceived him. Bishops, +universities and humanists were at one in denunciation of the outrage; +and as for the attitude of the people, Eck was glad to escape from +Saxony with a whole skin. In his wrath he appealed to force, and his +_Epistola ad Carolum V._ (February 18, 1521) called on the emperor to +take measures against Luther, a demand soon to be responded to in the +edict of Worms. In 1521 and 1522 Eck was again in Rome, reporting on the +results of his nunciature. On his return from his second visit he was +the prime mover in the promulgation of the Bavarian religious edict of +1522, which practically established the senate of the university of +Ingolstadt as a tribunal of the Inquisition, and led to years of +persecution. In return for this action of the duke, who had at first +been opposed to the policy of repression, Eck obtained for him, during a +third visit to Rome in 1523, valuable ecclesiastical concessions. +Meanwhile he continued unabated in his zeal against the reformers, +publishing eight considerable works between 1522 and 1526. + +His controversial ardour was, indeed, somewhat damped by Luther's +refusal to answer his arguments, and with a view to earning fresh +laurels he turned his attention to Switzerland and the Zwinglians. At +Baden-in-Aargau in May and June 1526 a public disputation on the +doctrine of transubstantiation was held, in which Eck and Thomas Murner +were pitted against Johann Oecolampadius. Though Eck claimed the victory +in argument, the only result was to strengthen the Swiss in their +memorial view of the Lord's Supper, and so to diverge them further from +Luther. At the Augsburg diet in 1530 Eck was charged by Charles V. to +draw up, in concert with twenty other theologians, the refutation of the +Protestant Confession, but was obliged to rewrite it five times before +it suited the emperor. He was at the colloquy of Worms in 1540 and at +the diet of Regensburg (Ratisbon) in 1541. At Worms he showed some signs +of a willingness to compromise, but at Regensburg his old violence +reasserted itself in opposing all efforts at reconciliation and +persuading the Catholic princes to reject the Interim. + +Eck died at Ingolstadt on the 10th of February 1543, fighting to the +last and worn out before his time. He was undoubtedly the most +conspicuous champion produced by the old religion in the age of the +Reformation, but his great gifts were marred by greater faults. His vast +learning was the result of a powerful memory and unwearied industry, and +he lacked the creative imagination necessary to mould this material into +new forms. He was a powerful debater, but his victories were those of a +dialectician rather than a convincing reasoner, and in him depth of +insight and conviction were ill replaced by the controversial violence +characteristic of the age. Moreover, even after discounting the bias of +his enemies, there is evidence to prove that his championship of the +Church was not the outcome of his zeal for Christianity; for he was +notoriously drunken, unchaste, avaricious and almost insanely ambitious. +His chief work was _De primatu Petri_ (1519); his _Enchiridion locorum +communium adversus Lutherum_ ran through 46 editions between 1525 and +1576. In 1530-1535 he published a collection of his writings against +Luther, _Opera contra Ludderum_, in 4 vols. + + See T. Wiedemann, _Dr Johann Eck_ (Regensburg, 1865). + + + + +ECKERMANN, JOHANN PETER (1792-1854), German poet and author, best known +owing to his association with Goethe, was born at Winsen in Hanover on +the 21st of September 1792, of humble parentage, and was brought up in +penury and privation. After serving as a volunteer in the War of +Liberation (1813-1814), he obtained a secretarial appointment under the +war department at Hanover. In 1817, although twenty-five years of age, +he was enabled to attend the gymnasium of Hanover and afterwards the +university of Gottingen, which, however, after one year's residence as a +student of law, he left in 1822. His acquaintance with Goethe began in +the following year, when he sent to him the manuscript of his _Beitrage +zur Poesie_ (1823). Soon afterwards he went to Weimar, where he +supported himself as a private tutor. For several years he also +instructed the son of the grand duke. In 1830 he travelled in Italy with +Goethe's son. In 1838 he was given the title of grand-ducal councillor +and appointed librarian to the grand-duchess. Eckermann is chiefly +remembered for his important contributions to the knowledge of the +great poet contained in his _Conversations with Goethe_ (1836-1848). To +Eckermann Goethe entrusted the publication of his _Nachgelassene +Schriften_ (posthumous works) (1832-1833). He was also joint-editor with +Friedrich Wilhelm Riemer (1774-1845) of the complete edition of Goethe's +works in 40 vols. (1839-1840). He died at Weimar on the 3rd of December +1854. + + Eckermann's _Gesprache mit Goethe_ (vols. i. and ii. 1836; vol. iii. + 1848; 7th ed., Leipzig, 1899; best edition by L. Geiger, Leipzig, + 1902) have been translated into almost all the European languages, not + excepting Turkish. (English translations by Margaret Fuller, Boston, + 1839, and John Oxenford, London, 1850.) Besides this work and the + _Beitrage zur Poesie_, Eckermann published a volume of poems + (_Gedichte_, 1838), which are of little value. See _J.P. Eckermanns + Nachlass_, herausgegeben von F. Tewes, vol. i. (1905), and an article + by R.M. Meyer in the _Goethe-Jahrbuch_, xvii. (1896). + + + + +ECKERNFORDE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of +Schleswig-Holstein, on a fjord of the Baltic, 20 m. by rail N.W. from +Kiel. Pop. (1905) 7088. It has a good harbour, fishing, trade in +agricultural products, and manufactures of tobacco, salt and iron goods. +There are a technical school of building and a Protestant teachers' +seminary. Eckernforde is mentioned as far back as 1197. It was taken by +Christian IV. of Denmark in 1628 from the Imperial troops. In 1813 the +Danes were defeated here, while in 1849 the harbour was the scene of the +blowing up of the Danish line-of-battle ship "Christian VIII." and of +the surrender of the frigate "Gefion" after an engagement with the +German shore batteries. The place lost most of its trade after the union +with Germany in 1864, and suffered severely from a sea-flood in 1872. In +the immediate neighbourhood is the village of Borby, much frequented for +sea-bathing. + + + + +ECKERSBERG, KRISTOFFER (1783-1853), Danish painter, was born in south +Jutland. He became successively the pupil of Nikolaj Abildgaard and of +J.L. David. From 1810 to 1813 he lived at Paris under the direction of +the latter, and then proceeded, as an independent artist, to Rome, where +he worked until 1816 in close fellowship with Thorwaldsen. His paintings +from this period--"The Spartan Boy," "Bacchus and Ariadne" and +"Ulysses"--testify to the influence of the great sculptor over the art +of Eckersberg. Returning to Copenhagen, he found himself easily able to +take the first place among the Danish painters of his time, and his +portraits especially were in extreme popularity. It is claimed for +Eckersberg by the native critics that "he created a Danish colour," that +is to say, he was the first painter who threw off conventional tones and +the pseudo-classical landscape, in exchange for the clear atmosphere and +natural outlines of Danish scenery. But Denmark has no heroic landscape, +and Eckersberg in losing the golden commonplaces scarcely succeeds in +being delightful. His landscapes, however, are pure and true, while in +his figure-pieces he is almost invariably conventional and +old-fashioned. He was president of the Danish Academy of Fine Arts in +Charlottenburg. + + + + +ECKHART,[1] JOHANNES ["Meister Eckhart"] (?1260-?1327), German +philosopher, the first of the great speculative mystics. Extremely +little is known of his life; the date and place of his birth are equally +uncertain. According to some accounts, he was a native of Strassburg, +with which he was afterwards closely connected; according to others, he +was born in Saxony, or at Hochheim near Gotha. Trithemius, one of the +best authorities, speaks of him merely as "Teutonicus." 1260 has +frequently been given as the date of his birth; it was in all +probability some years earlier, for we know that he was advanced in age +at the time of his death, about 1327. He appears to have entered the +Dominican order, and to have acted for some time as professor at one of +the colleges in Paris. His reputation for learning was very high, and in +1302 he was summoned to Rome by Boniface VIII., to assist in the +controversy then being carried on with Philip of France. From Boniface +he received the degree of doctor. In 1304 he became provincial of his +order for Saxony, and in 1307 was vicar-general for Bohemia. In both +provinces he was distinguished for his practical reforms and for his +power in preaching. Towards 1325 we hear of him as preaching with great +effect at Cologne, where he gathered round him a numerous band of +followers. Before this time, and in all probability at Strassburg, where +he appears to have been for some years, he had come in contact with the +Beghards (see BEGUINES) and Brethren of the Free Spirit, whose +fundamental notions he may, indeed, be said to have systematized and +expounded in the highest form to which they could attain. In 1327 the +opponents of the Beghards laid hold of certain propositions contained in +Eckhart's works, and he was summoned before the Inquisition at Cologne. +The history of this accusation is by no means clear. Eckhart appears, +however, to have made a conditional recantation--that is, he professed +to disavow whatever in his writings could be shown to be erroneous. +Further appeal, perhaps at his own request, was made to Pope John XXII., +and in 1329 a bill was published condemning certain propositions +extracted from Eckhart's works. But before its publication Eckhart was +dead. The exact date of his death is unknown. Of his writings, several +of which are enumerated by Trithemius, there remain only the sermons and +a few tractates. Till the middle of the 19th century the majority of +these were attributed to Johann Tauler, and it is only from Pfeiffer's +careful edition (_Deutsche Mystiker d. XIV. Jahrhunderts_, vol. ii., +1857) that one has been able to gather a true idea of Eckhart's +activity. From his works it is evident that he was deeply learned in all +the philosophy of the time. He was a thorough Aristotelian, but by +preference appears to have been drawn towards the mystical writings of +the Neoplatonists and the pseudo-Dionysius. His style is unsystematic, +brief and abounding in symbolical expression. His manner of thinking is +clear, calm and logical, and he has certainly given the most complete +exposition of what may be called Christian pantheism. + +Eckhart has been called the first of the speculative mystics. In his +theories the element of mystical speculation for the first time comes to +the front as all-important. By its means the church doctrines are made +intelligible to the many, and from it the church dogmas receive their +true significance. It was but natural that he should diverge more and +more widely from the traditional doctrine, so that at length the +relation between his teaching and that of the church appeared to be one +of opposition rather than of reconciliation. Eckhart is in truth the +first who attempted with perfect freedom and logical consistency to give +a speculative basis to religious doctrines. The two most important +points in his, as in all mystical theories, are first, his doctrine of +the divine nature, and second, his explanation of the relation between +God and human thought. (See MYSTICISM.) + + For the German writings of Eckhart see F. Pfeiffer, _Deutsche + Mystiker_, vol. ii. (Leipzig, 1857), and F. Jostes, _Meister Eckhart + und seine Junger_ (Freiburg, 1895); for the Latin works, H. Denifle in + _Archiv f. Litt- und Kirchengeschichte d. Mittelalters_, ii. (1886), + pp. 417-652, and v. (1889), pp. 349-364; German translations by G. + Landauer, _Meister Eckarts mystische Schriften_ (Berlin, 1903), and + Buttner (Leipzig, 1903 foll.). See also A. Lasson, _Meister Eckhart + der Mystiker_ (1868); H.L. Martensen, _Meister Eckhart_ (1842); J. + Bach, _Meister Eckhart der Vater der deutschen Speculation_ (1864); C. + Ullmann, _Reformatoren vor der Reformation_ (1842); W. Preger, + _Geschichte d. deutschen Mystik_, i. (1874); and "Ein neuer Traktat M. + Eckharts und d. Grundzuge der Eckhartischen Theosophie" in _Zeitschr. + f. hist. Phil._ (1864), pp. 163 foll.; A. Bullinger, _Das Christenthum + im Lichte der deutschen Philos._ (Dillingen, 1895); H. Delacroix, _Le + Mysticisme speculatif en Allemagne au XIV^e siecle_ (Paris, 1900); E. + Kramm, _Meister Eckhart im Lichte der Denifleschen Funde_ (Bonn, + 1889); R. Langenberg, _Uber die Verhaltnisse Meister Eckharts zur + niederdeutschen Mystik_ (Gottingen, 1896); W. Schopff, _Meister + Eckhart_ (Leipzig, 1889); A. Jundt, _Hist. du pantheisme populaire au + moyen age_ (Paris, 1875); art. in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_ + (S.M. Deutsch); R.M. Jones, _Mystical Religion_ (1909). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The name is variously spelled: Eckehart, Eckart, Eckhard. + + + + +ECKHEL, JOSEPH HILARIUS (1737-1798), Austrian numismatist, was born at +Enzersfeld in lower Austria, 1737. His father was farm-steward to Count +Zinzendorf, and he received his early education at the Jesuits' College, +Vienna, where at the age of fourteen he was admitted into the order. He +devoted himself to antiquities and numismatics. After being engaged as +professor of poetry and rhetoric, first at Steyer and afterwards at +Vienna, he was appointed in 1772 keeper of the cabinet of coins at the +Jesuits' College, and in the same year he went to Italy for the purpose +of personal inspection and study of antiquities and coins. At Florence +he was employed to arrange the collection of the grand duke of Tuscany; +and the first-fruits of his study of this and other collections appeared +in his _Numi veteres anecdoti_, published in 1775. On the dissolution of +the order of Jesuits in 1773, Eckhel was appointed by the empress Maria +Theresa professor of antiquities and numismatics at the university of +Vienna, and this post he held for twenty-four years. He was in the +following year made keeper of the imperial cabinet of coins, and in 1779 +appeared his _Catalogus Vindobonensis numorum veterum_. Eckhel's great +work is the _Doctrina numorum veterum_, in 8 vols., the first of which +was published in 1792, and the last in 1798. The author's rich learning, +comprehensive grasp of his subject, admirable order and precision of +statement in this masterpiece drew from Heyne enthusiastic praise, and +the acknowledgment that Eckhel, as the Coryphaeus of numismatists, had, +out of the mass of previously loose and confused facts, constituted a +true science. A volume of _Addenda_, prepared by Steinbuchel from +Eckhel's papers after his death, was published in 1826. Among his other +works are--_Choix de pierres gravees du Cabinet Imperial des Antiques_ +(1788), a useful school-book on coins entitled _Kurzgefasste +Anfangsgrunde zur alten Numismatik_ (1787), of which a French version +enlarged by Jacob appeared in 1825, &c. Eckhel died at Vienna on the +16th of May 1798. + + + + +ECKMUHL, or EGGMUHL, a village of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, on +the Grosse Laaber, 13 m. S.E. of Regensburg by the railway to Munich. It +is famous as the scene of a battle fought here on the 22nd of April +1809, between the French, Bavarians and Wurttembergers under Napoleon, +and the Austrians under the Archduke Charles, which resulted in the +defeat of the latter. Napoleon, in recognition of Marshal Davout's great +share in the victory, conferred on him the title of prince of Eckmuhl. +For an account of this action and those of Abensberg and Landshut see +NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS. + + + + +ECLECTICISM (from Gr. [Greek: eklego], I select), a term used specially +in philosophy and theology for a composite system of thought made up of +views borrowed from various other systems. Where the characteristic +doctrines of a philosophy are not thus merely adopted, but are the +modified products of a blending of the systems from which it takes its +rise, the philosophy is not properly eclectic. Eclecticism always tends +to spring up after a period of vigorous constructive speculation, +especially in the later stages of a controversy between thinkers of +pre-eminent ability. Their respective followers, and more especially +cultured laymen, lacking the capacity for original work, seeking for a +solution in some kind of compromise, and possibly failing to grasp the +essentials of the controversy, take refuge in a combination of those +elements in the opposing systems which seem to afford a sound practical +theory. Since these combinations have often been as illogical as facile, +"eclecticism" has generally acquired a somewhat contemptuous +significance. At the same time, the essence of eclecticism is the +refusal to follow blindly one set of formulae and conventions, coupled +with a determination to recognize and select from all sources those +elements which are good or true in the abstract, or in practical affairs +most useful _ad hoc_. Theoretically, therefore, eclecticism is a +perfectly sound method, and the contemptuous significance which the word +has acquired is due partly to the fact that many eclectics have been +intellectual trimmers, sceptics or dilettanti, and partly to mere +partisanship. On the other hand, eclecticism in the sphere of abstract +thought is open to this main objection that, in so far as every +philosophic system is, at least in theory, an integral whole, the +combination of principles from hostile theories must result in an +incoherent patchwork. Thus it might be argued that there can be no +logical combination of elements from Christian ethics, with its divine +sanction, and purely intuitional or evolutionary ethical theories, where +the sanction is essentially different in quality. It is in practical +affairs that the eclectic or undogmatic spirit is most valuable, and +also least dangerous. + +In the 2nd century B.C. a remarkable tendency toward eclecticism began +to manifest itself. The longing to arrive at the one explanation of all +things, which had inspired the older philosophers, became less earnest; +the belief, indeed, that any such explanation was attainable began to +fail. Thus men came to adopt from all systems the doctrines which best +pleased them. In Panaetius we find one of the earliest examples of the +modification of Stoicism by the eclectic spirit; about the same time the +same spirit displayed itself among the Peripatetics. In Rome philosophy +never became more than a secondary pursuit; naturally, therefore, the +Roman thinkers were for the most part eclectic. Of this tendency Cicero +is the most striking illustration--his philosophical works consisting of +an aggregation, with little or no blending, of doctrines borrowed from +Stoicism, Peripateticism, and the scepticism of the Middle Academy. + +In the last stage of Greek philosophy the eclectic spirit produced +remarkable results outside the philosophies of those properly called +eclectics. Thinkers chose their doctrines from many sources--from the +venerated teaching of Aristotle and Plato, from that of the Pythagoreans +and of the Stoics, from the old Greek mythology, and from the Jewish and +other Oriental systems. Yet it must be observed that Neoplatonism, +Gnosticism, and the other systems which are grouped under the name +Alexandrian, were not truly eclectic, consisting, as they did, not of a +mere syncretism of Greek and Oriental thought, but of a mutual +modification of the two. It is true that several of the Neoplatonists +professed to accept all the teaching both of Plato and of Aristotle, +whereas, in fact, they arbitrarily interpreted Aristotle so as to make +him agree with Plato, and Plato so as to make his teachings consistent +with the Oriental doctrines which they had adopted, in the same manner +as the schoolmen attempted to reconcile Aristotle with the doctrines of +the church. Among the early Christians, Clement of Alexandria, Origen +and Synesius were eclectics in philosophy. + +The eclectics of modern philosophy are too numerous to name. Of Italian +philosophers the eclectics form a large proportion. Among the German we +may mention Wolf and his followers, as well as Mendelssohn, J.A. +Eberhard, Ernst Platner, and to some extent Schelling, whom, however, it +would be incorrect to describe as merely an eclectic. In the first +place, his speculations were largely original; and in the second place, +it is not so much that his views of any time were borrowed from a number +of philosophers, as that his thinking was influenced first by one +philosopher, then by another. + +In the 19th century the term "eclectic" came to be applied specially to +a number of French philosophers who differed considerably from one +another. Of these the earliest were Pierre Paul Royer-Collard, who was +mainly a follower of Thomas Reid, and Maine de Biran; but the name is +still more appropriately given to the school of which the most +distinguished members are Victor Cousin, Theodore Jouffroy, J.P. +Damiron, Barthelemy St Hilaire, C.F.M. de Remusat, Adolphe Garnier and +Ravaisson-Mollien. Cousin, whose views varied considerably at different +periods of his life, not only adopted freely what pleased him in the +doctrines of Pierre Laromiguiere, Royer-Collard and Maine de Biran, of +Kant, Schelling and Hegel, and of the ancient philosophies, but +expressly maintained that the eclectic is the only method now open to +the philosopher, whose function thus resolves itself into critical +selection and nothing more. "Each system," he asserted, "is not false, +but incomplete, and in reuniting all incomplete systems, we should have +a complete philosophy, adequate to the totality of consciousness." This +assumes that every philosophical truth is already contained somewhere in +the existing systems. If, however, as it would surely be rash to deny, +there still remains philosophical truth undiscovered, but discoverable +by human intelligence, it is evident that eclecticism is not the only +philosophy. Eclecticism gained great popularity, and, partly owing to +Cousin's position as minister of public instruction, became the +authorized system in the chief seats of learning in France, where it has +given a most remarkable impulse to the study of the history of +philosophy. + + + + +ECLIPSE (Gr. [Greek: ekleipsis], falling out of place, failing), the +complete or partial obscuration of one heavenly body by the shadow of +another, or of the disk of the sun by the interposition of the moon; +then called an eclipse of the sun. Eclipses are of three classes: those +of the sun, as just defined; those of the moon, produced by its passage +through the shadow of the earth, and those of the satellites of other +planets, produced by their passage through the shadow of their primary. +Jupiter (q.v.) is the only planet of whose satellites the eclipses can +be observed, unless under very rare circumstances. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +The geometrical conditions of an eclipse of the sun or moon are shown in +fig. 1, which represents the earth E as casting its shadow towards C, +and the moon M between the earth and sun as throwing its shadow towards +some part of the earth and eclipsing the sun. The dark conical regions +are those within which the sun is entirely hidden from sight. This +portion of the shadow is called the _umbra_. Around the umbra is an +enveloping shaded cone with its vertices directly towards the sun. To an +observer within this region the sun is partly hidden from view. As the +apparent path of the moon may pass to the north or south of the line +joining the earth and sun, the axis of its shadow may pass to the north +or south of the earth, and not meet it at all. An eclipse of the sun is +called _central_ when the shadow axis strikes any part of the earth; +partial when only the penumbra falls upon the earth. It is evident that +an eclipse can be seen as central only at those points of the earth's +surface over which the axis of the shadow passes. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.] + +A central eclipse is _total_ when the umbra actually reaches the earth; +_annular_ when it does not. These two cases are shown in figs. 2 and 3. +In the first of these the sun is entirely hidden within the region uu'. +In fig. 3 within the region aa' the apparent diameter of the sun is +slightly greater than that of the moon, and at the moment of greatest +eclipse a narrow ring of sunlight is seen surrounding the dark body of +the moon. + +We shall treat the subject in the following sections:-- + +I. Phenomena of Eclipses of the Sun and conclusions derived from their +observation. + +II. Eclipses of the Moon. + +III. The Laws and Cycles of recurrences of Eclipses of the Sun and Moon. + +IV. Chronological list of remarkable eclipses of the Sun, past and +future, to the end of the 20th century. + +V. Description of the methods of computing eclipses. + + +I. _Phenomena of Eclipses of the Sun._ + +While an eclipse of the sun, whether partial, annular or total, is in +progress, no striking phenomena are to be noted until, in the case of +total eclipses, the moment of the total phase approaches. It will, +however, be noticed that as the moon advances on the solar disk the +sharply defined and ragged edge of the moon's disk contrasts strongly +with the soft and uniform outline of the sun's limb. As the total phase +approaches, the phenomenon known as _shadow bands_ may sometimes be +seen. These consist of seeming vague and rapidly moving wave-like +alternations of light and shade flitting over any white surface +illuminated by the sun's rays immediately before and after the total +phase. They are probably due to a flickering of the light from the thin +crescent, produced by the undulations of the air, in the same way that +the twinkling of the stars is produced. The rapid progressive motion +sometimes assigned to them may be regarded as the natural result of an +optical illusion. A few seconds before the commencement of the total +phase the red light of the chromosphere becomes visible, and will be +seen most distinctly as continuations of the solar crescent at its two +ends. Owing to the inequalities of the lunar surface, the diminution of +the solar crescent does not go on with perfect uniformity, but, just +before the last moment, what remains of it is generally broken up into +separate portions of light, which, magnified and diffused by the +irradiation of the telescope, present the phenomenon long celebrated +under the name of "Baily's beads." These were so called because minutely +and vividly described by Francis Baily as he observed them during the +annular eclipse of May 15, 1836, when he compared them to a string of +bright beads, irregular in size and distance from each other. The +disappearance of the last bead is commonly taken as the beginning of +totality. An arc of the chromosphere will then be visible for a few +seconds at and on each side of the point of disappearance, the length +and duration of which will depend on the apparent diameter of the moon +as compared with that of the sun, being greater in length and longer +seen as the excess of diameter of the moon is less. The red prominences +may now generally be seen here and there around the whole disk of the +moon, while the effulgence of soft light called the corona surrounds it +on all sides. Before the invention of the spectroscope, observers of +total eclipses could do little more than describe in detail the varying +phenomena presented by the prominences and the corona. Drawings of the +latter showed it to have the appearance of rays surrounding the dark +disk of the moon, quite similar to the glory depicted by the old +painters around the head of a saint. The discrepancies between the +outlines as thus pictured, not only at different times, but by different +observers at the same time and place, are such as to show that little +reliance can be placed on the details represented by hand drawings. + +During the eclipse of July 8, 1842, the shadow of the moon passed from +Perpignan, France, through Milan and Vienna, over Russia and Central +Asia, to the Pacific Ocean. Very detailed physical observations were +made, but none which need be specially mentioned in the present +connexion. + +The eclipse of July 28, 1851, was total in Scandinavia and Russia. It +was observed in the former region by many astronomers, among them Sir +George B. Airy and W.R. Dawes. It was specially noteworthy for the first +attempt to photograph such a phenomenon. A daguerreotype clearly showing +the protuberances was taken by Berkowski at the Observatory of +Konigsberg. An attempt by G.A. Majocchi to daguerreotype the corona was +a failure. Photographs of the eclipse of July 18, 1860, were taken by +Padre Angelo Secchi and Warren De La Rue, which showed the prominences +well, and proved that they were progressively obscured by the edge of +the advancing moon. It was thus shown that they were solar appendages, +and did not belong to the moon, as had sometimes been supposed. The +corona was barely visible on De La Rue's plates, but those of Secchi +showed it, with its rifts and the bases of the tall coronal wings, to +about 15' from the sun's limb. The sketches taken at this eclipse proved +that the corona extended in some regions 1 deg. from the sun's limb. As +the sensitiveness of photographic plates has increased, they have +gradually been wholly relied upon for information respecting the corona, +so that at the present time naked-eye descriptions are regarded as of +little or no scientific value. Owing to the great contrast between the +brilliancy of the coronal light at its base and its increasing faintness +as it extends farther from the sun, no one photograph will bring out all +the corona. An exposure of one or two seconds is ample to show the +details of inner corona to the best advantage, while longer exposures +give greater extent of the brighter portions. The most extended +streamers are very little brighter than the sky, and must be +photographed with long exposures. + +The first application of the spectroscope to the phenomenon was made +during the total solar eclipse of August 18, 1868, by P.J.C. Janssen and +other observers in India. By them was made the capital discovery that +the red solar prominences give a spectrum of bright lines, and are +therefore immense masses of incandescent gases, chiefly hydrogen and the +vapours of calcium and helium. Janssen also found that this bright-line +spectrum could be followed after the eclipse was over, and, in fact, +could be observed at any time when the air was sufficiently transparent. +By one of those remarkable coincidences which frequently occur in the +history of science, this last discovery was made independently by Sir +Norman Lockyer in England before the news of Janssen's success had +reached him. It was afterwards found that, by giving great dispersing +power to the spectroscope, the prominences could be observed in a wide +slit, in their true form. At this eclipse the spectrum of the corona was +also observed, and was supposed to be continuous, while polariscopic +observation by Lieutenant Campbell showed it polarized in planes passing +through the sun's centre. The conclusion from these two observations was +that the light was composed, at least in great part, of reflected +sunlight. + +At the total eclipse of August 7, 1869, it was independently found by +Professors C.A. Young of Princeton and W. Harkness of Washington that +the continuous spectrum of the corona was crossed by a bright line in +the green, which was long supposed to be coincident with 1474 of +Kirchhoff's scale. This coincidence is, however, now found not to be +real, and the line cannot be identified with that of any terrestrial +substance. The name "coronium" has therefore been given to the supposed +gas which forms it. It is now known that 1474 is a double line, one +component of which is produced by iron, while the other is of unknown +origin. The wave-length of the principal component is 5317, while that +of the coronal line was found at the eclipses of 1896 and 1898 to be +5303. + +The eclipse of December 28, 1870, passed over the south-western corner +of Spain, Gibraltar, Oran and Sicily. It is memorable for the discovery +by Young of the "reversing layer" of the solar atmosphere. This term is +now applied to a shallow stratum resting immediately upon the +photosphere, the absorption of which produces the principal dark lines +of the solar spectrum, but which, being incandescent, gives a spectrum +of bright lines by its own light when the light of the sun is cut off. +This layer is much thinner than the chromosphere, and may be considered +to form the base of the latter. Owing to its thinness, the phenomenon of +the reversed bright lines is almost instantaneous in its nature, and can +be observed for a period exceeding one or two seconds only near the edge +of the shadow-path, where the moon advances but little beyond the solar +limb. Near the central line it is little more than a flash, thus giving +rise to the term "flash-spectrum." Young also at this eclipse saw bright +hydrogen lines when his spectroscope was directed to the centre of the +dark disk of the moon. This can only be attributed to the reflection of +the light of the prominences and chromosphere from the atmosphere +between us and the moon. The coronal light as observed in the +spectroscope may thus be regarded as a mixture of true coronal light +with chromospheric light reflected from the air, and it is therefore +probable that the H and K (calcium) lines of the coronal spectrum are +not true coronal lines, but chromospheric. + +At the eclipse of December 12, 1871, visible in India and Australia, +Janssen observed, as he supposed, some of the dark lines of the solar +spectrum in the continuous spectrum of the corona, especially D, b and +G. This would show that an important part of the coronal light is due to +reflected sunshine. This feature of the spectrum, however, is doubtful +in the most recent photographs under the best conditions. At this +eclipse the remarkable observation was also made by Colonel John +Herschel and Colonel J.F. Tennant that the characteristic line of the +coronal spectrum is as bright in the dark rifts of the corona as +elsewhere. This would show that the gas coronium does not form the +streamers of the corona, but is spherical in form and distributed +uniformly about the sun. Photographs were also taken on wet plates by a +party in Java and by the parties of Lord Lindsay (at Baikul, India) and +of Colonel Tennant (at Dodabetta). The Baikul and Dodabetta photographs +were of small size (moon's diameter = 3/10 in.), but of excellent +definition. A searching study was made of them by A. C Ranyard and W.H. +Wesley (_Memoirs R.A.S._ vol. xli., 1879), and for the first time a +satisfactory representation of the corona was obtained. The drawings in +the volume quoted show its polar rays, wings, interlacing filaments and +rifts as they are now known to be, as well as the forms and details of +the prominences. + +The eclipse of April 16, 1874, was observed in South Africa by E.J. +Stone, H.M. astronomer at the Cape, who traced the coronal line about +30' (430,000 m.) from the sun's limb. The visual corona was seen to +extend in places some 90' from the limb. + +The eclipse of April 6, 1875, was observed in Siam by Sir J. Norman +Lockyer and Professor Arthur Schuster. Their photographs showed the +calcium and hydrogen lines in the prominence spectrum. + +The eclipse of July 29, 1878, was observed by many astronomers in the +United States along a line extending from Wyoming to Texas. A number of +the stations were at high altitudes (up to 14,000 ft.), and the sky was +generally very clear. The visible corona extended on both sides of the +sun along the ecliptic for immense distances--at least twelve lunar +diameters, about eleven million miles. Photographs taken by the parties +of Professors A. Hall and W. Harkness gave the details of the inner +corona and of the polar rays, showing the filamentous character of the +corona, especially at its base in the polar regions. A photograph taken +by the party of Professor E.S. Holden showed the outer corona to a +distance of 50' from the moon's limb. The bright-line spectrum of the +corona was excessively faint and, as the solar activity (measured by +sun-spot frequency) was near a minimum, it was concluded that the +brilliancy of the coronium line varied in the sun-spot period, a +conclusion which subsequent eclipse observations seem to have verified. +It is not yet certain that the other coronal spectrum lines vary in the +same way. + +The eclipse of May 17, 1882, was observed in Egypt. On the photographs +of the corona the image of a bright comet was found, the first instance +of the sort. (A faint comet was found on the plates of the Lick +Observatory eclipse expedition to Chile in 1893.) The slitless +spectroscope showed the green line (coronium) and D3 (helium) in the +coronal spectrum. + +The eclipse of May 6, 1883, was observed from a small coral atoll in the +South Pacific Ocean by parties from America, England, France, Austria +and Italy. A thorough search was made by Holden (with a 6 in. telescope) +for an intra-Mercurial planet, without success, during an unusually long +totality (5 m. 23 s.). J. Palisa also searched for such a planet. +Janssen again reported the presence of dark lines in the coronal +spectrum. "White" prominences were seen by P. Tacchini. + +The eclipse of August 29, 1886, was observed in the West Indies. The +English photographs of the corona, taken with a slitless spectroscope, +show the hydrogen lines as well as K and f. Tacchini devoted his +attention to the spectra of the prominences, and showed that their upper +portions contained no hydrogen lines, but only the H and K lines of +calcium. He also observed a very extensive "white" prominence. It was +shown on the photographs of the corona, but could not be seen in the +H[alpha] line with the spectroscope. It has been suggested by Professor +G.E. Hale that the colour of a "white" prominence may be due to the fact +that the H and K lines (calcium) are of their normal intensity, while +the less refrangible prominence lines are, from some unknown cause, +comparatively faint. It is known that the intensity of such lines does, +in fact, vary, though it is not yet certain that the "white" prominences +are produced in this way. The subject is one demanding further +observation. High prominences are generally "white" at their summits, +"red" at their bases. The Harvard College Observatory photographs show +the corona out to 90' from the moon's limb, though no detail is visible +beyond 60'. W.H. Pickering made a series of photographic photometric +measures of the corona, some of which are given below, together with +results deduced by Holden from the eclipses of January and December +1889:-- + + +--------------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+ + | | August | January | December| + | | 1886. | 1889. | 1889. | + +--------------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+ + | Intrinsic actinic brilliancy of the | | | | + | brightest parts of the corona | 0.031 | 0.079 | 0.029 | + | Do. of the polar rays | . . | 0.053 | 0.016 | + | Do. of the sky near the sun | 0.0007 | 0.0050 | 0.0009 | + | Ratio of intrinsic brilliancy of the | | | | + | brightest parts of the corona to | | | | + | that of the sky (actinic) | 44 to 1 | 16 to 1 | 32 to 1 | + | Magnitude of the faintest star | | | | + | shown on the eclipse negatives | . . | 2.3 | . . | + +--------------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+ + + The results in the first and third columns are derived from plates + taken in a very humid climate, and are not very different. + +The eclipse of August 19, 1887, was total in Japan and Russia, but +cloudy weather prevented successful observations except in Siberia and +eastern Russia. + +The eclipse of January 1, 1889, was observed in California and Nevada by +many American astronomers. The photographs of the corona, especially +those by Charoppin and E.E. Barnard, show a wealth of detail. Those of +Barnard, of the Lick Observatory party, were studied by Holden, and +exhibited the fact that rays, like the "polar-rays," extended all round +the sun, instead of being confined to the polar regions only. The outer +corona was registered out to 100' from the moon's limb on Charoppin's +negatives, to 130' on those of Lowden and Ireland. On other plates the +outline of the moon is visible projected on the corona before totality +began. The spectrum of the corona showed few bright lines besides those +of coronium and hydrogen. + +The eclipse of December 22, 1889, was observed in Cayenne, S. America, +by a party from the Lick Observatory under rather unfavourable +conditions. Expeditions sent to Africa were baffled by cloudy weather. +Father Stephen Joseph Perry observed at Salute Islands, French Guiana, +and obtained some photographs of value. The effort cost him his life, +for he died of malarial fever five days after the eclipse. + +The eclipse of April 16, 1893, was observed by British and French +parties in Africa and Brazil, and by Professor J.M. Schaeberle of the +Lick Observatory in Chile. The Chile photographs of the corona were +taken with a lens of 40 ft. focus, and are extremely fine. They show a +faint comet near the sun. No great extensions to the corona were shown +on any of the negatives, or seen visually, though they were specially +looked for by British parties. The neighbourhood of the sun was +carefully examined by G. Bigourdan without finding any planet. The +spectrum of the corona was the usual one. The following lines were +photographed in slitless spectroscopes, and undoubtedly belong to the +corona: W. L. 3987; 4086; 4217; 4231; 4240; 4280; 4486; 5303 (the last +number is the wave-length of the green coronium line). All of these have +been seen in slit spectroscopes also. It is possible that two lines +observed by Young in 1869, namely, W. L. (Angstrom) 5450 and 5570, +should be added to the list of undoubted coronal lines. It is not likely +that helium or hydrogen or calcium vapour forms part of the corona. The +wave-lengths of some 700 lines belonging to the chromosphere and +prominences were determined by the British parties. + +The eclipse of August 9, 1896, was total in Norway, Novaya Zemlya and +Japan. The day was very unfavourable as to weather, but good photographs +of the corona were obtained by Russian parties in Siberia and Lapland. +Shackelton, in Novaya Zemlya, with a prismatic camera obtained a +photograph of the reversing-layer at the beginning of totality. This +photograph completely confirms Young's discovery, and shows the +prominent Fraunhofer lines bright, the bright lines of the chromosphere +spectrum being especially conspicuous. + +At the solar eclipse of January 22, 1898, the shadow of the moon +traversed India from the western coast to the Himalaya. The duration of +totality was about 2 m. The eclipse was very fully observed, more than +100 negatives of the corona being secured. The equatorial extension of +the visible corona was short and faint, and the invisible +(spectroscopic) corona was also very faint. The spectrum of the +reversing-layer was successfully photographed; one set of negatives +shows the polarization of one of the longest streamers of the corona, +and proves the presence of dust particles reflecting solar light. The +bright-line spectrum of hydrogen in the chromosphere was followed to the +thirtieth point of the series, and the wave-lengths were shown to agree +closely with Balmer's formula (see SPECTROSCOPY). The wave-length of +coronium was found to be 5303 (not 5317 as previously supposed), and the +brightness of the corona was measured. E.W. Maunder made the curious +observation of coronal matter enveloping a prominence in the form of a +hood. + +Observations of the eclipse of May 28, 1900, were favoured in a +remarkable degree by the absence of clouds. The photographs of the +corona obtained by W.W. Campbell extended four diameters of the sun on +the west side. The sun's edge was photographed with an objective-prism +spectrograph composed of two 60 deg. prisms in front of a telescope of 2 +in. aperture and 60 in. focus. A fine photograph, 6 in. long, of the +bright-and dark-line spectra of the sun's edge at the end of totality +was thus obtained. It shows 600 bright lines sharply in focus besides +the dark-line spectrum, to which the bright lines gave way as the sun +reappeared. The coronal material radiating the green light was found to +be markedly heaped up in the sun-spot regions. No dark lines were found +in the spectrum of the inner corona. G.E. Hale and E.B. Frost also +photographed the combined bright-and dark-line spectra of the solar +cusps at the instants before and after totality. On one photograph +showing no dark lines 70 bright lines could be measured between 4070 and +4340. On another were 70 bright lines between Hb and Hs. On a third were +266 bright lines between 4026 and 4381, and some dark lines. These lines +show a marked dissimilarity from the solar spectrum. (S. N.) + +The eclipse of May 18, 1901, was observable in Mauritius with 3-1/2 +minutes of totality, and in Sumatra with 6-1/2 minutes. Unfortunately +there was cloudy weather in Sumatra, which at some stations prevented +observations entirely and at others neutralized the advantages promised +by the long duration of totality. Thus spectroscopic observations for +the detection of motion of the corona, for which the long totality gave +a special opportunity, failed owing to cloud; and the search for +intra-Mercurial planets had only a negative result, though stars down to +magnitude 8.8 were photographed on the plates. But though no particular +step in advance was taken, successful records of the eclipse were +obtained, which will enable comparison to be made with other eclipses +and will contribute their share to the discussion of the whole series. +These include photographs of the corona, showing that it was of the +sun-spot minimum type, and available for measures of its brightness; +photographs of the spectra of the chromosphere and corona which are of +the same general character as those obtained at previous eclipses; +photographs showing the polarization of the corona, available for +quantitative measures of polarization at different points. Photographs +of the spectrum of the outer corona taken by the Lick Observatory party +show a strong Fraunhofer dark-line spectrum, consistent with the view +that the light is reflected sunlight. At Mauritius there was no cloud, +but the definition was poor. Successful photographs of the corona were +obtained for comparison with those taken in Sumatra one and a half hours +later, but nothing of great interest was revealed by the comparison. + +The eclipse of August 30, 1905, offered a duration of 3-1/2 minutes in +Spain, the track running from Labrador through Spain to North Africa, +and affording excellent opportunities for observers, who flocked to the +central line in great numbers. Unfortunately it was cloudy in Labrador, +so that the special advantages of the long line of possible stations +were lost. Exceptionally good weather conditions were enjoyed in Algeria +and Tunisia, and full advantage was taken of them by H.F. Newall, C. +Trepied and others at Guelma, by the party from Greenwich and G. +Bigourdan at Sfax. That G. Newall's spectroscopic photographs for +rotation of the corona again gave no result is a clear indication of the +faintness of the corona at 3' from the limb; but F.W. Dyson at Sfax +obtained two new lines at 5536 and 5117 in the spectrum of the corona; +and a very large number of photographs of the corona (including many in +polarized light on several different plans), of its spectrum, and of the +spectrum of the chromosphere, were obtained by the various parties, +which will afford copious material for discussion. Newall also obtained +a polarized spectrum of the corona. Altogether no less than eighty +stations were occupied. There were English, American, Russian and German +observers in Egypt; English and French in Algeria and Tunisia; English +in Majorca; observers of almost all nationalities in Spain; and English +and American in Labrador. In Egypt the weather was bright, though the +sun was low; in Majorca and Spain there were local clouds. Consequently +many observations, in addition to those in Labrador, were lost, notably +the special spectroscopic observations undertaken by Evershed on the +northern limit of totality, and the observations of radiation undertaken +by H.L. Callendar. A search for intra-Mercurial planets was conducted on +an elaborate plan, with similar batteries of telescopes, in Egypt, Spain +and Labrador, by three parties from the Lick Observatory, but the +examination of the plates showed nothing noteworthy. Pending discussion +of the greater part of the material, some interesting preliminary +results were published in 1906 by the French observers. C.E.H. Bourget +and Montangerand conclude that there is a marked division of the +chromosphere into two regions or shells, a lower or "reversing-layer," +extending only 1" from the limb, and a chromospheric layer extending to +3" or 4"; and that the coronal light contains less blue and violet, but +more green and yellow, than sunlight; while Fabry, by visual methods, +obtained measures of the total and intrinsic intensity of the light from +the corona closely confirming recent photographic observations, finding +the total brightness about equal to that of the full moon, and the +intrinsic brightness at 5' from the limb about one quarter of that of +the full moon. (H. H. T.) + + +II. _Eclipses of the Moon._ + +The physical phenomena attending eclipses of the moon are no longer of a +high order of interest either to the layman or scientific observer. A +brief statement of them and their causes will therefore be sufficient. +An observer watching such an eclipse from the moon would see the earth, +which has nearly four times the apparent diameter of the sun, impinging +on the sun's disk and slowly hiding it. The phenomenon would be quite +similar to that of an eclipse of the sun seen from the earth, until the +sun was completely covered. During the progress of this partial eclipse +the moon would be passing into the earth's penumbra. As the moment of +total obscuration approached, a red band of light would rapidly form in +the neighbourhood of the disappearing limb of the sun, and gradually +extend around the earth. This would arise from the refraction of the +sun's light by the earth's atmosphere, and the absorption of its blue +rays. When the light of the sun was completely hidden, a reddish ring of +great brilliancy would, owing to this cause, surround the entire dark +body of the earth during the period of the total eclipse. + +The aspect of the moon, as seen from the earth, corresponds to this view +from the moon. The fading of the moon's light, due to its entrance into +the penumbra, is scarcely noticeable without direct photometric +determination until near the beginning of the total phase. Then, as the +limb of the moon approaches the earth's shadow, it begins to darken. +When only a small portion has entered into the shadow, that portion is +completely hidden. But, as the total phase approaches, the part of the +moon's disk immersed in the penumbra becomes visible by a reddish +coppery light--that of the sun refracted through the lower parts of the +earth's atmosphere. The brightness of this illumination is different in +different eclipses, a circumstance which may be attributed to the +greater or less degree of cloudiness in those regions of the earth's +atmosphere through which the light of the sun passes in order to reach +the moon. Its colour is due to absorption in passing through the earth's +atmosphere. + + +III. _Laws and Cycles of Recurrences of Eclipses of the Sun and Moon._ + +It has been known since remote antiquity that eclipses occur in cycles. +These cycles are known now to be determined principally by the motion of +the moon's node and the relations between the revolutions of the earth +round the sun and the moon round the earth. + + + Eclipse seasons. + +Owing to the inclination of the moon's orbit to the plane of the +ecliptic, an eclipse of the sun can occur only when the conjunction of +the sun and moon takes place within about 16 deg. of one of the nodes of +the moon's orbit. The eclipse can be total only within about 11 deg. of +the node. An eclipse of the moon can occur only when the line +sun-moon-earth makes an angle less than about 11 deg. with the line of +nodes; and the eclipse can be total only within about 8 deg. of the +node, the average limiting distances varying 1 deg. or 2 deg. according +to the circumstances. These conditions being understood, the cycles of +recurrence of eclipses of either kind can be worked out geometrically +from the mean motions of the sun, moon, node and perigee by the aid of +geometric conceptions shown in their simplest form in fig. 4. Here E is +the earth, at the centre of a circle representing the mean orbit of the +moon around it. MN is the line of nodes which is moving in the +retrograde direction from N towards S1, at a rate of about 19.3 deg. in +a year, making a complete revolution in 18.6 years. Let the sun at the +moment of some new moon be in the line ES1, continued. If the angle NES1 +is less than 16 deg. there will probably be an eclipse of the sun, which +may be central if the angle is less than 11 deg. Let the next new moon +take place in the line ES2 a month later. The mean value of the angle +S1ES2 is about 29 deg.; but as the node N has moved towards S1 about 1.4 +deg. during the interval, the sum of the angles NES1 and NES2 will be +somewhat greater than S1ES2 by about 1.6 deg. The result is that if +these two angles are nearly equal there may be two small partial +eclipses of the sun, after which no more can occur until, by the annual +revolution of the earth, the direction of the sun approaches the +opposite line of nodes EM, nearly six months later. The result is that +there are in the course of any one year two "eclipse seasons" each of +about one month in duration, in which at least one eclipse of the sun, +or possibly two small partial eclipses, may occur. One eclipse of the +moon will generally, but not always, occur during a season. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.] + +Owing to the retrograde motion of the node the direction ES of the sun +returns to the node at the end of about 347 days, so that a third +eclipse season may commence before the end of a year. In this way there +is a possible but very rare maximum of five eclipses of the sun in a +year. Owing to the motion of the line of nodes each eclipse season +occurs about 19 days earlier in the year than it did the year before. +Another conclusion from the greater eclipse limit for the sun than for +the moon is that in the long run eclipses of the sun, as regards the +earth generally, occur oftener than those of the moon. But as any +eclipse of the sun is visible only from a limited region of the earth's +surface, while one of the moon may be seen from an entire hemisphere, +more eclipses of the moon are visible at any one place than of the sun. + +If, starting with a conjunction along some line ES1, we mark by radial +lines from E the successive conjunctions year after year, we shall find +that at the end of 18 years and about 11 days the 223rd conjunction will +fall once more very near the line ES1, the angle NES1 being about 24' +greater than before. Successive eclipses will then occur very nearly in +the same order as they did 18 years and 11 days before. This period of +recurrence has been known from remote antiquity and is called the +_Saros_. What is most remarkable in this period is that in addition to +the distance from the node being nearly the same as before, the +longitude of the sun increases by only 11 deg. and the distance of the +moon from its perigee has changed less than 3 deg. The result of this +approach to coincidence is that the recurring eclipse will generally be +of the same kind--total, annular or partial--through a number of +successive periods. + +To see the law of recurrence of corresponding eclipses in the successive +periods let us suppose the line of conjunction ES1 to be that at which +there is a very small eclipse, visible only in high northern or southern +latitudes. At the end of 18 years 11 days a second eclipse will occur +along a line nearly half a degree nearer EN, the line of nodes. The +successive eclipses will occur at the same interval through about ten +periods, or 180 years, when the line of conjunction will pass within 11 +deg. of EN. Then the eclipse will be central, whether annular or total +depending on circumstances: in the first one the central lines will pass +only over the polar regions; but in successive eclipses of the series it +will pass nearer and nearer to the equator until the conjunction line +coincides with the node. The path of centrality will then cross in the +equatorial region. During 22 or 23 more recurrences the path will +continually approach to the opposite pole and finally leave the earth +entirely. The entire number of central eclipses in any one series will +generally be about forty-five. Then a series of continually diminishing +partial eclipses will go on for about ten periods more. The whole series +of eclipses will therefore extend through about sixty-five periods; and +interval of time of about twelve hundred years. + +Another remarkable eclipse period recurs at the end of 358 lunations. At +the end of this period the line of mean conjunction ES1 falls so near +its former position relative to the node that we find each central +eclipse visible in our time to be one of an unbroken series extending +from the earliest historic times to the present, at intervals equal to +the length of the period. The recurring eclipses in this period do not, +however, have the remarkable similarity of those belonging to the Saros, +but may differ to any extent, owing to the different positions of the +line of conjunction with respect to the moon's perigee. Moreover, they +recur alternately at the ascending and descending node. The length of +the period is 10,571.95 days, or 29 Julian years less 20.3 days. Hence +18 periods make 521 years, so that at the end of this time each eclipse +recurs on or about the same day of the year. As an example of this +series, starting from the eclipse of Nineveh, June 15, 763 B.C., +recorded on the Assyrian tablets, we find eclipses on May 27, 734 B.C., +May 7, 705 B.C., and so on in an unbroken series to 1843, 1872 and 1901, +the last being the 93rd of the series. Those at the ends of the 521-year +intervals occurred on June 15, O.S., of each of the years 763, 242 B.C., +A.D. 280, 801, 1322 and 1843. As the lunar perigee moves through 242.4 +deg. in a period, the eclipses will vary from total to annular, but at +the end of 3 periods the perigee is only 7.1 deg. in advance of its +original position relative to the node. Hence in a series including +every third eclipse the eclipses will be of the same character through a +thousand years or more. Thus the eclipses of 1467, 1554, 1640, 1727, +1814, 1901, 1988, &c., are total. + + +IV. _Chronological Lists of Eclipses of the Sun._ + + + Notable eclipses. + +The following is a brief chronological enumeration of those total +eclipses of the sun which are of interest, either from their historic +celebrity or the nature of the conclusions derived from them. In +numbering the years before the Christian era the astronomical +nomenclature is used, in which the number of the year is one less than +that used by the chronologists. The Chinese eclipses are passed over, +owing to the generally doubtful character of the records pertaining to +them. + + --1069 June 20 and --1062 July 31; total eclipses recorded at Babylon. + + --762, June 14; a total eclipse recorded at Nineveh. Computation from + the modern tables shows that the path of totality passed about 100 m. + or more north of Nineveh. + + --647, April 6; total eclipse at or near Thasos, mentioned by + Archilochus. + + --584, May 28; the celebrated eclipse of Thales. For an account of + this eclipse see THALES. + + --556, May 19, the eclipse of Larissa. The modern tables show that the + eclipse was not total at Larissa, and the connexion of the classical + record with the eclipse is doubtful. + + --430, August 3; eclipse mentioned by Thucydides, but not total by the + tables. + + --399, June 21; eclipse of Ennius. Totality occurred immediately after + sunset at Rome. The identity of this eclipse is doubtful. + + --309, August 14; eclipse of Agathocles. This eclipse would be one of + the most valuable for testing the tables of the moon, but for an + uncertainty as to the location of Agathocles, who, at the time of the + occurrence, was at sea on a voyage from Syracuse to Carthage. + + F.K. Ginzel (_Spezieller Kanon der Finsternisse_) has collected a + great number of passages from classical authors supposed to refer to + eclipses of the sun or moon, but the difficulty of identifying the + phenomenon is frequently such as to justify great doubt as to the + conclusions. In a few cases no eclipse corresponding to the + description can be found by our modern table to have occurred, and in + others the latitude of interpretation and the uncertainty of the date + are so wide that the eclipse cannot be identified. + + Of medieval eclipses we mention only the dates of those visible in + England, referring for details to the works mentioned in the + bibliography. The letter C following a date shows that the eclipse is + mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles. The dates in question are:-- + + A.D. 538, February 15, C. (partial). | A.D. 878, October 29, C. + 540, June 12, C. (partial). | 885, June 15. + 594, July 23. | 1023, January 24. + 603, August 12. | 1133, August 1, C. + 639, September 3. | 1140, March 20, C. + 664, May 1, C. | 1185, May 1, C. + 733, August 14 (annular). | 1191, June 23, C. (annular). + 764, June 4 (annular). | 1330, July 16. + + Besides these, the tables show that the shadow of the moon passed over + some part of the British Islands on 1424, June 26; 1433, June 17; + 1598, March 6; 1652, April 8; 1715, May 2; 1724, May 22. Of these the + eclipse of 1715 is notable for the careful observations made in + England, and published by Halley in the _Philosophical Transactions_. + The next dates are 1927, June 29, when a barely total eclipse will be + seen soon after sunrise in the northern counties near the Scottish + border, and 1999, August 11, when the moon's shadow will graze England + at Land's End. + +We give below, in tabular form, a list of the principal total eclipses +during the 19th and 20th centuries, omitting a few visible only in the +extreme polar regions, and some others of which the duration is very +short. The first column gives the civil date of the point on the earth's +surface at which the eclipse is central at noon. The next two columns +give the position of this point to the nearest degree. The fourth column +shows the Greenwich astronomical time of conjunction in longitude. The +next column gives the duration of the total phase at the noon-point; +this is sometimes 0.1' less than the absolutely greatest duration at any +point. Next is given the node near which the eclipse occurs; and then +the number in the Saros. Corresponding eclipses at intervals of 18 y. 11 +d. have the same number, and occur near the same node of the noon, which +is indicated in the next column. + + +----------------+--------------+---------------+---------+------+-------+------------------------------------------------------------+ + | | Point where |Greenwich M.T. |Duration | | | | + | Date at | Central at |of conjunction | of | | | | + | Noon-Point. | Noon. | in Longitude. |Totality.| Node |Series.| Regions Swept by Shadow. | + | +------+-------+---------------+---------+ | | | + | | Lat. | Long. | d. h. m. | m. | | | | + +----------------+------+-------+---------------+---------+------+-------+------------------------------------------------------------+ + | 1803, Feb. 21 | 11 S.| 136 W.| 21 9 20 | 4.2 | Asc. | 1 | Pacific Ocean, Mexico. | + | 1804, Aug. 5 | 38 S.| 66 W.| 5 4 6 | 1.2 | Desc.| 2 | Pacific Ocean, Chile, Argentina. | + | 1806, June 16 | 42 N.| 66 W.| 16 4 22 | 4.6 | Desc.| 3 | New England, Atlantic, Africa. | + | 1807, Nov. 29 | 11 N.| 2 E.| 28 23 48 | 1.4 | Asc. | 4 | Central Africa, Areolia. | + | 1810, April 4 | 12 N.| 154 E.| 3 13 41 | Ann. | Desc.| 5 | Pacific Ocean, Borneo. | + | 1811, Mar, 24 | 39 S.| 26 W.| 24 2 19 | 3.4 | Desc.| 6 | South Atlantic to and across South Africa. | + | 1814, July 17 | 31 N.| 84 E.| 16 18 33 | 6.6 | Asc. | 7 | Africa, Central Asia, China. | + | 1815, July 6 | 88 N.| 175 W.| 6 11 52 | 3.2 | Asc. | 8 | Polar Regions, Western Siberia. | + | 1816, Nov. 19 | 43 N.| 30 E.| 18 22 9 | 1.8 | Desc.| 9 | Eastern Europe, Central Asia. | + | 1817, Nov. 9 | 7 S.| 149 E.| 8 13 53 | 4.7 | Desc.| 10 | Burma, Pacific Ocean. | + | 1821, Mar. 4 | 8 S.| 96 E.| 3 17 50 | 4.3 | Asc. | 1 | Indian and Pacific Oceans. | + | 1822, Aug. 16 | 36 S.| 176 W.| 16 11 22 | 1.4 | Desc.| 2 | Australia, Pacific Ocean. | + | 1824, June 26 | 47 N.| 175 W.| 26 11 43 | 4.4 | Desc.| 3 | Pacific Ocean, Japan, China. | + | 1825, Dec. 9 | 9 N.| 127 W.| 9 8 27 | 1.5 | Asc. | 4 | Pacific Ocean, Mexico. | + | 1828, April 14 | 18 N.| 39 E.| 13 21 18 | 0.3 | Desc.| 5 | Northern Africa, India. | + | 1829, April 3 | 32 S.| 149 W.| 3 10 24 | 4.1 | Desc.| 6 | South Pacific Ocean. | + | 1832, July 27 | 24 N.| 28 W.| 27 2 2 | 6.8 | Asc. | 7 | West Indies and across Central Africa. | + | 1833, July 17 | 78 N.| 76 E.| 16 19 16 | 3.5 | Asc. | 8 | North-eastern Asia and Polar Regions. | + | 1834, Nov. 30 | 40 N.| 101 W.| 30 6 48 | 1.9 | Desc.| 9 | Southern and Western United States. | + | 1835, Nov. 20 | 10 S.| 20 E.| 19 22 31 | 4.6 | Desc.| 10 | Central Africa, Madagascar. | + | 1839, Mar. 15 | 6 S.| 31 W.| 15 2 14 | 4.4 | Asc. | 1 | South America, Africa, Egypt. | + | 1840, Aug. 27 | 34 S.| 72 E.| 26 18 45 | 1.6 | Desc.| 2 | Africa, Madagascar, Indian Ocean. | + | 1842, July 8 | 51 N.| 77 E.| 7 19 2 | 4.1 | Desc.| 3 | Spain, France, Russia to China, and Pacific Ocean. | + | 1843, Dec. 21 | 8 N.| 102 E.| 20 17 10 | 1.6 | Asc. | 4 | Indian and North Pacific Oceans and India. | + | 1846, April 25 | 25 N.| 75 W.| 25 4 49 | 0.9 | Desc.| 5 | Mexico, West Indies, Africa. | + | 1847, April 15 | 24 S.| 90 E.| 14 18 22 | 4.7 | Desc.| 6 | Indian Ocean, Australia. | + | 1850, Aug. 7 | 18 N.| 142 W.| 7 9 34 | 6.8 | Asc. | 7 | Pacific Ocean. | + | 1851, July 28 | 70 N.| 34 W.| 28 2 41 | 3.7 | Asc. | 8 | Scandinavia, Russia and North America. | + | 1852, Dec. 11 | 37 N.| 127 E.| 10 15 32 | 2.0 | Desc.| 9 | China, Pacific Ocean. | + | 1857, Mar. 25 | 4 S.| 155 W.| 25 10 30 | 4.5 | Asc. | 1 | Pacific Ocean, Mexico. | + | 1858, Sept. 7 | 33 S.| 41 W.| 7 2 16 | 1.7 | Desc.| 2 | Peru, South Brazil, Uruguay. | + | 1860, July 18 | 56 N.| 31 W.| 18 2 21 | 3.7 | Desc.| 3 | British America, France, Egypt. | + | 1861, Dec. 31 | 9 N.| 29 W.| 31 1 55 | 1.8 | Asc. | 4 | Caribbean Sea to North Africa. | + | 1864, May 6 | 32 N.| 173 E.| 5 12 14 | 1.4 | Desc.| 5 | Pacific Ocean. | + | 1865, April 25 | 16 S.| 30 W.| 25 2 13 | 5.3 | Desc.| 6 | Brazil to Central Africa. | + | 1868, Aug. 18 | 10 N.| 103 E.| 17 17 12 | 6.8 | Asc. | 7 | India to Pacific Ocean. | + | 1869, Aug. 7 | 61 N.| 145 W.| 7 10 8 | 3.8 | Asc. | 8 | United States and Alaska. | + | 1870, Dec. 22 | 36 N.| 5 W.| 22 0 19 | 2.1 | Desc.| 9 | Gibraltar, Northern Africa, Sicily. | + | 1871, Dec. 12 | 12 S.| 118 E.| 11 16 2 | 4.4 | Desc.| 10 | Southern India, Northern Australia. | + | 1875, April 6 | 2 S.| 83 E.| 5 18 36 | 4.7 | Asc. | 1 | Indian Ocean, Siam, Pacific. | + | 1876, Sept. 17 | 33 S.| 156 W.| 17 9 54 | 1.8 | Desc.| 2 | Pacific Ocean. | + | 1878, July 29 | 60 N.| 139 W.| 29 9 40 | 3.2 | Desc.| 3 | United States and Canada. | + | 1880, Jan. 11 | 10 N.| 160 W.| 11 10 40 | 2.1 | Asc. | 4 | Pacific Ocean, California. | + | 1882, May 17 | 39 N.| 63 E.| 16 19 34 | 1.8 | Desc.| 5 | Egypt, Central Asia, China. | + | 1883, May 6 | 9 S.| 147 W.| 6 9 58 | 6.0 | Desc.| 6 | Pacific Ocean, Caroline Islands. | + | 1886, Aug. 29 | 3 N.| 14 W.| 29 0 54 | 6.6 | Asc. | 7 | South America, Central Africa. | + | 1887, Aug. 19 | 53 N.| 102 E.| 18 17 39 | 3.8 | Asc. | 8 | Northern Europe, Siberia, Japan. | + | 1889, Jan. 1 | 37 N.| 138 W.| 1 9 8 | 2.2 | Desc.| 9 | California, Oregon, British America. | + | 1889, Dec. 22 | 12 S.| 13 W.| 22 0 52 | 4.2 | Desc.| 10 | Central Africa and South America. | + | 1893, April 16 | 1 S.| 37 W.| 16 2 35 | 4.8 | Asc. | 1 | Venezuela to West Africa. | + | 1894, Sept. 29 | 34 S.| 86 E.| 28 17 43 | 1.8 | Desc.| 2 | East Africa, Indian Ocean. | + | 1896, Aug. 9 | 65 N.| 112 E.| 8 17 2 | 2.7 | Desc.| 3 | North Europe, Siberia, Japan. | + | 1898, Jan. 22 | 13 N.| 69 E.| 21 19 24 | 2.3 | Asc. | 4 | East Africa, India, China. | + | 1900, May 28 | 45 N.| 45 W.| 28 2 50 | 2.1 | Desc.| 5 | United States, Spain, North Africa. | + | 1901, May 18 | 2 S.| 97 E.| 17 17 38 | 6.5 | Desc.| 6 | Sumatra, Borneo. | + | 1904, Sept. 9 | 5 S.| 133 W.| 9 8 43 | 6.4 | Asc. | 7 | Pacific Ocean. | + | 1905, Aug. 30 | 45 N.| 12 W.| 30 1 13 | 3.8 | Asc. | 8 | Canada, Spain, North Africa. | + | 1907, Jan. 14 | 39 N.| 89 E.| 13 17 57 | 2.3 | Desc.| 9 | Russia, Central Asia. | + | 1908, Jan. 3 | 12 S.| 145 W.| 3 9 44 | 4.2 | Desc.| 10 | Pacific Ocean. | + | 1911, April 28 | 1 S.| 155 W.| 28 10 26 | 5.0 | Asc. | 1 | Australia, Polynesia. | + | 1912, Oct. 10 | 35 S.| 33 W.| 10 1 41 | 1.8 | Desc.| 2 | Colombia, Ecuador, Brazil. | + | 1914, Aug. 21 | 71 N.| 2 E.| 21 0 27 | 2.1 | Desc.| 3 | Scandinavia, Russia, Asia Minor. | + | 1916, Feb. 3 | 16 N.| 62 W.| 3 4 6 | 2.5 | Asc. | 4 | Pacific Ocean, Venezuela, West Indies. | + | 1918, June 8 | 51 N.| 152 W.| 8 10 3 | 2.4 | Desc.| 5 | British Columbia, United States. | + | 1919, May 29 | 4 N.| 18 W.| 29 1 12 | 6.9 | Desc.| 6 | Peru, Brazil, Central Africa. | + | 1922, Sept. 21 | 12 S.| 106 E.| 20 16 38 | 6.1 | Asc. | 7 | East Africa, Australia. | + | 1923, Sept. 10 | 38 N.| 128 W.| 10 8 53 | 3.6 | Asc. | 8 | California, Mexico, Central America. | + | 1925, Jan. 24 | 42 N.| 44 W.| 24 2 46 | 2.4 | Desc.| 9 | United States. | + | 1926, Jan. 14 | 10 S.| 82 E.| 13 18 35 | 4.2 | Desc.| 10 | East Africa, Sumatra, Philippines. | + | 1927, June 29 | 78 N.| 84 E.| 28 18 32 | 0.7 | Asc. | 11 | England, Scotland, Scandinavia. | + | 1929, May 9 | 1 S.| 89 E.| 8 18 8 | 5.1 | Asc. | 1 | Sumatra, Malacca, Philippines. | + | 1930, Oct. 21 | 36 S.| 155 W.| 21 9 47 | 1.9 | Desc.| 2 | Pacific Ocean, Patagonia. | + | 1932, Aug. 31 | 78 N.| 109 W.| 31 7 55 | 1.5 | Desc.| 3 | Canada. | + | 1934, Feb. 14 | 19 N.| 168 E.| 13 12 44 | 2.7 | Asc. | 4 | Borneo, Celebes. | + | 1936, June 19 | 56 N.| 101 E.| 18 17 15 | 2.5 | Desc.| 5 | Greece to Central Asia and Japan. | + | 1937, June 8 | 10 N.| 131 W.| 8 8 43 | 7.1 | Desc.| 6 | Pacific Ocean, Peru. | + | 1940, Oct. 1 | 19 S.| 16 W.| 1 0 42 | 5.7 | Asc. | 7 | Colombia, Brazil, South Africa. | + | 1941, Sept. 21 | 30 N.| 114 E.| 20 16 39 | 3.3 | Asc. | 8 | Central Asia, China, Pacific Ocean. | + | 1943, Feb. 4 | 47 N.| 176 W.| 4 11 31 | 2.5 | Desc.| 9 | China, Alaska. | + | 1947, May 20 | 2 S.| 25 W.| 20 1 44 | 5.2 | Asc. | 1 | Argentina, Paraguay, Central Africa. | + | 1948, Nov. 1 | 37 S.| 82 E.| 31 18 3 | 1.9 | Desc.| 2 | Central Africa, Congo. | + | 1952, Feb. 25 | 22 N.| 39 E.| 24 21 17 | 3.0 | Asc. | 4 | Nubia, Persia, Siberia. | + | 1954, June 30 | 62 N.| 5 W.| 30 0 27 | 2.5 | Desc.| 5 | Canada, Scandinavia, Russia, Persia. | + | 1955, June 20 | 15 N.| 117 E.| 19 16 12 | 7.2 | Desc.| 6 | Ceylon, Siam, Philippines. | + | 1958, Oct. 12 | 26 S.| 139 W.| 12 8 52 | 5.2 | Asc. | 7 | Chile, Argentina. | + | 1959, Oct. 2 | 23 N.| 6 W.| 2 0 32 | 3.0 | Asc. | 8 | Canaries, Central Africa. | + | 1961, Feb. 15 | 53 N.| 53 E.| 14 20 11 | 2.6 | Desc.| 9 | France, Italy, Austria, Siberia. | + | 1962, Feb. 5 | 4 S.| 179 E.| 4 12 11 | 4.1 | Desc.| 10 | New Guinea. | + | 1963, July 20 | 62 N.| 126 W.| 20 8 43 | 1.5 | Asc. | 11 | Alaska, Hudson's Bay Territory. | + | 1965, May 30 | 4 S.| 137 W.| 30 9 14 | 5.3 | Asc. | 1 | Pacific Ocean. | + | 1966, Nov. 12 | 38 S.| 43 W.| 12 2 27 | 1.9 | Desc.| 2 | Bolivia, Argentina, Brazil. | + | 1970, Mar. 7 | 25 N.| 88 W.| 7 5 43 | 3.3 | Asc. | 4 | Mexico, Georgia, ? Florida. | + | 1972, July 10 | 67 N.| 111 W.| 10 7 40 | 2.7 | Desc.| 5 | North-East Asia, North-East America and Atlantic Ocean. | + | 1973, June 30 | 19 N.| 6 E.| 29 23 39 | 7.2 | Desc.| 6 | South America, Africa and Atlantic Ocean. | + | 1974, June 20 | 32 S.| 107 E.| 19 16 56 | 5.3 | Desc.| 12 | South-West Australia and Indian Ocean. | + | 1976, Oct. 23 | 31 S.| 95 E.| 22 17 10 | 4.9 | Asc. | 7 | Africa, Australia, Indian and Pacific Oceans. | + | 1977, Oct. 12 | 16 N.| 127 W.| 12 8 31 | 2.8 | Asc. | 8 | Venezuela, Pacific Ocean. | + | 1979, Feb. 26 | 61 N.| 77 W.| 26 4 47 | 2.7 | Desc.| 9 | United States, British America, Pacific Ocean, N. Polar Sea| + | 1980, Feb. 16 | 1 N.| 48 E.| 15 20 52 | 4.3 | Desc.| 10 | Africa, Atlantic and Indian Oceans, and India. | + | 1981, July 31 | 54 N.| 127 E.| 30 15 53 | 2.2 | Asc. | 11 | Pacific Ocean, Asia. | + | 1983, June 11 | 7 S.| 111 E.| 10 16 38 | 5.4 | Asc. | 1 | Java, Atlantic Ocean. | + | 1984, Nov. 22 | 39 S.| 170 W.| 22 10 58 | 2.1 | Desc.| 2 | Pacific Ocean, Patagonia. | + | 1987, Mar. 29 | 17 S.| 6 W.| 29 0 45 | 0.3 | Asc. | 13 | Atlantic, Equatorial Africa. | + | 1988, Mar. 18 | 28 N.| 146 E.| 17 14 3 | 4.0 | Asc. | 4 | Indian and Pacific Oceans, Sumatra. | + | 1990, July 22 | 72 N.| 142 E.| 21 14 54 | 2.6 | Desc.| 5 | Finland, North Atlantic. | + | 1991, July 11 | 22 N.| 105 W.| 11 7 6 | 7.1 | Desc.| 6 | Pacific Ocean, Hawaii, Central America. | + | 1992, June 30 | 26 S.| 5 W.| 30 0 19 | 5.4 | Desc.| 12 | South Atlantic. | + | 1994, Nov. 3 | 36 S.| 31 W.| 3 1 36 | 4.6 | Asc. | 7 | Pacific Ocean, South America. | + | 1995, Oct. 24 | 10 N.| 110 E.| 23 16 37 | 2.4 | Asc. | 8 | Pacific and Indian Oceans. | + | 1997, Mar. 9 | 71 N.| 154 E.| 8 13 16 | 2.8 | Desc.| 9 | North-East Asia, Arctic Sea. | + | 1998, Feb. 26 | 6 N.| 81 W.| 26 5 27 | 4.4 | Desc.| 10 | Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, Central America. | + | 1999, Aug. 11 | 46 N.| 18 E.| 10 23 8 | 2.6 | Asc. | 11 | Central and Southern Europe touching England. | + +----------------+------+-------+---------------+---------+------+-------+------------------------------------------------------------+ + + +_Recurrence of Remarkable Eclipses._ + +From the property of the Saros it follows that eclipses remarkable for +their duration, or other circumstances depending on the relative +positions of the sun and moon, occur at intervals of one saros (18 y. 11 +d.). Of interest in this connexion is the recurrence of total eclipses +remarkable for their duration. The absolute maximum duration of a total +eclipse is about 7' 30"; but no actual eclipse can be expected to reach +this duration. Those which will come nearest to the maximum during the +next 500 years belong to the series numbered 4 and 6 and in the list +which precedes. These occurring in the years 1937, 1955, &c., will +ultimately fall little more than 20" below the maximum. But the series +4, though not now remarkable in this respect, will become so in the +future, reaching in the eclipse of June 25, 2150, a duration of about 7' +15" and on July 5, 2168, a duration of 7' 28", the longest in human +history. The first of these will pass over the Pacific Ocean; the second +over the southern part of the Indian Ocean near Madras. + +All the national annual Ephemerides contain elements of the eclipses of +the sun occurring during the year. Those of England, America and France +also give maps showing the path of the central line, if any, over the +earth's surface; the lines of eclipse beginning and ending at sunrise, +&c., and the outlines of the shadow from hour to hour. By the aid of the +latter the time at which an eclipse begins or ends at any point can be +determined by inspection or measurement within a few minutes. + + +V. _Methods of computing Eclipses of the Sun._ + + + Elements of eclipses. + +The complete computation of the circumstances of an eclipse ab initio +requires three distinct processes. The geocentric positions of the sun +and moon have first to be computed from the tables of the motions of +those bodies. The second step is to compute certain elements of the +eclipse from these geocentric positions. The third step is from these +elements to compute the circumstances of the eclipse for the earth +generally or for any given place on its surface. The national +Astronomical Ephemerides, or "Nautical Almanacs," give in full the +geocentric positions of the sun and moon from at least the early part of +the 19th century to an epoch three years in advance of the date of +publication. It is therefore unnecessary to undertake the first part of +the computation except for dates outside the limits of the published +ephemerides, and for many years to come even this computation will be +unnecessary, because tables giving the elements of eclipses from the +earliest historic periods up to the 22nd century have been published by +T. Ritter von Oppolzer and by Simon Newcomb. We shall therefore confine +ourselves to a statement of the eclipse problem and of the principles on +which such tables rest. + +Two systems of eclipse elements are now adopted in the ephemerides and +tables; the one, that of F.W. Bessel, is used in the English, American +and French ephemerides, the other--P. A. Hansen's--in the German and in +the eclipse tables of T. Ritter von Oppolzer. The two have in common +certain geometric constructions. The fundamental axis of reference in +both systems is the line passing through the centres of the sun and +moon; this is the common axis of the shadow cones, which envelop +simultaneously the sun and moon as shown in figs. 1, 2, 3. The surface +of one of these cones, that of the umbra, is tangent to both bodies +externally. This cone comes to a point at a distance from the moon +nearly equal to that of the earth. Within it the sun is wholly hidden by +the moon. Outside the umbral cone is that of the penumbra, within which +the sun is partially hidden by the moon. The geometric condition that +the two bodies shall appear in contact, or that the eclipse shall begin +or end at a certain moment, is that the surface of one of these cones +shall pass through the place of the observer at that moment. Let a +plane, which we call the fundamental plane, pass through the centre of +the earth perpendicular to the shadow axis. On this plane the centre of +the earth is taken as an origin of rectangular co-ordinates. The axis of +Z is perpendicular to the plane, and therefore parallel to the shadow +axis; that of Y and X lie in the plane. In these fundamental +constructions the two methods coincide. They differ in the direction of +the axis of Y and X in the fundamental plane. In Bessel's method, which +we shall first describe, the intersection of the plane of the earth's +equator with the fundamental plane is taken as the axis of X. The axis +of Y is perpendicular to it, the positive direction being towards the +north. The Besselian elements of an eclipse are then:--x, y, the +co-ordinates of the shadow axis on the fundamental plane; d, the +declination of that point in which the shadow axis intersects the +celestial sphere; [mu], the Greenwich hour angle of this point; l, the +radius of the circle, in which the penumbral or outer cone intersects +the fundamental plane; and l', the radius of the circle, in which the +inner or umbral cone intersects this plane, taken positively when the +vertex of the cone does not reach the plane, so that the axis must be +produced, and negatively when the vertex is beyond the plane. + +Hansen's method differs from that of Bessel in that the ecliptic is +taken as the fundamental plane instead of the equator. The axis of X on +the fundamental plane is parallel to the plane of the ecliptic; that of +Y perpendicular to it. The other elements are nearly the same in the two +theories. As to their relative advantages, it may be remarked that +Hansen's co-ordinates follow most simply from the data of the tables, +and are necessarily used in eclipse tables, but that the subsequent +computation is simpler by Bessel's method. + +Several problems are involved in the complete computation of an eclipse +from the elements. First, from the values of the latter at a given +moment to determine the point, if any, at which the shadow-axis +intersects the surface of the earth, and the respective outlines of the +umbra and penumbra on that surface. Within the umbral curve the eclipse +is annular or total; outside of it and within the penumbral curve the +eclipse is partial at the given moment. The penumbral line is marked +from hour to hour on the maps given annually in the American Ephemeris. +Second, a series of positions of the central point through the course of +an eclipse gives us the path of the central point along the surface of +the earth, and the envelopes of the penumbral and umbral curves just +described are boundaries within which a total, annular or partial +eclipse will be visible. In particular, we have a certain definite point +on the earth's surface on which the edge of the shadow first impinges; +this impingement necessarily takes place at sunrise. Then passing from +this point, we have a series of points on the surface at which the +elements of the shadow-cone are in succession tangent to the earth's +surface. At all these points the eclipse begins at sunrise until a +certain limit is reached, after which, following the successive +elements, it ends at sunrise. At the limiting point the rim of the moon +merely grazes that of the sun at sunrise, so that we may say that the +eclipse both begins and ends at that time. Of course the points we have +described are also found at the ending of the eclipse. There is a +certain moment at which the shadow-axis leaves the earth at a certain +point, and a series of moments when, the elements of the penumbral cone +being tangent to the earth's surface, the eclipse is ending at sunset. +Three cases may arise in studying the passage of the outlines of the +shadow over the earth. It may be that all the elements of the penumbral +cone intersect the earth. In this case we shall have both a northern and +a southern limit of partial eclipse. In the second case there will be no +limit on the one side except that of the eclipse beginning or ending at +sunrise or sunset. Or it may happen, as the third case, that the +shadow-axis does not intersect the earth at all; the eclipse will then +not be central at any point, but at most only partial. + +The third problem is, from the same data, to find the circumstances of +an eclipse at a given place--especially the times of beginning and +ending, or the relative positions of the sun and moon at a given moment. +Reference to the formulae for all these problems will be given in the +bibliography of the subject. + + AUTHORITIES.--The richest mine of information respecting eclipses of + the sun and moon is T.R. von Oppolzer's "Kanon der Finsternisse," + published by the Vienna Academy of Sciences in the 52nd volume of its + _Denkschriften_ (Vienna, 1887). It contains elements of all eclipses + both of the sun and moon, from 1207 B.C. to A.D. 2161, a period of + more than thirty centuries. Appended to the tables is a series of + charts showing the paths of all central eclipses visible in the + northern hemisphere during the period covered by the table. The points + of the path at which the eclipse occurs, at sunrise, noon and sunset, + are laid down with precision, but the intermediate points are + frequently in error by several hundred miles, as they were not + calculated, but projected simply by drawing a circle through the three + points just mentioned. For this reason we cannot infer from them that + an eclipse was total at any given place. The correct path can, + however, be readily computed from the tables given in the work. Eduard + Mahler's memoir, "Die centralen Sonnenfinsternisse des 20. + Jahrhunderts" (_Denkschriften_, Vienna Academy, vol. xlix.), gives + more exact paths of the central eclipses of the 20th century, but no + maps. General tables for computing eclipses are Oppolzer's + "Syzygientafeln fur den Mond" (Publications of the _Astronomische + Gesellschaft_, xvi.), and Newcomb's, in _Publications of the American + Ephemeris_, vol. i. part i. Of these, Oppolzer's are constructed with + greater numerical accuracy and detail, while Newcomb's are founded on + more recent astronomical data, and are preferable for computing + ancient eclipses. F.K. Ginzel's _Spezieller Kanon der Sonnen- und + Mondfinsternisse_ (Berlin, 1899) contains, besides the historical + researches already mentioned, maps of the paths of central eclipses + visible in the lands of classical antiquity from 900 B.C. to A.D. 500, + but computed with imperfect astronomical data. Maguire, "Monthly + Notices," _R.A.S._ xlv. and xlvi., has mapped the total solar eclipses + visible in the British Islands from 878 to 1724. General papers of + interest on the same subject have been published by Rev. S.J. Johnson. + A resume of all the observations on the physical phenomena of total + solar eclipses up to 1878, by A.C. Ranyard, is to be found in _Memoirs + of the Royal Astronomical Society_, vol. xli. A very copious + development of the computation of eclipses by Bessel's method is found + in W. Chauvenet's _Spherical and Practical Astronomy_, vol. i. _The + Theory of Eclipses_, by R. Buchanan (Philadelphia, 1904), treats the + subject yet more fully. Hansen's method is developed in the + _Abhandlungen_ of the Leipzig Academy of Sciences, vol. vi. + (Math.-Phys. Classe, vol. iv.). The formulae of computation by this + method are found in the introductions to Oppolzer's two works cited + above. (S. N.) + + + + +ECLIPTIC, in astronomy. The plane of the ecliptic is that plane in or +near which the centre of gravity of the earth and moon revolves round +the sun. The ecliptic itself is the great circle in which this plane +meets the celestial sphere. It is also defined, but not with absolute +rigour, as the apparent path described by the sun around the celestial +sphere as the earth performs its annual revolution. Owing to the action +of the moon on the earth, as it performs its monthly revolution in an +orbit slightly inclined to the ecliptic, the centre of the earth itself +deviates from the plane of the ecliptic in a period equal to that of the +nodal revolution of the moon. The deviation is extremely slight, its +maximum amount ranging between 0.5' and 0.6". Owing to the action of the +planets, especially Venus and Jupiter, on the earth, the centre of +gravity of the earth and moon deviates by a yet minuter amount, +generally one or two tenths of a second, from the plane of the ecliptic +proper. Owing to the action of the planets, the position of the ecliptic +is subject to a slow secular variation amounting, during our time, to +nearly 47" per century. The rate of this motion is slowly diminishing. + +The obliquity of the ecliptic is the angle which its plane makes with +that of the equator. Its mean value is now about 23 deg. 27'. The motion +of the ecliptic produces a secular variation in the obliquity which is +now diminishing by an amount nearly equal to the entire motion of the +ecliptic itself. The laws of motion of the ecliptic and equator are +stated in the article PRECESSION OF THE EQUINOXES. + +Attempts have been made by Laplace and his successors to fix certain +limits within which the obliquity of the ecliptic shall always be +confined. The results thus derived are, however, based on imperfect +formulae. When the problem is considered in a rigorous form, it is found +that no absolute limits can be set. It can, however, be shown that the +obliquity cannot vary more than two or three degrees within a million of +years of our epoch. + + The formula for the obliquity of the ecliptic, as derived from the + laws of motion of it and of the equator, may be developed in a series + proceeding according to the ascending powers of the time as follows: + we put T, the time from 1900, reckoned in solar centuries as a unit. + Then, + + Obliquity = 23 deg. 27' 31.68" - 46.837" T - 0.0085" T^2 + 0.0017" T^3. + + From this expression is derived the value of the obliquity at various + epochs given in the following table. The left-hand portion of this + table gives the values for intervals of 500 years from 2000 B.C. to + A.D. 2500 as computed from modern data. For dates more than three or + four centuries before or after 1850 the result is necessarily + uncertain by one or more tenths of a minute, and is therefore only + given to 0.1'. + + B.C. 2000; obl. = 23 deg. 55.5" A.D. 1700; obl. = 23 deg. 28' 41.91" + 1500 " = 23 52.3 1750 " = 23 28 18.51 + 1000 " = 23 48.9 1800 " = 23 27 55.10 + 500 " = 23 45.4 1850 " = 23 27 31.68 + 0 " = 23 41.7 1900 " = 23 27 8.26 + A.D. 500 " = 23 38.0 1950 " = 23 26 44.84 + 1000 " = 23 34.1 2000 " = 23 26 21.41 + 1500 " = 23 30.3 2050 " = 23 25 57.99 + 2000 " = 23 26.4 2100 " = 23 25 34.56 + 2500 " = 23 22.5 + (S. N.) + + + + +ECLOGITE (from Gr. [Greek: ekloge], a selection), in petrology, a typical +member of a small group of metamorphic rocks of special interest on +account of the variety of minerals they contain and their microscopic +structures and geological relationships. Typically they consist of pale +green or nearly colourless augite (omphacite), green hornblende and pink +garnet. Quartz also is usually present in these rocks, but felspar is +rare. The augite is mostly a variety of diopside and is only occasionally +idiomorphic. The garnet sometimes forms good dodecahedra, but may occur +as rounded grains, and encloses quartz, rutile, kyanite, and other +minerals very frequently. The hornblende is usually pale green and feebly +dichroic, but, in some eclogites which are allied to garnet-amphibolites, +it is of dark brown colour. Among the commoner accessory minerals are +kyanite (of blue or greyish-blue tints), rutile, biotite, epidote and +zoisite, sphene, iron oxides, and pyrites. The rutile is invariably in +small brown prisms; the kyanite forms bladed crystals, with perfect +cleavage; felspar, if present, belongs to basic varieties rich in lime. +Other minerals which have been found in eclogites are bronzite, olivine +and glaucophane. The last mentioned is a bright blue variety of +hornblende with striking pleochroism. The eclogites in their chemical +composition show close affinities to gabbros; they often exhibit +relationships in the field which show that they were primarily intrusive +rocks of igneous origin, and occasionally contact alteration can be +traced in the adjacent schists. Examples are known in Saxony, Bavaria, +Carinthia, Austria, Norway. A few eclogites also occur in the north-west +highlands of Scotland. Glaucophane-eclogites have been met with in Italy +and the Pennine Alps. Specimens of rock allied to eclogite have been +found in the diamantiferous peridotite breccias of South Africa (the +so-called "blue ground"), and this has given rise to the theory that +these are the parent masses from which the Kimberley diamonds have come. + (J. S. F.) + + + + +ECLOGUE, a short pastoral dialogue in verse. The word is conjectured to +be derived from the Greek verb [Greek: eklegein], to choose. An eclogue, +perhaps, in its primary signification was a selected piece. Another more +fantastic derivation traces it to [Greek: aix], goat, and [Greek: +logos], speech, and makes it a conversation of shepherds. The idea of +dialogue, however, is not necessary for an eclogue, which is often not +to be distinguished from the idyll. The grammarians, in giving this +title to Virgil's pastoral conversations (_Bucolica_), tended to make +the term "eclogue" apply exclusively to dialogue, and this has in fact +been the result of the success of Virgil's work. Latin eclogues were +also written by Calpurnius Siculus and by Nemesianus. In modern +literature the term has lost any distinctive character which it may have +possessed among the Romans; it is merged in the general notion of +pastoral poetry. The French "Eglogues" of J.R. de Segrais (1624-1701) +were long famous, and those of the Spanish poet Garcilasso de La Vega +(1503-1536) are still admired. + + See also BUCOLICS; PASTORAL. + + + + +ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY, the name given to the study of insects based on +their relation to man, his domestic animals and his crops, and, in the +case of those that are injurious, of the practical methods by which they +can be prevented from doing harm, or be destroyed when present. In Great +Britain little attention is paid to this important branch of +agricultural science, but in America and the British colonies the case +is different. Nearly every state in America has its official economic +entomologists, and nearly every one of the British crown colonies is +provided with one or more able men who help the agricultural community +to battle against the insect pests. Most, if not all, of the important +knowledge of remedies comes from America, where this subject reaches the +highest perfection; even the life-histories of some of the British pests +have been traced out in the United States and British colonies more +completely than at home, from the creatures that have been introduced +from Europe. + +Some idea of the importance of this subject may be gained from the +following figures. The estimated loss by the vine _Phylloxera_ in the +Gironde alone was L32,000,000; for all the French wine districts +L100,000,000 would not cover the damage. It has been stated on good +evidence that a loss of L7,000,000 per annum was caused by the attack of +the ox warble fly on cattle in England alone. In a single season +Aberdeenshire suffered nearly L90,000 worth of damage owing to the +ravages of the diamond back moth on the root crops; in New York state +the codling moth caused a loss of $3,000,000 to apple-growers. Yet these +figures are nothing compared to the losses due to scale insects, locusts +and other pests. + + The most able exponent of this subject in Great Britain was John + Curtis, whose treatise on _Farm Insects_, published in 1860, is still + the standard British work dealing with the insect foes of corn, roots, + grass and stored corn. The most important works dealing with fruit and + other pests come from the pens of Saunders, Lintner, Riley, + Slingerland and others in America and Canada, from Taschenberg, Lampa, + Reuter and Kollar in Europe, and from French, Froggatt and Tryon in + Australia. It was not until the last quarter of the 19th century that + any real advance was made in the study of economic entomology. Among + the early writings, besides the book of Curtis, there may also be + mentioned a still useful little publication by Pohl and Kollar, + entitled _Insects Injurious to Gardeners, Foresters and Farmers_, + published in 1837, and Taschenberg's _Praktische Insecktenkunde_. + American literature began as far back as 1788, when a report on the + Hessian fly was issued by Sir Joseph Banks; in 1817 Say began his + writings; while in 1856 Asa Fitch started his report on the "Noxious + Insects of New York." Since that date the literature has largely + increased. Among the most important reports, &c., may be mentioned + those of C.V. Riley, published by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, + extending from 1878 to his death, in which is embodied an enormous + amount of valuable matter. At his death the work fell to Professor + L.O. Howard, who constantly issues brochures of equal value in the + form of Bulletins of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The chief + writings of J.A. Lintner extend from 1882 to 1898, in yearly parts, + under the title of _Reports on the Injurious Insects of the State of + New York_. Another author whose writings rank high on this subject is + M.V. Slingerland, whose investigations are published by Cornell + University. Among other Americans who have largely increased the + literature and knowledge must be mentioned F.M. Webster and E.P. Felt. + In 1883 appeared a work on fruit pests by William Saunders, which + mainly applies to the American continent; and another small book on + the same subject was published in 1898 by Miss Ormerod, dealing with + the British pests. In Australia Tryon published a work on the _Insect + and Fungus Enemies of Queensland_ in 1889. Many other papers and + reports are being issued from Australia, notably by Froggatt in New + South Wales. At the Cape excellent works and papers are prepared and + issued by the government entomologist, Dr Lounsbury, under the + auspices of the Agricultural Department; while from India we have + Cotes's _Notes on Economic Entomology_, published by the Indian Museum + in 1888, and other works, especially on tea pests. + +Injurious insects occur among the following orders: _Coleoptera_, +_Hymenoptera_, _Lepidoptera_, _Diptera_, _Hemiptera_ (both _heteroptera_ +and _homoptera_), _Orthoptera_, _Neuroptera_ and _Thysanoptera_. The +order _Aptera_ also contains a few injurious species. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--A, Wireworm; B, pupa of Click Beetle; C, adult +Click Beetle (_Agriotes lineatum_).] + +Among the _Coleoptera_ or beetles there is a group of world-wide pests, +the _Elateridae_ or click beetles, the adults of the various +"wireworms." The insects in the larval or wireworm stage attack the +roots of plants, eating them away below the ground. The eggs deposited +by the beetle in the ground develop into yellowish-brown wire-like grubs +with six legs on the first three segments and a ventral prominence on +the anal segment. The life of these subterranean pests differs in the +various species; some undoubtedly (_Agriotes lineatum_) live for three +or four years, during the greater part of which time they gnaw away at +the roots of plants, carrying wholesale destruction before them. When +mature they pass deep into the ground and pupate, appearing after a few +months as the click beetles (fig. 1). Most crops are attacked by them, +but they are particularly destructive to wheat and other cereals. With +such subterranean pests little can be done beyond rolling the land to +keep it firm, and thus preventing them from moving rapidly from plant to +plant. A few crops, such as mustard, seem deleterious to them. By +growing mustard and ploughing it in green the ground is made obnoxious +to the wireworms, and may even be cleared of them. For root-feeders, +bisulphide of carbon injected into the soil is of particular value. One +ounce injected about 2 ft. from an apple tree on two sides has been +found to destroy all the ground form of the woolly aphis. In garden +cultivation it is most useful for wireworm, used at the rate of 1 ounce +to every 4 sq. yds. It kills all root pests. + +In Great Britain the flea beetles (_Halticidae_) are one of the most +serious enemies; one of these, the turnip flea (_Phyllotreta nemorum_), +has in some years, notably 1881, caused more than L500,000 loss in +England and Scotland alone by eating the young seedling turnips, cabbage +and other _Cruciferae_. In some years three or four sowings have to be +made before a "plant" is produced, enormous loss in labour and cost of +seed alone being thus involved. These beetles, characterized by their +skipping movements and enlarged hind femora, also attack the hop +(_Haltica concinna_), the vine in America (_Graptodera chalybea_, +Illig.), and numerous other species of plants, being specially harmful +to seedlings and young growth. Soaking the seed in strong-smelling +substances, such as paraffin and turpentine, has been found efficacious, +and in some districts paraffin sprayed over the seedlings has been +practised with decided success. This oil generally acts as an excellent +preventive of this and other insect attacks. + +In all climates fruit and forest trees suffer from weevils or +_Curculionidae_. The plum curculio (_Conotrachelus nenuphar_, Herbst) in +America causes endless harm in plum orchards; curculios in Australia +ravage the vines and fruit trees (_Orthorrhinus klugii_, Schon, and +_Leptops hopei_, Bohm, &c.). In Europe a number of "long-snouted" +beetles, such as the raspberry weevils (_Otiorhynchus picipes_), the +apple blossom weevil (_Anthonomus pomorum_), attack fruit; others, as +the "corn weevils" (_Calandra oryzae_ and _C. granaria_), attack stored +rice and corn; while others produce swollen patches on roots +(_Ceutorhynchus sulcicollis_), &c. All these _Curculionidae_ are very +timid creatures, falling to the ground at the least shock. This habit +can be used as a means of killing them, by placing boards or sacks +covered with tar below the trees, which are then gently shaken. As many +of these beetles are nocturnal, this trapping should take place at +night. Larval "weevils" mostly feed on the roots of plants, but some, +such as the nut weevil (_Balaninus nucum_), live as larvae inside fruit. +Seeds of various plants are also attacked by weevils of the family +_Bruchidae_, especially beans and peas. These seed-feeders may be killed +in the seeds by subjecting them to the fumes of bisulphide of carbon. +The corn weevils (_Calandra granaria_ and _C. oryzae_) are now found all +over the world, in many cases rendering whole cargoes of corn useless. + +The most important Hymenopterous pests are the sawflies or +_Tenthredinidae_, which in their larval stage attack almost all +vegetation. The larvae of these are usually spoken of as "false +caterpillars," on account of their resemblance to the larvae of a moth. +They are most ravenous feeders, stripping bushes and trees completely of +their foliage, and even fruit. Sawfly larvae can at once be recognized +by the curious positions they assume, and by the number of pro-legs, +which exceeds ten. The female lays her eggs in a slit made by means of +her "saw-like" ovipositor in the leaf or fruit of a tree. The pupae in +most of these pests are found in an earthen cocoon beneath the ground, +or in some cases above ground (_Lophyrus pini_). One species, the +slugworm (_Eriocampa limacina_), is common to Europe and America; the +larva is a curious slug-like creature, found on the upper surface of the +leaves of the pear and cherry, which secretes a slimy coating from its +skin. Currant and gooseberry are also attacked by sawfly larvae +(_Nematus ribesii_ and _N. ventricosus_) both in Europe and America. +Other species attack the stalks of grasses and corn (_Cephus pygmaeus_). +Forest trees also suffer from their ravages, especially the conifers +(_Lophyrus pini_). Another group of Hymenoptera occasionally causes much +harm in fir plantations, namely, the _Siricidae_ or wood-wasps, whose +larvae burrow into the trunks of the trees and thus kill them. For all +exposed sawfly larvae hellebore washes are most fatal, but they must not +be used over ripe or ripening fruit, as the hellebore is poisonous. + +The order Diptera contains a host of serious pests. These two-winged +insects attack all kinds of plants, and also animals in their larval +stage. Many of the adults are bloodsuckers (_Tabanidae_, _Culicidae_, +&c.); others are parasitic in their larval stage (_Oestridae_, &c.). The +best-known dipterous pests are the Hessian fly (_Cecidomyia +destructor_), the pear midge (_Diplosis pyrivora_), the fruit flies +(_Tephritis Tyroni_ of Queensland and _Halterophora capitata_ or the +Mediterranean fruit fly), the onion fly (_Phorbia cepetorum_), and +numerous corn pests, such as the gout fly (_Chloropstaeniopus_) and the +frit fly (_Oscinis frit_). Animals suffer from the ravages of bot flies +(_Oestridae_) and gad flies (_Tabanidae_); while the tsetse disease is +due to the tsetse fly (_Glossina morsitans_), carrying the protozoa that +cause the disease from one horse to another. Other flies act as +disease-carriers, including the mosquitoes (_Anopheles_), which not only +carry malarial germs, but also form a secondary host for these +parasites. Hundreds of acres of wheat are lost annually in America by +the ravages of the Hessian fly; the fruit flies of Australia and South +Africa cause much loss to orange and citron growers, often making it +necessary to cover the trees in muslin tents for protection. Of animal +pests the ox warbles (_Hypoderma lineata_ and _H. bovis_) are the most +important (see fig. 2). The "bots" or larvae of these flies live under +the skin of cattle, producing large swollen lumps--"warbles"--in which +the "bots" mature (fig. 2). These parasites damage the hide, set up +inflammation, and cause immense loss to farmers, herdsmen and butchers. +The universal attack that has been made upon this pest has, however, +largely decreased its numbers. In America cattle suffer much from the +horn fly (_Haematobia serrata_). The dipterous garden pests, such as the +onion fly, carrot fly and celery fly, can best be kept in check by the +use of paraffin emulsions and the treatment of the soil with gas-lime +after the crop is lifted. Cereal pests can only be treated by general +cleanliness and good farming, and of course they are largely kept down +by the rotation of crops. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--A, Ox Bot Maggot; B, puparium; C, Ox Warble Fly +(_Hypoderma bovis_).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Looper-larva of Winter Moth (_Cheimatobia +brumata_).] + +Lepidopterous enemies are numerous all over the world. Fruit suffers +much from the larvae of the _Geometridae_, the so-called "looper-larvae" +or "canker-worms." Of these geometers the winter moth (_Cheimatobia +brumata_) is one of the chief culprits in Europe (fig. 3). The females +in this moth and in others allied to it are wingless. These insects pass +the pupal stage in the ground, and reach the boughs to lay their eggs by +crawling up the trunks of the trees. To check them, "grease-banding" +round the trees has been adopted; but as many other pests eat the +leafage, it is best to kill all at once by spraying with arsenical +poisons. Among other notable Lepidopterous pests are the "surface +larvae" or cutworms (_Agrotis spp._), the caterpillars of various +Noctuae; the codling moth (_Carpocapsa pomonella_), which causes the +maggot in apples, has now become a universal pest, having spread from +Europe to America and to most of the British Colonies. In many years +quite half the apple crop is lost in England owing to the larvae +destroying the fruit. Sugar-canes suffer from the sugar-cane borer +(_Diatioca sacchari_) in the West Indies; tobacco from the larvae of +hawk moths (_Sphingidae_) in America; corn and grass from various +Lepidopterous pests all over the world. Nor are stored goods exempt, for +much loss annually takes place in corn and flour from the presence of +the larvae of the Mediterranean flour moth (_Ephestia kuniella_); while +furs and clothes are often ruined by the clothes moth (_Tinea +trapezella_). + +By far the most destructive insects in warm climates belong to the +Hemiptera, especially to the _Coccidae_ or scale insects. All fruit and +forest trees suffer from these curious insects, which in the female sex +always remain apterous and apodal and live attached to the bark, leaf +and fruit, hidden beneath variously formed scale-like coverings. The +male scales differ in form from the female; the adult male is winged, +and is rarely seen. The female lays her eggs beneath the scaly covering, +from which hatch out little active six-legged larvae, which wander about +and soon begin to form a new scale. The _Coccidae_ can, and mainly do, +breed asexually (parthenogenetically). One of the most important is the +San Jose scale (_Aspidiotus perniciosus_), which in warm climates +attacks all fruit and many other trees, which, if unmolested, it will +soon kill (fig. 4). These scales breed very rapidly; Howard states one +may give rise to a progeny of 3,216,080,400 in one year. Other scale +insects of note are the cosmopolitan mussel scale (_Mytilaspis pomorum_) +and the Australian _Icerya purchasi_. The former attacks apple and pear; +the latter, which selects orange and citron, was introduced into America +from Australia, and carried ruin before it in some orange districts +until its natural enemy, the lady-bird beetle, _Vedalia cardinalis_, was +also imported. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--San Jose Scale (_Aspidiotus perniciosus_). A, +Male scale insect; B, female; C, larva; D, female scale; E, male scale.] + +After the _Coccidae_ the next most important insects economically are +the plant lice or _Aphididae_. These breed with great rapidity under +favourable conditions: one by the end of the year will be accountable, +according to Linnaeus, for the enormous number of a quintillion of its +species. Aphides are born, as a rule, alive, and the young soon commence +to reproduce again. Their food consists mainly of the sap obtained from +the leaves and blossom of plants, but some also live on the roots of +plants (_Phylloxera vastatrix_ and _Schizoneura lanigera_). Aphides +often ruin whole crops of fruit, corn, hops, &c., by sucking out the +sap, and not only check growth, but may even entail the death of the +plant. Reproduction is mainly asexual, the females producing living +young without the agency of a male. Males in nearly all species appear +once a year, when the last female generation, the ovigerous generation, +is fertilized, and a few large ova are produced to carry on the +continuity of the species over the winter. Some aphides live only on one +species of plant, others on two or more plants. An example of the latter +is seen in the hop aphis (_Phorodon humuli_), which passes the winter +and lives on the sloe and damson in the egg stage until the middle of +May or later, and then flies off to the hops, where it causes endless +harm all the summer (fig. 5); it flies back to the prunes to lay its +eggs when the hops are ripe. Another aphis of importance is the woolly +aphis (_Schizoneura lanigera_) of the apple and pear: it secretes tufts +of white flocculent wool often to be seen hanging in patches from old +apple trees, where the insects live in the rough bark and form cankered +growths both above and below ground. Aphides are provided with a mealy +skin, which does not allow water to be attached to it, and thus +insecticides for destroying them contain soft soap, which fixes the +solution to the skin; paraffin is added to corrode the skin, and the +soft soap blocks up the breathing pores and so produces asphyxiation. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.--The Hop Aphis (_Phorodon humuli_). A, Winged +female; B, winged male; C, ovigerous wingless female; D, viviparous +wingless female from plum; E, pupal stage.] + +Amongst _Orthoptera_ we find many noxious insects, notably the locusts, +which travel in vast cloud-like armies, clearing the whole country +before them of all vegetable life. The most destructive locust is the +migratory locust (_Locusta migratoria_), which causes wholesale +destruction in the East. Large pits are dug across the line of advance +of these great insect armies to stop them when in the larval or wingless +stage, and even huge bonfires are lighted to check their flight when +adult. So dense are these "locust clouds" that they sometimes quite +darken the air. The commonest and most widely distributed migratory +locust is _Pachytylus cinerascens_. The mole cricket (_Gryllotalpa +vulgaris_) and various cockroaches (_Blattidae_) are also amongst the +pests found in this order. + +Of _Neuroptera_ there are but few injurious species, and many, such as +the lace wing flies (_Hemerobiidae_), are beneficial. + +_The Treatment of Insect Pests._--One of the most important ways of +keeping insect pests in check is by "spraying" or "washing." This method +has made great advances in recent years. All the pioneer work has been +done in America; in fact, until the South-Eastern Agricultural College +undertook the elucidation of this subject, little was known of it in +England except by a few growers. The results and history of this +essential method of treatment are embodied in Professor Lodemann's work +on the _Spraying of Plants_, 1896. In this treatment we have to bear in +mind what the entomologist teaches us, that is, the nature, habits and +structure of the pest. + + For insects provided with a biting mouth, which take nourishment from + the whole leaf, shoot or fruit, the poisonous washes used are chiefly + arsenical. The two most useful arsenical sprays are Paris green and + arsenate of lead. To make the former, mix 1 oz. of the Paris green + with 15 gallons of soft water, and add 2 oz. of lime and a small + quantity of agricultural treacle; the latter is prepared by dissolving + 3 oz. of acetate of lead in a little water, then 1 oz. of arsenate of + soda in water and mixing the two well together, and adding the whole + to 16 gallons of soft water; to this is added a small quantity of + coarse treacle. For piercing-mouthed pests like _Aphides_ no wash is + of use unless it contains a basis of soft soap. This soft-soap wash + kills by contact, and may be prepared in the following way:--Dissolve + 6 to 8 lb. of the best soft soap in boiling soft water and while still + hot (but of course taken off the fire) add 1 gallon of paraffin oil + and churn well together with a force-pump; the whole may then be mixed + with 100 gallons of soft water. The oil readily separates from the + water, and thus a perfect emulsion is not obtained: this difficulty + has been solved by Mr Cousin's paraffin naphthalene wash, which is + patented, but can be made for private use. It is prepared as + follows:--Soft soap, 6 lb. dissolved in 1 quart of water; naphthalene, + 10 oz. mixed with 1-1/2 pint of paraffin; the whole is mixed together. + When required for use, 1 lb. of the compound is dissolved in 5 to 10 + gallons of warm water. + + These two washes are essential to the well-being of every orchard in + all climates. Not only can we now destroy larval and adult insects, + but we can also attack them in the egg stage by the use of a caustic + alkali wash during the winter; besides destroying the eggs of such + pests as the _Psyllidae_, red spider, and some aphides, this also + removes the vegetal encumbrances which shelter numerous other insect + pests during the cold part of the year. Caustic alkali wash is + prepared by dissolving 1 lb. of crude potash and 1 lb. of caustic soda + in soft water, mixing the two solutions together, adding to them 3/4 + lb. of soft soap, and diluting with 10 gallons of soft water when + required for use. Another approved insecticide for scale insects is + resin wash, which acts in two ways: first, corroding the soft scales, + and second, fixing the harder scales to stop the egress of the hexapod + larvae. It is prepared as follows:--First crush 8 lb. of resin in a + sack, and then place the resin in warm water and boil in a cauldron + until thoroughly dissolved; then melt 10 lb. of caustic soda in enough + warm water to keep it liquid, and mix with the dissolved resin; keep + stirring until the mixture assumes a clear coffee-colour, and for ten + minutes afterwards; then add enough warm water to bring the whole up + to 25 gallons, and well stir. Bottle this off, and when required for + use dilute with three times its bulk of warm soft water, and spray + over the trees in the early spring just before the buds burst. For + mites (_Acari_) sulphur is the essential ingredient of a spray. Liver + of sulphur has been found to be the best form, especially when mixed + with a paraffin emulsion. Bud mites (_Phytoptidae_, fig. 6) are of + course not affected. Sulphur wash is made by adding to every 10 + gallons of warm paraffin emulsion or paraffin-naphthalene-emulsion 7 + oz. of liver of sulphur, and stirring until the sulphur is well mixed. + This is applied as an ordinary spray. Nursery stock should always be + treated, to kill scale, aphis and other pests which it may carry, by + the gas treatment, particularly in the case of stock imported from a + foreign climate. This treatment, both out of doors and under glass, is + carried out as follows:--Cover the plants in bulk with a light + gas-tight cloth, or put them in a special fumigating house, and then + place 1 oz. of cyanide of potassium in lumps in a dish with water + beneath the covering, and then pour 1 oz. of sulphuric acid over it + (being careful not to inhale the poisonous fumes) for every 1000 cub. + ft. of space beneath the cover. The gas generated, prussic acid, + should be left to work for at least an hour before the stock is + removed, when all forms of animal life will be destroyed. + + [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Bud Mites (_Phytoptidae_). A, Currant Bud Mite + (_Phytoptus ribis_); B, Nut Bud Mite (_P. avellanae_).] + + For spraying, proper instruments must be used, by means of which the + liquid is sent out over the plants in as fine a mist as possible. + Numerous pumps and nozzles are now made by which this end is attained. + Both horse and hand machines are employed, the former for hops and + large orchards, the latter for bush fruit and gardens. In America, + where trees in parks as well as orchards and gardens are treated, + steam-power is sometimes used. Among the most important sprayers are + the Strawson horse sprayers and the smaller Eclair and Notus knapsack + pumps, carried on the back (fig. 7). The nozzles for "mistifying" the + wash most in use are known as the Vermorel and Riley's, which can be + fitted to any length of tubing, so as to reach any height, and can be + turned in any direction. The pumps in the machine keep the insecticide + constantly mixed, and at the same time force the wash with great + strength through the nozzle, and so to the exterior, as a fine mist; + every part of the plant is thus affected. + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Knapsack Sprayer for Liquid Insecticides.] + +_Beneficial Insects_ have also to be considered in economic entomology. +They are of two kinds--(1) those that help to keep down an excess of +other insects by acting either as parasites or by being insectivorous in +habit; and (2) insects of economic value, such as the bee and silkworm. +Amongst the most important friends to the farmer and gardener are the +Hymenopterous families of ichneumon flies (_Ichneumonidae_ and +_Braconidae_); the Dipterous families _Syrphidae_ and _Tachinidae_; the +Coleopterous families _Coccinellidae_ and _Carabidae_; and the +Neuropterous _Hemerobiidae_, or lace-wing flies. Ichneumon flies lay +their eggs either in the larvae or ova of other insects, and the +parasites destroy their host. In this way the Hessian fly is doubtless +kept in check in Europe, and the aphides meet with serious hindrance to +their increase. If a number of plant-lice are examined, a few will be +found looking like little pearls; these are the dried skins of those +that have been killed by _Ichneumonidae_. The _Syrphidae_, or hover +flies, are almost exclusively aphis-feeders in their larval stage. +_Tachina_ flies attack lepidopterous larvae. One of the most notable +examples of the use of insect allies is the case of the Australian +lady-bird, _Vedalia cardinalis_, which, in common with all lady-birds, +feeds off _Aphidae_ and _Coccidae_. The Icerya scale (_Icerya purchasi_) +imported into America ruined the orange groves, but its enemy, the +_Vedalia_, was also imported from Australia, and counteracted its +abnormal increase with such great results that the crippled orange +groves are now once more profitable. (F. V. T.) + + + + +ECONOMICS (from the Gr. [Greek: oikonomike], sc. [Greek: techne], from +[Greek: oikos], a house, and [Greek: nomos], rule,--the "art of +household management"), the general term, with its synonym "political +economy," for the science or study of wealth (welfare) and its +production, applicable either to the individual, the family, the State, +or in the widest sense, the world. How far the same considerations apply +to all these spheres is one of the problems of economic thought in its +widest sense. The term "economy" (q.v.) by itself, which should strictly +mean the art of applying money (or wealth) wisely, has commonly come to +mean the art of saving money, or spending as little as possible. In +practice the study of "political" economy is mainly devoted to the +sphere of the State; the welfare of the individual as a member of the +State, and of the State in its relation to the world, being internal +aspects of the prosperity of the State itself. Economics thus includes +the discussion of all the numerous factors which make life profitable, +whether to the nation or to the business, or to the individual man. It +may be conceived either as an historical science (What principles have +in fact paid?), or as an abstract science (What are the true principles +which must pay, presupposing an ideal?). Economists at different times +have studied both aspects, according to their lights, and influenced by +historical conditions of philosophic thought. A text-book on economics +necessarily deals, therefore, with the whole subject in a manner which +need not here be followed, since separate articles are devoted in this +work to the biographies of writers on economics, and also to the +principal economic questions involved, under their own headings. In +this article we propose therefore to confine ourselves to discussing the +character and subject-matter of the science, indicating its relation to +other sciences, and explaining the methods by which economists reach +their conclusions. + +We understand by economics the science which investigates the manner in +which nations or other larger or smaller communities, and their +individual members, obtain food, clothing, shelter and whatever else is +considered desirable or necessary for the maintenance and improvement of +the conditions of life. It is thus the study of the life of communities +with special reference to one side of their activity. It necessarily +involves the scientific examination of the structure and organization of +the community or communities in question; their history, their customs, +laws and institutions; and the relations between their members, in so +far as they affect or are affected by this department of their activity. + +At the root of all economic investigation lies the conception of the +standard of life of the community. By this expression we do not mean an +ideal mode of living, but the habits and requirements of life generally +current in a community or grade of society at a given period. The +standard of life of the ordinary well-to-do middle class in England, for +example, includes not only food, clothing and shelter of a kind +different in many respects from that of a similar class in other +countries and of other classes in England, but a highly complicated +mechanism, both public and private, for ministering to these primary +needs, habits of social intercourse, educational and sanitary +organization, recreative arrangements and many other elements. Many +influences operating for a long period of time on the character and the +environment of a class go to determine its standard of life. In a modern +industrial community it is possible to express this standard fairly +accurately for the purposes of economic investigation in terms of money +(q.v.). But it is doubtful whether the most complete investigation would +ever enable us to include all the elements of the standard of life in a +money estimate. The character, tastes and capacity for management of +different individuals and groups differ so widely that equal incomes do +not necessarily imply identity of standard. In the investigation of past +times, the incommensurate elements of well-being are so numerous that +merely money estimates are frequently misleading. The conception of the +standard of life involves also some estimate of the efforts and +sacrifices people are prepared to make to obtain it; of their ideals and +character; of the relative strength of the different motives which +usually determine their conduct. But no carefully devised calculus can +take the place of insight, observation and experience. The economist +should be a man of wide sympathies and practical sagacity, in close +touch with men of different grades, and, if possible, experienced in +affairs. + + + Character of subject-matter. + +It is evident that no permanent classification is possible of what is or +is not of economic significance. No general rules, applicable to all +times, can be laid down as to what phenomena must be examined or what +may be neglected in economic inquiry. The different departments of human +activity are organically connected, and all facts relating to the life +of a community have a near or remote economic significance. For short +historical periods, indeed, many phenomena are so remotely connected +with the ordinary business of life that we may ignore them. But at any +moment special causes may bring into the field of economic inquiry whole +departments of life which have hitherto been legitimately ignored. In +times past, biblical exegesis, religious ideals, and ecclesiastical +organization, the purely political aims of statesmen, chance +combinations of party politics and the intrigues of diplomatists, class +prejudice, social conventions, apparently sudden changes of economic +policy, capricious changes of fashion--all these causes and many others +have exerted a direct and immediate influence on the economic life of +the community. In our own day we have had many illustrations of the +manner in which special circumstances may at once bring an almost +unnoticed series of scientific investigations into direct and vital +relation with the business world. The economist must, therefore, not +only be prepared to take account of the physical features of the world, +the general structure and organization of the industry and commerce of +different states, the character of their administration and other +important causes of economic change. He must be in touch with the actual +life of the community he is studying, and cultivate "that openness and +alertness of the mind, that sensitiveness of the judgment, which can +rapidly grasp the significance of at first sight unrelated discoveries +or events." + +Some people are of opinion that the factors to be taken account of in +economic investigation are so numerous that progress on these lines is +impossible. It would certainly be impossible if we had to begin _de +novo_ to construct the whole fabric of economic science. But, as we +shall see, it is no more necessary to do this in the world of science +than it is in the world of business or politics. There is in existence a +vast store of accumulated knowledge, and few, if any, departments of +economics have been left quite unilluminated by the researches of former +generations. Progress is the result of adaptation rather than +reconstruction. It must be remembered also that economic work in modern +times is carried on by consciously or unconsciously associated effort, +and although it must always require high qualities of judgment, capacity +and energy, many of the difficulties which at first sight appear so +insuperable give way when they are attacked. In some ways also the study +of highly developed organizations like the modern industrial state is +simpler than that of earlier forms of society. + + + Ancient and modern conditions in England. + +In the earliest times for which we have abundant material the economic +life of England had already reached in certain directions a high degree +of complexity. Even in the rural districts, manorial records reveal the +existence of a great variety of classes and groups of persons engaged in +the performance of economic functions. The lord of the manor with his +officials and retainers, the peasantry bound to him by ties of personal +dependence and mutual rights and obligations, constituted a little +world, in which we can watch the play of motives and passions not so +dissimilar as we are sometimes led to believe from those of the great +modern world. In many a country district the gradations of social rank +were more continuous, the opportunities of intercourse more frequent, +and the capacity for organization greater than in modern times. The +manorial accounts were kept with precision and detail, and we are told +that a skilled official could estimate to the utmost farthing the value +of the services due from the villein to his lord. The manor was indeed +self-sufficient and independent in the sense that it could furnish +everything required by the majority of the inhabitants, and that over +the greater part of rural England production was not carried on with a +view to a distant market. But in the earliest times the manor was +subjected to external influences of great importance. Vast areas of the +country were in fact under the single control of a territorial lord or +an ecclesiastical foundation. Every manor composing these great fiefs +was likely to be affected by the policy or the character of the +administration of the feudal lord, and he, again, by the policy or the +difficulties, the strength or the weakness, of the central government. +Foreign trade and foreign intercourse were undeveloped, but their +influence was in historical times never entirely absent, while the +influence of Roman law and the Christian Church constantly tended to +modify the manorial organization. In the towns the division of labour +had proceeded much further than in the rural districts, and there were +in existence organized bodies, such as the Gild Merchant and the crafts, +whose functions were primarily economic. But one of the most striking +characteristics of town life in the middle ages was the manner in which +municipal and industrial privileges and responsibilities were +interwoven. In modern times the artisan, however well trained, efficient +and painstaking he may be, does not, in virtue of these qualities, enjoy +any municipal or political privileges. By means of his trade union, +co-operative society or club he may gain some experience in the +management of men and business, and in so far as the want of a +sufficient income does not constitute an insuperable difficulty, he may +share in the public life of the country. But in his character as +artisan he enjoys no municipal or political privileges. In the middle +ages this differentiation of the industrial, municipal and political +life had not taken place, and in order to understand the working of at +first sight purely economic regulations it is necessary to make a close +study of the functions of local government. But this, after all, does +not carry us very far. From the very nature of the records in which we +study the town life of the middle ages, it follows that we obtain from +them only a one-sided view. No one knows what proportion of the +industrial population was included in the organized gilds, or how +complete was the control exercised by these bodies over their members. +Elaborate regulations were in force, but no one knows how elastic they +were in practice. Medieval Englishmen were particularly apt to put their +aspirations into a legal form, and then rest satisfied with their +achievement. The number of regulations is scarcely to be regarded as a +test of their administrative success. Further, as the country became +more consolidated and the central government extended its authority over +economic affairs, new regulations came into force, new organs of +government appeared, which were sometimes in conflict, sometimes in +harmony, with the existing system, and it becomes for a time far more +difficult to obtain a clear view of the actual working of economic +institutions. Thus the study of the economic life of the middle ages is +one of the most complicated subjects which can engage the attention of +man. It is impossible to carry the process of isolation very far. The +different threads of social activity are so closely interwoven that we +cannot follow any one for very long without forming wrong impressions, +and it becomes necessary to turn back and study others which seemed at +first sight unrelated to the subject of our investigations. Under an +apparently uniform and stable system of social regulation there was much +variation and movement, the significance of which it is impossible to +estimate. Materials for forming such an estimate no doubt exist, but +before doing so we have to study in infinite detail a vast number of +separate manors, municipalities or other separate economic areas. This +involves great industry on the part of many scientific workers. +Meanwhile we can _illustrate_ the economic life of the middle ages, +describe its main features, indicate the more important measures of +public policy and draw attention to some of the main lines of +development. + + + Conditions of economic science. + +It is only as we approach more modern times that the conditions of +economic study are realized and economic science, as we understand it, +becomes possible. Those conditions are: (i.) the life of the state or +other community or communities we are studying must be so differentiated +that we can isolate those functions which are wholly or predominantly +economic. The "separation of employments" is not only a condition of +economic efficiency; it was necessary before we could have an economic +science. (ii.) We must be in a position so far to understand and +estimate the character and motives of different classes and groups in +these communities that we can rightly interpret their action. This +condition cannot be realized without great difficulty, for "economic +motives" are very different in different periods, nations and classes, +and even for short periods of time in the same country are modified by +the influence of other motives of an entirely different order. In +studying the economic history of the 18th century, for example, it is +not enough to assume with Defoe that "gain is the design of +merchandise." We have to be saturated, as it were, with 18th-century +influences, so that we can realize the conditions in which industry and +trade were carried on, before we can rightly explain the course of +development. In our own day labour disputes, to take another example, +can scarcely ever be resolved into a question of merely pecuniary gain +or loss. The significance of the amount of money involved varies greatly +for different trades, and can only be understood by reference to the +character and habits of the people concerned. But questions of +sentiment, shop-feeling and trade customs invariably play an important +part. (iii.) Economics can never lead to anything but hypothetical +results unless we not only realize that we must "take account of" other +than the purely economic factors, but also give due weight and +significance to these factors. No explanation of the industrial +situation in Germany, for example, would be intelligible or satisfactory +even from the economic point of view which ignored the significance of +the political conditions which Germans have to deal with. So, again, it +is impossible to make a useful comparative estimate of the advantages +and disadvantages of the transport systems of England, the United States +and Germany, unless we keep constantly in view the very different +geographical, military and political conditions which these systems have +to satisfy. (iv.) Sufficient information must be available to enable us +to test the validity of our hypotheses and conclusions. Whatever +"method" of economic investigation we employ, we must at every stage see +how far our reasoning is borne out by the actual experience of life. +This obvious condition of scientific inquiry is very far from being +completely realized even at the present time. It implies the existence +of a well-trained class engaged in the work of collecting information, +and much organization both by the state and private bodies. These four +conditions can be reduced to two. The community we are studying must +have reached such a stage of development that its economic functions and +those immediately cognate to them form a well-defined group, and +adequate means must be available so that we can, as it were, watch the +performance of these functions and test our hypotheses and conclusions +by observation and experience. + +It is easy to understand, therefore, why we trace the beginnings of +economics, so far as England is concerned, in the 16th century, and why +the application of strict scientific tests in this subject of human +study has become possible only in comparatively recent times. Medieval +economics was little more than a casuistical system of elaborate and +somewhat artificial rules of conduct. From the close of the middle ages +until the middle of the 18th century thousands of pamphlets and other +works on economic questions were published, but the vast majority of the +writers have little or no scientific importance. Their works frequently +contain information given nowhere else, and throw much light on the +state of opinion in the age in which they wrote. It is also possible to +find in them many anticipations of the views of the economists of later +times; but such statements were as a rule generated merely by the heat +of controversy on some measure or event of practical importance, and +when the controversy died down were seldom regarded or incorporated in a +scientific system. Trade bias, personal impressions and guesswork took +the place of scientific method. This was inevitable in the absence of +trustworthy information on an adequate scale, and from the immediately +practical aims of the writers. But from the end of the 17th century +economics has been definitely recognized as a subject of scientific +study. + + + Necessity of economic science. + +In modern times the conditions which have made economic science possible +have also made it necessary. While it is impossible to give a strictly +economic interpretation of the earlier history of nations, economic +interests so govern the life and determine the policy of modern states +that other forces, like those of religion and politics, seem to play +only a subsidiary part, modifying here and there the view which is taken +of particular questions, but not changing in any important degree the +general course of their development. This may be, in the historical +sense, merely a passing phase of human progress, due to the rapid +extension of the industrial revolution to all the civilized and many of +the uncivilized nations of the world, bringing in its train the +consolidation of large areas, a similarity of conditions within them, +and amongst peoples and governments a great increase in the strength of +economic motives. When the world has settled down to the new conditions, +if it ever does so, we may be confronted with problems similar to those +which our forefathers had to solve. But, for the time, if we know the +economic interests of nations, classes and individuals, we can tell with +more accuracy than ever before how in the long run they will act. Public +policy therefore requires the closest possible study of the economic +forces which are moulding the destinies of the great nations of the +world. In most civilized countries except England this is recognized, +and adequate provision is made for the study of economic science. But +the subject is not only of immediate concern to the state in its +corporate and public capacity. The neglect of it in the domain of +private business can now only lead to disastrous results. To quote from +a useful work (_National Education: a Symposium_, 1901), "the commercial +supremacy of England was due to a variety of causes, of which superior +intelligence, in the ordinary business sense, was not the most +important. Her insular position, continuity of political development and +freedom from domestic broils played an important part in bringing about +a steady and continuous growth of industry and manufactures for several +generations before the modern era. The great wars of the 18th and the +beginning of the 19th century, which arrested the growth of continental +nations, gave England the control of the markets of the world. When +peace was restored, England enjoyed something in the nature of a +monopoly. The competition of France ceased for a time to be an important +factor. What is now the German empire was a mere congeries of small +states, waging perpetual tariff wars upon each other. In the old +Prussian provinces alone there were fifty-three different customs +frontiers, and German manufactures could not develop until the growth of +the Zollverein brought with it commercial consolidation, internal +freedom and greater homogeneity of economic conditions. The industries +of the United States were in their infancy. Thus the productive power of +England was unrivalled, and her manufactures and business men, under a +regime rapidly approximating to complete freedom of trade, could reap +the full advantages to be derived from the possession of great national +resources and production by machinery. Commercial supremacy required not +so much highly trained intelligence amongst manufacturers and merchants +as keen business instinct and a certain rude energy. In the last +generation all that has changed, and the change is of a permanent +character. The struggle of the future must inevitably be between a +number of great nations, more or less equally well equipped, carrying on +production by the same general methods, each one trying to strengthen +its industrial and commercial position by the adoption of the most +highly developed machinery, and all the methods suggested by scientific +research, policy or experience. Under these conditions, it is no longer +possible for the individual merchant, or for small groups of merchants, +to acquaint themselves, by personal experience alone, with more than a +fractional part of the causes which affect the business in which they +are engaged. The spread of the modern industrial system has brought with +it the modern state, with its millions of consumers, its vast area, its +innumerable activities, its complicated code of industrial and +commercial law. At the same time, the revolution in the means of +transport and communication has destroyed, or is tending to destroy, +local markets, and closely interwoven all the business of the world. +Events in the most distant countries, industrial and commercial +movements at first sight unrelated to the concerns of the individual +merchant, now exert a direct and immediate influence upon his interests. +The technical training of the factory or the office, the experience of +business, the discharge of practical duties, necessary as they are, do +not infallibly open the mind to the large issues of the modern business +world, and can never confer the detailed acquaintance with facts and +principles which lie outside the daily routine of the individual, but +are none the less of vital importance." Economics, therefore, under +modern conditions, is not only a subject which may usefully occupy the +attention of a leisured class of scientific men. It should form part of +the training of educated men of all classes, on grounds of public policy +and administrative and business efficiency. + + + Relations between economics and other sciences. + +The relations between economics and other sciences cannot be stated in a +very general form. They vary for different periods, and are not the same +for all branches of economics. There is no subject of human study which +may not be at some time or other of economic significance, and anything +which affects the character, the ideals or the environment of man may +make it necessary to modify our assumptions and our reasoning with +regard to his conduct in economic affairs. But if the economist, while +studying one side of man's activities, must also cultivate all other +branches of human learning, it is obvious that no substantial progress +can be made. The economist frankly assumes the reality of the existing +world and takes men as they are, or as they have been if he is studying +past times. His assumptions are based upon ordinary observation and +experience, and are usually accurate in proportion to his practical +shrewdness and sagacity, so that he is not interested in the speculative +flights of philosophy, except in so far as they influence or have +influenced conduct. In times past, and to a less extent in our own day, +philosophical conceptions have formed the basis of great systems of +politics and economics. The historical relations between philosophy and +economics are of great importance in tracing the development of the +latter, and have done much to determine its present form. But the modern +conception of society or the state owes more to biology than philosophy, +and actual research has destroyed more frequently than it has justified +the assumptions of the older philosophical school. Experimental +psychology may in course of time have an important bearing on economics, +but the older science cannot be said to be of much significance except +in its historical aspects. Ethics is in much the same position. That is, +it is possible to conceive of an ethical science which would extend +considerably our knowledge of economic affairs, but no important new +principle or original discovery, relevant to economic investigation, has +come from that quarter in recent years, and at present ethics has more +to learn from economics than the latter has from ethics. It is in the +adaptation of biological conceptions and methods, in the positive +contributions of jurisprudence, law and history, in the rigorous +application, where possible, of quantitative tests, that the explanation +of the present position of economics is to be found. Mathematics has +influenced the form and the terminology of the science, and has +sometimes been useful in analysis; but mathematical methods of +reasoning, in their application to economics, while possessing a certain +fascination, are of very doubtful utility. + + + Method of economic investigation. + +There is no method of investigation which is peculiarly economic or of +which economics has the monopoly. In every age economists have applied +the methods ordinarily in use amongst scientific men. There would +probably have been no controversy at all on this subject but for the +fact that economics was elaborated into systematic form, and made the +basis of practical measures of the greatest importance, long before the +remarkable development in the 19th century of historical research, +experimental science and biology. The application of the _a priori_ +method in economics was an accident, due to its association with other +subjects and the general backwardness of other sciences rather than any +exceptional and peculiar character in the subject-matter of the science +itself. The methods applied to economics in the 18th and the early part +of the 19th century were no more invented with a special view to that +subject than the principles of early railway legislation, in the domain +of practical policy, were devised with a special view to what was then a +new means of transport. As a matter of fact, discussions of method and +the criticism of hypotheses and assumptions are very rarely found in +early economic works. It is only by reference to the prevailing ideas in +philosophy and politics that we can discover what was in the minds of +their authors. The growth of a science is much like the growth of a +constitution. It proceeds by adaptation and precedent. The scientific +and historical movement of the 19th century was revolutionary in +character. When it began to affect economics, many people were afraid +that the whole fabric of science would be destroyed and the practical +gains it had achieved, jeopardized. These fears were justified, in so +far as those who entertained them shut their eyes to everything new and +assumed an attitude of no compromise. Where the newer methods were +assimilated, the position of economics was strengthened and its +practical utility increased. General discussion of method, however, is +rarely profitable. In all branches of economics, even in what is called +the pure theory, there is an implied reference to certain historical or +existing conditions of a more or less definite character; to the +established order of an organized state or other community, at a stage +of development which in its main features can be recognized. In all +economic investigation assumptions must be made, but we must see that +they are legitimate in view of the actual life and character of the +community or communities which are the subject of investigation. In +common with other sciences, economics makes use of "abstractions"; but +if for some problems we employ symbolic processes of reasoning, we must +keep clearly in view the limits of their significance, and neither endow +the symbols with attributes they can never possess, nor lose sight of +the realities behind them. Every hypothesis must be tested by an appeal +to the facts of life, and modified or abandoned if it will not bear +examination, unless we are convinced on genuine evidence that it may for +a time be employed as a useful approximation, without prejudice to the +later stages of the investigation we are conducting. + + + An illustration of economic method. + +We shall best illustrate the character and method of economic reasoning +by examples, and for that purpose let us take first of all a purely +historical problem, namely, the effect on the wage-earners of the wages +clauses of the Statute of Apprenticeship (1563). It is at once obvious +that we are dealing not with an abstract scheme of regulation in a +hypothetical world, but with an act of parliament nominally in force for +two hundred and fifty years, and applicable to a great variety of trades +whose organization and history can be ascertained. The conclusions we +reach may or may not modify any opinions we have formed as to the manner +in which wages are determined under modern conditions. For the time +being such opinions are irrelevant to the question we are investigating, +and the less they are in our minds the better. There is no reason why we +should apply to this particular act a different method of inquiry from +that we should apply to any other of the numerous acts, of more or less +economic importance, passed in the same session of parliament. The first +step is to see whether there is a _prima facie_ case for inquiry, for +many acts of parliament have been passed which have never come into +operation at all, or have been administered only for a short time on too +limited a scale to have important or lasting results. The justices were +authorized to fix wages at the Easter quarter sessions. Did they +exercise their powers? To answer this question we must collect the wages +assessments sanctioned by the magistrates. This is a perfectly simple +and straightforward operation, involving nothing more than familiarity +with records and industry in going through them. Without having recourse +to any elaborate process of economic reasoning, by confining our +attention to one simple question, namely, what happened, we can +establish conclusions of the greatest interest to economic historians +and, further, define the problem we have to investigate. We can show, +for example: (1) that the Statute of Apprenticeship did not stand alone; +it was one of a long series of similar measures, beginning more than two +centuries before, which in their turn join on to the municipal and gild +regulations of the middle ages; one of an important group of statutes, +more or less closely interwoven throughout their history, administered +by local authorities whose functions had grown largely in connexion with +this legislation and the gradual differentiation of the trades and +callings to which it related. (2) That wages were regulated with much +greater frequency during the reigns of Elizabeth, James I. and Charles +I. than at any later period. (3) That they were regulated in some +counties and not in others. (4) That in the counties and towns where +they were regulated the action of the magistrates was in general +spasmodic, and rarely continuous for a long series of years. (5) That +the magistrates used their powers sometimes to raise wages, sometimes to +force them down. (6) That the local variations of wages and prices were +what we should call excessive, so that the standard of comfort in one +district was very different from that of others. (7) That the wages +assessments group themselves round certain short periods, coincident in +many instances with high prices, increase of poverty, and other causes +of exceptional action. (8) That what we may call, with the above +limitations, the effective period of the act terminates with the +outbreak of the Civil War. (9) That subsequent to that period organic +changes in the industries affected, coupled with the incompetence of +parliament to adapt the old legislation to new conditions, and the +growing acceptance of the doctrine of _laissez faire_, brought about a +general disuse of the statute, though isolated attempts to enforce it +were made and new acts applicable to certain trades were passed in the +18th century. (10) For more than one hundred years before the repeal of +the act, trade unions and other forms of voluntary association amongst +wage-earners, combinations amongst employers, collective agreements, +customary regulations, were established in many of the important trades +of the country. But these conclusions, after all, suggest more +difficulties than they remove, for they show that our inquiry, instead +of presenting certain well-marked features which can be readily dealt +with, has to be split up into a number of highly specialized studies: +the investigation of rates of wages, prices and the standard of comfort +in different localities, bye-industries, regularity of employment, the +organization of particular trades, the economic functions of local +authorities, apprenticeship and a host of other subjects. Moreover, all +these subjects hang together, so that it seems impossible to come to a +decision about one of them without knowing all about the others. + +It is a comparatively simple thing to state the question to which we +want an answer, but extremely difficult to define the exact nature of +the evidence which will constitute a good answer; easy enough to say we +must try hypothesis after hypothesis, and test each one by an appeal to +the facts, but a man may easily spend his life in this sort of thing and +still leave to his descendants nothing more than a legacy of rejected +hypotheses. Every volume of records we look through contains a mass of +detailed information on the economic life of England in the period we +are studying. How much of it is relevant to the subject of inquiry? What +is to be the principle of selection? How shall we determine the relative +weight and importance of different kinds of relevant evidence? As in +modern problems, so in those of past times, a man requires for success +qualities quite distinct from those conferred by merely academic +training and the use of scientific methods. A correct sense of +proportion and the faculty of seizing upon the dominant factors in an +historical problem are the result partly of the possession of certain +natural gifts in which many individuals and some nations are +conspicuously wanting, partly of general knowledge of the working of the +economic and political institutions of the period we are studying, +partly of what takes the place of practical experience in relation to +modern problems, namely, detailed acquaintance with different kinds of +original sources and the historical imagination by which we can realize +the life and the ideals of past generations. These qualities are +required all the more because, in order to make any further progress +with such an inquiry as we have suggested, we have deliberately to make +use of abstraction as an instrument of investigation. + + + The plan of a general theory. + +Let us see how this will work out. Suppose we have selected one of the +numerous subsidiary problems suggested by the general inquiry, and +obtained such full and complete information about one particular +industry that we can tabulate the wages of the workers for a long series +of years. We may do the same for other industries, some of them coming +under the Statute of Apprenticeship, others not. If all the industries +belong to one economic area over which, so far as we can tell from +general statistics of wages and prices, and other information, fairly +homogeneous conditions prevailed, we may be able to reach some useful +conclusions as to the operation of the act. But it would be absurd to +suppose that we could reach those conclusions by simple reference to the +trades themselves. We cannot assume that the fluctuations in wages were +due to the action or inaction of magistrates without the most careful +examination of the other influences affecting the trades. In economic +affairs the argument _post hoc propter hoc_ never leads to the whole +truth, and is frequently quite misleading. We cannot suppose that the +policy of the Merchant Adventurers' Company had nothing to do with the +woollen industry; that the export trade in woollen cloth was quite +independent of the foreign exchanges and international trade relations +in those times; that the effect on wages of the state of the currency, +the influx of new silver, the character of the harvests, and many other +influences can be conveniently ignored. In studying, therefore, such an +apparently simple question as the effect of an act of parliament on +wages in a small group of trades we want a general theory which we can +use as a kind of index of the factors we have to consider. + + + Difficulties due to want of evidence. + +Assuming that we have in our minds this safeguard against loose thinking +and neglect of important factors, the investigation of the special +problems arising out of the general inquiry resolves itself into a +careful definition of each problem we wish to deal with, and the +collection, tabulation and interpretation of the evidence. In most cases +the interpretation of the facts is far from obvious, and we have to try +several hypotheses before we reach one which will bear the strain of a +critical examination in the light of further evidence. But at this stage +in historical investigation it is generally the want of evidence of a +sufficiently complete and continuous character, rather than difficulties +of method, which forces us to leave the problem unsolved. It is, for +instance, practically impossible to obtain reliable evidence as to the +regularity of employment in any industry in the 17th century, and the +best approximations and devices we can invent are very poor substitutes +for what we really want. For this reason guesswork must continue to play +an important part in economic history. But every genuine attempt to +overcome its difficulties brings us into closer touch with the period we +are examining; and though we may not be able to throw our conclusions +into the form of large generalizations, we shall get to know something +of the operation of the forces which determined the economic future of +England; understand more clearly than our forefathers did, for we have +more information than they could command, and a fuller appreciation of +the issues, the broad features of English development, and be in a +position to judge fairly well of the measures they adopted in their +time. By comparing England with other countries we may be able in the +distant future to reach conclusions of some generality as to the laws of +growth, maturity and decay of industrial nations. But like the early +statisticians of the 17th century, economic historians are the +"beginners of an art not yet polished, which time may bring to more +perfection." + + + The investigation of modern questions. + +When we come to exclusively modern questions, there is no reason or +necessity for a fundamental change of method. We cannot suppose that +there occurred, at or about the commencement of the 19th century, a +breach of historical continuity of such a character that institutions, +customs, laws and social conventions were suddenly swept away, the bonds +of society loosened, and the state and people of England dissolved into +an aggregate of competing individuals. The adoption of machinery +gradually revolutionized the methods of production; but in the first +instance only certain industries were affected, and those not at the +same time or in the same degree; old laws grown obsolete were repealed, +but other laws affecting wage-earners and employers took their place, +more complicated and elaborate than the Elizabethan code. Trade unions, +so far from disappearing, were legalized, gathered strength from the +changes in industrial organization, and nowhere became so powerful as in +the most progressive industries; while other forms of combination +appeared, incomparably stronger, for good or evil, than those of earlier +times. But while we recognize these facts, we must not suppose that we +have to study the action of men as though they were all enrolled in +organized associations, or covered by stringent laws which were always +obeyed. There has never been in the history of English industry such +licence as we find in certain directions in the earlier part of the 19th +century. + + + The distinctive features of modern problems. + +It is not in the decay of combination and monopoly or in the growth of +competition that we must look for the distinctive characteristics of +modern problems. A 17th-century monopoly was a very weak and ineffective +instrument compared with a modern syndicate; the Statute of +Apprenticeship was certainly not so widely enforced as the "common +rules" of trade unions; and many of the regulations of past times, which +look so complicated to modern eyes, were conditions of free enterprise +rather than restraints upon it. It is due to the influence of the +_laisser faire_ doctrine that we regard law and regulation as a +restraint on liberty. As a maxim for guidance in public affairs, +_laisser faire_ was genuinely relevant at the end of the 18th and the +beginning of the 19th century, when the Statute Book was cumbered with +vexatious and obsolete laws. As an explanation of what has taken place +in later years, or of the actual economic life of the present day, it is +ludicrously inadequate. Competition, in the sense in which the word is +still used in many economic works, is merely a special case of the +struggle for survival, and, from its limitation, does not go far towards +explaining the actual working of modern institutions. To buy in the +cheapest market and sell in the dearest; to secure cheapness by lowering +the expenses of production; to adopt the less expensive rather than the +more expensive method of obtaining a given result--these and other +maxims are as old as human society. Competition, in the Darwinian sense, +is characteristic not only of modern industrial states, but of all +living organisms; and in the narrower sense of the "higgling of the +market" is found on the Stock Exchange, in the markets of old towns, in +medieval fairs and Oriental bazaars. In modern countries it takes +myriads of forms, from the sweating of parasitic trades to the +organization of scientific research. Economic motives, again, are as +varied as the forms of competition, and their development is coeval with +that of human society. They have to be interpreted in every age in +relation to the state of society, the other motives or ideals with which +they are associated, the kind of action they inspire, and the means +through which they operate. Apparently the same economic motives have +led in the same age and in the same nation to monopoly and individual +enterprise, protection and free trade, law and anarchy. In our own time +they have inspired both the formation of trade combinations and attempts +to break them up, hostility to all forms of state interference and a +belief in collectivism. + +The conditions which are peculiar to the modern world are the large +numbers we have to deal with, the vast and fairly homogeneous areas in +which justice is administered and property secured, and the enormously +increased facilities for transport and communication. These conditions +are of course not independent of each other, and they have brought in +their train many consequences, some good and some bad. But they supply +the bases for that general theory which, as we have seen, is +indispensable in economic investigation. From the standpoint of general +theory economic movements assume an impersonal character and economic +forces operate like the forces of nature. Although economic motives have +become more complex, they have just as much and no more to do with +general economic reasoning and analysis than the causes of death with +the normal expectation of life, or domestic ideals with the birth-rate. +So far as we have anything to do with psychology at all, it is the +psychology of crowds and not of individuals which we have to consider. +If we study the economy of a village, the idiosyncrasies of every +individual in it are of importance. If the village is replaced by a +large area, inhabited by millions, with modern facilities of +communication, it is a matter of observation and experience that for the +purposes of general reasoning the idiosyncrasies of individuals may be +neglected. Whether such large numbers have the character of the +"economic man" of the early economists matters very little. All the +assumptions we require are furnished by observation of people in the +mass and the larger generalizations of statistics. Thus we can construct +a kind of envelope of theory, which, by careful testing as we proceed, +can be made to indicate in a general manner the reactions of one part of +the activities of the economic world upon the others, and the +interdependence of the several parts. From its very nature this general +theory can never correspond strictly to the actual life and movement of +any given state. It is useful and necessary, and plays somewhat the same +part in economic investigation as ton-mile statistics do in the +administration of a railway. To express in any language or to illustrate +by any images, from a purely objective standpoint, the infinitely +complicated movements of the actual world, is a task far beyond human +capacity. + + + Application to modern problems. + +With the aid of this general theory the methods we have sketched in +relation to historical problems apply with greater force to the special +problems of modern times, and are rewarded with results more accurate, +more fruitful, more relevant to difficulties which all civilized nations +have to face, than those of historical research. To many minds the +interest and usefulness of economics depend entirely on the application +of these methods, for it is the actual working of economic institutions +about which the statesman, the publicist, the business man and the +artisan wish to know. Under the conditions we have described, many of +the most interesting problems of our own time, when they are once +defined, resolve themselves into statistical inquiries. But in most +cases such an inquiry cannot be successfully carried out by a mere +statistician. Definite economic problems can very rarely be dealt with +by merely quantitative methods. In the tabulation and interpretation of +statistical evidence, as in its collection, it is scarcely possible to +overrate the importance of wide knowledge and experience. There is +another very important instrument of investigation which can be used in +our own time, but cannot be employed in historical research. Historical +documents, however detailed, rarely show all the factors we have to deal +with or fully explain a given situation. No sane person would suppose +that the minutes of a modern legislative body explain the steps by which +legislation has been passed, or the issues really involved. The +ostensible cause of a modern labour dispute is frequently not the real +or the most important cause. In modern problems we can watch the +economic machine actually at work, cross-examine our witnesses, see that +delicate interplay of passions and interests which cannot be set down or +described in a document, and acquire a certain sense of touch in +relation to the questions at issue which manuscripts and records cannot +impart. We can therefore substitute sound diagnosis for guesswork more +frequently in modern than in historical problems. + + + The "old political economy." + +What then, it may be asked, becomes of the "old Political Economy"? Of +what possible use are the works of the so-called classical writers, +except in relation to the history of economics and the practical +influence of theory in past times? If we take the mere popular view of +what is meant by the "old Political Economy," that is, that a generation +or so ago economics was comprised in a neatly rounded set of general +propositions, universally accepted, which could be set forth in a +text-book and learnt like the multiplication table, it is not incumbent +on the present generation to define its attitude at all. In this sense +of the words, there was no faith delivered to our fathers which we are +under any obligation to guard or even explain. If by the "old Political +Economy" we mean the methods and conclusions of certain great writers, +who stood head and shoulders above their contemporaries and determined +the general character of economic science, we are still under no +obligation to define the attitude of the present generation with regard +to them. The fact that Adam Smith, with the meagre materials of the 18th +century at his disposal, saw his way to important generalizations which +later research has established on a firm basis, may enhance greatly the +reputation of Adam Smith, but does not strengthen the generalizations. +They stand or fall by the strength of the evidence for or against them. +In the history of economics or the biography of Ricardo it is of +interest to show that he anticipated later writers, or that his analysis +bears the test of modern criticism; but no economist is under any +obligation to defend Ricardo's reputation, nor is the fact that a +doctrine is included in his works to be taken as a demonstration of its +truth. The appeal to authority cannot be permitted in economics any more +than in chemistry, physics or astronomy. But the cases stated above +suggest more or less false issues. There has been no revolution in +economic science, and is not likely to be any. The question we have +really to determine is how we can make the best use of the accumulated +knowledge of past generations, and to do that we must look more closely +into the economic science of the 19th century. + +Any one who has taken the trouble to trace the history of one of the +modern schools of economists, or of any branch of economic science, +knows how difficult it is to say when it began. "Anticipations" of +method and doctrine can generally be found by the diligent investigator +in the economic literature of his own or a foreign country. So that +cross-sections of the stream of economic thought will reveal the +existence, at different times, in varying proportions and at different +stages of development, of most of the modern "schools." Again, the +classification of an economic bibliography at once shows how varied has +been the character of economic investigation, ranging from the most +abstract speculation on the one hand to almost technical studies of +particular trades on the other. Of the great army of writers who +flourished in the first half of the 19th century some were closely +identified with the utilitarian school, and the majority were influenced +in a greater or less degree by the prevailing ideas of that school. +Others, however, were hostile to it. In many works, such as those of a +statistical or historical character, there are frequently to be found +passages which could have been written in no other period, but are only +of the nature of ejaculations and do not affect the argument. In stating +the position of economics during this time we cannot ignore all writers, +except these who belonged to one group, however eminent that group may +have been, simply because they did not represent the dominant ideas of +the period, and exercised no immediate and direct influence on the +movement of economic thought. We must include the pioneers of the +historical school, the economic historians, the socialists, the +statisticians, and others whose contributions to economics are now +appreciated, and without whose labours the science as we know it now +would have been impossible. If we take this broadly historical view of +the progress of economics, it is obvious that even in England there was +no general agreement, during the 19th century, as to the methods most +appropriate to economic investigation. + +Suppose, now, we ignore the writers who were inaugurating new methods, +investigating special problems or laboriously collecting facts, and +concentrate attention on the dominant school, with its long series of +writers from Adam Smith to John Stuart Mill. It is the work of these +writers which people have in mind when they speak of the "old Political +Economy." There are several quite distinct questions we can ask with +regard to them. That they must be studied closely by every one who +wishes to follow the history of economics goes without saying. That they +must be studied by the economic historian is equally clear, owing to +their practical influence and the fact that they furnished the +theoretical bases of much of the economic policy of the 19th century. +This is true whether their method is good or bad, whether their +conclusions are true or false. It is not so easy to determine their +relevance and usefulness in relation to distinctively modern problems, +or to indicate within what limits their work is of permanent value, and +we can only deal with these questions in their more general aspects. + +It must be clear to every observer that the economists of the classical +period, with the one exception of Adam Smith, will speedily share the +fate of nearly all scientific writers. They will be forgotten, and their +books will not be read. Adams Smith's _Wealth of Nations_, if it has +ever been, has long ceased to be a scientific text-book. Whether a +modern economist accepts his views or not is of no importance. There is +probably not a single chapter in the _Wealth of Nations_ which would be +thoroughly endorsed by any living economist. But the reputation of the +book and its author is quite independent of considerations of this kind. +The _Wealth of Nations_ is one of the great books of the world, many of +the sayings of which are likely to be more frequently quoted in the +future than they have been in the 19th century. Malthus is already an +author whose name is probably more widely known than that of any other +economist, but whose works are rarely read, and studied only by a small +proportion of the few people who write books on the history of economic +theory. Of economic students, many are unaware of the fact that he wrote +any other book than the _Essay on the Principle of Population_, and what +is of permanent importance in that work is contained in the +generalization which it suggested to Darwin. Moreover, modern +economists, while accepting in the main the general tenor of Malthus's +theory of population, would not agree with his statement of it. Like +Malthus, Ricardo owes his reputation very largely to the theory +associated with his name, though it has long ceased to be stated +precisely in the terms he employed. But there are very few people in the +world who have made a careful study of his works; and although his +theory of rent has a wide and increasing application in economics, it is +not comparable in general scientific importance with Malthus's theory of +population. It is already impossible to take J.S. Mill's _Principles of +Political Economy_ as a text-book. Important as it was for thirty or +forty years, it will soon be as little read as M'Culloch's _Principles_. +For the rest of the economists of this period, it is difficult to see +how they can escape oblivion. When the generation whose economic +training was based upon J.S. Mill has died out, the relevance of the +"old Political Economy" is not likely to be a question of any interest +to ordinary educated men and women, or even to the great mass of +economic students. + +The explanation of this decay of interest does not lie upon the surface. +It is frequently supposed that the influence of the "old Political +Economy" has been gradually undermined by the attacks of the historical +school. But great as the achievements of this school have been, it has +not developed any scientific machinery which can take the place of +theory in economic investigation. If our view is correct that, broadly +speaking, the two ways of regarding economic questions are complementary +rather than mutually exclusive, there does not seem to be any reason why +the growth of the historical school should have been destructive of the +"old Political Economy" if it had been well founded. The use of the +historical method has, in fact, raised more reputations than it has +destroyed, because by keeping carefully in view the conditions in which +economic works have been written, it has shown that many theories +hastily condemned as unsound by _a priori_ critics had much to be said +for them at the time when they were propounded. This observation is true +not only of old-world writers like the Mercantilists, but also of +Ricardian economics. No one is concerned to prove that the Ricardian +economics applies to the manorial system, and it is generally supposed +at any rate that the world has been approximating more and more nearly +during the last century to the conditions assumed in most of the +reasoning of that school. On the principles we have explained, +therefore, the Ricardian economics should supply just that body of +general theory which is required in the investigation of modern economic +problems, and the reputation of at any rate the leading writers should +be as great as ever. It would be of immense advantage from a scientific +point of view if this could be taken for granted, if for a time the work +of the classical economists could be considered final so far as it goes, +and for the purposes of investigation regarded as the theoretical +counterpart of the modern industrial system. This assumption, however, +has been made quite impossible, not by the historical school, but by the +criticism and analysis of economists in the direct line of the Ricardian +succession. + + + Ricardo's limitations. + +Modern economic criticism and analysis has destroyed the authority of +the "old Political Economy" as a scientific system. The assumptions, the +definitions, the reasoning, the conclusions of the classical writers +have been ruthlessly overhauled. Defects in their arguments have been +exposed to view by those who are most concerned to defend their +reputation. Writers with none of the prejudices of the historical +school, but with the cold and remorseless regard for logic of the purely +objective critic, have pointed out serious inconsistencies here, the +omission of important factors there, until very little of the "old +Political Economy" is left unscathed. In fact, there never was a +scientific system at all. What was mistaken for it was fashioned in the +heat of controversy by men whose interests were practical rather than +scientific, who could not write correct English, and revealed in their +reasoning the usual fallacies of the merely practical man. So the "old +Political Economy" lies shattered. It is useless to suppose that this +destructive criticism from within can be neutralized by generously +sprinkling the pages of the classical writers with interpretation +clauses. This may serve to show that the ideals of our youth were not +without justification; but the younger generation, which does not care +about our ideals, and looks to the future rather than the past, will not +read annotated editions of old books, however eminent their authors. If +the Ricardian school of economists had been merely philosophers, or even +a group like the French physiocrats, this state of things might be +regarded with equanimity. We might assume that criticism and analysis +had separated the wheat from the chaff in their writings, that +everything of permanent value had probably been preserved and +incorporated in the works of later economists. But the character of much +of their work makes this assumption impossible. It is, in fact, quite +true that many of them were more interested in practical aims than in +the advancement of economic science. We may talk of the assumptions +implicitly involved in Ricardo's works. In reality we do not know what +those assumptions were; we only know what assumptions we should make in +order to reach the same conclusions, and they may be very different from +"the mind of Ricardo." Ricardo's works, in fact, do not explain a +theoretical system, but contain the matured reflections, more or less +closely reasoned, of a man of great mental power looking out on the +world as it appeared to a business man experienced in affairs. The +conclusions of such a work are of wider significance than the +assumptions we attribute to the author would warrant. They are not +expressed in terms which satisfy our canons of scientific accuracy. +Dissected sentence by sentence, the book may be shown to be a mass of +inconsistencies. If it has the misfortune to be systematized by an +enthusiastic but dull and incompetent disciple, it may appear even +absurd. But after all the misinterpretation of contemporaries and the +destructive criticism of later times, the book as a whole leaves upon us +an impression of peculiar strength and charm, and imparts a sense of the +relations of things truer, because less mechanical, than the laboured +reasoning of smaller men. Such is the character of much of the work of +Ricardo and some of his contemporaries. We think that the decay of +interest in these writers involves a real loss, and that students of +modern problems may do worse than read Ricardo and his school. Some of +the criticism of their works, necessary and useful as it has been, will +probably be corrected later on by that breadth of view and sense of +proportion which has enabled us to appreciate justly the achievements of +lesser men in more remote times. But rehabilitation in accordance with +the canons of historical justice will not restore the lost influence of +the Ricardian school. Their achievements in the 19th century will be +fully acknowledged, but the relevance of their work to the problems of +the 20th century will be admitted less than at the present time. + + + Economics a conservative science. + +In a subject like economics it must always be very difficult to decide +how far a departure from the traditional form and expression of its main +doctrines is necessary or desirable. No one who is really experienced in +economic investigation cares to emphasize the originality, still less +the revolutionary character of his own work. It is much more likely than +not that some principle which for the moment seems new, some distinction +which we may flatter ourselves has not been observed before, has been +pointed out over and over again by previous writers, although, owing to +special circumstances, it may not have received the notice it deserved. +Economics is therefore, on the whole, an intensely conservative science, +in which new truths are cautiously admitted or incorporated merely as +extensions or qualifications of those enunciated by previous writers. +This procedure has its advantages, but it may easily become dangerous by +destroying the influence of the science it is meant to preserve. It is +not unlike the procedure of the canonists and casuists of the middle +ages with regard to the doctrine of usury, by which the doctrine was to +all appearances preserved intact while in reality it was stripped of all +its original meaning by innumerable distinctions "over-curious and +precise." In the same way the doctrines of the classical economists may +be adapted by interpretation clauses and qualifications the exact force +of which cannot be tested or explained, so that we do not know whether +the original proposition is to be considered substantially correct or +not. The result will be that while the doctrines are apparently being +brought into closer correspondence with the facts of life, they will in +reality be made quite useless for practical purposes or economic +investigation. It is easier to point out the danger than to suggest how +it should be met. The position we have described is no doubt partly due +to the unsettlement of economic opinion and the hostile criticism of +old-established doctrines which has characterized the last generation. +Or it may be the result of economic agnosticism, combined with +unwillingness to cut adrift from old moorings. Whatever the cause, the +complete restatement of economic theory, which some heroic persons +demand, is clearly impossible, except on conditions not likely to be +realized in the immediate future. The span of life is limited; the work +requires an extensive knowledge of the economic literature of several +countries and the general features of all the important departments of +modern economic activity. In general theory special studies by other men +cannot play the same part as they do in historical and statistical work. +In historical and statistical investigation, or in special studies of +particular subjects, it is possible, given the pecuniary means, to +organize a whole army of skilled assistants, and with ordinary care to +combine the results of their separate efforts. In general theory the +inverse rule seems to prevail. There the unity of conception and aim, +the firm grip of all the different lines of argument and their relation +to each other, which are required, can only be given by a single brain. +But no one individual can do original work over the whole field. He is +lucky if he can throw new light on a few old propositions. For the rest, +he can only, with the utmost caution, adopt the suggestions of other +minds as qualifications of old doctrines, never feeling quite sure that +he is right in doing so. A complete restatement could only be undertaken +by a group of men, trained in much the same conditions, accustomed to +think and work together, each one engaged on a special department, but +all acting under the control of one master-mind. This is largely a +question of the organization of economic studies, and it is of the +greatest importance that, if possible, such an effort should be made to +present in a connected form the best results of modern criticism and +analysis. + + + Some recent developments of economic theory. + +Economics is unlike many other sciences in the fact that its claim to +recognition must be based upon its practical utility, on its relevance +to the actual life of the economic world, on its ability to unravel the +social and economic difficulties of each generation, and to contribute +to the progress of nations. The very effectiveness of modern criticism +and analysis, which has brought great gains in almost all branches of +economic theory, has made the science more difficult as a subject of +ordinary study. The extensions, the changes or the qualifications, of +old doctrines, which at any rate in the works of responsible writers are +rarely made without good if not always sufficient reason, have modified +very considerably the whole science, and weakened the confidence of +ordinary educated men in its conclusions. In the case of many subjects +this would matter very little, but in that of economics, which touches +the ordinary life of the community at so many points, it is of great +importance, especially at a time like the present, when economic +questions determine the policy of great nations. The "economic man" of +the earlier writers, with his aversion from labour and his desire of the +present enjoyment of costly indulgences, has been abandoned by their +successors, with the result that in the opinion of many good people +altruistic sentiment may be allowed to run wild over the whole domain of +economics. The "economic man" has, on the other hand, been succeeded by +another creation almost as monstrous, if his lineaments are to be +supposed to be those of the ordinary individual--a man, that is, who +regulates his life in accordance with Gossen's Law of Satiety, and whose +main passion is to discover a money measure of his motives. It is +extremely important to consider how far the economic conceptions based +upon this view of the action of men in the ordinary business of +life--such, for example, as the doctrine of marginal utility--depend for +their truth and relevance on the fact that in economics we are dealing +with large aggregates. The earlier writers generally assumed perfect +mobility of labour and capital. No economist would deliberately make +that assumption now unless he were dealing with some purely theoretical +problem, for the solution of which it was legitimate at some stage in +the reasoning. Many of the questions of the greatest practical +importance at the present time, such as the competition between old and +new methods of manufacturing commodities substantially the same in kind, +and equally useful to the great body of consumers, arise largely from +the immobility of capital or labour, or both of them. But it is obvious +that if the assumption of perfect mobility is invalid, there is scarcely +any economic doctrine identified with the earlier writers which may not +require modification, in what degree it is impossible to say without +very careful investigation. Much suggestive work on this subject of a +general character is incorporated in economic books of the present day, +but there is room for a whole series of careful monographs on a question +of such fundamental importance. The same may be said of another subject, +too frequently neglected by earlier writers, to which due significance +has been given in the best recent work, namely, time in relation to +value. It would perhaps be too much to say that the full consideration +of this point has revolutionized the theory of value, but it has +certainly created what seems almost a new science in close contact with +the actual life of the modern world. + +Some doctrines of the earlier economists, such as the Wages Fund Theory, +are now practically abandoned, though it may be said that they contained +a certain amount of truth. Others, which were considered of fundamental +importance, owe their position in modern economics and the form in which +they are stated to the "tradition of the elders." If they could, by some +happy chance, have been left for discovery by modern economists, they +would without doubt have received different treatment, to the great +advantage of economic science. Such a doctrine is the so-called Law of +Diminishing Returns, which Mill considered "the most important +proposition in Political Economy." "Unless this one matter," he says, +"be thoroughly understood, it is to no purpose proceeding any further in +our inquiry." "Were the law different, nearly all the phenomena of the +production and distribution of wealth would be other than they are." On +the other hand, Thorold Rogers, not to speak of earlier objectors, +described the law as a "dismal and absurd theorem." The opinions of +present-day economists appear to fluctuate between these two extremes. +The law may apparently be "a general rule" or "a tendency" which is +liable to be "checked," or a particular case of the law of the +conservation of energy. If we go to Mill to discover what it is, we find +that "it is not pretended that the law of diminishing return was +operative from the beginning of society; and though some political +economists may have believed it to come into operation earlier than it +does, it begins quite early enough to support the conclusions they +founded on it." "It comes into operation at a certain and not very +advanced stage in the progress of agriculture." But this very important +stage in the history of a nation is not defined or clearly illustrated. +We are told that we can see "the law at work underneath the more +superficial agencies on which attention fixes itself"; it "undergoes +temporary suspension," which may last indefinitely; and "there is +another agency, in habitual antagonism" to it, namely, "the progress of +civilization," which may include every kind of human improvement. Mill +apparently is not content with the confusion between "law" and "agency" +or "force," but opposes the one to the other. He is constantly speaking +in terms which imply the conquering of one law by another, a habit from +which his successors have not freed themselves; and the theory of +natural processes which appears to have satisfied him, was that when two +forces come into operation there is a partial or complete suspension of +one by the other. In modern economics "fertility" has no very definite +meaning. It may mean what is ordinarily understood by the word--climate, +rainfall, railway rates or anything else except "indestructible powers +of the soil." To speak of "additional labour and capital" without +reference to the kind and quality of the labour and capital, and the +manner in which they are employed, organized and directed, throws very +little light on agriculture. Every improvement involves, from a +quantitative point of view, more or less of capital or of labour, so +that it is the "antagonizing" influences, which are nearly all +qualitative, which appear to be really important. It is therefore +extraordinarily difficult at present to know what happens, or rather +what would happen if it were not prevented, when a country reaches "the +stage of diminishing returns"; what precisely it is which comes into +operation, for obviously the diminishing returns are the results, not +the cause; or how commodities "obey" a law which is always "suspended." +Possibly the present generation of English industrial history will +furnish many illustrations of the law of diminishing returns. We can +only say that it requires investigation and restatement. + +Closely related to the law of diminishing returns is the Theory of Rent. +No economic doctrine so well illustrates the achievements and the +defects of modern economic analysis. Ricardo's statement of the theory +left upon the world an impression, not wholly just, of singular +clearness. He employed the theory with wonderful success in unravelling +the problems of his time. Its importance has not been seriously, or at +any rate successfully, called in question. Treated at first as a +doctrine peculiarly applicable to land, with a certain controverted +relevance to other natural agents, it has been so extended that there is +scarcely any subject of economic study in which we may not expect to +find adaptations or analogies, so that Ricardo seemed to have discovered +the key of economic knowledge. But it was discovered that there were no +"indestructible powers of the soil"; that the fertility of land in a +country like England is almost entirely the result of improvement at +some time or other; that "advantage of situation" includes very much +more than the words in their literal sense imply; that both "fertility" +and "advantage of situation" include many kinds of differential +advantage; that in some circumstances rent does not enter into the price +of agricultural and other produce, and that in others it does. Moreover, +the study of the theory of rent has had a very great influence on all +branches of economics by destroying the notion that it is possible to +draw sharp lines of distinction, or deal with economic conceptions as +though they were entirely independent categories. That modern economic +analysis is incomparably more accurate than that of earlier times there +can be no question. But the net result of the development of the +doctrine of rent is that all problems in which this factor appears, and +they embrace the whole range of economic theory, must apparently be +treated on their merits. In its modern form the doctrine is far too +general to be serviceable without the closest scrutiny of all the facts +relating to the particular case to which it is applied. To deal +adequately with the numerous extensions or qualifications of these and +other doctrines in the hands of modern economists would involve us in an +attempt to do what we have already said is impossible except on +conditions not at present realized. It is clear that in the interests of +general economic theory we require a vast number of special studies +before an adequate restatement can be undertaken. + + + Relations between general economics and special studies. + +It must be clearly recognized that the functions of economic science in +the present requirements of the world cannot possibly; be discharged by +treatises on economic theory. The relations between general theory and +special studies conducted on the lines we have indicated have completely +changed. General theory never has been, and in the nature of things +never can be, the actual reflex of the life and movement of the economic +world. It never has been, and never can be, more than an indication of +the kind of thing which might be expected in a purely hypothetical +world. When the aim of the man of affairs and the hypothesis of the +economist was unrestricted competition, and measures were being adopted +to realize it, general theory such as the classical economists provided +was perhaps a sufficiently trustworthy guide for practical statesmen and +men of business. If only people can be got to believe in them, a few +abstract principles are quite enough to destroy an institution which it +has taken centuries to create. But a new institution cannot be made on +the same terms. The modern industrial system has brought with it an +immense variety of practical problems which nations must solve on pain +of industrial and commercial ruin. For these problems we want, not a few +old-established general principles which no one seriously calls in +question, but genuine constructive and organizing capacity, aided by +scientific and detailed knowledge of particular institutions, industries +and classes. Just as the historical school grew up along with the +greatest constructive achievement of the 19th century, namely, the +consolidation of Germany, so the application to modern problems of the +methods of that school has been called forth by the constructive needs +of the present generation. We have already shown how these methods, in +their turn, require the aid of general theory, but not of a general +theory which tries to do their work. In fact, every attempt to make it +do so must inevitably fail. How can such a huge mass of general +propositions as are necessarily included in a system of economics ever +be thoroughly tested by an appeal to facts? If they are not so tested, +the general theory will remain a general theory, of no practical use in +itself, until the end of time. It they are to be tested, an indefinitely +large number of special studies must be made, for which the original +materials must be collected and examined. That is, original +investigation of special problems has to be carried out on a more +gigantic scale than any economist of the historical school ever dreamt +of or the world requires, with the certain knowledge that at the end of +it all the general theory will not correspond with the facts of life. +For there is all the difference in the world between using a body of +general theory as an indication of the factors to be considered in the +study of a special problem, and undertaking special studies with a view +to testing the general theory. If the necessary limitations of general +economic theory are recognized, most of the difficulties we have noticed +disappear. Now that the "industrial revolution" has extended practically +all over the world, so that we have several countries carrying on +production by modern methods, it is easily possible to sketch the main +features of industrial and commercial organization at the present time, +to describe the banking and currency systems of the principal nations, +their means of transport and communication, their systems of commercial +law and finance, and their commercial policy. It is true that at present +very little work of this kind has been done in England, but innumerable +books, many of them about England, have been written by thoroughly +competent economists, in French, German and other languages. So that no +great amount of original work is required for a reliable account of +those general features of the modern system which should form the +introduction to economics. The general theory which we require should be +sketched in firm and clear outline, leaving the detailed qualifications +of broad principles to special studies, where they can be dealt with if +it is necessary or desirable, and examined by statistical and other +tests. For such a general theory there is ample material in the economic +literature of all civilized countries. It is of the utmost importance +that the economic terms, which are also, though in many cases with an +entirely different meaning, the terms of business and commerce, should +as far as possible be used in their common and ordinary English sense: +that they should correspond in meaning with the same words when used in +description, in law, accountancy and ordinary business. This is no doubt +a difficult matter. But some change in this direction is necessary both +in the interests of the science itself and of its practical utility. All +the materials for investigation, all the facts and figures from which +illustrations are drawn, all methods of keeping accounts in England, +assume the ordinary English tongue. There are few if any conceptions in +economics which cannot be expressed in it without depleting the ordinary +vocabulary. At present the language of economics is for the ordinary +Englishman like a foreign language of exceptional difficulty, because +he is constantly meeting with words which suggest to his mind a whole +world of associations quite different from those with which economic +theory has clothed them. The refinements of economic analysis, as +distinguished from its broader achievements, should be reserved for +special studies, in which a technical scientific terminology, specially +devised, can be used without danger of misconception. But in a subject +like economics obscurity and an awkward terminology are not marks of +scientific merit. + + + Economic problems in Great Britain. + +Economic studies should be as relevant to existing needs as those of +engineering and other applied sciences. The scientific study of +practical problems and difficulties is (generally speaking, and with +honourable exceptions) far more advanced in almost every civilized +country than it is in England, where the limited scale upon which such +work is carried on, the indifference of statesmen, officials and +business men, and the incapacity of the public to understand the close +relation between scientific study and practical success, contrast very +unfavourably with the state of affairs in Germany or the United States. +The backwardness of economic science has been an index of the danger +threatening the industrial and commercial supremacy of the United +Kingdom. There are very few questions of public or commercial importance +upon which the best and most recent investigations are to be found +amongst English works. This would matter very little, perhaps, if +Englishmen had a firm belief, established by actual experience, in the +soundness of their policy, the present security of their position, and +the sufficiency of their methods to strengthen or maintain it. But this +is very far from being the case. If we take, for example, the +corner-stone of the British commercial system in the 19th century, +namely, the policy of "free trade" (q.v.), the public do not now read +the economic works which supplied the theoretical basis of that policy, +and, indeed, would not be convinced by them. The great men of the +period, Cobden and Bright, are merely historical figures. Long before +his death, Bright's references in public speeches to the achievements of +the Anti-Corn Law League were received with respectful impatience, and +Peel's famous speech on the repeal of the corn laws would not convince +the German Reichstag or a modern House of Commons. The result is that +free trade had become by the end of the 19th century in the main an old +habit, for which the ordinary English manufacturer could give no very +reasonable explanation, whatever may be its influence in commerce and +public affairs. The doctrine of free trade only prevailed in so far as +it could be restated in terms which had a direct relevance to the +existing position of England and existing conditions of international +trade. And it was directly challenged by the representatives of Mr +Chamberlain's school of Imperialist thought (see CHAMBERLAIN, JOSEPH). +It thus became the work of economic science ruthlessly to analyse the +existing situation, explain the issues involved in the commercial policy +of different countries, and point out the alternative methods of dealing +with present difficulties, with their probable results. + + + Commerce and finance. + +The commercial policy of a state is merely the reflex of its system of +public finance (see e.g. ENGLISH FINANCE). The absence of conviction in +regard to British commercial policy naturally had its counterpart in the +attitude of many men to the financial system of the country. The +eulogies showered upon it in the past were no longer considered +adequate. The great increase in recent years in British military and +naval expenditure, made necessary by the exceptional demands of a state +of war and the great development of foreign powers, was partly +responsible for the new difficulties; partly it was due to the great +extension of the functions of the state during the latter part of the +19th century. The former causes may be considered partly permanent, +partly temporary; but those of a permanent character are likely to +increase in force, and those of a temporary character will leave a +deposit in the shape of an addition to the normal expenditure of the +central government. The extension of government functions appeared much +more likely to continue than to be checked. Normal expenditure might +therefore be calculated to rise rather than fall. In spite of the vast +increase in national wealth, it was found a matter of increasing +difficulty to meet a comparatively slight strain without recourse to +measures of a highly controversial character; and the search for new +sources of revenue (as in 1909) at once raised, in an acute form, +questions of national commercial policy and the relations between the +United Kingdom and the colonies. + +The development of the powers of the central government has been less +than that of the functions of local governing authorities. This, again, +is a movement much more likely to extend than to be checked. Local +governing authorities now discharge economic functions of enormous +importance and complexity, involving sums of money larger than sufficed +to run important states a generation ago. The scientific study of the +economics of local administration is, however, in its infancy, and +requires to be taken up in earnest by economists. These questions of +commercial policy and local government are closely bound up with the +scientific study of the transport system. Although the British Empire +contains within itself every known species of railway enterprise, the +study of railways and other means of transport, and their relation to +the business, the commerce and the social life of the country, is +deplorably backward. It is obvious that no inquiry into commercial +policy, or into such social questions as the housing of the poor, can be +effective unless this deficiency is remedied. + +The whole social and political fabric of the British Empire depends upon +the efficiency of its industrial system. On this subject many monographs +and larger works have been published in recent years, but dealing rather +with such questions as trade unionism, co-operation and factory +legislation, than the structure and organization of particular +industries, or the causes and the results of the formation of the great +combinations, peculiarly characteristic of the United States, but not +wanting in England, which are amongst the most striking economic +phenomena of modern times. + +These are some of the questions which must absorb the energies of the +rising generation of economists. The claim of economics for recognition +as a science and as a subject of study must be based on its relevance to +the actual life of the economic world, on its ability to unravel the +practical difficulties of each generation, and so contribute to the +progress of nations. + + LITERATURE.--See also FREE TRADE; PROTECTION; TARIFF; COMMERCIAL + TREATIES; TRUSTS; MONEY; FINANCE; &c. The bibliography of economics as + a whole would include a history of all the writers on the subject, and + is beyond our scope here; see the numerous articles on economic + subjects throughout this work. The article by Dr J.K. Ingram in the + ninth edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ is still a valuable + historical account. It is only possible to mention here a few of the + more recent text-books. The most important general work published in + English is Marshall's _Principles of Economics_, vol. i. (1st edition, + 1890; 4th edition, 1898). J. Shield Nicholson's _Principles of + Political Economy_ (3 vols.) not only gives a survey of economic + principles since Mill's time, but contains much suggestive and + original work. The writer of this article is much indebted to the + works of Schmoller, particularly his _Grundris der allgemeinen + Volkswirtschaftslehre_ (1900), and Adolph Wagner, particularly his + _Grundlegung der politischen Okonomie_. On the history of economic + theory, Cannan's _History of the Theories of Production and + Distribution_ (1776-1848) is an admirable criticism, from a purely + objective standpoint, of the works of the English classical writers. + The most important English works published in recent years on general + English economic history are W. Cunningham's _Growth of Industry and + Commerce_, and W.J. Ashley's _Economic History_, while Vinogradoff's + _Villenage in England_ and _The Growth of the Manor_, as well as + Maitland's _Domesday Studies_, are of great importance to the student + of early economic institutions. D'Avenel's _Histoire economique de la + propriete, &c._ (_1200-1800_), is a monumental work on the history of + prices in France. Other books dealing with special subjects are likely + to take a very high place in economic literature. We may mention + particularly Charles Booth's _Life and Labour of the People in + London_, B.S. Rowntree's _Poverty_, Sidney and Beatrice Webb's + _History of Trade Unionism_ and _Industrial Democracy_, and Dr Arthur + Shadwell's _Industrial Efficiency_ (1906). These books are generally + regarded as typical of the best English work of recent years in + economic investigation. We may also mention Schloss's _Methods of + Industrial Remuneration_, a most important contribution to the study + of the wages question; C.F. Bastable's works on _International Trade_ + and _Public Finance_; George Clare on the _Money Market_ and the + _Foreign Exchanges_; and A.T. Hadley's _Economics: An Account of the + Relations between Private Property and Public Welfare_ (1896). Studies + of particular questions, both concrete and theoretical, in foreign + languages are too numerous to specify, and much of the best modern + work is to be found in economic periodicals. (W. A. S. H.) + + + + +ECONOMY, a township and a village of Beaver county, Pennsylvania, +U.S.A., on the E. bank of the Ohio river, 17 m. N.W. of Pittsburg. Pop. +of township (1900) 1062; (1910) 860. The village is served by the +Pennsylvania system. It was owned until 1904, when it was sold to a land +company, by the Harmony Society (see COMMUNISM), commonly called the +Economites, Harmonists or Rappists. The founder, George Rapp, after +living with his would-be primitive Christian followers at Harmony, +Butler county, Pennsylvania, in 1803-1814, and in 1815-1824 in New +Harmony (q.v.), Indiana, which he then sold to Robert Owen, settled here +in 1824 and rapidly built up a village, in which each family received a +house and garden. The culture of silk, flax, grapes (for wine-making) +and fruits and cereals in general, and the manufacture of flour and of +woollen, flannel and cotton fabrics, were carried on under a rule +requiring every adult to labour 12 or 14 hours each day in field or +mill. Celibacy had been adopted in 1807 as the rule of the community. +New members were received after a half-year's probation, and members who +left received their original investment. Three hundred thus separated +from Rapp in 1833, with $105,000 as their share of the communal +property, to build the millennial kingdom of New Jerusalem at +Phillipsburg (now Monaca), Beaver county, Pennsylvania, under the lead +of Bernhard Muller, who had come to Economy in 1831 as a fellow +religionist, and was called Count Maximilian de Leon (or Proli); in 1833 +Leon went, with his followers, to Louisiana, and established a religious +colony 6 m. from Natchitoches. After his death his wife until 1871 was +head of a similar community at Germantown in Webster parish. The +Harmonists at Economy flourished under the rule of a tradesman, R.L. +Baker, or Romelius Langenbacher, after the death of Rapp in 1847, and +during the Civil War had about $500,000 buried away. Their numbers were +for a time kept up by the addition of fresh converts, but the employes +who were not Harmonists soon greatly outnumbered the members of the +community, the basis of which was always religious. Baker died in 1868, +and his successor, John Henrici, in 1892, when John S. Duss became first +trustee. In 1907 there were only two or three members in the society. In +1851 the township of Harmony was set apart from Economy. + + See Morris Hillquit, _History of Socialism in the United States_ (New + York, 1903); William A. Hinds, _American Communities_ (revised + edition, Chicago, 1902); John L. Bole, _The Harmony Society_ + (Philadelphia, 1904); Charles Nordhoff, _The Communistic Societies of + the United States_ (New York, 1875); and among several excellent + monographs in German, Karl Knortz, _Die christlichkommunistische + Kolonie der Rappisten_ (Leipzig, 1892), and J. Hanno Deiler, _Eine + vergessene deutsche Colonie: eine Stimme zur Verteidigung des Grafen + de Leon_ (New Orleans, 1900). + + + + +ECONOMY, a word ranging in application from the careful thrift of an +individual to the systematic arrangement of an organization. It is +derived from the Gr. [Greek: oikonomia], the management ([Greek: +nemein], to control) of an [Greek: oikos] or house, extended in meaning +to the administration of a state. Of its original sense, the art or +science of managing a household, the expression "domestic economy" +survives, but the principal use in this sense is confined to the thrifty +management of the financial resources of a household or of an +individual. It is thus used as equivalent to "saving," not only of +money, but of time, labour or effort, and, generally, of the least +expenditure of means to attain a required end. It is on the principle of +"economy" that many phonetic changes occur in the development of +languages, and, in aesthetics, the name has been applied to a principle +or law that effects are pleasant in proportion to the smallness of the +effort made, and of the means taken to produce the result. The phrase +"economy of truth" is due to an invidious application of the use, in +patristic theology, of the word [Greek: oikonomia] for the careful +presentation of such doctrine as would be applicable to the hearer (see +J.H. Newman, _History of the Arians of the 4th Century_). "Economy" is +also used in theology in such expressions as "Mosaic" or "Christian +economy" as a synonym of "dispensation," for the administration of the +world by God at particular times or for particular races. From the +meaning of organization or administration of a house or state the word +is applied more widely to the ordered arrangement of any organized body, +and is equivalent almost to "system"; thus the "economy" of nature or of +animal or plant life may be spoken of. The most common use, however, of +the word is that of "political economy," the science dealing with the +production, distribution and consumption of wealth (see ECONOMICS). + + + + +ECSTASY (Gr. [Greek: ekstasis], from [Greek: existemi], put out of its +place, alter), a term applied to a morbid mental condition, in which the +mind is entirely absorbed in the contemplation of one dominant idea or +object, and loses for the time its normal self-control. With this there +is commonly associated the prevalence of some strong emotion, which +manifests itself in various ways, and with varying degrees of intensity. +This state resembles in many points that of catalepsy (q.v.), but +differs from it sufficiently to constitute it a separate affection. The +patient in ecstasy may lie in a fixed position like the cataleptic, +apparently quite unconscious, yet, on awaking, there is a distinct +recollection of visions perceived during this period. More frequently +there is violent emotional excitement which may find expression in +impassioned utterances, and in extravagant bodily movements and +gesticulations. Ecstasy usually presents itself as a kind of temporary +religious insanity, and has frequently appeared as an epidemic. It is +well illustrated in the celebrated examples of the dancing epidemics of +Germany and Italy in the middle ages, and the _Convulsionnaires_ of St +Medard at the grave of the Abbe Paris in the early part of the 18th +century, and in more recent times has been witnessed during periods of +religious revivalism. (See also INSANITY and NEUROPATHOLOGY.) + + + + +ECTOSPORA, a homogeneous and natural division of Protozoan parasites +included under the Sporozoa; they comprise the three orders, Gregarines, +Coccidia and Haemosporidia. The defining character of the Ectospora is +that the spore-mother-cells (sporoblasts) are formed at the periphery of +the parent-individual (sporont); we may, however, go further, and say +that the formation of all the different reproductive elements is +uniformly peripheral or exogenous. Two other very general features are +(a) that the individual trophozoite is uninuclear, and (b) that growth +and trophic activity are finished before the multiplicative or +reproductive phase sets in. + +There is now little doubt that the Ectospora possess a flagellate +ancestry. The principal facts in favour of this view are as follows: the +actual ontogenetic connexion known to exist between certain +Haemoflagellates and certain Haemosporidia (see TRYPANOSOMES); the +possession by many Coccidia of biflagellar microgametes (male elements), +whose general structure greatly resembles that of a Heteromastigine +Flagellate; the possession by various parasitic Flagellates (e.g. +_Herpetomonas_) of an attached, resting phase, when the parasites become +gregariniform, which strongly suggests the attached phase of many young, +growing Gregarines; the typical gregarinoid and euglenoid movements of +Gregarines and of the germs or other stages of Coccidia and +Haemosporidia, which are quite comparable with the contractile and +metabolic movements of Flagellates; and, lastly, the exogenous type of +reproduction, which is easily derivable from the multiple division of +certain Haemoflagellates, and this, in turn, from the typical binary +longitudinal fission of a Flagellate. + + + + +ECUADOR + + Boundaries. + +(officially _La Republica del Ecuador_), a republic of South America, +bounded N. and N.E. by Colombia, S.E. and S. by Peru, and W. by the +Pacific Ocean. Its boundary lines with Colombia and Peru were in 1909 +still unsettled, large areas of territory being claimed by all three +republics. Under an agreement of the 15th of December 1894, the disputes +were to be decided by the Spanish sovereign as arbitrator, but nothing +was accomplished. On the 5th of November 1904, Colombia and Ecuador +agreed to submit their dispute to the German emperor, and a convention +of the 12th of September 1905 between Colombia and Peru established a +_modus vivendi_ for the settlement of their conflicting claims, in which +Ecuador is likewise interested. The maps of Ecuador, which are very +defective, usually describe its territory as extending eastward to the +Brazilian frontier, but as Peru is in actual occupation of the region +east of Huiririma-chico, on the Napo river, 3-1/2 degrees west of that +frontier, those maps cannot be considered correct. The Trans-Andine +territory occupied by Ecuador is a wedge-shaped area between the Coca +and Napo, the provisional boundary line with Colombia, and a line +running nearly west-south-west from Huiririma-chico (about lat. 2 deg. +50' S., long. 73 deg. 20' W.) to a point on the Santiago river in about +lat. 4 deg. 12' S., long. 78 deg. W., which forms the provisional +boundary with Peru. The eastern part of this territory is also claimed +by Peru, which would have the effect, if allowed, of restricting Ecuador +to a comparatively small area covered by the Andes and western +Cordillera and the narrow plain on the Pacific coast. From the Santiago +river, a western affluent of the Maranon, the boundary line runs +south-west and west across the Andes to the head waters of the Macara, +down that stream to the Chira, or Achira, whose channel marks the +frontier down to about 80 deg. 17' W., where a small stream (the Rio +Alamo) enters from the north. The line then runs almost due north to the +south shore of the Gulf of Guayaquil, following the western water +parting of the lower Tumbez valley. A small district in the valley of +the Chira is claimed by Peru. The northern boundary line is described +elsewhere (see COLOMBIA). A small section of this line terminating on +the Pacific coast is also in dispute, Ecuador claiming the main channel +of the Mira as the dividing line, and Colombia claiming a small district +south of that channel, the line running due west from the mouth of the +most southern outlet of the Mira opening into Panguapi Bay, to a point +of intersection with that river. + +[Illustration: Map of Ecuador.] + + _Physical Geography._--The surface of Ecuador may be divided into + three distinct regions: the Cis-Andine lying between the Western + Cordillera and the coast; the Inter-Andine, which includes the two + great mountain chains crossing the republic with the elevated plateau + lying between; and the Trans-Andine, lying east of the Andes in the + great Amazon valley. The first part consists of an alluvial, low-lying + plain formed in great part by the detritus brought down by the + mountain streams. It is irregular in form and is broken by isolated + elevations and spurs from the Cordillera. Large areas are still + subject to annual inundations in the rainy season, and the lower river + courses are bordered with swamps. This is the most fertile and + productive part of Ecuador, especially on the higher lands near the + Cordillera. The Trans-Andine region is similar to the neighbouring + territories of the upper Amazon basin occupied by Colombia, Brazil and + Peru--a great forest-covered plain descending gently toward the east, + broken on its western margin by short spurs from the Andes enclosing + highly fertile valleys, and by low, isolated ranges between the larger + river courses, and traversed by large rivers flowing into the Napo and + Maranon. This region has been only partially explored, and but little + is known of the large areas lying between the navigable rivers. + + + Mountains. + + The Inter-Andine or plateau region lies in and between the two great + mountain chains which cross the greater part of the republic between + and almost parallel with the 78th and 79th meridians. The eastern + chain is known as the Andes of Ecuador, or the Cordillera Oriental, + and the western as the Cordillera Occidental (Western Cordillera). + Starting from the confused grouping on the southern frontier of the + two great chains and some transverse ranges, they run nearly north by + east to the Colombian frontier where another "knot" or junction + occurs. The summits of the western range form a line of noteworthy + regularity, but those of the eastern form a broken irregular line of + varying distances from the first. The elevated plateau between the two + great chains, which is about 300 m. long and 20 to 30 m. wide, is + divided into three great shallow basins or plains by the transverse + ridges or _paramos_ of Tiupullo and Azuay. These are known as the + Quito, Ambato and Cuenca basins. South of the latter is the irregular + and deeply broken Loja basin, which can hardly be considered a part of + the great Ecuador plateau. The three great basins, which are broken + and subdivided by mountainous spurs and ridges, descend gradually + toward the south, the Quito plain having an average elevation of 9500 + ft. above the sea, Ambato 8500, and Cuenca 7800. They are also + characterized by the increasing aridity of the plateau from north to + south, the Quito plain being fertile and well covered with vegetation, + and the Ambato and Cuenca plains being barren and desolate except in + some favoured localities. The volcanic character of the region is + likewise responsible for large areas of barren surfaces. Rising from + this elevated plateau, along its eastern and western margins, are the + Cordilleras with their principal summits culminating far above the + line of perpetual snow, which in this region is about 15,750 ft. above + the sea. These summits are remarkable, not only for their great + height, but also for their apparent symmetrical arrangement in + parallel lines, sometimes in pairs facing each other across this + cyclopean passage. Nowhere in the world can there be found another + such assemblage of snow-clad peaks, several of which are active + volcanoes. There are 22 of them grouped around these central plains + almost within sight of each other. The western chain has the + distinction of having the highest summit, the eastern the greatest + number of high summits and the highest average elevation. From the + time of Humboldt's visit to this remarkable region down to the present + time there have been many diverse calculations of the height of these + peaks, but with a considerable variation. It is estimated that there + was a considerable decrease in the elevation of this part of the Andes + during the past century, Quito having sunk 26 ft. in 122 years, + Pichincha 218 ft. in the same time, and the farm of Antisana, where + Humboldt resided for a time, 165 ft. in 64 years. At the same time + Cotopaxi and Sangay, the two active volcanoes, have actually increased + in elevation since the measurement of La Condamine in 1742. These + changes in elevation, if correct, are due to seismic disturbances, a + cause that may be partially responsible for the varying computations + of the heights of these well-known peaks. Among modern investigators + are W. Reiss and A. Stubel (1871-1873), and Edward Whymper (1880), + whose measurements of the principal summits were:-- + + _Eastern Cordillera._ _Western Cordillera._ + +--------------------------+--------+----------------------+--------+ + | | Ft. | | Ft. | + +--------------------------+--------+----------------------+--------+ + | Cayambe (W.) | 19,186 | Cotocachi (W.) | 16,301 | + | Sara-Urcu " | 15,502 | Mojanda (R. & S.)| 14,088 | + | Antisana " | 19,335 | Pichincha (W.) | 15,918 | + | Sincholagua (R. & S.)| 16,365 | Atacatzo (R. & S.)| 14,892 | + | Ruminagui " | 15,607 | El Corazon | | + | Cotopaxi (W.) | 19,613 | (Chamalari) (W.) | 15,871 | + | Tunguragua (R. & S.)| 16,690 | Iliniza (R. & S.)| 17,405 | + | Altar (Capac-Urcu) " | 17,730 | Carahuairazo (W.) | 16,515 | + | Sangay " | 17,464 | Chimborazo " | 20,498 | + +--------------------------+--------+----------------------+--------+ + + The Imbabura volcano, celebrated for its destructive eruptions of mud + and water, stands midway between the two ranges at the northern end of + the plateau, and belongs to the transverse ridge of knot (_nudo_) + which unites them. It is the most northern of the higher peaks of + Ecuador, with the exception of Cotocachi, and possibly of Chiles on + the Colombian frontier, and reaches the elevation of 15,033 ft. Ibarra + on the northern flanks of the volcano has suffered severely from its + eruptions. The name is derived from _imba_, fish, and _bura_, mother, + and is said to have originated from the quantities of a fish called + "prenadilla" (_Pimelodus cyclopum_) discharged from its crater during + one of its eruptions--a phenomenon which, after a searching + investigation, was discredited by Wagner. Cayambe, or Cayembi, the + second highest peak of the Ecuadorean Andes, has the noteworthy + distinction of standing very nearly on the equator. Its base covers a + large area, and its square top, rising far above the snow-line, is one + of the sights of Quito. Antisana is crowned with a double dome, and is + described as an extinct volcano, though Humboldt saw smoke issuing + from it in 1802. On its western side is the famous _hacienda_ (farm) + of Antisana, 13,306 ft. above the sea, where Humboldt resided for + several months in 1802. Sara-Urcu stands south-east of Antisana in a + densely forested region, drenched with rain and only slightly + explored. Sincholagua and Ruminagui are the next two peaks, going + southward, and then the unrivalled cone of Cotopaxi (q.v.)--the + highest active volcano in the world--from whose summit smoke curls + upward unceasingly. + + Llanganati or Cerro Hermoso is chiefly known through the tradition + that the treasures of the Incas were buried in a lake on its slopes. + It consists of a group of summits, the highest being credited with + 17,843 ft. Tunguragua, or Tungurahua, has a cone-shaped summit like + that of Cotopaxi, with a slope of 38 deg. It rises from a plain somewhat + lower than the neighbouring central plateau and stands free from the + surrounding elevations, except on the south, which give it an + exceptionally imposing appearance. Among its characteristic features + is a cataract fed by melting snows, which descends 1500 ft. in three + leaps, and an enormous basaltic lava-stream, which crosses the face of + the mountain in a north-easterly direction. Its most notable eruption + was in 1777. It has been sometimes classed among the extinct + volcanoes, but smoke has been seen issuing from it at different dates, + and a violent eruption occurred on January 12, 1886. The fertile + cultivated valley of Banos, with its thermal springs, lies at the base + of Tunguragua, which F. Hassaurek describes as "the most beautiful of + all the snow peaks in the country." The next in line is El Altar, + which the natives call Capac-Urcu ("king mountain"), whose broken cone + and impressive outlines make it one of the most attractive mountains + of Ecuador. Its summit comprises a group of eight snow-clad peaks, and + its crater is surrounded by a steep and jagged wall of rocks. There is + a tradition that this mountain was once higher than Chimborazo, but a + series of eruptions caused the cone to fall in and reduced its summit + to its present altitude and broken appearance. Altar has shown no + signs of activity since the discovery of America. Sangay, or Sangai, + the next and last large volcano to the south, is in a state of + frequent eruption, however, and is known as one of the most restless + volcanoes of the world. Since the Spanish conquest it has been in a + state of uninterrupted activity, but no damage has been done, because + there are no civilized settlements in its immediate vicinity. Though + of great interest to scientific investigators because of this + unceasing activity, and of its peculiar position in the Andean system, + and because of the difficult and dangerous country by which it is + surrounded, Sangay has been but rarely visited by European travellers. + Its eruptions are not on a grand scale, but small outbursts of lava + and explosions of steam occur at frequent intervals, and at longer + intervals more violent explosions in which the molten rock is thrown + 2000 ft. above its summit, and ashes are carried away as far as the + streets of Guayaquil. + + Turning to the Cordillera Occidental and taking the principal peaks in + order from south to north, the first to claim attention is Chimborazo + (from _Chimpu-raza_, "mountain of snow"), the highest summit of + Ecuador, and once believed to be the culminating point of the Andes. + Humboldt, who unsuccessfully attempted its ascent in 1802, gives its + elevation as 21,425 ft., Reiss and Stubel as 20,703, and Whymper as + 20,498. It stands 76 m. north-east of Guayaquil, and, according to + Spruce, rises majestically from the valley of the Guayas, on the west, + without a "positive break from the summit down to the plain." This, + however, is erroneous, for Whymper located a detached range running + parallel with the Cordillera on the west, for a distance of 65 m. with + the Chimbo valley between them. The magnificence of its mass is + imposing from almost any point of view, but it can be most fully + appreciated from its western or Pacific side, where its base is + covered with forest up to the snow-line, above which its pure white + cone rises another 5000 ft. An unobstructed view of the great mountain + is rarely obtained, however, because of the mists and clouds which + cover its cone. Its summits were reached for the first time in 1880 by + Edward Whymper, all previous attempts having failed. It is considered + to be an extinct volcano because it makes the plumb-line deviate only + 7" to 8", from which it is deduced that the mountain is hollow. + Moreover, the calcined matter resembling white sand which covers its + sides below the snow-line, extensive beds of lava, and the issue of + streams of hot water from its northern side, seem to confirm the + deduction that Chimborazo is an extinct volcano. Immediately north of + Chimborazo, and separated from it by only a narrow valley, are the + lower triple summits of Carahuairazo, or Carguairazo (which the + natives call _Chimborazo-embra_, "Chimborazo's wife"), whose hollow + cone collapsed in 1698 during a great earthquake, and left the jagged + rim which adds so much to its present picturesque appearance. Mr + Whymper's measurement is for the middle peak. Quirotoa, still farther + north, is supposed to have suffered a similar catastrophe. Its hollow + summit, 13,510 ft. above sea-level, now contains a large lake. + Iliniza, which stands west by north of Cotopaxi, has two pyramidal + peaks, and is one of the most interesting mountains of the Ecuadorean + group. It stands at the western end of the Tiupullo ridge, and + overlooks the Quito basin to the north-east. The French academician + Bouger, who was chief of the scientific commission sent to Ecuador in + 1736 to measure a degree of the meridian on the equator, made a + trigonometrical measurement of Iliniza, and Wagner ascended to within + 800 ft. of its summit in 1859. The geological structure of the + mountain furnishes no evidence of volcanic activity. Chamalari, which + the Spaniards called El Corazon from its heart-shaped appearance, is + similarly destitute of a crater. It overlooks the Quito basin and has + been ascended many times. Among the earlier explorers to reach its + summit were Bouger and La Condamine, Humboldt and Bonpland, and Jose + Caldas, the Granadian naturalist. Atacatzo is an extinct volcano, with + nothing noteworthy in its appearance and history. Pichincha, its + famous neighbour, is apparently of later origin, according to Wagner, + and of slightly lower elevation. Perhaps no Ecuadorean volcano is + better known than Pichincha, the "boiling mountain," because of its + destructive eruptions and its proximity to the city of Quito. Its + summit comprises three groups of rocky peaks, of which the most + westerly, Rucu-Pichincha (Old Pichincha), contains the crater, a + funnel-shaped basin 2460 ft. deep and about 1500 ft. wide at the + bottom, whose walls in places rise perpendicularly and in others at an + angle of 20 deg. The exterior of the cone has an angle of 30 deg. + Bouger and La Condamine were the first to reach its brink in 1742, + after which Humboldt made the ascent in 1802, Boussingault and Hall in + 1831, Garcia Moreno and Sebastian Wisse in 1844 and 1845 (descending + into the crater for the first time), Garcia Moreno and Jameson in + 1857, Farrand and Hassaurek in 1862, Orton in 1867, and Whymper in + 1880. Farrand spent more than a week in the crater trying to get some + good photographic views, and Orton has given a graphic description of + his experiences in the same place. He found that the real cone of + eruption was an irregular heap 250 ft. in height and 800 ft. in + diameter, containing about 70 vents. The temperature of the vapour + within the fumarole was 184 deg., and water boiled at 189 deg. There + have been five eruptions of Pichincha since the Spanish conquest--in + 1539, 1566, 1575, 1587 and 1660. The second covered Quito 3 ft. deep + with ashes and stones, but the last three were considered as the most + destructive to that city. The last happily broke down the western side + of the crater, which, it is believed, will ensure the city against + harm in any subsequent eruption. Since the earthquake of August 1867 + Pichincha has sent forth dense masses of black smoke and great + quantities of fine sand. Cotocachi is a double-peaked mountain, rising + from an extremely rough country. It was ascended by Whymper in 1880. + All the higher summits of Ecuador have true glaciers, the largest + being found on Antisana, Cayambe and Chimborazo. Whymper located and + named no less than eleven on Chimborazo, and counted twelve on + Cayambe. + + + Rivers. + + There are two distinct hydrographic systems in Ecuador--the streams + that flow south-eastward to the Maranon, or Amazon, and those which + flow westward to the Pacific. The southern part of the great central + plateau is arid and has a very light rainfall; it has no streams, + therefore, except from melting snows, and the higher elevations which + receive the impact of the easterly winds. Farther north the rainfall + becomes heavier, the plateau is covered with vegetation, and a + considerable number of small rivers flow westward through the + Cordillera to the Pacific. The Eastern Cordillera, or Andes, forms the + water-parting between the two systems. The largest of the + eastward-flowing rivers is the Napo, which rises in the eastern + defiles of Cotopaxi and Sincholagua--the principal source being the + Rio del Valle, which traverses the Valle Vicioso. It at first flows + south by east, and at the village of Napo is 1450 ft. above sea-level, + at the mouth of the Coca 858 ft., at the mouth of the Aguarico 586 + ft., 500 at the mouth of the Curaray, and 385 at its junction with the + Maranon. Orton estimates its current at Napo in the month of November + as 6 m. an hour; in the next 80 m. the river falls 350 ft. and + produces a fine series of rapids; and from Santa Rosa downwards the + rate is not less than 4 m. an hour. Its breadth at Napo is only 120 + ft., but at Coca it has widened to 1500 ft., and at its mouth to + nearly 1 m. Like most of the large Amazon tributaries, its discharge + into the Maranon is through several distinct channels. The Napo is + navigable for steam-boats for some distance above the mouth of the + Coca, and thence for canoes as far as the Cando cataract, 3332 ft. + above the sea. Its total length is 920 m. The principal tributaries of + the Napo are the Coca and Aguarico from the north, and the Curaray + from the south. The Coca rises on the eastern slopes of the Andes near + Cayambe and the Guamani range, and flows eastward near the equator to + San Rafael (about 76 deg. 30' W. long.), where it turns sharply + southward to a junction with the Napo in about lat. 1 deg. S., long. + 76 deg. W. The Coca forms the provisional boundary line between + Ecuador and Colombia from its source to the Napo. The Aguarico also + rises on the eastern slopes of the Andes north of Cayambe and flows + south-eastward to a junction with the Napo in about long. 75 deg. W., + its length being roughly estimated at 420 m. Little is known of its + course, or of the country through which it flows, which is + provisionally occupied by Colombia. The Curaray has its sources in the + defiles of the Cerros de Llanganati, and flows south-eastward to the + Napo, its length being estimated at 490 m. Its lower course is + sluggish, where its waters are made unpalatable by a reddish slime. + The Napo and its tributaries are celebrated in the early history of + South America as the route by which Gonzalo Pizarro and Orellana first + reached the Amazon, and it was afterwards the principal route by which + the early expeditions across the continent at this point connected the + Andean Plateau with the Amazon. The other rivers which flow through + the Oriente territory of Ecuador into the Maranon are the Tigre, + Pastaza, Morona and Santiago. The Tigre, of which little was known + until a recent date, is formed by the confluence of the Cunambo and + Huiviyacu, whose sources are on the eastern slopes of the Andes near + those of the Curaray. Its length below this confluence is 416 m., into + which are received 109 tributaries, the largest of which are the + Pucacuro and Corrientes. The Tigre is navigable at all stages up to + the Cunambo confluence, and promises to afford one of the most + valuable river routes in Ecuador. It enters the Maranon very near the + 74th meridian. The Pastaza, or Pastassa, unlike the rivers already + described, has its source on the central plateau west of the principal + chain of the Andes, within the shadow of Cotopaxi, and breaks through + the Cordillera to the north of Tunguragua. After flowing southward + along the base of the high Andes for a short distance and receiving a + number of torrents from the snowclad heights, it turns south-eastward + across the plain and enters the Maranon about 70 m. above the mouth of + the Huallaga. The stream is known as the Patate down to its junction + with the Chambo, near Banos, and is not called Pastaza until the + Agoyan falls are passed. It was navigated by Don Pedro Maldonado as + early as 1741, and is navigable for steamboats of 2 to 4 ft. draft up + to the mouth of the Huasaga (about 124 m.) in times of high water, and + for canoes nearly 200 m. farther. The Pastaza, however, is subject to + irresistible floods caused by the sudden rising of the mountain + torrents on its upper course, especially the Toro, which sweep down + with such fury that navigation on the river is practically impossible. + The shallowness of the lower stream, where the current is sluggish, is + probably due to the great quantities of silt brought down by these + floods. Many of the rivers of eastern Ecuador are subject to similar + floods from the Andean slopes, which have cut away broad, deep + channels, through the adjacent plains, leaving long, narrow ridges + between their courses which the natives call _cuchillas_. The Morona + is formed by the confluence of the Manhuasisa and Cangaima about 310 + m. above its mouth, and is freely navigable for small steamboats to + that point. The two confluents just mentioned have their sources in + the Andes, and flow for some distance across the plain before uniting + to form the Morona. Both are navigable for considerable distances. The + Morona follows a very tortuous course before entering the Maranon, at + long. 70 deg. W., and receives a large number of affluents, one of + which serves as the outlet for Lake Rimachuma, in Peruvian territory. + Very little is definitely known of the affluents of the Morona, + Pastaza and Tigre, as the territory through which they run has been + but slightly explored. The Santiago, which enters the Maranon near the + Pongo de Manseriche, is formed by the confluence of the Paute, which + rises in the province of Azuay, and the Zamora, which has its source + among the mountains of Loja. According to Alexander Garland (_Peru in + 1906_), the rivers of eastern Ecuador are navigable at low water for + steamers of 2 to 4 ft. draft for an aggregate distance of 1503 m., as + follows:-- + + Miles. + Napo, to the mouth of the Aguarico 559 + Curaray, up to Canonaco 286 + Tigre, up to Cunambo-Huiviyacu confluence 416 + Pastaza 31 + Morona, up to the Rarayacu 211 + + These same rivers are navigable at high water for steamers of 19-1/2 + ft. draft for an aggregate distance of 1330 m., including 68 m. of the + Aguarico, and for steamers of 2 to 4 ft. draft for an additional 733 + m. The last aggregate includes an extension of 93 m. on the Pastaza, + 99 on the Morona, 186 on the Napo, and the balance on the Manhuasisa, + Cangaima, Pucacuro, Corrientes, Cunambo and Huiviyacu. + + On the western versant of the Andes of Ecuador there are three river + systems of considerable size--the Mira, the Esmeraldas and the Guayas. + The sources of the first--the Rioblanco, Pisco and Puntal--are to be + found on the northern slopes of the transverse ridge which culminates + in the Imbabura volcano. Its course is north and north-west to the + Colombian frontier, thence westward and north-west to the Pacific, + breaking through the Western Cordillera on its way. It forms the + boundary line for some distance between Ecuador and Colombia, but near + its mouth where the river turns northward Colombia has taken + possession of the left bank and all the territory covered by its large + delta. Its principal tributaries on the left are the San Pedro, + Paramba, Cachiyacu, Chachavi and Canumbi, and on the right the San + Juan, Caiquer and Nulpe. The delta channels of the Mira are navigable, + being tributary to the Colombian port of Tumaco. The Esmeraldas drains + all that part of the central plateau lying between the transverse + ridge of Tiupullo on the south, and the Imbabura ridge on the north, + together with the western slopes of the Cordillera between Iliniza and + Cotocachi, and a considerable part of the lower plain. It is formed by + the confluence of the Quininde and Toachi with the Guaillabamba + between 40 and 50 m. above its mouth, and discharges into the Pacific + in lat. 1 deg. N., long. 79 deg. 40' W., through a narrow and + precipitous gorge. The volume and current of the river is sufficient + to freshen the sea 2 m. from the coast. The Guaillabamba is the larger + and more important tributary, and should be considered the main + stream. It rises in the Chillo valley in the vicinity of Cayambe, and + flows across the northern end of the central plateau, breaking through + the Western Cordillera between Cotocachi and Pichincha. One of its + plateau tributaries, Rio Pedregal, rises on the slopes of Cotopaxi and + is celebrated for its three beautiful cascades, the highest of which + is about 220 ft. The Toachi and Quininde have their sources on the + western slopes of the Cordillera. The Guayas or Guayaquil river is in + part an estuary extending northward from the Gulf of Guayaquil, + bordered by mangrove swamps and mud banks formed by the silt brought + down from the neighbouring mountains. All the bordering country on + both sides is of the same description, and for a long distance inland + extensive areas of swampy country are submerged during the rainy + season. Above the mouth of the Daule the river is known as the + Bodegas, which in turn is formed by the confluence of the Babahoyo and + the Vinces. The Guayas also receives a large tributary from the east + called the Yaguachi. All these streams are navigable on their lower + courses, regular steamboat communication being maintained on the + Guayas and Bodegas to a river port of the latter name, 80 m. above + Guayaquil, and for 40 m. on the Daule. The navigable channels of all + the rivers are computed at 200 m. The drainage basin of the Guayas, + according to Theodor Wolf, covers an area of 14,000 sq. m., and + includes the greater part of the lower plain and the western slopes of + the Cordillera Occidental as far north as Iliniza. The Babahoyo, which + is the main stream, has its sources on the slopes of Chimborazo, the + Daule on the Sandomo ridge in the latitude of Pichincha, the Yaguachi + on the south-eastern slopes of Chimborazo, whence it flows southward + for a considerable distance before breaking through the Cordillera to + the western plain. The Guayas is one of the most interesting and + varied of the South American river systems, and is of great economic + importance to Ecuador. In addition to these three river systems, there + are a large number of short streams on the coast flowing into the + Pacific and Gulf of Guayaquil, only two of which have any special + importance in the present undeveloped state of the country. These are + the Santiago, which drains several fertile valleys in northern + Esmeraldas and western Carchi, and whose outlet is connected with some + navigable tide-water channels, including the Pailon basin and the + Caraquez, or Caracas, on which is located the village of Bahia de + Caraquez (lat. 0 deg. 34' S.), the nearest port to the city of Quito. + + + Lakes. + + There are a considerable number of small lakes in Ecuador, but no + large ones. These are of two classes--those of the bowl-like valleys + and extinct craters of the mountainous region, and the reservoir lakes + of the lowland plains caused by the annual overflow of the rivers. It + is impossible to say how many of the latter there may be, for much of + the territory where they are found is unexplored. They are usually + shallow and malarial. Among the upland lakes, there are some of + special interest because of their position and historical association. + The Yaguar-cocha ("lake of blood"), in the province of Imbabura, near + Ibarra, which is only 1-1/2 m. in circumference, is celebrated for the + tradition that Huayna-Capac, one of the great conquerors of the Inca + dynasty, defeated an army of rebellious Carranquis on its shores, and + threw so many of their bleeding corpses into it as to turn its waters + to the colour of blood. On the south-east skirt of Cotocachi, 10,200 + ft. above the sea, is the beautiful little Cuy-cocha, which + originated, it is believed, through the falling in of the mountain's + sides. There are two others of apparently the same origin on the + north-west slopes of the Mojanda volcano, but they are less attractive + because of their gloomy surroundings. In the deep valley between the + mountains of Imbabura and Mojanda is the lake of San Pablo, 8848 ft. + above the sea. It is one of the largest of its class, being about 5 m. + in circumference, and is situated in an exceptionally fertile region. + It drains through the Peguchi into the Rio Blanco, a tributary of the + Mira. Other well-known lakes of the plateau region are Quirotoa, about + 4600 ft. in diameter; Colta, east of Riobamba, and Colay, south of the + same place. Among the many thermal springs throughout the Andean + districts, the best known are at Belermos and San Pedro del Tingo, + north-east of Quito; at Cachillacta, in the district of Nanegal; at + Timbugpoyo, near Latacunga; at Banos (5906 ft. elevation), near the + foot of Tunguragua; and on the slopes of Ruminagui and Chimborazo. + + + Coast. + + The coast of Ecuador extends from about lat. 1 deg. 20' N. to the + vicinity of the Boca Jambeli on the southern shore of the Gulf of + Guayaquil, in lat. 3 deg. 14' S., and has an outward curve. Its more + prominent headlands are Punta Galera, Cabo Pasado, Cabo de San Lorenzo + and La Puntilla, or Santa Elena Point. The bays on this coast are + commonly broad indentations, and the rivers discharging into them are + generally obstructed by bars. The small ports along the coast, + therefore, do not afford much protection to shipping. The most + northern of these bays is the Ancon de Sardinas, lying south of the + Mira delta. The head of the bay is fringed with islands and reefs, + behind which is the mouth of the Santiago river, Poza Harbour, San + Lorenzo Bay, Pailon basin and a network of navigable channels, all of + which are difficult of access. The small ports of La Tola and Pailon + are located on these waters. The port of Esmeraldas, near the mouth of + the Esmeraldas river, is located near the southern entrance to this + bay. As the mouth of the river is obstructed by a bar and its current + is swift, the anchorage is outside in an open roadstead, only slightly + protected on the south. Farther south is the broad Bay of Manta, with + a small port of the same name at its southern extremity. The most + frequented port on this part of the coast is that of Bahia de + Caraquez, at the mouth of the Caraquez, or Caracas river, which is + also obstructed by a bar. There is a fertile, productive country back + of this port, and it is the objective point of a road from Quito. + Immediately north of the Gulf of Guayaquil is the Bay of Santa Elena, + with a small port of the same name, which has a good, well-sheltered + anchorage and is the landing-place of the West Coast cable. The Gulf + of Guayaquil, which lies between the Ecuadorean and Peruvian coasts, + is the largest gulf on the Pacific coast of South America between + Panama and Chiloe. Its mouth is 140 m. wide between La Puntilla on the + north and Cabo Blanco on the south, and it penetrates the land + eastward, with a slight curve northward at its head, for a distance of + about 100 m., terminating in the Guayas estuary or river, on which is + located the port of Guayaquil. The upper end of the bay and its + northern shores are fringed with swamps through which numerous + estuaries penetrate for some distance inland. Immediately west of the + Guayas river the Estero Salado, which comprises a great many shallow + tide-water channels, or bayous, penetrates as far inland as Guayaquil, + but is used only by canoes. The upper end of the gulf is filling up + with the silt brought down from the Cordillera. It is divided midway + by the large island of Puna, at the eastern end of which is the + anchorage for steamers too large to ascend the Guayas. The steamship + channel passes between this island and the Peruvian coast, and is + known as the Jambeli channel. The passage north of Puna Island is + known as the Morro channel, but its entrance is obstructed by shoals + and it is considered dangerous for shipping. A small port in the + Jambeli channel, on the south-east shore of the gulf, is that of + Puerto Bolivar, or Puerto Huaila, the shipping port for the town of + Machala and the Zaruma mining region. + + + Islands. + + There are few islands off the coast of Ecuador, and only one of any + considerable size--that of Puna in the Gulf of Guayaquil, which is 29 + m. long from north-east to south-west and 8 to 14 m. wide. It lies in + the north-east part of the gulf, and is separated from the Ecuadorean + mainland by the Morro channel, and from the southern mainland by the + wider and deeper Jambeli channel. There is a low, mountainous ridge, + called the Zampo Palo, running through it, and its eastern shores have + some moderately high bluffs; otherwise the island is low and swampy, + and its shores, except the eastern end, are fringed with mud banks. + The island is densely wooded (in marked contrast with the opposite + Peruvian shore), and is considered unhealthy throughout the greater + part. It has a population of 200, chiefly centred in the village of + Puna, at its north-east extremity, which is a shipping port and health + resort for the city of Guayaquil. Puna island is celebrated for its + connexion with Pizarro's invasion of Peru in 1531. It is said that it + had a considerable population at that time, and that the natives + resisted the invaders so vigorously that it cost six months to reduce + them. Midway in the outer part of the Gulf of Guayaquil is Amortajada + or Santa Clara island, whose resemblance to a shrouded corpse + suggested the name which it bears. It lies 12 m. south-west of Puna + island and 80 m. from Guayaquil. It rises to a considerable elevation, + and carries a light 256 ft. above sea-level. There are some low, + swampy islands, or mud flats, covered with mangrove thickets, in the + lower Guayas river, but they are uninhabited and of no importance. + North of the Gulf of Guayaquil there are only two small islands on the + coast of more than local interest. The first of these is Salango, in + lat. 1 deg. 25' S., which is 2 m. in circumference and rises to a + height of 524 ft. It is richly wooded, and has a well-sheltered + anchorage much frequented by whalers in search of water and fresh + provisions. The next is La Plata, in lat. 1 deg. 16' S., which rises + to a height of 790 ft., and has a deep anchorage on its eastern side + where Drake is said to have anchored in 1579 to divide the spoils of + the Spanish treasure ship "Cacafuego." The Galapagos Islands (q.v.) + belong to the republic of Ecuador, and form a part of the province of + Guayas. + + _Geology._[1]--The great longitudinal depression which lies between + the eastern and the western branches of the Andes is also the boundary + between the ancient rocks of the east and the Mesozoic beds which + form the greater part of the west of the country. The Eastern + Cordillera is composed of gneiss, mica and chlorite schist and other + crystalline rocks of ancient date; the Western Cordillera, on the + other hand, is formed of porphyritic eruptive rocks of Mesozoic age, + together with sedimentary deposits containing Cretaceous fossils. Most + of the country between the Andes and the sea is covered by Tertiary + and Quaternary beds; but the range of hills which runs north-west from + Guayaquil is formed of Cretaceous and porphyritic rocks similar to + those of the Andes. In the intra-andine depression, between the East + and West Cordilleras, recent deposits with plant remains occur near + Loja, and to the north-east of Cuenca is a sandstone containing + mercury ores, somewhat similar to that of Peru. Farther north nearly + the whole of the depression is filled with lavas, tuffs and + agglomerates, derived from the Tertiary and recent volcanoes which + form the most striking feature of the Andes of Ecuador. These + volcanoes are most numerous in the northern half of the country, and + they stand indifferently upon the folded Mesozoic beds of the Western + Cordillera (e.g. Chimborazo, Iliniza, Pichincha), the ancient rocks of + the Eastern Cordillera (Altar, Tunguragua, Cotopaxi, Antisana), or the + floor of the great depression between. The lavas and ashes are for the + most part andesitic. + + _Climate._--Climatic conditions in Ecuador are very largely contingent + on altitude, and the transition from one climate to another is a + matter of only a few hours' journey. Although the equator crosses the + northern part of the republic, only 15 m. north of the city Of Quito, + a very considerable part of its area has the temperature of the + temperate zone, and snow-crowned summits are to be seen every day in + the year from its great central plateau. In addition to the climatic + changes due to altitude, there are others caused by local arid + conditions, by volcanic influences and by the influence of mountain + ranges on the temperature and rainfall of certain districts. These + influences are not general; on the contrary, they often affect very + limited areas. For instance, Guayaquil has a hot humid climate and + mangrove swamps line the shores of Guayas down to the gulf; at Santa + Elena, about 60 m. due west, arid conditions prevail and vegetation is + scanty and dwarfed; at Salango island, 50 m. north of Santa Elena, + there is an abundance of moisture and vegetation is luxuriant; 33 m. + farther north, at Manta, the country is a desert; and at Atacames bay, + 135 m. north of Manta, the rainfall and vegetation are again + favourable. On the plateau similar conditions prevail. There is no + great display of arboreal vegetation anywhere except in the valleys + and lower passes where the rainfall is abundant, but in general terms + it may be said that the rainfall and vegetation which characterize the + Quito basin soon disappear as one proceeds southward, and are + substituted by arid conditions. Even here there are local + modifications, as at Ambato, where a shallow depression, surrounded by + barren, dust-covered ridges exposed to cold winds, is celebrated for + its warm, equable climate and its fruit. It is to be noted that the + Gulf of Guayaquil separates the humid, forest-covered coastal plain of + Ecuador from the arid, barren coast of Peru, the two regions being + widely dissimilar. The mean annual temperature, on this plain, + according to an official publication, is 82.4 deg. F., and the range + is from 66 deg. to 95 deg. The heat is modified at many points on the + coast, however, by the cold Humboldt current which sweeps up the west + coast of South America from the Antarctic seas. The year is divided + into a wet and dry season--the former running from December to June, + and the latter from July to December. The rainy season, or _invierno_, + is broken by a short period of dry weather, called the _veranillo_ + (little summer), shortly after the December solstice; otherwise it + rains every day, the streams overflow, land traffic is suspended, and + the air is drenched with moisture and becomes oppressive and + pestiferous. The dry season, which is called the _verano_, or summer, + is also broken by a short rainy spell called the _inviernillo_ (little + winter) or "cordonazo de San Francisco," which follows the September + equinox. Apart from these the two seasons are sometimes broken by + cloudless skies in winter, and a drizzling mist, called the _garua_, + in summer. In the inter-andine region the variations in temperature + are frequent and the averages comparatively low. An official estimate + gives the mean annual temperature as 64 deg. to 68 deg. between 6000 + and 11,000 ft. In Quito the mean annual temperature is 58.8 deg., the + diurnal variation 10 deg., the annual maximum 70 deg., and the annual + minimum 45 deg. Other returns give the mean annual temperature at 55 + deg. It is said that pulmonary tuberculosis is unknown in these + altitudes, though it is common in the coast districts. Catarrhal + complaints are common, however, and leprosy is widely prevalent, it + being necessary to maintain three large hospitals for lepers. In the + higher altitudes there are wide variations in the snow-fall and + intensity of the cold even on the same mountain. The line of permanent + snow is much higher on the plateau side in both ranges, the + precipitation being greater on the outer sides--those facing the + forested lowlands--and the terrestrial radiation being greater from + the barren surfaces of the plateau. In some instances the difference + in the elevation of the snow-line has been found to be fully 1000 ft. + Moreover, no two summits seem to retain the snow permanently at the + same altitude. For instance, in 1880 Whymper found permanent snow on + Cotocachi at 14,500 ft., while near by Imbabura was bare to its summit + (15,033 ft.); Antisana was permanently covered at 16,000 ft., and near + by Sara-Urcu, which is drenched with rains and mists from the Amazon + valley all the year round, at 14,000 ft.; Sincholagua had large beds + of permanent snow at 15,300 ft., Cotopaxi was permanently covered at + 15,500 ft. on its western side, Corazon had daily snowstorms down to + 14,500 ft., but no permanent beds of snow on its east side (elevation + 15,871 ft.); and Chimborazo had deep snow at 15,600 ft. on its + north-east and south sides in June--July. The eastern range was found + to receive the heaviest snowfall. The elevation at which human + residence is possible seems to be unusually high in Ecuador. Many of + the towns and villages of central Ecuador lie at altitudes ranging + from 8606 ft. (Ambato) to 9839 ft. (Machachi). The capital city of + Quito is 9343 ft. above the sea, and is celebrated for its agreeable + temperature, and also for its healthiness in spite of prevailing + unsanitary conditions. Above these towns are a number of farms and + herdsmen's habitations, where men live the whole or a part of the year + with less discomfort from low temperature than is experienced in + northern Europe and northern United States. According to Whymper, the + _tambo_ of Chuquipoquio, at the foot of Chimborazo, is 11,704 ft., and + the _hacienda_ of Pedregal, near Iliniza, 11,629 ft., both being + permanently occupied. The _hacienda_ of Antisana, 13,306 ft., and the + herdsmen's hut of Cunayaco on Chimborazo, 13,396 ft., are occupied + only for a part of the year. The highest elevations are generally + covered with ice and snow, and glaciers, according to Whymper, are to + be found upon no less than nine of the culminating peaks, and possibly + upon two or three more. These serve to modify the temperatures of the + plateau, which is swept by cold winds at all seasons of the year. The + prevailing wind is that of the north-east and south-east trade winds, + broken and modified on the plateau and western lowlands by mountain + barriers. Westerly and north-west winds are sometimes experienced, but + are not permanent. + + _Flora._--The flora of the Quito basin has been well studied by + various European botanists, more especially by Dr William Jameson + (1796-1873) of the university of Quito, who began the preparation of a + synopsis of the Ecuadorean flora in 1864-1865 (_Synopsis plantarum + Quitensium_, 2 vols., Quito, 1865). The flora of the forested lowlands + on both sides of the Andes has not been studied and described so + fully. From the Pacific coast upward to a height of about 3000 to 4000 + ft. the vegetation is distinctively tropical, including among its + economic products cacao, cotton, sugar, tobacco, rice, maize, yucca + (also known as cassava and mandioca), peanuts, bananas, sweet + potatoes, yams, arracacha (_Conium moschatum_, H.B.K., or _Arracacha + esculenta_), indigo, rubber (_Castilloa_), ivory-nuts, cinchona and + bread-fruit. Most of these become rare at 3000 ft., but a few, like + sugar-cane, are cultivated as high as 8000 ft. The alluvial valley of + the Guayas, above Guayaquil, is celebrated for the richness of its + vegetation, which, in fruit alone, includes cacao, coffee, coco-nuts, + pine-apples, oranges, lemons, guayavas (_Psidium pomiferum_), guavas + (_Inga spectabilis_), shaddocks (or grape-fruit), pomegranates, + apricots, chirimoyas (_Anona Chirimolia_), granadillas (_Passiflora + quadrangularis_), paltas (_Persea gratissima_, otherwise known as + "alligator pears"), tunas (_Cactus_), mangoes (_Mangifera Indica_), + pacays (_Prosopis dulcis_), aji (Chile pepper), and many others of + less importance. Besides rubber, the forests produce a great variety + of cabinet and construction woods, ivory-nuts (from the "tagua" palm, + _Phytelephas macrocarpa_), "toquilla" fibre (_Carludovica palmata_) + for the manufacture of so-called Panama hats, cabbage palms, several + species of cinchona, vanilla and dyewoods. Among the large trees which + are valued for their timber are redwood (_Humiria balsamifera_), + Brazil-wood, algarrobo, palo de cruz (_Jacquinea ruscifolia_), + guaiacum or holy wood, rosewood, cedar and walnut. From 6000 to 10,000 + ft. above the sea, the indigenous species include the potato, maize, + oca (_Oxalis tuberosa_), and quinua (_Chenopodium quinoa_), and the + exotic species, wheat, barley, oats, alfalfa (_Medicago sativa_), and + most of the fruits and vegetables of the northern temperate zone. + Wheat does not form a head below 4500 ft., nor ripen above 10,500. The + larger forest trees are rarely seen above 10,000 ft., and even there + only on the outer slopes of the Cordilleras. The _Escallonia + myrtalloides_, however, is found at an elevation of 13,000 ft., and + the shrubby _Befarias_ 400 or 500 ft. higher. A characteristic growth + of the open plateau and upland valleys is the cabulla, cabaya or + maguey (_Agave americana_), whose fibre is much used by the natives in + the manufacture of cordage, sandals (_alpargatas_) and other useful + articles. In the treeless region lying between 11,600 and 13,800, or + in other places between 12,000 and 14,000 ft., the similarity of the + vegetation to that of the corresponding European region, according to + Wagner, is especially striking. On the _paramos_ of Chimborazo, + Pichincha, Iliniza, &c., the relation of characteristic genera to + those identical with genera in the Alpine flora of Europe is as 5 to + 4; and the botanist might almost suppose himself in the Upper + Engadine. Of the flora of the highest Andes, Whymper found 42 species, + of various orders, above 16,000 ft., almost all of which were from + Antisana and Chimborazo; 12 genera of mosses were found above 15,000 + ft., and 59 species of flowering plants above 14,000 ft., of which 35 + species came from above 15,000 and 20 species from above 16,000 ft. + The highest specimen obtained was a lichen (_Lecanora subfusca_, L.) + on the south side of Chimborazo, 18,400 ft. above sea-level. Mosses + (_Grimmia_) were found on Chimborazo at 16,660 ft., ferns (_Polypodium + pycnolepis_, Kze.) at 14,900, and specimens of _Gentiana rupicola_, H. + B. K., _Achyrophorus quitensis_, Sz. Bip., _Culcitium nivale_, H. B. + K., at 16,300; _Phyllactis inconspicua_, Wedd., at 16,600, + _Astragalus geminiflorus_, H. B. K., at 14-15,000, _Geranium + diffusum_, H. B. K., at 16,000, _Malvastrum phyllanthos_, Asa Gray, at + 16,500, _Draba obovata_, Benth., at 16,660, and _Ranunculus + praemorsus_, Kth., at 16,500--all on Chimborazo. _Fuchsia loxensis_, + H. B. K., was found on the slope of Sara-Urcu at 12,779 ft., and + currant bushes (_Ribes glandulosum_, R. & P.), on Chimborazo, at + 14,000. On the eastern slopes of the Andes, where the rainfall is + continuous throughout the year and the atmosphere is surcharged with + moisture, the forest growth is phenomenal. It is similar to that of + the Colombian and Peruvian _montanas_, modified, if at all, by the + excessive humidity which prevails in this region. + + _Fauna._--The fauna of Ecuador is comparatively poor in mammalia, but + the birds and still more the insects are very numerous. The Quadrumana + are represented by a large number of species, the eastern forests + being very much like the other parts of the great Amazonian basin in + this respect. The Carnivora include the puma (_Felis concolor_), + jaguar (_F. onca_), ocelot (_F. grisea_), bear (_Ursus ornatus_), fox, + weasel and otter. A small deer and, in southern Ecuador, the llama + (_Auchenia_) with its allied species, the alpaca, guanaco and vicuna, + represent the ruminants. The rodents are numerous and include most, if + not all, of the Amazonian species--the capybara (_Hydrochoerus + capybara_), cavia (_C. aperea_), paca (_Coelogenys paca_) and cutia + (_Dasyprocta aguti_), all amphibious and having an extensive range. + Tapirs are to be found in the eastern forests, the peccary in more + open woodlands, and the opossum in nearly every part of the country. + Cattle, horses, asses, sheep and swine were introduced by the + Spaniards, and thrive well in some of the provinces. Excellent horses + are reared in the uplands, as well as mules and cattle, the pasturage + on the mountain slopes being good, and alfalfa being grown in + abundance in many districts. The Reptilia include countless numbers of + alligators in the Guayas and its tributaries and in the tide-water + channels of many of the smaller rivers; many species of lizards, of + which Mr Whymper found three in the Quito basin; snakes of every + description from the huge anaconda of the Amazon region down to the + beautifully marked coral snake; and a great variety of frogs and + toads. Bats also are very numerous, especially in the eastern forest + region, where the vampire bat is a serious obstacle to permanent + settlement. The avifauna of Ecuador is distinguished for the great + variety of its genera and species, among which are many peculiar to + the Amazon valley, and others to the colder uplands. Among the Amazon + species may be mentioned the parrot, macaw (_Macrocercus_), toucan + (_Ramphastos_), curassow (_Crax_), penelope, trogon, and horned + screamer (_Palamedea cornuta_). There are also herons, ibises, storks + and cranes, including the great black-headed white crane, _Mycteria + americana_, which ranges from northern Argentina to Colombia. One + species of ibis, the _Theristicus caudatus_, is to be found, it is + said, only on the slopes of Antisana. Species of the pheasant and + partridge are not uncommon, and the "guacharo" (_Steatornis + caripensis_), once believed to inhabit Venezuela only, is found in + Ecuador also. The Raptores are well represented by a large number of + genera and species, which include the condor, eagle, vulture, falcon, + hawk and owl. The condor (_Sarcorhamphus gryphus_) is commonly found + between the elevations of 6000 and 16,000 ft., rarely, if ever, + descending to the lowland plains or rising above the lower peaks. It + preys upon the smaller animals and inflicts much loss upon stock + farmers through the destruction of calves, lambs, &c., but it very + rarely ventures to attack man or any of the larger animals. The eagle + common to Ecuador is the _Morphnus taeniatus_, and possibly the _M. + guaianensis_ on the eastern slopes of the Andes. The harrier-eagle + (_Herpetotheres cachinnans_) is also to be found throughout this part + of the continent. An eagle with buzzard-like habits, the _Leucopternis + plumbea_, is likewise common in Ecuador. Among the vultures the + turkey-buzzard group (_Rhinogryphus_ or _Cathartes_), including the + _R. aurus_, _burrovianus_ and _perniger_, is common everywhere. The + carrion crow, or black vulture (_Catharista atrata_), is also common + to every part of the country, and is the general scavenger. The + carrion hawks are represented by the _Polyborus tharus_, popularly + called the "caracara," and the _Phalcobaenus carunculatus_; the + falcons by the _Aesalon columbarius_; and the kites by the _Gampsonyx + swainsoni_. The Ecuadorean owl is the _Bubo nigrescens_. An + interesting species of the song birds is popularly known as the + "flautero" (flute-bird), which inhabits the eastern forests. Its notes + are marvellous imitations of "the most mellow, sweet-sounding flute," + but the singer itself, according to Mr Simson, is "a very + insignificant-looking little, greyish-coloured bird," which "always + dies in captivity." The most interesting group of the smaller birds is + that of the hummingbirds, of which the number and variety is + astonishing. Some of these have a very wide range, while others are + apparently limited to a small district, or to a certain altitude. The + best-known fish of Ecuador is the insignificant _Pimelodus cyclopum_, + the only fish found in the streams and lakes of the plateau region. + Its fame rests on Humboldt's publication of the tradition that great + numbers of this tiny fish had been thrown out during the eruptions of + Imbabura and other volcanoes. Mr Whymper's explanation of the + phenomenon is that the fish are scattered over the land by the sudden + overflow during volcanic eruptions of the rivers and lakes which they + inhabit. The rivers of the eastern plains are probably stocked with + the fish found in the Amazon. On the coast, the Ancon de Sardinas bay + is so named from the multitude of small fish (_sardinas_) which + inhabit its waters. Elsewhere there are no fisheries of importance, + except those of the Galapagos Islands. + + The insect inhabitants of Ecuador, like the birds, include a large + number of genera and species, but no complete entomological survey of + the country has ever been made, and our knowledge in this respect is + insufficient to warrant a detailed description. In one ascent of + Pichincha in 1880, Mr Whymper collected 21 species of beetles, all new + to science, between 12,000 and 15,600 ft. elevation. On Cotopaxi, at + elevations of 13,000 to 15,800 ft., 18 species of the genus _Colpodes_ + were collected, of which 16 were new. This may be considered a fair + illustration of the situation in Ecuador so far as natural history + exploration is concerned. Of the Machachi basin, near Quito, which he + calls a "zoologist's paradise," Mr Whymper writes (_Travels amongst + the Great Andes of the Equator_): "Butterflies above, below and + around; now here, now there, by many turns and twists displaying the + brilliant tessellation of their under-sides ... May-flies and + dragon-flies danced in the sunlight; lizards darted across the paths; + and legions of spiders pervaded the grass, many very + beautiful--frosted--silver backs, or curious, like the saltigrades, + who took a few steps and then gave a leap. There were crickets in + infinite numbers; and flies innumerable, from slim daddy-long-legs to + ponderous, black, hairy fellows known to science as _Dejeaniae_; + hymenopterous insects in profusion, including our old friend the + bishop of Ambato (possibly _Dielis_), in company with another + formidable stinger, with chrome antennae, called by the natives 'the + Devil'; and occasional _Phasmas_ (caballo de palo) crawling painfully + about, like animated twigs." This description refers to a fertile + sub-tropical oasis on the partially barren plateau; below in the + forested lowlands, where tropical conditions prevail, the numbers and + varieties are many times greater. The Coleoptera are especially + numerous; Mr Whymper took home with him 206 species which had been + identified and described up to 1892, most of them from the uplands and + most of them new to science. The total number of species in Ecuador is + roughly estimated to be 8000. The Hymenoptera are also numerous, but + less so than the Lepidoptera, with which the mountain slopes and + sunny, open spaces seem to be literally covered. Of moths alone Mr + Whymper took away with him specimens representing no less than 23 + genera, with a probable addition of 13 genera more among his + undescribed specimens, the largest of which (an _Erebus odora_) was + 7-1/4 in. across the wings. Among the Diptera, which includes a very + wide range of genera and species, are some of a highly troublesome + character, though on the whole, Mr Whymper did not find the flies and + mosquitoes so. His explorations, however, did not extend to the + eastern region, where the mosquitoes are usually described by + travellers as extremely troublesome. Sand-flies are common, and in the + eastern forests the tiny _pium_ fly (_Trombidium_, sp.?) is a + veritable pest. Of the insects which infest dwellings and prey upon + their human inmates, such as fleas, bed-bugs, roaches, &c., Ecuador + has more than a bountiful supply. Lice-eating is a widely prevalent + habit among the Indians and mestizos, and demonstrates how numerous + these parasites are among the people. A good illustration of the + prevalence of house-infesting animals and insects is given by Mr + Whymper (_op. cit._ p. 391), who made a collection of 50 different + specimens of the vermin which infested his bedroom in Guayaquil. + +_Population._--The indigenous population of Ecuador was originally +composed of two distinct races--the Quitus and Caras, the former being +the older, and the latter presumably of Quichua origin. The Caras, +according to tradition, entered the country from the coast, and had +thoroughly established themselves there long before the conquest by the +Inca rulers Tupac-Yupanqui and his son Huayna-Capac. This conquest was +comparatively easy because the Caras spoke a dialect of the same +language, and were not greatly unlike their conquerors in manners and +customs. The present Indian population of Ecuador, excepting those of +the trans-Andean region, may be considered as descendants of these two +races. They are subjected to incredible abuses under Spanish colonial +rule, their numbers being reduced to a fraction of the former +population, and even yet they are subjected to a kind of debt-bondage +which is slavery in all but the name. Notwithstanding all this they +still represent from two-thirds to three-fourths of the actual +population of Ecuador. East of the Andes the forests are inhabited by +tribes of what are termed "aucas" or "infieles" (infidels)--Indians who +are independent of both church and political control. Missions have been +established among some of the tribes, but their influence reaches only a +small part of the wild inhabitants of this extensive region. + +The principal tribes are the Quijos or Canelos, who are settled about +the headwaters of the Napo, on the eastern slopes of the Andes, and are +in great part grouped about the missions; the Jivaros who inhabit the +valley of the Pastaza; the Zaparos who occupy the forest region between +the Pastaza and Napo; the Piojes of the middle Napo, and eastward to the +Putumayo; and the Iquitos and Mazanes of the lower Napo and Tigre, +chiefly in territory occupied by Peru. The Jivaros are the best known of +these tribes because of their successful resistance to the Spanish +invaders. They are still independent of political control, live in +permanent settlements, till the soil (producing Indian corn, beans, +yucca and plantains), and have developed some rude manufactures. The +Zaparos are less homogeneous, some of their hordes living in a state of +complete savagery. They are classified with the Guaranis of Brazil, whom +they resemble in many particulars. The Piojes live in permanent +communities and cultivate the soil. The total number of "aucas" or +uncivilized Indians in the republic has been estimated at about 200,000, +but this estimate covered a larger area than Ecuador actually occupies +and is evidently too high. Their settlements are usually small and very +much scattered, and their aggregate number is evidently much under the +earlier estimates. An official estimate given to Mr Whymper in 1880, +however, places the population of Oriente (the eastern territory) at +80,000, which is probably more nearly correct. + +No general census has ever been taken in Ecuador, and estimates are +little better than vague conjectures. One of these estimates, that +published by P.F. Cevallos for 1889, which has been generally accepted, +gave the total population as 1,272,161, and these figures have been used +with but slight changes for various later estimates. A later official +estimate appeared in 1900 in _La Republique de l'Equateur et sa +participation a l'Exposition Universelle de 1900_, which gives for the +provinces practically the same figures as those of Cevallos, and at the +same time assumes the total for the whole republic to be 1,500,000. The +white population is estimated at 100,000 to 120,000, which probably +includes many of mixed ancestry, and the mixed bloods at 300,000 to +450,000. The tendency is for the _mestizo_ who dwells in Indian +communities to revert to the Indian type, and it is probable that the +larger estimate is nearer the truth. On the other hand _mestizos_ who +live among the whites and form new alliances with them eventually class +themselves as whites wherever their social condition has been improved. +As a rule, the _mestizos_ of Ecuador are ignorant, indolent and +non-progressive. As in Colombia they are the artizans and small traders +and the Indians are the farm labourers. The land is held by a few +proprietors, and caste sentiment is strong among those who claim unmixed +European descent; consequently the _mestizos_ have limited opportunities +to improve their condition. + +The whites form an exclusive governing caste, as in Chile. The territory +of the republic is divided among a very few of them, and its government +is in their hands. + +In the hot seaboard districts there are a small number of negroes, and a +somewhat larger number of their crosses with the other two races. The +majority of these are to be found in the northern provinces. There are +comparatively few negroes and mulattoes on the colder plateaus. +Villavicencio estimated their numbers at 7831 pure negroes and 36,592 +mixed bloods, which is probably not far from the correct totals. + +The foreign population is small, the total being estimated at about +6000, of which 5000 are natives of the neighbouring Latin republics, 700 +Europeans and Americans, and 300 Chinese. + +_Territorial Divisions and Towns._--The republic is divided into 15 +provinces and one territory. The Galapagos Islands were declared a +dependency of the province of Guayas in 1885, but are practically +independent and constitute a second territory under the administration +of _jefe territorial_ appointed by the national executive. + + The official estimate (_La Republique de l'Equateur et sa + participation a l'Exposition Universelle de 1900_) gives the data for + the provinces and their capitals, which are shown on the next page. + + These population figures are very nearly the same as those given by + Cevallos for 1889. If the population of the Oriente be taken as + 80,000, the aggretate is very nearly the same. The population of the + provincial capitals is in some cases over-estimated, especially for + Guayaquil and Quito, neither of which could have had 50,000 at the + date of this estimate. The population of Quito in May 1906 was 50,841, + of which 1365 were foreigners. As for the areas of the provinces the + figures need not be questioned except those for the Oriente territory, + which are much too large for the region actually occupied by Ecuador, + and for the Galapagos Islands which are described by competent + authorities as 2400 sq. m. The population of these islands was 400 + (principally convicts) on Chatham Island in 1901, about 115 on + Albemarle and 3 on Charles Island in 1903. Besides the provincial + capitals already noted, there are no large and important towns in the + country. The largest of the smaller towns is probably Jipijapa, in the + province of Manabi, which is the centre of the Panama hat industry and + had in 1900 an estimated population of 6000, nearly all Indians. + + +----------------+---------+-----------+------------+-----------+ + | Provinces. | Area. |Population.| Capital. |Population.| + +----------------+---------+-----------+------------+-----------+ + | | sq. m. | | | | + | Carchi | 1495 | 40,000 | Tulcan | 5,000 | + | Imbabura | 2416 | 68,000 | Ibarra | 5,000 | + | Pichincha | 6219 | 205,000 | Quito | 80,000 | + | Leon | 2595 | 109,600 | Latacunga | 12,000 | + | Tunguragua | 1686 | 103,000 | Ambato | 8,000 | + | Chimborazo | 2990 | 122,000 | Riobamba | 12,000 | + | Bolivar | 1260 | 43,000 | Guaranda | 6,000 | + | Canar | 1519 | 64,000 | Azogues | 4,000 | + | Azuay | 3874 | 132,400 | Cuenca | 30,000 | + | Loja | 3707 | 66,000 | Loja | 10,000 | + | El Oro | 2340 | 32,600 | Machala | 3,200 | + | Guayas | 8216 | 98,100 | Guayaquil | 60,000 | + | Los Rios | 2296 | 32,800 | Babahoyo | 3,000 | + | Manabi | 7893 | 64,100 | Portoviejo | 5,000 | + | Esmeraldas | 5465 | 14,600 | Esmeraldas | 6,000 | + | Oriente (ter.) | unknown | | | | + | Galapagos Is. | 2865 | 2,000 | . . | . . | + +----------------+---------+-----------+------------+-----------+ + + _Communications._--The first railway to be completed in Ecuador was + the line between Guayaquil and Quito, 290 m. in length, the last + section of which was formally opened at Quito on the 25th of June + 1908. It belongs to an American company, and had been under + construction for many years. Lines from Puerto Bolivar to Machala, + province of El Oro, and another from Bahia de Caraquez to Chone, were + under construction in 1908. Several lines were also projected, two to + penetrate the Ecuadorean _montana_. There is only one highway in the + country on which vehicles can be used, the paved road extending + southward from Quito 115 m. on the Guayaquil route, which was begun by + Garcia Moreno but has been allowed to fall into neglect. Other roads + have been projected to the coast and one to the eastern territory. The + ordinary roads are rough mule-tracks. These are difficult at all + times, and in the rainy season are quite impassable. On the Pacific + lowlands the rivers Guayas, Daule, Vinces and Yaguachi have about 200 + m. of navigable channels in the rainy season, and are used for the + transportation of produce and merchandise. There are also several + short river channels along the coast which are used by planters for + the same purpose. A great part of the country, however, is still + compelled to use the most primitive means of communication--mule + paths, fords in the smaller streams in the dry season, and rude + suspension bridges across deep gorges and swift mountain torrents. The + latter are usually constructed from the tough fibre of the _Agave + americana_ and consist of one or more cables. When of one cable, + called the _taravita_, the passenger and his luggage are drawn across + in a rude kind of basket suspended from it; but when two or more + cables are used, transverse sticks of bamboo and reeds are laid upon + them, forming a rude prototype of the regular suspension bridge. Such + a bridge is called a _chimba-chaca_, and is very hazardous for an + unpractised foot. In 1907 there were 2564 m. of telegraph lines in + operation, connecting Quito with all the principal towns. The national + capital is connected with the submarine cable at Santa Elena (via + Guayaquil) and at Tumaco, in Colombia. Guayaquil is provided with + tramway and telephone lines. These public services are under the + general supervision of the Minister of Public Instruction, Posts and + Telegraphs. + + _Commerce._--Ecuador has no merchant marine beyond a few small vessels + engaged in the coastwise traffic, some eighteen or twenty river + steamers on the Guayas and its tributaries, and a number of steam + launches, towboats and various descriptions of barges engaged in the + transportation of produce and goods on the rivers. The ocean-going + foreign trade of the country is carried wholly in foreign vessels, for + the regular lines of which Guayaquil is a principal port of call. Less + frequent calls are made at Esmeraldas and some of the other small + ports on the coast, of which there are nine in all. Most of these are + difficult of access and their trade is unimportant. The total trade of + the republic in 1905, according to returns published by the Guayaquil + Chamber of Commerce, amounted to only L3,429,955, of which L1,573,389 + (15,733,891 sucres) were credited to imports, and L1,856,566 + (18,565,668 sucres) to exports. Of these totals, all but L127,532 of + the imports and L441,679 of the exports passed through the port of + Guayaquil. The great poverty of the people has been a serious obstacle + to the development of a larger commerce. + + _Agriculture._--The agricultural industries on which the export trade + depends are almost wholly restricted to the western lowlands, and + include cacao, coffee, cotton, sugar, tobacco, rice, yucca and sweet + potatoes. The Guayas basin and the district about Machala are + celebrated for their cacao, and produce about one-third of the world's + supply. It is the staple product of the country. Coffee is produced + on the lower slopes of the Cordilleras and is of excellent quality. + The production is small, but would be increased at remunerative + prices. During the American civil war the planters of Ecuador entered + largely into the production of cotton, which at that time yielded + large profits, but the industry has declined to very insignificant + proportions since then because of inability to compete with the lower + cost of production in the United States. The output of sugar and + tobacco is small, but could be largely increased, as the conditions of + soil and climate are favourable. Much of the sugar-cane produced is + turned into rum, which is consumed in the country. The tobacco grown + is of excellent quality. Efforts have been made to promote the + cultivation of indigo, but without much success. On the uplands, + wheat, Indian corn, oats, barley, potatoes and vegetables of many + kinds are successfully cultivated, but wholly for home consumption. + The vine is successfully grown in the warm upland valleys, both for + its fruit and for the production of wine. The staple foods for the + common people are potatoes on the plateau (which are chiefly consumed + in the form of _locro_, or potato-soup) and yucca- or cassava-meal in + the warmer regions. Although cattle and horses were not known before + the Spanish conquest, they have become since then important products + of the country. The best grazing lands are on the lower elevations + west of the Cordilleras in certain districts of the plateau and on the + slopes of some of the higher Andes, as on Chimborazo and Antisana. + Horses and mules are reared for export on a small scale, and sheep for + their wool, which is used in home manufactures. + + _Forest Products._--The forest and other natural products include + rubber, cinchona bark, ivory-nuts, mocora and toquilla fibre for the + manufacture of hats, hammocks, &c., cabaya fibre for shoes and + cordage, vegetable wool (_Bombax ceiba_), sarsaparilla, vanilla, + cochineal, cabinet woods, fruit, resins, &c. The original source of + the Peruvian bark of commerce, the _Cinchona calisaya_, is completely + exhausted, and the "red bark" derived from _C. succirubra_, is now the + principal source of supply from Ecuador. Guaranda is the centre of the + industry, but bark gatherers are to be found everywhere in the forest + regions. The rubber-gathering industry is comparatively new. The + product is derived from the _Castilloa elastica_, the _Heveas_ not + being found west of the Andes. + + _Minerals._--The mineral resources are much inferior to those of + Colombia and Peru. Gold is found in the province of El Oro, where the + great Zaruma and other companies have opened a number of mines. It is + also found in the provinces of Loja, Esmeraldas, and in the river-beds + along the eastern slopes of the Andes. Quicksilver has been mined at + Azogues, in the province of Canar, and is also to be found in Azuay. + Iron ores and lead are credited to several provinces, and platinum has + been found in Esmeraldas, where emerald mines have been worked ever + since the Spanish conquest. Coal of good quality has been found in + Azuay and at other points, and petroleum is known to exist in several + localities. Salt springs near Riobamba and at Salinas, in Imbabura, + have long been used by the natives in the manufacture of salt. + + _Manufactures._--The manufacturing industries are chiefly of a + primitive character and have been developed to meet local necessities. + There are some cotton factories and sugar mills provided with modern + machinery, but the cotton and woollen cloths of the country are + commonly coarse and manufactured in the most primitive manner. Some of + these goods are sent into southern Colombia, but they are chiefly made + for the local market. Hats and hammocks are made from the fibres of + the mocora and toquilla palms, and sandals from the fibre of the + _Agave americana_. The hats are an article of export, and are known + abroad as Panama hats. Hand-made laces of admirable workmanship are + made in some localities, especially on the plateau about Quito. Among + other manufactories, all for the home market, may be mentioned: + flour-mills, sugar refineries, rum distilleries, breweries, chocolate + factories, a candle factory, saw-mills and tanneries. + +_Government._--Constitutionally, the government of Ecuador is that of a +centralized republic, whose powers are defined by a written constitution +and whose chief organs are an executive consisting of a president and +vice-president, and a national congress consisting of two houses, a +senate and a chamber of deputies. Revolutionary changes, however, have +been very frequent in Ecuador, and no less than eleven constitutions +were adopted between 1830 and 1909. + + The constitution adopted in 1906 succeeded that of 1884 (amended in + 1887 and 1897), and its terms may be given here, subject to what may + be regarded as the extra-constitutional powers vested in the + executive. Executive power is vested in a president and vice-president + elected for periods of four years by a direct vote of the people. + (Under the constitution of 1884 the official terms of these two + officers were not wholly synchronous, the vice-president's term + beginning with the president's third year.) These officials cannot be + re-elected to succeed themselves. The president, whose salary is + 12,000 sucres per annum, has a limited veto power, and may convene + extraordinary sessions of Congress for a specified purpose, but he has + no further authority over that body. He appoints the diplomatic and + consular representatives of the republic and the governors of the + provinces, exercises a limited control over the administration of + justice and public instruction through the appointment of officials, + and is chief of the small military force maintained by the republic. + The construction of railways with public funds and under government + supervision also places him at the head of a very important public + service. The president is assisted by a cabinet of five + ministers:--foreign relations and justice; interior and public works; + finance; war; public instruction, posts and telegraphs--all of whom + may be impeached by congress. The executive authority is also + partially exercised by a council of state composed of 15 members, + including the five cabinet ministers, of which the vice-president is + _ex-officio_ president. The council has important advisory functions, + and must be consulted by the president on every important measure or + appointment. The provinces are administered by governors chosen by the + national executive; the departments by _jefes politicos_ (political + chiefs); and the municipalities by _tenientes politicos_ (political + lieutenants). The Galapagos Islands are under a _jefe territorial_ + (territorial chief), Chatham Island being a penal colony and governed + by special laws. + + The congressional organization is similar to that of the majority of + South American states. The senate is composed of 32 members (2 from + each province) elected for two years, one-half the number being + renewed each two years. The chamber is composed of 42 deputies, who + are elected by the provinces for a period of two years, on a basis of + one representative for each 30,000 inhabitants and one supplementary + representative for an additional 15,000. A senator must be at least 35 + years of age, and a deputy 25. The elections are direct, and members + of both houses may be re-elected. The immunities of legislators begin + 30 days before the opening session of congress, and terminate 30 days + after its dissolution. Congress meets at Quito on the 10th of August, + and remains in session for a period of 60 days, but its sessions may + be extended or extraordinary sessions called for specified purposes. + The right of suffrage is restricted to literate male adults. + + The judicial branch of the government is composed of a supreme court, + located at Quito, consisting of 5 judges and a fiscal (public + prosecutor) appointed by the executive; six superior courts (in Quito, + Guayaquil, Cuenca, Riobamba, Loja and Portoviejo) with a total of 9 + judges; _a Tribunal de Cuentas_ of seven members at Quito; and various + municipal courts, or _alcaldes_, in the chief towns of the + departments. There are civil courts of first and second instance in + the larger towns, and consular courts in Quito, Guayaquil and Cuenca + with jurisdiction in commercial cases. There are also police + commissaries in the departments and justices of the peace in the + municipalities, the latter having jurisdiction in civil cases where + the amount involved does not exceed 200 sucres. The laws of Ecuador + are based on the old Spanish laws and procedure, and include civil, + criminal and commercial codes. + + _Army._--The army, according to an official report of 1900, consisted + of 4 battalions of infantry (about 3690 strong), 3 brigades of + artillery (1362), and 2 regiments of cavalry (468), in all, about 5520 + men, rank and file. In 1908 this force was reported to comprise 4350 + men. The national guard is composed of three classes: actives--all + enrolled citizens of 20 to 38 years; auxiliaries--enrolled citizens of + 38 to 44 years; and passives--enrolled citizens of 44 to 50 years. + These were estimated at 95,329 men. There is a military school at + Quito and a naval school at Guayaquil. + + _Education._--Although primary instruction is free, and is obligatory + for children of 6 to 12 years, a considerable part Of the population + is unprovided with schools and is indifferent in regard to them. An + official report for 1900 gives the number of primary schools as 1297, + and the number of pupils in attendance as about 80,000. The secondary + schools numbered 37, with 371 teachers and about 4500 pupils. Higher + instruction includes the technical and professional schools with the + three universities of Quito, Guayaquil and Cuenca, and 6 schools of + "trades and professions" (_artes y oficios_) in as many provinces. The + old University of Quito has a staff of 32 professors divided into 5 + faculties: Philosophy and Belles-Lettres, Law, Medicine, Physical and + Natural Sciences and Mathematics. There are also in Quito a school of + agriculture, astronomical observatory, botanical garden, museum and + national printing office, all apparently under the supervision of the + University. + + _Church._--According to the constitution of 1884, "the religion of the + Republic is the Roman Catholic Apostolic, and all others are + excluded." The only opposition which the Church has ever had to + encounter has been from the "liberal" element within itself, and thus + has arisen, seemingly from political motives, a desire to restrict + clerical influence in political affairs. This influence has been + exercised to an extreme in Ecuador, so much so, in fact, that its + government at times was more nearly a theocracy than a republic. The + growth of liberalism finally began to produce results. In 1889 the + tithes from which the Church revenues had been derived were abolished, + and a tax of 3 per mil. on real estate was substituted. In 1902 a + signal victory was won in a law permitting civil marriage, but in 1904 + a social revolution was effected by legislation, which placed the + Church under State control, forbade the foundation of new religious + orders and admission into the country of new religious communities, + and provided that the members of the episcopate must be citizens of + Ecuador. The higher dignitaries of the Church are an archbishop at + Quito, and six suffragan bishops at Cuenca, Loja, Ibarra, Riobamba, + Guayaquil and Manabi. + + _Finance._--The revenues of the republic are derived from import and + export duties, liquor, tobacco and stamp taxes, inheritance tax, salt, + gunpowder and playing cards monopolies, consular charges, and sundry + miscellaneous receipts, including those from posts, telegraphs and + railways. Up to 1907 the customs duties were increased by surtaxes + amounting at that time to 100%. The minister of finance proposed to + abolish these surtaxes and double all the rates of duties involved. On + exports, however, all the duties were to be abolished except those on + cacao, coffee, hides, rubber, tagua (ivory nuts), hat fibre, hammock + fibre and tobacco. For 1907 the revenues were L1,424,770 and the + expenditures L1,383,122. + + On the 10th of October 1906, when the report of the provisional + government created by the revolution of the preceding January + presented its financial report to a national assembly, the total + obligations of the country were stated to be:-- + + Sucres. + Railway bonds, 12,282,000 sucres gold + at 107% premium 25,423,740 + Banco del Ecuador, advances 3,000,000 + Banco Comercial y Agrocola, idem 2,400,000 + Internal debt 739,575 + Condor bonds 757,000 + French Finance Corporation 887,000 + --------- + Total 33,207,315 + In L sterling at 10 sucres per L 3,320,731 + + The foreign debt of the republic, which in 1898 stood at L693,160 in + bonds, was assumed by the Guayaquil & Quito Railway Co. under + contracts of 1897, 1898, 1899 and 1900, the government guaranteeing + interest on the sum of L2,520,000 railway mortgage bonds for 33 years + and recognizing the external debt at 35% of its face value. This debt + originated in 1830, when Ecuador seceded from the Colombian + confederacy and was charged with 21-1/2% of the indebtedness of the + three states. In 1855 the amount was fixed at L1,824,000, and in 1892 + it was converted into a new consolidated debt of L750,000. Payments of + interest and amortization had been very irregular, and its transfer to + a foreign company as the price of a railway concession put an end to a + transaction which had been a serious discredit to the country. The + amount outstanding on the 31st of December 1907 was 10,808,000 sucres + (L1,080,800). It should be said that the difficulties in regard to + this debt arose from a feeling in Ecuador that the part assigned to it + in 1830 was much too large, and that it was contracted almost wholly + for the benefit of the two northern republics, Colombia and Venezuela. + + _Money and Measures._--Under the law of 1898, which came into effect + on the 4th of June 1900, gold is made the monetary standard in + Ecuador, the legal tender of silver being limited to 10 sucres, and + banks of issue being required to hold at least one-half their metallic + reserves in gold coin. Previously there had been much confusion in the + circulating medium because of the depreciated value of the Quito + currency in comparison with that of Guayaquil, but the new law has + corrected the anomaly and has given a simple and uniform medium for + the whole country. The coinage under the law of 1898 consists of the + gold _condor_, of 10 _sucres_, which weighs 8.136 grams, contains + 7.3224 grams of fine gold, and is equal to the English pound sterling + in value; the silver _sucre_, of 100 centavos, equivalent to 24d. in + value; and smaller coins of silver, nickel and copper, the + denominations being decimal parts of the sucre. The sucre received its + name from the portrait of General Sucre engraved on the coin, and is + legal tender up to 10 sucres. The paper money circulation consists of + the issues of two Guayaquil banks--the Banco del Ecuador, and the + Banco Comercial y Agricola, whose united issues on June 30th, 1906, + amounted to 7,414,140 sucres (L741,414). The Bank of Quito at one time + issued notes which, according to Whymper, were not current at and + south of Riobamba, but it does not appear that this bank is authorized + to issue its notes under the new law. The metallic money nominally in + circulation on the 30th of June 1906, amounted to 2,587,667 sucres + gold and 2,522,802 sucres silver. Although the metric system was + adopted in 1856, the old Spanish weights and measures--the quintal, + libra, vara and fanega--are still in use, the quintal being equivalent + to about 101 lb. + + _Antiquities._--Throughout Ecuador there are still considerable + remains of the architectural and artistic skill of the ante-European + period. At Canar, to the north-east of Cuenca, stands the Incapirca, a + circular rampart of finely hewn stone, enclosing an open area with a + roofless but well-preserved building in the centre; not far off is the + Inca-chungana, a very much smaller enclosure, probably the remains of + a pavilion; and in the same neighbourhood the image of the sun and a + small cabinet are carved on the face of a rock called Intihuaicu. On + one of the hills running from Pichincha to the Esmeraldas there are + remains at Paltatamba of a temple and a conical tower, the buttresses + of a bridge composed of stone and bitumen, portions of a great + causeway, and numerous tombs from which mummies and plates of silver + have been obtained. At Hantuntaqui similar sepulchral mounds, called + _tolas_, may be seen, as well as traces of military structures. On the + plain of Callo, near Cotopaxi, at a height of 8658 ft., the ruins of + an Incarial palace, Pachusala, are utilized by the _hacienda_; and a + conical hill at its side is supposed to be of artificial + construction. The remains of another fortress and palace are preserved + at Pomallacta, and in the neighbouring pueblo of Achupallas an ancient + temple of the sun now serves as parish church. In many localities, + especially in Imbabura, pottery and various objects are found + belonging to the pre-Colombian period, among which five and six rayed + stars (_casse-tetes_) are very numerous. (A. J. L.) + +_History._--The territory of the republic of Ecuador, when first it +becomes dimly visible in the grey dawn of American history, appears to +be inhabited by upwards of fifty independent tribes, among which the +Quitus seem to hold the most important position. About A.D. 280 a +foreign tribe is said to have forced their way inland up the valley of +the Esmeraldas; and the kingdom which they founded at Quito lasted for +about 1200 years, and was gradually extended, both by war and alliance, +over many of the neighbouring dominions. In 1460, during the reign of +the fourteenth _Caran Shyri_, or king of the Cara nation, Hualcopo +Duchisela, the conquest of Quito was undertaken by Tupac Yupanqui, the +Inca of Peru; and his ambitious schemes were, not long after his death, +successfully carried out by his son Huayna-Capac, who inflicted a +decisive defeat on the Quitonians in the battle of Hatuntaqui, and +secured his position by marrying Pacha, the daughter of the late Shyri. +By his will the conqueror left the kingdom of Quito to Atahuallpa, his +son by this alliance; while the Peruvian throne was assigned to Huascar, +an elder son by his Peruvian consort. War soon broke out between the two +kingdoms, owing to Huascar's pretensions to supremacy over his brother; +but it ended in the defeat and imprisonment of the usurper, and the +establishment of Atahuallpa as master both of Quito and Cuzco. The +fortunate monarch, however, had not long to enjoy his success; for +Pizarro and his Spaniards were already at the door, and by 1533 the fate +of the country was sealed. As soon as the confusions and rivalries of +the first occupation were suppressed, the recent kingdom of Quito was +made a presidency of the Spanish viceroyalty of Peru, and no change of +importance took place till 1710. In that year it was attached to the +viceroyalty of Santa Fe; but it was restored to Peru in 1722. When, +towards the close of the century, the desire for independence began to +manifest itself throughout the Spanish colonies of South America, Quito +did not remain altogether indifferent. The Quitonian doctor Eugenio +Espejo, and his fellow-citizen Don Juan Pio Montufar, entered into +hearty co-operation with Narino and Zea, the leaders of the +revolutionary movement at Santa Fe; and it was at Espejo's suggestion +that the political association called the _Escuela de Concordia_ was +instituted at Quito. It was not till 1809, however, that the Quitonians +made a real attempt to throw off the Spanish yoke; and both on that +occasion and in 1812 the royal general succeeded in crushing the +insurrection. In 1820 the people of Guayaquil took up the cry of +liberty; and in spite of several defeats they continued the contest, +till at length, under Antonio Jose de Sucre, who had been sent to their +assistance by Bolivar, and reinforced by a Peruvian contingent under +Andres de Santa Cruz, they gained a complete victory on May 22, 1822, in +a battle fought on the side of Mount Pichincha, at a height of 10,200 +ft. above the sea. Two days after, the Spanish president of Quito, Don +Melchor de Aymeric, capitulated, and the independence of the country was +secured. A political union was at once effected with New Granada and +Venezuela on the basis of the republican constitution instituted at +Cucuta in July 1821--the triple confederation taking the name of +Colombia. + +A disagreement with Peru in 1828 resulted in the invasion of Ecuador and +the temporary occupation of Cuenca and Guayaquil by Peruvian forces; but +peace was restored in the following year after the Ecuadorian victory at +Tarqui. In the early part of 1830 a separation was effected from the +Colombian federation, and the country was proclaimed an independent +republic. General Juan Jose Flores was the first president, and in spite +of many difficulties, both domestic and foreign, he managed to maintain +a powerful position in the state for about 15 years. Succeeded in 1835 +by Vicente Rocafuerte, he regained the presidency in 1839, and was +elected for the third time in 1843; but shortly afterwards he accepted +the title of generalissimo and a sum of 20,000 pesos, and left the +country to his rivals. One of the most important measures of his second +presidency was the establishment of peace and friendship with Spain. +Roca, who next attained to power, effected a temporary settlement with +Colombia, concluded a convention with England against the slave trade, +and made a commercial treaty with Belgium. Diego Noboa, elected in 1850 +after a period of great confusion, recalled the Jesuits, produced a +rupture with New Granada by receiving conservative refugees, and thus +brought about his own deposition and exile. The democratic Urbina now +became practically dictator, and as the attempt of Flores to reinstate +Noboa proved a total failure, he was quickly succeeded in 1856 by +General Francisco Robles, who, among other progressive measures, secured +the adoption of the French system of coinage, weights and measures. He +abdicated in 1859 and left the country, after refusing to ratify the +treaty with Peru, by which the defender of Guayaquil had obtained the +raising of the siege. Dr Gabriel Garcia Moreno, professor of chemistry, +the recognized leader of the conservative party at Quito, was ultimately +elected by the national convention of 1861. Distrust in his policy, +however, was excited by the publication of some of his private +correspondence, in which he spoke favourably of a French protectorate, +and the army which he sent under Flores to resist the encroachments of +Mosquera, the president of New Granada, was completely routed. His first +resignation in 1864 was refused; but the despotic acts by which he +sought to establish a dictatorship only embittered his opponents, and in +September 1865 he retired from office. While he had endeavoured to +develop the material resources of the country, he had at the same time +introduced retrograde measures in regard to religion and education. The +principal event in the short presidency of his successor, Geronimo +Carrion (May 1865-Nov. 1867), was the alliance with Chile and Peru +against Spain, and the banishment of all Spanish subjects. Several +important changes were made by congress in the period between his +resignation and the election of Xavier Espinosa, January 1868: the power +of the president to imprison persons regarded as dangerous to public +order was annulled; and the immediate naturalization of Bolivians, +Chilians, Peruvians and Colombians was authorized. Espinosa had hardly +entered on his office when, in August 1868, the country was visited by +an earthquake, in which 30,000 people are said to have perished +throughout South America. The public buildings of Quito were laid in +ruins; and Ibarra, Otavalo, Cotacachi and several other towns were +completely destroyed. Next year a revolution at Quito, under Moreno, +brought Espinosa's presidency to a close; and though the national +convention appointed Carvajal to the vacant office, Moreno succeeded in +securing his own election in 1870 for a term of six years. His policy +had undergone no alteration since 1865: the same persistent endeavour +was made to establish a religious despotism, in which the supremacy of +the president should be subordinate only to the higher supremacy of the +clergy. + +President Moreno was eventually assassinated at Quito, in August 1875, +and Dr Borrero was elected to the presidency, but his tenure of power +was short. A revolution headed by General Veintemilla, the Radical +leader, then military commandant at Guayaquil, broke out in 1876, and on +the 14th of December of that year the government forces under General +Aparicio were completely routed at Galte. Veintemilla was proclaimed +president, and in 1877 was duly elected by the cortes. He altered the +constitution in a more Liberal direction, and struck various blows at +the Clerical party, among other things abolishing the concordat with +Rome. In 1878 Veintemilla caused himself to be declared elected as +president for a term of four years. At the expiration of this period the +president assumed dictatorial powers and remained in office as chief of +the executive. This action on the part of General Veintemilla led to a +union between the Clericals and Moderate Liberals, and resulted in a +popular rising throughout the republic, ending in his defeat and +overthrow. His power was first restricted to Guayaquil and Esmeraldas, +and finally General Rinaldo Flores drove him from Guayaquil, and +Veintemilla fled (July 1883) to Peru. Dr Placido Caamano was then called +upon to take charge temporarily, and on the 17th of February 1884 was +definitely elected for the presidential period terminating in 1888. +Several revolutionary outbreaks occurred during the Caamano +administration, but were successfully suppressed. In 1888 Dr Antonio +Flores succeeded Caamano, the four years following being passed in +peaceful conditions. In 1892 Dr Luis Cordero was elected, his +administration again plunging the country into an epoch of internal +disturbance. + +The cause of the troubles under President Cordero was the assistance +lent by Ecuador to Chile in the matter of the sale of the cruiser +_Esmeralda_ to the Japanese government in 1894, in the middle of the +Japanese-Chinese War. The government of Chile arranged the sale of the +_Esmeralda_, but wished to be free from all danger of international +complications in the affair. To this end the transfer of the vessel was +made to Ecuador, and she proceeded to Ecuadorian waters. On arriving at +the Galapagos Islands the flag of Ecuador was replaced by that of Japan +and the vessel handed over to the representatives of that nation sent +for the purpose. When the part played by President Cordero in this +transaction became known, an outburst of popular indignation occurred. +An insurrection, headed by General Eloy Alfaro, followed; and after +desultory skirmishing extending over a period of nearly a year the +government forces were finally routed, President Cordero abandoning his +office and escaping from the country. + +General Alfaro then assumed dictatorial powers as supreme chief of the +nation, continuing in this capacity until the 6th of February 1897, on +which date he was declared to be elected president of the republic. A +series of revolutionary movements against the administration of +President Alfaro occurred in the course of the next few years. Many of +these risings were due to the intrigues of the Church party, and in view +of these circumstances President Alfaro curtailed the influence of the +clergy in several directions. On the 31st of August 1901 General Alfaro +peacefully handed over the presidency to his elected successor, General +Leonidas Plaza. + +General Plaza continued the anticlerical policy of his predecessor. +Civil marriage and divorce were introduced, and in 1904 all religions +were placed on a position of equality in the eye of the law, and the +foundation of new monasteries and convents was forbidden. The final year +of Plaza's tenure of office was marked by a still stronger measure, all +the property of the church being declared to be national property, and +let to the highest bidders. In 1905 the Opposition made an effort to +effect a change of policy, and were successful in obtaining the election +of Lizaro Garcia, a well-to-do merchant and a director of the Banco +commercial y Agricola. General Alfaro, however, appealed to arms, +ejected Garcia from office, and made himself ruler with practically +dictatorial powers. + +The more recent history of Ecuador would not be complete without a +reference to the work of Mr Archer Harman (b. 1860), an American railway +builder and financier whose connexion with the construction of the +Guayaquil and Quito railway began in 1897. To his personal energy and +enterprise, as manager of the railway company, was largely due the +continued prosecution of this difficult engineering undertaking, in +connexion with which he was responsible for a thorough reconstruction of +Ecuador finance. He thus came to exercise a powerful influence on the +internal progress of the country. + + See C.E. Akers, _History of South America, 1854-1904_ (London, 1904); + H.W. Bates, _Central and South America_ (London, 1882); Pedro F. + Cevallos, _Resumen de la historia del Ecuador_ (Guayaquil, 1886); Hans + Meyer, _In den Hoch-Anden von Ecuador_ (Berlin 1907); A.H. Keane, + _Stanford's Compendium_, vol. i. (1904); W. Reiss and A. Stubel, _Das + Hochgebirge der Republik Ecuador_ (Berlin, 1892-1898); Edward Whymper, + _Travels amongst the Great Andes of the Equator_ (London, 1892); T. + Wolf, _Geografia y geologia del Ecuador_ (Leipzig, 1892); A. Stubel, + _Skizzen aus Ecuador_ (Berlin, 1886); _Die Vulkanberge von Ecuador_ + (Berlin, 1897); _Handbook of Ecuador_ (Bureau of the American + Republics, Washington, 1892); _The World's Work_, vol. ii. pp. + 1271-1277; _Engineering News_ (New York), vol. 52, pp. 117-119; + _Bulletin of Internat. Bureau of American Republics_ for July 1900, p. + 26, and for August 1908, pp. 280-282; _Thirty-fifth Annual Report of + the Council of Foreign Bondholders_, pp. 115, 117. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] See J. Siemiradzki, "Geologische Reisenotizen aus Ecuador," + _Neues Jahrb. f. Min._, Beil. Band iv. (1886, pp. 195-227, pl. vii.); + Th. Wolf, _Geografia y geologia del Ecuador, publicada por orden del + Supremo Gobierno de la Republica_ (Leipzig, 1892); W. Reiss and A. + Stubel, _Reisen in Sud-America. Das Hochgebirge der Republik Ecuador_ + (Berlin, 1892-1902). + + + + +ECZEMA (Gr. [Greek: ekzema], a cutaneous eruption), one of the most +common and important of all skin diseases, consisting of a catarrhal +inflammation of the skin originating without visible external +irritation, and characterized in some stage of its evolution by a serous +exudation. This definition excludes all those forms of inflammation of +the skin (dermatitis), which though they may be identical in course and +manifestation are yet caused by chemical or mechanical irritants. For an +attack of eczema two conditions are necessary: a predisposition or +special irritability of the skin, and a directly exciting cause. The +first of these conditions is usually inherited or depends on some +underlying constitutional state. Thus any organic lesion which may +produce oedema and malnutrition of the cutis and epidermis as in kidney +diseases, any condition of imperfect metabolism as in dyspepsia or +malnutrition, or seborrhoea, may be the predisposing cause. Another +influence that has received increasing attention from skin specialists +is that of any nervous shock or prolonged mental strain. A "chill" is +followed in most people by an ordinary cold, but in some by an attack of +eczema. Again, it may be caused by reflex nervous irritation from the +uterus, stomach, &c. In some women it always accompanies menstruation, +and in others pregnancy. It is of common occurrence in infancy, being +attributed by some specialists to dentition, but by others to +seborrhoea. Also there is an undoubted relationship between eczema and +certain forms of functional neurosis, of which perhaps asthma is the +most striking illustration, some physicians considering the latter +trouble to be eczema of the bronchial tubes. Sufferers from rheumatism +and gout are also specially prone to eczema, though the exact +relationship is a much disputed point. There are yet other cases that +are undoubtedly microbic, but the micro-organism cannot produce the +lesion unless the soil is suitable. As a rule it is not contagious, +though when complicated by micro-organisms it may be auto-inoculable, or +more rarely inoculable from one patient to another. Except between the +ages of ten and twenty years when menstruation is becoming established, +and again at the menopause, males are more liable to be attacked than +females. In old age the sex influence is lost. + +An attack of eczema is usually described as acute or chronic, but the +only distinction lies in the greater or less intensity of the +inflammation at the time of description: it has nothing to do with the +length of time that the disease has lasted. The illness usually begins +with a feeling of itching and burning at the site of the lesion. The +skin becomes covered with an erythematous blush, on which numerous tiny +vesicles form. Swelling, heat, redness and tension are all present. The +vesicles grow larger, run together, and either burst or are broken by +the patient's scratching, a clear fluid exuding which stiffens linen. +The discharge does not dry up at once, but continues to exude--hence the +name of "weeping eczema" when this is a prominent symptom. In mild cases +the symptoms begin to subside in a few days, the exudation growing less +and scales and scabs forming, under which new skin is formed. But where +the attack is more acute fresh crops of vesicles spring up and the +process repeats itself. In some cases papules are the predominant +lesions, but in others, especially when the face is attacked, the +erythematous condition is more marked. A severe attack of eczema is +usually accompanied by some slight constitutional disturbance, but the +general health seldom suffers appreciably, unless, as occasionally, the +itching is so bad as to make sleep impossible. The irritation and local +heat may be out of all proportion to visible changes in the skin, and in +neurotic patients the nervous excitement may be extreme. The attack may +centre itself on any part of the body, but there are certain places +where it more usually begins, such as the bends of the elbows, the backs +of the knees and the groins; the groove behind the ears, the scalp, the +palms or the soles, and the breasts of women. According to its position +the form of the eczema is somewhat modified. On the front of the legs +and arms, from the uniform redness it exhibits in these positions, it is +known as eczema rubrum. On the scalp it is generally of the seborrhoeic +type, and in children, especially when pediculi are present, it will +become pustular from microbic infection. On the palms and soles it +brings about a thickening of the epidermis which leads to the formation +of cracks, and is hence called eczema rimosum. + +The disease can best be treated by a combination of internal and +external remedies. Internally, when the inflammation is acute, nothing +is so good as antimony, since this relieves the arterial tension and +thus reduces the local inflammation. But this must never be given when +the patient is suffering from depression. In other cases, especially for +babies and children, small doses of calomel are very beneficial; +strychnine, phosphorus and ergot are all useful at times. When nervous +excitement is marked it must be treated with sedatives. Arsenic and iron +are both contra-indicated in this disease, since they increase blood +formation and hence stimulate the eczematous process. Internal treatment +is always best when combined with local treatment, but as a preliminary +to this all crusts and scales must first be removed to allow the remedy +free access to the disease. Locally the aim is (1) to overcome any +source of irritation, (2) to protect the inflamed surface from the air +and from microbic infection, and (3) to relieve the itching. The diet +should be simple but nourishing, and all hygienic precautions must be +taken. + + + + +EDAM, a town of Holland in the province of North Holland, close to the +Zuider Zee, about 13 m. N.N.E. of Amsterdam by steam tramway. It is +connected with the Zuider Zee by a fine canal protected by a large +sea-lock (1828), and has regular steam-boat communication in various +directions. Pop. (1900) 6444. The many quaint old brick houses form the +chief feature of interest in the town. The facades are frequently +adorned with carvings and inscriptions, one of which records the legend +of the capture of a siren in 1403, who lived for some time among the +people of Edam, but escaped again to the sea. The Great Church of St +Nicholas, probably founded in the 14th century, was largely rebuilt +after a fire in 1602, which, originating in the church, destroyed nearly +the whole town. It contains some fine stained glass and carved woodwork +of this period. The Little Church (15th century) was demolished in 1883, +except for a portion of the nave and the old tower and steeple, from +which the bells curiously project. The town hall dates from 1737, and +there is a museum founded in 1895. Edam has some trade in timber, while +shipbuilding, rope-spinning and salt-boiling are also carried on. It +gives its name to the description of "sweet-milk cheese" (_zoetemelks +kaas_) made throughout North Holland, which is familiar on account of +its round shape and red rind. + +Edam took its name and origin from the dam built on the little river Ye +which joined the great Purmer lake close by. Free access to the Zuider +Zee was obtained by the construction of a new dock in 1357, in which +year the town also received civic rights from William V. of Bavaria, +count of Holland. Owing to the danger of the extension of the Purmer and +Beemster lakes, Philip II. of Spain caused a sluice to be built into the +dock in 1567. In the next century Edam was a great shipbuilding centre, +and nearly the whole of Admiral de Ruyter's fleet was built here; but in +the same century the harbour began to get blocked up, and the importance +and industrial activity of the city slowly waned. + + + + +EDDA, the title given to two very remarkable collections of old +Icelandic literature. Of these only one bears that title from antiquity; +the other is called _Edda_ by a comparatively modern misnomer. The word +is unknown to any ancient northern language, and is first met with in +_Rigspula_, a fragmentary poem at the end of Codex Wormianus, dated +about 1200, where it is introduced as the name or title of a +great-grandmother. From the 14th to the 17th century, this word--but no +one has formed a reasonable conjecture why--was used to signify the +technical laws of Icelandic court metre, _Eddu regla_, and "Never to +have seen Edda" was a modest apology for ignorance of the highest poetic +art. The only work known by this name to the ancients was the +miscellaneous group of writings put together by Snorri Sturlason (q.v.; +1178-1241), the greatest name in old Scandinavian literature. It is +believed that the _Edda_, as he left it, was completed about 1222. +Whether he gave this name to the work is doubtful; the title first +occurs in the Upsala Codex, transcribed about fifty years after his +death. The collection of Snorri is now known as the _Prose or Younger +Edda_, the title of the _Elder Edda_ being given to a book of ancient +mythological poems, discovered by the Icelandic bishop of Skalaholt, +Brynjulf Sveinsson, in 1643, and erroneously named by him the _Edda of +Saemund_. + +1. The Prose _Edda_, properly known as _Edda Snorra Sturlusonar_, was +arranged and modified by Snorri, but actually composed, as has been +conjectured, between the years 1140 and 1160. It is divided into five +parts, the Preface or _Formali_, _Gylfaginning_, _Bragaraedur_, +_Skaldskaparmal_ and _Hattatal_. The preface bears a very modern +character, and simply gives a history of the world from Adam and Eve, in +accordance with the Christian tradition. _Gylfaginning_, or the Delusion +of Gylfi, on the other hand, is the most precious compendium which we +possess of the mythological system of the ancient inhabitants of +Scandinavia. Commencing with the adventures of a mythical king Gylfi and +the giantess Gefion, and the miraculous formation of the island of +Zealand, it tells us that the Aesir, led by Odin, invaded Svithjod or +Sweden, the land of Gylfi, and settled there. It is from the +_Ynglingasaga_ and from the _Gylfaginning_ that we gain all the +information we possess about the conquering deities or heroes who set +their stamp upon the religion of the North. Advancing from the Black Sea +northwards through Russia, and westward through Esthonia, the Aesir seem +to have overrun the south lands of Scandinavia, not as a horde but as an +immigrant aristocracy. The Eddaic version, however, of the history of +the gods is not so circumstantial as that in the _Ynglingasaga_; it is, +on the other hand, distinguished by an exquisite simplicity and archaic +force of style, which give an entirely classical character to its +mythical legends of Odin and of Loki. The _Gylfaginning_ is written in +prose, with brief poetic insertions. The _Bragaraedur_, or sayings of +Bragi, are further legends of the deities, attributed to Bragi, the god +of poetry, or to a poet of the same name. The _Skaldskaparmal_, or Art +of Poetry, commonly called _Skalda_, contains the instructions given by +Bragi to Aegir, and consists of the rules and theories of ancient verse, +exemplified in copious extracts from Eyvindr Skaldaspillir and other +eminent Icelandic poets. The word _Skaldskapr_ refers to the form rather +than the substance of verse, and this treatise is almost solely +technical in character. It is by far the largest of the sections of the +_Edda_ of Snorri, and comprises not only extracts but some long poems, +notably the _Thorsdrapa_ of Eilifr Gudrunarson and the _Haustlaung_ of +Thjodolfr. The fifth section of the _Edda_, the _Hattatal_, or Number of +Metres, is a running technical commentary on the text of Snorri's three +poems written in honour of Haakon, king of Norway. Affixed to some MS. +of the _Younger Edda_ are a list of poets, and a number of philological +treatises and grammatical studies. These belong, however, to a later +period than the life of Snorri Sturlason. + + The three oldest MSS. of the prose _Edda_ all belong to the beginning + of the 14th century. The Wurm MS. was sent to Ole Wurm in 1628; the + Codex Regius was discovered by the indefatigable bishop Brynjulf + Sveinsson in 1640. The most important, however, of these MSS. is the + Upsala Codex, an octavo volume written probably about the year 1300. + There have been several good editions of the _Edda Snorra + Sturlusonar_, of which perhaps the best is that published by the + Arne-Magnaean Society in Copenhagen in 1848-1852, in two vols., edited + by a group of scholars under the direction of Jon Sigurdsson. There + are English translations by T. Percy, _Northern Antiquities_, from the + French by P.H. Mallet (1770); by G. Webbe Dasent (Stockholm, 1842); by + R.B. Anderson (Chicago, 1880). + +2. The Elder _Edda_, Poetic _Edda_ or _Saemundar Edda hins froda_ was +entirely unknown until about 1643, when it came into the hands of +Brynjulf Sveinsson, who, puzzled to classify it, gave it the title of +_Edda Saemundi multiscii_. Saemund Sigfusson, who was thus credited with +the collection of these poems, was a scion of the royal house of Norway, +and lived from about 1055 to 1132 in Iceland. The poems themselves date +in all probability from the 10th and 11th centuries, and are many of +them only fragments of longer heroic chants now otherwise entirely lost. +They treat of mythical and religious legends of an early Scandinavian +civilization, and are composed in the simplest and most archaic forms of +Icelandic verse. The author of no one of them is mentioned. It is +evident that they were collected from oral tradition; and the fact that +the same story is occasionally repeated, in varied form, and that some +of the poems themselves bear internal evidence of being more ancient +than others, proves that the present collection is only a gathering made +early in the middle ages, long after the composition of the pieces, and +in no critical spirit. Sophus Bugge, indeed, one of the greatest +authorities, absolutely rejects the name of Saemund, and is of opinion +that the poetic _Edda_, as we at present hold it, dates from about 1240. +There is no doubt that it was collected in Iceland, and by an Icelander. + +The most remarkable and the most ancient of the poems in this priceless +collection is that with which it commences, the _Voluspa_, or prophecy +of the Volva or Sibyl. In this chant we listen to an inspired +prophetess, "seated on her high seat, and addressing Odin, while the +gods listen to her words." + +She sings of the world before the gods were made, of the coming and the +meeting of the Aesir, of the origin of the giants, dwarfs and men, of +the happy beginning of all things, and the sad ending that shall be in +the chaos of Ragnarok. The latter part of the poem is understood to be a +kind of necromancy--according to Vigfusson, "the raising of a dead +volva"; but the mystical language of the whole, its abrupt transitions +and terse condensations, and above all the extinct and mysterious +cosmology, an acquaintance with which it presupposes, make the exact +interpretation of the _Voluspa_ extremely difficult. The charm and +solemn beauty of the style, however, are irresistible, and we are +constrained to listen and revere as if we were the auditors of some +fugual music devised in honour of a primal and long-buried deity. The +melodies of this earliest Icelandic verse, elaborate in their extreme +and severe simplicity, are wholly rhythmical and alliterative, and +return upon themselves like a solemn incantation. _Havamal_, the Lesson +of the High One, or Odin, follows next; this contains proverbs and wise +saws, and a series of stories, some of them comical, told by Odin +against himself. The _Vafprudnismal_, or Lesson of Vafprudnir, is +written in the same mystical vein as _Voluspa_; in it the giant who +gives his name to the poem is visited by Odin in disguise, and is +questioned by him about the cosmogony and chronology of the Norse +religion. _Grimnismal_, or the Sayings of The Hooded One, which is +partly in prose, is a story of Odin's imprisonment and torture by King +Geirrod. _For Skirnis_, or the Journey of Skirnir, _Harbardsliod_, or +the Lay of Hoarbeard, _Hymiskvida_, or the Song of Hymir, and +_Aegisdrekka_, or the Brewing of Aegir, are poems, frequently composed +as dialogue, containing legends of the gods, some of which are so +ludicrous that it has been suggested that they were intentionally +burlesque. _Thrymskvida_, or the Song of Thrym, possesses far more +poetic interest; it recounts in language of singular force and +directness how Thor lost his hammer, stolen by Thrym the giant, how the +latter refused to give it up unless the goddess Freyia was given him in +marriage, and how Thor, dressed in women's raiment, personated Freyia, +and, slaying Thrym, recovered his hammer. _Alvissmal_, or the Wisdom of +Allwise, is actually a philological exercise under the semblance of a +dialogue between Thor and Alvis the dwarf. In _Vegtamskvida_, or the +Song of Vegtam, Odin questions a volva with regard to the meaning of the +sinister dreams of Balder. _Rigsmal_, or more properly _Rigspula_, +records how the god Heimdall, disguised as a man called Rig, wandered by +the sea-shore, where he met the original dwarf pair, Ai and Edda, to +whom he gave the power of child-bearing, and thence sprung the whole +race of thralls; then he went on and met with Afi and Amma, and made +them the parents of the race of churls; then he proceeded until he came +to Fadir and Modir, to whom he gave Jarl, the first of free men, whom he +himself brought up, teaching him to shoot and snare, and to use the +sword and runes. It is much to be lamented that of this most +characteristic and picturesque poem we possess only a fragment. In +_Hyndluljod_, the Lay of Hyndla, the goddess Freyia rides to question +the volva Hyndla with regard to the ancestry of her young paramour +Ottar; a very fine quarrel ensues between the prophetess and her +visitor. With this poem, the first or wholly mythological portion of the +collection closes. What follows is heroic and pseudo-historic. The +_Volundarkvida_, or Song of Volundr, is engaged with the adventures of +Volundr, the smith-king, during his stay with Nidud, king of Sweden. +Volundr, identical with the Anglo-Saxon Weland and the German Wieland +(O.H.G. _Wiolant_), is sometimes confused with Odin, the master-smith. +This poem contains the beautiful figure of Svanhvit, the swan-maiden, +who stays seven winters with Volundr, and then, yearning for her +fatherland, flies away home through the dark forest. _Helgakvida, +Hiorvards sonar_, the Song of Helgi, the Son of Hiorvard, which is +largely in prose, celebrates the wooing by Helgi of Svava, who, like +Atalanta, ends by loving the man with whom she has fought in battle. Two +Songs of Helgi the Hunding's Bane, _Helgakvida Hundingsbana_, open the +long and very important series of lays relating to the two heroic +families of the Volsungs and the Niblungs. Including the poems just +mentioned, there are about twenty distinct pieces in the poetic _Edda_ +which deal more or less directly with this chain of stories. It is +hardly necessary to give the titles of these poems here in detail, +especially as they are, in their present form, manifestly only fragments +of a great poetic saga, possibly the earliest coherent form of the story +so universal among the Teutonic peoples. We happily possess a somewhat +later prose version of this lost poem in the _Volsungasaga_, where the +story is completely worked out. In many places the prose of the +_Volsungasaga_ follows the verse of the Eddaic fragments with the +greatest precision, often making use of the very same expressions. At +the same time there are poems in the _Edda_ which the author of the saga +does not seem to have seen. But if we compare the central portions of +the myth, namely Sigurd's conversation with Fafnir, the death of Regin, +the speech of the birds and the meeting with the Valkyrje, we are struck +with the extreme fidelity of the prose romancer to his poetic precursors +in the _Sigurdarkvida Fafnisbana_; in passing on to the death of Sigurd, +we perceive that the version in the _Volsungasaga_ must be based upon a +poem now entirely lost. Of the origin of the myth and its independent +development in medieval Germany, this is not the place for discussion +(see NIBELUNGENLIED). Suffice to say that in no modernized or Germanized +form does the legend attain such an exquisite colouring of heroic poetry +as in these earliest fragments of Icelandic song. A very curious poem, +in some MSS. attributed directly to Saemund, is the Song of the Sun, +_Solarliod_, which forms a kind of appendix to the poetic _Edda_. In +this the spirit of a dead father addresses his living son, and exhorts +him, with maxims that resemble those of _Havamal_, to righteousness of +life. The tone of the poem is strangely confused between Christianity +and Paganism, and it has been assumed to be the composition of a writer +in the act of transition between the old creed and the new. It may, +however, not impossibly, be altogether spurious as a poem of great +antiquity, and may merely be the production of some Icelandic monk, +anxious to imitate the Eddaic form and spirit. Finally _Forspjallsljod_, +or the Preamble, formerly known as the Song of Odin's Raven, is an +extremely obscure fragment, of which little is understood, although +infinite scholarship has been expended on it. With this the poetic +_Edda_ closes. + + The principal MS. of this _Edda_ is the Codex Regius in the royal + library at Copenhagen, written continuously, without regard to prose + or verse, on 45 vellum leaves. This is that found by Bishop Brynjulf. + Another valuable fragment exists in the Arne-Magnaean collection in + the University of Copenhagen, consisting of four sheets, 22 leaves in + all. These are the only MSS. older than the 17th century which contain + a collection of the ancient mythico-heroic lays, but fragments occur + in various other works, and especially in the _Edda_ of Snorri. It is + believed to have been written between 1260 and 1280. The poetic _Edda_ + was translated into English verse by Amos Cottle in 1797; the poet + Gray produced a version of the _Vegtamskvida_; but the first good + translation of the whole was that published by Benjamin Thorpe in + 1866. An excellent edition of the Icelandic text has been prepared by + Th. Mobius, but the standard of the original orthography will be found + in the admirable edition of Sophus Bugge, _Norroen Fornkvaedi_, + published at Christiania in 1867. + + The Eddaic poems were rearranged, on a system of their own which + differs entirely from that of the early MSS., by Gudbrand Vigfusson + and F. York Powell, in their _Corpus poeticum boreale_ (Oxford, 1883). + This is a collection, not of _Edda_ only but of all existing fragments + of the vast lyrical literature of ancient Iceland. It supplies a prose + translation. (E. G.) + + + + +EDDIUS (AEDDI), a Kentish choirmaster, summoned by Wilfrid (c. 634-709), +bishop of York, to help in organizing church services in Northumbria. He +wrote the _Life_ of his patron, and this biography of St Wilfrid is the +earliest extant historical work compiled by an Anglo-Saxon author. He is +a strong partisan and very credulous, but the _Vita Wilfridi_ is +nevertheless invaluable for the period it treats. Its date is little +after the first decade of the 8th century, and it was used by Bede in +compiling his _Historia_. + + See Eddius, _Vita Wilfridi_ (Raine, _Historians of Church of York_, + London, 1879-1894), 14; Bede, _Hist. Eccl._ (Plummer, Oxford, 1896), + iii. 2. + + + + +EDELINCK, GERARD (1649-1707), Flemish copper-plate engraver, was born at +Antwerp. The rudiments of the art, which he was to carry to a higher +pitch of excellence than it had previously reached, he acquired in his +native town under the engraver Cornelisz Galle. But he was not long in +reaching the limits of his master's attainments; and then he went to +Paris to improve himself under the teaching of De Poilly. This master +likewise had soon done all he could to help him onwards, and Edelinck +ultimately took the first rank among line engravers. His excellence was +generally acknowledged; and having become known to Louis XIV. he was +appointed, on the recommendation of Le Brun, teacher at the academy +established at the Gobelins for the training of workers in tapestry. He +was also entrusted with the execution of several important works. In +1677 he was admitted member of the Paris Academy of Painting and +Sculpture. The work of this great engraver constitutes an epoch in the +art. His prints number more than four hundred. + +Edelinck stands above and apart from his predecessors and contemporaries +in that he excelled, not in some one respect, but in all respects,--that +while one engraver attained excellence in correct form, and another in +rendering light and shade, and others in giving colour to their prints +and the texture of surfaces, he, as supreme master of the burin, +possessed and displayed all these separate qualities, in so complete a +harmony that the eye is not attracted by any one of them in particular, +but rests in the satisfying whole. Edelinck was the first to break +through the custom of making prints square, and to execute them in the +lozenge shape. Among his most famous works are a "Holy Family," after +Raphael; a "Penitent Magdalene," after Charles le Brun; "Alexander at +the Tent of Darius," after Le Brun; a "Combat of Four Knights," after +Leonardo da Vinci; "Christ surrounded with Angels"; "St Louis praying"; +and "St Charles Borromeo before a crucifix,"--the last three after Le +Brun. Edelinck was especially good as an engraver of portraits, and +executed prints of many of the most eminent persons of his time. Among +these are those of Le Brun, Rigaud, Philippe de Champagne (which the +engraver thought his best), Santeuil, La Fontaine, Colbert, John Dryden, +Descartes, &c. He died at Paris in 1707. His younger brother John, and +his son Nicholas, were also engravers, but did not attain to his +excellence. + + + + +EDELWEISS, known botanically as _Leontopodium alpinum_, a member of the +family _Compositae_, a native of the Alps of Central Europe. It is a +small herb reaching about 6 in. high, with narrow white woolly leaves, +and terminal flower-heads enveloped in woolly bracts. The woolly +covering enables the plant to thrive in the exposed situations in which +it is found, by protecting it from cold and from drying up through +excessive loss of moisture. It is grown in Britain as a rock-plant. + + + + +EDEN, SIR ASHLEY (1831-1887), Anglo-Indian official and diplomatist, +third son of Robert John Eden, third Lord Auckland and bishop of Bath +and Wells, was born on the 13th of November 1831, and was educated at +Rugby, Winchester and the East India Company's college at Haileybury, +entering the Indian civil service in 1852. In 1855 he gained distinction +as assistant to the special commissioner for the suppression of the +Santal rising, and in 1860 was appointed secretary to the Bengal +government with an _ex officio_ seat on the legislative council, a +position he held for eleven years. In 1861 he negotiated, as political +agent, a treaty with the raja of Sikkim. His success led to his being +sent on a similar mission to Bhutan in 1863; but, being unaccompanied by +any armed force, his demands were rejected and he was forced under +circumstances of personal insult to come to an arrangement highly +favourable to the Bhutias. The result was the repudiation of the treaty +by the Indian government and the declaration of war against Bhutan. In +1871 Eden became the first civilian governor of British Burma, which +post he held until his appointment in 1877 as lieutenant-governor of +Bengal. In 1878 he was made a K.C.S.I., and in 1882 resigned the +lieutenant-governorship and returned to England on his appointment to +the council of the secretary of state for India, of which he remained a +member till his death on the 8th of July 1887. The success of his +administration of Bengal was attested by the statue erected in his +honour at Calcutta after his retirement. + + + + +EDEN, the name of the region in which, according to the Hebrew +paradise-tradition in its present form, God planted a garden (or park), +wherein he put the man whom he had formed (Gen. ii. 8). Research into +primitive beliefs, guided by the comparative method, leads to the view +that the "garden" was originally a celestial locality (see PARADISE), +and we cannot therefore be surprised if, now that paradise has been +brought down to earth, the geographical details given in the Bible are +rather difficult to work into a consistent picture. The fantastic +geography of the (Indian) _Vishnu Purana_ and the (Iranian) _Bundahish_ +will, in this case, be a striking parallel. + +Let us now take the details of Eden as they occur. In Gen. ii. 8 we read +that the garden lay "in Eden eastward," where "eastward" is generally +taken to mean "in the east of the earth." This, however, seems +inconsistent with Isa. xiv. 13, where the "mountain of God," which +corresponds (see Ezek. xxviii. 13, 14 and the article ADAM) to the +"garden in Eden," is said to have been "in the uttermost parts of the +north" (so R.V.). The former statement ("eastward") suits Babylonia, +where Friedrich Delitzsch[1] places Eden; the latter does not. We are +further told (v. 10) that "a river went out from Eden to water the +garden," and that "from thence it parted itself (?), and became four +heads (?)," which is commonly understood to mean that the river was so +large that, soon after leaving the garden ("from thence" is all that the +text says), it could still supply four considerable streams (the text +says, not "streams," but "heads," i.e. perhaps "beginnings" or +"starting-points"). In _vv._ 11-14 the names of four rivers are given, +but in spite of the descriptive supplements attached to three of them, +only that one which has no supplement can be identified with much +probability. In fact, Perath may without any obvious difficulty be +"Euphrates," except in Jer. xiii., where a more southerly stream seems +indicated, but to the identification of "Hiddekel" with "Tigris" +(Babylonian Diglat) the presence of the initial _Hi_ in the Hebrew is an +objection. Now as to "Pishon" and "Gihon." If a moderately early +tradition may be trusted, the "Gihon" is another name for the "Shihor," +which was either in or beside "Mizraim" (= Egypt) or Mizrim (= the North +Arabian Musri), and indeed according to most scholars means the Nile in +Jer. ii. 18, where the Septuagint substitutes for it Geon, i.e. Gihon. +For "Pishon" few plausible suggestions have been made; it is not, +however, a hopeless problem from the point of view which recognizes Eden +in Arabia. + +For details of the interesting descriptive supplements of the names +Pishon, Gihon, and Hiddekel, on which there is much difference of +opinion, it must suffice to refer to the _Encyclopaedia Biblica_ and +Hasting's _Dictionary of the Bible_. We must, however, mention a widely +held explanation of the name _Eden_. Plausible as it is to interpret +this name as "delight"--indeed, the Septuagint translates in Gen. iii. +23 f. [Greek: ho paradeisos tes tryphes]--this cannot have been the +original meaning. Hence Delitzsch (_Wo lag das Paradies?_ p. 79) +suggested that "Eden" might be a Hebraized form of the Babylonian +_edinu_, "field, plain, desert." But whereas Delitzsch takes "Eden" to +be the entire plain of Babylonia, Hommel thinks that it is rather the +plain about the sacred city of Eridu. It is the latter scholar to whom +the "Arabian theory" of Paradise in its best-known form is due. The +rivers (apart from Perath, "Euphrates") he locates in northern and +central Arabia, the "Cush" and "Asshur" of Genesis being, according to +him, central Arabia and Edom respectively (_Ancient Hebrew Traditions_, +pp. 314-316; _Aufsatze u. Abhandlungen_, iii. 281-284, 335-339). These +rivers, in short, become Arabian wadis, on which see Hast. _D.B._ i. +132a (foot). Cheyne, on the other hand, rejects the Babylonian +explanation of Eden as = "field, plain," on the ground that "Eden" was +originally regarded as a mountainous tract. + + See further Driver, _Book of Genesis_ (1904), pp. 57-60; _Ency. Bib._ + "Paradise"; and the commentaries of Gunkel (2nd ed., 1902), and Cheyne + (1907). (T. K. C.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] _Wo lag das Paradies?_ p. 66. A Sumerian name of Babylon was + Tin-ter, "dwelling of life." Cf. Babilu, Babili, "gate of God." + + + + +EDENBRIDGE, a market town in the south-western parliamentary division of +Kent, England, 26 m. S.S.E. of London, on the South-Eastern & Chatham, +and the London, Brighton & South Coast railways. Pop. (1901) 2546. It is +pleasantly situated on the river Eden, an affluent of the Medway, in a +valley between the Ragstone Hills and the Forest Ridges. The church of +St Peter and St Paul is principally Perpendicular. The town, which has +considerable agricultural trade, possesses a chalybeate spring, but this +is little used. Two miles from the town is Hever Castle, a beautiful +moated mansion dating from the 15th and 16th centuries, but occupying +the site of an earlier structure. This was rebuilt by Sir Geoffrey +Boleyn, whose grandson, Sir Thomas, was father of Anne, second wife of +Henry VIII., who here spent much of her life before her marriage, and +was visited several times by the king. There is a chapel of her family +in the fine parish church of Hever. Not far distant is the modern +Chiddingstone Castle, on an ancient site. A block of sandstone in the +park is called the "chiding stone," tradition asserting it to be a +prehistoric seat of judgment. + + + + +EDEN HALL, LUCK OF, an old painted drinking goblet preserved at Eden +Hall, Cumberland, the seat of the Musgrave family. It is of enamelled or +painted glass and is believed to date from the 10th century. It is of +fair size and has the letters I.H.S. on the top. Round the vase is the +famous verse given below. A legend involving the fortunes of the +Musgraves attaches to this cup. In the grounds of Eden Hall is a spring +called St Cuthbert's Well, and the story is that one of the earliest of +the Musgraves surprised the fairies feasting and making merry round the +well. He snatched at the goblet from which the Fairy King was drinking +and made off with it. The fairies pursued him to his castle, but failed +to catch him. The Fairy King acknowledged his defeat and gave the cup as +a prize to Musgrave, but warned him that the gift carried with it a +condition:-- + + "When this cup shall break or fall. + Farewell the luck of Eden Hall." + +There are variants of this legend, but substantially they agree. +Possessed of the lucky cup the knight of Musgrave is said to have at +once prospered in a love-suit which had till then gone against him. +There is a curious poem on the cup called "The Drinking Match at Eden +Hall," by Philip, duke of Wharton, a parody on the ballad of Chevy +Chase. This is reprinted in full in Edward Walford's _Tales of Great +Families_ (1877, vol. 11), under the heading, "The witty Duke of +Wharton." In Longfellow's famous poem the goblet is represented as +having been broken. + + + + +EDENKOBEN, a town of Germany, in the Bavarian Palatinate, 6 m. N. from +Landau, on the railway to Weissenburg. Pop. 5300. It has a Roman +Catholic and a Protestant church, several high-grade schools and a +sulphur-spring. Its industries comprise linen- and damask-weaving, +ironworks, and the manufacture of machinery, furniture and cigars. It +has also a considerable trade in wine. + + + + +EDENTATA, the name assigned by Cuvier to an order of placental mammals +apparently typified by the South American anteater, but likewise +including the sloths and armadillos of the same country, and the Old +World aard-varks and pangolins. Only the anteaters and pangolins are +absolutely without teeth (Lat. _e_, out, _dens_, tooth), and the name is +strictly applicable only to those two groups; but in all the existing +representatives of the order teeth are absent from the front of the +jaws, while the cheek-teeth are devoid of roots and of enamel, and only +very exceptionally have deciduous predecessors. Practically this is all +the definition that can be given to the assemblage, which is possibly an +artificial one. It may be mentioned, however, that there is not +unfrequently a separate coracoid bone. + +Edentates may be divided into three distinct sections or suborders, +firstly the Xenarthra, or Edentata Vera, of America, secondly the +Tubulidenta, represented by the African aard-varks, and thirdly the +Pholidota, which includes only the pangolins common to Africa and Asia. +The Xenarthra are essentially a South and Central American group, some +of the members of which have effected an entrance into North America. +The three families by which they are now represented are widely +sundered, both as regards habits and structure; but two of them--the +sloths and the anteaters--are intimately connected by means of the +extinct ground-sloths. As regards the presumed relationship of the Old +World to the New World types, it is noteworthy that in the early +Tertiary deposits of France and Germany are found certain fossil remains +apparently referable to armadillos, aard-varks and pangolins, some of +the armadillos coming very close to South American forms. This +assemblage of three groups of edentates in the countries fringing +northern Africa is suggestive that the latter continent may have been +the original home of the group, which reached South America by means of +a direct land connexion. + +_Xenarthra._--The typical American edentates, or Xenarthra, are +characterized by the circumstance that the last dorsal and all the +lumbar vertebrae carry additional articular facets, or abnormal +articulations (xenarthral). Teeth may be absent or present, and when +developed either all similar (homaeodont) or to some extent +differentiated. The bodily covering may take the form either of coarse +hairs, or of bony plates, with a larger or smaller intermixture of +hairs. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Skull of Unau or Two-toed Sloth (_Choloepus +didactylus_).] + +Of the three existing families of this group, the first is that of the +_Bradypodidae_, or sloths, characterized by the presence of five pairs +of upper and four of lower teeth, the normally-formed tongue and the +rudimentary tail. The species are arboreal and feed on leaves; all being +confined to the forests of tropical America. Externally sloths are +clothed with long coarse, crisp hair; the head is short and rounded, and +the external ears inconspicuous. The teeth are subcylindrical, of +persistent growth, consisting of a central axis of vasodentine, with a +thin investment of hard dentine, and a thick outer coating of cement; +without any succession. Fore-limbs greatly longer than the hind-limbs; +the extremities terminating in narrow, curved feet; with the digits +never exceeding three in number, and encased for nearly their whole +length in a common integument, and armed with long, strong claws. +Stomach complex. No caecum. Placenta deciduate and dome-like, composed +of an aggregation of numerous discoidal lobes. + +A remarkable feature connected with sloths is the development of a green +colour in their hair, due to the growth of an alga. According to Dr +W.G. Ridewood, in the three-toed sloth the hair is invested with a thick +extra-cortical layer. "The hair has a tendency to crack in a transverse +direction, and in the cracks there come to lodge unicellular algae, to +which Kuhn has given the name _Pleurococcus bradypi_. The moisture of +the climate in which _Bradypus_ lives enables the alga to live and +propagate in this curious position, and the sloth acquires a general +green tint which must render it very difficult to distinguish as it +hangs among the green foliage." In the two-toed sloth, on the other +hand, the bulk of the hair is composed of an outer coat, or cortex, +which is longitudinally fluted or grooved, the grooves being filled with +strands of extra-cortex in which flourishes an alga (_Pleurococcus +choloepi_) distinct from the one infesting the hairs of the three-toed +species. Of quite a different type are the hairs of the extinct +ground-sloths (see MYLODON), which are smooth and solid, Dr Ridewood +rejecting the idea that they were originally coated with a cortex that +has disappeared. + +The typical genus _Bradypus_ is represented by the various species of +ai, or three-toed sloth, in which none of the teeth project greatly +beyond the others; the first in the upper jaw is much smaller than any +of the others, while the first in the lower jaw is broad and compressed, +and the grinding surfaces of all are much cupped. Vertebrae: C 9, D and +L 20 (of which 15 to 17 bear ribs), S 6, Ca 11. All the species present +the peculiarity of possessing nine cervical vertebrae; but the ninth, +and sometimes the eighth, bears a pair of short movable ribs. The +fore-limbs are considerably longer than the hind-legs, and the bones of +the fore-arm are complete, free and capable of pronation and supination. +The fore-feet are long, very narrow, habitually curved and terminate in +three pointed curved claws, in close apposition to each other; they are, +in fact, incapable of being divaricated, so that the foot is reduced to +the condition of a triple hook, fit only for the function of suspension +from the boughs of trees. The hind-foot closely resembles the fore-foot +in general structure and mode of use, and has the sole habitually turned +inwards so that it cannot be applied to the ground in walking. The +tongue is short and soft, and the stomach large and complex, bearing +some resemblance to that of ruminants. The windpipe or trachea has the +remarkable peculiarity--not unfrequent among birds and reptiles--of +being folded on itself before it reaches the lungs. The two teats are +pectoral in position. The premaxilla is rudimentary and loosely attached +to the maxilla. Except in _B. torquatus_, there is no perforation in the +lower end of the humerus. Some of the species are covered uniformly with +a grey or greyish-brown coat; others have a dark collar of elongated +hairs around the shoulders (_B. torquatus_); some have the hair of the +face shorter than that of the rest of the head and neck; and others have +a remarkable-looking patch of soft, short hair on the back between the +shoulders, consisting, when best marked, of a median stripe of glossy +black, bordered on each side by bright orange, yellow or white. There +are also structural differences in the skulls, as in the amount of +inflation of the pterygoid bones. The habits of all are apparently +alike. They are natives of Guiana, Brazil and Peru, and two species (_B. +infuscatus_ and _B. castaneiceps_) extend north of the Isthmus of Panama +as far as Nicaragua. Of the former of these a specimen in captivity +uttered a shrill sound like a monkey when forcibly pulled away from the +tree to which it was holding. + +In the species of unau, or two-toed sloths, _Choloepus_, the front tooth +in both jaws is separated by an interval from the others, and is large +and caniniform, wearing to a sharp bevelled edge against the opposing +tooth, the upper shutting in front of the lower when the mouth is +closed, unlike true canines. Vertebrae: C 6 or 7, D 23-24, L 3, S 7-8, +Ca 4-6. One species (_C. didactylus_) has the ordinary number of +vertebrae in the neck; but an otherwise closely allied form (_C. +hoffmanni_) has but six. The tail is very rudimentary. The fore-feet +generally resemble those of _Bradypus_, but there are only two +functional digits, with claws; these answering to the second and third +of the typical five-toed limb. The structure of the hind-limb generally +resembles that of _Bradypus_, the appellation "two-toed" referring only +to the anterior limb, for in the foot the three middle toes are +functionally developed and of nearly equal size. The premaxilla is well +developed, and firmly attached to the maxilla; and there is always a +perforation, or foramen, on the inner side of the lower end of the +humerus. _C. didactylus_, which has been longest known, and is commonly +called by the native name of unau, inhabits the forests of Brazil. _C. +hoffmanni_ has a more northern geographical range, extending from +Ecuador through Panama to Costa Rica. Its voice, which is seldom heard, +is like the bleat of a sheep, and if the animal is seized it snorts +violently. Both species are very variable in external coloration (see +SLOTH). + +The second family is that of the anteaters, _Myrmecophagidae_, +distinguished from the last by the absence of teeth, the elongated +tongue and the long tail. The long and slender head has a tubular mouth, +with a small terminal aperture through which the worm-like tongue, +covered with the sticky secretion of the enormous submaxillary salivary +glands, is rapidly protruded in feeding, and withdrawn again with the +adhering particles of food which are then sucked into the gullet. In the +foot the third toe is greatly developed, and has a long sickle-like +claw; the others are reduced or suppressed. The hind-foot has four or +five subequal digits with claws. The long tail is sometimes prehensile. +Placenta dome-like or discoidal. Externally the body is covered with +hair. Anteaters feed exclusively on animal substances, mostly insects. +One species is terrestrial, the others arboreal; none burrow in the +ground. They are all inhabitants of tropical America. In the typical +genus _Myrmecophaga_ the skull is remarkably elongated and narrow, with +its upper surface smooth and cylindriform. Anteriorly the face is +produced into a long tubular rostrum, rounded above and flattened below, +with terminal nostrils, and composed of the mesethmoid (ossified for +more than half its length), the vomer, the maxillae, and the long and +narrow nasal bones, the premaxillae being extremely short and confined +to the margin of the nostrils. The zygomatic arch is incomplete, the +rod-like jugal only articulating with the maxilla in front, and not +reaching the short zygomatic process of the squamosal. The lachrymal +foramen is in front of the margin of the orbit. There are no +post-orbital processes to the frontals or any other demarcation between +the orbits and the temporal fossae. Palate extremely elongated, and +produced backwards as far as the level of the external auditory meatus +by the meeting in the middle line of the largely developed pterygoids. +The glenoid fossa for the lower jaw, a shallow oval facet, with its long +diameter from before backwards. Lower jaw long and slender, with an +exceedingly short symphysis, no distinct coronoid process, and a +slightly elevated, elongated, flattened, condylar articular surface. +Vertebrae: C 7, D 15-16, L 3-2, S 6, Ca 31. Clavicles rudimentary. In +the fore-foot the first digit is very slender, the second also slender, +with compressed phalanges of nearly equal length, but the third is +immensely developed, though its first phalanx is extremely short, while +the terminal one is so long that the entire length of the digit exceeds +that of the second. The fourth has a long and rather slender metacarpal, +and three phalanges diminishing in size, the terminal phalange being +very small. The fifth has the metacarpal nearly as long, but not so +stout as the fourth, and followed by two small phalanges, the last +rudimentary and conical. Claws are developed upon all but the fifth. In +walking the toes are kept bent, with their points turned upwards and +inwards, the weight being supported on a pad over the end of the fifth +digit, and the upper surfaces of the third and fourth digits. The hind +feet are short and rather broad, with five subequal claws, the fourth +rather longest, the first shortest; the whole sole is placed on the +ground in walking. Body rather compressed, clothed with long, coarse +hair. Tail about as long as the body, and covered with very long hair; +not prehensile. Ears small, oval, erect. Eyes very small. Stomach +consisting of a sub-globular, thin-walled, cardiac portion, and a +muscular pyloric gizzard with dense epithelial lining. No ileocolic +valve; but a short, wide, ill-defined caecum. The two teats are +pectoral. + +The tamandua anteaters (_Tamandua_, or _Uroleptes_), of which several +species (or races) are now recognized, are smaller animals than the +last, in which the head is much less elongated, the fur short and +bristly, and the tail, tapering, prehensile, with the under side +throughout, and the whole of the terminal portion naked and scaly. The +stomach is similar to that of _Myrmecophaga_, but with the muscular +pyloric gizzard less strongly developed. There is a distinct ileocolic +valve and short globular caecum. The fore-foot has a very large claw on +the third toe, moderate-sized claws on the second and fourth, a minute +one on the first, and none on the fifth, which is entirely concealed +within the skin. The hind-foot has five subequal claws. Vertebrae: C 7, +D 17, L 2, S 5, Ca 37. There are very rudimentary clavicles. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Tamandua Anteater (_Tamandua tetradactyla_).] + +The last representative of the family is the tiny golden-haired pigmy or +two-toed anteater, _Cyclopes_ (or _Cycloturus_) _didactylus_, in which +the skull is much shorter even than in the preceding genus, and arched +considerably in the longitudinal direction. It differs from that of the +other members of the family mainly in the long canal for the posterior +nostrils not being closed by bone below, as the greater part of the +palatines and the pterygoids do not meet in the middle line. The lower +jaw has a prominent, narrow, recurved coronoid, and a well-developed +angular process, and is strongly decurved in front. Vertebrae: C 7, D +16, L 2, S 4, Ca 40. Ribs remarkably broad and flat. Clavicles well +developed. Fore-foot remarkably modified, having the third digit greatly +developed at the expense of all the others; it has a short stout +metacarpal and but two phalanges, of which the terminal one is large, +compressed, pointed and much curved, with a strong hook-like claw. The +second digit has the same number of phalanges, and bears a claw, but is +much more slender than the third. The fourth is represented only by the +metacarpal, and one nailless phalange, the first and fifth only by +rudimentary metacarpals. The hind-foot is also modified into a climbing +organ, the first toe being rudimentary and consisting of a metatarsal +and one phalange concealed beneath the skin, but the other four toes +subequal and much curved, with long, pointed, compressed claws. The +tuberosity of the heel-bone or calcaneum is directed towards the sole, +and parallel with it and extending to about double its length is a +greatly elongated sesamoid ossicle. These together support a prominent +cushion to which the nails are opposed in climbing. Stomach pyriform, +with muscular walls, but no distinct gizzard-like portion. The +commencement of the colon provided with two small caeca, narrow at the +base, but rather dilated at their terminal blind ends, and communicating +with the general cavity by very minute apertures. Tail longer than the +body, tapering, bare on the under surface and prehensile. Fur soft and +silky. + +The third and last existing family of the Xenarthra is that of the +armadillos, or _Dasypodidae_, in which there are at least seven pairs of +teeth in each jaw, while the tongue is normal, the tail generally long, +and the body covered with an armour of bony plates overlain by horny +scales. All the species are terrestrial, and insectivorous or more or +less omnivorous. + +The union of the numerous polygonal bony shields on the back and sides +forms a hard shield, usually consisting of an anterior (scapular) and +posterior (pelvic) solid portion (which overhang on each side the parts +of the body they respectively cover, forming chambers into which the +limbs are withdrawn), and a variable number of rings between, connected +by soft flexible skin so as to allow of curvature of the body. The top +of the head has also a similar shield, and the tail is usually encased +in bony rings or plates. The outer or exposed surfaces of the limbs are +protected by irregular bony plates, not united at their margins; but the +skin of the inner surface of the limbs and under side of the body is +soft and more or less clothed with hair. Hairs also in many species +project through apertures between the bony plates of the back. The bony +plates are covered by a layer of horny epidermis. Teeth numerous, +simple, of persistent growth and usually without milk predecessors. +Zygomatic arch of skull complete. Cervical vertebrae with extremely +short, broad and depressed bodies; the first free, but the second and +third, and often several of the others united together both by their +bodies and arches. Clavicles well developed. A third trochanter on the +femur. Tibia and fibula united at their lower extremities. Fore-feet +with strongly developed, curved claws, adapted for digging and +scratching, three, four or five in number. Hind-feet plantigrade, with +five toes, all provided with nails. Tongue long, pointed and extensile, +though to a less degree than in the anteaters. Submaxillary glands +largely developed. Stomach simple. Placenta discoidal and deciduate. + +The typical genus _Dasypus_, with several others, represents the +subfamily _Dasypodinae_, which usually have all five toes developed and +with nails, though the first and fifth may be suppressed. The first and +second are long and slender, with the normal number and relative length +of phalanges, the others stout, with short broad metacarpals, and the +phalanges reduced in length and generally in number by coalescence; the +terminal phalange of the third being large, that of the others gradually +diminishing to the fifth. _Dasypus_ has the most normal form of +fore-foot, but the modifications developed in all the others +(culminating in _Tolypeutes_) are foreshadowed. Ears wide apart. Teats, +one pair, pectoral. In _Dasypus_ the teeth are 9/10 or 8/9, of which the +first in the upper jaw is usually implanted in the premaxillary bone. +The series extends posteriorly some distance behind the anterior root of +the zygoma, almost level with the hind edge of the palate. The teeth are +large, subcylindrical, slightly compressed, diminishing in size towards +each end of the series; the anterior two in the lower jaw smaller and +more compressed than the others. Cranial portion of the skull broad and +depressed, facial portion triangular, broad in front and depressed. +Auditory bulla completely ossified, perforated on the inner side by the +carotid canal, and continued externally into an elongated bony meatus +auditorius, with its aperture directed upwards and backwards. (In all +the other genera of _Dasypodinae_ the tympanic bone is a mere half-ring, +loosely attached to the cranium.) Lower jaw with a high ascending +branch, broad transversely placed condyle, and high slender coronoid +process. Vertebrae: C 7, D 11-12, L 3, S 8, Ca 17-18. Head broad and +flat above, with the muzzle obtusely pointed. Ears of moderate size or +rather small, placed laterally far apart. Body broad and depressed. +Armour with six or seven movable bands between the scapular and pelvic +shields. Tail shorter than the body, tapering, covered with plates +forming distinct rings near the base. Fore-feet with five toes; the +first much more slender than the others, and with a smaller ungual +phalange and nail; the second, though the longest, also slender. The +third, fourth and fifth gradually diminishing in length, all armed with +strong, slightly curved compressed claws, sloping from an elevated, +rounded inner border to a sharp, outer and inferior edge. The hind-foot +is rather short, and has all five toes armed with stout, compressed, +slightly curved, obtusely pointed claws--the third the longest, the +second nearly equal to it, the fourth the next, the first and fifth +shorter and nearly equal. + +To this genus belongs one of the best-known species of the group, the +six-banded armadillo or encoubert (_D. sexcinctus_) of Brazil and +Paraguay; a very similar species, _D. villosus_, the hairy armadillo, +replacing it south of the Rio Plata. There are also two small species, +_D. vellerosus_ and _D. minutus_, from the Argentine Republic and North +Patagonia; the latter, which differs from the other three in having no +tooth implanted in the premaxillary bone and is often referred to a +genus apart, as _Zaedius_. + +In _Tatoua_ (_Cabassous_ or _Lysiurus_) the teeth are 9/9 or 8/8, of +moderate size and subcylindrical: the most posterior placed a little way +behind the anterior root of the zygoma, but far from the hinder margin +of the palate. Skull somewhat elongated, much constricted behind the +orbits, and immediately in front of the constriction considerably +dilated. Lower jaw slender, with the coronoid process small and sharp +pointed, sometimes obsolete. Vertebrae: C 7, D 12-13, L 5, S 10, Ca 18. +Head broad behind. Ears rather large and rounded, wide apart. Movable +bands of armour 12-13. Tail considerably shorter than the body, and +slender, covered with nearly naked skin, with a few small, scattered, +bony plates, chiefly on the under surface and near the apex. On the +fore-feet the first and second toes are long and slender, with small +claws and the normal number of phalanges. The other toes have but two +phalanges; the third has an immense sickle-like claw; the fourth and +fifth similar but smaller claws. The hind-feet are comparatively small, +with five toes, and small, triangular, blunt nails; the third longest, +the first shortest. The best-known species of this genus, the tatouay or +cabassou, _T. unicinctus_, is, after _Priodon gigas_, the largest of the +group. It is found, though not abundantly, in Surinam, Brazil and +Paraguay. Others, such as _T. hispidus_ and _T. lugubris_, have been +described. + +In the giant armadillo (_Priodon gigas_) the teeth are variable in +number, and generally differ on the two sides of each jaw, being usually +from 20 to 25 on each side above and below, so that as many as a hundred +may be present altogether; but as life advances the anterior teeth fall +out, and all traces of their sockets disappear. The series extends as +far back as the hinder edge of the anterior root of the zygoma. They are +all very small, in the anterior half of each series strongly compressed, +with flat sides and a straight free edge, but posteriorly more +cylindrical, with flat, truncated, free surfaces. Vertebrae: C 7, D 12, +L 3, S 10, Ca 23. Head small, elongated, conical. Ears moderate, ovate. +Armour with 12-13 movable bands. Tail nearly equal to the body in +length, gradually tapering, closely covered with quadrangular scales, +arranged in a quincunx pattern. Fore-feet with five toes, formed on the +same plan as those of _Tatoua_, but with the claw of the third of still +greater size, and that of the others, especially the fifth, +proportionally reduced. Hind-foot short and rounded, with five very +short toes, and short, broad, flat obtuse nails. The giant armadillo is +by far the largest existing member of the family, measuring rather more +than 3 ft. from the tip of the nose to the root of the tail, the tail +being about 20 in. long. It inhabits the forest of Surinam and Brazil. +The powerful claws of its fore-feet enable it to dig with great +facility; and its food consists chiefly of termites and other insects, +although it is said to attack and uproot newly-made graves for the +purpose of devouring the flesh of the bodies contained in them. + +The apar (_Tolypeutes tricinctus_) typifies a genus in which the teeth +are 9/9 or 8/9, and are rather large in proportion to the size of the +skull, with the hinder end of the series reaching nearly to the +posterior margin of the palate. Vertebrae: C 7, D 11, L 3, S 12, Ca 13. +Ears placed low on the sides of the head, rather large, broadly ovate. +Armour with its scapular and pelvic shields very free at the sides of +the body, forming large chambers into which the limbs can be readily +withdrawn, and only three movable bands. Tail short, conical, covered +with large bony tubercles. The fore-feet formed on the same type as in +the last genus, but the peculiarities carried to a still greater extent. +The claw of the third toe is very long, while those of the first and +fifth are greatly reduced and sometimes wanting. On the hind-foot the +three middle toes have broad, flat, subequal nails, forming together a +kind of tripartite hoof; the first and fifth much shorter, with more +compressed nails. + +The armadillos of this genus have the power of rolling themselves up +into a ball, the shield on the top of the head and the tuberculated +dorsal surface of the tail exactly fitting into and filling up the +apertures left by the notches at either end of the body-armour. This +appears to be their usual means of defence when frightened or surprised, +as they do not burrow like the other species. They run very quickly, +with a very peculiar gait, only the tips of the claws of the fore-feet +touching the ground. In addition to the apar, there are the Argentine +and Bolivian _T. conurus_, and _T. muriei_ from Argentina or Patagonia. + +The last group of existing armadillos forms the genus _Tatusia_ and the +subfamily _Tatusiinae_; the subfamily rank being based on the fact that +of the seven or eight pairs of small subcylindrical teeth, all but the +last, which is considerably smaller than the rest, are preceded by +milk-teeth not changed until the animal has nearly attained full size. +Vertebrae: C 7, D 9-11, L 5, S 8, Ca 20-27. Head narrow, with a long, +narrow, subcylindrical obliquely truncated snout. Ears rather large, +ovate and erect, placed close together on the occiput. Armour with seven +to nine distinct movable bands. Body generally elongated and narrow. +Tail moderate, or long, gradually tapering; its plates forming distinct +rings for the greater part of its length. Fore-feet with four visible +toes, and a concealed clawless rudiment of the fifth; the claws long, +slightly curved, and slender, the third and fourth subequal and alike, +the first and fourth much shorter. Hind-feet with five toes, armed with +strong, slightly curved, conical, obtusely pointed nails, and the third +longest, then the second and fourth, and the first and fifth much +shorter than the others. This genus differs from all the other +armadillos in having a pair of inguinal teats in addition to the usual +pectoral pair, and in producing a large number (4 to 10) of young at a +birth, all the others having usually but one or two. The peba armadillo, +_T. septemcincta_, is a well-known species, having an extensive range +from Texas to Paraguay. It is replaced in the more southern regions of +South America by a smaller species, with shorter tail, the mulita (_T. +hybrida_) so called from the resemblance of its head and ears to those +of a mule. _T. kappleri_ is a large species from Guiana. + +Finally we have the pichiciago, or fairy armadillo, _Chlamydophorus +truncatus_, typifying the subfamily _Chlamydophorinae_. In most +anatomical characters, especially the structure of the fore-foot, this +group resembles the _Dasypodinae_, but it differs remarkably from all +other known armadillos, living or extinct, in the peculiar modification +of the armour. + +The teeth, which number 8/(8-9), are subcylindrical, somewhat +compressed, moderate in size, and smaller at each end (especially in +front) than at the middle of the series. Skull broad and rounded behind, +pointed in front. Muzzle subcylindrical and depressed. A conspicuous +rounded rough prominence on the frontal bone, just before each orbit. +Tympanic prolonged into a tubular auditory meatus, curving upwards round +the base of the zygoma. Vertebrae: C 7, D 11, L 3, S 10, Ca 15. Upper +part of head and trunk covered with four-sided horny plates (with small +thin ossifications beneath), forming a shield, free and overhanging the +sides of the trunk, and attached only along the middle line of the back. +The plates are arranged in a series of distinct transverse bands, about +twenty in number between the occiput and the posterior truncated end, +and not divided into solid scapular and pelvic shields with movable +bands between. The hinder end of the body is abruptly truncated and +covered by a vertically placed, strong, solid, bony shield, of an oval +(transversely extended) form, covered by thin horny plates. This shield +is firmly welded by five bony processes to the hinder part of the +pelvis. Through a notch in the middle of its lower border the tail +passes out. The latter is rather short, cylindrical in its proximal +half, and expanded and depressed or spatulate in its terminal portion, +and covered with horny plates. The dorsal surfaces of the fore and +hind-feet are also covered with horny plates. The remainder of the limbs +and under surface and sides of the body beneath the overlapping lateral +parts of the back shield are clothed with rather long, soft silky hair. +Eyes and ears very small, and concealed by the hair. Extremities short. +Feet large, each with five well-developed claws, those on the fore-feet +very long, stout and subcompressed, the structure of the digits being +essentially the same as those of _Tatoua_ and _Priodon_. Teats two, +pectoral. Visceral anatomy closely resembling that of _Dasypus_, the +caecum being broad, short and bifid. The pichiciago, a burrowing animal, +about 5 in. long, inhabits the sandy plains of western Argentina, +especially the vicinity of Mendoza. Its horny covering is pinkish, and +its silky hair white. A second species, _C. retusus_, from Bolivia is +rather larger and has the dorsal shield attached to the skin of the back +as far as its edge, instead of only along the median line. (See +ARMADILLO.) + +_Tubulidentata._--The second suborder of edentates, namely the +Tubulidentata, is represented at the present day only by the aard-varks, +or ant-bears, of Africa, constituting the family _Orycteropodidae_ and +the genus _Orycteropus_. Together with the following group, they differ +from the Xenarthra in the absence of additional articular facets to the +lumbar vertebrae; for which reason the term Nomarthra has been proposed +for the Tubulidentata and Pholidota as collectively distinct from the +Xenarthra. In the present group the external surface is scantily covered +with bristle-like hairs. The teeth are numerous, and traversed by a +number of parallel vertical pulp-canals. Femur with a third trochanter. +Fore-feet without the first toe, but all the other digits well +developed, with strong moderate-sized nails, suited to digging, the +plantar surfaces of which rest on the ground in walking. Hind-feet with +five subequal toes. Placenta broadly zonular. The brain is very like +that of the Ungulata; and there are two pairs of teats, one abdominal, +and the other inguinal. Aard-varks feed on animal substances; and are +terrestrial and fossorial in habits. The total number of teeth is from +eight to ten in each side of the upper, and eight in the lower jaw; but +they are never all in place at one time, as the small anterior ones are +shed before the series is completed behind. In the adult they number +usually five on each side above and below, of which the first two are +simple and compressed, the next two larger and longitudinally grooved at +the sides, the most posterior simple and cylindrical. Their summits are +rounded before they are worn; their bases do not taper to a root, but +are evenly truncated and continually growing. Each tooth is made up of +an aggregation of parallel dental systems, having a slender pulp cavity +in the centre, from which the dentinal tubes radiate outwards, and being +closely packed together each system assumes a polygonal outline as seen +in transverse section. A series of milk-teeth is developed. Skull +moderately elongated with the facial portion subcylindrical and slightly +tapering, and the zygoma complete and slender. The palate ends +posteriorly in the thickened transverse border of the palatines, and is +not continued back by the pterygoids. The tympanic is annular, and not +welded to the surrounding bones. The lower jaw is slender anteriorly, +but rises high posteriorly, with a slender recurved coronoid, and an +ascending pointed process on the hinder edge below the condyle, which is +small, oval, and looks forward as much as upwards. Vertebrae: C 7, D 13, +L 8, S 6, Ca 25. The large number of lumbar vertebrae is peculiar among +Edentates. The tongue is less worm-like than in _Myrmecophaga_, being +thick and fleshy at the base and gradually tapering to the apex. The +salivary apparatus is developed much in the same manner as in that +genus, but the duct of the submaxillary gland has no reservoir. The +stomach consists of a large subglobular cardaic portion, with a thick, +soft, and corrugated lining membrane, and a smaller muscular, pyloric +part, with a comparatively thin and smooth lining. There is a distinct +ileocaecal valve and a considerable sized caecum; also a gall-bladder. +Head elongated, with a tubular snout, terminal nostrils and small +mouth-opening. Ears large, pointed, erect. Tall nearly as long as the +body, cylindrical, thick at the base, tapering to the extremity. + +According to the researches of Dr E. Lonnberg, the teeth of the +aard-varks correspond only to the roots of those of other mammals, the +crowns being unrepresented, except to a very small degree when the teeth +first cut the gum. This explanation renders the peculiar internal +structure of these teeth much less difficult to understand than if they +represented both crown and root. In Dr Lonnberg's opinion, the teeth +indicate the descent of the aard-vark from an ungulate stock,--a view in +harmony with the evidence of the brain. If this idea prove well +founded, and if the aard-varks are rightly classed with the Edentata, +the whole order must apparently be regarded as an offshoot from +primitive Ungulata. The fact of the frequent distinctness of the +coracoid bone requires, however, explanation in connexion with such a +descent (see AARD-VARK). + +_Pholidota._--The Pholidota, constituting the third and last group of +the Edentata, are represented by the pangolins, or scaly anteaters, of +Asia and Africa, all of which are included in the family _Manidae_ and +the genus _Manis_. Pangolins differ from all other mammals by the armour +of overlapping horny scales (often with hairs growing between them) +which invests the whole animal, with the exception of the under surface +of the body, and sometimes a small patch near the tip of the under side +of the tail. There are no teeth; and although the tongue is long and +worm-like, it is not extensile. The scaphoid and lunar bones of the +carpus are united. The uterus is bicornuate, and the placenta diffused +and non-deciduate. The skull has somewhat the form of an elongated cone, +with the small end turned forwards, and is smooth and free from crests +and ridges. No distinction between the orbits and temporal fossae. The +zygomatic arch usually incomplete, owing to the absence of the jugal +bone; no distinct lacrymal bone; and the palate long and narrow. The +pterygoids extend backwards as far as the tympanics, but do not meet in +the middle line below. Tympanic welded to the surrounding bones, and +more or less bladder-like, but not produced into a tubular auditory +meatus. Two halves of lower jaw very slender and straight, without any +angle or coronoid process, on the anterior extremity of the upper edge a +sharp, conical, tooth-like process projecting upwards and outwards. No +clavicles. No third trochanter to the femur. Terminal phalanges cleft at +the tip. Caudal vertebrae with very long transverse processes and +numerous chevron-bones. Stomach with thick muscular walls and lining +membrane, and a special gland near the middle of the great curvature, +consisting of a mass of complex secreting follicles, the ducts of which +terminate in a common orifice. No caecum, but a gall-bladder. Head +small, depressed, narrow, and pointed in front, with a very small +mouth-opening. Eyes and ears very small. Body elongated, narrow. Tail +more or less elongated, convex above, flat underneath. Limbs short, and +in walking the surface and outer sides of the phalanges of the two outer +digits of the front feet alone rest on the ground, with the points of +the nails turning upwards and inwards. The third toe the longest, with a +powerful compressed curved claw, the second and fourth with similar but +smaller claws, but that of the first toe often almost rudimentary. +Hind-feet plantigrade with the first toe very short, and the four other +toes subequal, and carrying moderate, curved, compressed nails. +Pangolins are of small or moderate size, terrestrial and burrowing, and +feed mainly on termites or white ants; some of the species being more or +less arboreal. They can roll themselves up in a ball when in danger. +Their peculiar elongated form, short limbs, long tapering tail, and +scaly covering give them on a superficial inspection more the appearance +of reptiles than of mammals. The species are not numerous and may be +divided into two sections, one comprising the Asiatic species, such as +_M. javanica_, _M. aurita_ of China, and the Indian _M. pentadactyla_, +and the other the African, as represented by the large _M. gigantea_, +_M. temminchi_, the long-tailed _M. macrura_, and the small arboreal _M. +tricuspis_. In the Asiatic group the middle series of scales continues +to the tip of the tail; but in the African forms this row splits into +two a few inches from the tail-tip. The latter have also no hairs +between the scales and no external ears. The climbing species have a +small bare patch on the under side of the tail near the tip (see +PANGOLIN). + + +_Extinct Edentates._ + +Beyond remains of species closely allied to or identical with the +existing forms, the sloths and anteaters appear to be unknown in a +fossil state. On the other hand the extinct family of ground sloths, or +_Megatheriidae_, which includes the largest of all edentates, is an +exceedingly large one, and extends in South America from the Miocene to +the Pleistocene, and was also represented during the latter epoch in +North America. It serves to connect the _Bradypodidae_ with +_Myrmecophagidae_. The alleged occurrence of an allied form in +Madagascar is somewhat doubtful (see MEGATHERIUM and MYLODON). + +Of _Dasypodidae_ numerous representatives occur in the South American +Tertiaries. From the higher beds many of the species are referable to +existing genera, such as _Dasypus_ and _Tatusia_, although some are much +larger than any living forms, the skull in one case being nearly a foot +in length. In other instances, when lower formations are reached, the +genera are also distinct, _Eutatus_ having the whole armour divided into +movable bands, and the allied _Stegotherium_ representing the group in +the Santa Cruz formation of Patagonia. Even in the Argentine Pleistocene +there is an extinct genus, _Chlamydotherium_, represented by a species +of the size of a rhinoceros, with grooved teeth approximating to those +of the glyptodonts. The latter represent a family (_Glyptodontidae_) by +themselves, and typically may be described as giant solid-shelled +armadillos, although some of their smaller Santa Cruz representatives +(_Propalaeohoplophorus_) approximate in some degree to true armadillos +(see GLYPTODON). + +A very remarkable Santa Cruz armadillo, _Peltephilus_, has an altogether +peculiar type of head-shield, developed into horns in front of the eyes; +and, what is still more noteworthy, teeth in the front of the jaws, +thereby rendering the ordinary definition of the order Edentata +incorrect. It has been made the type of a distinct family, +_Peltephilidae_. + +The past history of the armadillo group does not, however, by any means +end here. True armadillos, it should be observed, are known in North +America as far north as Texas, from the Pleistocene onwards; but in +formations of middle Tertiary age are unrepresented. Recent discoveries +apparently indicate, however, the occurrence of armadillos of a +primitive type in the lower Tertiary or Eocene formations of Wyoming. +The first evidence of these Eocene armadillos was afforded by portions +of the jaws, which, together with a leg-bone of a totally different +animal, were believed to indicate creatures nearly allied to the aye-aye +(_Chiromys_) of Madagascar, and for which the name _Metachiromys_ was +consequently proposed. According to modern usage, this name, in spite of +its inappropriate nature, is retained for the armadillos, although in +the writer's opinion it ought to be replaced. According to Professor +H.F. Osborn, by whom their remains have been described, the North +American fossil armadillos were closely related to the existing members +of the group, from which they differ chiefly by the armour, or shield, +having probably been formed of tough leathery skin instead of bony +plates, by the presence of a single pair of large enamel-capped +tusk-like teeth in each jaw, and by the degeneration of the other teeth. +If these determinations are trustworthy, the question arises whether we +should regard the armadillos of South America as the descendants of +North American forms which migrated southwards before that separation of +the two continents was established, which lasted for a large portion of +the Tertiary period, or whether a migration took place at the same early +epoch in the opposite direction. + +More interesting still is the occurrence of remains of reputed +armadillos (_Necrodasypus_) from the Oligocene of France and Germany. In +the opinion of Dr F. Ameghino these Oligocene armadillos, which had bony +shields on both the head and body, were near akin to some of the modern +South American forms. + +Passing on to the aard-varks (_Orycteropodidae_), we find these +represented by a species closely allied to the existing ones in the +Lower Pliocene formations of Spain, France, Hungary, Samos and Asia +Minor. A single tibia from the French Oligocene is identified by Dr +Ameghino with the present family, and the genus _Archaeorycteropus_ +established for its reception; this genus, in its founder's opinion, +being also represented in the Santa Cruz beds of Patagonia. As regards +the pangolins, the only fossils referred to this group (apart from a few +discovered in a cave in India) appear to be certain limb-bones from the +Oligocene of France and Germany, for which the names _Necromanis_ and +_Teutomanis_ have been proposed. The occurrence of the characteristic +cleft terminal toe-bones among these remains seems to leave little +doubt as to the correctness of the determination. + +The alleged occurrence of remains of giant pangolins in the upper +Tertiary of Europe is due to misidentification (see ANCYLOPODA). By some +authorities the Eocene group of Ganodonta has been affiliated to the +Edentata, but this reference is not accepted by Prof. W.B. Scott. + + AUTHORITIES.--The above article is to some extent based on the + articles by Sir W.H. Flower in the 9th edition of this work. See also + O. Thomas, "A Milk-dentition in _Orycteropus_," _Proc. Royal Soc._ + vol. xlvii. (1890); R. Lydekker, "The Extinct Edentates of Argentina," + _Palaeont. Argentina_, vol. iii., An. Mus. (La Plata, 1894); C.W. + Andrews, "On a Skull of _Orycteropus gaudryi_ from Samos," _Proc. + Zool. Soc. London_ (1896); G.E. Smith, "The Brain in the Edentata," + _Trans. Linn. Soc. London_, vol. vii. (1899); W.B. Scott, "Mammalia of + the Santa Cruz Beds--_Dasypoda_," _Rep. Princeton Exped. to + Patagonia_, vol. v. (1903); H.F. Osborn, "An Armadillo from the Middle + Eocene of North America," _Bull. Amer. Mus._ vol. xx. art. 12 (1904); + J.A. Allen, "The Tamandua Anteaters," _T.C._, art. 33 (1904); F. + Ameghino, "Les Edentes fossiles de France et d'Allemagne," _Ann. Mus. + Buenos Aires_, vol. xiii. (1905); E. Lonnberg, "On a new + _Orycteropus_," and "Remarks on the dentition of the Tubulidentata," + _Archiv fur Zoologie_, vol. iii. No. 3 (1906). (R. L.*) + + + + +EDENTON, a town and the county-seat of Chowan county, North Carolina, +U.S.A., on Edenton Bay, an estuary of Albemarle sound, near the mouth of +Chowan river, in the N.E. part of the state. Pop. (1890) 2205; (1900) +3046 (2090 negroes); (1910) 2789. It is served by the Norfolk & Southern +railway, and by the Albemarle Steam Navigation Co. In 1907 the former +projected a great bridge across Albemarle sound near the city. Edenton +is an old and interesting town, has a number of fine old homesteads, and +has broad and well-shaded streets. Lumbering and the shad and herring +fisheries are the most important industrial interests, and the town is a +shipping point for fish, truck and other farm products, cotton and +peanuts. There is a Fish Cultural Station here, established by the +Federal government. The court-house was built about 1750. + +Edenton was settled about 1658, and was for some time known as the +"Towne on Queen Anne's Creek" or the "Port of Roanoke"; in 1722 the +present name was adopted in honour of Governor Charles Eden (1673-1722), +whose grave is in St Paul's churchyard here. Throughout the 18th century +Edenton was a place of considerable social and political importance; the +legislative assembly of North Carolina met here occasionally, and here +lived the royal governors and various well-known citizens of the +province, among them: Joseph Hewes (1730-1779), a signer of the +Declaration of Independence; James Iredell, Sr. (1750-1799), a +Federalist leader and after 1790 a justice of the United States Supreme +Court, and his son James Iredell, Jr. (1788-1853), a prominent lawyer, +for many years a member of the state legislature, governor of North +Carolina in 1827-1828, and a member of the United States Senate in +1828-1831. Near Edenton lived Samuel Johnston (1733-1816), a prominent +leader of the American Whigs preceding and during the War of American +Independence, a member of the Continental Congress in 1780-1782, +governor of North Carolina in 1787-1789, and a Federalist member of the +United States Senate in 1790-1793. In 1907 the Hewes, Iredell and +Johnston homesteads were still standing. In a house facing the +court-house green the famous "Edenton Tea Party" of fifty-one ladies met +on the 24th of October 1774 and signed resolutions that they would not +conform "to that Pernicious Custom of Drinking Tea" and would not +"promote the wear of any manufacture from England" until the tax on tea +should be repealed. Near Edenton the Confederate ram "Albemarle," on +emerging from the Roanoke river, was met by the Union "double-enders," +"Sassacus," "Mattabesett," and "Miami," on the 5th of May 1864; the +battle, which resulted in favour of the Confederates, was a duel between +the Confederate ironclad and the Union wooden side-wheeler, the +"Sassacus," which rammed the "Albemarle" and had her bows, fitted with a +three-ton bronze beak, twisted off and carried away. + + + + +EDESSA (mod. _Vodena_), the ancient capital of Macedonia, previously +known as Aegae, situated 46 m. W. of Thessalonica on the banks of a +beautiful stream in the very centre of the kingdom, and at the head of a +defile commanding the approaches from the coast to the interior. It was +the original residence of the Macedonian kings; and even after the seat +of government was removed by Philip II. to the more accessible Pella, it +continued to be the burial-place of the royal family. At the celebration +of his daughter's marriage here, Philip II. was murdered by Pausanias in +336 B.C. His son Alexander was buried at Memphis through the contrivance +of Ptolemy; but the bodies of his granddaughter Eurydice and her husband +Arrhidaeus were removed by Cassander to the ancestral sepulchre. On the +occupation of the town by Pyrrhus the royal tombs were plundered by the +Gallic mercenaries. Owing to its position commanding the Via Egnatia, +the town retained its importance during the Roman and Byzantine periods. +For its present condition, see VODENA. + + + + +EDESSA, the Greek name of an ancient city of N.W. Mesopotamia (in 37 deg. +21' N. lat. and 39 deg. 6' E. long.), suggested perhaps by a comparison of +its site, or its water supply,[1] with that of its Macedonian namesake. +It still bears its earlier name, modified since the 15th century (by the +Turks?) to Urfa. + + The oldest certain form is the Aramaic _Urhai_ ("Western" + pronunciation _Urhoi_), which appears in Greek as an adjective as + [Greek: Horrhoenhe][2], [Greek: -noi][3] (perhaps also as a fortress + with spring, as [Greek: Orrha]),[4] and in Latin as Orr(h)ei,[5] and + (in the inscription on Abgar's grave) _Orrhenoru(m)_.[6] The Syriac + Chronicle ascribed to Dionysius of Tell-mahre derives the name from a + first king Urhai, son of Hewya, whom Procopius (_De bello persico_, i. + 17) calls Osroes (cf. below), connected by Bayer[7] with Chosroes,[8] + from which G. Hoffmann would also derive the Syriac Urhai (_Z.D.M.G._ + xxxii. 742). The Syriac town name has, however, the form of an ethnic, + and we may therefore with Duval leave it unexplained (_Hist._ 22). The + fact that the Arabic name is Ruha supports the hint of the + Graeco-Latin forms that there was a vowel between the R and the H. + There is little plausibility in the suggestion of Assemani and others + that Ruha comes from [Greek: rhoe] of Callirrhoe. A gentilic of the + form Ru-u-ai occurs in a letter (of an Assyrian king?) to chiefs in a + (Babylonian?) town as the designation of three captives (Harper, _Ass. + and Bab. Letters_, No. 287 [= K 94], line 6; cf. Bezold, _Die + Achamenideninschriften_, p. xii.), who have Semitic names; and + Ru-'-u-a is the name of an Aramaic people mentioned with other + Aramaeans by Tiglath-pileser IV., Sargon and Sennacherib. It is not + impossible that some such people may have settled at Urhai and given + it their name, although the Ru-'-u-a are always mentioned in + connexions that imply seats near the Persian Gulf.[9] The district + name Osroene for [Greek: Orrhoenhe], is Greek, perhaps due to analogy + of Chosroes. It occurs but rarely in Syriac (Uzroina); e.g. Chronicle + of Edessa. S 35;[10] elsewhere Beth-Urhaye (e.g. Cureton, _Spicileg. + Syr._ 20). In the time of Tiglath-pileser I. (c. 1100 B.C.) the name + seems to have been "District of (not Edessa, but) Harran" (Annals, vi. + 71). The Arabs pronounced the name er-Ruha (see above), and that form + prevailed till it gave place to Urfa in the 15th century. + + The Greek name Edessa appears in the Jerusalem Targum to Gen. x. 10 as + Hadas ([Hebrew: hadas], myrtle); it has been proposed (cf. Duval, + _Hist. d'Edesse_, 23) to derive Edessa from Aram. [Hebrew: hadat], as + though = Carthage, New Town; but Syriac writers, when they + occasionally [11] use the name (Edessa, [Hebrew: adasa]; so Yaqut, + Adasa), show no suspicion of its being Semitic. According to Pliny, v. + 86, Edessa was also called Antioch, and coins of Antiochus IV. + Epiphanes with the legend "Antioch on the Callirrhoe" may imply that + he rebuilt and renamed the place (so Ed. Meyer in Pauly-Wissowa, + _Realencyclopadie_, col. 1933, 66; otherwise Duval, _Hist._ 23; cf. + art. OSROENE). Pliny indeed seems to call the city itself Callirrhoe, + and S. Funk finds it so named in the Talmud (_Bab. Mez._, 18a [Hebrew: + raal raham bahara shuiar meta]: _Die Juden in Babylonien 200-500_, ii. + 148; 1908); but K. Regling (_Klio_, i. 459 n. 1) may be right in his + emendation which applies the title in Pliny to the sacred spring. + +_History: Pre-Hellenistic._--Until excavation gives us more definite +data we can only infer from its position on one of the main +thoroughfares between the Mediterranean and the East (see MESOPOTAMIA) +that Urhai-Edessa, possibly bearing some other name, was already a town +of some importance in the early Babylonian-Assyrian age. Whatever may +have been the ethnographical type of the early inhabitants, it must by +the beginning of the second last millennium B.C. have included Hittites +in the large sense of the term, probably Aryans, and certainly Semites +of some of the types characteristic of early Assyrian history. Most +probably its people belonged to the domain of the then more famous +Harran-Carrhae, between which and Samosata (on the Euphrates) Urhai lies +midway (some 25-30 m. distant from each) in the district watered by the +Balih. Although at Edessa itself no cuneiform documents have yet been +found, a little more than four hours journey eastwards, at Anaz (= +Gullab?) = Dur of Tiglath-pileser IV. was found in 1901 a slab with a +bas-relief and an inscription; and 15-20 min. W. of Eski-Harran, in 1906 +a very interesting 6th-century Assyrian inscription (see MESOPOTAMIA). + +In the later Assyrian empire the population was largely +Aramaic-speaking; but S. Schiffer's theory (Beiheft I. zur +_Orientalistischen Litteratur-Zeitung_) finds contemporary evidence of +Israelites settled in the neighbourhood of Edessa in the second half of +the 7th century B.C. At the fall of Nineveh many towns in Mesopotamia +suffered severely at the hands of the Medes. The period remains dark, +notwithstanding the obscure light that has been thrown on it lately +(Pognon, _Inscriptions_). When Aramaic began to take the place of +Assyrian in written documents is not known; but just across the +Euphrates the change had occurred as early as the 8th century B.C. +(Zengirli, Hamath; see also Pognon). Certain it is that the earliest +documents that have survived in Syriac, or Edessene Aramaic, do not +represent an experimental stage. Moreover, although the Syriac of the +Story of Ahiqar is of a late type, the sources of the story, traces of +which are to be found in the Hebrew Tobit (q.v.), go back to the +pre-Hellenistic period. + +_Graeco-Roman Times._--According to a credible tradition found in +Eusebius (_Excerpta_, 179), the Syriac Chronicle ascribed to Dionysius +of Tell-mahre (Tullberg, 61), and elsewhere, Urhai was renovated, like +other Mesopotamian sites, in 304 B.C. by Seleucus I. Nicator, who gave +it its Greek name.[12] It would share in the Hellenistic culture of +Syria, although the language of the common people would continue to be +Aramaic (E.R. Bevan, _House of Seleucus_, i. 227 f. with reff.). With +the decay of the Seleucid power, weakened by Rome and Parthia, the old +influx from the desert would recommence, and an Arabic element begin to +show. Von Gutschmid (_Untersuch._, cf. Duval, ch. iii. end) argues +plausibly that it was in 132 B.C., in the reign of Antiochus VII. +Sidetes, that Edessa became the seat of a dynasty of some thirty local +kings, whose succession has been preserved in native sources. The name +of the first king, however, appears in different forms (cf. above), and +one (Osroes-Orhai) is so like that of the town that Ed. Meyer suspects +the historicity of the first reign, of five years. The names of the +other kings--Abgar, Ma'nu, Bekr, &c.--are for the most part Arabic, as +the people (in whose inscriptions the same mixture of names occurs) are +called by classical authors; but the rulers, among whom an occasional +Iranian name betrays the influence of the dominant Parthians,[13] would +hardly maintain their distinctness from the Aramaic populace. This state +which lasted for three centuries and a half, naturally varied in +extent.[14] Bounded on the W. and the N. by the Euphrates, it reached at +its widest as far as the Tigris. At such times, therefore, it included +such towns as Harran (Carrhae), Nisibis, Sarug, Zeugma-Birejik, Resaena, +Singara, Tigranocerta, Samosata, Melitene. Its position "on the +dangerous verge of two contending empires," Parthia and Rome, +determined its changeful fortunes. Parthian predominance yielded for a +time to Armenian (Tigranes, 88-86 B.C.). Then, at the time of the +expeditions of Lucullus, Pompey and Crassus, Edessa was an ally of Rome, +though Abgar II. Ariamnes (68-53) played an ambiguous part. In A.D. 114 +Abgar VII. entertained Trajan on his way back to Syria (Dio Cass. xviii. +21); but in 116, in consequence of a general rising, his consul L. +Quietus sacked the city, Abgar perhaps dying in the flames, and made the +state tributary. Hadrian, however, abandoning Trajan's forward policy in +favour of a Euphrates boundary, restored it as a dependency of Rome. +When L. Verus (163-165) recovered Mesopotamia from Parthia, it was not +Edessa but Harran that was chosen as the site of a Roman colony, and +made the metropolis by Marcus Aurelius (172). + +To one of the native kings doubtless is to be ascribed the Syriac +inscription[15] on one of the pair of pillars, 50 ft. high, which stood, +no doubt, in front of a temple connected with some local cult. +Trustworthy data for determining its nature are lacking. One or both of +the pools below the citadel containing sacred fish may have been sacred +to Atargatis (q.v.), an Ishtar-Venus deity; and according to the +_Doctrine of Addai_, alongside of Venus were worshipped the sun and the +moon.[16] Nergal and Sin were known as "twins," and connected with the +sign Gemini, under the name _ellamme_, "the youths" (cf. Zimmern, +_K.A.T._ 363). This makes more plausible than it otherwise would be the +suggestion of J. Rendel Harris that the great twin pillars were +connected with the cult of the Dioscuri, and that in the Acts of Thomas +is to be seen a later attempt to substitute other "twins," viz. Jesus +and Judas-Thomas (Addai), whom legend buried "in Britio Edessenorum" +(explained by Harnack as the Edessan citadel: Aram. _birtha_).[17] + +Whether it was at Edessa that a Jewish translation of the Old Testament +into Syriac was made,[18] under the encouragement perhaps of the favour +of the royal house of Adiabene (Josephus, _Bell. Jud._ ii. 19. 4), or +whether that work was done _in_ Adiabene,[19] cannot be discussed here. +That the translation did not share the fate of the other non-Christian +Syriac writings, which did not survive the 13th century (see SYRIAC +LITERATURE), is due to the fact that it was adopted (after being +revised) by the Christians, and thus rescued. Although the beginnings of +Christianity at Edessa are enshrouded in the mists of legend, and the +first mention of Christian communities in Osrhoene and the towns there +is connected with the part they played in the paschal controversy (c. +A.D. 192), it has been reasonably urged that the legends imply a fact, +namely that Christianity began in the Jewish colony, perhaps by the +middle of the 2nd century, although the earliest seat of the Syrian +church may have been farther east, in Adiabene.[20] Parts of the New +Testament were certainly translated into Syriac in the 2nd century, +although whether the "Old Syriac" (so e.g. Hjelt) or the Diatessaron (so +Burkitt) came first is uncertain. About the end of the 2nd century +Edessene Christianity seems to have made a fresh beginning: the +ordination of Palut by Serapion of Antioch may mean that things +ecclesiastical took a westward trend, and it is possible (so Burkitt) +that the "Old Syriac" New Testament version was now introduced. A strong +man offered himself in Bardaisan (q.v.; Bardesanes), to whom perhaps we +owe the finest Syriac poem extant, the "Hymn of the Soul," though +orthodoxy rejected him. He was a contemporary of Abgar IX., at whose +court Julius Africanus stayed for a while. A Syrian official record from +this reign, preserved in the _Edessene Chronicle_, gives a somewhat +detailed account of a violent flood (autumn, 201) of the Daisan river +which did much damage, destroying amongst other things "the palace of +Abgar the Great," rebuilt as a summer palace by Abgar IX., and "the +temple of the church of the Christians." The form of this last statement +shows that at the time of writing (206) the rulers had not adopted +Christianity themselves. Abgar IX. is now commonly supposed to be the +ruler to whom the famous legend was first attached (see ABGAR); but +though he visited Rome there is no proof that he ever became a Christian +(Gomperz, in _Archaologisch-epigraphische Mitteilungen aus +Osterreich-Ungarn_, xix. 154-157). It was at Edessa that Caracalla, who +made it a military colony under the style of Colonia Marcia Edessenorum, +spent the winter of 216-217, and near there that he was murdered. The +religious philosophical treatise preserved under the title of _Book of +the Laws of the Lands_ was probably produced at this time by a pupil of +Bardesanes, and the _Acts of Thomas_ in its original form may have +followed not long after. + +_Sassanian Period._--In 226 the Parthian empire gave place to the new +kingdom of the Sassanidae, whose claim to the ancient Achaemenian empire +led to constant struggle with Rome in which Edessa naturally suffered. +The native state was restored by Gordian in 242; but in 244 it became +again directly subject to Rome. The Edessan martyrs Sharbel and +Barsamya, whose "Acts" in legendary form have come down to us, may have +perished in the Decian persecution. In 260 the city was besieged by the +Persians under Shapur I., and Valerian was defeated and made prisoner by +its gates. Odaenathus of Palmyra (d. 267), however, wrested Mesopotamia +from the Persians; but Aurelian defeated his successor Zenobia at Emesa +(273), and Carus, who died in 283 in an expedition against the Persians, +and Galerius (297) carried the frontier again to the Tigris. +Diocletian's persecution secured the martyr's crown for the Edessenes +Shamona, Guria (297), and Habbib (309), and shortly thereafter Lucian +"the martyr," who though born at Samosata received his training at +Edessa; but the bishop Qona, who laid the foundations of "the great +church" by the sacred pool, somehow escaped. Edessa can claim no share +in "the Persian Sage" Aphrahat or Afrahat (Aphraates); but Ephraem, +after bewailing in Nisibis the sufferings of the great Persian war under +Constantius and Julian, when Jovian in 363 ceded most of Mesopotamia to +Shapur II., the persecutor of the Christians, settled in Edessa, which +as the seat of his famous school (called "the Persian") grew greatly in +importance, and attracted scholars from all directions. He taught and +wrote vigorously against the Arians and other heretics, and although +just after his death (373) the emperor Valens banished the orthodox from +Edessa, they returned on the emperor's death in 378. Under Zenobius, +disciple of Ephraem, studied the voluminous writer, Isaac of Antioch (d. +circ. 460). Rabbula perhaps owed his elevation to the see of Edessa +(411-435), in the year which produced the oldest dated Syriac MS., to +his asceticism, and it was to his time that the sojourn there of the +"Man of God" (Alexis) was assigned; but he won from the Nestorians the +title of the Tyrant of Edessa. In particular he exerted himself to stamp +out the use of the Diatessaron in favour of the four Gospels, the Syriac +version of which probably now took the form known as the Peshitta. When +the popular Nestorianism of the Syrians was condemned at Ephesus (431) +it began to gravitate eastwards, Nisibis becoming its eventual +headquarters; but Edessa and the western Syrians refused to bow to the +Council of Chalcedon (451) when it condemned Monophysitism. In and +around Edessa the theological strife raged hotly.[21] When, however, +Zeno's edict (489) ordered the closing of the school of the Persians at +Edessa, East and West drifted apart more and more; the ecclesiastical +writer Narsai, "the Harp of the Holy Spirit," fled to Nisibis about 489. +Till about this time Syriac influence was strong in Armenia, and some +Syriac works have survived only in Armenian translations. In the opening +years of the 6th century the Persian-Roman War (502-506) found a +chronicler in the anonymous Edessene history known till recently as the +Chronicle of Joshua Stylites. Whether Edessa received from the emperor +Justin I. the additional name of Justinopolis may be uncertain (see +Hallier, _op. cit._ p. 128); but it seems to have been renewed and +fortified after the "fourth" flood in 525 (Procop. _Pers._ ii. 27; _De +aedific._ ii. 7). About this time, according to Noldeke, an anonymous +Edessene wrote the Romance of Julian the Apostate, which so many Arab +writers use as a history. Chosroes I. Anushirwan succeeded in 540, +according to the last entry in the Edessene Chronicle, in exacting a +large tribute from Edessa; but in 544 he besieged it in vain. A few +years later Jacob Baradaeus, with Edessa as centre of his bishopric, was +carrying on the propaganda of Monophysitism which won for the adherents +of that creed the name of Jacobites (q.v.). The valuable Syriac +Chronicle just referred to probably was compiled in the latter half of +this century. + +_Islam._--In the first decade of the next century Edessa was taken by +Chosroes II., and a large part of the population transported to eastern +Persia. Within a score of years it was recovered by the emperor +Heraclius, who reviewed a large army under its walls. The prophet of +Islam was now, however, building up his power in Arabia, and although +Heraclius paid no heed to the letter demanding his adhesion which he +received from Medina (628), and the deputation of fifteen Rahawiyin who +paid homage in 630 were not Edessenes but South Arabians, a few years +later (636?) Heraclius's attempts, from Edessa as a centre, to effect an +organized opposition to the victorious Arabs were defeated by Sa'd, and +he fell back on Samosata. The terms on which Edessa definitely passed +into the hands of the Moslems (638) under Riyad are not certain +(Baladhuri). As it now ceased to be a frontier city it lost in +importance. In 668 occurred another destructive flood (Theophanes, p. +537), and in 678 an earthquake which destroyed part of the "old church," +which the caliph Mo'awiya I. is said to have repaired. To the latter +part of the century belongs the activity of Edessa's bishop Jacob, whose +chronicle is unfortunately lost. It may have been the impulse given by +the final supremacy of the caliphate to the long process which +eventually substituted a new branch of Semitic speech for the Aramaic +(which had now prevailed for a millennium and a half), that led Jacob to +adopt the Greek vowel signs for use in Syriac. A century later +Theophilus of Edessa (d. 785), author of a lost history, translated into +Syriac "the two books of the poet Homer on the Conquest of the city of +Ilion." When the Bagdad caliphs lost control of their dominions, Edessa +shared the fortunes of western Mesopotamia, changing with the rise and +fall of Egyptian dynasties and Arab chieftains. In the 10th century +al-Mas'udi, writing in the very year in which it happened, tells how the +Mahommedan ruler of Edessa, with the permission of the caliph, purchased +peace of the emperor Romanus Lecapenus by surrendering to him the napkin +of Jesus of Nazareth, wherewith he had dried himself after his baptism. +The translation of the Holy Icon of Christ from Edessa is commemorated +on the 16th of August (Cal. Byzant). A few years later Ibn Haukal (978) +estimates the number of churches in the city at more than 300, and +al-Mokaddasi (985) describes its cathedral, with vaulted ceiling covered +with mosaics, as one of the four wonders of the world. In 1031 the +emperor recovered Edessa; but in 1040 it fell into the hands of the +Seljuks, whose progress had added a large element of Armenian refugees +to the population of Osrhoene. There is no reason, therefore, to +discredit Maqrizi's statement that it was three brother architects from +Edessa that the Armenian minister Badr al-Gamali employed to build three +of the fine city gates of Cairo (1087-1091). The empire soon recovered +Edessa, but the resident made himself independent. Thoros applied for +help to Baldwin, brother and successor of Godfrey of Bouillon in the +First Crusade, who in 1098 took possession of the town and made it the +capital of a Burgundian countship, which included Samosata and Sarug', +and was for half a century the eastern bulwark of the kingdom of +Jerusalem.[22] The local Armenian historian, however, Matthew of Edessa, +tells of oppression, decrease of population, ruin of churches, neglect +of agriculture. With the campaign of Maudud in 1110 fortune began to +favour the Moslems. Edessa had to endure siege after siege. Finally, in +1144 it was stormed, Matthew being among the slain, by 'Imad ud-Din +Zengi, ruler of Mosul, under Joscelin II., an achievement celebrated as +"the conquest of conquests," for laying the responsibility of which not +on God but on the absence of the Frankish troops, an Edessan monk, John, +bishop of Harran (d. 1165), brought down upon himself the whole bench of +bishops. Edessa suffered still more in 1146 after an attempt to recover +it. Churches were now turned into mosques. The consternation produced in +Europe by the news of its fate led to "the Second Crusade." In 1182 it +fell to Saladin, whose nephew recovered it when it had temporarily +passed (1234) to the sultan of Rum; but the "Eye of Mesopotamia" never +recovered the brilliance of earlier days. The names it contributed to +Arabic literature are unimportant. By timely surrender (1268) it escaped +the sufferings inflicted by Hulaku and his Monguls on Saru'g +(Barhebraeus, _Chron. Arab._, Beirut ed., 486). Mostaufi describes a +great cupola of finely worked stone still standing by a court over a +hundred yards square (1340). Ali b. Yazd in his account of the campaigns +of Timur, who reduced Mesopotamia in 1393, still calls the city (1425) +Ruha. In 1637, when Amurath IV. conquered Bagdad and annexed +Mesopotamia, it passed finally into the hands of the Turks, by whom it +is called Urfa. + +_The Modern Town._--Urfa lies north-east of the Nimrud Dagh. It is +surrounded by a wall, strengthened by square towers at distances of +18-20 steps, probably dating in its present condition from medieval +Mahommedan times. On a height in a corner towards the west, overtopping +the town by 100-200 ft., are the remains of the old citadel, and the two +famous Corinthian columns[23] known as "the Throne of Nimrud." In the +hollow between this height and the town rise two springs which form +ponds, the farther removed of which from the citadel is known as Birket +al-Khalil, doubtless the Callirrhoe of the classical writers, and +contains the sacred fish, estimated by J.S. Buckingham at 20,000, and +the nearer as 'Ain Zalkha (i.e. Zuleikha, the wife of Potiphar). On the +north edge of the Birket al-Khalil (see plan in Sachau, p. 197) is the +great mosque of Abraham, the interior of which is described by J.S. +Buckingham (_Travels_, pp. 108-110). Diagonally opposite the mosque is a +house with a square tower, which is locally believed to occupy the place +of the famous ancient school. The waters of the two pools make their way +in a single stream southwards out of the town. The once dangerous stream +Daisan ([Greek: Skirtos]) no longer flows southwards through the town, +but encircles it on the north and east in the channel of the old moat. +This stream, now called Kara Kuyun, and the other are exhausted in the +irrigation of the gardens lying south-east of the town, except when +fuller than usual, when they reach the Balih. Not far east of the sacred +pool is the largest building in the town, the recent Armenian Gregorian +cathedral, whose American bells were first heard during Sachau's visit +in 1879. About the middle of the town is the largest mosque, Ulu 'Gami +(parts of it probably pre-Islamic), which probably occupies the site of +the Christian church reckoned by the early Mahommedan writers as one of +the wonders of the world. In the bazaar, which lies between the chief +mosque and the sacred pool, and contains several streets, are displayed +not only the native woollen stuffs, pottery and silver work, but also a +considerable variety of European goods, especially cloth stuffs. The +principal manufactures are fine cotton stuffs and yellow leather. The +streets are of course narrow and winding; but the houses are well built +of stone. The outskirts are occupied by melon gardens, vineyards and +mulberry plantations. The fertile plain south of the town is noted for +its wheat and fine pasture. The climate is healthy except in summer; the +"Aleppo button" (see BAGDAD, vilayet), a painful boil, is common. The +rocky heights south and west of the town, whence the building material +is largely obtained, are full of natural and artificial caverns, once +used as dwellings, cloisters and graves, where are most of the +inscriptions published by Sachau, who also visited and describes (pp. +204-206) the Der Ya'qub, nearly two hours distant. + +Urfa is the capital of a sanjak of the same name, in the vilayet of +Aleppo. The population was estimated by Olivier in 1796 at 20,000 to +24,000, by Buckingham at 50,000, by Chernik in 1873 at 40,000, by Sachau +in 1879 at 50,000, in Baedeker's Handbook in 1906 at 30,000. Vice-Consul +Fitzmaurice said that before December 1895 it was close on 65,000, of +whom about 20,000 were Armenian, 3000 or 4000 Jacobites, +Syrian-Catholic, Greek-Catholic, Maronites and Jews, and the remaining +40,000 Turkish, Kurdian and Arab Mahommedans. Two barbarous massacres +occurred on the 28th and 29th of October and the 28th and 29th of +December 1895; 126 Armenian families were absolutely wiped out. He +believes that 8000 Armenians perished in the second massacre. The +Deutsche Orient-Mission has its chief seat in Urfa, and there have for +years been American and French missions. The Germans have an orphanage +with 300 Armenian children, a carpet factory and a medical station. The +American school had some years ago 250 pupils. + + AUTHORITIES.--Inscriptional: H. Pognon, _Inscriptions semitiques de la + Syrie, de la Mesopotamie et de la region de Mossoul_ (1907, 1908); + Sachau, "Edessenische Inschriften," in _Z.D.M.G._ xxxvi. 142-167; F.C. + Burkitt, "The Throne of Nimrod," in _P.S.B.A._ xxviii. 149-155 (1906); + J. Rendel Harris, _The Cult of the Heavenly Twins_ (1906); Noldeke, + "Syrische Inschriften," in _Z.A._ xxi. 151-161, 375-388 (1908). + Literary: Ludwig Hallier, _Untersuchungen uber die Edessenische + Chronik mit dem Syrischen Text_ (1892); F. Nau, _Analyse des parties + inedites de la chronique attribuee a Denys de Tell-mahre_ (1898); + J.-B. Chabot, _Chronique de Denys de Tell-Mahre, quatrieme partie_ + (1895); W. Wright, _The Chronicle of Joshua the Stylite_ (1882); + Bayer, _Historia Osrhoena et Edessena_ (St Petersburg, 1784), collects + the references in classical authors; for the coinage see references in + von Gutschmid (see below). Discussions: A. von Gutschmid, + "Untersuchungen uber die Geschichte des Konigreichs Osroene" (in + _Memoires de l'acad. imper. des sciences de St-Petersb._ vii. ser. + tome 35, No. 1, 1887); L.-J. Tixeront, _Les Origines de l'eglise + d'Edesse et la legende d'Abgar_ (1888); R.A. Lipsius, _Die + Edessenische Abgarsage kritisch untersucht_ (1880); K.C.A. Matthes, + _Die Edess. Abgarsage auf ihre Fortbildung untersucht_ (1882); F. Nau, + _Une Biographie inedite de Bardesane l'astrologue_ (1897); _Bardesane + l'astrologue: le livre des Lois des Pays_ (1899); A. Hilgenfeld, + _Bardesanes, der letzte Gnostiker_ (1864); A.A. Bevan, "The Hymn of + the Soul" (in _Texts and Studies_, 1897); F.C. Burkitt, _Early Eastern + Christianity_ (1904); J.R. Harris, _The Dioscuri in Christian Legend_ + (1903), and _The Cult of the Heavenly Twins_ (1906); the histories of + Rome, Persia, Crusades, Mongols, &c.; Rubens Duval, _Histoire + politique, religieuse et litteraire d'Edesse jusqu'a la premiere + croisade_ (1892), a useful compilation reprinted from the _Journ. + As._; the excellent article by E. Meyer in Pauly-Wissowa, + _Realencyclopadie_, 1933-1938. Topography: J.S. Buckingham, _Travels + in Mesopotamia_ (1827); E. Sachau, _Reise in Syrien u. Mesopotamien_ + (1883), 189-210; cf. Duval, _op. cit._ chap, i.; C. Ritter, + _Erdkunde_, xi. 315-356. Map of town in Niebuhr, _Voyage en Arabie_, + reproduced with modifications in Wright, _Chron. Josh. Styl._; also a + map in Reclus, _Univ. Geog._ ix. 232. Four pictures of the town in + Burkitt, _Early East. Christ._ (H. W. H.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] So Appian, _Syr._ 57; cp. Steph. Byz., s.v. [Greek: Edessa: dia + ten ton hudaton rhumen.] + + [2] Steph. Byz., s.v. [Greek: Batnai]. + + [3] Dio, _passim._ + + [4] Isidore Charac. 1 (Muller, _Geog. Gr. Min._, i. 246). + + [5] Several times in Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ + + [6] _CIL._ vi. 1797. + + [7] _Hist. Osrhoena et Edessena_, p. 33. + + [8] Written [Greek: Osroes] in Dio Cassius, _Excerpta_, lxviii. 22. + + [9] See the reff. collected by M. Streck, _M.V.G._, 1906. The name + occurs in the same company in the fragmentary tablet K. 1904. The + mountain Ru-u-[a], mentioned thrice by Tiglath-pileser IV., is placed + by Billerbeck near Hamadan (_Sandschak Suleimania_, 82, 86, and map, + 1898). + + [10] See further Payne Smith, _Thesaurus_ 110 b. + + [11] In translating from the Greek; also in Ephraim (Duval, _Hist._ + 22, n. 4) and the Acts of Sharbil (Cureton, _Anc. Syr. Doc._ 41). + + [12] On a possible restoration under the name of "Antioch on the + Callirrhoe" see above. + + [13] The Edessans used to call their town "the city," or "the + daughter," "of the Parthians" (Cureton, _Anc. Syr. Doc._, 41 ult., 97 + l. 7; 106 l. 12). + + [14] The portion of the Mesopotamian steppe under Osrhoenic influence + was, according to Noldeke (_Zeitsch. Ass._ xxi. 153, 1908), called + 'Arabh in Syriac. + + [15] The inscription, which is difficult to read, connects the + structure with Shalmat the queen, daughter of Ma'nu, who cannot be + identified with certainty, and refers to some image(s), which + probably excited the pious vandalism of the Arabs. + + [16] Nebo and Bel (_Doctr. Addai_, 31) may come from the Old + Testament (Burkitt). + + [17] _S.B.A.W._, 1904, 910 ff. + + [18] So, e.g. F.C. Burkitt, _Early Eastern Christianity_, 72. + + [19] Marquart, _Ostasiat. und osteurop. Streitzuge_, 292 ff. + + [20] Marquart, _op. cit._ + + [21] Some one found time, however, to produce the oldest _dated_ MS. + of a portion of the Bible in any language. + + [22] The counts were: Baldwin I. (1098), Baldwin II. (1100), Joscelin + I. (1119), Joscelin II. (1131-1147). + + [23] Pictures in Burkitt, _Early East. Christ._, frontispiece; + _P.S.B.A._ xxviii. 151 f.; J.R. Harris, _The Heavenly Twins_. + + + + +EDFU, in Coptic _Atbo_, a town of Upper Egypt, 484 m. S.S.E. of Cairo by +rail, on the W. bank of the Nile, the railway station being on the +opposite side of the river. Pop. (1907) 19,262. The inhabitants +manufacture earthenware, which finds ready sale all through Egypt. The +ancient Atbo (_Apollinopolis Magna_) was capital of the second nome of +Upper Egypt. The great sandstone temple is practically complete (see +ARCHITECTURE: _Egypt_). It was built on the site of an earlier structure +entirely in the time of the Ptolemies. The central part of the building, +begun by Ptolemy III. Euergetes in 237 B.C., was finished by his +successor in 212; the portico, court, pylons and surrounding wall were +added by Ptolemy Euergetes II., Soter II. and Alexander I.; but the +decoration was not finished till 57 B.C. in the reign of Ptolemy XIII. +Neos Dionysus. The god of Atbo was a form of Horus (Apollo) as the +sun-god; his most characteristic representation is as the disk of the +sun with outspread wings, so often seen over the doors of shrines, at +the top of stelae, &c. In the temple, where he is often figured as a +falcon-headed man, he is associated with Hathor of Dendera and the child +Harsemteus. + + See Baedeker's _Egypt_; Ed. Naville, _Textes relatifs au mythe d'Horus + recueillis dans le temple d'Edfou_. (F. Ll. G.) + + + + +EDGAR (EADGAR), king of the English (944-975), was the younger son of +Edmund the Magnificent and Aelfgifu. As early as 955 he signed a charter +of his uncle Eadred, and in 957 the Mercian nobles, discontented with +the rule of his elder brother Eadwig, made him king of England north of +the Thames. On the death of his brother in October 959 Edgar became king +of a united England. Immediately on his accession to the throne of +Mercia Edgar recalled St Dunstan from exile and bestowed on him first +the bishopric of Worcester, and then that of London. In 961 Dunstan was +translated to Canterbury, and throughout Edgar's reign he was his chief +adviser, and to him must be attributed much of the peace and prosperity +of this time. + +The reign of Edgar was somewhat uneventful, but two things stand out +clearly: his ecclesiastical policy and his imperial position in Britain. +Edgar and Dunstan were alike determined to reform the great monastic +houses, and to secure that they should be restored once more to their +true owners and not remain in the hands of the secular priests or +_canonici_, whose life and discipline alike seem to have been extremely +lax. In this reform Edgar was helped not only by St Dunstan but also by +Oswald of Worcester and Aethelwold of Winchester. The priests of the old +and new monasteries at Winchester, at Chertsey and at Milton Abbas were +replaced by monks, and in monastic discipline the old rule of St +Benedict was restored in all its strictness. + +The coronation of Edgar was, for some unexplained reason, delayed till +the Whitsunday of 973. It took place with much ceremony at Bath, and was +followed shortly after by a general submission to Edgar at Chester. Six, +or (according to later chroniclers) eight kings, including the kings of +Scotland and Strathclyde, plighted their faith that they would be the +king's fellow-workers on sea and land. The historical truth of this +story has been much questioned; there seems to be little doubt that it +is true in its main outlines, though we need not accept the details +about Edgar's having been rowed on the Dee by eight kings. + +Two isolated and unexplained incidents are also recorded in the +chronicle: first, the ravaging of Westmorland by the Scandinavian +Thored, son of Gunnere, in 967; and second, the ravaging of Thanet by +Edgar's own command in 970. + +Edgar's death took place in the year 975, and he was buried at +Glastonbury. By his vigorous rule and his statesmanlike policy Edgar won +the approval of his people, and in the Saxon chronicle we have poems +commemorating his coronation and death, and describing his general +character. The only fault ascribed to him is a too great love for +foreigners and for foreign customs. Edgar strengthened the hands of the +provincial administration, and to him has been attributed the +reorganization of the English fleet. The characteristic feature of his +rule was his love of peace, and by efficient administration he secured +it. + +Edgar formed an irregular union in 961 with Wulfthryth, an inmate of the +convent at Wilton, who bore him a daughter Eadgyth. He next married +Aethelflaed, "the white duck," daughter of Earl Ordmaer, who bore him a +son, afterwards known as Edward the Martyr. Finally he was united to +Aelfthryth, daughter of Earl Ordgar, who became the mother of the +Aetheling Edmund (d. 971) and of Aethelred the Unready. + + AUTHORITIES.--_Saxon Chronicle_ (ed. Plummer and Earle, Oxford), _sub. + ann._; _Vita Sancti Oswaldi_ (_Historians of the Church of York_, ed. + Raine, Rolls Series); William of Malmesbury, _Gesta regum_ (ed. + Stubbs, Rolls Series); Birch, _Cartularium Saxonicum_, vol. iii. Nos. + 1047-1319; F. Liebermann, _A.-S. Laws_, i. 192-216; "Florence of + Worcester" (_Mon. Hist. Brit._); E.W. Robertson, _Historical Essays_, + pp. 189-215. (A. Mw.) + + + + +EDGAR, or EADGAR (c. 1050-c. 1130), called the Aetheling, was the son of +Edward, a son of the English king Edmund Ironside, by his wife Agatha, a +kinswoman of the emperor Henry II., and was born probably in Hungary +some time before 1057, the year of his father's death. After the death +of Harold in 1066, Archbishop Aldred and the citizens of London desired +to make him king, but on the advance of William, Edgar and his +supporters made their submission. In 1068, after the failure of the +first rising of the north, Edgar retired to Scotland, when his sister +Margaret married the Scottish king, Malcolm Canmore. Next year he +returned to take part in the second rising, but, this proving no more +successful than the first, he again took refuge in Scotland. In 1074 he +went to Normandy and made peace with William. In the struggle between +Henry I. and Robert of Normandy, Edgar sided with the latter. He was +taken prisoner at the battle of Tinchebrai in 1106, but was subsequently +released. The date of his death is uncertain, but he was certainly alive +about 1125. + + + + +EDGECUMBE, or EDGECOMBE, the name of a celebrated west of England +family, taken from the manor of Edgecumbe in Cornwall. One of its +earlier members was Sir Richard Edgecumbe (d. 1489), who was descended +from a Richard Edgecumbe who flourished during the reign of Edward I. +Richard was a member of parliament in 1467; afterwards he joined Henry, +earl of Richmond, in Brittany, returned with the earl to England, and +fought at Bosworth, where he was knighted. He received rich rewards from +Henry, now King Henry VII., who also sent him on errands to Scotland, to +Ireland and to Brittany, and he died at Morlaix on the 8th of September +1489. His son and successor, Sir Piers Edgecumbe, went to France with +Henry VIII. in 1513, and when he died on the 14th of August 1539 he left +with other issue a son, Sir Richard Edgecumbe (1499-1562), a cultured +and hospitable man, who is celebrated through Richard Carew's _Friendly +Remembrance of Sir Richard Edgecumbe_. Sir Richard's eldest son, Piers +or Peter Edgecumbe (1536-1607), was a member of parliament under +Elizabeth for about thirty years. + +Another famous member of this family was Richard, 1st baron Edgecumbe +(1680-1758), a son of Sir Richard Edgecumbe. Educated at Trinity +College, Cambridge, he was successively member of parliament for St +Germans, Plympton and Lostwithiel from 1701 to 1742; on two occasions he +served as a lord of the treasury; and from 1724 to 1742 he was +paymaster-general for Ireland, becoming chancellor of the duchy of +Lancaster in 1743. Edgecumbe was a faithful follower of Sir Robert +Walpole, in whose interests he managed the elections for the Cornish +boroughs, and his elevation to the peerage, which took place in 1742, +was designed to prevent him from giving evidence about Walpole's +expenditure of the secret service money. He died on the 22nd of November +1758. His son and successor, Richard, the 2nd baron (1716-1761), was +comptroller of the royal household, a member of parliament, and a +major-general in the army. A wit, a writer of verse, a gambler and an +intimate friend of Horace Walpole, "Dick Edgecumbe" died unmarried on +the 10th of May 1761. + +Edgecumbe's brother, George, 1st earl of Mount Edgecumbe (1721-1795), +was a naval officer who saw a great deal of service during the Seven +Years' War. Succeeding to the barony on the 1st baron's death in 1761 he +became an admiral and treasurer of the royal household; he was created +Viscount Mount-Edgecumbe in 1781 and earl of Mount-Edgecumbe in 1789. He +died on the 4th of February 1795, his only son being his successor, +Richard, the 2nd earl (1764-1839), the ancestor of the present earl and +the author of _Musical Reminiscences of an Old Amateur_. He died on the +26th of September 1839. His son, Ernest Augustus, the 3rd earl +(1797-1861), wrote _Extracts from Journals kept during the Revolutions +at Rome and Palermo_. + + + + +EDGE HILL, an elevated ridge in Warwickshire, England, near the border +of Oxfordshire. The north-western face is an abrupt escarpment of the +lias, and the summit of the ridge is almost level for nearly 2 m., at a +height somewhat exceeding 700 ft. The escarpment overlooks a rich +lowland watered by streams tributary to the Avon; the gentle eastern +slope sends its waters to the Cherwell, and the ridge thus forms part of +the divide between the basins of the Severn and the Thames. Edge Hill +gave name to the first battle of the Great Rebellion (q.v.), fought on +the 23rd of October 1642. Charles I., marching on London from the +north-west, was here met by the parliamentary forces under Robert +Devereux, earl of Essex. The royalists were posted on the hill while the +enemy was in the plain before Kineton. But the rash advice of Prince +Rupert determined the king to give up the advantage of position; he +descended to the attack, and though Rupert himself was successful +against the opposing cavalry, he was checked by the arrival of a +regiment with artillery under Hampden, and, in the meantime, the +royalist infantry was driven back. The parliamentarians, however, lost +the more heavily, and though both sides claimed the advantage, the king +was able to advance and occupy Banbury. + + + + +EDGEWORTH, MARIA (1767-1849), Irish novelist, second child and eldest +daughter of Richard Lovell Edgeworth (q.v.) and his first wife, Anna +Maria Elers, was born in the house of her maternal grandparents at Black +Bourton, Oxfordshire, on the 1st of January 1767. Her early efforts in +fiction were of a sufficiently melodramatic character; for she +recollected one of her schoolgirl compositions, in which the hero wore a +mask made of the dried skin taken from a dead man's face. Her holidays +were often spent in the house of the eccentric Thomas Day, for whom she +entertained a genuine respect. She had ample opportunities for society +among her father's neighbours in Ireland, among whom were the second +Lord Longford, whose daughter, "Kitty" Pakenham, became later duchess of +Wellington, Lady Moira at Castle Forbes, and Maria's aunt, Margaret +Ruxton, at Black Castle. She gained a first-hand experience of the Irish +peasantry by acting as her father's assistant in the management of the +estate. The Edgeworths were in Ireland from 1793 onwards through that +dangerous period, and Maria's letters, always gay and natural, make very +light of their anxieties and their real perils. + +Mr Edgeworth encouraged his daughter's literary instincts. It has been +the fashion to regard his influence over Maria's work as altogether +deplorable, but against the disadvantages arising from his interference +must be weighed the stimulus she undoubtedly derived from his powerful +mind. Her first publication was a plea for female education, _Letters to +Literary Ladies_ (1795), and in 1796 appeared the collection of stories +known as _The Parent's Assistant_ (2nd ed., 6 vols., 1800), an +unpromising title which was not chosen by the author. The stories had +been submitted as they were written to the juvenile critics of the +Edgeworth nursery. They were therefore children's stories for children, +even though the morals were Mr Edgeworth's. In 1798 Mr Edgeworth's +fourth marriage threatened the family harmony, but Maria soon became a +close friend of her stepmother. _Practical Education_ (2 vols., 1798) +was written in conjunction with her father, who also collaborated with +her in the _Essay on Irish Bulls_ (1802). Miss Edgeworth's first novel, +_Castle Rackrent, an Hibernian Tale taken from Facts, and from the +Manners of the Irish Squires before the year 1782_, was written without +her father's supervision, and appeared anonymously in 1800. It is the +story of an Irish estate and its owners, the Rackrents, as told by +Thady, the steward. Its success was immediate, and a second edition soon +appeared with the author's name. Perhaps because of the absence of +Richard Lovell Edgeworth's co-operation, the book is the most natural +and vigorous of her novels. The course of the story is not altered to +suit any moral, and the personages appear to be drawn immediately from +the natives of Edgeworthstown, though Miss Edgeworth asserts that only +Thady himself was an actual portrait. In her realistic pictures of Irish +peasant life she opened up a new vein in fiction, and even if the +unquestionable excellences of _Castle Rackrent_ were less, it would +still be a noteworthy book. In the "General Preface" to the 1829 edition +of his novels Sir Walter Scott, writing of the publication of +_Waverley_, says: "I felt that something might be attempted for my own +country, of the same kind with that which Miss Edgeworth so fortunately +achieved for Ireland," and in the "Postscript, which should have been a +preface," in the original edition of _Waverley_, he describes his aim as +being "in some distant degree to emulate the admirable Irish portraits +of Miss Edgeworth, so different from the 'Teagues' and 'dear joys' who +so long, with the most perfect family resemblance to each other, +occupied the drama and the novel." _Belinda_ (1801) is a society novel, +and one of her best books. Mr Saintsbury thinks that Miss Austen's +heroines owe something of their naturalness to Belinda, who was one of +the earliest to break with the tradition of fainting and blushing. +_Moral Tales for Young People_ (5 vols.) and _Early Lessons_, which +included "Harry and Lucy," "Rosamond" and "Frank," appeared in 1801. + +In 1802 the Edgeworths went abroad, first to Brussels and then to Paris. +They had already connexions in Paris through their kinsman, the abbe +Henri Allen Edgeworth de Firmont, who was, however, then in exile. They +met all the notabilities in Paris, and Maria refused an offer of +marriage from a Swedish count named Edelcrantz. Although _Leonora_, not +published until four years later, is said to have been written to meet +his taste, she apparently remained then and always heart-whole; but her +stepmother thought otherwise, and maintained that she suffered severely +for her decision (_Memoir_, i. 144). Returning to Edgeworthstown, Miss +Edgeworth resumed her writing, which was always done in the rooms +commonly used by the whole family. _Popular Tales_ was published in +1804, and _The Modern Griselda_ in the same year; _Leonora_ in 1806; and +in 1809 the first series of _Tales of Fashionable Life_, three volumes +containing "Ennui," "Madame de Fleury," "Almeria," "The Dun" and +"Manoeuvring"; the second series (3 vols., 1812) included "The +Absentee," one of her best tales, which was originally designed as a +play, "Vivian" and "Emilie de Coulanges." In 1813 Maria and her parents +spent a considerable time in London, and her society was much sought +after. When _Waverley_ was published, Miss Edgeworth received a copy +from the publishers, and at once recognized the authorship. She wrote a +long letter of appreciation (23rd of October 1814) to "the author of +_Waverley_," which she began with the phrase _aut Scotus, aut diabolus_, +but the letter was merely acknowledged by the publishers. _Patronage_ (4 +vols., 1814), the longest of her novels, and _Harrington, a tale_, and +_Ormond, a tale_ (3 vols., 1817) complete the list of the works which +received what her father called his _imprimatur_. + +After his death in 1817 Miss Edgeworth occupied herself with completing +his _Memoirs_, which were published in 1820. The book was the excuse for +an attack on Mr Edgeworth's reputation in the July number of the +_Quarterly Review_, which Miss Edgeworth had the courage to leave +unread. Her life at Edgeworthstown was varied by visits to London, to +Lord Lansdowne at Bowood, Wiltshire, to the Misses Sneyd in +Staffordshire, and to many other friends. In 1820 she was again in +Paris, and in 1823 she spent a happy fortnight with the Scotts at +Abbotsford. In 1825 Scott went to Edgeworthstown, and their relations +were always cordial. + +Miss Edgeworth's production was less after her father's death. Sequels +to "Rosamond," "Frank," "Harry and Lucy" in the _Early Lessons_ were +published in 1822-1825. _Comic Dramas_ appeared in 1817, and _Helen_ in +1834. She worked to the last, and in 1846 laboured strenuously for the +relief of the famine-stricken Irish peasants. She died on the 22nd of +May 1849. + +Miss Edgeworth's novels are distinguished by good sense, humour and an +easy flowing style. As the construction of a plot is not her strong +point, she is generally more successful in tales than in lengthy novels. +The vivacity of her dialogues is extraordinary; and in them her +characters reveal themselves in the most natural way possible. Her books +are character-studies rather than intensely interesting narratives. +Sobriety of judgment is seen throughout; and passion, romance and poetry +rarely, if ever, shed their lustre on her pages. Three of her aims were +to paint national manners, to enforce morality, and to teach fashionable +society by satirizing the lives of the idle and worldly. She expressly +calls some of her stories "Moral Tales"; but they all fall under this +category. In her pages the heroic virtues give place to prudence, +industry, kindness and sweetness of temper. There are few instances of +overwhelming emotions or tumultuous passions in her works; and it is +remarkable how little the love of nature appears. She never uses +material which does not yield some direct moral lesson. But the +freshness of her stories, her insight into character, lively dialogues, +originality of invention, and delightfully clear style render it quite +possible to read her works in succession without any sense of +weariness. Among the many sweet memories her unsullied pages have +bequeathed to the world, not the least precious is her own noble +character, which ever responded to all that is best and most enduring in +human nature. + + See _A Memoir of Maria Edgeworth, with a Selection from her Letters_ + (1867), by her stepmother, F.A. Edgeworth, privately printed. A + selection from this was made by Augustus J.C. Hare, and printed under + the title of _The Life and Letters of Maria Edgeworth_ (2 vols., + 1894). See also _Maria Edgeworth_ (1883), by Helen Zimmern, in the + "Eminent Women" series; Grace A. Oliver, _A Study of Maria Edgeworth_ + ... (3rd ed., Boston, U.S.A., 1882); and _Maria Edgeworth_ (1904), by + the Hon. Emily Lawless in the "English Men of Letters" series. Among + the numerous shorter articles dealing with Maria Edgeworth and the + family circle at Edgeworthstown may be mentioned a friendly + appreciation of Miss Edgeworth's novels by George Saintsbury in + _Macmillan's Magazine_ (July 1895), and a charming description of her + family circle and surroundings in the preface supplied by Lady + Thackeray Ritchie to Macmillan's edition of the novels (1895). + + + + +EDGEWORTH, RICHARD LOVELL (1744-1817), British writer, was born at Bath +on the 31st of May 1744. The greater part of his life, however, was +spent at Edgeworthtown, or Edgeworthstown, in the county of Longford, +Ireland, where the Edgeworth family had been settled for upwards of 150 +years. He was of gentle blood--his father being the son of Colonel +Francis Edgeworth, and his mother, Jane Lovell, being the daughter of +Samuel Lovell, a Welsh judge. Richard's mother taught him to read at a +very early age; and from childhood he had a strong love for mechanical +science. The Rev. Patrick Hughes initiated him in Lilye's _Latin +Grammar_--an office he also performed for Goldsmith, who was born on the +property of the Edgeworths--and his public education began, in August +1752, in a school at Warwick. He subsequently attended Drogheda school, +then reputed the best in Ireland; and, after spending two years at a +school in Longford, entered Trinity College, Dublin, in April 1761, but +was transferred to Corpus Christi College, Oxford, in October of the +same year. While still at college, he made a runaway match, marrying at +Gretna Green, Anna Maria, one of the daughters of Paul Elers of Black +Bourton, Oxfordshire, an old friend of his father. His eldest son was +born before Edgeworth reached his twentieth birthday, and his daughter +Maria in 1767. + +Shortly after the birth of his son, he and his wife went to +Edgeworthstown, but in 1765 they took a house at Hare Hatch, near +Maidenhead. Edgeworth devoted much time to scientific reading and +experiments; and he made an attempt to establish telegraphic +communication (_Memoirs_, 2nd edition, i. 144). He also invented a +turnip-cutter, a one-wheeled chaise and other contrivances. In the +pursuit of his mechanical inventions he visited Erasmus Darwin at +Lichfield, where he met Anna Seward, and her cousin, Honora Sneyd. His +home was now at Hare Hatch, in Berkshire, where he endeavoured to +educate his son according to the method explained in Rousseau's _Emile_. +In later life, however, the ill-success of this experiment led him to +doubt many of Rousseau's views (_Memoirs_, ii. 374). At the same time he +kept terms at the Temple, and formed the greatest friendship of his life +with Thomas Day, the author of _Sandford and Merton_, which was written +at Edgeworth's suggestion. In 1769, on the death of his father, he gave +up the idea of being a barrister; but, instead of immediately settling +on his Irish estate, he spent a considerable time in England and France, +mainly in Day's company. In Lyons, where he resided for about two years, +he took an active part in the management of public works intended to +turn the course of the Rhone. He was summoned to England by the death of +his wife (March 1773), with whom he was far from happy. Edgeworth +hurried to Lichfield, to Dr Erasmus Darwin's, and at once declared his +passion for Honora Sneyd, which had been the cause of his flight to +France two years before. Miss Sneyd had been the object of attention +from Thomas Day, but her views on marriage were not submissive enough to +please him. She had other suitors, among them the unfortunate Major +Andre. She married Edgeworth (July 1773), and after residing at +Edgeworthstown for three years, they settled at Northchurch, in +Hertfordshire. After six years of domestic happiness, Honora Edgeworth +died (April 1780), recommending her husband to marry her sister +Elizabeth; and they were actually married on Christmas Day, 1780. + +In 1782 Edgeworth returned to Ireland, determined to improve his estate, +educate his seven children, and ameliorate the condition of the tenants. +Up to this point Edgeworth has told his own story in his _Memoirs_. The +rest of his life is written by his daughter, who opens with a lengthy +panegyric on her father as a model landlord (_Memoirs_, ii. 12-36). In +1785 he was associated with others in founding the Royal Irish Academy; +and, during the two succeeding years, mechanics and agriculture occupied +most of his time. In October 1789 his friend Day was killed by a fall +from his horse, and this trial was soon followed by the loss of his +daughter Honora, who had just reached her fifteenth year. In 1792 the +health of one of Edgeworth's sons took him to Clifton, where he remained +with his family for about two years, returning in 1794 to +Edgeworthstown. Ireland was, at that time, harassed by internal +disturbances, and threats of a French invasion, and Edgeworth offered to +establish telegraphic communication of his own invention throughout the +country. This offer was declined. A full account of the matter is given +in Edgeworth's _Letter to Lord Charlemont on the Telegraph_; and his +apparatus is explained in an "Essay on the art of Conveying Swift and +Secret Intelligence," published in the sixth volume of the _Transactions +of the Royal Irish Academy_. In the autumn of 1797 the third Mrs +Edgeworth died. + +_Practical Education_ (1798) was written in collaboration with his +daughter Maria, and embodied the experience of the authors in dealing +with children. "So commenced," says Miss Edgeworth, "that literary +partnership which, for so many years, was the pride and joy of my life" +(_Memoirs_, ii. 170). This book, generally regarded as old-fashioned, +has a real value in the history of education. Mr Edgeworth's interest in +the subject had been inspired by the study of Rousseau and by his +friendship with Thomas Day. But he went beyond Rousseau, who developed +his theories from his own ingenious mind and related an imaginary +process. The Edgeworths brought a scientific method to their work. The +second Mrs Edgeworth (Honora Sneyd) began the collection of actual +examples of conversations between the children and their elders. This +was continued patiently by the writers of the book; and their reasonings +were thus founded on an accurate record of childish methods of thought. +They deprecated especially any measures that interrupted the child's own +chain of reasoning. The chapters on special subjects of study, +chronology, geometry, &c., were written by Richard Lovell Edgeworth; +those on toys, on rewards and punishments, on temper, &c., by his +daughter.[1] + +In 1798 Edgeworth married Miss Beaufort, and was elected M.P. for the +borough of St John's Town, Longford. The same year, too, saw a hostile +landing of the French and a formidable rebellion; and for a short time +the Edgeworths took refuge in Longford. The winter of 1802 they spent in +Paris. In 1804 the government accepted his telegraphic apparatus, but +the installation was left incomplete when the fear of invasion was past. +In 1802 appeared the _Essay on Irish Bulls_ by Mr and Miss Edgeworth; +and in 1806 Edgeworth was elected a member of the board of commissioners +to inquire into Irish education. From 1807 till 1809 much of his time +was spent on mechanical experiments and in writing the story of his +life. In 1808 appeared _Professional Education_, and in 1813 his _Essay +on the Construction of Roads and Carriages_. He died on the 13th of June +1817, and was buried in the family vault in Edgeworthstown churchyard. + +Many of Edgeworth's works were suggested by his zeal for the education +of his own children. Such were _Poetry Explained for Young People_ +(1802), _Readings in Poetry_ (1816), _A Rational Primer_ (unpublished), +and the parts of _Early Lessons_ contributed by him. His speeches in the +Irish parliament have also been published; and numerous essays, mostly +on scientific subjects, have appeared in the _Philosophical +Transactions_, the _Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy_, the +_Monthly Magazine_ and _Nicholson's Journal_. The story of his early +life, told by himself, is fully as entertaining as the continuation by +Maria, as it contains less dissertation and more incident. One of his +daughters by his first marriage, Anna Maria, married Dr Beddoes and +became the mother of T.L. Beddoes, the poet. + + See _Memoirs of Richard Lovell Edgeworth, Esq._, begun by himself and + concluded by his daughter, Maria Edgeworth (2 vols., 1820, 3rd and + revised ed. 1844). A selection from this, giving an optimistic view of + him, _Richard Lovell Edgeworth_ (1896), was edited by Mrs Lionel + Tollemache. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] For an appreciation of the two Edgeworths from the teacher's + point of view, see Prof. L.C. Miall in the _Journal of Education_ + (August 1, 1894). + + + + +EDGEWORTH DE FIRMONT, HENRY ESSEX (1745-1807), last confessor to Louis +XVI., was the son of Robert Edgeworth, rector of Edgeworthstown in +Ireland, his mother being a granddaughter of Archbishop Ussher. When he +was three years old his father became a Roman Catholic, resigned his +living and emigrated to Toulouse, where the boy was brought up by the +Jesuits. In 1769, after his father's death, he went to Paris to be +trained for the priesthood. On taking orders he assumed the additional +surname of de Firmont, from the family estate of Firmount near +Edgeworthstown. Though originally studying with a view to becoming a +missionary, he decided to remain in Paris, devoting himself especially +to the Irish and English Roman Catholics. In 1791 he became confessor to +the princess Elizabeth, sister of Louis XVI., and earned the respect +even of the _sans-culottes_ by his courage and devotion. By Madame +Elizabeth he was recommended to the king when his trial was impending; +and after Louis' condemnation to death he was able to obtain permission +to celebrate mass for him and attend him on the scaffold, where he +recommended the king to allow his hands to be tied, with the words: +"Sire, in this new outrage I see only the last trait of resemblance +between your Majesty and the God who will be your reward." It is said +that at the moment of the execution, the confessor uttered the +celebrated words: "Son of St Louis, ascend to heaven." But it is certain +that the phrase was never spoken. The abbe himself does not quote it, +either in his memoirs or in a letter written in 1796 to his brother, in +which he describes the death of the king. Moreover, Edgeworth declared +to several persons who asked him about it, that the words were not his. +In spite of the danger he now ran, Edgeworth refused to leave France so +long as he could be of any service to Madame Elizabeth, with whom he +still managed to correspond. At length, in 1795, his mother having +meanwhile died in prison, where his sister was also confined, he +succeeded in escaping to England, carrying with him Elizabeth's last +message to her brother, the future King Charles X. whom he found in +Edinburgh. He afterwards went with some papers to Monsieur (Louis +XVIII.) at Blankenburg in Brunswick, by whom he was induced to accompany +him to Mittau, where, on the 22nd of May 1807, he died of a fever +contracted while attending some French prisoners. + + Edgeworth's _Memories_, edited by C.S. Edgeworth, were first published + in English (London, 1815), and a French translation (really the + letters and some miscellaneous notes, &c.) was published in Paris in + 1816. A translation of the _Lettres de l'abbe Edgeworth avec des + memoires sur sa vie_ was published by Madame Elizabeth de Bow in Paris + in 1818, and _Letters from the Abbe Edgeworth to his Friends, with + Memoirs of his Life_, edited by T.B. England, in London in 1818. See + J.B.A. Hanet-Clery, _Journal de ce qui s'est passe, &c._ (Paris, + 1825); A.H. du D. de Beauchesne, _Vie de Madame Elisabeth_ (Paris, + 1869); J.C.D. de Lacretelle, _Precis historique de la Revolution + francaise_ (Paris, 1801-1806). + + + + +EDGREN-LEFFLER, ANNE CHARLOTTE, duchess of Cajanello (1849-1892), +Swedish author, daughter of the mathematician Prof. C.O. Leffler, was +born on the 1st of October 1849. Her first volume of stories appeared in +1869, but the first to which she attached her name was _Ur Lifvet_ +("From Life," 1882), a series of realistic sketches of the upper circles +of Swedish society, followed by three other collections with the same +title. Her earliest plays, _Skadespelerskan_ ("The Actress," 1873), and +its successors, were produced anonymously in Stockholm, but in 1883 her +reputation was established by the success of _Sanna Kvinnor_ ("True +Women"), and _En Raddande engel_ ("An Angel of Deliverance"). _Sanna +Kvinnor_ is directed against false femininity, and was well received in +Germany as well as in Sweden. Anne Leffler had married in 1872 G. +Edgren, but about 1884 she was separated from her husband, who did not +share her advanced views. She spent some time in England, and in 1885 +produced her _Hur man gor godt_ ("How men do good"), followed in 1888 by +_Kampen for lyckan_ ("The Struggle for Happiness"), in which she had the +help of Sophie Kovalevsky. Another volume of the _Ur Lisvet_ series +appeared in 1889; and _Familjelycka_ ("Domestic Happiness," 1891) was +produced in the year after her second marriage, with the Italian +mathematician, Pasquale del Pezzo, duca di Cajanello. She died at Naples +on the 21st of October 1892. Her dramatic method forms a connecting link +between Ibsen and Strindberg, and its masculine directness, freedom from +prejudice, and frankness gave her work a high estimation in Sweden. Her +last book was a biography (1892) of her friend Sophie (Sonya) +Kovalevsky, by way of introduction to Sonya's autobiography. An English +translation (1895) by A. de Furnhjelm and A.M. Clive Bayley contains a +biographical note on Fru Edgren-Leffler by Lily Wolffsohn, based on +private sources. + + See also Ellen Key, _Anne Charlotte Leffler_ (Stockholm, 1893). + + + + +EDHEM PASHA (c. 1815-1893), Turkish statesman, was of Greek origin, and +is said to have been taken into a Turkish household at the time of the +Chio massacre in 1822, and to have been brought up as a Mussulman. He +entered the Turkish government service and rose to high office, being +successively minister of public works, grand vizier for eleven months +(1878), ambassador at Vienna (1879) and minister of the interior. He was +quick-tempered, but of kindly disposition, intelligent and patriotic, +and he left a reputation of unblemished honesty and uprightness. + + + + +EDICT (Lat. _edictum_, from _e_, out, and _dicere_, to say, speak), an +order or proclamation issued under authority and having the force of +law. The word is especially used of the promulgations of the Roman +praetor (q.v.), of the Roman emperors, and also of the kings of France +(see also ROMAN LAW). + + + + +EDINBURGH, a city and royal burgh, and county of itself, the capital of +Scotland, and county town of Edinburghshire or Midlothian, situated to +the south of the Firth of Forth, 396 m. by rail N. of London. The old +Royal Observatory on Calton Hill stands in 55 deg. 57' 23" N. and 12 +deg. 43' 05" W. Edinburgh occupies a group of hills of moderate height +and the valleys between. In the centre is a bold rock, crowned by the +castle, between which and the new town lies a ravine that once contained +the Nor' Loch, but is now covered with the gardens of Princes Street. To +the east rises Calton Hill (355 ft.) with several conspicuous monuments, +the city prison and the Calton cemetery. On the south-east, beyond the +Canongate limits, stands the hill of Arthur's Seat (822 ft.). Towards +the north the site of the city slopes gently to the Firth of Forth and +the port of Leith; while to the south, Liberton Hill, Blackford Hill, +Braid Hills and Craiglockhart Hills roughly mark the city bounds, as +Corstorphine Hill and the Water of Leith do the western limits. The +views of the city and environs from the castle or any of the hills are +very beautiful, and it is undoubtedly one of the most picturesque +capitals in the world. Its situation, general plan and literary +associations suggested a comparison that gave Edinburgh the name of "the +modern Athens"; but it has a homelier nickname of "Auld Reekie," from +the cloud of smoke (reek) which often hangs over the low-lying quarters. + +_Chief Buildings._--Of the castle, the oldest building is St Margaret's +chapel, believed to be the chapel where Queen Margaret, wife of Malcolm +Canmore, worshipped, and belonging at latest to the reign of her +youngest son, David I. (1124-1153). Near it is the parliament and +banqueting hall, restored (1889-1892) by the generosity of William +Nelson (1817-1887) the publisher, which contains a fine collection of +Scottish armour, weapons and regimental colours, while, emblazoned on +the windows, are the heraldic bearings of royal and other figures +distinguished in national history. Other buildings in the Palace Yard +include the apartments occupied by the regent, Mary of Guise, and her +daughter Mary, queen of Scots, and the room in which James VI. was born. +Here also are deposited the Scottish regalia ("The Honours of +Scotland"), with the sword of state presented to James IV. by Pope +Julius II., and the jewels restored to Scotland on the death (1807) of +Cardinal York, the last of the Stuarts. The arsenal, a modern building +on the west side of the rock, is capable of storing 30,000 stand of +arms. In the armoury is a collection of arms of various dates; and on +the Argyll battery stands a huge piece of ancient artillery, called Mons +Meg, of which repeated mention is made in Scottish history. Argyll +Tower, in which Archibald, 9th earl of Argyll, spent his last days +(1685), was also restored in 1892 by Mr William Nelson. + +Holyrood Palace was originally an abbey of canons regular of the rule of +St Augustine, founded by David I. in 1128, and the ruined nave of the +abbey church still shows parts of the original structure. Connected with +this is a part of the royal palace erected by James IV. and James V., +including the apartments occupied by Queen Mary, the scene of the murder +of Rizzio in 1566. The abbey suffered repeatedly in invasions. It was +sacked and burnt by the English under the earl of Hertford in 1544, and +again in 1547. In a map of 1544, preserved among the Cotton MSS. in the +British Museum, the present north-west tower of the palace is shown +standing apart, and only joined to the abbey by a low cloister. Beyond +this is an irregular group of buildings, which were replaced at a later +date by additions more in accordance with a royal residence. But the +whole of this latter structure was destroyed by fire in 1650 while in +occupation by the soldiers of Cromwell; and the more modern parts were +begun during the Protectorate, and completed in the reign of Charles II. +by Robert Milne, after the designs of Sir William Bruce of Kinross. They +include the picture gallery, 150 ft. in length, with 106 mythical +portraits of Scottish kings, and a triptych (c. 1484) containing +portraits of James III. and his queen, which is believed to have formed +the altar-piece of the collegiate church of the Holy Trinity, founded by +the widowed queen of James II. in 1462, demolished in 1848, and +afterwards rebuilt, stone for stone, in Jeffrey Street. The picture +gallery is associated with the festive scenes that occurred during the +short residence of Prince Charles in 1745; and in it the election of +representative peers for Scotland takes place. Escaping from France at +the revolution of 1789, the comte d'Artois, afterwards Charles X. of +France, had apartments granted for the use of himself and the emigrant +nobles of his suite, who continued to reside in the palace till August +1799. When driven from the French throne by the revolution of 1830, +Charles once more found a home in the ancient palace of the Stuarts. +George IV. was received there in 1822, and Queen Victoria and the prince +consort occupied the palace for brief periods on several occasions, and +in 1903 Edward VII., during residence at Dalkeith Palace, held his court +within its walls. A fountain, after the original design of that in the +quadrangle of Linlithgow Palace, was erected in front of the entrance by +the prince consort. The royal vault in the Chapel Royal, which had +fallen into a dilapidated condition, has been put in order; Clockmill +House and grounds have been added to the area of the parade ground, and +the abbey precincts generally and the approaches to the King's Park have +been improved. With the abolition of imprisonment for debt in 1881 the +privileges of sanctuary came to an end. + +Parliament House, begun in 1632 and completed in 1640, in which the +later assemblies of the Scottish estates took place until the +dissolution of the parliament by the Act of Union of 1707, has since +been set apart as the meeting-place of the supreme courts of law. The +great hall, with its fine open-timbered oak roof, is adorned with a +splendid stained-glass window and several statues of notable men, +including one (by Louis Francois Roubiliac) of Duncan Forbes of +Culloden, lord president of the court of session (1685-1747), and now +forms the ante-room for lawyers and their clients. The surrounding +buildings, including the courtrooms, the Advocates' and the Signet +libraries, are all modern additions. The Advocates' library is the +finest in Scotland. Founded in 1682, at the instance of Sir George +Mackenzie, king's advocate under Charles II., and then dean of the +faculty, it is regarded as the national library, and is one of the five +entitled by the Copyright Act to receive a copy of every work published +in Great Britain. + +[Illustration: Map of Edinburgh.] + +The General Register House for Scotland, begun in 1774 from designs by +Robert Adam, stands at the east end of Princes Street. It contains, in +addition to the ancient national records, adequate accommodation, in +fireproof chambers, for all Scottish title-deeds, entails, contracts and +mortgages, and for general statistics, including those of births, deaths +and marriages. + +The Royal Institution, in the Doric style, surmounted by a colossal +stone statue Of Queen Victoria by Sir John Steell, formerly furnished +official accommodation for the Board of Trustees for Manufactures and +the Board of Fishery, and also for the school of art, and the libraries +and public meetings of the Royal Society (founded in 1783), and the +Society of Antiquaries of Scotland (founded in 1780). In 1910 it was +renamed and appropriated to the uses of the Royal Scottish Academy of +Painting, Sculpture and Architecture, which was instituted in 1826, and +incorporated by royal charter in 1838, on the model of the Royal Academy +in London. It is situated on the Mound close to the National Gallery, of +which the prince consort laid the foundation stone in 1850. These +collections, especially rich in Raeburn's works, include also Alexander +Nasmyth's portrait of Robert Burns, Gainsborough's "The Hon. Mrs. +Graham" (see PAINTING, Plate VI. fig. 20), Sir Noel Paton's "Quarrel" +and "Reconciliation of Oberon and Titania," several works by William +Etty, Robert Scott Lauder and Sam Bough, Sir Edwin Landseer's "Rent Day +in the Wilderness," and the diploma pictures of the academicians, +besides many specimens of the modern Scottish school. The National +Portrait Gallery and Antiquarian Museum are housed in Queen Street, in a +building designed by Sir Rowand Anderson and constructed at the expense +of J.R. Findlay of Aberlour (1824-1898), the government providing the +site. + +_Churches._--In conformity with the motto of the city, _Nisi Dominus +frustra_, there are numerous handsome places of public worship. St +Giles's church, which was effectively restored (1879-1883) by the +liberality of Dr William Chambers the publisher, has interesting +historical and literary associations. The regent Moray, the marquess of +Montrose, and Napier of Merchiston were buried within its walls and are +commemorated by monuments, and among the memorial tablets is one to R.L. +Stevenson by Augustus St Gaudens. The choir (restored in 1873 by public +subscription) is a fine example of 15th-century architecture, and the +Gothic crown surmounting the central tower forms one of the most +characteristic features in every view of the city. Just outside the +church in Parliament Square, the supposed grave of John Knox is +indicated by a stone set in the pavement bearing his initials, and in +the pavement to the west a heart indicates the site of the old +Tolbooth,[1] which figures prominently in Scott's _Heart of Midlothian_. +Other churches having historical associations are the two Greyfriars +churches, which occupy the two halves of one building; Tron church, the +scene of midnight hilarity at the new year; St Cuthbert's church; St +Andrew's church in George Street, whence set out, on a memorable day in +1843, that long procession of ministers and elders to Tanfield Hall +which ended in the founding of the Free Church; St George's church in +Charlotte Square, a good example of the work of Robert Adam. The United +Free Church claims no buildings of much historic interest, but St +George's Free was the scene of the ministrations of Dr Robert S. +Candlish (1806-1873), Dr Oswald Dykes (b. 1835), Dr Alexander Whyte (b. +1837), a man of great mark and influence in the city, and his successor +Hugh Black (b. 1868). Preachers like Robert Candlish, Thomas Guthrie +(1803-1873), Marcus Dods (b. 1834), occupied many pulpits, besides those +of the particular congregations whom each served. The most imposing +structure belonging to the Scottish Episcopal Church is St Mary's +cathedral, built on ground and chiefly from funds left by the Misses +Walker of Coates, and opened for worship in 1879. It is in the Early +Pointed style, by Sir Gilbert Scott, is 278 ft. long, and is surmounted +by a spire 275 ft. high. The old-fashioned mansion of East Coates, +dating from the 17th century, still stands in the close, and is occupied +by functionaries of the cathedral. St John's Episcopal church at the +west end of Princes Street was the scene of the ministrations of Dean +Ramsay, and St Paul's Episcopal church of the Rev. Archibald Alison, +father of the historian. The Catholic Apostolic church at the foot of +Broughton Street is architecturally noticeable, and one of its features +is a set of mural paintings executed by Mrs Traquair. The Central Hall +at Tollcross testifies to Methodist energy. John Knox's house at the +east end of High Street is kept in excellent repair, and contains +several articles of furniture that belonged to the reformer. The +Canongate Tolbooth adjoins the parish church, in the burial-ground of +which is the tombstone raised by Burns to the memory of Robert +Fergusson, and where Dugald Stewart, Adam Smith and other men of note +were buried. Almost opposite to it stands Moray House, from the balcony +of which the 8th earl of Argyll watched Montrose led to execution +(1650). The city gaol, a castellated structure on the black rock of +Calton Hill, forms one of the most striking groups of buildings in the +town. In the Music Hall in George Street, Carlyle, as lord rector of the +university, delivered his stimulating address on books to the students, +and Gladstone addressed the electors in his Midlothian campaigns. St +Bernard's Well, on the Water of Leith, was embellished and restored +(1888) at the cost of Mr William Nelson. A sum of L100,000 was +bequeathed by Mr Andrew Usher (1826-1898) for a hall to be called the +Usher Hall and to supplement the municipal buildings. The library of +the solicitors to the supreme courts presents to the Cowgate a lofty +elevation in red sandstone. The Sheriff Court Buildings stand on George +IV. Bridge, and facing them is Mr Andrew Carnegie's free library +(1887-1889). At the corner of High Street and George IV. Bridge stand +the County buildings. The _Scotsman_ newspaper is housed in an ornate +structure in North Bridge Street, the building of which necessitated the +demolition of many old alleys and wynds, such as Fleshmarket Close and +Milne Square. Ramsay Gardens, a students' quarter fostered by Prof. +Patrick Geddes (b. 1854), grew out of the "goose-pie" house where Allan +Ramsay lived, and with its red-tiled roof and effective lines adds +warmth to the view of the Old Town from Princes Street. Not the least +interesting structure is the old City Cross (restored at the cost of +W.E. Gladstone), which stands in High Street, adjoining St Giles's. +Several of the quaint groups of buildings of Auld Reekie have been +carefully restored, such as the White Horse Close in the Canongate; the +mass of alleys on the north side of the Lawnmarket, from Paterson's +Close to James's Court have been connected, and here Lord Rosebery +acquired and restored the 17th-century dwelling which figures in the +legend of _My Aunt Margaret's Mirror_. Another model restoration of a +historic close is found in Riddle's Close, which contains a students' +settlement. If these and other improvements have led to the +disappearance of such old-world picturesque buildings as Allan Ramsay's +shop "at the sign of the Mercury, opposite Niddry Wynd," Cardinal +Beaton's palace, the old Cunzie House, or mint, the beautiful +timber-fronted "land" that stood at the head of the West Bow, and even +such "howffs" as Clerihugh's tavern, where Mr Counsellor Pleydell and +the rest played the "high jinks" described in _Guy Mannering_, it must +be conceded that the changes in the Old Town (many of a drastic nature) +have been carried out with due regard to the character of their +environment. + +_Monuments._--Edinburgh is particularly rich in monuments of every +description and quality. Of these by far the most remarkable is the +Scott monument in East Princes Street Gardens, designed by George Meikle +Kemp (1795-1844); it is in the form of a spiral Gothic cross with a +central canopy beneath which is a seated statue of Scott with his dog +"Maida" at his side, by Sir John Steell, the niches being occupied by +characters in Sir Walter's writings. A column, 136 ft. high, surmounted +by a colossal figure of Viscount Melville, Pitt's first lord of the +Admiralty, rises from the centre of St Andrew Square. At the west end of +George Street, in the centre of Charlotte Square, stands the Albert +Memorial, an equestrian statue of the prince consort, with groups at +each of the four angles of the base. Burns's monument, in the style of a +Greek temple, occupies a prominent position on the Regent Road, on the +southern brow of the lower terrace of Calton Hill. It was originally +intended to form a shrine for Flaxman's marble statue of the poet (now +in the National Portrait Gallery), but it proved to be too confined to +afford a satisfactory view of the sculptor's work and was at length +converted into a museum of Burnsiana (afterwards removed to the +municipal buildings). On Calton Hill are a number of finely placed +monuments. The stateliest is the national monument to commemorate the +victory of Waterloo, originally intended to be a reproduction of the +Parthenon. The plan was abandoned for lack of funds, after twelve out of +the twenty-four Greek pillars had been erected, but it is perhaps more +effective in its unfinished state than if it had been completed. The +Nelson monument, an elongated turreted structure, stands on the highest +cliff of the hill. Close by is the monument to Dugald Stewart, a copy of +the choragic monument of Lysicrates. Sir John Steell's equestrian statue +of the duke of Wellington stands in front of the Register House, and in +Princes Street Gardens are statues of Livingstone, Christopher North, +Allan Ramsay, Adam Black and Sir J.Y. Simpson. In George Street are +Chantrey's figures of Pitt and George IV., and a statue of Dr Chalmers; +the 5th duke of Buccleuch stands beside St Giles's. Charles II. surveys +the spot where Knox was buried; the reformer himself is in the +quadrangle of New College: Sir David Brewster adorns the quadrangle of +the university; Dr William Chambers is in Chambers Street, and +Frederick, duke of York (1763-1827), and the 4th earl of Hopetoun are +also commemorated. + +_Cemeteries._--Obviously the churchyards surrounding the older and more +important parish churches--such as Greyfriars', St Cuthbert's and the +Canongate, contain the greatest number of memorials of the illustrious +dead. In Greyfriars' churchyard the Solemn League and Covenant was +signed, and among its many monuments are the Martyrs' monument, +recording the merits of the murdered covenanters, and the tomb of +"Bluidy" Mackenzie. To the three named should be added the Calton +burying-ground, with its Roman tomb of David Hume, and the obelisk +raised in 1844 to the memory of Maurice Margarot, Thomas Muir +(1765-1798), Thomas Fyshe Palmer (1747-1802), William Skirving and +Joseph Gerrald (1765-1796), the political martyrs transported towards +the end of the 18th century for advocating parliamentary reform. The +Scottish dead in the American Civil War are commemorated in a monument +bearing a life-sized figure of Abraham Lincoln and a freed slave. The +cemeteries are all modern. In Warriston cemetery (opened in 1843) in the +New Town, were buried Sir James Young Simpson, Alexander Smith the poet, +Horatio McCulloch, R.S.A., the landscape painter, the Rev. James Millar, +the last Presbyterian chaplain of the castle, and the Rev. James Peddie, +the pastor of Bristo Street church. In Dean cemetery, partly laid out on +the banks of the Water of Leith, and considered the most beautiful in +the city (opened 1845), were interred Lords Cockburn, Jeffrey and +Rutherford; "Christopher North," Professor Aytoun, Edward Forbes the +naturalist, John Goodsir the anatomist; Sir William Allan, Sam Bough, +George Paul Chalmers, the painters; George Combe, the phrenologist; +Playfair, the architect; Alexander Russel, editor of the _Scotsman_; Sir +Archibald Alison, the historian; Captain John Grant, the last survivor +of the old Peninsular Gordon Highlanders; Captain Charles Gray, of the +Royal Marines, writer of Scottish songs; Lieutenant John Irving, of the +Franklin expedition, whose remains were sent home many years after his +death by Lieut. Frederick Schwatka, U.S. navy; and Sir Hector Macdonald, +"Fighting Mac" of Omdurman. In the south side are the Grange, Newington +or Echobank, and Morningside cemeteries. In the Grange repose the ashes +of Chalmers, Guthrie and Lee, Sir Thomas Dick Lauder, Sir Hope Grant, +Hugh Miller and the 2nd Lord Dunfermline. + +_Parks and Open Spaces._--Edinburgh is exceptionally well provided with +parks and open spaces. The older are Princes Street Gardens, covering +the old Nor' Loch, Calton Hill, the Meadows and the Bruntsfield Links. +The municipal golf links are on the Braid Hills. On the southern side +Blackford Hill has been set apart for public use. Here stands the Royal +Observatory, in which the great Dunecht telescope was erected in 1896. +Harrison Park is a breathing spot for the congested district of +Fountainbridge, and the park at Saughton Hall, opened in 1905, for the +western district of the city. To the north of the Water of Leith lie +Inverleith Park, the Arboretum and the Royal Botanical Garden. This +institution has undergone four changes of site since its foundation in +1670 by Sir Andrew Balfour and Sir Robert Sibbald, and now occupies an +area of 34 acres in Inverleith Row. It includes a herbarium and palm +house, with an extensive range of hot-houses, a museum of economic +botany, a lecture-room and other requisites for the study of botany. The +most important open spaces, however, surround Arthur's Seat (822 ft.). +This basaltic hill, the name of which is believed to commemorate the +British king Arthur, who from its height is said to have watched the +defeat of the Picts by his followers, is shaped like a lion _couchant_, +with head towards the north. It is separated from the narrow valley, in +which lie the Canongate and Holyrood Palace, by Salisbury Crags, named +after Edward III.'s general William Montacute, 1st earl of Salisbury +(1301-1344). At their base is the Queen's Drive (3-1/2 m. long), named +by Queen Victoria. Adjoining Holyrood Palace is the King's Park, used as +a parade ground. Facing the crags on the south-west are the spots +familiar to readers of _The Heart of Midlothian_, where stood Jeanie +Deans's cottage, and between the crags and Arthur's Seat lies Hunter's +Bog, used as a shooting range. Near here too are three small lakes, +Duddingston, Dunsappie and St Margaret's, the last overlooked by the +ruins of St Anthony's chapel. + +_Environs._--In several directions many places once to be described +among the environs have practically become suburbs of Edinburgh. +Newhaven (population of parish, 7636), so called from the harbour +constructed in the reign of James IV., had a shipbuilding yard of some +repute in former times. The village has always been a fishing-place of +importance, the "fishwives" in their picturesque garb being, till +recently, conspicuous figures in the streets of the capital. It used to +be a popular resort for fish dinners, and it plays a prominent part in +Charles Reade's novel of _Christie Johnstone_. To the west lies Granton +(pop. 1728), where the 5th duke of Buccleuch constructed a magnificent +harbour. Before the building of the Forth Bridge the customary approach +to Fifeshire and the north-east of Scotland was by means of a steam +ferry from Granton to Burntisland, which is still used to some extent. +There is regular communication with Iceland, the continental ports and +London. A marine station here was established by Sir John Murray, but +has been discontinued. Still farther west lies the village of Cramond +(pop. of parish, 3815), at the mouth of the river Almond, where Roman +remains have often been found. It was the birthplace of several +well-known persons, among others of John Law (1671-1729), originator of +the Mississippi scheme, Lauriston Castle being situated in the parish. +Cramond Brig was the scene of one of the "roving" adventures of James +V., when the life of the "Gudeman of Ballengeich" was saved by Jock +Howieson of the Braehead. Corstorphine (pop. 2725), once noted for its +cream and also as a spa, is now to all intents and purposes a western +suburb of the capital. The parish church contains the tombs of the +Forresters, of old the leading family of the district, with full-length +sculptured figures, and at the base of Corstorphine Hill--from one point +of which ("Rest and be Thankful") is to be had one of the best views of +Edinburgh--are the seats of several well-known families. Among these are +Craigcrook Castle (where Lord Jeffrey spent many happy years, and the +gardens of which are said to have given Scott a hint for Tullyveolan in +_Waverley_), and Ravelston House, the home of the Keiths. To the south +of the metropolis are Colinton (pop. 5499), on the Water of Leith, with +several mansions that once belonged to famous men, such as Dreghorn +Castle and Bonally Tower; and Currie (pop. 2513), which was a Roman +station and near which are Curriehill Castle (held by the rebels against +Queen Mary), the ruins of Lennox Tower, and Riccarton, the seat of the +Gibson-Craigs, one of the best-known Midlothian families. At Dalmahoy +Castle, near Ratho (pop. 1946), the seat of the earl of Morton, are +preserved the only extant copy of the bible of the Scottish parliament +and the original warrant for committing Queen Mary to Lochleven Castle +in Kinross-shire. Craigmillar, though situated in the parish of +Liberton, is really a part of Edinburgh. Its picturesque castle, at +least the oldest portion of it, probably dates from the 12th century. +Its principal owners were first the Prestons and latterly the Gilmours. +After playing a varied role in local and national story, now as +banqueting-house and now as prison, it fell gradually into disrepair. It +was advertised as to let in 1761, and early in the 19th century, along +with the chapel adjoining, was in ruins, but has been restored by +Colonel Gordon-Gilmour. It was a favourite residence of Mary Stuart, and +its associations with the hapless queen give it a romantic interest. +Duddingston (pop. 2023), once a quiet village, has become a centre of +the distilling and brewing industries. The parish church, effectively +situated on an eminence by the side of the lake, was the scene of the +ministration of the Rev. John Thomson (1778-1840), the landscape +painter, who numbered Sir Walter Scott among his elders. Duddingston +House is a seat of the duke of Abercorn. Liberton (pop. of parish, +7233), a name that recalls the previous existence of a leper's hospital, +is prominently situated on the rising ground to the south of Edinburgh, +the parish church being a conspicuous landmark. Adjoining is the village +of Gilmerton (pop. 1482), which used to supply Edinburgh with yellow +sand, when sanded floors were a feature in the humbler class of houses. +Portobello (pop. 9180), being within 3 m. of the capital, must always +enjoy a large share of public patronage, though it is not in such favour +as a watering-place as it once was. Its beautiful stretch of sands is +flanked by a promenade extending all the way to Joppa. The beach was at +one time used for the purpose of reviews of the yeomanry. The town dates +from the middle of the 18th century, when a cottage was built by a +sailor and named Portobello in commemoration of Admiral Vernon's victory +in 1739. The place does a considerable trade in the making of bricks, +bottles, earthenware, pottery, tiles and paper. Joppa, which adjoins it, +has salt works, but is chiefly a residential neighbourhood. Inveresk +(pop. 2939), finely situated on the Esk some 6 m. from Edinburgh, is a +quaint village with several old-fashioned mansions and beautiful +gardens. Alexander Carlyle, the famous divine (1772-1805), whose +_Memorials of his Times_ still affords fascinating reading, ministered +for fifty-five years in the parish church, in the graveyard of which +lies David Macbeth Moir (1798-1851), who under the pen-name of "Delta" +wrote _Mansie Wauch_, a masterpiece of Scots humour and pathos. Lasswade +(pop. of parish, 9708), partly in the Pentlands, famous for its oatmeal, +was often the summer resort of Edinburgh worthies. Here Sir Walter Scott +lived for six years and De Quincey for nineteen, and William Tennant +(1784-1848), author of _Anster Fair_, was the parish dominie. Many +interesting mansions were and are in the vicinity, amongst them Melville +Castle, the seat of the Dundas Melvilles, and Auchendinny, where Henry +Mackenzie, author of _The Man of Feeling_, resided. The two most +celebrated resorts, however, amongst the environs of Edinburgh are +Roslin (pop. 1805) and Hawthornden. Roslin Castle is romantically +situated on the beautifully wooded precipitous banks of the Esk. It +dates from the 12th century and is a plain, massive ruin, +architecturally insignificant. Partially destroyed by fire in 1447 and +afterwards rebuilt, it was sacked in 1650 and again in 1688, and then +gradually fell into decay. The chapel, higher up the bank, a relic of +great beauty, was founded in 1446 by William St Clair, 3rd earl of +Orkney. It is believed to be the chancel of what was intended to be a +large church. Although it suffered at the hands of revolutionary +fanatics in 1688, the damage was confined mainly to the external +ornament, and the chapel, owing to restoration in judicious taste, is +now in perfect condition. The Gothic details are wonderful examples of +the carver's skill, the wreathed "Prentice's pillar" being the subject +of a well-known legend. The walk to Hawthornden, about 1-1/2 m. distant, +through the lovely glen by the river-side, leads to the mansion of the +Drummonds, perched high on a lofty cliff falling sheer to the stream. +The caverns in the sides of the precipice are said to have afforded +Wallace and other heroes (or outlaws) refuge in time of trouble, but the +old house is most memorable as the home of the poet William Drummond, +who here welcomed Ben Jonson; the tree beneath which the two poets sat +still stands. Near Swanston, on the slopes of the Pentlands, where R.L. +Stevenson when a boy used to make holiday occasionally, is a golf-course +which was laid out by the Lothianburn Club. The Pentland range contains +many points of interest and beauty, but these are mostly accessible only +to the pedestrian, although the hills are crossed by roads, of which the +chief are those by Glencorse burn and the Cauld Stane Slap. Habbie's +Howe, the scene of Allan Ramsay's pastoral _The Gentle Shepherd_, is +some 2 m. from Carlops, and Rullion Green is noted as the field on which +the Covenanters were defeated in 1666. At Penicuik (pop. 5097), where +the Clerks were long the ruling family, S.R. Crockett was minister until +he formally devoted himself to fiction. The town is, industrially, +remarkable for its paper mills and mines of coal and other minerals. + +_Communications._--The two trunk railways serving Edinburgh are the +North British and the Caledonian. The North British station is Waverley, +to which the trains of the Great Northern, North Eastern and the Midland +systems run from England. The Caledonian station is Princes Street, +where the through trains from the London & North-Western system of +England arrive. Leith, Granton and Grangemouth serve as the chief +passenger seaports for Edinburgh. Tramways connect the different parts +of the city with Leith, Newhaven, Portobello and Joppa; and the Suburban +railway, starting from Waverley station, returns by way of Restalrig, +Portobello, Duddingston, Morningside and Haymarket. In summer, steamers +ply between Leith and Aberdour and other pleasure resorts; and there is +also a service to Alloa and Stirling. In the season brakes constantly +run to Queensferry (for the Forth Bridge) and to Roslin, and coaches to +Dalkeith, Loanhead and some Pentland villages. + +_Population._--In 1801 the number of inhabitants was 66,544; in 1851 it +was 160,302; in 1881 it was 234,402; and in 1901 it was 316,479. In 1900 +the birth-rate was 26.90 per thousand, 7.8% of the births being +illegitimate; the death-rate was 19.40 per thousand, and the +marriage-rate 10 per thousand. + +The area of the city has been enlarged by successive extensions of its +municipal boundaries, especially towards the west and south. An +important accession of territory was gained in 1896, when portions of +the parishes of Liberton and Duddingston and the police burgh of +Portobello were incorporated. Under the Edinburgh Corporation Act 1900, +a further addition of nearly 1800 acres was made. This embraced portions +of South Leith parish (landward) and of Duddingston parish, including +the village of Restalrig and the ground lying on both sides of the main +road from Edinburgh to Portobello; and also part of Cramond parish, in +which is contained the village and harbour of Granton. The total area of +the city is 10,597-1/2 acres. The increase in wealth may best be +measured by the rise in assessed valuation. In 1880 the city rental was +L1,727,740, in 1890 it was L2,106,395, and in 1900-1901 L2,807,122. + +_Government._--By the Redistribution Act of 1885 the city was divided +for parliamentary purposes into East, West, Central and South Edinburgh, +each returning one member; the parliamentary and municipal boundaries +are almost identical. The town council, which has its headquarters in +the Municipal Buildings in the Royal Exchange, consists of fifty +members, a lord provost, seven bailies, a dean of guild, a treasurer, a +convener of trades, seven judges of police, and thirty-two councillors. +The corporation has acquired the gas-works, the cable tramways (leased +to a company), the electric lighting of the streets, and the +water-supply from the Pentlands (reinforced by additional sources in the +Moorfoot Hills and Talla Water). Among other duties, the corporation has +a share in the management of the university, and maintains the Calton +Hill observatory. + +_May Meetings._--During the establishment of Episcopacy in Scotland, +Edinburgh was the seat of a bishop, and the ancient collegiate church of +St Giles rose to the dignity of a cathedral. But the annual meeting of +the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland at Edinburgh is now the +public manifestation of the predominance of Presbyterianism as the +national church. In May each year the sovereign appoints a +representative as lord high commissioner to the General Assembly of the +Established Church, who takes up his abode usually in the palace of +Holyrood, and thence proceeds to the High Church, and so to the assembly +hall on the Castle Hill. The lord provost and magistrates offer to him +the keys of the city, and levees, receptions and state dinners revive in +some degree the ancient glories of Holyrood. The General Assembly of the +United Free Church is usually held at the same time. + +_University._--The university of Edinburgh, the youngest of the Scottish +universities, was founded in 1583 by a royal charter granted by James +IV., and its rights, immunities and privileges have been remodelled, +ratified and extended at various periods. In 1621 an act of the Scottish +parliament accorded to the university all rights and privileges enjoyed +by other universities in the kingdom, and these were renewed under fresh +guarantees in the treaty of union between England and Scotland, and in +the Act of Security. Important changes were made in the constitution by +acts passed in 1858 and 1889. It was one of the first universities to +admit women students to its classes and degrees, and its _alumni_ are +brought into close bonds of sympathy and activity by a students' union. +The number of students averages nearly three thousand a year. As a +corporation it consists of a chancellor, vice-chancellor, lord rector +(elected by the students every three years), principal, professors, +registered graduates and matriculated students. The chancellor is +elected for life by the general council, of which he is head; and the +rights of the city as the original founder have been recognized by +giving to the town council the election of four of the seven curators, +with whom rest the appointment of the principal, the patronage of +seventeen of the chairs, and a share in other appointments. Along with +that of St Andrews, the university sends one member to parliament. While +the college, as such, bears the name of the College of King James, or +King's college, and James VI. is spoken of as its founder, it really +originated in the liberality of the citizens of Edinburgh. William +Little of Craigmillar, and his brother Clement Little, advocate, along +with James Lawson, the colleague and successor of John Knox, may justly +be regarded as true founders. In 1580 Clement Little gave all his books, +three hundred volumes, for the beginning of a library, and this was +augmented by other valuable benefactions, one of the most interesting of +which was the library of Drummond of Hawthornden. The library now +contains upwards of 220,000 volumes, and more than 7000 MSS. The +buildings of the university occupy the site of the ancient collegiate +church of St. Mary in the Field (the "Kirk of Field"), the scene of the +murder of Darnley. The present structure, the foundation-stone of which +was laid in 1789, is a classical building, enclosing an extensive +quadrangle. The older parts of it, including the east front, are from +the design of Robert Adam, his plans being revised and modified by W.H. +Playfair (1789-1857), but it was not till 1883 that the building was +completed by the dome, crowned by the bronze figure of Youth bearing the +torch of Knowledge, on the facade in South Bridge Street. This edifice +affords accommodation for the lecture rooms in the faculties of arts, +law and theology, and for the museums and library. The opening up of the +wide thoroughfare of Chambers Street, on the site of College Wynd and +Brown and Argyll Squares, cleared the precincts of unsightly +obstructions and unsavoury neighbours. The Royal Scottish Museum, +structurally united to the university, contains collections illustrative +of industry, art, science and natural history; and Minto House college +and Heriot-Watt college are practically adjuncts of the university. The +library hall was restored and decorated, largely through the generosity +of Sir William Priestley (1829-1900), formerly M.P. for the university; +while munificent additions to the academic funds and resources were made +by the 15th earl of Moray (1840-1901), Sir William Fraser (1816-1898), +and others. The university benefits also, like the other Scottish +universities, from Mr Andrew Carnegie's endowment fund. The medical +school stands in Teviot Row, adjoining George Square and the Meadows. To +this spacious and well-equipped group of buildings the faculty of +medicine was removed from the college. The medical school is in the +Italian Renaissance style from the designs of Sir Rowand Anderson. The +magnificent hall used for academic and public functions was the gift of +William M'Ewan, some time M.P. for the Central division of Edinburgh. +Closely associated with the medical school, and separated from it by the +Middle Meadow Walk, is the Royal Infirmary, designed by David Bryce, +R.S.A. (1803-1876), removed hither from Infirmary Street. Its wards, in +which nearly ten thousand patients receive treatment annually, are +lodged in a series of turreted pavilions, and cover a large space of +ground on the margin of the Meadows, from which, to make room for it, +George Watson's College--the most important of the Merchant Company +schools--was removed to a site farther west, while the Sick Children's +hospital was moved to the southern side of the Meadows. + +_Scientific Institutions._--The old Observatory is a quaint structure on +Calton Hill, overlooking the district at the head of Leith Walk. The +City Observatory stands close by, and on Blackford Hill is the newer +building of the Royal Observatory. The Astronomer-Royal for Scotland +also holds the chair of practical astronomy. + +The museum and lecture-rooms of the Royal College of Surgeons occupy a +handsome classical building in Nicolson Street. The college is an +ancient corporate body, with a charter of the year 1505, and exercises +the powers of instructing in surgery and of giving degrees. Its +graduates also give lectures on the various branches of medicine and +science requisite for the degree of doctor of medicine, and those +extra-academical courses are recognized, under certain restrictions, by +the University Court, as qualifying for the degree. The museum contains +a valuable collection of anatomical and surgical preparations. + +The Royal College of Physicians is another learned body organized, with +special privileges, by a charter of incorporation granted by Charles II. +in 1681. In their hall in Queen Street are a valuable library and a +museum of materia medica. But the college as such takes no part in the +educational work of the university. + +_Educational Institutions._--After the Disruption in 1843, and the +formation of the Free Church, New College was founded in connexion with +it for training students in theology. Since the amalgamation of the +United Presbyterian and the Free Churches, under the designation of the +United Free Church of Scotland, New College is utilized by both bodies. +New College buildings, designed in the Pointed style of the 16th +century, and erected on the site of the palace of Mary of Guise, occupy +a prominent position at the head of the Mound. + +Edinburgh has always possessed exceptional educational facilities. The +Royal high school, the burgh school _par excellence_, dates from the +16th century, but the beautiful Grecian buildings on the southern face +of Calton Hill, opened in 1829, are its third habitation. It was not +until 1825, when the Edinburgh Academy was opened, that it encountered +serious rivalry. Fettes College, an imposing structure in a 16th-century +semi-Gothic style, designed by David Bryce and called after its founder +Sir William Fettes (1750-1836), is organized on the model of the great +English public schools. Merchiston Academy, housed in the old castle of +Napier, the inventor of logarithms, is another institution conducted on +English public school lines. For many generations the charitable +foundations for the teaching and training of youth were a conspicuous +feature in the economy of the city. Foremost among them was the hospital +founded by George Heriot--the "Jingling Geordie" of Scott's _Fortunes of +Nigel_--the goldsmith and banker of James VI. At his death in 1624 +Heriot left his estate in trust to the magistrates and ministers of +Edinburgh for the maintenance and teaching of poor fatherless sons of +freemen. The quadrangular edifice in Lauriston, sometimes ascribed to +Inigo Jones, is one of the noblest buildings in the city. Even earlier +than Heriot's hospital was the Merchant Maiden hospital, dating from +1605, which gave to the daughters of merchants similar advantages to +those which Heriot's secured for burgesses' sons. In 1738 George +Watson's hospital for boys was founded; then followed the Trades' Maiden +hospital for burgesses' daughters, John Watson's, Daniel Stewart's, the +Orphans', Gillespie's,[2] Donaldson's[3] hospitals, and other +institutions founded by successful merchants of the city, in which poor +children of various classes were lodged, boarded and educated. Nearly +all these buildings are characterized by remarkable distinction and +beauty of design. This is especially true of Donaldson's hospital at the +Haymarket, which has accommodation for three hundred children. As the +New Town expanded, the Heriot Trust--whose revenues were greatly +benefited thereby--erected day-schools in different districts, in which +thousands of infants and older children received a free education, and, +in cases of extreme poverty, a money grant towards maintenance. Public +opinion as to the "hospital" system of board and education, however, +underwent a revolutionary change after the Education Act of 1872 +introduced school boards, and the Merchant Company--acting as governors +for most of the institutions--determined to board out the children on +the foundation with families in the town, and convert the buildings into +adequately equipped primary and secondary day-schools. This +root-and-branch policy proved enormously successful, and George Watson's +college, Stewart's college, Queen Street ladies' college, George Square +ladies' college, Gillespie's school, and others, rapidly took a high +place among the educational institutions of the city. Nor did the Heriot +Trust neglect the claims of technical and higher education. The +Heriot-Watt college is subsidized by the Trust, and Heriot's hospital is +occupied as a technical school. Concurrently with this activity in +higher branches, the school board provided a large number of handsome +buildings in healthy surroundings. The Church of Scotland and the United +Free Church have training colleges. + +_Charities._--Besides the Royal Infirmary there are a considerable +number of more or less specialized institutions, two of the most +important being situated at Craiglockhart. On the Easter Hill stands the +Royal Edinburgh asylum for the insane, which formerly occupied a site in +Morningside, while the City infectious diseases hospital is situated at +Colinton Mains. The Royal blind asylum at Powburn in its earlier days +tenanted humbler quarters in Nicolson Street. Chalmers's hospital in +Lauriston was founded in 1836 by George Chalmers for the reception of +the sick and injured. The home for incurables is situated in Salisbury +Place. The infirmary convalescents are sent to the convalescent house in +Corstorphine. Other institutions are the Royal hospital for sick +children, the home for crippled children, the Royal maternity hospital, +and the deaf and dumb asylum. Though Trinity hospital no longer exists +as a hospital with resident pensioners, the trustees disburse annually +pensions to certain poor burgesses and their wives and children; and the +trust controlling the benevolent branch of the Gillespie hospital +endowment is similarly administered. + +_Industries._--Although Edinburgh is a residential rather than a +manufacturing or commercial centre, the industries which it has are +important and flourishing. From 1507, when Walter Chapman, the Scottish +Caxton, set up the first press, to the present day, printing has enjoyed +a career of almost continuous vitality, and the great houses of R. & R. +Clark, T. & A. Constable, the Ballantyne Press, Morrison & Gibb, +Turnbull & Spears, and others, admirably maintain the traditional +reputation of the Edinburgh press. Publishing, on the other hand, has +drifted away, only a few leading houses--such as those of Blackwood, +Chambers and Nelson--still making the Scottish capital their +headquarters. Mapmakers, typefounders, bookbinders and lithographers all +contribute their share to the prosperity of the city. Brewing is an +industry of exceptional vigour, Edinburgh ale being proverbially good. +The brewers and distillers, such as M'Ewan, Usher and Ure, have been +amongst the most generous benefactors of the city. The arts and crafts +associated with furniture work, paper-making and coach-building may also +be specified, whilst tanneries, glassworks, india-rubber and vulcanite +factories, brass-founding, machinery works, the making of biscuits, +tea-bread and confectionery are all prominent. In consequence of the +large influx of tourists every year the North British and Caledonian +railway companies give employment to an enormous staff. Building and the +allied trades are chronically brisk, owing to the constant development +of the city. Fine white freestone abounds in the immediate vicinity (as +at Craigleith, from the vast quarry of which, now passing into disuse, +the stone for much of the New Town was obtained) and furnishes excellent +building material; while the hard trap rock, with which the stratified +sandstones of the Coal formation have been extensively broken up and +overlaid, supplies good materials for paving and road-making. On this +account quarrying is another industry which is seldom dormant. Owing to +the great changes effected during the latter part of the 19th century, +some of the old markets were demolished and the system of centralizing +trade was not wholly revived. The Waverley Market for vegetables and +fruit presents a busy scene in the early morning, and is used for +monster meetings and promenade and popular concerts. Slaughter-houses, +cattle markets and grain markets have been erected at Gorgie, thus +obviating the driving of flocks and herds through the streets, which was +constantly objected to. An infantry regiment is always stationed in the +castle, and there are in addition the barracks at Piers-hill (or "Jock's +Lodge"), half-way between Edinburgh and Portobello. + +_Social Life._--Edinburgh society still retains a certain old-fashioned +Scottish exclusiveness. It has been said that the city is "east-windy" +and the folk "west-endy." But this criticism needs judicious +qualification. The local patriotism and good taste of the citizens have +regulated recreation and have also preserved in pristine vigour many +peculiarly Scottish customs and pastimes. Classical concerts and +concerts of the better sort, chiefly held in the M'Ewan and Music Halls, +are well attended, and lectures are patronized to a degree unknown in +most towns. In theatrical matters in the old days of stock companies the +verdict of an Edinburgh audience was held to make or mar an actor or a +play. This is no longer the case, but the Lyceum theatre in Grindlay +Street and the Theatre Royal at the head of Leith Walk give good +performances. Variety entertainments are also in vogue, and in Nicolson +Street and elsewhere there are good music halls. Outdoor recreations +have always been pursued with zest. The public golf-course on Braid +Hills and the private courses of the Lothianburn club at Swanston and +the Barnton club at Barnton are usually full on Saturdays and holidays. +The numerous bowling-greens are regularly frequented and are among the +best in Scotland--the first Australian team of bowlers that visited the +mother country (in 1901) pronouncing the green in Lutton Place the +finest on which they had played. Cricket is played by the university +students, at the schools, and by private clubs, of which the Grange is +the oldest and best. In winter the game of curling is played on +Duddingston Loch, and Dunsappie, St Margaret's Loch, Lochend and other +sheets of water are covered with skaters. Rugby football is in high +favour, Edinburgh being commonly the scene of the international matches +when the _venue_ falls to Scotland. Hockey claims many votaries, there +usually being on New Year's day a match at shinty, or _camanachd_, +between opposing teams of Highlanders resident in the city. The central +public baths in Infirmary Street, with branch establishments in other +parts of the town, including Portobello, are largely resorted to, and +the proximity of the Firth of Forth induces the keener swimmers to visit +Granton every morning. Facilities for boating are limited (excepting on +the Forth), but rowing clubs find opportunity for practice and races on +the Union Canal, where, however, sailing is scarcely possible. Edinburgh +maintains few newspapers, but the _Scotsman_, which may be said to reign +alone, has enjoyed a career of almost uninterrupted prosperity, largely +in consequence of a succession of able editors, like Charles Maclaren, +Alexander Russel, Robert Wallace and Charles Cooper. The _Edinburgh +Evening News_ and the _Evening Dispatch_ are popular sheets. In the past +the _Edinburgh Evening Courant_, the chief organ of the Tory party, of +which James Hannay was editor for a few years, had a high reputation. +_The Witness_, edited by Hugh Miller, the _Daily Review_, edited first +by J.B. Manson and afterwards by Henry Kingsley, and the _Scottish +Leader_, were conducted more or less as Liberal organs with a distinct +bias in favour of the then Free Church, but none of these was +long-lived. Volunteering has always attracted the younger men, and the +highest awards at Wimbledon and Bisley have been won by the Queen's +Edinburgh. + +_History._--In remote times the seaboard from the Tyne to the Forth was +occupied by the Ottadeni, a Welsh tribe of the Brigantes, the territory +immediately to the west of it being peopled by the Gadeni. It is +probable that the Ottadeni built a fort or camp on the rock on which +Edinburgh Castle now stands, which was thus the nucleus around which, in +course of time, grew a considerable village. Under the protection of +the hill-fort, a native settlement was established on the ridge running +down to the valley at the foot of Salisbury Crags, and another hamlet, +according to William Maitland (1693-1757), the earliest historian of +Edinburgh, was founded in the area at the north-western base of the +rock, a district that afterwards became the parish of St Cuthbert, the +oldest in the city. The Romans occupied the country for more than three +hundred years, as is evidenced by various remains; but James Grant +(1822-1887), in _Old and New Edinburgh_, doubts whether they ever built +on the castle rock. When they withdrew, the British tribes reasserted +their sway, and some authorities go so far as to suggest that Arthur was +one of their kings. The southern Picts ultimately subdued the Britons, +and the castle became their chief stronghold until they were overthrown +in 617 (or 629) by the Saxons under Edwin, king of Northumbria, from +whom the name of Edinburgh is derived. Symeon of Durham (854) calls it +Edwinesburch, and includes the church of St Cuthbert within the +bishopric of Lindisfarne. Its Gaelic name was Dunedin. This name is +probably a translation of the Saxon name. James Grant's view that it may +have been the earlier name of the castle, from _dun_ ("the fort"), and +_edin_ ("on the slope"), conflicts with the more generally received +opinion that the Britons knew the fortress as _Castelh Mynedh Agnedh_ +("the hill of the plain"), a designation once wrongly interpreted as the +"castle of the maidens" (_castrum puellarum_), in allusion to the +supposed fact that the Pictish princesses were lodged within it during +their education. In the 16th century the latinized form Edina was +invented and has been used chiefly by poets, once notably by Burns, +whose "Address" begins "Edina! Scotia's darling seat." Long after +Edwin's conquest the lowland continued to be debatable territory held by +uncertain tenure, but at length it was to a large extent settled anew by +Anglo-Saxon and Norman colonists under Malcolm Canmore and his sons. + +In the reign of Malcolm Canmore the castle included the king's palace. +There his pious queen, Margaret, the grand-niece of Edward the +Confessor, died in 1093. It continued to be a royal residence during the +reigns of her three sons, and hence the first rapid growth of the upper +town may be referred to the 12th century. The parish church of St Giles +is believed to have been erected in the reign of Alexander I., about +1110, and the huge Norman keep of the castle, built by his younger +brother, David I., continued to be known as David's Tower till its +destruction in the siege of 1572. Soon after his accession to the +Scottish throne David I. founded the abbey of Holyrood (1128), which +from an early date received the court as its guests. But notwithstanding +the attractions of the abbey and the neighbouring chase, the royal +palace continued for centuries to be within the fortress, and there both +the Celtic and Stuart kings frequently resided. Edinburgh was long an +exposed frontier town within a territory only ceded to Malcolm II. about +1020; and even under the earlier Stuart kings it was still regarded as a +border stronghold. Hence, though the village of Canongate grew up beside +the abbey of David I., and Edinburgh was a place of sufficient +importance to be reckoned one of the four principal burghs as a +judicatory for all commercial matters, nevertheless, even so late as +1450, when it became for the first time a walled town, it did not extend +beyond the upper part of the ridge which slopes eastwards from the +castle. So long, however, as its walls formed the boundary, and space +therefore was limited, the citizens had to provide house-room by +building dwellings of many storeys. These tall tenements on both sides +of what is now High Street and Canongate are still a prominent +characteristic of the Old Town. The streets were mostly very narrow, the +main street from the castle to Holyrood Palace and the Cowgate alone +permitting the passage of wheeled carriages. In the narrow "wynds" the +nobility and gentry paid their visits in sedan chairs, and proceeded in +full dress to the assemblies and balls, which were conducted with +aristocratic exclusiveness in an alley on the south side of High Street, +called the Assembly Close, and in the assembly rooms in the West Bow. +Beyond the walls lay the burghs of Calton, Easter and Wester Portsburgh, +the villages of St Cuthbert's, Moutrie's Hill, Broughton, Canonmills, +Silvermills and Deanhaugh--all successively swallowed up in the +extension of the modern city. The seaport of Leith, though a distinct +burgh, governed by its own magistrates, and electing its own +representative to parliament, has also on its southern side become +practically united to its great neighbour. + +The other three royal burghs associated with Edinburgh were Stirling, +Roxburgh and Berwick; and their enactments form the earliest existing +collected body of Scots law. The determination of Edinburgh as the +national capital, and as the most frequent scene of parliamentary +assemblies, dates from the death of James I. in 1436. Of the thirteen +parliaments summoned by that sovereign, only one, the last, was held at +Edinburgh, but his assassination in the Blackfriars' monastery at Perth +led to the abrupt transfer of the court and capital from the Tay to the +Forth. The coronation of James II. was celebrated in Holyrood Abbey +instead of at Scone, and the widowed queen took up her residence, with +the young king, in the castle. Of fourteen parliaments summoned during +this reign, only one was held at Perth, five met at Stirling and the +rest at Edinburgh; and, notwithstanding the favour shown for Stirling as +a royal residence in the following reign, every one of the parliaments +of James III. was held at Edinburgh. James II. conferred on the city +various privileges relating to the holding of fairs and markets, and the +levying of customs; and by a royal charter of 1452 he gave it +pre-eminence over the other burghs. Further immunities and privileges +were granted by James III.; and by a precept of 1482, known as the +Golden Charter, he bestowed on the provost and magistrates the +hereditary office of sheriff, with power to hold courts, to levy fines, +and to impose duties on all merchandise landed at the port of Leith. +Those privileges were renewed and extended by various sovereigns, and +especially by a general charter granted by James VI. in 1603. + +James III. was a great builder, and, in the prosperous era which +followed his son's accession to the throne, the town reached the open +valley to the south, with the Cowgate as its chief thoroughfare. But the +death of James IV. in 1513, along with other disastrous results of the +battle of Flodden, brought this era of prosperity to an abrupt close. +The citizens hastened to construct a second line of wall, enclosing the +Cowgate and the heights beyond, since occupied by Greyfriars churches +and Heriot's hospital, but still excluding the Canongate, as pertaining +to the abbey of Holyrood. In the 16th century the movements connected +with John Knox and Mary, queen of Scots, made Edinburgh a castle of much +activity. With the departure, however, of the sixth James to fill the +English throne in 1603, the town lost for a long period its influence +and prestige. Matters were not bettered by the Act of Union signed in a +cellar in High Street in 1707, amidst the execrations of the people, and +it was not till the hopes of the Jacobites were blasted at Culloden +(1746) that the townsfolk began to accept the inevitable. This epoch, +when grass grew even in High Street, long lingered in the popular memory +as the "dark age." + +By the accession of George III. (1760), Edinburgh showed signs of +revived enterprise. In 1763 the first North Bridge, connecting the Old +Town with the sloping ground on which afterwards stood the Register +House and the theatre in Shakespeare Square, was opened; a little later +the Nor' Loch was partially drained, and the bridging of the Cowgate in +1785 encouraged expansion southwards. Towards the end of the 18th +century the New Town began to take shape on the grand, if formal, lines +which had been planned by James Craig (d. 1795), the architect, nephew +of the poet Thomson, and the erection of Regent Bridge in Waterloo Place +(formally opened in 1819 on the occasion of the visit of Prince Leopold, +afterwards king of the Belgians) gave access to Calton Hill. The +creation of Princes Street, one of the most beautiful thoroughfares in +the world, led to further improvement. The earth and debris from the +excavation of the sites for the houses in this and adjoining streets had +been "dumped" in the centre of the drained Nor' Loch. This unsightly +mass of rubbish lay for a while as an eye-sore, until the happy thought +arose of converting it into a broad way joining the new road at Hanover +Street with the Old Town at the Lawnmarket. Upon this street, which +divides Princes Street and its gardens into east and west, and which +received the title of the Mound, were erected the National Gallery and +the Royal Institution. Speaking generally, the New Town was resorted to +by professional men--lawyers, doctors and artists,--and in its principal +streets will be found the head offices of the leading banks and +insurance offices, all lodged in buildings of remarkable architectural +pretensions. The Commercial, the Union and the Clydesdale banks are in +George Street, the National Bank of Scotland, the Royal Bank of +Scotland, and the British Linen Company's Bank are in St Andrew Square, +the Bank of Scotland is at the head of the Mound. The extensive building +operations engaged in by the town council in the early part of the 19th +century resulted in the insolvency of the city in 1833. The property of +the corporation was valued at L271,658 against a debt of L425,195, which +was compounded for by the issue of 3% annuity bonds--the loss to the +creditors amounting to 25% of their claims. + +Meanwhile the progress of letters, science and learning manifested the +recovery of the city. The names of Knox (d. 1572), Buchanan (1582), +Alexander Montgomery (1605), Drummond of Hawthornden (1649), Allan +Ramsay (1757), Smollett (1771), Fergusson (1774), and Burns (1796), +carried on the literary associations of the Scottish capital nearly to +the close of the 18th century, when various causes combined to give them +new significance and value. The university was served by a body of +teachers and investigators who won for it a prominent position among +European schools. Then succeeded the era of Scott's _Marmion_ and _The +Lady of the Lake_, followed by the Waverley novels and the foundation of +_Blackwood's Magazine_ and the _Edinburgh Review_. + +Modern conditions have changed the character of Edinburgh society. In +Scott's early days a journey to London was beset with difficulties and +even dangers; but railways have now brought it within a few hours' +distance, and Scottish artists and literary men are tempted to seek a +wider field. Nevertheless, the influence of the past survives in many +ways. Edinburgh is not markedly a manufacturing city, but preserves its +character as the Scottish capital. + + AUTHORITIES.--James Grant, _Old and New Edinburgh_ (London, 1880 et + seq.); W. Maitland, _History of Edinburgh_ (1753); Hugo Arnot, + _History of Edinburgh_ (1789); B. Chambers, _Traditions of Edinburgh_ + (1824); D. Wilson, _Memorials of Edinburgh in the Olden Time_ + (1846-1848); O. Smeaton, _Edinburgh and its Story_ (1904). _The + Municipal Buildings of Edinburgh_, by Robert Miller, Lord Dean of + Guild, printed by order of the town council (Edinburgh, 1895); _Royal + Edinburgh_, by Mrs Oliphant, illustrations by Sir George Reid, R.S.A. + (London, 1890). + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The original Tolbooth was completed in 1501, but a new one took + its place in 1563-1564, and was subsequently altered. At first + occupied by the parliament and courts of justice, it served later as + a prison, and was removed in 1817. + + [2] James Gillespie (1726-1797) was a tobacco and snuff manufacturer, + and when he set up his carriage Henry Erskine suggested as a motto + the homely couplet:-- + + "Wha wad hae thocht it, + That noses wad bocht it?" + + [3] James Donaldson (1751-1830) was a printer who bequeathed nearly + the whole of his large fortune for the purposes of a hospital for + poor boys and girls, and the trustees have usually selected half of + the children admitted from the ranks of the deaf and dumb. + + + + +EDINBURGHSHIRE, or MIDLOTHIAN, a county of Scotland, bounded N. by the +Firth of Forth, E. by the shires of Haddington, or East Lothian, and +Berwick, S.E. by Roxburghshire, S. by Selkirkshire, Peeblesshire and +Lanarkshire, S.W. by Lanarkshire, and W. by Linlithgowshire or West +Lothian. Its area is 234,339 acres or 3662 sq. m. The island of Cramond +belongs to the county. There are no mountains, but the Pentland Hills +advance boldly from the south-west to within 5 m. of the sea. The +loftiest summits are Scald Law (1898 ft.), Carnethy (1881), West and +East Cairn Hill (1844 and 1839), and West Kip (1806). They are generally +of rounded form, and covered with heath or grass. The Moorfoot Hills, in +the south-east, are a continuation of the Lammermuirs, and attain in +Blackhope Scar a height of 2136 ft. Of more or less isolated eminences +there are the Braid Hills (698 ft.), Blackford Hill (500), Arthur's Seat +(822), Corstorphine Hill (500)--all practically within Edinburgh--and +Dalmahoy Craig (800), 7 m. south-west of the city. Of the rivers the +Gala rises on the south-east of the Moorfoot Hills and flows south to +join the Tweed, and the Tyne after a course of 7 m. passes into +Haddingtonshire. All the others flow into the Firth of Forth. Of these +the Esk, which is the longest, drains the district between the Pentlands +and the Moorfoot Hills, and empties into the sea at Musselburgh. The +southern branch has its source near Blackhope Scar, receives on its +right Gore Water and, on its left, Dalhousie Burn, and flows past +Newbattle Abbey; the northern rises in the Pentlands, and proceeds +through much picturesque scenery past Penicuik, Roslin, Hawthornden and +Lasswade; the two streams uniting within the grounds of Dalkeith Palace. +Braid Burn from Capelaw Hill passes between the Braid Hills and +Blackford Hill, and reaches the sea at Portobello. The Water of Leith, +with its head streams on the western slope of the Pentlands, flows past +Balerno, Currie, Juniper Green, Colinton, Edinburgh and Leith. The +Almond, rising in Lanarkshire, and its right-hand tributary, Breich +Water, form the boundary between Midlothian and Linlithgowshire. Several +of these streams, especially the Esk and the Water of Leith, furnish +much water power. The only loch is that at Duddingston, but there are +several large reservoirs connected with the water supply of Edinburgh. +Cobbinshaw reservoir, situated at the head of Bog Burn, a tributary of +the Almond, is used for the supply of the Union Canal connecting the +Forth with the Clyde. + + _Geology._--The southern portion of the county, embracing the Moorfoot + Hills and a large part of the catchment basin of the Gala Water, lies + within the Silurian tableland of the south of Scotland. From Bowland + northwards to Crookston in the Gala valley the Silurian strata are + mainly of Tarannon age and consist of greywackes, grits, flags and + shales, with thin dark seams which yield graptolites sparingly. To the + north of this area, older sediments, comprising Arenig cherts, black + shales, greywackes and grits of Llandeilo and Caradoc age, rise from + underneath the Tarannon strata and spread over the hills north to the + margin of the tableland. In some of the folds of Arenig cherts diabase + lavas appear, which occupy small lenticular areas. All the Silurian + strata are repeated by folds striking north-east and south-west and + frequently dipping in one direction, to the north-west as in the Gala + valley. North of the Silurian tableland and within the area occupied + by the younger palaeozoic rocks of the Pentland Hills, there are + various inliers of Upper Silurian strata. These isolated patches occur + (1) in the North Esk section, (2) at Loganlee reservoir, (3) near + Bavelaw Castle, and (4) in Bavelaw Burn. The section in the North Esk + is by far the most complete, as the strata embrace Wenlock, Ludlow and + Downtonian rocks with a north-east strike similar to that of the beds + in the Silurian tableland. The Wenlock rocks have yielded a rich suite + of organic remains. In the Pentland Hills the folded and denuded + Silurian strata are covered unconformably by Lower Old Red Sandstone + rocks, comprising conglomerates and red sandstones, which are + succeeded by a great volcanic series, the latter extending from the + West Kip Hill to the Braid Hills. The pebbles of the basal + conglomerates are derived chiefly from the underlying platform of + greywackes and shales and from the Radiolarian cherts and volcanic + rocks in the tableland to the south. The contemporaneous igneous rocks + include olivine basalts, andesites, trachytes, rhyolites and tuffs, + which are pierced by the microgranite of the Black Hill and by several + vents filled with agglomerate, as near Swanston. + + The Upper Old Red Sandstone rests unconformably on all older + formations. The red sandstones and cornstones of this division form + the Cairn Hills, and are traceable north-eastwards along the + north-west slope of the Pentland Hills towards the Clubbiedean + reservoir, where they are overlapped by Carboniferous strata. They + occupy the south part of the city of Edinburgh, they occur in the + lower slope of Salisbury Crags, and south by Craigmillar and Liberton + towards Mortonhall. Recently the horizon of these beds has been proved + by the discovery of fish remains (_Holoptychius_), a zonal form of the + Upper Old Red Sandstone. The remainder of the county embracing the + fertile low ground west of the city of Edinburgh and along the basin + of the Esk is occupied by Carboniferous strata and various igneous + rocks associated with that formation. The Pentland Hills, formed of + older Palaeozoic deposits, appear as a prominent ridge, throwing off + the Carboniferous beds to the north-west and south-east. In the former + direction only the Calciferous Sandstone series is represented, and in + the latter all the Carboniferous divisions are well developed. The + lowest subdivision of the Calciferous Sandstone series, consisting of + sandstones, red and green shales, marls and cement-stones, appears in + the ridge of the old part of the city between the Castle and Holyrood, + in the Hunter's Bog and on the north-west side of the Pentland Hills. + Intercalated in this series near the top, there are interbedded + volcanic rocks, comprising olivine basalts, mugearites, tuffs and + agglomerates, which form conspicuous features on Arthur's Seat, on + Calton Hill, at Craiglockhart and Corston Hill south of Mid Calder. + Next in order come the Granton sandstones and Wardie shales, which are + best seen on the shore at Granton, and extend up the Water of Leith in + the direction of Colinton, where they are succeeded by the Hailes + sandstone. The upper portion of the Calciferous Sandstone series, + overlying the Hailes sandstone, embraces the valuable oil-shales, + which give rise to one of the chief industries of the Lothians. + Recently, however, it has been proved that some of the bands in the + Wardie shales give a low yield of oil and sulphate of ammonia. The + oil-shale-fields in the county lie partly along its west margin from + Mid Calder south to Breich and also on the south-east side of the + Pentland Hills between Straiton and Carlops along the west side of the + Midlothian basin. From an economic point of view the Midlothian + coalfield is of special importance, the strata being arranged in a + syncline, the long axis of which trends north-north-east and + south-south-west. In the centre of the basin lie the Coal-Measures + covered by the barren red sandstone of Dalkeith, probably on the same + horizon as the red sandstones of Wemyss in Fife (Middle + Coal-Measures). The underlying Millstone Grit and Carboniferous + Limestone series with its middle-coal-bearing group rise from + underneath the Coal-Measures, forming parallel bands curving round the + basin. Along the west side of the syncline, the strata dip at high + angles to the south-east, are sometimes vertical and even in some + cases inverted, while in the centre they become flat and rise at + gentle angles towards the east. The Coal Measures and the coal-bearing + group of the Carboniferous Limestone series contain numerous valuable + coals and ironstones, and there still remains a large field for + development. The intrusive igneous rocks forming prominent features in + the county are divisible into two main groups, which are separated + from each other by a considerable interval of time. The coarse + agglomerate filling the old volcano on the top of Arthur's Seat is + associated with the eruption of the volcanic rocks of Calciferous + Sandstone age near Edinburgh. The fine grained basalt appearing as a + plug on the Castle Rock closely resembles the basalt on the top of + Arthur's Seat, and is likewise of the same age. The intrusive sheets + of Salisbury Crags and Corstorphine Hill composed of olivine-dolerite + belong to the same general period. But the quartz-dolerites + represented by the Ratho sill are in all probability of late + Carboniferous age. + +_Climate and Agriculture._--In the hill country the average rainfall is +37.4 in., but on the coast only 28.4 in. The average temperature ranges +from 38 deg. F. in January to 59 deg.5 in July, the mean for the year +being 47.7. The north-east and easterly winds prevailing in spring are, +especially in Edinburgh and its vicinity, remarkable for their cold and +blighting character. Excepting in the uplands, snow seldom lies long, +but frosts sometimes occur at night as late as the beginning of June, +and severe enough to destroy the young shoots of seedling trees in +nurseries. But the winter is often astonishingly mild. The common +snowdrop (_Galanthus nivalis_) blossoms as early as the 25th of January, +the kidney liverleaf (_Hepatica triloba_) by the 31st of January and the +rhododendron (_R. nobleanum_) by the 25th of February. On the shores of +the Forth along the Almond and the Esk, and on some of the richer flats, +grain crops ripen early; 2 m. nearer the hills and 200 ft. higher the +harvest is ten days later; and at 600 ft. still another week later. High +farming is the rule in the three Lothians. All the area on which wheat +can be profitably grown is so occupied; oats, however, is the +predominant grain crop, though barley is also raised. Turnips and +potatoes are the chief roots, and beans are grown to a limited extent. A +large area is occupied by pasture and sown grasses, fallow land having +practically disappeared. Near Edinburgh sewage farming has been largely +developed. There are 200 acres at Craigentinny between Restalrig and the +Forth, besides smaller tracts under similar treatment at Lochend, Dalry +and the Grange. The produce consists principally of natural grasses. +Sheep and cattle raising is an important pursuit. In the neighbourhood +of the capital dairy farming is conducted on an extensive scale. Horse +breeding flourishes, several of the studs being of excellent character, +Clydesdales predominating. Pig-keeping has grown considerably and +poultry-farming is carried on near Edinburgh. The nursery gardens are +extensive, and, besides market gardening, which prospers near the +capital, there are many orchards. + +_Other Industries._--Though as a whole not a mining county, Midlothian +possesses some mineral wealth. Coal is extensively mined at various +points on the North Esk, like Penicuik, Loanhead, Bonnyrigg, Eskbank and +at Gorebridge, Newbattle, Newbigging, Niddrie, Gilmerton, Mid and West +Calder. Ironstone is obtained chiefly at Lasswade and Penicuik and +fire-clay occurs at various points. In the vicinity of West Calder there +is a large amount of valuable oil-bearing shale. Limestone is of +frequent occurrence--at Esperston, Cousland, Crichton near Dalkeith, +Burdiehouse, Gilmerton near Edinburgh, the Camps in Kirknewton parish, +and at Muirieston and Leven Seat in the south-west. Freestone is +quarried at Craigleith, Hailes, Redhall and Craigmillar. It is used for +pavements and stairs, and for the great docks at Leith. Barnton Mount +supplies large blocks of whinstone, also used for docks and for +fortifications; the causeway stones for the streets of Edinburgh are +mainly procured from the quarries at Ratho; and a number of smaller +quarries for the supply of road-material are scattered throughout the +county. Owing no doubt to the growth of printing and publishing in the +metropolis, the chief manufacturing industry in Midlothian is +paper-making. Most of the mills are extensive and equipped with the most +modern processes and have an enormous yearly output. The most important +mills, some of them dating from the beginning of the 18th century, are +situated on the North Esk between Penicuik and Musselburgh, and on the +South Esk at Newbattle. At Balerno, Currie, Colinton and elsewhere on +the Water of Leith there are several mills, as well as near Mid Calder +and at Portobello. The ancient vat-mill called Peggy's Mill, at Cramond, +produces handmade papers. There are carpet factories on the Esk at +Roslin and at Lasswade. The manufacture of gunpowder is also carried on +at Roslin, the works being distributed in recesses on the Esk. Iron +foundries exist at Dalkeith, Westfield, Loanhead, Penicuik, Millerhill +and in the suburbs of Edinburgh; brick and tile works at Portobello, +Millerhill, Newbattle, Bonnyrigg and Rosewell; and candle works at +Dalkeith and Loanhead. Leather also is tanned at Edinburgh and Dalkeith. +The shipping trade is concentrated at Leith and Granton, and Newhaven is +still an important fishery centre, while there are also fleets at +Fisherrow and Granton. + +_Population and Government._--The population in 1891 was 434,276, and in +1901 488,796, of whom 5765 spoke both Gaelic and English, and 75 Gaelic +only. The chief towns, besides Edinburgh, the capital (pop. in 1901, +316,837), are Bonnyrigg (1924), Dalkeith (6812), Leith (77,439), +Loanhead (3071), Musselburgh (11,711), Newton Grange (2406), Penicuik +(3574), and West Calder (2652). The county forms a single parliamentary +constituency, exclusive of Edinburgh city and Leith burghs. It has been +divided by the county council into four county districts (Calder, Gala +Water, Lasswade, Suburban) for the purposes of the Roads and Bridges Act +1878, and the Public Health Acts. The management of special districts +formed for water supply, drainage and other sanitary purposes is +entrusted to sub committees appointed by the respective district +committees. The grant under the Local Taxation (Customs and Excise) Act +is administered by the Technical Education Committee appointed by the +Council; and, subject to the same authority, the Secondary Education +Committee provides for the distribution of the grant under the Local +Taxation (Scotland) Act. In respect of education the shire is under +school-board jurisdiction. + +_History and Antiquities._--Cramond was once a Roman seaport, and +various objects of Roman art and workmanship have been discovered in its +vicinity and along the banks of the Almond. On several heights are +remains of early military works--the most important being that on +Dalmahoy Hill, Braidwood Castle in the parish of Penicuik, and Castle +Greg on the Harburn estate in Mid Calder parish. Picts' houses are found +at Crichton Mains, at Borthwick Castle, near Middleton House and +elsewhere, the first being especially interesting from the fact that +some of the stones bear marks of Roman masonry. There are hut-circles +and a fort on Kaimes Hill, near Ratho; a large tumulus, with three +upright stones, at Old Liston; a smaller tumulus at Newbattle; a +cistvaen or stone burial chest at Carlowrie; and standing stones at +Lochend, at Comiston (the Caiy stone), and the "Cat Stane" near +Kirkliston. Temple, on the South Esk, was at one time the chief seat of +the Knights Templars in Scotland for whom David I. here built a church, +now in ruins. + +The history of the county is almost identical with that of the capital. +Traces of Celtic occupation are obvious in such names as Inveresk, +Almond, Leith, Dalry, Dalmahoy, Dalkeith and others; though most of the +villages, hamlets and castles received their present designation from +Saxon possessors. The termination _ton_ is very frequent. Following upon +the withdrawal of the Romans the land was the scene of intertribal +strife, but it was in a measure subdued by the Saxons and passed under +the rule of the Northumbrian kings, who held it till 1020, when the +Lothians were handed over to the Scottish king, Malcolm II. The people +of the Lothians, however, stipulated that they were to retain their +manners and customs, and in this way the south-eastern lowlands became +the centre from which Anglo-Saxon and Norman civilization gradually +spread throughout Scotland, and hence, too, was assured the pre-eminence +of Edinburgh. Within the county lie the battlefields of Roslin, where +(in 1303) the English suffered three reverses in one day; Burghmuir, +where the English were defeated by the earl of Moray in 1334; Pinkie +near Inveresk, where (in 1547) the duke of Somerset inflicted heavy loss +upon the Scots; and Rullion Green, on the eastern slopes of the +Pentlands, where (in 1666) the Covenanters were routed by the royal +troops under General Dalziel. + + See James Grant, _Old and New Edinburgh_ (London, 1880 et seq.); Miss + Warrender, _Walks near Edinburgh_ (Edinburgh, 1890); J.C. Oliphant, + _Rambles round Edinburgh_ (Edinburgh, 1892); J.M. Bell, _Castles of + the Lothians_ (Edinburgh, 1893); W. Baird, _Annals of Duddingston and + Portobello_ (Edinburgh, 1898); J. Geddie, _The Water of Leith_ + (Edinburgh, 1896); Rev. J. Dickson, _Ruined Castles of Midlothian_ + (Edinburgh, 1895); _The Islands of the Forth_ (Edinburgh 1899). + + + + +EDISON, THOMAS ALVA (1847- ), American inventor, was born on the 11th +of February 1847, at Milan, Erie county, Ohio, of mixed Dutch and +Scottish descent; but his parents moved to Port Huron, Michigan, when he +was seven years old. At the age of twelve he became a train news-boy on +the railway to Detroit, and managed to gratify his youthful interest in +chemistry by performing experiments while travelling. At fifteen he +became a telegraph operator, and was employed in many cities in the +United States and Canada, but frequently neglected his duties in order +to carry on studies and experiments in electrical science. Before he was +twenty-one he had constructed an automatic repeater, by means of which a +message could be transferred from one wire to another without the aid of +an operator; and he had also directed his attention to the problem of +duplex telegraphy, of which he later invented a successful system. In +1869 Edison came to New York city, and soon afterwards became connected +with the Gold & Stock Company. He invented an improved printing +telegraph for stock quotations, for which he received $40,000. He then +established a laboratory and factory in Newark, N.J., for further +experiments and for the manufacture of his inventions. In 1876 he +removed to Menlo Park, and later to West Orange, N.J., where he +continued his experiments. Since then his name has been prominently +associated with all kinds of novelties in practical electricity. Among +his principal inventions are his system of duplex telegraphy, which he +later developed into quadruplex and sextuplex transmission; his carbon +telephone transmitter; the microtasimeter, for the detection of small +variations in temperature; the phonograph, which records and reproduces +all manner of sounds; the cinematograph, which his improvements made +practicable; and his method of preparing carbon filaments for the +incandescent electric lamp. In 1878 Edison was made a chevalier of the +Legion of Honour by the French government. + + + + +EDMONTON, the capital city of the province of Alberta, Canada, which was +constituted in 1905. Pop. (1901) 2652; (1906) 11,167. It is +picturesquely situated on the north bank of the North Saskatchewan river +in 113 deg. 37' W. and 53 deg. 32' N. It is on a high tableland which +rises 200 ft. above the river, and overlooks the thickly wooded valley +of the North Saskatchewan river--at this point a mile in width, the +river itself being one-eighth of a mile wide. Directly opposite Edmonton +on the south bank of the river stands Strathcona, a town with a +population of 2927. The streets of Edmonton are wide and laid out in +rectangular form. Its excellent drainage makes street grading an easy +matter. In 1896 it was scarcely a village; in 1901 it assumed some +importance, but three-quarters of the city were built between 1901 and +1906. Its choice as capital in 1905 gave it a great impetus. The +buildings, largely of brick, give a substantial appearance to the place. +The public school buildings, high school and Alberta College are +attractive. The church buildings, many in number, include several +architecturally beautiful. Three well planned and commodious hospital +buildings represent the benevolent work of the community. The banks and +the wholesale warehouses are well built, and many beautiful private +residences are worthy of note. Its growth may be realized from the fact +that during a part of 1906, $806,015 worth of building permits were +granted; the customs receipts, $57,994 in 1905, grew to $104,416 in +1906; the mail parcels handled increased from 6800 to 12,079; and the +express parcels handled from 1277 to 2347. Edmonton is the depot of the +fur traders for the great region on the north and west. The Hudson's Bay +Company has great interest in Edmonton, but is vigorously opposed by a +strong French firm, Revillon Freres of Paris. These two companies have +their posts wide spread over the north country. The city, being +incorporated, is governed by a mayor and a board of aldermen. It +operates its own water service, electric light plant, and telephone +system. Its schools are managed by an elected public school board. + +Edmonton was begun as a post of the North West Company about the year +1778. Early in the 19th century the Hudson's Bay Company also +established a fort at this point. On the union of the two companies +under the name of the latter, Fort Edmonton sprang into new importance. +It became a north-western centre, and in its neighbourhood many +employees of the fur company, both Scottish and French, took up land as +settlers. As freighters for the Hudson's Bay Company many of these +settlers made, with their ox or pony carts, the long journey over the +natural prairie roads to Fort Garry, fording or swimming the streams, +carrying furs for a thousand miles or more on the eastern trip, and +returning brought loads of merchandise for the company. Its +inaccessibility made the Edmonton settlement grow very slowly, so that +its great increase in population belongs to the period subsequent to +1896. + + + + +EDMONTON, an urban district in the Enfield parliamentary division of +Middlesex, England, suburban to London, 7-1/2 m. N. of London Bridge, on +the Old North Road, on the west side of the Lea Valley. Pop. (1891) +25,381; (1901) 46,899. There are numerous factories in the valley, and +Edmonton consists largely of the cottages of artisans. The church of All +Saints has been extensively restored, but retains part of the ancient +fabric of Perpendicular and earlier date. It contains brasses of +interest, and in the churchyard is the memorial of Charles Lamb, who +lived and died (1834) at Edmonton, and his sister. Cowper and Keats were +also residents, and the Bell Inn is famed through Cowper's poem _John +Gilpin_. + + + + +EDMUND, SAINT [EDMUND RICH] (d. 1240), English saint and archbishop of +Canterbury, was born at Abingdon, near Oxford, about 1175. His father +was a merchant of that town who retired, with his wife's consent, to the +monastery of Eynsham, leaving in her hands the education of their +family. Her name was Mabel; she was a devout woman who lived an ascetic +life and encouraged her children to do the same. Both her daughters took +the veil; three of her sons served the church in different capacities. +Edmund, her first-born, began his education in a grammar school at +Oxford. Of weak health and a contemplative disposition, he showed, from +his earliest years, a remarkable taste for learning and religious +exercises. He saw visions while still at school, and at the age of +twelve took a vow of perpetual chastity in the Virgin's church at +Oxford. Later he was sent, with his brother Robert, to study the liberal +arts at Paris. His mother's death and family affairs recalled him for a +time to England; but he afterwards graduated at Paris. For six years he +lectured in the liberal arts, partly in Paris and partly in Oxford; his +career as an Oxford teacher commenced before 1205, and is noteworthy for +the fact that he was the first who lectured there on Aristotle. He then +returned to Paris for a course of theological studies, and rapidly made +himself proficient in that branch of learning. + +After spending a year in retirement with the Augustinian canons of +Merton (Surrey) he became a theological lecturer in Oxford. In this +capacity he gained some reputation, and it is related that his audience +were often moved to tears by his eloquence. He spent the fees which he +received in charity, and refused to spend upon himself the revenues +which he derived from several benefices. He not infrequently retired +for solitude to Reading Abbey; it is probable that he would have become +a monk if that profession had afforded more scope for his gifts as a +preacher and expositor. As his fame increased he became alarmed by the +temptations which it threw in his way. He ceased to lecture in Oxford, +and about 1222 accepted, at the invitation of Bishop Richard Poore, the +treasurership of Salisbury cathedral. Little is known of his life for +the next ten years. But he attracted the notice of the Roman court, and +was appointed in 1227 to preach the Crusade in England; he formed a +friendship with Ella, countess of Salisbury, and her husband, William +Longsword, and he won general admiration by his works of charity and the +austerity of his life. + +In 1233 he was elected archbishop of Canterbury at the express +suggestion of Gregory IX., after the monks of Canterbury had in vain +suggested three other candidates for the pope's approval. Edmund at once +leaped into prominence by the outspoken manner in which he rebuked the +king for following the advice of foreign favourites. In common with the +baronial opposition he treated Henry III. as responsible for the tragic +fate of Richard Marshal, earl of Pembroke, and threatened the king with +excommunication. The king bowed before the storm, dismissed the foreign +counsellors, made peace with Marshal's adherents, and was publicly +reconciled with the barons. But the new ministers were as unpopular as +the old; nor was the archbishop allowed that political influence which +he claimed in virtue of his office. It was with the object of +emancipating himself from Edmund's control that the king asked the pope +to send him a legate (1236). On the arrival of Cardinal Otho (1237) the +archbishop found himself thwarted and insulted at every point. The +marriage between Simon de Montfort and the Princess Eleanor, which +Edmund had pronounced invalid, was ratified at Rome upon appeal. The +king and legate upheld the monks of Canterbury in their opposition to +the archbishop's authority. On all public occasions the legate took +precedence of the archbishop. By the advice of his suffragans Edmund +laid a protest before the king, and excommunicated in general terms all +who had infringed the liberties of Canterbury. These measures led to no +result; nor could the pope be moved to reverse the legate's decisions. +Edmund complained that the discipline of the national church was ruined +by this conflict of powers, and began to meditate retiring. He was +confirmed in this intention by the papal encroachments of the year 1240, +when the English clergy were required to pay a subsidy of a fifth for +the war against Frederick II., and simultaneously three hundred Romans +were "provided" with English benefices in return for their political +services to the Holy See. Edmund withdrew to Pontigny in the summer of +1240. A little later the state of his health compelled him to seek the +cooler air of Soissy (near Provins). Here he died on the 16th of +November 1240. + +His canonization was at once demanded by his admirers, and only delayed +(till 1247) through the opposition of Henry III. The honour was well +deserved. He is one of the most saintly and attractive figures in the +history of the English church. It was his misfortune to be placed at the +head of the national hierarchy in a crisis for which he had not been +prepared by practical training or experience. As archbishop he showed no +great capacity or force of character; but the purity of his motives and +the loftiness of his ideals commanded universal respect. + + See the Life printed by Martene and Durand in the _Thesaurus novus + anecdotorum_ (1717). Other lives of importance exist in manuscript at + the British Museum, in the Cambridge University library and in that of + St John's College, Cambridge. The last-named is printed by W. Wallace + in the appendix to his _Life of St Edmund_ (1893). An account of the + manuscript lives and many extracts (translated) will be found in the + Rev. B. Ward's _St Edmund_ (1903). See also _St Edmund of Abingdon_ + (1898), by the Baroness Paravicini; and the _English Historical + Review_, xxii. pp. 84 ff. (H. W. C. D.) + + + + +EDMUND, king of East Anglia (c. 840-870), succeeded to the East Anglian +throne in 855 while he was yet but a boy. According to Abbo, followed by +Florence of Worcester, he was "_ex antiquorum Saxonum prosapia_," which +would seem to mean that he was of foreign origin and that he belonged to +the Old Saxons of the continent. This very doubtful tradition was +expanded later into a fuller legend which spoke of his Old Saxon +parentage, his birth at Nuremberg, his nomination as successor to Offa, +king of East Anglia, and his landing at Hunstanton to claim his kingdom. +His coronation took place in the next year at "Burna" (i.e. probably +Bures St Mary, Suffolk), which was then the royal capital. + +Of the life of St Edmund during the next fourteen years we know nothing. +In the year 870 the Danes, who had been wintering at York, marched +through Mercia into East Anglia and took up their quarters at Thetford. +Edward engaged them fiercely in battle, but the Danes under their +leaders Ubba and Inguar were victorious and remained in possession of +the field of battle. The king himself was slain, whether on the actual +field of battle or in later martyrdom is not certain, but the widely +current version of the story which makes him fall a martyr to the Danish +arrows when he had refused to renounce his faith or hold his kingdom as +a vassal from the heathen overlords, may very probably be true. The +story is a very old one, and according to Abbo of Fleury (945-1004), St +Edmund's earliest biographer, it was told him by Dunstan, who heard it +from the lips of Edmund's own standard-bearer. This is chronologically +just possible, but that is all. The battle was fought at Hoxne, some 20 +m. south-east of Thetford, and the king's body was ultimately interred +at Beadoricesworth, the modern Bury St Edmunds. The shrine of Edmund +soon became one of the most famous in England and the reputation of the +saint was European. The date of his canonization is unknown, but +churches dedicated to his memory are found all over England. + + See _Asser's Life of Alfred_, ed. W.H. Stevenson; _Annals of St + Neots_; _Saxon Chronicle_; _Memorials of St Edmund's Abbey_ (Rolls + Series), including the _Passio Sancti Edmundi_ of Abbo of Fleury; and + the _Corolla Sancti Eadmundi_, edited by Lord Francis Hervey (1907). + (A. Mw.) + + + + +EDMUND I., king of the English (d. 946), was the son of Eadgifu, third +wife of Edward the Elder, and half-brother to his predecessor Aethelstan. +He succeeded to the throne in 940, but had already played an active part +in the previous reign, especially when he fought by the side of his +half-brother in the great battle of Brunanburh. + +In the first year of his reign Edmund had trouble with Olaf or Anlaf +Sihtricsson, called Cuaran. The latter had just crossed from Ireland and +had been chosen king by the Northumbrians, who threw off their +allegiance to Edmund. Anlaf took York, besieged Northampton and +destroyed Tamworth, but was met by Edmund at Leicester. The enemy +escaped, but a peaceful settlement was made by the good offices of Odo +of Canterbury and Wulfstan of York. Simeon of Durham states that a +division of the kingdom was now made, whereby Edmund took England south +of Watling Street and Anlaf the rest. This division seems incredible, +especially in face of the poem inserted in the chronicle (_sub anno_ +942). There can be little doubt that the story told there of the +reconquest of Northern Mercia by Edmund refers to the compact with +Anlaf, made as a result of the campaign, and it is probable that +Simeon's statement is a wide exaggeration, due in part at least to a +confused reminiscence of the earlier pact between Alfred and Guthrum. +All Mercia south of a line from Dore (near Sheffield), through Whitwell +to the Humber, was now in Edmund's hands, and the five Danish boroughs, +which had for some time been exposed to raids from the Norwegian kings +of Northumbria, were now freed from that fear. The peace was confirmed +by the baptism of Kings Anlaf and Raegenald, Edmund standing as sponsor, +but in 944 or 945 the peace was broken and Edmund expelled Anlaf and +Raegenald from Northumbria. + +In 945 Edmund ravaged Strathclyde, and entrusted it all to Malcolm, king +of Scotland, "on condition that he should be his fellow-worker by sea +and land," the object of this policy being apparently to detach the king +of Scots from any possible confederacy such as had been formed in 937. + +On the 26th of May 946 Edmund's brief but energetic reign came to a +tragic conclusion when he was stabbed at the royal villa of +Pucklechurch, in Gloucestershire, by an exiled robber named Liofa, who +had returned to the court unbidden. Edmund, the "deed-doer" as the +chronicle calls him, "Edmundus magnificus" as Florence of Worcester +describes him, perhaps translating the Saxon epithet, was buried at +Glastonbury, an abbey which he had entrusted in 943 to the famous +Dunstan. + +Edmund was twice married; first to Aelfgifu, the mother of Eadwig and +Edgar; second to Aethelflaed "aet Damerhame" (i.e. of Damerham, Co. Wilts). +Aelfgifu died in 944, according to Ethelwerd. + + AUTHORITIES.--_Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_ (ed. Earle and Plummer, Oxford); + _Simeon of Durham_ (Rolls Series); _A.S. Laws_, ed. Liebermann, pp. + 184-191; Birch, _Cartularium Saxonicum_, Nos. 745-817; _Dictionary of + National Biography_, s.v. (A. Mw.) + + + + +EDMUND, or EADMUND (c. 980-1016), called IRONSIDE, king of the English, +was the son of Aethelred II. by his first wife Aelfgifu. When Canute +invaded England in 1015, Edmund sought to resist him, but, paralysed by +the treachery and desertion of the ealdorman Edric, he could do nothing, +and Wessex submitted to the Danish king. Next year Canute and Edric +together harried Mercia, while Edmund with infinite difficulty gathered +an army. Returning into Northumbria, he in his turn harried the +districts which had submitted to the invader, but a march northward by +Canute brought about the speedy submission of Northumbria and the return +of Edmund to London. The death of Aethelred on the 23rd of April 1016 was +followed by a double election to the English crown. The citizens of +London and those members of the Witan who were present in the city chose +Edmund, the rest of the Witan meeting at Southampton elected Canute. In +the warfare which ensued Edmund fought at the severest disadvantage, for +his armies dispersed after every engagement, whatever its issue. Canute +at once fiercely besieged London, but the citizens successfully resisted +all attacks. Edmund meanwhile marched through Wessex and received its +submission. At Pen in Somersetshire he engaged the Danes and defeated +them. Canute now raised the siege of London and soon afterwards +encountered Edmund at Sherston in Wiltshire. The battle was indecisive, +but Canute marched back to London and left Edmund in possession of +Wessex. Edmund hastened after him and relieved London, which he had +again besieged. He defeated the Danes at Brentford and again at Otford, +and drove them into Sheppey. He was now joined by Edric, in conjunction +with whom he followed the Danes into Essex, overtaking them at Assandun +(or Ashington). In the battle which ensued Edric again played the +traitor, and the English were routed with terrible slaughter. Edmund +retired into Gloucestershire, whither he was followed by Canute. He +himself was anxious to continue the struggle, but Edric and the Witan +persuaded him to accept a reconciliation. At Olney the two rivals swore +friendship, and a division of the kingdom was effected--Canute taking +the north, Edmund the south. Soon afterwards Edmund died (30th of +November 1016), probably from natural causes, though later historians +hint at foul play. (C. S. P.*) + + + + +EDMUND, king of Sicily and earl of Lancaster (1245-1296), was the second +son of Henry III. of England by Eleanor of Provence. At ten years of age +Edmund was invested by Pope Alexander IV. with the kingdom of Sicily +(April 1255); the pecuniary obligations which Henry III. undertook on +his son's behalf were not the least among the causes which led to the +Provisions of Oxford and the Barons' War. Alexander annulled his grant +in 1258, but still pressed Henry for the discharge of unpaid arrears of +subsidies. In 1265, after Montfort's fall, Edmund received the earldom +of Leicester, and two years later was created earl of Lancaster. He +joined the crusade of his elder brother, the Lord Edward (1271-1272); +and Edward, on his accession, found in Edmund a loyal supporter. In +1275, two years after the death of his first wife, Aveline de Fortibus, +Edmund married Blanche of Artois, the widow of Henry III. of Navarre and +Champagne. Although the county of Champagne had descended to his wife's +infant daughter, Joan, Edmund assumed the title "Count Palatine of +Champagne and Brie," and is described in the English patent rolls as +earl of Lancaster and Champagne. Until 1284 he held, in his wife's +right, the custody of Champagne. This he was compelled to renounce upon +the marriage of Joan to Philip the Fair, the heir to the crown of +France. But he retained the possession of his wife's dowerlands in +Champagne, and is described in an official document of Champagne so late +as the year 1287, as "the Count Edmund." He was employed by his brother +as a mediator with Philip the Fair in 1293-1294. When Philip's court +pronounced that the king of England had forfeited Gascony, Edmund +renounced his homage to Philip and withdrew with his wife to England. He +was appointed lieutenant of Gascony in 1296, but died in the same year, +leaving a son Thomas to succeed him in his English possessions. + + See "Edmund, Earl of Lancaster," by W.E. Rhodes, in the _English + Historical Review_, vol. x. pp. 19, 209. + + + + +EDMUNDS, GEORGE FRANKLIN (1828-), American lawyer and political leader, +was born in Richmond, Vermont, on the 1st of February 1828. He began the +practice of law in 1849. He was a member of the Vermont House of +Representatives in 1854, 1855, 1857, 1858 and 1859, acting for the last +two years as speaker, and was a member and president _pro tem._ of the +state Senate in 1861-1862. In 1866 he became a member, as a Republican, +of the United States Senate, where he remained until 1891, when he +resigned in order to have more time for the practice of his profession. +He took an active part in the attempt to impeach President Johnson. He +was influential in providing for the electoral commission to decide the +disputed presidential election of 1876, and became one of the +commissioners. In the national Republican nominating conventions of 1880 +and 1884 he was a candidate for the presidential nomination. From 1882 +to 1885 he was president _pro tem._ of the Senate. As senator he was +conspicuous on account of his legal and parliamentary attainments, his +industry and his liberal opinions. He was the author of the so-called +Edmunds Act (22nd of March 1882) for the suppression of polygamy in +Utah, and of the anti-trust law of 1890, popularly known as the Sherman +Act. + + + + +EDOM, the district situated to the south of Palestine, between the Dead +Sea and the Gulf of 'Akaba (Aelanitic Gulf), the inhabitants of which +were regarded by the Israelites as a "brother" people (see ESAU). On the +E. it touched Moab, the tribes of the great desert and the northern part +of Arabia; on the W. its boundaries were determined by the Sinaitic +peninsula, Egypt and Israel. Both Kadesh and Mt. Hor (perhaps Jebel +Madera) are represented as lying on its border (Num. xx. 16, 22), and +the modern Wadi el-Fikreh, in which the "Scorpion pass" was probably +situated (Judg. i. 36; Num. xxxiv. 4), may have marked its limits from +Jebel Madera north-west towards the southern extremity of the Dead Sea. +Kadesh (_'Ain Kadis_), however, lies about 50 m. south of Beersheba (the +southern end of Israel as opposed to Dan in the north), and the precise +borders must always have been determined by political conditions: by the +relations between Edom and its neighbours, Judah, the Philistine states, +Moab, and the restless desert tribes with which Edom was always very +closely allied. + + The northern part of Edom became known by a separate name as Gebalene + (Gebal in Ps. lxxxiii. 7), the modern Jibal, "mountain country." Seir + or Mt. Seir, a synonym for Edom, not to be confused with the Judaean + locality (Josh. xv. 10), has been identified with the modern + _es-sarah_, the hilly region to the south of Petra; though its use + probably varied in ancient times as much as that of Edom certainly + did. Mt. Halak, apparently one of its offshoots (Josh. xi. 17, xii. + 7), is of uncertain identification, nor can the exact position of + Paran (probably desert of _et-Tih_) or Zin (Sin) be precisely + determined. The chief Edomite cities extended from north to south on + or adjoining an important trade-route (see below); they include Bozrah + (Buseire), Shobek, Petra (the capital), and Ma'an; farther to the + south lay the important seaports Ezion-Geber (mod. 'Ain el-Ghudyan, + now 15 m. north of the head of the Aelanitic Gulf) and Elath (whence + the gulf derives its name). Petra (q.v.) is usually identified with + the biblical Sela, unless this latter is to be placed at the south end + of the Dead Sea (Judg. i. 36). The sites of Teman and Dedan, which + also were closely associated with Edom (Jer. xlix. 7 seq.; Ez. xxv. + 13), are uncertain. No doubt, as a general rule, the relations between + Edomites and the "sons of the east" (Ezek. xxv. 10; Job i. 3) and the + "kingdoms of Hazor" (nomad states; Jer. xlix. 28, 30, 33) varied + considerably throughout the period of O.T. history. + + +The land of Edom is unfruitful and forbidding, with the notable +exception of fertile districts immediately south of the Dead Sea and +along its eastern border. It was traversed by an important trade-route +from Elath (the junction for routes to Egypt and Arabia) which ran +northwards by Ma'an and Moab; but cross-routes turned from Ma'an and +Petra to Gaza or up the Ghor (south end of Dead Sea) to Hebron and +Jerusalem.[1] Thus Edom formed a prominent centre for traffic from +Arabia and its seats of culture to Egypt, the Philistine towns, +Palestine and the Syrian states, and it enjoyed a commercial importance +which made it a significant factor in Palestinian history. + +The earliest history of Edom is that of the "sand-dwellers," "archers" +or _Shasu_ (perhaps "marauders"), whose conflicts with ancient Egypt are +not infrequently mentioned. The first clear reference is in the eighth +year of Mineptah II. (close of 13th century B.C.), when a tribe of Shasu +from Aduma received permission to enter Egypt and feed their flocks.[2] +A little more than a century later Rameses III. claims to have +overthrown the Saaru among the tribes of the Shasu, and the +identification of this name with Seir is usually recognized, although it +is naturally uncertain whether the Edomites of Old Testament tradition +are meant. According to the latter, the Edomites were a new race who +drove out the Horites from Mt. Seir. The designation suggests that these +were "cave-dwellers," but although many caves and hollows have been +found about Petra (and also in Palestine), this tradition probably +"serves only to express the idea entertained by later generations +concerning their predecessors" (Noldeke). + +Not only is Edom as a nation recognized as older than Israel, but a list +of eight kings, who reigned before the Israelite monarchy, is preserved +in Gen. xxxvi. + + The first Bela, son of Beor, is often identified with Balaam, but the + traditions of the Exodus are not precise enough to warrant the + assumption that the seer was the king of a hostile land in Num. xx. 14 + sqq., which in Deut. ii. 1-8 appears to have been peaceful; see + BALAAM; EXODUS. In Husham, the third king, several scholars (Gratz, + Klostermann, Marquart, &c.) have recognized the true adversary of + Othniel (q.v.; Judg. iii.). The defeat of Midian in the land of Moab + by his successor Hadad has been associated with the Midianite invasion + in the time of Gideon (q.v.; Judg. vi. sqq.). The sixth is Shaul, + whose name happens to be identical with Saul, king of Israel, whilst + the last Hadad (so 1 Chron. i. 50) of Pau (or Peor in Moab, so the + Septuagint) should belong to the time of David. The list, whatever its + value, together with the other evidence in Gen. xxxvi., implies that + the Edomites consisted of a number of local groups with chieftains, + with a monarchy which, however, was not hereditary but due to the + supremacy of stronger leaders. The tradition thus finds an analogy in + the Israelite "judges" before the time of Saul and David. + +Saul, the first king of Israel, conquered Edom (1 Sam. xiv. 47).[3] Of +the conquest of Edom by David, the first king of the united Judah and +Israel, several details are given (2 Sam. viii. 13 seq.; 1 Kings xi. 14 +sqq.; 1 Chron. xviii. 11 seq.; cf. Ps. lx. title and ver. 8 seq.), +although the account of the slaughter is certainly exaggerated. The +scene was the valley of Salt, probably to the south of the Dead Sea. Of +the escape of the Edomite prince Hadad, and of his residence in Egypt, a +twofold account is preserved.[4] After the death of David he returned +to Edom; if, as the narrative implies, he became a troublesome adversary +to Solomon, nothing is known of his achievements, and if the royal +trading-journeys from Ezion-geber were maintained, Edom could have done +little. However, in the first half of the 9th century Edom was under the +rule of Jehoshaphat of Judah, and this king together with Israel held +Ezion-geber (1 Kings xxii. 47 sqq.; 2 Chron. xx. 35 sqq.). But some +catastrophe befell the fleet, and shortly afterwards Jehoshaphat's son +Jehoram had to face a revolt in which Edom and the men of Libnah (the +Philistines) were concerned. It was about this period that Israel had +conquered Moab, thrusting it farther south towards Edom, and the +subsequent success of Moab in throwing off the yoke, and the +unsuccessful attempt of Jehoram of Israel to regain the position, may +show that Edom was also in alliance with Moab.[5] In the time of +Adad-nirari of Assyria (812-783 B.C.) Edom is mentioned as an +independent tributary with Beth-Omri (Israel) and Palashtu (Philistia); +the absence of Judah is perplexing. Amaziah of Judah had gained a signal +victory over Edom in the valley of Salt (2 Kings xiv. 7), but after his +defeat by Jehoash of Israel there is a gap and the situation is obscure. +Consequently it is uncertain whether Edom was the vassal of the next +great Israelite king Jeroboam II., or whether the Assyrian evidence for +its independent position belongs to this later time. However, Uzziah, a +contemporary of Jeroboam II., and one of the most successful of Judaean +kings, overcame Edom and its natural allies (2 Chron. xxvi. 6 sqq.), and +at this stage Edomite history becomes more prominent. It joined the +great coalition in which Philistia and Israel were leagued against +Assyria, and drove out the Judaeans who had been in possession of +Elath.[6] On the events that followed see AHAZ; HEZEKIAH; PHILISTINES. +The Assyrian inscriptions name as tributary kings of Edom, Kaus-melek +(time of Tiglath-Pileser IV.), Malik (?)-ram (701 B.C.), and Kaus-gabri +(7th century). In the middle of the 7th century both Edom and Moab +suffered from the restlessness of the desert tribes, and after another +period of obscurity, they joined in the attempt made by Zedekiah of +Judah to revolt against Nebuchadrezzar (Jer. xxvii. 3). In the last +years before the fall of Jerusalem many of the Jews found a refuge in +Edom (Jer. xl. 11), although other traditions throw another light upon +the attitude of Edom during these disasters. + + That Edomites burned the temple after the destruction of Jerusalem (1 + Esd. iv. 45, cf. v. 50) is on a line with the repeated denunciation of + their "unbrotherly" conduct in later writings. Certainly the weak + state of Palestine invited attacks from the outlying tribes, but the + tone of certain late writings implies a preliminary period of, at + least, neutrality (cf. Deut. ii. 4 sqq., xxiii. 7 seq.; the omission + of Edom in xxiii. 3; Neh. xiii. 1; and in Ezra ix. 1--contrast 1 Esd. + viii. 69). Subsequently Edom is execrated for revengeful attacks upon + the Jews, and its speedy destruction is foretold; but the passages + appear to be much later than the disaster of 587 B.C., and may even + imply conditions after the restoration (Ob. 10 sqq.; Ezek. xxv. 12-14; + Jer. xlix. 7; Ps. cxxxvii. 7; Lam. iv. 21 seq., v. 2 sqq.). But at + length the day of reckoning came (cf. Is. xxxiv. 5; lxiii. 1-6), and + the fate of Edom is still fresh in the mind of Malachi (i. 1-5). + +The problem is complicated by the possibility that during the ages over +which the references can range many changes of fortune could have +occurred. The pressure of the Nabataeans (q.v.) forced Edom to leave its +former seats and advance into the south of Judah with Hebron as the +capital. This had been fully accomplished by 312 B.C., but the date of +the first occupation cannot be ascertained from the literary evidence +alone. Thus the district in question is Jewish in the time of Nehemiah +(Neh. xi. 25-30), but it is uncertain whether the Edomite occupation was +earlier (a fusion being assumed) or later, or whether the passage may be +untrustworthy. Henceforth, the new home of the Edomites is consequently +known as Idumaea. See, for further history, HEROD; JEWS.[7] + +Although but little is known of the inhabitants of Edom, their close +relationship to Judah and their kinship with the surrounding tribes +invest them with particular interest. The ties which united Lot (the +"father" of Ammon and Moab), Ishmael, Midian and Edom (Esau) with the +southern tribes Judah and Simeon, as manifested in the genealogical +lists, are intelligible enough on geographical grounds alone, and the +significance of this for the history of Judah and Palestine cannot be +ignored. The traditions recording the separation of Lot from Abraham, of +Hagar and Ishmael from Isaac, and of Esau from Jacob, although at +present arranged in a descending scheme of family relationship, are the +result of systematic grouping and cannot express any chronological order +of events (see GENESIS). Many motives have worked to bring these legends +into their present form, and while they depict the character of Israel's +wilder neighbours, they represent the recurrent alternating periods of +hostility and fellowship between it and Edom which mark the history. +Esau (Edom) although the older, loses his superiority, and if the +oracles declare that the elder shall serve the younger (Jacob, i.e. +Israel), the final independence of Esau (Gen. xxv. 23, xxvii. 39 seq.), +as foretold, obviously alludes to some successful Edomite revolt. As an +enemy, Edom in alliance with the tribes along the trade-routes +(Philistines, Moabites, &c.) was responsible for many injuries, and in +frequent forays carried away Judaeans as slaves for Gaza and Tyre (Am. +i. 6 seq., 9). As an ally or vassal, it was in touch with the wealth of +Arabia (Ezek. xxvii. 16, read "Edom" for "Aram"), and Judah and Israel +as well as Gaza and Damascus enjoyed the fruits of its commerce. In view +of the evidence for the advanced culture of early Arabia, the question +of Edom is extremely suggestive, and although speculation at this stage +would be premature, it is interesting to observe that Edomite and allied +tribes were famed for their wisdom,[8] and that apart from the +_possibility_ of Arabian influence upon Israelite culture, the influence +of Midian and related tribes is _certain_ from the traditions of Moses +and of his work (see JETHRO; KENITES; MOSES), and the Edomite district +was a traditional home of Yahweh himself (Deut. xxxiii. 2; Judg. v. 4; +Hab. iii. 3); see HEBREW RELIGION. It should be added, however, that the +Edomite names and other evidence point to the cult of other gods, viz. +Baal, Hadad, Malik (cf. MOLOCH), Kaus, or Kus, and Kozeh (Jos. _Ant._ +xv. 7, 9), who was probably a sky or lightning deity. + + The names Esau and Edom are possibly old divine names; see ESAU and + _Ency. Bib._ s.v. "Obed edom" (the name appears to mean "servant of + Edom"). For Kaus, see Baethgen, _Beitr. z. semit. + Religionsgeschichte_, p. 11 seq.; G.A. Cooke, _N. Sem. Inscr._ p. 234; + _Ency. Bib._ col. 2682, n. 2 and 2688 (s.v. "Kushaiah"); and Zimmern, + _Keilinschr. u. d. alte Test._^3, pp. 472 seq. On the question of + early Arabian civilization see YEMEN. That the name Mizraim (Misraim), + "Egypt," was extended eastwards of the Delta is in itself probable, + but it is still uncertain whether the term (also Ass. Musri) was + applied to Edom. The evidence (which is of mixed value) makes the view + a plausible one, but the theory has often been exaggerated (see + MIZRAIM). For Edom see, generally, Buhl, _Gesch. d. Edomiter_ (1893); + Noldeke's article in _Ency. Bib._; W. Libbey and F.E. Hoskins, _The + Jordan Valley and Petra_ (1905); the conjectural sketch by I. Levy in + _Rev. d'etudes juives_ (Jan. 1906). For the history and culture of the + latest period, see J.P. Peters and Thiersch, _Painted Tombs in the + Necropolis of Marissa_ (1905), ch. i. (S. A. C.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See further, E. Robinson, _Biblical Researches_, vol. ii.; E. + Hull, _Mt. Seir_; E.H. Palmer, _Desert of the Exodus_; Baedeker's + _Palestine and Syria_; C.W. Wilson, "Quart. Stat." (_Pal. Explor. + Fund_), 1899, p. 307, and G.A. Smith, _Ency. Bib._ col. 5162 seq. + + [2] In the old story of Sinuhit (ascribed to the 12th dyn.) the hero + visits the land of _Kedem_, which, it was suggested, lay to the + south-east or south of the Dead Sea; see, however, now A.H. Gardiner, + _Sitz.-Ber._ of the Berlin Academy, 1907, pp. 142 sqq. The suggestion + that the city Udumu, in the land of Gar, mentioned in the 15th + century (_Amarna Tablets_, ed. Winckler, No. 237), is Edom, Gar being + the Eg. _Kharu_ (Palestine) and the O.T. Horites (see above), is + extremely hazardous. That the name Aduma (above) refers to Etham (so + Naville, &c.) is improbable. + + [3] That the Edomites preserved this tradition of Saul's sovereignty + and (from their standpoint) enrolled him among their kings (Gen. + xxxvi. 37) cannot of course be proved. The account of the ferocious + slaughter of the priests of Nob at Saul's command by Doeg the Edomite + is a secondary tradition and probably of late origin (1 Sam. xxi. + 1-9, xxii. 6-23); cf. the hostility of Edom in exilic and post-exilic + times (p. 878, col. 1). + + [4] 1 Kings l.c., see the Septuagint and, especially, H. Winckler, + _Alttest. Untersuch._, pp. 1-15; C.F. Burney, _Kings_, pp. 158 sqq.; + J. Skinner, _Kings_, pp. 443 sqq.; Ed. Meyer, _Israeliten_, pp. 358 + sqq. + + [5] On 2 Kings iii. see JEHORAM; JEHOSHAPHAT; MOAB; and for the + biblical traditions relating to this period see KINGS (Book) and + JEWS: _History_. The chronicler's account of Judaean successes (2 + Chron. xvii. 10 seq.; xx.) and reverses (xxi. 16, xxii. 1) may rest + originally upon the source from which 1 Kings xxii. 47 seq.; 2 Kings + viii. 20, 22, have been abbreviated. It is hardly probable that there + was enmity between Edom and Moab as 2 Kings iii. now implies, + although hostile relations at other periods are likely (cf. Am. ii. + 1); for Edom in Moabite territory see above on Gen. xxxvi. and + "Quart. Stat." (_Pal. Explor. Fund_), 1902, pp. 10 sqq. + + [6] 2 Kings xvi. 6; on the text see the commentaries. + + [7] For the Jewish hatred of Edom in later times see the book of + Enoch lxxxix. 11-12; Jubilees, xxxvii. 22 seq., and on the Talmudic + custom of applying to the Romans the references to Edom or Esau, see + _Jewish Ency._ vol. v. p. 41. + + [8] Ob. 8; Jer. xlix. 7 sqq.; Baruch iii. 22, cf. 1 Kings iv. 30; see + also JOB. + + + + +EDRED (EADRED), king of the English (d. 955), was the youngest son of +Edward the Elder and his wife Eadgifu. He succeeded his brother Edmund +in the year 946 and at this time received the formal submission both of +the Northumbrians and Scots. In the next year Edred himself went to +Tanshelf, near Pontefract, in Yorkshire, where he received from +Wulfstan, archbishop of York, and the Northumbrian "witan" confirmation +of their submission. Shortly after they threw their pledges to the winds +and took the Norwegian Eric Bloodaxe, son of Harold Fairhair (Harald +Harfagar), as their king. Edred recklessly ravaged all Northumbria in +revenge, burning Ripon during his march. On his return home Edred's +rearguard was attacked at Castleford, and the infuriated king once more +turned to ravage Northumbria, which was only saved by its abandonment of +Eric and by compensation made to Edred. Archbishop Wulfstan seems to +have been a centre of disaffection in the north, and in 952 Edred caused +him to be imprisoned in the castle of "Judanburh," while in the same +year the king, in revenge for the slaying of Abbot Eadelm, slew many of +the citizens of Thetford. After the brief rule of Anlaf Cuaran in +Northumbria, Eric was once more restored, probably in 950, only to be +expelled again in 953 or 954, when Edred took the Northumbrian kingdom +into his own hands. In the same year Wulfstan was liberated and +appointed to the Mercian bishopric of Dorchester. Edred died on the 23rd +of November 955 at Frome, in Somersetshire, and was buried in the old +minster at Winchester. During the whole of his life Edred was troubled +by ill-health, a fact which may help to explain some of the more +passionate acts of violence attributed to him. The king was throughout +his life on terms of personal intimacy with St Dunstan, and his public +policy was largely guided by that prelate and by his own mother Eadgifu. +So far as we know, Edred was never married. + + AUTHORITIES.--The _Saxon Chronicle_ (ed. Earle and Plummer, Oxford), + _sub ann._; _Memorials of St Dunstan_ (Rolls Series, ed. Stubbs); + Florence of Worcester; Birch, _Cartularium Saxonicum_, vol. iii., Nos. + 815-834 and 860-931; _D.N.B._, art. _sub voce_. (A. Mw.) + + + + +EDRIC, or EADRIC, STREONA (d. 1017), ealdorman of the Mercians, was a +man of ignoble birth who was advanced to high dignity through the favour +of the English king Aethelred II. In 1007 he became ealdorman of the +Mercians, and subsequently married Aethelred's daughter Eadgyth. In the +struggle between the English and the Danes he appears in the character +of an arch-traitor. When Aethelred in 1009 proposed a great attack on the +Danes, Edric dissuaded him from carrying it into effect. Again, on the +invasion of England by Canute in 1015 Edric deserted Edmund Ironside and +joined him. After the battle of Otford he returned to Edmund, but only +by his treachery at the battle of Assandun to secure the utter defeat of +the national cause. When peace was at length made, Canute restored to +Edric the earldom of Mercia; but at Christmas 1017, fearing further +treachery, he had him slain--"very rightly" says the _Saxon Chronicle_. + + + + +EDUCATION. In the following treatment of this subject, the theory and +early history of education is first dealt with, and secondly the modern +organization of education as a national concern. Many definitions have +been given of the word "education," but underlying them all is the +conception that it denotes an attempt on the part of the adult members +of a human society to shape the development of the coming generation in +accordance with its own ideals of life. It is true that the word has not +infrequently been used in wider senses than this. For example, J.S. Mill +included under it everything which "helps to shape the human being"; +and, with some poetic licence, we speak of the education of a people or +even of the whole human race. But all such usages are rhetorical +extensions of the commonly accepted sense of the term, which includes, +as an essential element, the idea of deliberate direction and training +(Lat. _educare_, to bring up; _educere_, to draw out, lead forth). No +doubt, all education is effected through the experiences of the +educated, and much of it is indirect, consisting mainly in the +determination of the form of experiences other than those of direct +precept, compulsion and instruction. But it does not follow that all +experiences are educative. Whether an experience is part of an +individual's education or not is determined by its origin. Whatever be +its effect, it is educative in so far as its form has been arranged with +greater or less deliberation by those who are concerned with the +training of him whose experience it is. It follows that an education may +be good or bad, and that its goodness or badness will be relative to +the virtue, wisdom and intelligence of the educator. It is good only +when it aims at the right kind of product, and when the means it adopts +are well adapted to secure the intended result and are applied +intelligently, consistently and persistently. + +Education is, thus, a definitely personal work, and will vary between +wide extremes of effectiveness and worth in any given society. For in +all times and places there are wide differences in virtue, wisdom and +capacity among those who have in their hands the care and nurture of the +young. But the inference that, therefore, no comparative estimate of the +education of different times and places can be made would be fallacious. +For, despite all differences in conception and efficiency among +individual educators, each expresses, more or less perfectly and +clearly, the common conception and energy of his age and country. As +these rise or fall the general level of the actual educative practice +rises or sinks with them. The first essential for successful educative +effort is, then, that the community as a whole should have a true +estimate of the nature and value of education. + + +I. EDUCATIONAL THEORY + +In any comparative estimate of different places and times, as tested by +the standard just given, it must be borne in mind that, except in the +most general and abstract form, we cannot speak of an ideally best +education. Looking at the individual to be educated, we may say with +Plato that the aim of education is "to develop in the body and in the +soul all the beauty and all the perfection of which they are capable," +but this leaves quite undecided the nature and form of that beauty and +perfection, and on such points there has never been universal agreement +at any one time, while successive ages have shown marked differences of +estimate. We get nearer to the point when we reflect that individual +beauty and perfection are shown, and only shown, in actual life, and +that such life has to be lived under definite conditions of time, place, +culture, religion, national aspirations and mastery over material +conditions. Perfection of life, then, in the Athens of the age of Plato +would show a very different form from that which it would take in the +London or Paris of to-day. So an individualistic statement of the +purpose of education leads on analysis to considerations that are not, +in themselves, individualistic. The personal life is throughout a +relation between individual promptings to activity and the environment +in which alone such promptings can, by being actualized, become part of +life. And the perfection of the life is to be sought in the perfection +of the relations thus established. So far, then, as any conception of +education can give guidance to the actual process it must be relative in +every way to the state of development of the society in which it is +given. Indeed, looked at in the mass, education may be said to be the +efforts made by the community to impose its culture upon the growing +generation. Here again is room for difference. The culture in question +may be accepted as absolute at least in its essentials, and then the +ideal of education will be to secure its stability and perpetuation, or +it may be regarded as a stage in a process of development, and then the +ideal will be to facilitate the advance of the next generation beyond +the point reached by the present. So some ages will show a relatively +fixed conception of the educative process, others will be times of +unrest and change in this as in other modes of social and intellectual +life. + +It is in these latter times that the actual work of education is apt to +lose touch with the culture of the community. For schools (q.v.) and +universities (q.v.), which are the ordinary channels through which adult +culture reaches the young, are naturally conservative and bound by +tradition. They are slow to leave the old paths which have hitherto led +to the desired goal, and to enter on new and untried ways. If the +opposition to change is absolute, there must come a time when the +instruments of education are out of true relation to the desired end. +For change in culture ideals means change in the specific form of the +goal of education, and consequently the paths of educative effort need +readjustment. When the goal of the past is no longer the goal of the +present, to follow the ways which led to the former is to fail to reach +the latter. Continuous readjustment, by small and almost imperceptible +degrees, is the ideal at which the educator should aim. When this is not +secured, the educational domain is liable to sudden and violent +revolutions which are destructive of successful educative effort at the +time they occur, however beneficial their results may be in the future. + +But the relation of adjustment is not entirely one-sided. The tone of +thought and feeling and the direction of will induced by education +necessarily affect the common ideals of the next generation, and may +make them better or worse than those of the present. Hence, the educator +must not blindly accept all current views of life, but rather select the +highest. For the average thought of every community is obviously below +its best thought; and may, in some points at any rate, be lower than the +best thought of a past age. While, then, all true education must be in +direct relation with the culture of its age and country, yet, especially +on the ethical side, it should aim at transcending the average thought +and tone. + +Still more does this imply that education strives to transcend the +present condition of the educated by making their life more rational, +more volitional, and more attracted by goodness and beauty than it would +otherwise be. It can never be a passive watching of the child's +development. No more fundamental error can be made than the assumption +that education can be determined wholly, or even mainly, by the +tendencies and impulses with which a child is endowed. Its real guiding +principle must be a conception of the nature to which the child may +attain, not a knowledge of that with which it starts. The educator +studies the original endowment of the child and the early stages in the +development of that innate nature in order that he may, wisely and +successfully, employ appropriate means to direct further development and +to accelerate its progress towards a more rational, complete and worthy +life; not that he may the more skilfully give facilities to the child to +drift about on the unregulated currents of caprice. + +Such considerations show the importance of an insight into the theory of +education on the part of all who are practically concerned with its +direction. But the theory required is no system of abstract ideas +ignoring the real concrete conditions of the life for which the actual +education it is to guide is a preparation. To approach the subject only +from the standpoint of the mental sciences which underlie it is to run +the risk of setting up such a body of abstractions, whose relation to +real life is neither very close nor very direct. The most profitable way +of developing an educational theory for the present is to trace how in +the past education has consciously adapted itself, more or less truly +and fully, to the conditions of culture and social life; and by analysis +to discover the reasons for comparative success or failure in the degree +of clearness with which the end to be sought was apprehended and the +nature of the children to be trained was understood. + +In all ages the claims of the individual and those of the community have +struggled for the mastery as the ultimate principles of life. As one or +the other has prevailed the conception of education has emphasized +social service or individual success as the primary end. The true +harmony of human life will only be attained when these two impulses, +contradictory on their own level, are united in a higher synthesis which +sees each as the complement of the other in a life whose purpose is +neither simple egoism nor pure altruism. Until that conception of life +is attained and held generally there can be no sure and universally +accepted conception of the aim and function of education. Much of the +interest of the history of education[1] turns on the relation of these +two principles as determinants of its aim. + + + Old Greek education. + +In ancient Greece the supremacy of the state was generally unquestioned, +and, especially in the earlier times, the good man was identified with +the good citizen. No doubt, in later days philosophers, such as Plato +and Aristotle, saw clearly that the round of the duties of citizenship +did not exhaust the life of the individual. With them the highest life +was one of cultured leisure in which the energies were mainly +concentrated on the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake. But this +"diagogic" life was only for the select few; for the undistinguished +many the fulfilment by each of the duties of his station remained the +measure of worthy life, though such duties were regarded as affecting +the individual and private relations of the citizens in a much more +intimate way than in former and ruder ages. And for those who devoted +their lives to the highest culture, the essential preliminary condition +was the existence of such a state as would form the most favourable +environment for their pursuits and the most stable foundation for their +leisured life. Thus Greek thought was saturated with the conception of +life as essentially a set of relations between the individual and the +city-state of which he formed an integral part. The first aim of +education was therefore to train the young as citizens. + +This training must, of necessity, be of a specific kind; for, like other +small communities, the Greek city-states showed a life fundamentally one +in conception, under various specific forms. Each state had its special +character, and to this character the education given in it must conform +if it were to be an effective instrument for training the citizens. From +these fundamental conceptions flowed the demands of Plato and Aristotle +that education should be regulated in all its details by the state +authority, should be compulsory on all free citizens, and should be +uniform--at any rate in its earlier stages--for all. In the _Republic_ +and the _Laws_, Plato shows to what extreme lengths theory may go when +it neglects to take account of some of the most pertinent facts of life. +For the guardian-citizens of the ideal state family life and family ties +are abolished; no lower community is to be allowed to enter into +competition with the state. Aristotle, indeed, did not go to these +extreme lengths; he allowed the family to remain, but he seems to have +regarded it as likely to affect children more for evil than for good. + +In the essential principles laid down by both philosophers as to the +relation of the state to education, and in the corollaries they drew +from that relation, they were not at variance with the accepted Greek +theory on the subject. It is true that the actual practice of Greek +states departed, and often widely, from this ideal, for, especially in +later centuries, the Greek always tended to live his own life. The +nearest approach to the theory was found in Sparta, where the end of the +state as a military organization was kept steadily in view, and where, +after early childhood, the young citizens were trained directly by the +state in a kind of barrack life--the boys to become warriors, the girls +the mothers of warriors. It was this feature of Spartan education, +together with the rude simplicity of life it enforced, which attracted +Plato, and, to a less extent, Aristotle. In Athens there had of old been +state laws insisting on the attendance of the children of the free +citizens at school, and, in some degree, regulating the schools +themselves. But at the time of Plato these had fallen into desuetude, +and the state directly concerned itself only with the training of the +ephebi, for which, we learn from Aristotle's _Constitution of Athens_, +somewhat elaborate provisions were made by the appointment of officers, +and the regulation of both intellectual and physical pursuits. For +children and youths under the ephebic age there was no practical +regulation of schools or palaestra by the state. Yet there is no doubt +that the education really given was in conformity with Athenian ideals +of culture and life, and that it was generally received by the children +of free citizens, though of course the sons of the wealthy, then as now, +could and did continue their attendance at school to a later age than +their poorer brethren. The education of girls was essentially a domestic +training. What Plato and Aristotle, with the theorist's love of official +systematic regulation, regarded as the greatest defect of Athenian +education was in reality its strongest point. In practice, the harmony +between individual liberty and social claims was much more nearly +attained under a system of free working out of common thoughts and +ideals than would have been the case under one of the irresistible +imposition from without of a rigid mould. + +The instruments of education everywhere found to be in harmony with the +Greek conception of life and culture were essentially twofold,--"music" +([Greek: mousike]), or literary and artistic culture, for the mind, and +systematic gymnastic ([Greek: gymnastike]) for the body. Plato, in the +_Republic_, shows that the latter, as well as the former, affects the +character, and doubtless, though not formulated, this was generally more +or less vaguely felt. But Greek gymnastic was really an individual +training, and therefore made only indirectly for the aim of cultivating +the social bonds of citizenship. Ancient Greece had nothing +corresponding in value in this respect to the organized games which form +so important a feature in the school life of modern England. The +"musical" training was essentially in the national literature and music +of Greece, and this could obviously be carried to very different +lengths. The elements of mathematical science were also commonly taught. +The essential purpose throughout was the development of the character of +a loyal citizen of Athens. As Athenian culture advanced, increasing +attention was paid to diagogic studies, especially in the ephebic age, +with a corresponding decrease of attention to merely physical pursuits; +hence the complaints of such satirists as Aristophanes of a growing +luxury, effeminacy and corruption of youths: complaints apparently based +on a comparison of the worst features of the actual present with an +idealized and imaginative picture of the virtues of the past. Such +comparison is, indeed, implicit in much of Plato and Aristotle as well +as in Aristophanes. + +But a disintegrating force was already at work in the educational system +of Greece which Plato and Aristotle vainly opposed. This was the +rhetorical training of the Sophists, the narrowly practical and +individualistic aim of which was entirely out of harmony with the older +Greek ideals of life and culture. In a democratic city-state the orator +easily became a demagogue, and generally oratory was the readiest path +to influence and power. Thus oratory opened the way to personal +ambition, and young men who were moved by that passion eagerly attended +the Sophist schools where their dominant motive was strengthened. + +Further, the closer relations between the Greek states, both in nearer +and farther Hellas, led naturally to the diminution of differences +between civic ideals, and, as a consequence, to a more cosmopolitan +conception of higher education. This process was completed by the loss +of political independence of the city-states under the Macedonian +domination. Henceforth, higher education became purely intellectual, and +its relation to political and social life increasingly remote. This, +combined with the growing rhetorical tendency already noticed, accounts +for the sterility of Greek thought during the succeeding centuries. The +means of higher education were, indeed, more fully organized. The +university of Athens was the outcome of a fusion of the private +philosophical schools with the state organization for the training of +the ephebi, and there were other such centres of higher culture, +especially in after years at Alexandria, where the contact of Greek +thought with the religions and philosophies of Egypt and the East gave +birth in time to the more or less mystical philosophies which culminated +in Neo-platonism. But at Athens itself thought became more and more +sterile, and education more and more a mere training in unreal rhetoric, +till the dissolution of the university by Justinian in A.D. 529. + + + Old Roman education. + +Thus when Rome conquered Greece, Greek education had lost that reality +which is drawn from intimate relation to civic life, and the fashionable +individualistic schools of philosophy could do nothing to replace the +loss. It was, then, an education which had largely lost its life-springs +that was transferred to Rome. In the earlier centuries of the republic, +Roman education was given entirely in family and public life. The father +had unlimited power over his son's life, and was open to public censure +if he failed to train him in the ordinary moral, civic and religious +duties. But it is doubtful if there were any schools (q.v.), and it is +certain there was no national literature to furnish an instrument of +culture. A Roman boy learnt to reverence the gods, to read, to bear +himself well in manly exercises, and to know enough of the laws of his +country to regulate his conduct. This last he acquired directly by +hearing his father decide the cases of his clients every morning in his +hall. The rules of courtesy he learnt similarly by accompanying his +father to the social gatherings to which he was invited. Thus early +Roman education was essentially practical, civic and moral, but its +intellectual outlook was extremely narrow. + + + Hellenized Roman education. + +When a wider culture was imported from Greece it was, however, the form +rather than the spirit of true Hellenic education that was transferred. +This was, indeed, to some extent inevitable from the decadent state of +Greek education at the time, but it was accentuated by the essentially +practical character of the Roman mind. The instrument of education first +introduced was Greek literature, much of which was soon translated into +Latin. In time the schools of the _grammatici_, teaching grammar and +literature, were supplemented by schools of rhetoric and philosophy, +though the philosophy taught in them was itself little more than +rhetorical declamation. These furnished the means of higher culture for +those youths who did not study at Alexandria or Athens, and were also +preparatory to studies at those universities. Under the Empire the +rhetorical schools were gradually organized into a state system, the +general principles of administration being laid down by imperial decree, +and even such details as the appointment and rate of payment of the +professors, at first left to the municipalities, being in time assumed +by the central government. There is no evidence of any state regulation +or support of the lower schools. This widening of culture affected both +boys and girls, the domestic education of the latter being supplemented +by a study of literature. But it is the higher training in rhetoric +which is especially characteristic of Hellenized Roman education. + +The conception of a rhetorical culture is seen at its best in +Quintilian's _Institutio oratoria_, the most systematic treatise on +education produced by the ancient world. With Quintilian the ideal of an +orator was a widely cultured, wise and honourable man. And at first the +teaching of rhetoric undoubtedly made for higher and true culture. But +with the autocracy, soon passing into tyranny, of the empire, rhetoric +ceased to be a preparation for real life. The true function of oratory +is to persuade a free people. When it cannot be applied to this purpose +it becomes little more than a means of intellectual frivolity, or, at +the best, an exhibition of cultured ingenuity. Under the empire a +rhetorical training was, indeed, turned in not a few instances to +practical but most unworthy uses by the delators; a result made possible +by the legal system which rewarded delation with a considerable portion +of the estate of the condemned. Even apart from this, the education in +rhetoric had an increasingly evil effect both on the culture and on the +character of the higher classes in the Roman empire. Out of real +connexion with life as it was, it sought its subjects in the realms of +the fanciful and the trivial, and with unreality of topic went of +necessity deterioration of style. The vivid presentment of living +thought gave way to that inflated and bombastic abuse of meretricious +ornament and far-fetched metaphor in which human speech is always +involved when it sets forth ideas, or shadows of ideas, which grow out +of no conviction in the speaker and are expected to carry no conviction +to the hearer. Imitation of the form of great models, without the +substance of thought which underlay them, led to a general unreality and +essential falseness of mental life. Further, the continual gazing with +admiration on the productions of the past, and the conception of +excellence as consisting in closeness of imitation, induced a servile +attitude of mind towards authority in all too close agreement with the +political servility which marked the Roman court. Such an attitude was +essentially hostile to mental initiative, and thus rhetoric became not +merely an art of expression but a type of character. + +Nor was there anything in the general conditions of society to +counterbalance the ill effects of school and university education. +Quintilian lamented that, even in his time, the old Roman family +education by example was corrupted; and the moral degradation of later +times, though it has doubtless been exaggerated, was certainly real and +widespread. Nor does the religious revival of Paganism which +synchronized with the early centuries of Christianity appear to have +effected any reform in life. Alexandria, the birthplace of Neo-platonism +and the intellectual centre of the later empire, was also a very sink of +moral obliquity. + + + Christianity and Pagan education. + +It was into such a decaying civilization, which by its want of vitality +sterilized education, oppressing it under the weight of a dead +tradition, that Christianity brought new life. Of course, careful +instruction in the Faith was given in catechetical schools, of which +that at Alexandria was the most famous. But the question as to the +attitude of Christians towards the ordinary classical culture was +important. On the one hand, literature was saturated with Paganism, and +the Pagan festivals formed a regular part of school life. On the other +hand, the Pagan education offered the only means of higher culture, and +thus furnished the only weapon with which Christians could successfully +meet their controversial antagonists. Quite at first, no doubt, when the +converts to the new faith were few and obscure, the question scarcely +arose; but as men of culture and position were attracted to the Church +it became urgent. The answers given by the Christian leaders were +various, and largely the outcome of temperament and previous training. +The Greek Fathers, especially Clement of Alexandria (150-217) and Origen +(185-253), regarded Christianity as essentially the culmination of +philosophy, to which the way must be found through liberal culture. +Without a liberal education the Christian could live a life of faith and +obedience but could not attain an intellectual understanding of the +mysteries of the Faith. On the other hand, Tertullian (160-240) was very +suspicious of Pagan culture; though he granted the necessity of +employing it as a means of education, yet he did so with regret, and +would forbid Christians to teach it in the public schools, where some +recognition of Paganism would be implied. The general practice of the +Christians, however, did not conform to Tertullian's exhortations. +Indeed, many of the cultivated Christians of the 3rd and 4th centuries +were little more than nominal adherents to the Faith, and the +intercourse between Christian and Pagan was often close and friendly. +The general attitude of Christians towards the traditional education is +evidenced by the protest raised against the edict of Julian, which +forbade them to teach in the public schools. The ultimate outcome seems +to be fairly expressed in the writings of St Augustine (354-430) and St +Jerome (346-420), who held that literary and rhetorical culture is good +so long as it is kept subservient to the Christian life. + +In another way Greek philosophy exercised an abiding influence over the +culture of future ages. The early centuries of Christianity felt the +need of formulating the Faith to preserve it from disintegration into a +mass of fluid opinions, and such formulation was of necessity made under +the influence of the philosophy in which the early Fathers had been +trained--that Neo-platonism which was the last effort of Paganism to +attain a conception of life and of God. In the West, this formulation +had to be translated into Latin, for Greek was no longer generally +understood in Italy, and thus the juristic trend of Roman thought also +became a factor in the exposition of Christian doctrine. This +formulation of the Faith was one of the chief legacies the transition +centuries passed on to the middle ages. + +Had classical culture been less formal than it was during the early +centuries of Christianity, the innate antagonism of the Pagan and +Christian views of life and character must have been so apparent that +the education which prepared for the one could not have been accepted by +the other. It was only because rhetorical culture was so emphatically +intellectual, and so little, if at all, moral in its aims, that its +inherent opposition to the Christian conception of character was not +obvious. That its antagonistic influence was not inoperative is shown by +the not infrequent perversions of cultured Christians to Paganism. But +generally the opposition was so obscured that the ethical writings of St +Ambrose (340-397) are largely Stoic in conception and reasoning. Yet the +Pagan ideal of life, especially as it had been developed in the +individualistic ethics which had prevailed for more than six centuries, +was antithetical in essence to that of the Christian Church. The former +was essentially an ethics of self-reliance and self-control showing +itself in moderation and proportion in all expressions of life. An +essential feature in such a character was high-mindedness and a +self-respect which was of the nature of pride. On the contrary, +Christian teaching exalted humility as one of the highest virtues, and +regarded pride and self-confidence as the deadliest of sins. It +recognized no doctrine of limitation; what was to be condemned could not +be abhorred too violently, nor could what was good be too strongly +desired or too ardently sought. The highest state attainable by man was +absorption in loving ecstasy in the mystic contemplation of God. The +practical attempt to realize this gave rise to monasticism, with its +minutely regulated life expressing unlimited obedience and the +renunciation of private will at every moment. The monastic life was +regarded as the nearest approach to the ideal which a Christian could +make on earth. Naturally, as this conception gathered strength in +generations nurtured in it, the value of classical culture became less +and less apparent, and by the time of St Gregory the Great (d. 604) the +use of classical literature except as means of an education having quite +another end than classical culture was discouraged. + + + Effect of barbarian inroads. + +Of course, during these centuries, the gradual subjugation of the +western empire by the barbarians had been powerfully operative in the +obscuring of culture. Most of the public schools disappeared, and +generally the light of learning was kept burning only in monasteries, +and in them more and more faintly as they became more or less isolated +units exposed to attack by ruthless foes or living in continual dread of +such attack. Though the barbarians absorbed the old culture in various +degrees of imperfection, yet the four centuries following the death of +St Augustine were plunged in intellectual darkness, relieved by +transitory gleams of light in Britain and by a more enduring flame in +Ireland. The utmost that could be done was to preserve to some extent +the heritage of the past. This, indeed, was essentially the work of men +like Boethius, Cassiodorus, Isidore and Bede. + + + Modification of Latin. + +During these same centuries another process had been advancing with +accelerating steps. This was the modification of the Latin language. In +the early centuries of Christianity literary Latin was already very +different from colloquial Latin, especially in the provinces; and, as +has been said, the literary output of the last age of Paganism was +marked by sterility of thought and meretricious redundancy of +expression. On the other hand, the writings of Christianity show a real +living force seeking to find appropriate expression in new forms. Thus, +with Christian writers, slavish imitation of the past gradually gave way +to the evolution of a new and living Latin, which showed itself more and +more regardless of classical models. To express the new ideas to which +Christianity gave birth fresh words were coined, or borrowed from +colloquial speech or from the Hebrew and Greek Scriptures. This +Christian Latin was a real living instrument of expression, which +conformed itself in its structure much more closely to the mode of +thought and expression of actual life than did the artificial imitation +of antiquity in which the literary productions of Paganism were clothed. +It is the Latin in which St Jerome wrote the Vulgate. But with the +obscuring of culture during the barbarian invasions this current Latin +became more and more oblivious of even such elements of form as +grammatical inflexions and concords. + + + The Carolingian revival. + +It was to the reformation of this corrupt Latin by a return to classical +models, and to the more general spread of culture, especially among +clergy and nobles, that the Carolingian revival addressed itself. The +movement was essentially practical and conservative. Alcuin (735-804), +who was Charlemagne's educational adviser and chief executive officer in +scholastic matters, was probably the best scholar of his time, and +himself loved the classical writings with which he was acquainted; but +the text-books he wrote were but imperfect summaries of existing +compendia, and the intellectual condition of his pupils forbade a very +generous literary diet even had he thought it desirable, of which there +is some doubt. The most valuable outcome of the movement was the +establishment of the palace school, and of bishops' schools and +monastic schools throughout the empire. Of these the latter were the +most important, and each of the chief monasteries had from the time of +Charlemagne an external school for pupils not proposing to enter the +order as well as an internal school for novices. Thus, the educational +system north of the Alps was pre-eminently ecclesiastical in its +organization and profoundly religious in its aims. For two centuries the +new intellectual life was obscured by the troubled times which followed +the death of Charlemagne, but the learning which the Carolingian revival +had restored was preserved here and there in cathedral and monastic +schools, and the sequence of well-educated ecclesiastics was never +altogether interrupted. + + + The medieval curriculum. + +The scope of that learning was comprised within the seven liberal arts +and philosophy, on the secular side, together with some dogmatic +instruction in the doctrines of the Church, the early fathers, and the +Scriptures. Theology was as yet not organized into a philosophical +system: that was the great work the middle ages had to perform. The +seven liberal arts (divided into the _Trivium_--grammar, dialectic, +rhetoric; and the more advanced _Quadrivium_--geometry, arithmetic, +music, astronomy) were a legacy from old Roman education through the +transition centuries. They appear in the _Disciplinarum libri IX._ of +Varro in the 2nd century B.C., where are added to them the more +utilitarian arts of medicine and architecture. But they reached the +middle ages chiefly through the summaries of writers in the transition +centuries, of which the best known were the _De nuptiis Philologiae et +Mercurii_ of the Neo-platonist Martianus Capella, who wrote probably +early in the 5th century; the _De artibus ac disciplinis liberalium +litterarum_ of the Christian Cassiodorus (468-562); and the +_Etymologiarum libri XX._ of St Isidore of Seville (570-636). + +The scope of the arts was wider than their names would suggest in modern +times. Under grammar was included the study of the content and form of +literature; and in practice the teaching varied from a liberal literary +culture to a dry and perfunctory study of just enough grammar to give +some facility in the use of Latin. Dialectic was mainly formal logic. +Rhetoric covered the study of law, as well as composition in prose and +verse. Geometry was rather what is now understood by geography and +natural history, together with the medicinal properties of plants. +Arithmetic, with the cumbrous Roman notation, included little more than +the simplest practical calculations required in ordinary life and the +computation of the calendar. Music embraced the rules of the plain-song +of the Church, some theory of sound, and the connexion of harmony and +numbers. Astronomy dealt with the courses of the heavenly bodies, and +was seldom kept free from astrology. In philosophy the current +text-books were the _De consolatione philosophiae_ of Boethius +(470-524), an eclectic summary of pagan ethics from the standpoint of +the Christian view of life, and the same writer's adapted translations +of the _Categories_ and _De interpretatione_ of Aristotle and of +Porphyry's _Introduction to the Categories_. + +It is evident that though such a scheme of studies might in practice, +during ages of intellectual stagnation and general ignorance, be arid in +the extreme, it was capable in time of revival of giving scope to the +widest extension of culture. It was, indeed, at once comprehensive and +unified in conception, and well adapted to educate for the perfectly +definite and clear view of life which the Church set before men. + + + The scholastic revival. + +In the 11th century Europe had settled down, after centuries of war and +invasion, into a condition of comparative political stability, +ecclesiastical discipline, and social tranquillity: the barbarians had +been converted, and, as in the case of the Normans, had pressed to the +forefront of civilization; civic life had developed in the fortified +towns of Italy, raised as defences against the pressure of Saracen and +Hungarian invasions. Soon, communication with the East by trade and in +the Crusades, and with the highly cultivated Moors in Spain, further +stimulated the new burst of intellectual life. Arabic renderings of some +of the works of Aristotle and commentaries on them were translated into +Latin and exercised a profound influence on the trend of culture. A new +translation of Aristotle's _Metaphysics_ appeared in 1167, and by the +beginning of the 13th century all his physical, metaphysical and ethical +treatises were available, and during the next half century the +translations from Arabic versions were superseded by renderings direct +from the original Greek. As expositions of the real doctrines of +Aristotle the translations from the Arabic left much to be desired. +Renan calls the medieval edition of the _Commentaries_ of Averroes "a +Latin translation of a Hebrew translation of a commentary made upon an +Arabic translation of a Syriac translation of a Greek text." The study +of such works often led to the enunciation of doctrines held heretical +by the theologians, and it was only when the real Aristotle was known +that it was found possible to bring the Peripatetic philosophy into the +service of theology. + +There were thus two broad stages in the educational revival commonly +known as scholasticism. In the first the controversies were essentially +metaphysical, and centred round the question of the nature of +universals; the orthodox theological party generally supporting realism, +or the doctrine that the universal is the true reality, of which +particulars and individuals are only appearances; while the opposite +doctrine of nominalism--that universals are "mere sounds" and +particulars the only true existences--showed a continual disposition to +lapse into heresies on the most fundamental doctrines of the Church. The +second stage was essentially constructive; the opposition of philosophy +to theology was negated, and philosophy gave a systematic form to +theology itself. The most characteristic figure of the former period was +Abelard (1079-1142), of the latter St Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274). The +former knew little of Aristotle beyond the translations and adaptations +of Boethius, but he was essentially a dialectician who applied his logic +to investigating the fundamental doctrines of the Church and bringing +everything to the bar of reason. This innate rationalism appeared to +bring theology under the sway of philosophy, and led to frequent +condemnations of his doctrines as heretical. With St Thomas, on the +other hand, the essential dogmas of Christianity must be unquestioned. +In his _Summa theologiae_ he presents all the doctrines of the Church +systematized in a mould derived from the Aristotelian philosophy. + + + Scholastic education. + +It is evident, then, that during the period of the scholastic revival, +men's interests were specially occupied with questions concerning the +spiritual and the unseen, and that the great instrument of thought was +syllogistic logic, by which consequences were deduced from premises +received as unquestionably true. There was a general acceptance of the +authority of the Church in matters of belief and conduct, and of that of +Aristotle, as approved by the Church, in all that related to knowledge +of this world. + +Before the rediscovery of Aristotle exerted such a general influence on +the form of education, there was a real revival of classical literary +culture at Chartres and a few other schools, and John of Salisbury (d. +1182) in his _Metalogicus_ advocated literature as an instrument of +education and lamented the barrenness of a training confined to the +subtleties of formal logic. But the recrudescence of Aristotle +accelerated the movement in favour of dialectic, though at the same time +it furnished topics on which logic could be exercised which only a bare +materialism can esteem unimportant. The weaknesses of the general +educational system which grew up within scholasticism were that haste to +begin dialectic led to an undue curtailment of previous liberal culture, +and that exclusive attention to philosophical and theological questions +caused a neglect of the study of the physical world and a disregard of +the critical functions of the intellect. Doubtless there were +exceptions, of which perhaps the most striking is the work in physical +science done at Oxford by Roger Bacon (1214-1294). But Albertus Magnus +(1193-1280), the master of St Thomas, was also a student of nature and +an authority for his day on both the natural and the physical sciences. +And the work of Grosseteste (d. 1253), as chancellor of the university +of Oxford, shows that care for a liberal literary culture was by no +means unknown. Always there were such examples. But too often boys +hastened to enter upon dialectic and philosophy as soon as they had +acquired sufficient smattering of colloquial Latin to engage in the +disputes of the schools. A deterioration of Latin was the unavoidable +consequence of such premature specialization. The seven liberal arts +were often not pursued in their entirety, and students remained +satisfied with desiccated compendia of accepted opinions. Thus the +encyclopaedias of general information which were in general use during +the middle ages show little or no advance in positive knowledge upon the +treatment of similar subjects in Isidore of Seville. + + + The foundation of universities. + +The services of scholasticism to the cause of education, however, cannot +well be overestimated, and the content of scholastic studies was in +fundamental harmony with the intellectual interests of the time. Above +all other benefits owed by future ages to scholasticism is the +foundation of the universities of western Europe. The intellectual +activity of the 11th century led everywhere to a great increase in the +number of scholars attending the monastic and cathedral schools. Round +famous teachers, such as Abelard, gathered crowds of students from every +country. In the 12th century the need for organizing such bodies of +teachers and students was imperative, and thus the earlier universities +arose in Italy, France and England, not by deliberate foundation of +secular or ecclesiastical ruler, but as spontaneous manifestations of +the characteristic medieval impulse to organize into institutions. +Afterwards, charters conferring powers and privileges were sought from +both Church and state, but these only confirmed the self-governing +character the universities had borne from the first. Each of the early +universities was a specialized school of higher study: Salerno was a +school of medicine; Bologna was the centre of that revival of Roman law +which wrought so profound an effect upon the legal systems of France and +Germany towards the close of the medieval period. But the greatest of +medieval universities was that of Paris, emphatically the home of +philosophy and theology, which was the model upon which many other +universities, including Oxford and Cambridge, were organized. + +The German universities were of later origin, the earliest being Prague +(1348) and Vienna (1365). They indicate the more recognized position the +movement had attained; for nearly all were founded by the civic +authority, and then obtained the recognition of the Church and charters +from the emperor. + + + University work and life. + +The concentration of higher instruction in universities was not +antagonistic to the medieval conception of the Church as the teacher of +mankind. University life was modelled on that of the cloister, though +the monastic ideal could not be fully realized, and the scholars not +infrequently exhibited considerable licence in life. This was inevitable +with the very large numbers of the scholars and the great variations of +age among them. Moreover students, and to a less extent teachers, passed +from university to university, so that the universities of medieval +Europe formed a free confederacy of learning in close relation to the +Church but untrammelled by state control. Nevertheless, they were less +definitely ecclesiastical than the cathedral seminaries which they +largely supplanted, and the introduction of studies derived from the +Greeks through the Arabians led to an increased freedom of thought, at +first within authorized limits, but prepared, when occasion served, to +transcend those limits. + +The scheme of instruction was arranged on the assumption that special +studies should be based on a wide general culture. Thus of the four +faculties into which university teaching was organized, that of arts, +with its degrees of _Baccalaureat_ and _Magister_, was regarded as +propaedeutic to those of theology, law and medicine. It often included, +indeed, quite young boys, for the distinction between grammar school and +university was not clearly drawn. Attention was concentrated on those +subjects which treat of man and his relations to his fellow-men and to +God, and no attempt was made to extend the bounds of knowledge. The aim +was to pass on a body of acquired knowledge regarded as embracing all +that was possible of attainment, and the authority of Aristotle in +physics as well as in philosophy, and of Galen and Hippocrates in +medicine was absolute. The methods of instruction--by lecture, or +commentary on received texts; and by disputation, in which the scholars +acquired dexterity in the use of the knowledge they had absorbed--were +in harmony with this conception, and were undoubtedly thoroughly well +suited to the requirements of an age in which the ideal of human thought +was not discovery but order, and in which knowledge was regarded as a +set of established propositions, the work of reason being to harmonize +these propositions in subordination to the authoritative doctrines of +the Church. + + + Medieval schools. + +Such an extension of the means of higher education as was given by the +universities was naturally accompanied by a corresponding increase in +schools of lower rank. Not only were there grammar schools at cathedral +and collegiate churches, but many others were founded in connexion with +chantries, and by some of the many gilds into which medieval +middle-class life organized itself. The Dominican and Franciscan friars +were enthusiastic promoters of learning both in universities and in +schools, and in the Netherlands the Brethren of the Common Life, founded +by Gerard Groote and approved by Eugenius IV. in 1431, regarded school +teaching as one of their main functions, and the promotion of learning +by the multiplication of manuscripts as another. The curriculum was +represented broadly by the _Trivium_. The greatest attention was paid to +grammar, which included very various amounts of reading of classical and +Christian authors, the most commonly included being Virgil, parts of +Ovid and Cicero, and Boethius. The text-books in grammar were the +elementary catechism on the eight parts of speech by Donatus, a Roman of +the 4th century, said to have been the tutor of St Jerome, and the more +advanced treatise of Priscian, a schoolmaster of Constantinople about +A.D. 500, which remained the standard text-book for over a thousand +years. In rhetoric Cicero's _De oratore_ was read, and dialectic was +practised, as in the universities, by means of disputations. + +In addition to the grammar schools were writing and song schools of an +elementary type, in which instruction was usually in the vernacular. +Girls were taught in women's monasteries and in the home, and those of +the upper classes at least very generally learned to read, write and +keep accounts, as well as fine needlework, household duties and +management, and such elementary surgery and medicine as served in cases +of slight daily accidents and illnesses. Even those boys and girls who +did not receive formal scholastic instruction were instructed orally by +the parish priests in the doctrines and duties of the Faith; while the +pictures and statues with which the churches were adorned aided the +direct teaching of sermons and catechizing in giving a general knowledge +of Bible history and of the legends of the saints. + +No doubt, in times of spiritual and intellectual lethargy, the practice +fell short of the theory; but on the whole it may be concluded that in +medieval times the provision for higher instruction was adequate to the +demand, and that, relatively to the culture of the time, the mass of the +people were by no means sunk in brutish ignorance. Indeed, especially +when the paucity of books before the invention of printing is borne in +mind, the number of people who could read the vernacular, as evidenced +by the demand for books in the vulgar tongue as soon as printing made +them available, is clear proof that the latter part of the middle ages +was by no means a time of general illiteracy. + + + Education of chivalry. + +Feudalism, the other characteristic aspect of medieval society, had also +its system of education, expressing its own view of life, and preparing +for the adequate performance of its duties. This was the training in +chivalry given to pages and squires in the halls and castles of the +great. Hallam has well said: "There are, if I may so say, three powerful +spirits which have from time to time moved over the face of the waters, +and given a predominant impulse to the moral sentiments and energies of +mankind. These are the spirits of liberty, of religion and of honour. It +was the principal business of chivalry to animate and cherish the last +of these." And this was not in opposition to the spirit of religion +which animated the scholastic education which went on side by side with +it. Throughout chivalry was sanctified by the offices of the Church. The +education of chivalry aimed at fitting the noble youth to be a worthy +knight, a just and wise master, and a prudent manager of an estate. Much +was acquired by daily experience of a knightly household, but in +addition the page received direct instruction in reading and writing; +courtly amusements, such as chess and playing the lute, singing and +making verses; the rules and usages of courtesy; and the knightly +conception of duty. As a squire he practised more assiduously the +knightly exercises of war and peace, and in the management of large or +small bodies of men he attained the capacity of command. + + + Decadence of scholasticism. + +With the unification of existing knowledge and the systematization of +theology the constructive work of scholasticism was done. At the same +time the growth of national feeling was slowly but surely undermining +feudalism. Moreover, deep resentment was accumulating throughout western +Europe against the practical abuses which had become prevalent in the +Church, and especially in the court of Rome and in the prince-bishoprics +of Germany. In short, Europe was out-growing medieval institutions, +which appeared more and more as empty forms unable to satisfy the needs +and longings of the human soul. In such conditions, the customary and +traditional education of school and university tended to lose touch more +and more completely with the new aspirations and views of life which +were everywhere gathering adherents among the keenest and most active +intellects. Had a new cultural movement not begun, the education of +Europe threatened to become as arid as the rhetorical education of the +last centuries of the Roman empire had been. From this it was saved by +the renaissance of classical studies which began in the 14th century. + + + The Renaissance. + +Italy, by its greater wealth and its more intimate commerce with the +eastern empire, was the seed-plot of this new tree of knowledge. Ever +since the 11th century the cities of northern Italy had been in advance +of Europe beyond the Alps both in culture and in material progress. The +old classical spirit and the feeling of Roman citizenship had never +quite died out, and the _Divina Commedia_ of Dante (1265-1321) furnishes +evidence that the poet of the scholastic philosophical theology was also +a keen student and lover of the old Latin poets. But the greatest +impulse to the revived study of the classics was given by Petrarch +(1304-1374) and Boccaccio (1313-1375). Generally throughout western +Europe the 14th century, though full of war and political unrest, was a +time of considerable intellectual activity, shown in the increase of +schools and universities, as well as in the literary and artistic +revival in Italy, in the social and theological movement in England and +Bohemia associated with the names of Wycliffe and Huss, and in the more +or less perfect substitution of Roman law everywhere except in England +for the law of custom which had hitherto prevailed. + +But it was the literary movement which most affected education, and +indeed the whole life of Europe. A decisive step was taken when Manuel +Chrysoloras was invited to teach Greek in the university of Florence in +1397. The enthusiasm for classical culture, to which Petrarch had given +so great an impetus, gathered force and extended over the whole of +Italy, though, of course, felt only by a select few and leaving the mass +of the people little, if at all, affected. From Italy it spread +gradually to countries north of the Alps. In the old writers men found +full expression of that new spirit of self-conscious freedom which was +vaguely striving for expression throughout the whole of Christendom. In +the free political atmosphere of the Italian communes, with their +wealthy and leisured merchant class, that spirit could flourish much +more readily than in the feudalized Europe across the Alps. Moreover, +the antique spirit was in direct line of ancestry with that of medieval +Italy. Thus, for a couple of centuries, Italy stood in the van of +European culture. + +The stages of the movement cannot be traced here: suffice it to say it +showed itself especially in an enthusiastic search for manuscripts, +followed by their multiplication and wider distribution; in an intense +devotion to literary form; in a revival of classic taste in +architecture; in a wonderful development of painting and sculpture from +symbolism of spiritual qualities towards naturalism and romanticism; in +a return to Platonism in philosophy; in a contempt, often unreasoning +and wanting a foundation in knowledge, for the scholastic Aristotelian +philosophy itself, and not simply for the trivialities into which its +actual exercise had so commonly degenerated. The invention of printing +necessarily gave the movement both a stronger and a wider influence than +it could otherwise have attained. And in its search after knowledge it +was in full harmony with the spirit of adventure which marked the age, +and by the discovery of the New World wrought so profound a change in +the relative importance and prosperity of the countries of western +Europe. + + + Influence of the Renaissance on education. + +It is the spirit of the movement which is of interest to the student of +education. And that spirit was essentially one of opposition to +authority and of assertion of individual liberty, which worked itself +out in various forms among peoples of different temperaments. In Italy +the form was literary and artistic, and the full development of the +Renaissance spirit was seen in a practical Paganism which substituted +the attractions of art for the claims of religion and morality, and +eventuated in deep and widespread immorality and a contemptuous +tolerance of the outward observances of religion without faith in the +doctrines they symbolized. The movement became an attempt to +reconstitute the past intellectual life of Italy, and, as such, was +foredoomed to sterility as soon as the work of re-discovery was +completed; for the revived forms were not inspired with the vital spirit +which had once made them realities, and consequently men's minds once +again were occupied with mere verbal subtleties. The really valuable +service of the Italian humanists to Europe was the restoration to man of +the heritage of knowledge which he had allowed to slip from his grasp, +and the leading the way to a freer intellectual atmosphere. In Germany +the spirit manifested itself in a rebellion against the doctrinal system +of the Church as the only effectual means of attaining reform of +ecclesiastical abuses. The Protestant reformation of Luther was the real +German outcome of the Renaissance. In no other country of Europe did the +movement take so distinctive a form. + +It was, then, not merely the revival of interest in classical studies +which so profoundly affected the life and education of western Europe. +It was rather that in those literatures men found a response to +intellectual and moral cravings which had been blindly gathering force +for generations, and which found themselves formulated and objectified +in the writings which set forth the Pagan view of life with its +assumption of the essential worth and self-reliance of the individual +and its frank delight in all the pleasures of existence. It was, in +short, in proportion as men not only found delight in Pagan literature +but returned in essence to the Pagan view of individual worth and the +supremacy of the human intellect, that the Church realized the danger to +herself which lurked in the new movement. + +At first the revival of interest in the classical literatures did not +show any antagonism to Catholic faith and practice, and its warmest +supporters were faithful sons of the Church. The view of the relation of +classical literature to Christianity adopted by the great humanist +schoolmaster Vittorino da Feltre (1378-1446) was broadly that of the +early Fathers, and in his school at Mantua he showed that culture was +not inconsistent with loyalty to the Church or with purity of life. With +him classical literature was not the end and sum of education, but was a +means of implanting ideas, of developing taste, and of acquiring +knowledge, all as helps and ornaments of a Christian life. Though Pagan +literature was the means of education, the Pagan spirit had not +supplanted that of Christianity. The school at Mantua may, indeed, be +said to have exhibited in practice a Christianized application of the +doctrines of Quintilian and Plutarch. + +So was it in the other countries of Christendom. In the Netherlands the +Brethren of the Common Life introduced humanistic studies into their +schools side by side with definite religious teaching and observances +and their work was always dominated by the Christian spirit. The +earlier German humanists, such as Nicholas de Cusa, Hegius, Agricola and +Wimpheling, adopted the same attitude, and Erasmus himself, bitterly as +he attacked the practical abuses of the Church, remained in communion +with it, and aimed at harmonizing classical culture with the Christian +life. In England the same love of culture combined with devotion to the +Church was seen in Selling, prior of Christ Church, Canterbury, the +first real English humanist, in Grocyn, Linacre, More, Fisher, Colet and +many others whose enthusiasm for culture was as undoubted as was their +loyalty to Catholicism. It seemed, then, at first as if the greatest +educational effect of the classical revival would be the deepening of +literary culture, and the substitution of real inquiry for dialectic +subtleties in the courses of schools and universities, without any break +with established religious teaching. It is true that the majority of +schools were but little affected, and many of the universities had given +but a half-hearted welcome to humanistic studies when the religious +revolt in Germany under the leadership of Luther threw the whole of +Europe into two hostile camps. But even the conservative university of +Paris--the headquarters of scholastic philosophical theology--had +permitted the teaching of Greek as early as 1458, and both Oxford and +Cambridge had welcomed the new studies. That the influence of the new +movement for classical study was gradually permeating the schools is +shown not only by the practice of the Brethren of the Common Life but by +the curriculum laid down by the statutes of the schools refounded by +Wolsey at Ipswich and by Colet at St Paul's. + + + Immediate influence of the Reformation on education. + +The immediate effect of the religious controversies of the 16th century +on education was emphatically, if unintentionally, disastrous. The +secularization of ecclesiastical property too often absorbed the +endowments of the schools, so that, both in Germany and in England, the +majority of grammar schools either disappeared or continued a starved +existence with diminished funds; the doctrine of salvation by faith +alone and the futility of good works dried up the source from which such +endowments had flowed; the violent fulminations of the German reformers +against the universities as the homes of the hated scholastic theology +and philosophy found an echo in minds fired with the renaissance +enthusiasm for poetry and oratory, and correlative distaste for the more +severe and abstract speculations of logic and philosophy, which +expressed itself in abstention from those seats of learning; the +preoccupation of men's minds with theological speculations and quarrels +led those few who did resort to the universities to neglect their +appointed studies and to devote their energies to interminable wrangling +over the points in dispute. This decadence in culture was attended by an +outbreak of licence and immorality, especially among the young, which +called forth violent denunciations from Luther and many of his followers +in Germany, and from Latimer and other reformers in England. In some +respects these results were only transitory. Humanism and Protestantism, +which had so far diverged that Erasmus (1467-1536) had declared that +where Lutheranism flourished learning decayed, were brought together +again by Melanchthon (1497-1560) under whose influence universities were +founded or reorganized and schools re-established in Protestant German +states; and in England the reign of Elizabeth saw many new educational +foundations. But this restoration of the means of education was only +partial, and the doctrine of the worthlessness of "carnal knowledge," +which led the Barebones Parliament to propose the suppression of the +English universities, was held by many fervent Protestants both in +England and in Germany all through the 17th century. + + + Protestant schools. + +Moreover, the schools established a tradition of curriculum and +instruction which ignored the new directions of men's thoughts and the +new view of knowledge as something to be enlarged, and not merely a +deposit to be handed down from generation to generation. The later +humanist theories of education, which the schools continued to follow +generally for over two centuries, and in many cases for another hundred +years after that, were drawn mainly from Erasmus and Melanchthon, who +found in the classical languages and literatures, and especially in +Latin, the only essential instruments of education. General knowledge of +natural facts might be desirable to the cultured man as ornaments to his +rhetoric, but it was to be sought in the writings of antiquity. Even so +revolutionary a thinker on education as Rabelais (1495-1553) with all +his demand for an encyclopaedic curriculum, held the writings of the +ancients as authoritative on natural phenomena. Melanchthon, whose +conception of instruction was much narrower, exercised enormous +influence in the moulding of Protestant universities and secondary +schools, both directly and through such disciples as Trotzendorf and +Neander, but especially through his friend Sturm (1507-1589), whose +Latin gymnasium at Strassburg became the model which the grammar schools +of Protestant Europe strove to imitate. In this school nearly the whole +of the energies of the boys was given to acquiring a mastery of the +Latin language after the model of Cicero. Sturm, indeed, did not go to +the extreme length of the Ciceronians, opposed and satirized by Erasmus, +who would allow no word or construction which could not be found in the +extant writings of their master, but a like spirit dominated him. + + + The Society of Jesus. + +In Catholic countries the Church retained control of education. The +practical reformation of abuses by the Council of Trent, and the energy +and skill of the Society of Jesus, founded by St Ignatius Loyola, in +1534, brought back most of south Germany into the fold of the Church. +Everywhere Catholic universities were mainly taught by Jesuit fathers; +and under their influence, scholasticism, purged from the excretions +which had degraded it, was restored, and continued to satisfy the +longings of minds which felt the need of an authoritative harmonizing of +faith and knowledge. Everywhere the society established schools, which, +by their success in teaching and the mildness of their discipline, +attracted thousands of pupils who came even from Protestant homes. Their +curriculum was purely classical, but it was elaborated with much skill, +and the methods of instruction and discipline were made the subject of +much thought and of long-continued experiment. In the methods thus +determined all Jesuit fathers were trained, so that the teachers in +Jesuit schools attained a degree of skill in their art which was too +generally wanting elsewhere. + + + Early proposals for reform. + +So long as Latin remained the language of learning, and new fields of +knowledge were not appropriated, the schools remained in harmony with +the culture of their time, though, as Mulcaster (1530-1611) pointed out, +such a training was not of value to the majority of boys. For them he +urged an elementary education in the vernacular; but neither in this nor +in his advocacy of the training of teachers was his advice followed. + +In the 17th century the dislocation between the Latin schools and the +needs of life began to be accentuated as Latin gradually ceased to be +the language of learning; and, as a consequence, the numbers attending +the schools decreased, and the mass of the people sunk continually lower +in ignorance. In vain Hoole urged the establishment of a universal +system of elementary schools giving instruction in the vernacular, Petty +put forth his plan for elementary trade schools, and Cowley proposed the +establishment of a college devoted to research. Ideas of reform were in +the air, but the main current of scholastic practice flowed on +unaffected by them. Some attention was, indeed, paid to the conservative +reforms advocated by the Port Royalists, of which the most important was +the inclusion of the vernacular as a branch of instruction, but the cry +for more fundamental changes based on the philosophy of Bacon was +unheeded. Of these, none was a more active propagandist than Comenius +(1571-1635). Unfortunately his _Great Didactic_, in which he set forth +his general principles, attracted little attention and won less +adherence, though his school books, in which he attempted with very +little success to apply his principles, were widely used in schools. But +these were little more than bald summaries of real and supposed facts, +stated in Latin and the vernacular in parallel columns. In content they +differed from such medieval summaries of knowledge as the well-known +work of Bartholomew Anglicus, which had been widely used since the 13th +century, chiefly by their greater baldness and aridity of statement. + + + Decadence of universities. + +In the universities, too, the 16th and 17th centuries saw a continuous +decadence. The 16th century was not ripe for real intellectual freedom; +and Protestantism, having based its revolt on the right of private +judgment, soon produced a number of conflicting theological systems, +vying with each other in rigidity and narrowness, which, as Paulsen +says, "nearly stifled the intellectual life of the German people." +Further, the idea of national autonomy, which exercised so great an +effect on the politics of the time, included the universal adherence of +the citizens to the religion of the state. Hence, till the end of the +17th century the universities of Protestant Europe were regarded mainly +as instruments for securing adhesion to the national theological system +on the part of future clergy and officials, and the state interfered +more and more with their organization and work. Theology occupied the +most important place in the higher studies pursued, which for the rest +differed little in content and less in spirit from those of preceding +centuries, except that more attention was paid to the study of classical +literature. Even that decayed into formal linguistics as the Renaissance +enthusiasm for poetry and oratory died out, and interest in logical and +philosophical questions, fostered by the dominance of dogmatic +controversial theology, again became dominant. In Paris, on the other +hand, the faculty of theology had decayed through the withdrawal of +those preparing for the priesthood into episcopal seminaries, and the +higher studies pursued were mainly law and medicine. Thus, generally, +the universities were less and less fulfilling the function of providing +a general liberal education. Another change, due to the same causes and +making for the same results, was the isolation of universities, often +directly fostered by the state governments, which for the universal +interchange of medieval thought substituted a narrow provincial culture +and outlook. It is no wonder that numbers everywhere decayed and that +complaints as to the habits of the students were loud and frequent. + + + Education of the higher classes. + +At the close of the 17th century, then, universities as well as schools +had reached a very low level of efficiency and were held in little +respect by the cultured. Indeed, from the middle of the century, the +main current of intellectual life had drifted away from the orthodox +centres of learning. The formation of the Berlin Academy in Germany and +of the Royal Society in England, and the refusal of Leibnitz to accept a +chair in any German university, were signs of the times. In France, and +later in Germany, the education of the noble youth was increasingly +carried on apart from the schools, and was really an outgrowth from the +education of chivalry. In the 16th century Castiglione and Montaigne had +advocated a training directly adapted to prepare for polite life, and +Elyot wrote on similar lines. But the most important movement in this +direction was the formation of the courtly academies which flourished in +France in the 17th century, and were soon imitated in the +_Ritterakademien_ of Germany. In these schools of the nobility French +was more honoured than classics, and the other subjects were chosen as +directly adapted to prepare for the life of a noble at the court. Milton +in his _Tractate_ advocated the foundation of such academies in England, +though he proposed a curriculum far more extensive than had ever been +found possible. More and more, too, foreign travel had, from the middle +of the 16th century, been looked upon as a better mode of finishing the +education of a gentleman than a course at a university. + + + Revival of university life. + +The later years of the 17th century saw a revival of university life in +Cambridge, through the work of Newton and the increasing attention paid +to mathematics and the physical sciences, though the number of students +continued very small. In Germany, also, a new era opened with the +foundation of the universities of Halle (1694) and Gottingen (1737), +which from the first discarded the old conception that the function of a +university is to pass on knowledge already complete, and so opened the +door of the German universities to the new culture and philosophy. It +was soon seen that students could thus be attracted, and the influence +spread to the other German universities, which by the end of the 18th +century had regained their position as homes of the highest German +thought. + + + Education of the poor. + +At Halle, too, was set the example by Francke of providing for the +education of the children of the poor, and to his disciple Hecker +Germany owes the first _Realschule_. Simultaneous movements for the +education of the poor were made by St Jean-Baptiste de la Salle and the +Brothers of the Christian Schools in France, and by the Society for the +Promotion of Christian Knowledge in England. But the total results were +not great; the mass of the people in every European country remained +without schooling throughout the 18th century. + + + 18th-century thought and education. + +The intellectual movements of that century were, indeed, essentially +aristocratic. Voltaire and the Encyclopaedists aimed at the +enlightenment of the select few, and Rousseau declared baldly that the +poor need no education. That these movements influenced education +profoundly is undoubted. The individualistic and abstract rationalism of +Voltaire, derived from the sensationist philosophy of Locke through the +more thorough-going Condillac, and finding its logical outcome in the +materialistic atheism of La Mettrie and the refined selfishness of +Rochefoucault, infected the more cultured classes. In Lord +Chesterfield's _Letters to his Son_ is shown its educational outcome--a +veneer of superficial culture and artificial politeness covering, but +not hiding, the most cold-blooded selfishness. Against this fashionable +artificiality, as well as against the obvious social and political +abuses of the time, Rousseau's call for a return to nature was a needed +protest. + + + Rousseauism. + +Rousseauism, however, was not merely a transitory revolt against a +conventionality of life that had become unbearable; it was emphatically +the voicing of a view of life and of education which has profoundly +influenced Europe ever since. In that Rousseau (1712-1778) attempted to +look at life as a whole he was on truer ground than were the +intellectualists of the "Enlightenment"; but in that he found the +essence of life in the gratification of the desires and impulses of the +moment, he enunciated a doctrine which banished high principle and +strenuous effort from life and consequently from education. In the +_Emile_ is presented a purely fantastic scheme of education based on a +psychology of development so crude as to be absolutely false, and +producing a young man utterly unable to guide his own life or to control +his emotions and impulses. Rousseauism is, indeed, in its essence the +application to education of the doctrines of naturalism--the philosophy +which regards human life as a mere continuation of physical process, and +consequently as determined wholly by environment. So Rousseau would +abolish all moral training and leave the child to the reactions of the +physical world upon his actions. + + + Kant. + +Against this position the educational teaching of Kant (1724-1804), +influenced though he was by the _Emile_, is essentially a protest. The +most necessary element in education, according to Kant, is constraint, +which by the formation of habit prepares the young to receive as +principles of conduct the laws at first imposed upon them from without. +And the supreme guide of life is the law of duty which is always more or +less opposed to the promptings of inclination. Kant exaggerates the +dualism: Rousseau would abolish it by ignoring the more important of the +two antitheses. + + + Educational outcome of the Revolution. + +The French Revolution--the natural outcome of the teachings of Voltaire +and of Rousseau--was the second stage in the movement of which the +Reformation was the first. It was essentially the assertion of the +natural rights of man, and, as a logical sequence, of the right of every +child to be properly trained for life. The reaction due to the excesses +of the revolutionists no doubt delayed the acknowledgment for a time, +but its gradual recognition is emphatically the characteristic mark of +the educational history of the 19th century. + + + State education. + +Preached and practised by Pestalozzi (1746-1827) in Switzerland, the +general education of the poor was first made a reality by Prussia after +the crushing defeat of Jena. In France and England it remained for +nearly three-quarters of the century the work of the Church and other +voluntary agencies, though aided by the state. Finally a state system of +schools has been more or less fully set up in every state of western +Europe and in America, and subjected to more or less state regulation +and control. Equally marked has been the growing care for the scholastic +education of girls as well as boys, though only in America are the two +regarded as practically identical in form and content. + +Thus the 19th century saw the final working out of the idea that the +state should be substituted for the Church as the official agent of +education, an idea which had its roots in the Renaissance conception of +the right of man to direct his life apart from theological +determinations. The more direct outcome of the same idea is apparent in +the absolute liberty with which the presuppositions of knowledge are +questioned, and the maxim of Descartes--to prove everything by the +reason and to accept nothing which fails to stand the test--is acted +upon. No greater contrast is possible than that between the medieval +student and the modern searcher after truth. + + + Methods of instruction. + +The influence of the same spirit has wrought an equally momentous change +in the methods of instruction. The impetus given by the exaggerated +doctrine of Rousseau to the view that the nature of the child should +determine the means of education, led to more thorough-going attempts +than had hitherto been made to base educational method on a knowledge of +child psychology. Pestalozzi and Froebel (1782-1852), by their +insistence on the need of educating a child through his own activity, +and by their widespread influence, made the new view of method an +actuality. The influence of Rousseau has, thus, passed into modern +educational practice in a form that, in its essence, is true, though in +practice it has shown itself apt to run into the same excess of emphasis +on impulse and feeling which vitiated the teaching of Rousseau himself. +The influence of Herbart (1776-1841) has tended to counteract this. The +essence of Herbartianism is that mental life consists of presentations, +or reactions of the mind on the environment, and that will springs from +the circle of thought thus developed. The emphasis is therefore placed +on intellect and instruction while in Froebelianism it is placed on +spontaneous activity and on the arrangement of the environment. Each +exaggerates the function of the one factor in concrete experience which +it makes the centre of interest, and each is tinged with the +individualistic conception of life which characterized the 18th and +early 19th century. + + + Curriculum of instruction. + +The most marked change in the outward aspect of education has been the +modification of the curriculum of school and university by the +introduction of various branches of natural science. Conjointly with +this has been much increase of specialization, and that not only in the +university but in the school. There is no longer a universally +recognized circle of knowledge constituting a liberal education +preparatory to specialist studies, as there was in the middle ages. Nor +is there general agreement as to what such educational institutions as +schools and universities should attempt to do, or even as to the end +that should be sought by education as a whole. Nor can agreement on such +points be expected while men differ widely as to the meaning and purpose +of life. The work of the organization of the material means of education +has largely been accomplished by the civilized world: that of +determining the true theory and practice of the educative process itself +is still incomplete. To that, both discussion of the philosophy of life +and of the relative values in life, of various kinds of experience and +experiment in the light of the conclusions reached, are needed. The +problem will never be absolutely solved, for that would imply an +absolutely best education irrespective of conditions, but its practical +solution will be reached when a true adjustment is made between the +process of education and the life for which that education is intended +to be a preparation. + + See also the articles ACADEMIES; CLASSICS; CO-EDUCATION; EXAMINATIONS; + POLYTECHNIC; SCHOOLS; TECHNICAL EDUCATION; UNIVERSITIES; WOMEN; &c. + (J. Wn.) + + +II. NATIONAL SYSTEMS OF PUBLIC EDUCATION + +A statement of the principles commonly recognized by modern communities +as governing the action of the state in relation to education may +facilitate at the outset a clearer understanding of the problems which +the organization of public education presents. The cardinal doctrine of +state interference in the educational domain is universally accepted by +all the great nations of the modern world; and in regard to its extent +and limits a large measure of agreement has now been reached. + + + Principles of state interference. + +In the first place, it is recognized as the duty of the state to insist +upon a certain minimum of education for every future citizen. This does +not necessitate a monopoly of education on the part of the state, such +as was claimed by the Napoleonic despotism under the traditional +influence (it would seem) of the old authoritative Gallo-Roman +tradition, transformed in its outward manifestation but not in its +inward spirit by the French Revolution. Such a monopoly would be plainly +repugnant to the spirit of Anglo-Saxon individualism, and it is +interesting to note that attempts to reassert it have in recent times +been repudiated in republican France by some of the best exponents of +modern free thought, as an infringement of personal liberty not +calculated to justify itself by any corresponding public gain. +Nevertheless, the recognition of this primary duty of the state plainly +implies a state system of at least elementary education. The masses of +the industrial population cannot afford the necessary minimum of +instruction which the public interest demands, and private and voluntary +effort cannot efficiently supply the want resulting from the unequal +distribution of wealth. But it is in the nature of things that, so far +as private effort attempts anything in this direction, it should be +motived in the main by religion and associated with the great historical +religious organizations; thus it comes about that the moment the state +steps in to make good the deficiency of voluntary effort a fruitful and +embittering source of difficulty and friction is disclosed. Hence, in +England, the history of public elementary education since the beginning +of the 19th century has been very largely the history of what is called +the religious difficulty. Here we find ourselves in the region of acute +controversy in which it is useless to do more than note empirically the +various solutions adopted by different states. Perhaps all that can +safely be indicated as commanding universal acceptance is the principle +that the state must not impose upon an individual citizen in the person +of his child any form of religious instruction to which he +conscientiously objects. Modern controversies show the difficulty of +applying even this rudimentary principle to the complicated +circumstances of a free community split up into a number of groups +differing profoundly in religious sentiment, and zealous each for the +recognition of its own ideal within the common system. So far, however, +as secular instruction (i.e. the teaching of other subjects than +religion) is concerned it is now generally accepted that the elementary +minimum must be both compulsory and free for every individual child +whose parents will not or cannot (as the case may be) provide such +instruction for it efficiently elsewhere than in the state-supported +schools. + +Next, the action of the modern state cannot stop short at elementary +education. The principle of "the career open to talent" is no longer a +matter of abstract humanitarian theory, a fantastical aspiration of +revolutionary dreamers; for the great industrial communities of the +modern world it is a cogent practical necessity imposed by the fierce +international competition which prevails in the arts and industries of +life. The nation that is not to fail in the struggle for commercial +success, with all that this implies for national life and civilization, +must needs see that its industries are fed with a constant supply of +workers adequately equipped in respect both of general intelligence and +technical training. + +On political grounds too, the increasing democratization of +institutions renders a wide diffusion of knowledge and the cultivation +of a high standard of intelligence among the people a necessary +precaution of prudent statesmanship, especially for the great imperial +states which confide the most momentous issues of world policy to the +arbitrament of the popular voice. The state then must satisfy itself +that the means of education are placed within the reach of all, in +grades adapted to the varying degrees of intelligence and educational +opportunity to be found among a community upon the majority of whose +members is imposed the necessity of entering upon the practical business +of life at a more or less early age. The organization of the higher +grades of education constitutes a task of less formidable magnitude than +the organization of elementary education, for the reason that, at any +rate in the prevailing social conditions, it is only a minority who can +benefit by it, and that of this minority a large proportion can afford +the whole or a considerable portion of the cost in each individual case. +The class, however, whose education must needs be assisted by the state +if it is not to remain inefficient must always be considerable; and +account must be taken also of the necessities of the further class whose +exceptional mental development is such as to make it worth while for the +state to bestow gratuitously an education higher than elementary at the +public expense. University education is distinguished from education of +the lower grades by the fact that, being necessarily restricted to an +elite of intellect or birth, it cannot, save in very exceptional +circumstances, usefully be organized locally. Although universities are +the necessary complement of a public educational system they do not in +strictness or necessity form part of such a system, and in so far as +they are brought within the purview of public authority it must be as a +matter of national, rather than municipal or provincial, concern. +Accordingly university education is separately treated (see +UNIVERSITIES), and will not be referred to, save incidentally, in the +present article. + +Reserving to a final section the history of education in the United +States of America, a brief description is given here of the educational +systems of the leading European countries by way of introduction to a +more detailed, but still summary, historical sketch of public education +in England. The highly organized educational systems of France and +Prussia (as representing Germany) are manifestly suitable for the +purposes of a general study of the principles of educational polity as +worked out upon logical and consistently thought-out plans by highly +centralized states. As to other European countries, a brief mention must +suffice of certain features of special interest presented by smaller +progressive states of such different types as Switzerland, Belgium and +Holland. Similarly, in the case of the United Kingdom, considerations of +space forbid more than a brief notice of the educational systems of +Scotland (q.v.) and Ireland (q.v.). For other countries see the sections +in the articles under the headings of the respective states. + + +_France._ + +France (q.v.) presents the most complete type of a state system of +education organized under a strongly centralized administration in all +grades. This centralized administration in education, as in other +departments, represents the Napoleonic heritage of the Republic, and, +although there has been an increasing tendency of recent years to study +local conditions in the internal organization of schools, anything +approaching to local autonomy is unknown in educational affairs. The +necessary checks upon bureaucracy are supplied not by popularly elected +municipal bodies but by a strong infusion of the pedagogic element in +the administrative machinery. The pedagogic element in turn does but +represent another side of the collective activities of the state. The +teaching profession both in the primary and higher spheres--and the two +are sharply marked off from one another--consists of a highly organized +body of state functionaries, united by a strong _esprit de corps_ and +actuated by ideals and aims which are inspired by the state. The +importance of this condition of things lies in the fact that the +Republic is something more than a form of government: it is the social +and moral expression of the democratic ideal as conceived by a people +profoundly imbued by tradition with the sense of social solidarity, or +collectivism; and nowhere has this expression been more characteristic +or more complete than in the domain of public education. Yet the +educational system of modern France is by no means exclusively the +creation of the Third Republic, and the main stages in its development +deserve to be traced historically. + + + Freres de la Doctrine chretienne. + +No historical sketch, however slight, of French education can ignore the +great Catholic religious educator of the 18th century, Jean Baptiste de +la Salle, the founder of _Les Freres de la Doctrine chretienne_, +commonly known as the "Christian Brothers." The Brothers were not merely +pioneers of elementary education, they may also be regarded (as M. +Buisson, formerly director of public instruction, has shown) as the +originators of higher primary instruction. Under the Restoration they +upheld the method of simultaneous teaching against the partisans of the +mutual (or monitorial) method, successfully demonstrating the +superiority of the trained teacher. The unfortunate effects of the +monitorial system upon English education show the reality of the service +which this religious congregation rendered to the national pedagogy in +France. + + + The Revolution and Napoleon. + +The Constitution of 1791 decreed that primary instruction should be +compulsory and gratuitous. (It may be explained that the term "free +education," _instruction libre_, does not bear the same meaning in +France as in England. In France a free school means a school not under +state control and not forming part of the state system.) In this as in +much else the Revolution was powerless to do more than enunciate general +principles which it left for later generations, in the present instance +after the lapse of nearly a century, to carry into effect. True to its +theories of individualistic liberty, the Revolution admitted liberty of +teaching. Napoleon, on the other hand, by the law of 1806, centralized +all forms of education in one official teaching body under the name of +the Imperial University, thus securing a monopoly of teaching to the +state. The Napoleonic idea of the university, doubtless because a true +expression of the national genius, has never ceased to exert a profound +influence upon French education, an influence which of late years has +been revivified and reinforced by the modern ideal of social solidarity. + + + Reforms of Guizot. + +Under the Restoration education fell inevitably under the control of the +church, but under the Liberal Monarchy Guizot in 1833 passed a law which +laid the foundations of modern primary instruction, obliging the +communes to maintain schools and pay the teachers. It is also to the +credit of Guizot as an educational reformer that he perceived the +necessity for the higher primary as distinct from the secondary school. +The higher primary schools which he founded were unfortunately +suppressed by the _Loi Falloux_; their restoration constitutes one of +the great positive services rendered by the Third Republic to the cause +of popular education. + + + Loi Falloux. + +The _Loi Falloux_ of 1850, passed by the Second Republic under the +influence of the prince president, is chiefly memorable for its +restoration of the liberty of teaching, which in a Catholic country +means in effect free scope for priestly schools. This law also made +provision for separate communal schools for girls, for adult classes and +for the technical instruction of apprentices. In 1854 France was divided +for purposes of educational administration into sixteen academies, each +administered by a rector with an academy inspector under him for each +department. This organization survives to-day, with the difference that +for each academy (except Chambery) there is now a local teaching +university. + + + Ministry of M. Duruy. + +The ministry of the well-known educationist M. Duruy (1865-1869), +corresponding to the period of the Liberal Empire, was notable for +marked administrative progress. A permanent memorial of this epoch is +the enactment rendering primary schools for girls obligatory in communes +of over 500 inhabitants. Duruy also provided for the introduction of +gratuitous instruction at the option of the commune. + + + The Third Republic. + +The task of educational reform imposed itself upon the republic by a +twofold necessity. The wars of 1866 and 1870 were victories for the +Prussian schoolmaster, and aroused all western Europe to the national +importance of popular education. For France then the reform of popular +education was an essential part of the work of national restoration. For +the republic too, menaced by older and hostile traditions, the creation +of a national system of education inspired by its own spirit was an +essential condition of the permanence and security of its government and +the social ideals of which that government was the expression. Hence the +energy with which the republican state addressed itself to the +organization of primary instruction, "obligatory, gratuitous, secular." + + + Acquisition of elementary school buildings and organization of teaching + profession. + +By the law of June 1, 1878, there was imposed upon the communes the +obligation of acquiring their school buildings; and as a grant in aid a +sum of L2,400,000 was set aside for this purpose by the state. In 1879 a +law was passed compelling every department to maintain a training college +for male and female teachers respectively. The two higher normal schools +of Fontenay and St Cloud were also founded to supply the training +colleges with professors. During the same period, among other +_certificats_ or professional diplomas, there were established the +_certificat d'aptitude pedagogique_, which qualifies probationer-teachers +(_stagiaires_) for appointment as teachers in full standing +(_titulaires_), and the _certificat d'aptitude_ for primary inspectors +and heads of normal schools. The law of June 16, 1881, rendered +obligatory for all teachers, whether public or private, the _brevet de +capacite_. It was found impracticable to carry this law into immediate +effect, and as late as 1902 only about 60% of the men and 52% of the +women were provided with the professional certificate necessary for +becoming _titulaires_. + + + Reforms of Jules Ferry. Laicization. + +The laws making primary education gratuitous, compulsory and secular, +are indissolubly associated with the name of Jules Ferry. The law of +June 16, 1881, abolished fees in all primary schools and training +colleges, the law of 1882 established compulsory attendance, and finally +the law of October 30, 1886, enacted that none but lay persons should +teach in the public schools, and abolished in those schools all +distinctively religious teaching. In the boys' schools members of +religious communities were to be displaced within five years, but in +girls' schools the _religieuses_ might remain till death or resignation. + + + Moral instruction. + +Religious teaching was replaced in the state schools under the Ferry law +by moral instruction according to official curricula, a change which has +been described by M. Seailles (_Education ou revolution_) as a +revolution of the profoundest philosophical meaning. The difficult and +delicate topics of the relation of the state school to religion and the +value of the substituted moral instruction have recently received +illuminating and objective treatment from different points of view in +the series of reports on _Moral Instruction and Training in Schools_, +edited by Professor M.E. Sadler (1908, vol. ii.); the barest reference +to the questions at issue must here suffice. As regards the character of +the moral instruction, it would appear to have shifted from a Kantian to +a purely sociological basis. Roman Catholic opinion is at least not +unanimous in regarding the "lay" or neutral school as essentially or +necessarily anti-religious, and plainly there is no inherent reason why +the neutrality should not be a real neutrality, but with the existing +relations between the Catholic Church and modern thought in France the +influence of the Normalist teachers is in fact apt to be anti-religious, +and moreover no system of independent moral doctrine, whether based upon +a priori or inductive reasoning, can be acceptable to the Roman Catholic +Church. In whatever degree the blame may be rightly apportionable +between church and state, the fact is that the two find themselves in +acute conflict, and that from the conflict there has resulted a certain +moral confusion which Christian and non-Christian moralists alike view +with alarm. It may be that the mischief would have been mitigated had +more moderate counsels prevailed at the time of the Ferry law, and had +the church been willing to accept (as the Republic might then have been +willing to concede) right of entry for the clergy into the schools. But +the real causes of the trouble lie deep in the philosophical and +religious problems of our time, and in the constant and self-sacrificing +devotion of the French to logical ideals on either side. Perhaps it is +not too sanguine to discern in the growing tendency to idealism in +French philosophy, and to liberal ideas in French and Catholic religious +thought, the promise of a happier state of things. In the meantime, the +religious difficulty in the schools divides the nation into two hostile +camps (_les deux Frances_, as a Swiss Protestant writer puts it) in the +shape of the state secular schools on the one side and the private +religious schools on the other. + +In the year 1903-1904 the total number of pupils in private primary +schools was 1,298,591, as against 4,935,000 in the public primary +schools, but these figures were liable to be materially affected by the +rigorous enforcement of the laws against the religious orders. + + + Financial reform of 1889. + +In 1889 an important change was made in educational finance by +transferring the cost of teachers' salaries in primary schools from the +communes to the state, a right consequence of the changes which made the +teacher a state official. Thus the state assumed the greater part of the +burden of primary instruction, leaving to the communes merely the cost +of fabric, and to the department the maintenance of the fabric of the +normal schools and certain expenses of inspection. + + + Administrative machinery. Minister and conseil superieur. + +At this point it will be convenient to describe shortly the various +central and local authorities that constitute the official machine. The +minister, the head of the entire hierarchy, is assisted by a _conseil +superieur_ consisting of fifty-seven members, of whom the majority are +elected by the higher teaching profession, while a few are nominated by +the president, including a small number to represent private schools, +and a few are elected by the primary teachers. Practically the ordinary +work of the council is carried on by a sub-committee consisting of the +nine nominees of the president and six others designated for this +purpose by the minister. The council has administrative, judicial and +disciplinary, as well as advisory, powers which enable it to exert a +direct influence upon the internal organization of schools. There is +also a pedagogic _comite consultatif_ and a legal _comite contentieux_, +whose respective functions are purely advisory. + + + Inspecteurs generaux. + +The _inspecteurs generaux_ "act," says Mr Brereton in his official +report to the English Board of Education, "as the eyes and ears of the +central authority." Their duties are: first to inspect the normal +schools; next to supervise the work of the ordinary inspectorate; lastly +to give general and comparative information on the progress of primary +instruction in the various parts of France. For the purpose of general +inspection France is divided into seven districts. + + + Rector and council of academy. + +As already indicated, for the purpose of educational administration, the +departments of France are grouped in seventeen divisions called +academies. At the head of each academy is the rector. He is appointed +directly by the president and must hold the doctor's degree. He is not +only the head of the local teaching university, but is also charged in a +general way with the oversight of all three departments of education, +superior, secondary and primary; in regard to the last, however, his +functions are confined to the pedagogic side. The direct share of the +rector in administration is mainly confined to the normal schools and +the higher primary schools. The rector is assisted by an academic +council composed almost exclusively of pedagogic elements. + + + The academy inspector. + +Each department of France has an academy inspector appointed by the +minister. The duties of the academy inspector embrace both higher and +primary education. In the latter sphere he is the real head of the local +administration, and the primary inspectors are his subordinate officers. +He appoints the probationer-teachers and nominates the regular teachers +for appointment by the _prefet_. + + + Prefet and conseil departemental. + +The _prefet_, the chief administrative officer of each department, not +only appoints the teachers upon the proposition of the academy +inspector, he is also as president of the _conseil departemental_ +concerned generally with the externa of school administration, including +the supply of schools. The _conseil departemental_ with respect to its +powers corresponds in some degree to our own local education +authorities, but as regards its constitution it is in no sense a +municipal body, the representatives of the _conseil general_ of the +department (which corresponds to the county council) being greatly +outnumbered by the pedagogical members. + + + Primary inspectors. + +The inspectors of primary schools, as has already been stated, act under +the academy inspector. They are appointed upon the result of examination +and not by direct nomination as in England. The examination is severe, +and it is from the body of the professors of the normal schools rather +than from the ranks of the primary teachers that the successful +candidates are chiefly drawn. + + + Minor local authorities. + +Very limited powers are entrusted to certain communal and cantonal +authorities. The _commission scolaire_ is a committee organized in each +commune for the purpose of improving school attendance, to which end +they administer a _caisse des ecoles_ or school fund for supplying +clothing and meals to needy children. The _maire_ of the commune has the +right of visiting the schools, but neither he nor any of the minor local +authorities can interfere with the teaching. Similar duties are assigned +to the _delegues cantonaux_, who are appointed by the _conseil +departemental_ for each canton (a wider area than the commune), and can +best be described as local visitors or visiting committees rather than +managers in our sense of the word. "All this hierarchy of central and +local officials," says Mr Brereton, "will doubtless seem complicated to +English minds. The extraordinary thing is that, so far as I could learn, +the machine, for all its complexity, works smoothly enough. The truth is +that the province of each particular functionary is so clearly defined +that there is no debateable ground over which ambitious rival +authorities can wrangle." + + + Conception of secondary education. + +In proceeding to sketch the French system of higher primary and +secondary schools, it may be observed that European systems of higher +education have generally been framed upon the view that the divisions of +education are longitudinal, not latitudinal, and that secondary +education is a training complete in itself from the preparatory stage to +the university, with aims and ideals of general culture which +differentiate it radically and at the very outset from education of the +elementary type. On the other hand, in the United States the view has +prevailed that the divisions of education must be latitudinal, that the +secondary school must be complementary to the elementary school, in +which even the elite must receive their preparatory or elementary +training. At any rate down to the reform of 1902, which will presently +be explained, the French system could be regarded as a typical and even +extreme example of the European theory, little consistent as this might +seem to be with the broader principles of democracy. This view of the +matter is expressed by the French terminology, by which what in England +is called "elementary" is in France termed "primary" education. + + + Higher primary schools. + +The thoroughness with which the principle of the autonomous character of +the two divisions of education was carried out undoubtedly favoured in a +special degree the complete organization given to higher primary +instruction in the _ecoles primaires superieures_ under the Third +Republic. The aim of these schools is to fill the void which must +otherwise exist for those who need a higher education than the primary +school can give, but for whose subsequent careers secondary education +would be ill-adapted and injudicious. Throughout the organization of +primary education the French have kept steadily in view the danger of +creating an intellectual proletariate. "Nous poursuivons la culture +generale du caractere et de l'esprit, mais nous cherchons en meme temps +a orienter l'enfant vers la vie pratique," says an official report. The +aim of the higher primary school is to continue education in this +spirit up to the age of sixteen so as to prepare the scholar to take an +honourable place in the higher ranks of skilled industry rather than to +deflect him towards a professional career or intellectual pursuits for +which he is unfitted, not so much by the accidents of birth and social +circumstance as by his own natural aptitudes. Within the limits +necessarily marked out for them the higher primary schools of France +have aimed at imparting what may be termed a general culture as distinct +from purely technical or trade teaching, and this development has been +greatly furthered by the separate organization given to the latter +teaching in the _ecoles professionnelles_. At the same time, prominence +is given in the higher primary schools to practical training of an +educational character with special reference to the industries and +circumstances of the locality, and in the rural districts a special +agricultural bias is imparted to the curriculum. It is interesting to +note that the institution of the higher primary schools was due in large +part to the spontaneous initiative of the municipalities, and that in +the later phases of state organization special care has been taken to +avoid anything in the nature of a rigid uniformity in these schools. + + + Supplementary courses. + +A wider extension has been given to higher primary instruction by the +establishment of _cours complementaires_ in certain schools, at centres +at which it would be impossible to organize separate higher primary +schools. A similar solution of the continuation school problem has +recently commended itself to the consultative committee of the Board of +Education for England. + +Admission to the higher primary schools in France is only accorded to +those who have obtained the elementary school leaving certificate, +_certificat d'etudes primaires_. A feature of importance for +continuation work in rural districts is the provision made for boarding +scholars in attendance at these schools. The boarding arrangements are +generally, as in the case of the secondary schools, left to the head +teacher, but in some instances municipal hostels have been provided. No +fees may be charged for higher primary instruction, and scholarships +(_bourses_) are provided to a certain extent in the form either of +boarding scholarships or maintenance allowances to compensate the parent +for the loss of the child's labour. The number of scholars in the public +higher primary schools for the year 1903-1904 was 34,084, and in _cours +complementaires_ 21,777, making a total of 55,861. In addition there +were 8891 scholars in receipt of higher primary instruction in private +schools. + + + Secondary schools, lycees and colleges. + +French secondary education is given in the _lycees_ which are +first-grade schools maintained and controlled by the state, and the +_colleges_, which are schools of the second grade maintained partly by +the state and partly by the municipality. A considerable number of +scholars pass annually from the colleges to the lycees. In both grades +of schools the teachers are paid by the state and nominated directly or +indirectly by the minister of education. They are required to possess +certain specified academic qualifications which can only be obtained +from the _universite_, but failing teachers with the prescribed +qualifications the classes are taught by teachers styled _charges de +cours_ as distinct from professors. + + + Ecole Normale Superieure. + +With a view to supplying teachers for the secondary schools, the state +maintains the Ecole Normale Superieure, a college in which instruction, +board and lodging are given free to a number of scholars selected by +competition from the best secondary school boys, though residence in the +institution is no longer compulsory. By the decrees of November 10, +1903, and May 10, 1904, the Ecole Normale became practically the College +of Pedagogy of the University of Paris. Its students are entered as +students of the university, and study for their qualifying examination +as teachers in secondary schools (_agregation_) under university +professors, partly at the Sorbonne, partly at the Ecole Normale, while +their professional preparation is entrusted solely to the latter +institution. + + + Classical and modern education. Reform of 1902. + +The Republic has not reorganized secondary education by a comprehensive +law; it has, however, introduced by decree, under parliamentary +authority, an important reform in the internal organization of the +schools which marks a notable departure from the traditional view of +secondary education as a self-contained whole. Article 1 of the decree +of May 31, 1902, declares that secondary education is co-ordinated with +primary education in such a way as to constitute a continuation of a +course of primary studies of a normal duration of four years. The decree +goes on to provide for a full course of secondary studies of seven +years' duration, divided into two cycles of four and three years +respectively. In the first cycle the scholar has two options. In section +1 Latin is obligatory and Greek optional from the beginning of the third +year (_classe iv._). In section 2 there is no Latin. At the end of the +first cycle the state grants a _certificat d'etudes secondaires du +premier degre_. In the second cycle one of four courses may be taken; +section 1 with Latin and Greek continues the old classical education; +section 2 with Latin and modern languages corresponds to the German +Realgymnasium; section 3 with Latin and science, and section 4 with +modern languages and science, to the Oberrealschule. The _baccalaureat_, +or secondary school-leaving examination, conducted by the university, is +adapted to all the courses on the principle that courses of study of +equal length, whether classical or modern, literary or scientific, are +entitled to equal advantages. This system of alternative courses with +leaving examinations of equal value is mainly German in origin, and may +be said to represent the results of the best European thought upon the +problem of the organization of secondary education. + + + Religious instruction in lycees. + +It is remarkable in view of the thoroughness with which the principle of +laicization has been applied to the primary schools that the lycees +still retain their chaplains (_aumoniers_) for the purpose of giving +religious instruction. This difference of treatment is apparently based +upon the consideration that the gratuitous and compulsory character of +primary education demanded a much stricter interpretation of the +principle of the neutrality of the state than was necessary in the case +of secondary education, which is neither compulsory nor gratuitous. + + + Private secondary schools. + +In addition to the state schools there have until lately been in France +a large number of private secondary schools, the most important of which +have been associated with the Catholic religious orders. The enforcement +of the laws against these communities has resulted in the closure of a +number of these schools, and in the reorganization of others under a lay +teaching staff. It is conceivable that the action of the Republic may +largely forward the movement, otherwise perceptible in the Roman +Catholic Church, to transfer education, even when combined with specific +religious teaching, from ecclesiastical to lay hands. Evidence of this +tendency is to be found in the boarding-schools (some four in number) +founded upon the plan of M. Demolins (author of _A quoi tient la +superiorite des Anglo-Saxons_) after the English public school model, +but with a distinctly Catholic colouring. + +Apart from the position of the religious orders, the future of private +education in France is far from secure at the present time. The liberty +of teaching secured by the _Loi Falloux_ is regarded as a pseudo-liberty +by the advanced republican educationists, and the principle that +education is a function of the state and not a matter of supply and +demand is deeply rooted in the public mind. Proposals have been mooted +for making the baccalaureat strictly a school leaving examination +attached to the state schools. The adoption of any such measure would +practically destroy liberty of teaching by reason of the power which the +baccalaureat secures to the state as the key to the professions. + + + Secondary education for girls. + +The foundation of secondary schools for girls in connexion with the +educational reform of Jules Ferry is in its way one of the most notable +achievements of the republic. There is little doubt that the expulsion +of the religious orders is destined to exercise a profound influence +upon the education of women in France. The place of the closed convent +schools is being taken either by new state schools or by Catholic +schools under lay teachers, and the number of scholars affected by this +process of laicization is far larger in the case of girls than of boys. +This change is calculated to produce far-reaching effects in the social +and religious order, by no means necessarily, however, of an +anti-Catholic or irreligious kind. + +For an account of the resuscitation by the Republic of the local +universities under the one great state teaching body collectively known +as the University, see UNIVERSITIES. + + +_Germany._ + +Under the German empire education is left to the exclusive control of +each of the federated states. The only point of direct contact between +the Empire and education lies in the mutual undertaking of the federated +states to bring the law of compulsory school attendance to bear upon all +subjects of the empire resident within their respective borders. Of far +greater moment is the moral influence exerted upon the other states by +the Prussian hegemony, in virtue of which the Prussian educational +system comes to be in all essential characteristics typical and +representative of Germany as a whole. It is remarkable that though, as +Matthew Arnold was able to report to the Schools Inquiry Commission in +1866, "the school system of Germany in its completeness and carefulness +is such as to excite the foreigner's admiration," neither Prussia +herself, nor Bavaria, nor several other of the principal states of the +Empire, have found it practicable to pass a comprehensive education law, +owing to the religious and political difficulties with which any general +legislative assertion of principle is attended in Germany as in England. +The consequence is that the Prussian system in particular is the result +of a long and complicated series of special laws, decrees and +administrative regulations. In such circumstances it is inevitable that, +especially in secondary education, some considerable local variations +and anomalies should remain, but the centralized authority of the state +has confined these to questions of patronage and external +administration, and even within this sphere has successfully asserted +its own ultimate supremacy as the guardian of the educational interests +of its citizens. A detailed historical study would bring out clearly the +intimate connexion between the development of the educational system and +the growth of the Prussian state, and again between these and the +expansion of the national life of the German people; incidentally it +would exhibit the supremacy of Prussia in the modern Empire as the +inevitable result not merely of military force but of a genuine hegemony +of intellect and culture. + + + Influence of Luther. + +Stress is rightly laid by all educational writers upon Luther's famous +letter to the German municipalities in 1524, urging upon them the duty +of providing schools and upon parents the duty of sending their children +to school. An attempt to give effect to this teaching was at once made +by the electoral government of Saxony, which by a school ordinance of +1528 provided for the establishment in every town and village of Latin +schools, for in Germany as in England the influence of the Protestant +reformers was solidly on the side of classical education as the key to +the study of the Scriptures and theological learning. All the more +remarkable, therefore, was the initiative of the electorate of +Wurttemberg, whose school ordinance of 1559 represents the first +systematic attempt to make provision for both elementary and higher +education, directing that elementary schools should be set up throughout +the country, and _Particularschulen_ or Latin schools in every +considerable centre of population. The educational efforts both of the +early Reformers and of the remarkable Jesuit educationists, who +contributed so largely to the partial reconquest of south Germany for +the Catholic Church, were brought to naught amid the troublous times of +the Thirty Years' War, and the desolation and national decadence which +that calamity brought in its train. To this result the aridity of the +Protestant scholastics who succeeded Luther and Melanchthon, and the +frivolity, incompetence and petty despotism of the small German courts, +contributed in no slight measure. The permanent and positive value of +Luther's pronouncement of 1524 consists not so much in the direct +effects which it produced as in the hallowed association which it +established for Protestant Germany between the national religion and the +educational duties of the individual and the state, and doubtless this +association largely contributed to the creation of that healthy public +opinion which in Prussia rendered the principle of compulsory school +attendance easy of acceptance at a much earlier date than in England and +elsewhere, save only Scotland, where a similar historical religious +influence was supplied by John Knox. + + + Early Prussian measures. + +State interference in education is almost coincident with the rise of +the Prussian state. Already in 1717 Frederick William I. ordered all +children to attend school where schools existed, and fixed the fee at 5 +pf. (1/2d.) a week. This was followed in 1736 by edicts for the +establishment of schools in certain provinces and by a royal grant of +50,000 thalers for that purpose in the following year. In 1763 the +_General Landschulreglement_ of Frederick the Great laid down the broad +lines upon which the Prussian state has since proceeded, asserting the +principle of compulsory school attendance, fixing the fees, with +provision for the assistance of very poor children, prescribing the +course of instruction, and giving directions for the examination and +supervision of teachers. Much progress was made, more especially in the +organization of higher education, under Baron von Zedlitz, who was +appointed minister for Lutheran church and school affairs by Frederick +the Great in 1771, and retired under Frederick William II. in 1788. The +last-mentioned year saw the establishment of the _Abiturientenexamen_, +or leaving examinations, which form the determining element in the state +organization of secondary education in Germany. As in England, the fear +of the French Revolution produced a corresponding reaction in +educational affairs, and the policy of Frederick William II. was to bind +ever closer school and church in a system practically independent of +state control. The first departure from this policy was marked by the +_Allgemeines Landrecht_ of 1794, which boldly proclaims that schools and +educational institutions may be founded only with the knowledge and +consent of the state, and must always be under its supervision and +subject to its examination and control. This law also laid upon heads of +families in every place the duty of providing and maintaining schools. + + + Reconstruction after Jena. + +It was not till the disaster of Jena and the prostration of Prussia at +the feet of Napoleon awoke the dormant spirit of patriotism, and +concentrated all the intellectual forces of north Germany upon the task +of national regeneration, that the principles of the _Allgemeines +Landrecht_ of 1794 bore full fruit. "The organization of the Prussian +school system," says Dr James E. Russell in his work on _German Higher +Schools_, "waited on the reorganization of the Prussian State." One of +the first acts of the great patriotic minister von Stein, upon his +assuming control of the civil administration in 1807, was to abolish the +semi-ecclesiastical Oberschulkollegium which had been set up as the +central authority under the churchly policy of Frederick William II., +and to place education under the Ministry of the Interior as a special +section. Wilhelm von Humboldt was placed at the head of this section in +1809, and the work which this "great master of the science and art of +education" (as Professor Seeley terms him in his _Life of Stein_) +inaugurated in his one year of office entitles him to be ranked among +the founders of German unity. Humboldt's greatest positive +achievements--the foundation of the university of Berlin and its +organization under a professorial staff which included Fichte, +Schleiermacher, Savigny, Wolf and Niebuhr, as also the internal reform +of secondary schools undertaken with the pedagogical assistance of Wolf +and under the inspiration of Fichte--lie beyond the scope of this +article. It may, however, be observed that Humboldt's policy in +secondary education represents a compromise between the narrow +philological pedantry of the old Latin schools and the large demands of +the new humanism of the period; and the recent reform of the Prussian +secondary schools may be said to represent a return to the spirit of +Humboldt in this respect. The measure introduced by Humboldt in 1810 for +the state examination and certification of teachers checked the then +common practice of permitting unqualified theological students to teach +in the schools, and at once raised the teaching profession to a high +level of dignity and efficiency which of itself sufficed to place +Prussia in the forefront of educational progress. It was due also to +the initiative of Humboldt that the methods of Pestalozzi were +introduced into the teachers' seminaries, through them to vitalize the +elementary schools. To the period of the national struggle belong the +revival in 1812 of the Abiturientenexamen which had fallen into +abeyance, and the institution about the same time of the local +authorities called _Schulvorstande_ for the country and +_Schuldeputationen_ for the towns. + + + Reforms of 1825 and 1834. Abiturientenexamen. + +Though the period which succeeded the peace of 1815 was one of political +reaction, the cabinet order of Frederick William III. in 1825 +strengthened the law of compulsory attendance and carried on the work of +administrative organization by defining the duties of the +Provinzial-Schul-Kollegium and the Regierung. In 1834 an important +development was given to secondary education by making it necessary for +candidates for the learned professions as well as for the civil service, +and for university studies, to have passed the leaving examination of +the gymnasia. Thus through the leaving examination the state holds the +key to the liberal careers, and has thereby been able to impose its own +standard upon all secondary schools. Apart from the privileges relative +to professional studies, the system of leaving examinations has exerted +a wide influence upon popular education in connexion with the +institution of compulsory military service, in virtue of a regulation +which entitles those who pass the leaving examination of any of the +recognized kinds of secondary schools to the much-coveted privilege of +service for one year as a "volunteer" instead of two years as an +ordinary conscript. + +The revolutionary and national movement of 1848 was followed by a period +of further educational activity. The Act of Constitution of 1850 +declared teachers civil servants and elementary education free. In +practice, the abolition of school fees did not become general until +1888. Since then the view has more and more prevailed that elementary +education must be free,[2] and, broadly speaking, fees in elementary +schools are now charged only for children attending from another school +district. + + + Kulturkampf and the confessional system. + +In connexion with the _Kulturkampf_, or struggle between the state and +the Roman Catholic Church, the _Schulaufsichtsgesetz_ of 1872 reasserted +the absolute right of the state alone to the supervision of the schools; +but the severity of this law as a measure against Roman Catholic +clerical education was considerably modified as a result of the +subsequent reconciliation with the papacy under Leo XIII., and the +Prussian system remains to-day both for Catholics and Protestants +essentially denominational. All schools, whether elementary or +secondary, are Evangelical, Catholic, Jewish or mixed. In the elementary +sphere, in particular, recourse is only had to the mixed school +(_Simultanschule_ or _paritatische Schule_), where the creeds are so +intermingled that a confessional school is impracticable. In all cases +the teachers are appointed with reference to religious faith; religious +instruction is given compulsorily in school hours and is inspected by +the clergy. The general purport of the Prussian school law of 1906 is to +strengthen the system of separate confessional schools, which it extends +to certain provinces where it had not previously been in operation. + +In financial respects the last-mentioned law effected some readjustment +of burdens by charging a proportion of the expenditure upon landed +property. Other recent changes relate to the reform of secondary +education referred to below. The system of educational administration as +it stood in 1909 may shortly be described as follows. + + + Administrative machinery. + +Under the ministerium in Berlin stands the Provinzial-Schul-Kollegium, +the chairman of which is the _Ober-Prasident_ of the province, composed +of four or five _Rate_ or councillors, generally selected from the +directors of training colleges and gymnasia. This body is concerned +mainly with higher education. + +Each province is divided for purposes of general administration into two +_Regierungen_ or governments, and in each Regierung there is a section +of usually three or four Schulrate, which controls the elementary +schools. This council is usually recruited from the ranks of directors +of training colleges and from the inspectorate. The Regierung is divided +into _Kreise_ or districts, and in each district an administrative +officer, called the _Landrat_, represents the government. The Landrat is +concerned with the provision and repair of elementary school buildings; +as regards internal organization, the elementary schools are under the +Kreisschulinspektor. + + + Inspection. + +In the Protestant districts the inspectors (_Kreisschulinspektoren_) are +usually Evangelical clergymen holding the position of superintendent in +the Lutheran Church. In the Catholic and certain other exceptional +districts inspectors with pedagogical qualifications and the status of +full government inspectors are appointed. Every candidate for Lutheran +ordination is required to spend six months at a training college, but +pedagogical opinion is hostile to the system, which must be regarded as +a survival of the traditional union of church and state in educational +affairs, retained at the present day from motives of economy and a +desire to conciliate the church. + +For every school there is an _Ortsschulinspektor_, usually the clergyman +of the parish, who discharges the duties of local manager and +correspondent. This local inspector is also chairman of the +_Schulvorstand_ or committee, elected by the _Schulgemeinde_, and +charged with questions of attendance and maintenance rather than with +internal affairs. The Schulgemeinde need not coincide with the civil +parish. Parishes may unite to provide one school, or within one parish +different religious communities may form separate school "parishes." + +Thus the administrative system of Prussia in education as in other +matters may be described in general as a decentralized bureaucracy. This +bureaucracy is somewhat checked by the rights of patronage attaching to +the local boards in certain cases, but the exercise of such rights is in +all cases subject to government approval. As regards higher-grade +elementary and secondary schools, the local boards in the towns +(_Schuldeputationen_) are able to exert a considerable influence in the +way of selection of the type of school, and even of suggestion for the +modification of recognized types, as is shown by the cases of the famous +"reformed" secondary curricula of Altona and Frankfort. Still, the legal +powers of the local board are restricted to the establishment of an +approved type of school, the control of externa, and the right of +nominating teachers. + + + Peculiarities of elementary education. + +_Elementary Schools._--The single-class school (_Einklassige Schule_) +and the half-day school (_Halbtagsschule_) are features of the Prussian +elementary system which require notice. The Einklassige Schule is a +school taught by a single teacher, who may teach a maximum number of +eighty children. The Halbtagsschule is a single-class school of which +half the children are taught in the morning and half in the afternoon. +During the summer months, owing to the exigencies of agricultural +labour, many single-class schools are taught as half-day schools. The +system of course is regarded as a makeshift, but in this, as in the +matter of buildings for rural elementary schools, the Prussian +administration attaches great weight to the consideration of financial +economy. As regards staff, a large measure of economy is rendered +possible by the high average standard of merit reached by German +elementary teachers, whose powers of oral exposition have struck English +observers as specially remarkable, and again by the national readiness +to be content with a moderate salary in return for official status. A +survival of the old close connexion between church and school is to be +found in the _Kirchendienste_, the duties of training the choir, playing +the organ, &c., which are attached in many cases to the post of +schoolmaster, and afford an additional source of emolument, rendered +feasible by the practical absence of religious dissent. + +For the preliminary training of elementary teachers there are special +schools called _Praparanden-Anstalten_, of which most are state +institutions, some are municipal, and a few are private. The training +colleges themselves are provided by the state and have a three years' +course. + + + Continuative education. + +_Continuation Schools (Fortbildungsschulen)._--Germans have been +foremost to realize the truth which is gradually being brought home to +English educationists, that adequate value for the heavy expenditure of +public funds upon education can only be obtained by providing for the +continued education for two or three years of the children of the +working classes who leave school at fourteen years of age. One of the +educational results of the war of 1870, with its great lesson of the +importance of national education, was the Saxon law of 1873 making +attendance at continuation schools compulsory for three years (i.e. up +to seventeen) in that kingdom: The Saxon law appears to have been +justified by the experience of nearly a generation. It must suffice here +to note the following features of its working. (1) The schools are +taught by the primary teachers, supplemented in the towns by some +technical instructors. (2) The school session may be either for the +whole year or for only half the year, and may also be held on Sunday, +like the old English secular Sunday schools. (3) The schools are brought +into close relation with trades, not only for purposes of curriculum, +but also with a view to considering the exigencies and meeting the +convenience of employers with respect to hours of attendance. (4) The +discipline of the continuation school is extended to supervision out of +school hours. "Visits to dancing-halls and all such exhibitions as are +dangerous to uprightness and purity are forbidden to scholars of +continuation schools." Further, useful institutions such as savings +banks, and also associations for social intercourse and the promotion of +_esprit de corps_, are organized in connexion with continuation schools. +There is no doubt that in this matter of continuation schools, as in so +many other fields of social organization, the adoption of compulsion has +been facilitated by the habituation of the working classes to compulsory +military service, which has made the German workman more disciplined, +more "organizable" as a social unit, more accustomed to subordinate the +principle of individual freedom and self-will to the collective claims +of the state, than the workman reared in the traditions of Anglo-Saxon +individualism. + +Attendance at continuation schools is now compulsory by state law in 12 +states, including (besides Saxony) Baden, Wurttemberg and Bavaria. The +city of Munich is notable for its highly organized system of technical +continuation schools for apprentices. In Prussia compulsory attendance +is still the exception (save in the provinces of Posen and West Prussia, +where it is enforced by state law), but the permissive act is being +rapidly adopted by the great cities, including Berlin. + + + Grading of secondary schools. + +_Secondary Education._--The official classification or grading according +to the type of curriculum of secondary schools in Prussia (and indeed +throughout Germany) is very precise. The following are the officially +recognized types. I. Classical schools: (a) Gymnasium, with nine years' +course; (b) Progymnasium, with six years' course. II. Modern schools: +(a) with Latin (semi-classical)--(i.) Realgymnasium (nine years' +course), (ii.) Realprogymnasium (six years' course); (b) without Latin +(non-classical)--(i.) Oberrealschule (nine years' course), (ii.) +Realschule (six years' course). The six-year classical and +semi-classical schools are comparatively unimportant subdivisions in +smaller towns. + + + Co-ordination of elementary and secondary education. + +_Lower-grade Secondary Education._--Inasmuch as French is taught in the +lowest class of the Realschule under the official curriculum (English, +on the other hand, beginning in Tertia, the fourth class from the +lowest), it follows that this, the lowest type of secondary school, is +not directly co-ordinated with the elementary school. The Realschulen of +Berlin, however, form an important exception to the general rule; their +curriculum, sanctioned by the ministry at the instance of the Berlin +municipality, provides for the beginning of French in Quarta (the third +class from the bottom) and English in Secunda. The consequence is that +in Berlin a very large number of pupils pass from the elementary schools +to the Realschulen, which take the place of the Mittelschulen or +higher-grade elementary schools that are to be found in some towns, +though something in the nature of higher elementary education is +afforded by the top sections of the elementary schools. + + + First grade secondary schools. + +_First-grade Schools._--One of the most striking features of German +secondary education is the careful differentiation of schools according +to the type of curriculum adopted. Thus, every German school is a +homogeneous unit with a definite educational aim and organization, +conforming to a common standard approved by public authority for the +particular type to which it belongs. Hence the importance attached by +the Germans to nomenclature; so that in selecting a Gymnasium, a +Realgymnasium or an Oberrealschule, the parent knows exactly the type of +education he is going to secure for his son. In England, on the other +hand, as has often been observed, a great school tends to multiply +within itself different types of curricula in a haphazard way according +to the demand of parents, whose original choice of school is based +rather on social than on educational grounds. Modern sides, army classes +and engineering classes grow up as excrescences upon an originally +classical type, with the waste of power that results from loss of +consistency and concentration of purpose. The difference between the +English and German systems is due ultimately to the adoption in Germany +of the day-school system and the absence, very remarkable in an +otherwise aristocratically governed country, of the caste spirit in +education above the elementary level, thanks to which the nobly born are +not ashamed to sit on the school bench side by side with the children of +the trading classes. On the other hand, the English boarding-school +system, despite all the want of social solidarity, and all the class +jealousy and exclusiveness with which it is inevitably associated, has +admittedly favoured those ideals of the cultivation of character as +distinct from book-learning which give a special value to what is in +England called a public school education. + + + Rise of semi-classical schools. + +The present differentiation of first-grade schools in Prussia is the +result of a natural educational development corresponding with the +economic changes which have transformed Prussia and the empire from an +agricultural to an industrial state. It was in 1855 that semi-classical +schools (teaching Latin without Greek) were first recognized for a nine +years' course under the title of Realschule I. Ordnung, and in 1871 +pupils possessing their leaving certificates were admitted to +mathematical studies in the universities. The Latinless Realschule II. +Ordnung is the direct product of the great industrial development of the +modern empire. In 1882 the Realschule I. Ordnung received the title of +Realgymnasium, and the Realschule II. Ordnung that of Oberrealschule, +both types being at the same time admitted to certain privileges in the +universities, schools of technology and civil service. + + + The "reform school" movement. + +About the same period official recognition was obtained for reformed +secondary curricula, first at Altona and afterwards (1892) at Frankfort. +These two types differ from each other in detail, but the feature which +distinguishes both from the older types is the postponement of Latin to +Untertertia. The design is to secure for all types of secondary +education a common non-classical base coextensive with the first three +years of school life, followed by a trifurcation or threefold choice +between the classical, semi-classical and non-classical types. The +principle of the "reform-school" has been adopted in a considerable +number of German (chiefly Prussian) schools, but it would be premature +to see in it at present more than a new variety of Realgymnasium or +semi-classical school; it can hardly be said as yet to have affected the +course of classical studies in the full sense. The widespread sentiment +of discontent with the old philological type of classical school was +vigorously expressed in a private letter written by the emperor William +II. as crown prince of Prussia in 1885, but not published until +some-years later. In December 1890 the Prussian ministry convoked a +conference at Berlin of secondary school experts, and the emperor +presided in person at the opening session. His majesty delivered a +speech criticizing the Gymnasia as wanting a national basis. "It is our +duty to educate young men to become young Germans and not young Greeks +or Romans" was the keynote of the imperial discourse. The outcome of the +conference was a shortening of the hours allowed to Latin in the +Gymnasia, a reduction of the hours of study in view of over-pressure, +and an expression of official opinion adverse to the Realgymnasium. +These changes, introduced in 1892, did not go far enough to satisfy the +reformers, whilst the reduction of the hours allowed for Latin caused +misgivings among the upholders of the traditional Gymnasium. Moreover, +the Realgymnasium showed greater vitality among the large towns than its +official critics anticipated. The ensuing decade witnessed a certain +reaction in favour of the classical humanities as a barrier against the +materialistic influences of the new industrialism. At the same time the +protagonists of the classics came to recognize that side by side with +the old humanities there must be accorded to modern and scientific +subjects that place in the high-grade schools which the practical +exigencies of industrial life demanded. Thus, the opinion grew that the +best line of defence for the classical schools lay in the concession of +equal privileges to the non-classical types; in this way only could the +classical schools be kept safe from demands upon their time that could +not be conceded without endangering their proper work. It was upon this +basis that an agreement was reached between the contending parties at a +second school conference that met in Berlin in June 1900. As the result +of this conference there was issued a royal decree laying down certain +general principles, of which the following are the most important. (1) +There must be equality of privileges as between classical, +semi-classical and non-classical first-grade schools. The decree +recognizes, however, that this principle must be applied with a certain +elasticity and with due regard to the necessity for training in +particular branches of knowledge as a preliminary to certain lines of +university study and certain professional pursuits. Consequently the +Prussian system of privileges has become extremely complicated, and it +is truer to speak, as the decree goes on to do, of an extension of the +privileges of the non-classical schools, rather than of absolute +equality. (2) "In thus acknowledging the equality of the three types of +higher institutions, it will be possible more thoroughly to strengthen +the special characteristics of each type. In this connexion," the royal +decree proceeds, "I shall offer no objection to an increase in the +number of hours devoted to Latin in the Gymnasium and Realgymnasium." +Thus, both as to the place of Latin in the curriculum of classical +schools and as to the status of semi-classical schools, the decree of +1900 involves a reversal of the policy of 1890. (3) The decree expresses +approval of the reformed curricula of Altona and Frankfort, and a desire +for an extension of the experiment where the conditions are suitable. + +Notwithstanding the growing official encouragement of education upon +semi-classical or non-classical lines, the upper and professional +classes of Germany continue to show a marked preference for the fully +classical Gymnasium; hence, in Germany as in England, the tendency for a +widening gulf to disclose itself between the education of the directing +classes in politics and administration and the bulk of the industrial +population, which suggests that the problem of combining in just +proportions the liberal and practical elements in a thoroughly national +system of education has not yet reached the solution that the needs of +the age require. + + +_Switzerland._ + + Educational influence of federal constitution. + +Switzerland affords perhaps the best type of a democratic system of +local authorities. The central authority is the canton, not the +federation. The interference of the federal authority is confined to the +imposition of certain broad principles by the constitution, to the +indirect influence exerted by the examination of recruits for the +national army, and to financial grants for technical instruction, its +most important direct educational work being the support of the +technological university at Zurich. The federal constitution (1) states +that primary instruction must be under the control of the canton (an +important point in view of the strength of ecclesiastical influence in +some of the Catholic cantons), and must be compulsory and gratuitous; +(2) declares that it must be possible for the public schools to be +attended by the adherents of all creeds without hurting their freedom of +conscience; (3) forbids the employment of child labour before completion +of the fourteenth year, with a provision that in the fifteenth and +sixteenth years factory work, together with the time given to school and +religious instruction, must not exceed eleven hours a day. (4) All +recruits for the federal army (in which service is compulsory on a +militia basis) are examined in their twentieth year, and the results are +published. This examination affords an instructive index to the state of +education in the several cantons and promotes a healthy emulation among +them. + + + Cantonal organization. + +The cantonal organization of education presents the variety which the +extraordinary diversity of race, language, religion and physical +conditions of the component states of the federation would lead one to +expect. The large canton of Bern may be instanced as the type of a +strong central authority. The commune or parish is the unit for +elementary education. The communal council nominates a school board of +at least five members, whose function is to spend the money voted for +school purposes by the general communal council. Several communes in +combination form a district authority for the support of what are in +reality higher primary schools, though called in Switzerland +_Sekundarschulen_, maintained by the district. The maintenance both of +the primary and higher primary schools is aided by grants from the +central authority. The true secondary schools, called middle or higher +schools, are maintained and controlled by the central or cantonal +authority. The existence of separate local authorities for each grade of +education is characteristic of Switzerland generally, this system being +the opposite to that adopted in England in 1902. + +The central grants in Switzerland always take the form of payments to +the local authorities of a proportion of the teachers' salaries; they +are never, as in England, assessed upon the number of children in +attendance, nor are they dependent, as was formerly the case in England, +upon the results of examination, nor again are grants made in respect of +particular subjects as is the case with the grants for special, i.e. +practical, instruction in England. + +Religious instruction in the Swiss communal schools generally follows +the faith of the majority; in a few cantons separate schools being +provided for minorities if sufficiently numerous. In the town of +Lucerne, Catholic instruction is given in school hours and Protestant +instruction is provided out of school and out of hours for the +Protestant minority. + +In 19 out of the 25 cantons attendance at continuation schools is +compulsory (at least in some districts) for boys up to 17, and in 3 +cantons it is compulsory also wholly or in part for girls. + + +_Belgium._ + + Belgian treatment of religious question. + +The interesting feature in Belgian education is the treatment of the +religious question in successive laws. + +1. The law of 1842 obliged the communes to provide primary instruction, +which was to be free in the case of poor children. The state made grants +in aid, subject to inspection. Subject to a conscience clause, religious +instruction was obligatory, and was placed under ecclesiastical +inspection. + +2. The law of 1879 removed religious instruction from the curriculum, +and provided for facilities to the clergy to give such instruction +outside school hours. This law furnishes a striking instance of the +futility of a parliamentary majority legislating in a sense opposed to +the convictions of a considerable section of the community. The law +evoked a storm of opposition in the country, still profoundly Catholic +and attached to ecclesiastical traditions, and within eighteen months +the Catholics founded private elementary schools with 455,000 scholars. +In 1883 the Catholic private schools numbered 622,000 scholars, whilst +the attendance at the communal schools had sunk to 324,000. Their +doctrinaire treatment of the education question resulted in the +political annihilation of the Belgian Liberals, and was responsible for +the strongest and most persistent Roman Catholic reaction that has been +witnessed in western Europe since the beginning of the 19th century. + +3. The law of 1884 was the work of the moderate Catholic party. It did +not make religious instruction obligatory, but it gave liberty to the +communes to provide for the giving of religious and moral instruction at +the beginning or end of school hours, subject to a conscience clause. +Power was given to the communes to "adopt" private confessional schools +and maintain them. Provision was further made entitling any twenty +parents of children of school age to demand a school of the normal +communal type as against a proposal to adopt a confessional school. +Power was also given to a like number of parents to compel the adoption +of a confessional school in the case of the commune refusing to provide +religious instruction of the type demanded by them, or putting obstacles +in the way of its being given by the clergy or their representatives. + +4. The law of 1895 is the work of the more authoritarian Catholics, and +makes religious instruction obligatory, placing it directly under the +control of the clergy. It also increased the subsidies to private +schools. This law was passed in face of opposition from the moderate +section, who saw in it an exaltation of state authority which might be +turned by opponents to the disadvantage of the religious interest. It is +by no means clear that Belgium has yet attained a final solution of the +religious difficulty; the life of the present law is probably to be +measured by that of the Catholic political majority. + + +_Holland._ + +The outstanding feature of public education in Holland is the strength +of the private primary schools. Under the law of 1857 secular teaching +alone was provided in the primary schools at the public cost. The law of +1878 allowed communes to make grants to private schools on condition of +their becoming neutral in the matter of religion. The law of 1889 +allowed private denominational schools to receive government grants +while retaining their denominational character, but forbade further +grants to such schools by the communes. + +In 1905 there were 566,460 children in the public and 278,632 in the +private schools. + + +_Scotland._ + +The diverse religious and social conditions of the three constituent +parts of the United Kingdom must necessarily cause the education problem +to assume a different shape and to receive different solutions in +England, Scotland and Ireland respectively; latterly also the special +conditions obtaining in Wales have received partial recognition at the +hands both of the legislature and the executive. In Scotland the +conditions have been less complex than in England. The practical +unanimity of the people in religious faith, which has remained +undisturbed by the institutional divisions of recent times, the wider +diffusion of a sense of the value of education, the greater simplicity +of life which has rendered all classes largely content to avail +themselves of the preparatory education afforded by the common school +and favoured the development in the secondary sphere of day rather than +boarding schools, are among the causes which have contributed to the +early building up of a national system which in some respects resembles +the continental rather than the English type. + + + Historical development. + +The national appreciation of education is found marked already before +the Reformation in a statute of James IV. (1494) requiring all +freeholders of substance to send their heirs to school and to keep them +there until they had perfect Latin. The Reformation, asserting itself by +common consent under one ecclesiastical form, and free from the +divisions of religious organization which tended to neutralize it as an +educational force in England, put fresh life into the educational +aspirations of the people. As early as 1560 the Church Assembly, largely +under the influence of John Knox, put forth the _Book of Discipline_, +providing that "every several kirk" in a town "of any reputation" was to +have its Latin school, that the "upaland" or country parts were to have +a teacher of the "first rudiments" in every parish, and that each +"notable" town was to have "a college for logic, rhetoric and the +tongues." Practical effect was later given to this scheme by an act of +the Scottish parliament in 1696, under which parish schools were set up +in connexion with the Established Church of Scotland. This system was +extended by an act of 1803, which made better provision for teachers' +salaries and also confirmed the position of the parish school as an +adjunct of the parish church. The system of inspection and state aid +introduced in England in 1839 was made applicable to Scotland, thus +grafting upon Scotland the English system of voluntary state-aided +schools. At the same period another new factor was imported into +Scottish education by the ecclesiastical disruption of 1843. As a result +of these changes in 1861 a new act was passed which relaxed, though it +did not sever, the ties which bound the parish school to the church. + + + Scottish school boards and school attendance law. + +The Education (Scotland) Act of 1872 set up elective school boards for +parishes and boroughs, and vested in them the existing parish and burgh +schools. Long prior to the act it had been the practice of the Church of +Scotland to allow exemption in the schools from religious instruction; +consequently in imposing a compulsory conscience clause the act did +little more than confirm existing usage. The school boards were left +full liberty as to the religious instruction to be given in their +schools, and in practice school boards universally adopt the Shorter +Catechism, which is acceptable to all denominations of Presbyterians. +The act made the school boards responsible for the supply of school +accommodation, and introduced compulsory attendance, for which opinion +in England was not at that time ripe. By the act of 1901, the age of +compulsory attendance was raised to fourteen, with provision for +exemption after twelve. + + + Administrative progress. + +The experience of the Scottish Education Department, like that of the +English, has led to the gradual abandonment of individual examination as +the basis for the payment of grants. The institution of the merit +certificate is one of the features in which the Scottish system differs +from the English. Prior to the code of 1903 the merit certificate, +awarded on examination after the age of twelve, was properly described +as the leaving certificate of the elementary school. Under the more +recent codes merit certificates are awarded under a system designed to +encourage the transference of promising pupils at an early age to +supplementary courses or higher-grade departments. Under this system the +fitness of the pupil to enter upon a course of higher studies is +determined not solely by the results of a single examination, but by the +whole character of his work during the preceding school course. + + + Higher-grade schools. + +A notable factor historically in Scottish education was the extent to +which the parish schools supplied their best pupils with higher or +further education. The administrative changes last mentioned have led to +a remarkable development of organized higher-grade schools and +departments. These departments have now been organized upon the lines of +the higher primary schools of France, "to continue a stage further" +(says the report of the Scottish Education Department) "the general +education of that considerable body of pupils who, under new conditions, +may be expected to remain at school till fifteen or sixteen." The +function "of giving something of the nature of a specialized education +to pupils who will leave school at a comparatively early age" is now +discharged by the supplementary courses. + + + Free education. + +Elementary education has generally been rendered free by the fee grants +under the parliamentary vote, and by the sums accruing under the Local +Taxation (Customs and Excise) Act 1890 and the Education and Local +Taxation (Scotland) Act 1892. + +Voluntary schools are not numerous, being chiefly those of the Roman +Catholic Church. The average cost of maintenance per child in average +attendance in public schools (according to the official report +1907-1908) was L3, 11s. 1-1/4d., of which L2, 4s. 4-1/2d. was met by +government grants for elementary education. In voluntary schools the +average cost of maintenance was L2, 15s. 1-3/4d., of which L2, 2s. 7d. +was met by elementary grants, including a special aid grant of 3s. per +head under the Education (Scotland) Act 1897. + +The total number of children (1907-1908) in average attendance in +grant-earning schools was 712,076, and the percentage of attendances to +numbers on the register was 87.66%. As regards teaching power, 81.52% of +the male teachers and 56.71% of the female teachers in the elementary +teachers had been trained in training colleges. + + + Education (Scotland) Act 1908. + +Certain miscellaneous additional powers are conferred upon school boards +by the Education (Scotland) Act 1908, including powers to provide school +meals; in outlying parts, to provide means of conveyance, or pay +travelling expenses of teachers or pupils, or defray the cost of lodging +pupils in convenient proximity to a school; to provide for medical +inspection; and as to children neglected by reason of the ill-health or +poverty of the parent, to supply food, clothing and personal attention. + + + Compulsory continuation classes. + +Perhaps the most noteworthy provision in the act of 1908 is that which +enables (not obliges) school boards to make bye-laws requiring +attendance at continuation classes up to the age of seventeen years. +Apart from compulsory attendance, the act lays upon school boards the +duty of making suitable provision of continuation classes with reference +to the crafts and industries practised in the district. + + + Secondary education. + +The Scottish Education Act of 1872 distinguished certain burgh and +parish schools as "higher class public" or secondary schools. The act of +1908 deals in some detail with secondary education, modifying and +strengthening the framework in various ways, but without introducing +organic changes. "Secondary" schools are distinguished from +"intermediate," the former being defined as providing at least a five +years' course; the latter as providing at least a three years' course in +languages, mathematics, science and such other subjects as may from time +to time be deemed suitable for the instruction of pupils who have +reached a certain standard of attainment in elementary subjects under +the code. Intermediate and secondary schools may be provided and +maintained either by school boards or otherwise, and provision is +contained in the act for the transfer of endowed schools to the school +board. Thus secondary (as well as elementary and continuative) education +is organized upon the basis of the parish or burgh; it receives, +however, grants in aid through the agency of county (or large urban) +authorities (called district committees) constituted under schemes of +the Scottish Education Department. For the purpose of such grants in aid +the funds available under the various local taxation acts, together with +parliamentary grants, other than a fee grant at the rate of 12s. per +child in average attendance, form a fund called the Education (Scotland) +Fund. After provision has been made for (_inter alia_) grants for +universities, higher technical education and training colleges, the fund +is allocated to the district committees according to a scheme laid +before parliament and approved by the king in council. Out of the +"district education fund" the school board receives (ordinarily) a sum +equal to one-half of the amount by which the net cost to the school +board (after deducting income from grants made by the department and +from fees) exceeds the amount which would be produced by such rate per +pound upon the district of the school board as the committee may +determine, not being more than a rate of twopence in the pound. +Important powers are also conferred upon the district committee for +organizing and aiding within their district the provision by the school +boards of medical examination and supervision of school children, the +supply of bursaries for purposes of all forms of higher education, and +the provision of instruction in special subjects, such as agriculture, +&c. + + +_Ireland._ + + Special difficulties of Irish education. + +The full development of a system of public education in Ireland has been +hampered and retarded by the general difficulties inherent in the +problem of Irish government. In consequence of the fundamentally +different social, religious and political conditions in the two +countries, the English and Irish systems have developed down to the +present time upon divergent lines. In England, popular education was +founded in the first instance upon individual initiative combining in +organized voluntary effort, and, though the voluntary agencies have been +first supplemented and latterly to a large extent supplanted by public +action, the tendency has been in the direction of municipalization +rather than in that of central state control. In Ireland, on the other +hand, education has suffered in the past from the general absence of +individual initiative and local interest almost as seriously as from the +mistakes of the English government. These causes, more directly perhaps +than the prevailing poverty of the country, made it necessary to throw +the burden of supporting the schools to an increasing extent upon the +state, while the want of local self-government precluded any devolution +of powers and duties upon municipal authorities. + + + Historic retrospect. + +State intervention is actually of earlier date in Ireland than in +England. From the reign of Elizabeth onwards, English Protestant schools +were founded by the government in a sporadic and intermittent fashion in +pursuance of its Anglicizing policy. To mention briefly one or two +historical features, the great religious educational enterprise of +Edmond Rice in founding the well-known Irish Catholic order of the +Christian Brothers in 1802 forms an exception to the general lack of +initiative among the people themselves. About the same period the +Kildare Place Society (founded in 1811 while the first commission of +inquiry into Irish education was sitting) attempted to grapple with the +peculiar difficulties of the religious situation upon lines somewhat +similar to those just laid down by Lancaster and his followers in +England. This organization comprised both Roman Catholic and Protestant +schools upon a common religious basis of Bible reading without note or +comment, and received government grants which rose to L30,000 a year +before they were discontinued in 1833. The religious compromise which +the system embodied broke down in consequence of Catholic +dissatisfaction, and that it was at first fairly successful may seem +extraordinary in view of the later attitude of the Catholic Church +towards the question of common schools and combined religious +instruction. + + + The national system. + +In 1833, as the result of a second commission of inquiry (1824) and a +select committee of the House of Commons (1828), Mr Stanley inaugurated +the national system of elementary schools under a board of commissioners +nominated from the different religious denominations. The government +appears from the outset to have aimed at combined secular and separate +religious instruction for Roman Catholics and Protestants. At the same +time, an attempt was inconsistently made to provide an ethical basis for +the secular instruction by means of Bible extracts. The story of the +preparation of these extracts by an ingenious compound of the Protestant +Authorized and Douai versions of Scripture is in its way one of the +curiosities of religious history. The extracts were designed to meet the +recognized Catholic objection to the indiscriminate reading of the Bible +without note or comment. In practice they were chiefly used in the +Protestant schools (in which their use is now practically extinct), and +the growing Catholic objection to the policy of the National Board in +this respect found authoritative, though somewhat cautiously worded, +expression in a decree of the Roman Congregation De Propaganda Fide of +January 11, 1846, declaring that non-sectarian religious instruction was +dangerous to youth. "Tutius multo esse ut literarum tantummodo humanarum +magisterium fiat in scholis promiscuis, quam ut fundamentales, ut aiunt, +et communes religionis Christianae articuli restricte tradantur, +reservata singulis sestis peculiari seorsum eruditione. Ita enim cum +pueris agere periculosum valde videtur." The religious difficulty in +Irish elementary education may be said to have been solved in process of +time by the conversion of the national system in practice, though not in +theory, into a system strongly denominational and therefore widely +different from the design of its founders, combined Biblical instruction +being discarded, and separate schools for the most part taking the place +of common schools for the two creeds. In the latter respect the like +tendency has been noted in the case of Germany. + +The following are the chief specific points upon which the Irish system +of elementary education differs from the English. + + + Irish elementary education. + +_Finance._--The state still makes building grants to the extent of +two-thirds of the cost. Such grants are only made to what are called +vested schools, that is to say, schools of which the premises are vested +in trustees or in the commissioners themselves. The state further pays +in the case of all national schools the entire cost of maintenance +except only the upkeep of the building, and the provision of books after +the exhaustion of a first free grant. + +_Appointment and Payment of Teachers._--For the purpose of promotion the +state through its inspectors undertakes the duty of classifying the +individual teachers in four grades, passage from one grade to another +being secured by examination. Appointments of teachers to schools are +made by the school managers subject to the approval of the +commissioners. Rights of dismissal are reserved to the local managers +and also to the commissioners independently. Lastly, the teachers' +salaries are now paid directly by the state. The old system of payment +by results was abandoned in 1900, and the teacher is paid (a) a fixed +salary according to grade, (b) a continued good service salary which may +be increased triennially, (c) a capitation payment. + +_Convent Schools._--In addition to the national schools supported as +above, there are a considerable number of convent or monastery schools +which receive capitation grants after the English plan, but not direct +salaries. There were 308 such schools in 1908, with an average +attendance of 70,003. There were also 83 other convent or monastery +schools paid by personal salaries, with an average attendance of 11,075. + +_School Attendance and Free Education._--The Irish Education Act 1892 +provided for compulsory attendance in towns and for the adoption of +compulsion in other districts. In virtue of the financial sections of +this act, which provided an increased grant for salaries, most national +schools have become free. + +_General Elementary-School Statistics._--In 1908 the average number of +scholars on the rolls of all the schools was 708,992, and the average +daily attendance was 494,662, or 69.8% as compared with the number on +the rolls. As regards religious denomination, 74.42% of the scholars on +the rolls were Roman Catholics; 28.6% were in schools attended by both +Roman Catholic and Protestant children and 71.4% in schools attended +solely by Roman Catholics or solely by Protestants. The total +expenditure on the schools and teaching staffs was L1,591,214, of which +L1,451,139, equivalent to L2, 19s. 3d. per scholar, was contributed from +state grants, and L140,074, equivalent to 5s. 9d. per scholar, from +local (i.e. voluntary) sources, the rate per scholar from all sources +being L3, 5s. + +_Training of Teachers._--Salaried monitors are employed in the Irish +schools, but, unlike the English pupil teachers, are not explicitly +recognized as forming part of the school staff. There are now seven +training colleges, viz. one undenominational college maintained by the +commissioners, five Roman Catholic colleges, and one college in +connexion with the Protestant Episcopal Church of Ireland. Of the +scholars in the undenominational college, 73 out of 312 were Roman +Catholics. The total number of students in training was 1189, viz. 514 +men and 675 women. The percentage of trained teachers to the total +number of teachers was 64.7. A special training college for the +instruction of teachers in Irish has been recognized. + + + Secondary education. + +One of the chief desiderata in Irish education is a single central +authority for all branches of education, elementary, secondary (or +"intermediate") and technical. There are two central authorities +dealing with secondary education, viz. the Intermediate Education Board +and the Department for Agriculture and Technical Instruction. The +Intermediate Board administers sums available under the Intermediate +Education Act of 1878 from the Irish Church Surplus, and also the sum +allocated under the Local Taxation Act 1890. The vice of the system in +the opinion of educational experts lies in the statutory obligation to +award grants on the result of an individual examination of the scholars. +As a result of the vice-regal commission of 1898, power was taken to +introduce a system of school inspection, though not to dispense with the +individual examination as the basis for the award of the grants; this +measure of reform was ultimately carried out in 1909. The sum +distributed in result grants is about L50,000 per annum. + +Prior to the Agriculture and Technical Instruction (Ireland) Act 1899, +science and art grants were administered by the Science and Art +Department in England; by this act they were transferred to the new +Irish Department for Agriculture and Technical Instruction. This +department makes block grants to secondary schools in respect of science +and art teaching, and manual instruction or domestic economy. Measures +have been taken for the co-ordination of the duties of the Technical +Department and the Intermediate Board, and the impetus given to the +teaching of experimental science by grants for the erection of +laboratories represents a reform of undoubted value for higher education +in Ireland, especially when considered in connexion with the enlistment +of the local interest of the technical education committees in the +intermediate schools. Nevertheless, in the absence of a reform of the +results system of intermediate grants, the special subsidizing of +science teaching has tended to put an undue premium upon this subject to +the detriment of the rest of the curriculum. + +Ireland possesses no such system of scholarships for assisting the +passage of scholars from the elementary to the secondary school as +England enjoys as a result of the municipalization of the educational +system. Nevertheless, Irish children as a fact pass much more freely +from the elementary to the secondary school than is the case in England +where social prejudices are stronger. The schools of the Christian +Brothers are usually organized in two departments, primary and +intermediate, and thus supply for the Roman Catholic population the +demand for the cheap type of secondary day school represented by the +municipal schools in England. It must be added that the Irish +intermediate schools are purely denominational. The widespread demand +for secondary education among the people, to which the report of Messrs +Dale and Stephens bears witness, is a gratifying feature of Irish life, +while the recent establishment (1908) of the long-deferred national +university, and the perceptible quickening of intellectual interests +throughout the country in connexion with the Celtic revival, point to +better conditions for higher education and to the development of a +wider, deeper and truer, because more national, culture. + + +_England._ + +It was justly observed by Sir Joshua Fitch (_Ency. Brit._, 10th ed., +xxvii. p. 655) that "the public provision for the education of the +people in England is not the product of any theory or plan formulated +beforehand by statesmen or philosophers; it has come into existence +through a long course of experiments, compromises, traditions, +successes, failures and religious controversies. What has been done in +this department of public policy is the resultant of many diverse forces +and of slow evolution and growth rather than of pure purpose and +well-defined national aims. It has been effected in different degrees by +philanthropy, by private enterprise, by religious zeal, by ancient +universities and endowed foundations, by municipal and local effort, and +only to a small extent by legislation. The genius--or rather +characteristic habit--of the English people is averse from the +philosophical system, and is disposed to regard education, not as a +science, but as a body of expedients to be discovered empirically and +amended from time to time as occasion may require." Clearly, then, the +English system of public education, as it results from successive acts +of the administration and the legislature, is one which can only +adequately be appreciated in the light of an historical survey of the +various stages which have led up to it and the social conditions by +which they were determined. The history of state education in England +begins tardily in 1832, when after a generation of hesitation and +controversy a beginning was made upon an exceedingly modest scale with +the system of treasury grants in aid of elementary schools. The diverse +forces which were at that date at work in the education of the nation as +a whole, retarding state interference and marking out the limits within +which it was long to be confined, derive their origin from a much +remoter period. + + + Influence of the English Reformation. + +The apprenticeship laws of Henry VIII. contain the earliest germ of +state interference. These laws obliged children between five and +thirteen years of age who were found begging or idle to be bound +apprentices to some handicraft. If the immediate object was the +prevention of crime rather than education as such, this early +legislation is at least significant of the primary and intimate +connexion that exists between popular education and industrial and +economic needs. Yet in the shaping of the educational system the +original influences were religious rather than economic; hence the +importance of the canons of 1604, which secured the control of education +to the Established Church. This of course was no novel doctrine, but +merely the reaffirmation by the Reformed Church of the Catholic +tradition of religious exclusiveness, presenting itself to the mind of +contemporaries rather as the recognition of a national, that was also a +religious, duty than as the assumption of an ecclesiastical privilege. +Whatever mischief the Tudor statesmen wrought by indiscriminate +destruction of chantries and other foundations which combined +educational work with observances that the new religion branded as +superstitions, however far the English Reformation fell short of the +organized enthusiasm for popular education and culture that marked the +first most vigorous and constructive period of Lutheranism in Germany, +the Protestant, and especially the Puritan, spirit unquestionably +inspired a considerable volume of individual educational effort during +the latter half of the 16th and the first half of the 17th centuries. +Here, as in Germany, the influence of the Reformation was wholly on the +side of classicism, the dead languages being the key to the theological +learning which was of primary concern to the men of that theological +age. The conception of elementary education as a system complete in +itself and adapted to the needs of the masses of the people was +unfamiliar at this date. The earliest elementary schools were _petits_ +schools, which (as the name implies) were really preparatory departments +of the grammar-schools. Education in fact was still regarded as the +privilege of an elite, but, as in the middle ages, the elite for whom it +was sought to provide a ladder to the university by means of the endowed +schools so numerously founded about this time was an elite of intellect +and not of mere wealth; the class feeling which became so marked a +feature of English higher education was of much later growth. + + + Rise of elementary education. + +Towards the end of the 17th century elementary education began to +differentiate itself, partly by way of reaction against the unnatural +classicism of the preceding age, but more especially as the result of +the growth of towns and the creation of a considerable industrial +population. At the close of the century the moral evils attendant upon +industrialism alarmed the religious conscience and prompted one of the +great educational movements that stand to the credit of the national +church. In 1699 Dr Bray founded the Society for Promoting Christian +Knowledge, and the movement thereby initiated may be traced in the +numerous "charity" or "Blue Coat" schools scattered plentifully +throughout the country and especially in the great centres of +population. The foundation of these schools, which was pushed forward +with vigour during the early years of the 18th century, represents an +energetic and well-planned attempt to cope with the social evil of +poverty by educational means. The instruction was elementary, the +scholars were clothed as well as taught free, and the schools in the +first instance were supported not so much by permanent endowment as by +voluntary effort, so that with this movement the voluntary system may be +said to make its appearance. Lastly, all these philanthropic efforts +were inspired by a solid but sober piety nurtured by a church which came +nearer than at any other period of its history to enjoying the undivided +allegiance of the people. Another notable movement in connexion with the +church was one confined to Wales, that of the Welsh "circulating +schools" established by Griffith Jones about 1730, consisting of an +organized staff of schoolmasters who went round teaching adults to read +the Bible in Welsh. In the English rural parishes the comparative +religious unanimity favoured the quiet development of elementary +education in a small way upon less specifically religious lines. +Numerous small endowments for the elementary education of poor children +were provided by well-to-do parishioners; indeed to such an extent did +the practice of making charitable (and largely educational) bequests +increase that the legislature intervened in the interest of private +inheritance by reviving the law of mortmain in an act of 1736. The +village schoolmaster became a feature of rural life, frequently enjoying +a schoolhouse provided sometimes by endowment and sometimes even +directly by the parishioners at the cost of the rate levied by the +vestry, but more often aided only by a little stipend from an endowment +for teaching poor children, and eking out an always scanty subsistence +by the fees of such paying scholars as he could succeed in getting +together. + + + The Sunday-school movement. + +Towards the end of the 18th century the emergency of the industrial +revolution evoked a fresh religious effort upon a more highly organized +scale in the shape of the Sunday-school movement, which may be said to +represent the educational contribution of the Evangelical revival Robert +Raikes, the founder of the Sunday School Union, established his first +Sunday school in 1782. The idea of the Sunday school did not originate +with Raikes; among earlier pioneers in this field were John Wesley, who +held Sunday classes at Savannah in 1737; Theophilus Lindsey at Catterick +in the North Riding of Yorkshire, about 1769; Hannah Ball at High +Wycombe in 1769; and Jenkin Morgan near Llanidloes in 1770. Sunday +schools, too, had been founded in England by Joseph Alleine, the Puritan +Father, in the 17th century, and in Catholic Italy and France by St +Charles Borromeo and Jean Baptiste de la Salle in the 16th and 17th +centuries respectively. Nevertheless, in virtue of his achievement in +organization, Raikes is rightly regarded as the founder of the English +Sunday school. The peculiar value of the Sunday-school system in its +early days lay in the combination of secular with religious instruction; +in many cases the school was held on Saturday as well as Sunday, and its +restriction to the one day or two days was due to the prevalence of +child labour under stress of the great industrial expansion. With better +economic conditions and with the development of day schools the Sunday +schools gradually became restricted in function to purely religious +instruction. Even with this limitation there is no doubt that the great +Sunday-school organizations of the various churches still deserve to be +reckoned among the educational assets of the nation, and as agencies +both of religious instruction and of general culture they may tend, +under modern educational and religious developments, to play an +increasingly important part. + + + Movements of Lancaster and Bell, and rise of the religious controversy. + +At the end of the 18th century the development of industry and the +social unrest which followed the French Revolution combined to bring +home to the public mind the need of a national system of day schools. +Unfortunately, just at this moment the revival of Nonconformity as the +result of the religious vitality of the Evangelical movement shattered +the religious peace of the early Hanoverian period and divided the +nation once more into hostile camps, to which class distinctions lent +additional bitterness. The famous controversy between Andrew Bell and +Joseph Lancaster and their respective followers in the opening years of +the 19th century served to define the religious difficulty substantially +in the form in which it exists after the lapse of a century for the +present generation. Both these remarkable men conceived independently +the idea of a national system of popular education upon a voluntary +basis; both concurred in extolling the merits of the monitorial system, +which each claimed to have originated. The controversy between them, +begun upon personal grounds, resolved itself into a national contest of +rival principles of religious teaching. Lancaster as a young Quaker +schoolmaster, confronted with pupils drawn from various religious +bodies, planned his religious instruction upon the lines of doctrine +common to all the orthodox Christian denominations. Thus he is the +father of the undenominational religious teaching which later formed the +basis of the Cowper-Temple compromise. But whereas the Cowper-Temple +clause is purely negative in form and so seems to point to an undogmatic +religion, the Lancasterian teaching was essentially positive and +dogmatic within its limits. In 1805 Mrs Trimmer opened the attack upon +Lancaster's system with a work bearing the expressive title of _A +Comparative View of the New Plan of Education promulgated by Mr Joseph +Lancaster and of the System of Christian Instruction founded by our +Forefathers for the initiation of the young members of the Established +Church in the Principles of the Reformed Religion_. The church as a +whole refused to co-operate in religious teaching upon the basis of a +common Christianity, and joined issue with Lancaster and his Whig and +Nonconformist following not merely upon the question of the exclusion of +dogmatic formularies, but also upon the question of the control of +whatever religious teaching should be given. In fact the vital question +at this period was whether the clergy of the Established Church were to +control the national education. The religious issue was prominent in +connexion with the remarkable attempt at legislation made by the Whig +statesman Mr Whitbread in his Parochial Schools Bill of 1807. As +originally introduced, the bill proposed to make it compulsory on +parochial vestries to levy rates for the support of schools for teaching +reading, writing and arithmetic. The compulsory provisions were dropped +in the House of Commons, but the bill was rejected by the Lords, mainly +on the ground that it did not place education on a religious basis or +sufficiently secure control to the minister of the parish. + + + Foundation of voluntary schools. + +The failure of the liberal proposals of Whitbread, and the strength of +the Dissenting opposition to any settlement on purely church lines (such +as that advocated by Bell in 1808 for establishing schools under the +control of the parochial clergy), rendered recourse to voluntary effort +inevitable. In 1808 the Royal Lancasterian Society was formed to carry +on the work of Lancaster, the name being afterwards changed, owing to +personal difficulties due to the wayward character of Lancaster, to the +British and Foreign School Society. In the following year the National +Society for Promoting the Education of the Poor in the Principles of the +Established Church throughout England and Wales was formed, with Bell as +its superintendent. In voluntary effort on a grand scale the church +easily outdistanced her opponents, and in 1831 the National Society was +able to show that there were in all over 13,000 schools in connexion +with the church, of which 6470 were both day and Sunday schools, having +a total attendance of 409,000. + + + Monitorial system. + +The rapid development of the voluntary school system was no doubt +greatly facilitated by the monitorial plan of teaching, upon which Bell +and Lancaster equally relied. Probably the first idea of utilizing the +older pupils to teach the younger presented itself independently to +Lancaster in the Borough Road and to Bell in Madras. The monitorial plan +never rested upon any educational theory; it was simply a makeshift, a +rough-and-ready expedient for overcoming the practical difficulty caused +by the dearth of competent teachers. Historically it is important as the +precursor of the pupil-teacher system which so long formed the exclusive +basis of the English elementary system. + + + Activities of Brougham. + +Meantime a further political move was attempted by Brougham, who +included educational reform among his multifarious activities. In 1816 +he procured the appointment of a general commission of inquiry into +endowed charities. The labours of this great inquisition lasted for +twenty years and led to the reformation of many cases of abuse or waste +of wealthy endowments, and eventually to the establishment of the +Charity Commission in 1853. In 1820 Brougham introduced a remarkable +bill which proposed to make the magistrates in quarter sessions the +rating authority, to require teachers to be members of the Church of +England and to be appointed upon a certificate from the parochial +clergyman, and on the other hand to prohibit religious formularies and +to confine religious instruction to Bible reading without comment. The +bill naturally failed through the opposition cf the Dissenters, and +served only to accentuate the religious impasse. + + + Treasury grants. + +In 1832 the Whig government which passed the Reform Bill placed on the +Estimates a sum of L20,000 for public education, thus initiating the +system of the annual grant voted by parliament and dispensed under +regulations framed by administrative act. The grant of 1832 was +administered by the treasury and not by a special department, under +certain conditions laid down by treasury minute of August 30, 1833. The +chief of these were that grants were confined to the erection of school +buildings, and were to be administered only through the National and the +British and Foreign School societies; there was a provision for audit, +but no condition of inspection. + + + Establishment of State-aided system. + +In 1839 Lord Melbourne's government by means of an order in council +established a separate education office under the style of the Committee +of Council on Education, and the sum voted by parliament was increased +to L39,000. The original intention of the government was to establish a +state normal school or training college as the foundation of a national +system of education. Unfortunately this design had to be abandoned in +view of the religious difficulty, with the result (so fruitful in +controversy at the present time) that the training of elementary +teachers was left in private hands and became a stronghold of the +voluntary and denominational interests. In view of the limited resources +placed at their disposal by parliament, the Committee of Council were at +first compelled to confine their assistance to capital grants in aid of +the provision of school buildings, but in the distribution of the money +three important conditions were at once imposed. In the first place, the +continuing right of inspection was required in all cases; secondly, +promoters were obliged to conform to a fixed standard of structural +efficiency; thirdly, the building must be settled upon trusts +permanently securing it to the education of poor children. + + + Concordat with the church. + +By the minute of August 10, 1840, the Committee of Council concluded +what came to be known as the concordat with the church. Under this +minute no appointment was to be made of any person to inspect schools in +connexion with the Church of England without the concurrence of the +archbishop of the province, and, what seems still more extraordinary to +modern ideas, any such appointment was to be revoked should the +archbishop at any time withdraw his concurrence. The inspectors were +charged with the duty of inspecting religious teaching, but under +instructions to be framed by the archbishop, and their reports were to +be transmitted in duplicate to the archbishop and the bishop for the +information of these authorities. Further, the general instructions of +the Committee of Council themselves were to be communicated to the +archbishop before being finally sanctioned. The march of events, and in +particular the altered financial relations between the state and the +voluntary managers brought about by the institution of maintenance +grants, soon rendered this concordat obsolete, but it remains +historically important as showing how at the outset the denominational +principle was recognized and fostered by the state. + + + Trust deeds. + +Among the first acts of the Committee of Council was the promulgation of +a set of model trusts deeds, one or other of which applicants for +building grants were required to adopt for the settlement of their +school premises. The necessary conditions were the permanent +appropriation of the site to purposes of education, and the permanent +right of government inspection; it must, however, be noted that this +latter right was generally limited in terms to the inspection provided +for by the minute of August 10, 1840. A conscience clause was not +obligatory, and indeed was only offered in the limited form of exemption +from instruction in formularies and attendance at Sunday school or +public worship. A more systematic attempt to promote public control by +means of trust deeds in 1846 led the Committee of Council into a +controversy with the National Society which extended over a period of +three years, turning chiefly upon the management clauses and the +question of appeals, and resulting in compromises which constituted a +fresh concordat with the church. In point of fact, the management +clauses proved to be of little practical consequence, save in a few +controversial cases, until the act of 1902, which had the effect of +bringing them once more into prominence in connexion with the +constitution of statutory bodies of foundation managers. The act of 1902 +also dealt specifically with two other points arising upon the old trust +deeds, viz. the control of religious instruction and the appeal to the +bishop in religious questions. Special facilities for the conveyance of +land for school purposes were afforded to limited owners by the School +Sites Acts of 1841 and subsequent years. The landed gentry responded +with great public spirit to the call thus made upon their generosity by +the state, with the result that the vast majority of rural, and many +urban, parishes were freely endowed with sites for elementary schools. + + + Grammar Schools Act 1840. + +The Grammar Schools Act of 1840, which was passed to deal with the case +of the decayed "grammar" (i.e. classical) schools which abounded +throughout the country, belongs to the history of elementary rather than +secondary education. It expressly empowered the Court of Chancery, where +the endowment was insufficient for a classical school, to substitute +subjects of useful learning analogous to those contained in the original +trusts. As a result of this act a considerable number of ancient +endowments were reorganized so as to afford an improved elementary +instead of an inefficient classical education, and the schemes made +under the act constituted an early, but not very successful, experiment +in the direction of higher elementary schools. + + + Training-college grants. + +In 1843 the Committee of Council decided to make grants in aid of the +erection of normal schools or training colleges in connexion with the +National Society and the British and Foreign School societies, thus +marking the definite abandonment of the provision of training colleges +to voluntary effort. + + + Pupil-teacher system. + +In 1846 an important step forwards was taken in the foundation of the +pupil-teacher system. The regulations of this year inaugurated annual +maintenance grants in the form of stipends for apprenticed pupil +teachers receiving a prescribed course of instruction under the head +teacher, and a lower grade of stipendiary monitors in schools where such +instruction could not be provided. These regulations inaugurated the +system of Queen's Scholarships to assist pupil teachers to proceed to a +training college; they also established capitation grants for the +support of such colleges, and annual grants to elementary schools under +government inspection of from L15 to L30 in aid of the salary of every +trained teacher employed. Provision was at the same time made for +retiring pensions to elementary teachers. + + + Extension of state aid to Wesleyans, Roman Catholics and Jews. + +Down to 1847 state aid was confined to two religious categories of +schools: those giving specifically Church of England teaching, and those +in connexion with the British and Foreign School Society giving simple +Bible teaching. To facilitate the recognition of other denominational +schools the Committee of Council in 1847 issued a minute dispensing +schools not connected with the Established Church from inquiries +concerning their religious condition, and in the same year state aid was +extended to Wesleyan and Roman Catholic schools. The settlement of model +trust deeds gave occasion for each of these two great religious bodies +to negotiate a kind of concordat with respect to school management, and +the Roman Catholic deed was only settled after a controversy, similar to +that which had arisen with the National Society, as to the rights of +ecclesiastical authority. Jewish schools received recognition in 1851 +upon condition that the Scriptures of the Old Testament should be daily +read in them. + + + Bills of 1842-57. + +During the middle years of the century various unsuccessful legislative +attempts were made to establish a national system of elementary schools +upon the basis of rate-aid. These attempts began with the education +clauses of Sir Robert Peel's Factory Bill of 1842, and were renewed in a +series of bills from 1853 to 1857, of which one set was introduced by +Lord John Russell on behalf of the Whig government, whilst a second was +promoted by an organization called the Manchester and Salford Committee +on Education, in the denominational interest, and a third set by an +organization called the Lancashire (afterwards the National) Public +Schools Association, in the secular interest. The only one of these +attempts which calls for notice here is the bill introduced by Lord John +Russell (called the Borough Bill, on account of its being restricted to +municipal boroughs) in 1853, and forming part of a comprehensive scheme +of legislative and administrative reform of which a portion was actually +carried into effect. The bill as a measure for elementary education was +supplemented by an administrative system of capitation grants for rural +areas. The government scheme also comprised a measure dealing with the +administration of charitable trusts (which took shape as the Charitable +Trusts Act 1853), the constitution of the Department of Science and Art, +and university reform upon the lines recommended by the Oxford and +Cambridge commissions. The Borough Bill left it optional with +municipalities to adopt the act. It provided for the appointment of a +school committee, one half of whose members might be non-members of the +council. The school committee was merely given power to assist existing +voluntary schools out of the rates. No provision was made for public +control beyond the requirement of audit; the sole condition as to +religious instruction was the acceptance of a conscience clause. + + + Capitation grants. + +The failure of the Borough Bill did not affect the new system of +capitation grants which was introduced by minute of the Committee of +Council dated April 2, 1853. These grants were fixed at a scale varying +from 3s. to 6s. per head, payable upon certain conditions, of which the +most important were that the school must be under a certificated +teacher, and that three-fourths of the children must pass a prescribed +examination. In consequence of the failure of the several fresh bills +introduced in 1855 by the government, the church party and the secular +party respectively amplifying the proposals previously brought forward, +the capitation grant was, by minute of January 26, 1856, extended to +urban areas. As in the case of all the early grants, the regulations +governing the distribution of the capitation grants were framed upon the +principle that subventions of public money must be met by local funds +derived from voluntary contributions, endowments and school fees; thus +the basis of the denominational system as fostered by the state at this +stage was one of financial partnership. + + + Education minister, 1856. + +In 1856 a purely administrative bill was passed, establishing the office +of vice-president of the Committee of Council on Education as a minister +responsible to parliament. At the same time, the Science and Art +Department was transferred from the Board of Trade to the Committee of +Council. + + + Newcastle Commission. + +The progress of state-aided education during this period may be measured +by the increase of the annual parliamentary grant, which rose from +L30,000 in 1839 to L100,000 in 1846, L150,000 in 1851, L396,000 in 1855, +and L663,400 in 1858. This expansion was viewed with misgiving by the +friends of the denominational system, and by the strong individualist +school of that day, who upon wider grounds clung to the old ideal of +voluntary initiative. These sections combined with the advocates of +further state intervention to press for a commission of inquiry, and at +the instance of Sir John Pakington (the eminent Conservative +educationist who was responsible for the denominational bills of the +'fifties) a royal commission was appointed in 1858, under the +chairmanship of the duke of Newcastle, to inquire into the state of +popular education in England, and to consider and report what measures, +if any, were required for the extension of sound and cheap elementary +instruction to all classes of the people. The _Report_ of the Newcastle +Commission, issued in 1861, contains an exhaustive account of the +existing condition of elementary education, and, with due allowance for +the grave defects revealed, and in particular the glaring inefficiency +of the numerous little private-venture schools kept by "dames" and +others, the graphic picture drawn by the commissioners constitutes a +striking tribute to the sterling qualities of self-help and religious +earnestness which were so characteristic of the early Victorian period. +It was found that in round numbers about 2,500,000 children were +attending day schools, the proportion to population being 1 in 7, as +compared with 1 in 9 in France, 1 in 8 in Holland, and 1 in 6 in +Prussia, where education was compulsory. On the other hand, of this +number only 1,675,000 were in public schools of all kinds, only +1,100,000 in schools liable to inspection, and 917,000 in schools +receiving annual grant. The result was that only one child in every +twenty was attending a school whose efficiency could be in any way +guaranteed by the state. In the constructive portion of their work the +comments and recommendations of the commissioners reflected the +prevailing perplexity of the public mind. A consistent individualistic +minority considered that the annual grant should be withdrawn +altogether, and that any further state aid should be confined to +building grants, which they would concede not as desirable in themselves +but as necessitated out of considerations of fairness to the parishes +that had not yet received such aid. The commissioners as a body rejected +free and compulsory education in view of the religious difficulty and +upon general grounds of individualistic principle. Of the religious +difficulty itself the commissioners had some wise words to say which +hold good in substance at the present time. In their judgment the +considerable evidence they had amassed conclusively proved that the +religious difficulty originated with the managers, promoters and +organizers of the schools, and not with the parents themselves; yet the +indifferent or comparatively passive attitude of the people nowise +materially diminished the practical difficulty of introducing a +comprehensive system, since it was not with the body of the people but +with the founders and supporters of schools that legislators would +always have to deal. In view of the solution adopted in 1902 it is of +interest to note that the Newcastle Commissioners deliberately rejected +the parish as unfit to be taken as the unit of elementary education upon +the ground that management by parochial ratepayers must tend to be +illiberal and niggardly, bent upon economy of the rates to the detriment +of educational interests; accordingly they recommended the constitution +of county boards (which in the absence of elective councils must needs +originate with quarter sessions) clothed with power to levy a rate for +the aid of existing voluntary schools. + + + Payment by results. + +The one definite achievement of the Newcastle Commission was the famous +system of payment by results, which may be said to have excited a keener +and more prolonged controversy than any other measure of a purely +educational character. Impressed by the defects of the existing +teaching, the commissioners reported that there was only one way of +securing efficiency, and that was to institute a searching examination +by competent authority of every child in every school to which grants +were to be paid, with the view of ascertaining whether the indispensable +elements of knowledge were thoroughly acquired, and to make the +prospects and position of the teacher dependent to a considerable extent +upon the results of this examination. Thus the commissioners hoped to +counteract what appeared to them to be the crying defect of the existing +training college system, viz. that it tended mainly to adapt the young +schoolmaster to advance his higher, rather than to thoroughly ground his +junior, pupils. They recognized that to raise the character of the +children, both morally and intellectually, was and must always be the +highest aim of education, and they were far from desiring to supersede +this by any plan of a mere examination into the more mechanical work of +elementary education, the reading, writing and arithmetic of young +children; but they thought that the importance of this training, which +must be the foundation of all other teaching, had been lost sight of, +and that there was justice in the common complaint that while a fourth +of the scholars were really taught, three-fourths after leaving school +forgot everything they had learnt there. + + + Revised Code. + +Mr Lowe (Lord Sherbrooke) as vice-president of the Committee of Council +(1859-1864) adopted the system of payment by results in what became +famous in history as the Revised Code, issued in 1862 and so called +because it was a revision of the minutes and regulations of the +Committee of Council, which were first collected and issued in the form +of a code in 1860. The Revised Code provided for the payment of a grant +of 4s. upon the old principle and a further grant of not more than 8s. +upon the result of examination. Mr Lowe declared of the system in the +House of Commons that "if it was costly it should at least be efficient; +and if it was inefficient it should at least be cheap." In fact, it +proved to be cheap; the giant fell from L813,400 in 1861 to L636,800 in +1865. The upholders of the existing system denounced the Revised Code as +an undeserved slight upon the voluntary managers, and even as a breach +of faith with the great religious denominations. On purely educational +grounds, which need not be here re-capitulated, it was at once viewed +with misgiving by many authorities, including Matthew Arnold. To meet +objections, some modifications were introduced in the code under the +Conservative government in 1867. The system of paying grant upon the +result of individual examination of the scholars was not finally +abolished till 1904. + + + Proceedings preliminary to the act of 1870. + +The years immediately preceding 1870 were occupied with discussion and +preparation for the great legislative measure for which the time was now +felt to have arrived. Good work was done in this direction by the Select +Committee of the House of Commons in 1866, over which Sir John Pakington +presided. For reasons connected with the political situation of the +moment this committee never reported, but the minutes of evidence and +the draft report prepared by Sir John Pakington contained much valuable +material in the way of criticism of the existing system and suggestion +for the coming settlement; in particular the draft report insisted upon +the inevitableness of an education rate. In 1868 the Conservative +government brought in, but did not proceed with, an education bill +deliberately discarding the principle of rate-aid on the ground that it +would destroy voluntary contributions and gradually starve out the +denominational schools. In 1867 and again in 1868 Mr Bruce (afterwards +Lord Aberdare), Mr W.E. Forster and Mr Algernon Egerton introduced a +bill which formed the basis of the measure of 1870. As redrafted in 1868 +the bill of Mr Bruce and his coadjutors proposed a universal system of +municipal and parochial rating with liberty for voluntary schools to +unite themselves to the rate-aided system under their existing +management, subject to the acceptance of a conscience clause. The bill +also proposed to empower town councils to co-opt outsiders upon their +education committees. Thus both in the principle of co-optation and in +the extension of rate aid to schools not under public control the bill +of these Liberal statesmen in 1868 anticipated certain controverted +features of Mr Balfour's Education Act of 1902. In the meantime, in the +country the Education League, originated at Birmingham, was carrying on +a propaganda in favour of free secular schools, whilst the Education +Union, formed to counteract the influence of the league, urged a +settlement upon the old lines. As a concession to the popular feeling +against secularism, the league proposed to allow Bible reading without +doctrinal exposition. Thus opinion was sufficiently focussed to enable +Mr Gladstone's administration in 1870 to undertake the comprehensive +measure of educational reform for which the country had had to wait so +long. + + + Act of 1870. + +The Elementary Education Act of 1870 bore in every respect the marks of +compromise. As Mr Forster explained in introducing the bill, the object +of the government was "to complete the voluntary system and to fill up +gaps," not to supplant it. To this end the Education Department was +charged with the duty of ascertaining whether or not there was in every +parish a deficiency of public school accommodation, and provision made +for the formation of school boards in every school district (i.e. parish +or municipal borough) requiring further public school accommodation. +Such accommodation might consist either of public elementary schools as +defined by the act, or other schools giving efficient and suitable +elementary education. The definition of public elementary school +contained in section 7 of the act is still in force. Shortly, a public +elementary school is a school subject to a conscience clause entitling +scholars to complete exemption from all religious instruction and +observance whatsoever. Any religious instruction or observance in the +school must be either at the beginning or the end of the school meeting. +The school must also be open at all times to the government inspectors +and must be conducted in accordance with the conditions required to be +fulfilled in order to obtain an annual parliamentary grant. In the same +connexion an important change was made in the conditions of inspection +by declaring that it should be no part of the duties of the inspector to +inquire into religious instruction, whilst a later section of the act +provided that no parliamentary grant should be made in respect of any +religious instruction. + +Three important changes were made in the measure during its passage +through parliament. As at first proposed, (1) the school boards were not +to be directly elected by the ratepayers, but were to be appointed by +the town council or the vestry. (2) These nominated boards were +empowered either to provide schools themselves or to assist existing +public elementary schools, provided that such assistance was granted on +equal terms to all such schools, upon conditions to be approved by the +Education Department. Thus the school board, if it exercised the option +of assisting denominational schools, would have been obliged to assist +all or none. (3) With regard to its own schools, the school board was to +settle the form of religious instruction. These proposals raised serious +opposition in the country, and when the committee stage of the bill was +reached two fundamental changes were made in the policy of the bill. In +the first place, as Mr Gladstone put it, the government had decided "to +sever altogether the tie between the local board and the voluntary +schools." In lieu of the suggested rate-aid they proposed an increased +grant from the treasury, that is to say, the voluntary schools were left +standing as state-aided schools under private management, side by side +with the new rate-supported schools. + + + Cowper-Temple clause. + +Next, the character of the religious instruction in the board schools +was determined upon an undenominational basis by a provision which has +become known to history after the name of its author, then Mr +Cowper-Temple, as the Cowper-Temple clause (section 14 of the act), +directing that "no religious catechism or religious formulary which is +distinctive of any particular denomination shall be taught in the +school." The clause was not intended to exclude doctrinal exposition, +and was in fact a compromise not merely between absolute secularism and +denominationalism, but between denominationalism and the view of those +who would have the Bible read without note or comment. The Apostles' +Creed as a symbol common to all denominations of Christians was held by +Mr Forster (at the suggestion of Mr Gladstone) not to be excluded under +the Cowper-Temple clause. The result was the establishment in the +schools, upon the lines laid down by Joseph Lancaster at the beginning +of the 19th century, of what may be termed the common Protestantism of +the English nation; and though Mr Disraeli urged that a religion without +formularies was in fact a new religion, and that in leaving its +exposition to the teachers we were creating a new sacerdotal class, the +Cowper-Temple compromise, notwithstanding its inherent want of logic, +stood the test of experience for more than a generation against the +consistent denominationalists on the one hand and the party of secular +education on the other. It is important to observe that the act of 1870 +left the giving of religious instruction, whether in voluntary schools +(in which its inclusion might be assumed as of course) or in board +schools, purely permissive. In practice it was only in Wales that school +boards availed themselves to any extent of the liberty to abstain from +giving religious instruction, and this comparative secularism of Wales +certainly argued no lack of religious life among the people. + +The third change in the bill was the substitution of the _ad hoc_ school +board for the municipally appointed board originally proposed, a change +which commended itself in view of the special difficulty presented by +the case of London. These boards were elected by the system of +cumulative voting under which each elector had as many votes as there +were candidates to be elected, with liberty to give all his votes to one +candidate or to distribute them amongst the candidates as he thought +fit. This system was much criticized as being unduly favourable to +minorities, whose representation it was devised to secure; it continued, +however, until the supersession of the _ad hoc_ authorities by +committees of the county and urban councils under the act of 1902. + +School boards were empowered not only to acquire sites for schools under +powers of compulsory purchase, but also to take transfers of existing +voluntary schools from their managers. The section which enables +managers to transfer schools to the school board or local education +authority for the purpose of board or council schools freed from +religious trusts unquestionably marks an important inroad by the state +upon the sanctity of trusts. Thus though the act of 1870 did not itself +introduce the principle of compulsory transfer, it formed the point of +departure for the proposals in this direction which were the basis of +the unsuccessful bills of 1906 and 1908. The act of 1870 did not +introduce either direct compulsory attendance or free education, but it +took a distinct step forward in each direction by enabling school boards +to frame by-laws rendering attendance compulsory, and also to pay the +school fees in the case of poverty of the parent. + +The policy of compromise between the two systems of voluntary and +rate-established schools was carried out in the provisions relating to +the future supply of schools. On the one hand, building grants were +continued temporarily for the benefit of those who applied (as voluntary +managers alone could apply) before the 31st of December 1870. On the +other hand, the Education Department was authorized to refuse +parliamentary grants to schools established in school board districts +after the passing of the act if they thought such schools unnecessary. + + + Progress under the act of 1870. + +The following figures are of interest as showing the progress made under +the act of 1870. In the year 1870 there was accommodation in inspected +day schools for about 2,000,000 children; the average attendance was +1,168,000, and the number on the books about 1,500,000. It was computed, +however, that there were, exclusive of the well-to-do classes, at least +1,500,000 children who attended no school at all or schools not under +inspection. In 1876 accommodation had been provided for nearly +3,500,000, and of the 1,500,000 new places nearly two-thirds were +provided by voluntary agencies. "These voluntary agencies," says Sir H. +Craik, "had received grants in aid for about one-third of the schools +they had built, the grants defraying about one-fifth of the cost of the +aided schools." On the other hand, the growth of school boards was rapid +and continuous, notwithstanding the permissive character of the act and +the strenuous efforts of the voluntaryists to keep pace with the new +demands. In 1872, 9,700,000 of the population were under school boards, +and of these 8,142,000 were under by-laws; in 1876 the numbers were +respectively 12,500,000 and 10,400,000. In the same period the annual +grants increased from L894,000 in 1870 to L1,600,000 in 1876. + + + Act of 1876. + +The development evidenced by the above figures, and in particular the +fact that 52% of the population were subject to by-laws, enabled Mr +Disraeli's government in 1876 to take a notable step forward in the +direction of universal direct compulsion. The act of 1876 embodied the +declaration that "it shall be the duty of the parent of every child to +cause such child to receive efficient elementary instruction in +reading, writing and arithmetic, and if such parent fail to perform +such duty he shall be liable to such orders and penalties as are +provided by the Act"; next, it rendered an employer liable to a penalty +who took into his employment a child under the age of ten years, or a +child between the ages of ten and fourteen years who had not obtained +the required certificate of proficiency in reading, writing and +arithmetic, or of previous attendance at a certified efficient school. +In order to complete the machinery for compulsion, the act directed +that, in every district where there was no school board, a school +attendance committee should be appointed by the local authority. The law +as to school attendance, resting upon this and subsequent enactments, is +complicated and in some details obscure. The subject was dealt with in +the report of an inter-departmental committee in 1909, who recommended +the abolition of the partial exemptions permitted, and the raising of +the age of exemption to 13. + + + Act of 1880. + +In 1880 Mr Mundella, as vice-president of the Council in Mr Gladstone's +administration, passed a short act which made the framing of by-laws +compulsory upon school boards and school attendance committees, thus +completing the system of universal direct compulsion. Under the acts of +1876 and 1880 the average attendance increased from 2,000,000 in 1876 to +3,500,000 in 1878 and 4,000,000 in 1881; in terms of percentage to +population, 8.06 in 1876, 9.60 in 1878, and 10.69 in 1881. In the +last-mentioned year the annual grant rose to L2,200,000, having more +than doubled in the decade. + + + Development of public opinion. + +With the passing of the Elementary Education Act 1880 the education +question entered upon a new phase. The country was now possessed of a +national system of elementary education, in the sense that provision was +made for the supply of efficient schools and for compulsory attendance. +The question of free education was brought within the range of practical +politics by the adoption of universal compulsion, but as yet it was +advocated only by a small political group of pronounced collectivist +tendencies. Whilst opinion was maturing on this topic, there began to +force itself upon the public mind the vastly more difficult problem of +combining the two systems of voluntary, denominational, state-aided +schools on the one hand, and public, undenominational, rate-supported +schools on the other. From the denominational point of view the problem +presented itself as that of a burden imposed and a danger threatened in +ever-increasing degree by the competition of the board schools, a +competition that was felt not so much by direct rivalry of school with +school as indirectly by the steady raising of the standard of efficiency +with respect to buildings, equipment, salaries of teachers and +educational attainment which inevitably resulted from the establishment +of authorities with power to draw upon the rates. On the other hand, +from the purely educational point of view, it was seen that the dual +system tended in practice to an illicit but almost inevitable +recognition of two standards of efficiency, the lower being conceded to +voluntary schools in consideration of their comparative poverty. +Experience, too, of the shortcomings of small country school boards was +beginning to confirm the misgivings entertained long before by the +Newcastle Commissioners as to the wisdom of entrusting autonomous powers +to the parish, when the reform of local government by the creation of +popularly elected county authorities turned attention once more to the +question of organizing education upon a county basis. + + + Cross Commission, 1887. + +In 1887 a royal commission under the presidency of Viscount Cross was +appointed to inquire into the working of the education acts. The labours +of this commission produced a thorough discussion of the educational +problem in all its aspects, political, administrative, scholastic and +religious. For any clear recommendations with regard to the +reorganization of education generally the moment was not opportune, +inasmuch as the commission just preceded the establishment of the new +county authorities and the powers with respect to instruction other than +elementary which parliament was shortly to confide to them under the +Technical Instruction Acts. Nevertheless the report of the majority of +the commissioners pointed unmistakably towards the solution adopted in +the act of 1902, and their definite recommendation that voluntary +schools should be accorded rate-aid without the imposition of the +Cowper-Temple clause, served as the basis of that legislation. The +commission brought into strong relief the opposing currents of thought +in educational politics, the majority report, representing the +principles of denominationalism, being balanced by a strong minority +report embodying the views of those who looked for progress along the +lines of the school-board system. Taken together, the two reports form a +comprehensive survey of the difficulties which still in the main beset +public education in this country. + + + Elementary Education Act 1891. + +Of the developments which followed the Cross report, it is convenient to +mention in the first place, out of chronological sequence, the practical +establishment of free education by the act of 1891, not by the absolute +prohibition of school fees but by the device of a special grant payable +by parliament in lieu of fees, called the fee grant. The result of this +legislation and of subsequent administrative action was to place free +education within the reach of every child, fees being retained (with few +exceptions) only where some instruction of a higher elementary type was +given. + + + Education other than elementary. + +The establishment of county councils by the Local Government Act 1888 +introduced a new factor which was destined to exert a determining +influence upon subsequent developments of public education. In the first +place, it at once rendered possible the partial and experimental +provision for higher education attempted by the Technical Instruction +Acts, which affected secondary education as well as technical education +in the proper sense of the term. In order to understand the state of +secondary education at this period, it is necessary to refer back to the +first attempts made to deal with secondary education a generation +earlier. + + + Public Schools Commission, 1861. + +In 1861, that is to say, nearly thirty years after the state began to +concern itself with elementary education, the first step in the way of +intervention in what is now called secondary or intermediate education +was taken by the appointment of a royal commission, presided over by +Lord Clarendon, to inquire into the condition of nine of the chief +endowed schools in the country, viz. Eton, Winchester, Westminster, +Charterhouse, St Paul's, Merchant Taylors, Harrow, Rugby and Shrewsbury. +The report of this commission led to a statute, the Public Schools Act +of 1864, which introduced certain reforms in the administration of seven +of these schools, leaving the two great London day schools, St Paul's +and Merchant Taylors, outside its operation. The results achieved were +seen to be important enough to call for a further and much wider +inquiry. + + + Schools Inquiry Commission, 1864-68. + +Accordingly in 1864 the Schools Inquiry Commission was appointed under +the presidency of Lord Taunton to inquire into all the schools which had +not been included either in the commission of 1861 or the Popular +Education Commission of 1858. It included several men of eminent +distinction, such as Dr Temple (afterwards archbishop of Canterbury), Mr +W.E. Forster, Dean Hook, and Sir Stafford Northcote; and it was +singularly fortunate in its staff of assistant commissioners, among whom +were numbered Mr James Bryce, Mr Matthew Arnold, and Mr (afterwards Sir +Joshua) Fitch. It thoroughly explored the field of secondary education, +discussing all the problems, administrative and pedagogic, which the +subject presents, and "its luminous and exhaustive report" (to quote the +words of Mr Bryce's Commission of 1894) remains the best introduction to +the problem of public secondary education in England. The existence of +numerous and frequently very wealthy endowments arising from private +benefactions and bequests has at all times been a feature in education +as in other departments of English social life. In the organization of +secondary education in particular, private endowments have played and +continue still to play a part which cannot be paralleled in any other +country. This circumstance has undoubtedly resulted in a great economy +of resources, though in numerous instances the difficulties occasioned +by the haphazard distribution of endowments and the local jealousies +invariably aroused by any attempt to readjust their areas to modern +conditions have obstructed useful reform and proved a source of +misdirected and wasted effort. At the date of the Schools Inquiry +Commission the state of the ancient endowments was largely one of abuse. +Very many endowments intended for advanced education were applied for +instruction of a purely elementary character, and that of an inferior +kind; indeed the possession of an endowment in a rural locality not +infrequently operated to prevent the establishment of an efficient +state-aided school. The evidence showed that the proportion of scholars +in the country grammar-schools who were receiving some tincture of the +classical education intended by the founders was steadily decreasing, +and nothing had been done to bring the curriculum into harmony with the +actual needs of the time. No doubt a small elite of classical scholars +were sent to the older universities by these schools, but in the main +they were in a feeble and decadent state, giving, more or less +inefficiently, an education wholly unsuited to the wants of the class to +whom they ministered. In addition to the general inelasticity of the +curriculum, the special evils from which the grammar-schools suffered +were the want of effective governing bodies and the freehold tenure of +the headmasterships. + + + Endowed Schools Acts 1869-74. + +The commission was singularly successful in bringing about the reform of +these abuses, its report being immediately followed in 1869 by the +Endowed Schools Act, which was based upon its recommendations and +conferred upon a special commission (united in 1874 with the Charity +Commission) very wide and drastic powers of reorganizing ancient +endowments. A direction for extending the benefits of endowments to +girls did much to assist the movement for the secondary education of +girls. The Endowed Schools Acts 1869-1874 introduced modifications of +importance and general interest into the law of trusts. Under the +existing rules of the court of chancery, which rules were also binding +upon the Charity Commissioners, educational endowments were generally +treated, in the absence of evidence to the contrary, as subject to a +trust for instruction in the doctrines of the Church of England. Under +the Endowed Schools Acts the presumption is reversed, and ancient trusts +are treated as free from denominational restrictions, save in virtue of +express conditions imposed by or under the authority of the founder. The +result was that in framing schemes for the reorganization of ancient +endowed schools the commissioners found themselves able to treat the +majority of cases as undenominational. In such cases the general +practice was to direct that instruction should, subject to a strict +conscience clause, be given in the principles of the Christian faith; +this provision corresponded in a way to the Cowper-Temple clause in +elementary education, with the important distinction that it was +positive, not negative, and did not exclude special doctrinal +instruction. + + + Schools Inquiry Commission's proposals for reform of secondary + education. + +Besides the recommendations for the reform of endowed schools, to which +substantial effect was given directly or indirectly by means of the +Endowed Schools Acts, the Schools Inquiry Commission also submitted +proposals for the general administrative organization of a system of +secondary education. They recommended the establishment of three +authorities--(1) a central authority; (2) a local or provincial +authority, representing the county or a group of counties, with a +certain jurisdiction both in proposing schemes for the reform of endowed +schools in their area (such as that afterwards conferred upon the joint +education committees under the Welsh Intermediate Education Act), and in +administering these schools; and (3) a central council of education +charged with examination duties. Further, it was proposed to raise the +level of proprietary and private schools by offering them inspection and +examination and by establishing a system of school registration. Lastly, +in order that the supply of public secondary schools might not be +dependent upon endowments, it was proposed to confer upon towns and +parishes powers of rating for the establishment of new schools. For +these proposals as a whole the time was not ripe. The bill of 1869 as +originally introduced in the House of Commons attempted to give effect, +with some variations, to one of these suggestions, namely, that for the +creation of a central council, but exigencies of parliamentary time made +it necessary to drop this part of the measure; the result was that the +plan of the commissioners was only half carried out. Nevertheless, owing +to the multiplicity and wealth of endowments, the work accomplished was +sufficient to exert a considerable influence upon the secondary +education of the country. Thus in 1895 Mr Bryce's Commission was able to +report that schemes under the Endowed Schools Acts had been made for 902 +endowments in England, excluding Wales and Monmouth, leaving only 546 +endowments out of the total of 1448 endowments in England known to be +subject to the Endowed Schools Acts, which had not felt the reforming +hand of the commissioners. The total income of the endowments known to +be Subject to the Endowed Schools Acts, and therefore available for +purposes of secondary education, according to the estimate of the +Secondary Education Commission (still in 1909 the latest available +source of complete information), was in 1895 about L735,000 gross. + + + Technical Instruction Acts 1889, &c. + +Twenty years after the Schools Inquiry Commission the creation by the +Local Government Act in 1888 of the representative and popular county +authorities of which the need had been felt by reformers alike in +secondary and elementary education, rendered the first step in the +direction of the municipalization of secondary instruction at last +possible. In 1889 the Technical Instruction Act (extended in some +particulars by an act of 1891) empowered the councils of counties, +boroughs and urban districts to levy a rate (not exceeding a penny in +the pound) for the support or aid of technical or manual instruction. +Comparatively few councils were prepared to resort to their rating +powers, but progress under these acts was greatly facilitated by the +Local Taxation (Customs and Excise) Act of 1890, which mentioned +technical instruction as one of the purposes to which the imperial +contribution paid to local authorities in respect of the beer and spirit +duties might be applied. By virtue of the very liberal interpretation +given to technical instruction by these acts the financial assistance +afforded under them was extended to cover the whole field of +mathematical and physical science, as well as modern languages. + + + Grants of science and art department. + +The Department of Science and Art acted as an agency in the development +of secondary education upon the same lines as the Technical Instruction +Acts, administering a parliamentary grant which was gradually extended +with a view to encouraging literary studies as well as the scientific +and mathematical subjects to the promotion of which it was primarily +directed. Thus the combined effect of the local resources available +under the Technical Instruction Act and the imperial grant administered +by the department was gradually to develop a national system of +secondary education with a marked bias on the side of physical science. + + + Influence of new university colleges. + +An undoubted stimulus was given to secondary education in the great +centres of industry during the last quarter of the 19th century by the +rise of the new university colleges, among which must be reckoned those +established expressly for women. In the main the influence of these new +institutions made for a non-classical and scientific type of curriculum +in the popular secondary schools. + + + Influence of school boards. + +At the same time, the pressure of the school boards influenced secondary +education in two ways. In the first place, the elementary schools were +found to act as feeders for schools of a higher type, and the idea of +the "educational ladder" began to play a leading part in plans for the +organization of national education. It was seen that there must be +schools to which the more advanced scholars could pass from the public +elementary schools, and scholarships to assist such scholars to continue +their education in this way. In the next place, it was recognized that +to provide adequately for the further education of public elementary +scholars a new type of school was required. Thus there came into being +through the initiative of the great school boards what were known as +higher-grade elementary schools. These were really secondary schools of +the third grade, and, as the Commission on Secondary Education observed, +the school boards simply stepped in to fill the educational void which +the Schools Inquiry Commissioners had proposed to fill by schools of +that name. The happy obscurity of the legal definition of elementary +education left these schools free to develop during the long years of +the neglect of secondary education by the state, and when in 1901 the +famous judgment in the test case of _Rex_ v. _Cockerton_ pronounced them +to be illegal, it was at once recognized that the legislature must +without delay step in to secure the educational work which the +undoubtedly correct principles of judicial interpretation had placed in +jeopardy. + + + Secondary Education Commission, 1894. + +Such were the agencies at work in the domain of secondary education when +in 1894 a royal commission was appointed under the presidency of Mr +Bryce to inquire into this branch of education. The terms of reference +excluded elementary education, and the report may be taken as embodying +the views of that school of educational statesmen who held that progress +would best be attained by keeping elementary and secondary education +entirely separate for purposes of local administration, the parish being +regarded as the natural unit for elementary and the county for secondary +education, a topic to which it will be necessary to revert in connexion +with the act of 1902. The principal recommendations of the commission +were: (1) the unification of the existing central authorities, viz. the +Department of Science and Art, the Charity Commission (so far as it +dealt with educational endowments), and the Education Department, in one +central office, and the establishment of an educational council to +advise the minister of education in certain professional matters; (2) +the establishment of local authorities, to consist of committees of the +county councils with co-opted elements; (3) the formation of a register +of teachers with a view to the encouragement of professional training, +and a system of school registration upon the basis of inspection and +examination. The first of these recommendations was carried out by the +Board of Education Act 1899, as mentioned below, and under the same act +an attempt was made to give some effect to the third-named object, +which, though it unfortunately fell short of success, may serve as a +point of departure for further efforts. The realization of the second, +and the most important, of the recommendations was deferred till 1902, +when it was brought about as a part of a wider reorganization of the +educational system. + + + Agitation on behalf of voluntary schools. + +The religious difficulty in elementary education during the period +immediately succeeding the report of Mr Bryce's Commission in 1895 once +more reached an acute stage, and this circumstance was immediately +unfavourable to a resolute handling of educational problems as such, +public attention being largely concentrated upon the demand of the +supporters of voluntary schools for relief from the growing financial +burden which was laid upon them by that steady raising of the standard +to which reference has been made above. In 1896 an endeavour was made to +meet the demands of the voluntary managers by means of a bill introduced +by Sir John Gorst on behalf of the Conservative government. This bill +with its provision for a special aid grant to be administered by county +education authorities, which were to exist side by side with the school +boards, represented a kind of compromise between the systems of 1870 and +1902. It encountered opposition in all quarters and was withdrawn. In +1897, however, the position of the denominational schools was +strengthened by the Voluntary Schools Act, which provided for a special +aid grant of five shillings per head of the scholars in average +attendance in these schools. + + + Board of Education Act 1899. + +In view of the difficulties which beset any comprehensive treatment of +the education question, partial effect was given to the recommendations +of the Secondary Education Commission by the Board of Education Act of +1899, which abolished the office of vice-president of the council, +united the Department of Science and Art with the Education Department +in one central office under the title of the Board of Education, with a +president and parliamentary secretary; and provided for the transfer to +this board of the powers of the Charity Commissioners in relation to +educational endowments; also for the association with the board of a +consultative committee, consisting as to not less than two-thirds of +persons qualified to represent the views of university and other bodies +interested in education, for the purpose (1) of framing a register of +qualified teachers, and (2) of advising the Board of Education upon any +matters referred to the committee by the board. The administrative +reorganization of the Education Office was completed shortly after the +passing of the act of 1902, when a tripartite division was adopted to +correspond with the three branches of education with which the Board of +Education is concerned, viz. elementary, secondary and technological. + + + Act of 1902, general principles. + +No law of recent years has excited an acuter or more prolonged +controversy than the Education Act of 1902, and amid the dust of +religious and political strife it is not easy for contemporaries to view +it objectively and in its true proportions. Nevertheless, considered +historically, the act becomes intelligible as the product of the forces, +partly religious and partly educational, which have been already +described. The immediate impulse for this measure must be sought in the +agitation that during the preceding decade had been gathering force +among the adherents of the Established and Roman Catholic churches for +equality of financial treatment as between voluntary and board schools. +It must be placed to the credit of the constructive statesmanship of the +Conservative party that it availed itself of an ecclesiastical agitation +to take an important step forward in the organization of national +education. The difficulty inherent in such a measure was the admitted +difficulty of securing public control, as a necessary concomitant of +public maintenance, without jeopardizing or destroying the special +religious character of the voluntary schools. The act of 1902 sought to +solve this problem, so difficult of solution under democratic +conditions, upon the principle of a division of financial responsibility +justifying a corresponding division of control between the voluntary +managers and the local authority. The constitution of the local +authority to be charged not only with the delicate duty of participating +in the dual control of the voluntary public elementary schools, but also +with the responsible task of co-ordinating public higher with public +elementary education, presented features of controversy only less +formidable than the purely religious question itself. Boldly reversing +the settlement of 1870, the act of 1902 abolished the parochial school +boards, and with them the system of _ad hoc_ election, and made the +county councils, already seised of technical and secondary education +under the Technical Instruction Acts, the local authorities for all +forms of education, thus reverting to the solution propounded by +Conservative statesmanship in the middle period of the 19th century and +endorsed by an important memorandum contributed by Lord Sandford +(formerly permanent secretary of the Education Department) to the report +of the Cross Commission. The unquestionable niggardliness and +inefficiency of many small country school boards, which had been +foretold by the prescience of the Newcastle Commissioners, constituted +the chief educational argument for the selection of the wider area so +far as the interests of elementary education alone were concerned. On +the other hand, experience has shown that in the rural districts against +the undoubted gain in general efficiency there must be set a certain +loss on account of the decay of local and personal interest consequent +upon the centralization of authority in the hands of the county +councils. Account, too, must be taken of the comparative heaviness with +which a uniform county rate is apt to press upon sparsely populated +agricultural parishes, especially in counties which include considerable +industrial districts. Notwithstanding these minor drawbacks, it may be +said that upon the whole the best opinion has endorsed the policy of +1902 with respect to the area of administration. At any rate it has been +necessary to recognize the impracticability of disestablishing the +strongly organized provincial authorities which the act brought into +being, and proposals for amendment in this particular have been +confined to schemes, favoured in principle by all parties, for securing +some measure of decentralization and delegation of powers calculated to +restore and stimulate local interest without derogating from the +financial and administrative responsibility of the county council. + +The principal provisions of the act of 1902 may be summarized as +follows:-- + + + Act of 1902, summary of provisions. + + Part I. Local Education Authority. The council of every county and of + every county borough is the local education authority for the purposes + of the act, i.e. for both higher and elementary education, but for the + purpose of elementary education autonomous powers are conferred upon + boroughs with a population of over 10,000, and urban districts with a + population of over 20,000 (S 1). + + Part II. Higher Education. "The L.E.A. (local education authority) + shall consider the educational needs of their area and take such steps + as seem to them desirable, after consultation with the Board of + Education, to supply or aid the supply of education other than + elementary, and to promote the general co-ordination of all forms of + education." For this purpose the application of the money received by + the local authority under the Local Taxation (Customs and Excise) Act + 1890, heretofore optional, is made compulsory, and power is given to + levy a rate which in the case of a county is not to exceed two pence + in the pound, or such higher rate as the county council with the + consent of the Local Government Board may fix (S 2). Concurrent powers + are given to the councils of non-county boroughs and urban districts, + with the limit of a penny rate (S 3). A council must not require any + particular form of religious instruction or observance, but the usual + conscience clause in schools, colleges, or hostels provided by the + council is modified by a provision for facilities for any particular + religious instruction to be given at the request of parents of + scholars at such times and under such conditions as the council think + desirable, otherwise than at the cost of the council (S 4). + + Part III. Elementary Education. (1) Powers and duties. School boards + and school attendance committees are abolished and their powers and + duties are transferred to the L.E.A., who are also to be responsible + for and have the control of all secular instruction in public + elementary schools not provided by them (S 5). + + (2) Management of schools. (a) For public elementary schools provided + by the L.E.A. (now officially styled "council schools"): (1) in + counties, there is to be a body of six managers, viz. four appointed + by the county council and two by the borough or urban district + council, or parish council or parish meeting as the case may be, + called in the act the minor local authority; (2) in non-county areas, + the L.E.A. (being the borough or urban district council) may, if they + think fit, appoint a body of managers consisting of such number as + they may determine (S 6 [1]). + + (b) For schools not provided by the L.E.A. (voluntary schools) the act + directs that there shall be a body of six managers, of whom four are + to be "foundation managers," and two are to be appointed as follows: + in counties, one by the L.E.A. and one by the minor local authority, + and in autonomous boroughs or urban districts both by the borough or + urban district council (S 6 [2]). Directions for the appointment of + foundation managers are given by S 11, which in effect declares that, + unless the trust deed of the school provides for the appointment of + the required number, the foundation managers must be appointed under + an order of the Board of Education, in making which the board are to + have regard to the ownership of the school building and to the + principles on which the education given in the school had been + conducted in the past. It was found necessary for the board to make + over 11,000 of these orders, a heavy task which was rendered the more + formidable by the controversial character of the questions arising + upon trust deeds as to the mode of appointment and the qualifications + of managers. + + (3) Maintenance of schools (S 7). (a) Powers. The L.E.A. are required + to maintain and keep efficient all public elementary schools which + were necessary (i.e. which, as defined by S 9, have an average + attendance of not less than thirty), under certain specified + conditions, of which the most material are as follows. The managers + must carry out the directions of the L.E.A. as to the secular + instruction to be given in the school, including any directions with + respect to the number and educational qualifications of the teachers, + and for the dismissal of any teacher on educational grounds (S 7 [1] + [a]). The consent of the L.E.A. is required to the appointment of + teachers, but that consent may not be withheld except on educational + grounds; and the consent of the authority is also required to the + dismissal of a teacher unless the dismissal is on grounds connected + with the giving of religious instruction (S7 [1] [c]). + + (b) Liabilities. The managers are required to provide the school + premises to the L.E.A. for use as a public elementary school free of + charge, except that a rent is payable for the teacher's residence + where one exists; and the managers are further required out of funds + provided by them to keep the school premises in good repair and to + make such alterations and improvements in the buildings as might + reasonably be required by the L.E.A. On the other hand, the L.E.A. are + required to make good such damage as they consider to be due to fair + wear and tear of rooms used by them (S 7 [1] [d]). Thus, by virtue of + the teacher's house rent and the wear-and-tear allowance the voluntary + managers secured a valuable set-off against the cost of ordinary + repairs. + + Any question arising under this section (S 7) between the L.E.A. and + the managers of a voluntary school is to be determined by the Board of + Education (S 7 [3]). + + It is further provided with respect to teachers in voluntary schools + that assistant teachers and pupil teachers may be appointed "if it is + thought fit" without reference to religious creed and denomination, + and in any case in which there are more candidates for the post of + pupil teacher than there are places to be filled, the appointment is + to be made by the L.E.A. (S 7. [5]). + + A provision, S 7 (6), known from the name of its author (d. 1908), + Colonel Kenyon Slaney, M.P., as the Kenyon-Slaney clause, attracted + considerable attention and formed the subject of much ecclesiastical + controversy during the passage of the bill through parliament. The + Kenyon-Slaney clause requires the religious instruction in voluntary + schools to be in accordance with the provisions (if any) of the trust + deed, but also to be under the control of the managers as a whole, + whereas the common form of trust deed of the National Society reserves + the control of religious instruction to the clergyman, whilst the + clause was equally in conflict with the well-known sacerdotal + principles of the Roman Catholic Church. Thus the clause represented a + revival, as did the questions with respect to foundation managers, of + the early controversy over the management clauses of the Committee of + Council on Education. Its special interest lies, not so much in its + intrinsic importance, as in the precedent it affords, specially + notable as emanating from a Conservative source, for the overruling of + trust deeds upon grounds of public policy. By way of saving another + familiar provision of the trust deeds, a proviso to the Kenyon-Slaney + clause reserves the existing trust-deed rights of appeal to the bishop + or other denominational authority as to the character of the religious + instruction. + + _Provision of New Schools._--New schools may be provided either by the + L.E.A. or any other persons, subject to the issue of three months' + public notice, and to a right of appeal on the part of the managers of + any existing school, the L.E.A. (in the case of proposed voluntary + schools) or any ten ratepayers of the district, to the Board of + Education on the ground that the proposed school is not required, or + that a school provided by the L.E.A., or not so provided, as the case + might be, is better suited to meet the wants of the district than the + proposed school. Any enlargement of a public elementary school which + in the opinion of the Board of Education is such as to amount to the + provision of a new school is to be so treated for the purposes of the + section, and any transfer of a school to or from the L.E.A. must be + treated as the provision of a new school. In deciding appeals as to + new schools and in determining a case of dispute whether a school was + necessary or not, the board are directed to have regard to the + interest of secular instruction, the wishes of parents as to the + education of children, and the economy of the rates, but existing + schools are not to be considered unnecessary if the average attendance + is not less than thirty (SS 8-9). The last-mentioned canons have + played a prominent part in subsequent discussions. Experience of these + sections has shown that though it is extremely difficult to set up new + voluntary schools in face of opposition from the L.E.A., such + opposition is rarely offered or pressed where any really strong local + demand is shown to exist. + + _Aid Grant._--Section 10 provides a new aid grant payable to the + L.E.A. in respect of the number of scholars in average attendance in + schools maintained by them. This new grant, calculated by an elaborate + method which need not here be set out, took the place of the grants + under the Voluntary Schools Act 1897, and S 97 of the act of 1870 as + amended by the Elementary Education Act 1897. + + _Education Committees._--The constitution of education committees is + dealt with by S 17. All councils having powers under the act, except + those having concurrent powers as to higher education only, must + establish education committees in accordance with schemes made by the + councils and approved by the Board of Education (S 17 [1]). A scheme + may provide for more than one education committee under a single + council, but before approving such a scheme the board must satisfy + themselves that due regard is paid to the importance of the general + co-ordination of all forms of education (S 17 [6]). All matters + relating to the exercise by a council of their powers under the act, + except the power of raising a rate or borrowing money, stand referred + to the education committee; the council may also delegate to the + education committee any of their powers other than financial powers as + above (S 17 [2]). Every scheme must provide (a) for the appointment of + a majority of the committee by the council, the persons so appointed + to be persons who are members of the council unless in the case of a + county the council otherwise determine; (b) for the appointment by the + council, on the nomination or recommendation, where it appears + desirable, of other bodies (including associations of voluntary + schools) of persons of experience in education, and of persons + acquainted with the needs of the various kinds of schools in the area + of the council; (c) for the inclusion of women. Provision was also + made (d) for the representation in the first instance of members of + existing school boards (S 17 [3]). + + _Expenses._--All parliamentary grants are made payable to the L.E.A. + instead of as previously to the managers (S 18 [2]). The county + council must charge a proportion of all capital expenditure and + liabilities, including rent, on account of the provision or + improvement of any public elementary school on the parish or parishes + which in the opinion of the council are served by the school, such + proportion to be not less than one-half or more than three-fourths as + the council think fit (S 18 [1] [c] [d]). The county council may also + if they think fit charge on the parishes benefited any expenses + incurred with respect to education other than elementary (S 18 [1] + [a]). + + _Endowments._--The act introduced a new principle into the + administration of endowments by directing that their income so far as + necessarily applicable in any case for those purposes of a public + elementary school for which the local authority are liable must be + paid to that authority for the relief of the parochial rate (S 13). As + the result of technicalities of legal interpretation the section has + been found to have in practice a narrower scope than had been + generally anticipated. + + The act of 1902 was extended to London by a separate act in 1903, + containing certain special provisions of only minor importance. + + + "Passive resistance" to 1902 act. Default Act 1904. + +The hostility of Nonconformists to the extension of rate-aid to +denominational schools led to the organization upon a considerable scale +of what became known as the "Passive Resistance" movement, a number of +Nonconformist rate-payers refusing to pay the education rate on the +ground that their consciences forbade their supporting the religious +teaching in denominational schools; and their willingness to become +subject to distraint and consequent inconveniences rather than pay the +rates became the foundation of a widespread political campaign. In +Wales, where in the rural districts the schools were commonly Anglican +whilst the population was Nonconformist, particular difficulties arose +in administering the act in consequence of the hostile attitude of the +county authorities. Friction likewise manifested itself in one or two +English areas, which reflected militant Nonconformist views. Accordingly +the government passed the Local Education (Local Authority Default) Act +1904, empowering the Board of Education, in the case of default by the +local authority, to make payments direct to the managers of the school +and to deduct the amount from the sums payable to the defaulting +authority on account of parliamentary grants. + + + Bill of 1906. + +When the liberal party came into power again in 1906, Mr Birrell as +president of the Board of Education in Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman's +administration introduced a bill to amend the Education Acts 1902-1903, +with the object of securing full public control of all rate-aided +schools and the appointment of teachers without reference to religious +belief. The bill was of a highly complex character; its principal +features were,--compulsory transfer of existing voluntary schools to the +local authority, facilities for the giving of denominational instruction +in transferred schools out of school hours by persons other than the +regular teachers, and the recognition in populous districts, upon the +demand of parents, of special publicly maintained schools in which +denominational teaching could be included in the curriculum; the latter +schools might (according to the bill as finally amended) in the last +resort, i.e. if the local authority refused to maintain them, be +recognized as state-aided schools. The bill encountered strong +opposition from Anglicans and Catholics (though the Catholic Irish +members finally voted for it as amended); it passed the House of Commons +by a large majority, but after unavailing attempts at compromise upon +the amendments introduced in the House of Lords, the two Houses failed +to agree and the measure was lost. + + + Bills of 1908. + +Mr Birrell was soon transferred to another office, and nothing more was +done to amend the act of 1902 till early in the session of 1908, his +successor Mr McKenna introduced a bill based on what was known as +"contracting out." In single-school parishes the existing schools were +to be compulsorily transferred, subject to the grant of denominational +facilities out of school hours; elsewhere a sufficiency of places in +schools with Cowper-Temple teaching, which the bill proposed to make +compulsory in all provided schools, must be supplied by the local +authority, while existing voluntary schools might become state-aided +schools upon terms of receiving a grant of 47s. per head. The bill was +accompanied by a financial scheme for a new system of allocating the +parliamentary grant. In view of the improbability of its passing into +law the bill was not pressed beyond the stage of second reading. +Meanwhile, when Mr Asquith reorganized the cabinet, Mr Runciman +succeeded Mr McKenna at the education office, and in the autumn he +introduced a fresh measure framed as the result of negotiations between +the government and the archbishop of Canterbury (Dr Randall Davidson) +and designed to be passed rapidly through parliament by consent of all +parties. Mr Runciman's bill, like his predecessor's, was based upon the +principle of compulsory transfer in single-school parishes and +contracting out elsewhere, but it gave a right of entry for +denominational teaching on two days a week during school hours in all +council schools whether transferred voluntary schools or otherwise, with +liberty to employ for this purpose assistant teachers, but not (save +temporarily at first in transferred schools) head teachers. Provision +was also made for the payment of a small rent which would be applicable +for or towards the cost of the denominational instruction. +Unfortunately, the compromise failed at the last moment for want of +agreement as to the financial terms of "contracting out," the government +offering 50s. per head and the Church demanding 7s. more. It is obvious +that "contracting out" is open to serious objection upon educational and +economic grounds, and that if resorted to upon any very considerable +scale it would involve a disruption of the public elementary system, and +a duplication of schools which would constitute a wasteful drain upon +the national exchequer. Upon such a system, therefore, some check is +necessary, and, once decided that the check should take the form of +financial pressure, rather than request of parents as in Mr Birrell's +bill, or some form of administrative control, the question of pecuniary +terms became one of principle and not merely of financial detail. +Moreover, the difficulty of adjusting differences was intensified by the +opposition of the extremists on either side, which daily gathered force, +and the bill was withdrawn by the government when in committee of the +House of Commons. The conciliatory efforts of Mr Runciman and Dr Randall +Davidson revealed the existence of a considerable body of influential +opinion among all schools of thought in favour of a national compromise, +and the proposals embodied in the bill marked on the part both of +Churchmen and Nonconformists important concessions to each other's +views, engendering reasonable hopes of an ultimate settlement being +reached at no distant date. + + + Feeding of school children. + +Two subsidiary points as regards educational machinery have to be noted. +The Education (Provision of Meals) Act 1906 enabled local education +authorities to aid voluntary agencies in the provision of meals for +children attending public elementary schools, and in certain cases with +the consent of the Board of Education to defray the cost of the food +themselves. In 1907-1908 forty, and in 1908-1909 seventy-five +authorities in England and Wales were authorized by the board to expend +moneys from the rates on food under this act. In addition, a number of +authorities expended funds on equipment and service. + + + Medical inspection. + +In 1907 an uncontroversial act entitled the Education (Administrative +Provisions) Act, besides dealing with various matters of technical and +administrative detail, laid upon local education authorities the new +duty of providing for the medical inspection of all children attending +public elementary schools. In connexion with this act the Board of +Education established a medical department to advise and assist them in +supervising local education authorities in carrying out their statutory +duties in this regard. The whole departure is significant of the new +sense of the importance of physical culture and hygiene which has been +one of the remarkable features in recent educational developments. + + + General progress in elementary education. + +Sir Joshua Fitch, in his article on education in the 10th edition of +this work, describes how experience had led the Education Department to +abandon the system of payment by results, to establish "in place of +testing the proficiency of individual scholars,... one summary estimate +of the work of the school; in place of an annual examination, occasional +inspection without notice; in place of a variable grant dependent on a +report in detail on the several subjects of instruction and on +particular educational merits and defects, one block grant payable to +all schools alike." He at the same time expressed some misgiving as to +the effect of "so large a relaxation of the conditions by which it had +hitherto been sought to secure accuracy and thoroughness in teaching." +The act of 1902, by placing secular education in public elementary +schools under the control of strongly organized local education +authorities may be said to have largely removed such dangers as were to +be apprehended from the relaxation in question. Thus it was possible for +the Board of Education in the code of 1904 to abolish the last traces of +the system of payment by results, by setting forth (in the language of +their report for 1903-1904) "a properly co-ordinated curriculum suitable +to the needs of the children, with an indication of the relation which +the various subjects of instruction should bear to each other, in place +of the relatively haphazard list of possible branches of knowledge which +were formerly presented to the choice of individual schools or +authorities." In the new code also the board for the first time +endeavoured to state for the guidance of teachers and parents the proper +aim of the public elementary school, laying stress upon that element of +the training of character which the system of payment by results had so +unfortunately obscured. The new spirit was strikingly manifested in the +volume of _Suggestions for the Considerations of Teachers_, issued by +the Board of Education in 1905. This volume represented a notable +attempt to connect administration with educational theory, without in +any way seeking to crush individual initiative, or to impose a +bureaucratic uniformity of method upon those engaged in the actual work +of the schools. Apprehension of the true aim of elementary education as +essentially and primarily a preparation for practical life has led to a +corresponding development of instruction of a practical character, +observation lessons and nature study being treated as a necessary +element in the curriculum, while handicraft and gardening, and domestic +subjects (for girls), are encouraged by special grants. Particular +attention has been bestowed both by the central and local authorities +upon the problem of rural instruction, and much has been done in many +areas to bring the schools into closer relations with the needs of +agricultural and rural life generally. In this way the old and perhaps +not altogether ill-founded distrust of popular education as tending to +unfit the working classes for industrial pursuits is being broken down +and a public opinion more favourable to educational progress in the +widest sense is being created. + +According to the official returns for 1907-1908, the total number of +scholars on the registers (England only) was as follows:--council +schools, 2,991,741; voluntary schools, 2,566,030; total, 5,557,771, and +the total attendance upon which grant was paid was 4,928,659. The +percentage of actual average attendance to average number on the +registers was 88.50%. The parliamentary grant (England and Wales) for +elementary schools, other than higher elementary, amounted to +L11,023,433. + + + Higher elementary schools. + +The development of higher elementary education in England is now +proceeding very much upon the lines that have been noted in France. The +old higher-grade board-schools (declared illegal under the Elementary +Education Acts by the judgment in the case of _Rex_ v. _Cockerton_ in +1901, and legalized temporarily by an act passed for the purpose in the +same year) were mostly converted into municipal secondary schools under +the act of 1902. In the succeeding years provision was made in the code +for higher elementary schools of a specialized and technical type +intended only for industrial districts. In 1906, as the result of the +recommendations of the Consultative Committee, a new type of higher +elementary school was admitted for children over twelve, corresponding +generally to the French _ecole primaire superieure_, described as having +"for its object the development of the education given in the ordinary +public elementary school, and the provision of special instruction +bearing on the future occupations of the scholars, whether boys or +girls." It may be possible to supplement this system in the rural areas +to some extent by "higher tops" to the ordinary elementary schools in +cases where it is not practicable to establish a fully organised higher +elementary school; but for such "higher tops" no central grant is +available. The total number of scholars upon the registers of higher +elementary schools (England) in 1907-1908 was: New Type, 3178 (against +2715 in the previous year); Old Type, 4492 (against 5866 in the previous +year). + + + Expenditure on elementary education. + +The total expenditure (exclusive of capital outlay) of the local +authorities (1906-1907) in England only upon elementary education, +including "industrial" and "special" schools, was L19,776,733, of which +(a) L10,408,242 was met by the ordinary parliamentary grant, and (b) +L8,930,468 was the balance required to be met by rates, the difference +being represented by receipts from various sources. The average cost per +child of elementary schools in England and Wales (excluding London) may +be taken at L3 (including London L3, 4s. 10d.), and the average central +grant (excluding grants for special purposes) at 41s., leaving 19s. to +be raised locally. + + + Preliminary training of elementary teachers. + +The training of teachers for the two great branches of public education, +elementary and secondary respectively, is an important part of the +general administrative problem. Since the middle of the 19th century +there has been a great development of public opinion with regard to +their professional qualifications. Sir Joshua Fitch (_Ency. Brit._ 10th +ed.) pointed out that the full appreciation of the importance of +training began at the lower end of the social scale. Shuttleworth and +Tufnell in 1846 urged the necessity of special training for the primary +teacher, and hoped to establish State Training Colleges to supply this +want; but the one college at Battersea which was founded as an +experiment was soon transferred to the National Society (the "National +Society for educating the poor in the principles of the Established +Church": founded in 1811). Before this, Bell and Lancaster had made +arrangements in their model schools for the reception of a few young +people to learn the system by practice. In Glasgow, David Stow, who +founded in 1826 the Normal Seminary which afterwards became the Free +Church College, was one of the first to insist on the need of systematic +professional preparation. The religious bodies in England, notably the +Established Church, availed themselves promptly of the failure of the +central government, and a number of diocesan colleges for men, and +separately for women, were gradually established. In 1854 the British +and Foreign School Society (founded 1808) placed their institutes at the +Borough Road and Stockwell on a collegiate footing, and subsequently +founded other colleges at Swansea, Bangor, Darlington and Saffron +Walden; the Roman Catholic Church provided two for women and one for +men; and the Wesleyans two, one for each sex. The new provincial +colleges of university rank were invited by the Education Department to +attach normal classes to their ordinary course and to make provision for +special training and suitable practice in schools for those students who +desired to become teachers. Thus the government came to recognize two +kinds of training schools--the residential colleges of the old type and +the day colleges attached to institutions of university rank; both were +subsidized by grants from the Treasury, and regularly inspected. As the +need of special training for teachers became further recognized by the +consideration of the same question as regards teachers in higher and +intermediate schools (Cambridge instituting in 1879 examinations for a +teacher's diploma, and other universities providing courses for +secondary as well as primary teachers, and establishing professorships +of education), the attitude of the government, i.e. the Board of +Education, towards the problem gradually became more and more a subject +of controversy and of public interest, as indicated by the clause in the +Act of 1899 providing for a public registration of qualified teachers +and for the gradual elimination from the profession of those who were +unqualified. And meanwhile the increased solidarity of the National +Union of Teachers (founded in 1870), the trade union, so to speak, of +the teachers, brought an important body of professional opinion to bear +on the discussion of their own interests. + +The question of the preliminary education of elementary teachers had +after some years of discussion reached a critical stage in 1909. The +history of pupil teachership as a method of concurrent instruction and +employment shows that it was in its inception something in the nature of +a makeshift; the ideal placed before local education authorities in the +recent regulations and reports of the Board of Education is the +alternative system whereby with the aid of national bursaries +(instituted in 1907) "the general education of future teachers may be +continued in secondary schools until the age of seventeen or eighteen, +and all attempts to obtain a practical experience of elementary school +work may be deferred until the training college is entered, or at least +until an examination making a natural break in that general education +and qualifying for an admission to a training college has been passed." +Under the revised pupil-teacher system established by the regulations of +1903 provision is made for the instruction of pupil teachers in centres +which as far as possible are attached to secondary schools receiving +grants from the Board of Education under the regulations for secondary +schools, about two-thirds of the secondary schools on the grant list +undertaking this work. Accordingly, the result of recent changes is to +modify the old system in two ways: first by providing the alternative of +a full course of secondary education, secondly by associating pupil +teachership itself as far as possible with part-time attendance at a +secondary school. The total number of pupil teachers recognized during +the year 1907-1908 was 20,571, and of these 9770 were in centres forming +integral parts of secondary schools. The number of bursars who passed +the leaving examination was 1486. + + + Training colleges. + +One of the principal difficulties which confronted the state and the +local authorities in their task of organizing an improved system of +public education under the act of 1902 lay in the deficiency of training +colleges in view of the increased number of teachers. Local authorities +naturally hesitated to burden themselves with the cost of providing such +institutions in view of the fact that there is nothing to prevent +teachers trained at great expense by one authority taking service under +a less public-spirited authority who had contributed nothing to such +training; hence a widespread feeling that the provision of training +colleges should be undertaken by the state as a matter of national +concern. Under these circumstances a new system of building grants in +aid of the establishment of training colleges was instituted in 1905. In +1906 these grants were raised from 25 to 75% of the capital expenditure, +but were limited to colleges provided by local authorities. A further +difficulty in view of the municipalization of education arose from the +fact that the majority of the residential colleges were in the hands of +denominational trusts which did not admit a conscience clause. Under the +presidency of Mr McKenna in 1907, the Board of Education, in regulations +which excited much controversy, "with a view to throwing open as far as +possible the advantages of a course of training in colleges supported +mainly by public funds to all students who are qualified to profit by it +irrespective of religious creed or social status," laid down that the +application of a candidate might in no circumstances be rejected on any +religious ground, nor on the ground of social antecedents or the like. +The same regulations provided that no new training colleges would be +recognized except on terms of compliance with certain conditions as to +freedom from denominational restrictions or requirements. The obligation +as to religious exemptions has since been limited to 50% of the +admissions. There were in attendance (_Statistics_, England, 1907-1908) +in the various colleges, 6561 women and 2835 men, of whom 1619 women and +335 men were in colleges provided by local education authorities. The +grants made by the Board of Education for training colleges were as +follows: maintenance grants L383,851; building grants L45,000. These +figures include Wales. + + + Continuative education. + +The fear has been widely entertained that a considerable part of the +national expenditure upon elementary education is wasted for want of an +effective system of continuative instruction to be given out of working +hours to adolescents engaged in industrial employment. The whole subject +was exhaustively treated by the report in 1909 of the Consultative +Committee of the Board of Education. This report seeks to base an +efficient continuative system upon the improvement of elementary +education by reducing the size of the classes in the elementary schools +upon the lines now laid down by the new staffing regulations of 1909; by +increasing the amount of instruction in hand-work with a view to +rendering the curriculum less bookish and more efficient as a training +for industrial and agricultural life; and by legislation to reform the +system of half-time attendance and raise the age of compulsory +attendance to thirteen and ultimately fourteen. Upon the foundation of +an improved and prolonged elementary education there would be reared a +superstructure of continuative schools or classes, attendance at which +up to seventeen would be compulsory under bye-laws adoptive locally at +the option of the local education authorities. In 1906-1907 about 21 per +thousand of the population of England and Wales attended evening schools +and classes inspected by the Board of Education, and grant amounting to +L361,596 was paid in respect of 440,718 regular attendants. + + + Secondary education. + +The most marked progress has undoubtedly been in secondary education, +and in no direction has the act of 1902 proved more fruitful. At the end +of the 19th century secondary instruction in England was still provided +chiefly by endowed grammar-schools, by proprietary schools established +by religious bodies or joint-stock companies, and by private enterprise. +No public provision was made for secondary education as such; what +financial assistance was forthcoming from municipal sources was given +indirectly under cover of the grants under the Technical Instruction +Acts, while in the administration of central grants for the first years +of the working of the Board of Education Act 1899, no absolute +differentiation between secondary and technological functions was +recognized. The establishment of local authorities with direct duties in +respect of secondary education, and the reorganization of the central +office with reference to the three branches of education, elementary, +secondary and technological, rendered possible for the first time an +adequate treatment of the problem of public secondary education as a +whole. "The regulations for secondary schools," says the prefatory +memorandum to the regulations of the Board of Education, "grew up round +the old provisions of the Directory of the Science and Art Department. +Detached science classes were gradually built up into schools of +science. Schools of science were subsequently widened into schools of +what was known as the 'Division A' type, providing a course of +instruction in science in connexion with, and as part of, a course of +general education. Aid was afterwards extended to schools of the +'Division B' type in which science did not form the preponderating +element of the instruction given. In 1904 the board recast the +regulations so as to bring all schools aided by grants within the +general definition of a school offering a general education up to and +beyond the age of sixteen through a complete graded course of +instruction, the object of which should be to develop all the faculties, +and to form the habit of exercising them." + +Two main tendencies distinguish the recent development: on the one hand +the tendency to municipalization, or at least to the establishment of +public control; on the other hand the tendency (marked especially by the +regulations of 1907) to greater elasticity in regard to curricula, and +so to the freer encouragement of local initiative and local effort. + +In 1907 the government of Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman placed greatly +increased funds at the disposal of the Board of Education for the +purpose of secondary education. The regulations under which the +increased grant was administered imposed conditions in respect of +freedom from denominational restrictions or requirements, representative +local control, and accessibility to all classes of the people, which, +like the analogous rules with regard to training colleges, roused +considerable controversy. With regard to religious instruction, the +requirement was made that no catechism or formulary distinctive of any +particular religious denomination might be taught in the school except +upon the request in writing of the parent or guardian and at the cost of +funds other than grants of public money. Power was at the same time +reserved to the board to waive the new conditions in the event of the +local education authority passing a resolution that the school was in +their view required as part of the secondary school provision for their +area, and that the conditions, or one or more of them, might be waived +with advantage in view of the educational needs of the area. It will be +noticed that one effect of the regulations (as of the training college +regulations) was to recognize as a kind of established religion those +elements of Christianity which are shared in common by the various +Protestant churches, according to the system of Lancaster and the +Cowper-Temple compromise. Normally schools are required to provide 25% +of free places for scholars from public elementary schools, and, with a +view to encouraging the transference of children from the public +elementary school at an early age, a grant of L2 was made payable on +account of ex-public elementary scholars between ten and twelve years of +age. The full scale of grants is L2 for ex-public elementary scholars +between ten and twelve, and L5 for scholars between twelve and eighteen. +To schools previously recognized and failing to comply with the new +conditions, grant may be paid on the lower scale of L2 and L2, 10s. +respectively. + +Secondary school grants are assessed upon average attendance, and +efficiency is guaranteed by inspection and not by individual +examination. All recognized schools must provide at least the +substantial equivalent of the four-years' course formerly required, and +recognition is withheld or withdrawn if an adequate number of the +scholars do not remain at least four years in the school, or do not +remain up to sixteen; in rural areas, however, and small towns, a school +life of three years and a leaving age of fifteen may be accepted. "The +board are now in a position, through their inspectorate, to keep a watch +and exercise a guidance which were previously impossible over the +planning and working of school curricula. Detailed reports following +upon full inspections, and the more constant if less obvious influence +exercised through informal visits, conferences, reports and suggestions, +may now be relied upon to guard against the risks of one-sided +education, of ill-balanced schemes of instruction, and of premature or +excessive specialization" (Report of Board of Education, 1906-1907, page +68). The curriculum must provide instruction duly graded and duly +continuous, in the English language and literature, in geography and +history, in mathematics, science and drawing, and in at least one +language other than English. Where two languages other than English are +taken, Latin must ordinarily be one. Provision must be made for +organized games, physical exercises and manual instruction, and in +girls' schools science and mathematics other than arithmetic may be +replaced by an approved scheme of practical housewifery for girls over +fifteen. The total number of secondary schools recognized for grant +(_Statistics_, 1907-1908) was 736, of which only 220 were directly +provided by local authorities. The number of pupils in attendance was +68,104 boys and 56,359 girls, total 124,463. The government grants for +1907-1908 amounted to L320,873 besides grants from local authorities. + + +_Wales._ + +Notwithstanding the important differences which exist between the social +and especially the religious conditions of England and Wales +respectively, Wales continued to be treated as one with England for +purposes of educational administration down to quite recent years. +Towards the end of the 19th century the striking revival of Welsh +nationality, in itself largely an educational and a literary movement, +led to a spontaneous demand among the Welsh people for the organization +of a national system of higher education. In accordance with the +recommendations of a special royal commission the Welsh Intermediate +Education Act passed in 1889 provided for the creation in every county +in Wales (including Monmouthshire) of joint education committees +consisting of three nominees of the county council and two nominees of +the lord president of the council. To these committees were entrusted +the duties of framing (under the Charity Commissioners) schemes for the +establishment of intermediate and technical schools and for the +application of endowments, and for administering a 1/2d. county rate, +which was supplemented by a treasury grant not exceeding the amount +raised by the rate. Certain supervisory functions were entrusted to a +Central Education Board, to which are committed the duties of inspection +and examination. The joint education committees have now (except for the +purpose of framing schemes for endowments) been superseded by the local +education authorities under the act of 1902. The public assistance +afforded to secondary education in Wales under the Intermediate Act is +supplemented by the grants of the Board of Education, and the Board's +revised Secondary School Regulations were applied to Wales in 1908. +There were (1907-1908) 92 county secondary schools in Wales administered +under schemes made under the Welsh Intermediate Act, attended by 6235 +boys and 6727 girls, total 12,962; and 12 other secondary schools, of +which 8 were provided by local authorities. The total attendance at all +secondary schools was 13,615, viz. 6819 boys and 6796 girls. The Board +of Education grant amounted to L31,090. The expenditure of the local +authorities for the year 1906-1907 was L85,242. + +The number of scholars on the registers of ordinary public elementary +schools in Wales was (_Statistics_, 1907-1908), in council schools +330,413, and in voluntary schools 100,290, total 430,703. The percentage +of average attendance was 86.98. The ordinary parliamentary grant +(1906-1907) was L794,161, and the net expenditure of local authorities +L561,234. + +In 1907 a Welsh department of the Board of Education was established +with a permanent secretary and a chief inspector, each responsible +directly to the president. A movement was in progress in Wales in +1908-1909 for the creation of a national council of education under an +independent minister, but this change could in any case only be effected +by legislation; and meanwhile the special religious and social +conditions in Wales caused administrative difficulties in working an act +(that of 1902) primarily designed to meet those prevailing in England. + (G. B. M. C.) + + +_United States._ + + Beginnings. + +_History._--The first white settlers who came to North America were +typical representatives of those European peoples who had made more +progress in civilization than any other in the world. Those settlers, in +particular those from England and from Holland, brought with them the +most advanced ideas of the time on the subject of education. The +conditions of life in the New World emphasized the need of schools and +colleges, and among the earliest public acts of the settlers were +provisions to establish them. The steps taken between 1619 and 1622 to +provide schools for the colony of Virginia were frustrated by the Indian +war which broke out in the latter year, and were never successfully +renewed during the colonial period. In New York, where the influence of +the Dutch was at first predominant, elementary schools were maintained +at the public expense, and were intended for the education of all +classes of the population. This policy reflected the very advanced views +as to public elementary education which were then held in the +Netherlands. The assumption of control in the colony of New York by the +English was a distinct check to the development of public elementary +education, and little or no further progress was made until after the +Revolution. The most systematic educational policy was pursued in the +colony of Massachusetts. As early as 1635, five years after it was +founded, the town of Boston took action to the end that "our brother +Philemon Pormort shall be entreated to become schoolmaster for the +teaching and nurturing children with us." The General Court of the +colony in 1636 made the first appropriation for what was to become +Harvard College, taking its name in honour of the minister, John +Harvard, who died in 1638, leaving his library and one-half of his +property, having a value of L800, to the new institution. The amount of +this appropriation of 1636 (L400) was remarkable in that it was probably +equal to the whole colony tax for a year. In 1642 followed a legislative +act which, while saying nothing of schools, gave to the selectmen in +every town power to oversee both the education and the employment of +children. It is made the duty of the selectmen to see that the children +can read and understand the principles of religion and the capital laws +of the country, and that they are put to some useful work. + +Five years later, in 1647, was enacted the law which is not only the +real foundation of the Massachusetts school system, but the type of +later legislation throughout the United States. This epoch-making act, +the first of its kind in the world, represented the public opinion of a +colony of about 20,000 persons, living in thirty towns. It required +every town of fifty house-holders to establish a school, the master of +which should be paid either by the parents of the children taught or by +public tax, as the majority of the town committee might decide; and it +further required every town of one hundred families or house-holders to +set up a grammar school in which pupils might be prepared for the +"University," as the new institution at Cambridge was designated. +Moreover, a penalty was attached to neglect of this legislative +requirement, in the form of a fine to be devoted to the maintenance of +the nearest school. Horace Mann said of the act of 1647: "It is +impossible for us adequately to conceive the boldness of the measure, +which aimed at universal education through the establishment of free +schools. As a fact it had no precedent in the world's history; and, as a +theory, it could have been refuted and silenced by a more formidable +array of argument and experience than was ever marshalled against any +other institution of human origin. But time has ratified its soundness. +Two centuries of successful operation now proclaim it to be as wise as +it was courageous, and as beneficent as it was disinterested." The +significance of these acts of 1642 and 1647 is that they foreshadow the +whole American system of education, including elementary schools, +secondary schools and colleges, and that they indicate the principles +upon which that system rests. These principles as summarized by George +H. Martin in his _Evolution of the Massachusetts Public School System_ +are the following:--(1) The universal education of youth is essential to +the well-being of the state. (2) The obligation to furnish this +education rests primarily upon the parent. (3) The state has a right to +enforce this obligation. (4) The state may fix a standard which shall +determine the kind of education and the minimum amount. (5) Public money +raised by general tax may be used to provide such education as the state +requires. The tax may be general, though the school attendance is not. +(6) Education higher than the rudiments may be supplied by the state. +Opportunity must be provided at the public expense for youths who wish +to be fitted for college. These principles have now found expression in +the public acts of every state, and upon them education in the United +States is founded. + + + Development. + +Despite the praiseworthy attempts made in New York, New Jersey and +Pennsylvania to develop schools and school systems, very little was +accomplished in those colonies which was permanent. The sentiment in the +more southern colonies was, as a rule, unfriendly to free schools, and +nothing of importance was attempted in that section of the country until +the time of Thomas Jefferson. Through religious zeal or philanthropy +colleges were founded as far south as Virginia, and no fewer than ten of +these institutions were in operation in 1776. Their present names and +the dates of their foundation are: Harvard University, Massachusetts +(1636); College of William and Mary, Virginia (1693); Yale University, +Connecticut (1701); Princeton University, New Jersey (1746); Washington +and Lee University, Virginia (1749); University of Pennsylvania, +Pennsylvania (1749); Columbia University, New York (1754); Brown +University, Rhode Island (1764); Rutgers College, New Jersey (1766); and +Dartmouth College, New Hampshire (1769). In the colleges the +ecclesiastical spirit was at first almost uniformly dominant. The +greater number of their students were preparing for the ministry in some +one of the branches of the Protestant Church. These facts caused the +grammar schools to take on more and more the character of +college-preparatory schools; and when this was brought about they +supplied the educational needs of but one portion of the community. As +time passed, the interdependence of governmental and ecclesiastical +interests began to weaken in the colonies, and there arose among those +who represented the new secularizing tendency a distrust of the colleges +and their influence. This gave rise to a new and influential type of +school, the academy, which took its name from the secondary schools +established in England by the dissenting religious bodies during the +latter part of the seventeenth century at the suggestion of Milton. +These academies were intended to give an education which was thought to +be more practical than that offered by the colleges, and they drew their +students from the so-called middle classes of society. The older +academies were usually endowed institutions, organized under the control +of religious organizations or of self-perpetuating boards of trustees. +Their programme of studies was less restricted than that of the grammar +schools, and they gave new emphasis to the study of the English language +and its literature, of mathematics and of the new sciences of nature. +For two generations the academies were a most beneficent factor in +American education, and they supplied a large number of the +better-prepared teachers for work in other schools. These schools were +in a sense public in that they were chartered, but they were not +directly under public control in their management. Early in the 19th +century there arose a well-defined demand for public secondary +schools--high schools, as they are popularly known. They were the direct +outgrowth of the elementary school system. Boston, Philadelphia, +Baltimore and New York were the first of the large cities to establish +schools of this type, and they spread rapidly. These public secondary +schools met with opposition, however, springing partly from the friends +of the academies, and partly from those who held that governmental +agency should be restricted to the field of elementary education. The +legal questions raised were settled by a decision of the supreme court +of Michigan, which contained these words: "Neither in our state policy, +in our constitution, nor in our laws do we find the primary school +districts restricted in the branches of knowledge which their officers +may cause to be taught, or the grade of instruction that may be given, +if their voters consent, in regular form, to bear the expense and raise +the taxes for the purpose." This decision gave marked impetus to the +development of public secondary or high schools, and they have increased +rapidly in number. The academies have relatively declined, and in the +Western states are almost unknown. + +Meanwhile the elementary school system had grown rapidly. The school +district, the smallest civil division, was created in Connecticut in +1701, in Rhode Island about 1750, and in Massachusetts in 1789. From the +point of view of efficient, well-supported schools, it has been felt +since the time of Horace Mann that the substitution of the small school +district for the town as the unit of school administration was a +mistake. Yet the school district has exercised a profound influence for +good upon the American people. In New York state, for example, there +were in 1900 over eleven thousand school districts, and in Illinois over +twelve thousand. The districts are small in extent and often sparsely +settled. Their government is as democratic as possible. The resident +legal voters, often including women, hold a meeting at least once a +year. They elect trustees to represent them in the employment of the +teacher and the management of the school. They determine whether a new +schoolhouse shall be built, whether repairs shall be made, and what sum +of money shall be raised for school purposes. In the rural districts +this system has often been itself a school in patriotism and in the +conduct of public affairs. Recently the tendency is to merge the school +districts into the township, in order that larger and better schools may +be maintained, and that educational advantages may be distributed more +evenly among the people. Most of the southern states have the county +system of school administration. This is because the county, rather than +the township, has been the political unit in the south from the +beginning. Special laws have been made for the school system in cities, +and the form of these laws differs very much. In nearly every city there +is a separate board of education, sometimes chosen by the voters, +sometimes appointed by the mayor or other official, which board has +full control of the schools. The city board of education has as its +executive officer a superintendent of schools, who has become a most +important factor in American educational administration. He exerts great +influence in the selection of teachers, in the choice of text-books, in +the arrangement of the programme of studies, and in the determination of +questions of policy. Sometimes he is charged by law with the initiative +in some or all of these matters. He is usually a trained administrator +as well as an experienced teacher. The first superintendent was +appointed in 1837 at Buffalo. Providence followed in 1839, New Orleans +in 1841, Cleveland in 1844, Baltimore in 1849, Cincinnati in 1850, +Boston in 1851, New York, San Francisco and Jersey City in 1852, Newark +and Brooklyn in 1853, Chicago and St Louis in 1854, and Philadelphia in +1883. In general, it may be said that the progress of public education +in the United States is marked by (1) compulsory schools, (2) compulsory +licensing of teachers, (3) compulsory school attendance, and (4) +compulsory school supervision, and by the increasingly efficient +administration of these provisions. The compulsion comes in each case +from the state government, which alone, in the American system, has the +power to prescribe it and to enforce it. Each state is therefore an +independent educational unit, and there is no single, uniform American +system of education in any legal sense. In fact, however, the great mass +of the American people are in entire agreement as to the principles +which should control public education; and the points in which the +policies of the several states are in agreement are greater, both in +number and in importance, than those in which they differ. An American +educational system exists, therefore, in spirit and in substance, even +though not in form. + + + National policy. + +Neither in the Declaration of Independence nor in the Constitution of +the United States is there any mention of education. The founders of the +nation were by no means indifferent to education, but they shared the +common view of their time, which was that the real responsibility for +the maintenance of schools and the expense of maintaining them should +fall upon the several local communities. The relation of government to +education was not then a subject of ordinary consideration or +discussion. Later, when this question did arise and the power of +taxation was involved, the several states assumed control of education, +as it was necessary that they should do. Nevertheless, from the very +beginning the national government has aided and supported education, +while not controlling it. This policy dates from the 13th of July 1787, +when there was passed the famous "Ordinance for the Government of the +Territory of the United States North-West of the River Ohio," meaning +the territory north and west of the Ohio river now represented by the +states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, and the eastern +side of Minnesota, embracing more than 265,000 sq. m. of territory. This +ordinance contains this declaration: "Religion, morality, and knowledge +being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools +and the means of education shall for ever be encouraged." The Ordinance +of 1787 also reaffirmed the provisions of the so-called Land Ordinance +of 1785, by which section No. 16 in every township (a township consists +of 36 numbered sections of 1 sq. m. each), or one thirty-sixth of the +entire north-west territory, was set aside for the maintenance of public +schools within the township. The funds derived from the sale and lease +of these original "school lands" form the major portion of the public +school endowment of the states formed out of the north-west territory. +The precedent thus established became the policy of the nation. Each +state admitted prior to 1848 reserved section No. 16 in every township +of public land for common schools. Each state admitted since 1848 (Utah +being an exception, and having four sections) has reserved sections No. +16 and No. 36 in every township of public lands for this purpose. In +addition, the national government has granted two townships in every +state and territory containing public lands for seminaries or +universities. A third land grant is that made in 1862 for colleges of +agriculture and the mechanical arts. The sum total of these three land +grants amounted in 1900 to 78,659,439 acres, to which there must be +added various special grants made from time to time to the states and +devoted to education. The portion of the public domain so set apart in +1900 amounted in all to 86,138,473 acres, or 134,591 English sq. m. This +is an area greater than those of the six New England states, New York, +New Jersey, Maryland and Delaware added together. It is a portion of the +earth's surface as great as the kingdom of Prussia, about seven-tenths +as great as France, and considerably greater than the combined areas of +Great Britain (including the Channel Islands) and the kingdom of +Holland. Besides the enormous grants of land in aid of education, the +national government has maintained since 1802 a military academy at West +Point, New York, for the training of officers for the army, and since +1845 a naval academy at Annapolis, Maryland, for the training of +officers for the navy. It has also taken charge of the education of the +children of uncivilized Indians, and of all children in Alaska. It has +voted, by act of 1887, a perpetual endowment of $15,000 a year for each +agricultural experiment station connected with a state agricultural +college, and, by act of 1890, an additional endowment of $25,000 a year +for each of the agricultural colleges themselves. The aggregate value of +land and money given by the national government for education in the +several states and territories is about $300,000,000. + + + Bureau of education. + +In 1867 the Congress established a bureau of education, presided over by +a commissioner who is under the jurisdiction of the secretary of the +interior, the purpose of which is declared to be to collect "such +statistics and facts as shall show the condition and progress of +education in the several states and territories, and of diffusing such +information respecting the organization and management of school systems +and methods of teaching as shall aid the people of the United States in +the establishment and maintenance of efficient school systems, and +otherwise promote the cause of education throughout the country." The +bureau has therefore no direct power over the educational policy of the +several states. It has, however, exercised a potent influence for good +in its advisory capacity. Up to 1900 this bureau had published 360 +separate volumes and pamphlets, including 31 annual reports, covering +from 800 to 2300 pages each; and the number has since been much +increased. The annual reports alone of the Commissioner of Education are +mines of information. These standard works of reference are distributed +gratuitously in large numbers to libraries, school officials and other +persons interested, and to foreign governments. The several +commissioners of education have been: Henry Barnard, 1867-1870; John +Eaton, 1870-1886; Nathaniel H.R. Dawson, 1886-1889; William T. +Harris,[3] 1889-1906; Elmer Ellsworth Brown, 1906- . + + + State governments and education. + +In the United States the sovereign powers are not all lodged in one +place. Such of those powers as are not granted by the Constitution to +the national government are reserved to the states respectively, or to +the people. The power to levy taxes for the support of public education +has been almost universally held to be one of the powers so reserved. +The inhabitants of the several local communities, however indisposed +they may have been to relinquish absolute control of their own schools, +have been compelled to yield to the authority of the state government +whenever it has been asserted, for except under such authority no civil +division--county, city, township, or school district--possesses the +power to levy taxes for school purposes. Moreover, since the exercise of +state authority has uniformly improved the quality of the schools, it +has usually been welcomed, not resisted. In general, it may be said that +the state has used its authority to prescribe a minimum of efficiency +which schools and teachers must reach, and it enforces this minimum +through inspection and the withholding of its proper share of the state +school fund from any locality where schools or teachers are permitted to +fall below the required standard. In extreme cases the state authorities +have interfered directly to prevent the evil results of local +inefficiency or contumacy. In addition, the states, almost without +exception, maintain at their own expense schools for the training of +teachers, known as normal schools. Many of the states also offer +inducements to the cities, towns and districts to exceed the prescribed +minimum of efficiency. Through the steady exercise of state supervision +the school buildings have improved, the standard for entrance upon the +work of teaching has been raised, the programme of studies has been made +more effective and more uniform, and the length of the school term has +increased. The Constitution of every state now contains some provision +as to public education. Each state has an executive officer charged with +the enforcement of the state school laws. Sometimes, as in New York, +this official has plenary powers; sometimes, as in Massachusetts and +Ohio, he is little more than an adviser. In twenty-nine states this +official is known as the superintendent of public instruction; in +Massachusetts and Connecticut he is called secretary of the state board +of education; other titles used are commissioner of public schools, +superintendent of common schools, and superintendent of public schools. +The schools are administered, on behalf of the taxpayers, by an elected +board of school trustees in rural school districts, and by an elected +(though sometimes appointed) board of education or school committee in +cities and towns. In 836 cities and towns there is a local +superintendent of schools, who directs and supervises the educational +work and acts as the executive officer of the board of education. The +schools in the rural districts are under the direct supervision of a +county superintendent of schools or similar official, who is often +chosen by the people, but who sometimes is named by the state +authorities. The county and city superintendents are often charged with +the duty of holding examinations for entrance upon the work of teaching, +and of issuing licences to those persons who pass the examinations. This +system works best where it is carefully regulated by state law. Thirty +states, one territory, and the District of Columbia have enacted +compulsory education laws, but the enforcement of them is usually very +lax. In fifteen states and territories there are no compulsory education +laws, although there are in existence there fully organized school +systems free to all children. The usual age during which school +attendance is required is from 8 to 14. Provision is made in Maine, New +Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New +Jersey, Pennsylvania, Indiana, Minnesota and Michigan, for sending +habitual truants to some special institution. Laws forbidding the +employment of children under a specified minimum age in any mercantile +or manufacturing establishment are in force in twelve states, and are +usually administered in connexion with the compulsory education laws. + +The universal establishment in America of public secondary schools (high +schools), and the existence of state universities in all of the states +south and west of Pennsylvania, have brought into existence a system of +state education which reaches from the kindergarten and the elementary +school to the graduate instruction offered at state colleges and +universities. This system includes (1) about 1500 free public +kindergartens scattered over fifteen states; (2) free public elementary +schools within reach of almost every home in the land; (3) free public +secondary schools (high schools) in every considerable city or town and +in not a few rural communities; (4) free land grant colleges, supported +in large part by the proceeds of the nation's endowment of public lands, +paying particular attention to agriculture and the mechanical arts, in +all the states; (5) state universities, free or substantially so, in all +the states south and west of Pennsylvania; (6) free public normal +schools, for the professional training of teachers, in nearly every +state; (7) free schools for the education of defectives in nearly all +the states; and (8) the national academies at West Point and Annapolis +for the professional training of military and naval officers +respectively. + + + Kindergartens. + +Miss Susan E. Blow, herself the leading exponent of kindergarten +principles in the United States, has pointed out that the history of the +kindergarten movement reveals four distinct stages in its development: +the pioneer stage, having Boston as its centre; the philanthropic stage, +which began in the village of Florence, Mass., and reached its climax at +San Francisco, California; the national or strictly educational stage, +which began at St Louis; and the so-called maternal stage, which from +Chicago as a centre is spreading over the entire country. During the +first stage public attention was directed to a few of the most important +aspects of Froebel's teaching. During the second stage the kindergarten +was valued largely as a reformatory and redemptive influence. During the +third stage the fundamental principles underlying kindergarten training +were scientifically studied and expounded, and the kindergarten became +part of the public school system of the country. The fourth stage, +which, like the third, is fortunately still in existence, aims at making +the kindergarten a link between the school and the home, and so to use +it to strengthen the foundations and elevate the ideals of family life. +By 1898 there were 4363 kindergartens in the United States (1365 of +which were public), employing 9937 teachers (2532 in the public +kindergartens) and enrolling 189,604 children (95,867 in the public +kindergartens). Of the 164 public normal schools, 36 made provision for +training kindergarten teachers. The scientific and literary activity of +some of the private kindergarten training classes is very great, and +they exert a beneficial and stimulating effect on teaching in the +elementary schools. It is generally admitted that from the point of view +of the children, of the teachers, of the schools, and of the community +at large, the kindergarten has been and is an inspiration of +incalculable value. + + + Elementary schools. + +The elementary school course is from six to nine years in length, the +ordinary period being eight years. The pupils enter at about six years +of age. In the cities the elementary schools are usually in session for +five hours daily, except Saturday and Sunday, beginning at 9 A.M. There +is an intermission, usually of an hour, at midday, and short recesses +during the sessions. In the small rural schools the pupils are usually +ungraded, and are taught singly or in varying groups. In the cities and +towns there is a careful gradation of pupils, and promotions from grade +to grade are made at intervals of a year or of a half-year. The best +schools have the most elastic system of gradation and the most frequent +promotions. In a number of states there are laws authorizing the +conveyance of children to school at the public expense, when the +schoolhouse is unduly distant from the homes of a portion of the school +population. Co-education (q.v.) in the elementary school has been the +salutary and almost uniform practice in the United States. The programme +of studies in the elementary school includes English (reading, writing, +spelling, grammar, composition), arithmetic (sometimes elementary +algebra also, or plane geometry in the upper grades), geography, history +of the United States, and elementary natural science, including human +physiology and hygiene. Physical training, vocal music, drawing and +manual training are often taught. Sometimes a foreign language (Latin, +German or French) and the study of general history are begun. Formal +instruction in manners and morals is not often found, but the discipline +of the school offers the best possible training in the habits of +truthfulness, honesty, obedience, regularity, punctuality and conformity +to order. Religious teaching is not permitted, although the exercises of +the day are often opened with reading from the Bible, the repetition of +the Lord's Prayer and the singing of a hymn. Corporal punishment is not +infrequent, but is forbidden by law in New Jersey, and in many states +may be used only under restrictions. Text-books are used as the basis of +the instruction given, and the pupils "recite" in class to the teacher, +who, by use of illustration and comment, makes clear the subject-matter +of the prescribed lesson. The purpose of the recitation method is to +make the work of each pupil help that of his companion. Skilfully used, +it is the most effectual instrument yet devised for elementary school +instruction. + + + Secondary schools. + +The secondary school course is normally four years in length. The +principal subjects studied are Latin, Greek, French, German, algebra, +geometry, physics, chemistry, physical geography, physiology, rhetoric, +English literature, civics and history. Although but 11.36% of the +students in public high schools and 25.36% of those in private secondary +schools are preparing for a college or scientific school, yet the +conditions prescribed by the colleges for admission to their courses +affect powerfully both the secondary school programme and the methods of +teaching. Of late years no educational topic has been more widely +discussed than that as to the proper relations of secondary schools and +colleges. As a result, special examinations for admission to college are +either greatly simplified or entirely abolished, and the secondary +studies are much more substantial and better taught than formerly. An +increasing proportion of secondary school teachers are college +graduates. The most extraordinary characteristic of secondary education +in recent years is the rapid increase in the number of students taking +Latin as a school subject. Meanwhile the proportion of those studying +physics and chemistry has fallen off slightly. The rate of increase in +the number of pupils who study Latin is fully twice as great as the rate +of increase in the number of secondary school students. Between 1890 and +1896, while the number of students in private secondary schools +increased 12%, the number of students in public secondary schools +increased 87%. Since 1894 the number of students in private secondary +schools has steadily declined. + + + The colleges. + +The American college, although it is the outgrowth of the English +colleges of Oxford and of Cambridge, has developed into an institution +which has no counterpart in Europe. The college course of study, at +first three years in length, was soon extended to four years, and the +classes are uniformly known as the freshman, the sophomore, the junior +and the senior. The traditional degree which crowns the college course +is that of Bachelor of Arts (A.B.). The studies ordinarily insisted on +in the case of candidates for this degree are Latin, Greek, mathematics, +English, philosophy, political economy, history, at least one modern +European language (French or German), and at least one natural science. +The degrees of Bachelor of Science (B.S.), Bachelor of Philosophy +(Ph.B.), and Bachelor of Letters (B.L.) are often conferred by colleges +upon students who have pursued systematic courses of study which do not +include Greek or the amount of Latin required for the degree of Bachelor +of Arts. The best colleges give instruction which is similar in +character to that given in Germany in the three upper classes of the +gymnasium and in the introductory courses at the universities, in France +in the two upper classes of the lycee and in the first two years of +university study, and in England in the upper form of the public schools +and during the years of undergraduate residence at Oxford and Cambridge. +Since 1870 the colleges have developed enormously. Their resources have +multiplied, the number of their students has increased by leaps and +bounds, the programme of studies has broadened and deepened, the +standards have been raised, and the efficiency of the instruction has +greatly increased. Rigidly prescribed courses of study have given way to +elective courses, and a knowledge of Greek is no longer required for the +degree of A.B. at such influential colleges as Harvard, Columbia, +Cornell and Williams. A strong effort is being made to have the leading +colleges give but one degree, that of Bachelor of Arts, and to confer +that upon those who complete any substantial course of college studies. +A marked change has taken place in the attitude of the college +authorities toward the students. In 1870 the college president was a +paterfamilias. He knew each student and came into direct personal +contact with him. The president and the faculty had supervision not only +of the studies of the students, but of their moral and religious life as +well. The older type of college professor was not always a great +scholar, but he was a student of human nature, with keen intuitions and +shrewd insight. The new type, which had come into existence at the +opening of the 20th century, was more scholarly in some special +direction, often regarded teaching as a check upon opportunities for +investigation, and disdained troubling himself with a student's personal +concerns or intellectual and moral difficulties. The change was not +altogether for the better, and a desirable reaction has been +observable. Each college, however small or ill-equipped, exercises a +helpful local influence. Ninety per cent of all college students attend +an institution not more than one hundred miles from their own homes. Few +colleges have a national constituency, and even in these cases an +overwhelming preponderance of the students come from the immediate +neighbourhood. This explains, in a measure, the powerful influence which +the college has exercised in the life of the nation. While hardly more +than one in a hundred of the white male youth of the country has had a +college education, yet the college graduates have furnished one-half of +all the presidents of the United States, most of the justices of the +Supreme Court, about one-half of the cabinet officers and United States +senators, and nearly one-third of the House of Representatives. Before +the Revolution eleven colleges were founded. From 1776 to 1800, twelve +more were added; from 1800 to 1830, thirty-three; from 1830 to 1865, one +hundred and eighty; from 1865 to 1898, two hundred and thirty-six. Their +standards, efficiency and equipment are very diverse, many of the +so-called colleges being less effective than some of the better +organized secondary schools. Except in New York and Pennsylvania, there +is no statutory restriction upon the use of the name "college." This is +an abuse to which public attention has in recent years been increasingly +called.[4] + + + The universities. + +In the United States the title "university" is used indiscriminately of +institutions which are in reality universities, of institutions which +are colleges, and of institutions which are so ill-equipped as not to +take rank with good secondary schools. Only time and a greatly increased +capacity to distinguish the various types of higher schools will remedy +this error. Putting aside tentative and unsuccessful attempts to develop +genuine university instruction much earlier, it may safely be said that +the opening of the Johns Hopkins University at Baltimore in 1876 began +the present movement to organize carefully advanced study and research, +requiring a college education of those who wish to enter upon it. This +is university instruction properly so called, and though found +elsewhere, it is given chiefly at fourteen institutions: California +University, Catholic University of America, Chicago University, Clark +University, Columbia University, Cornell University, Harvard University, +Johns Hopkins University, Michigan University, Pennsylvania University, +Princeton University, Leland Stanford Jr. University, Wisconsin +University and Yale University. All of these institutions, except the +Catholic University of America, are also colleges. The combination of +collegiate and university instruction under one corporation and one +executive administration is distinctive of higher education in the +United States, and its chief source of strength. The crowning honour of +the university student is the degree of Ph.D., although that of +A.M.--obtainable in less time and much easier conditions--is also +sought. The minimum period of study accepted for the degree of Ph.D. is +two years after obtaining the bachelor's degree; but in practice, three, +and even four, years of study are found necessary. In addition to +carrying on an investigation in the field of his main subject of study, +the candidate for the degree of Ph.D. is usually required to pass +examinations on one or two subordinate subjects, to possess a reading +knowledge of French and German (often of Latin as well), and to +submit--usually in printed form--the dissertation which embodies the +results of his researches. The methods of instruction in the +universities are the lecture, discussion and work in laboratory or +seminary--the latter transplanted from the German universities. The +degree of Master of Arts is conferred upon students who, after one year +of university residence and study, pass certain prescribed examinations. +This degree, like those of D.D., S.T.D. and LL.D., is often conferred by +colleges and universities as a purely honorary distinction. The degree +of Ph.D. is not so conferred any longer by the best universities. Not a +few of the universities maintain schools of law and medicine. Harvard +and Yale universities maintain schools of theology as well. The learned +publications issued by the universities, or under the direction of +university professors, are of great importance, and constitute an +imposing body of scientific literature. The national and state +governments make increasing use of university officials for public +service requiring special training or expert knowledge. In 1871-1872 +there were only 198 resident graduate (or university) students in the +United States. In 1887 this number had risen to 1237, and in 1897 to +4392. These figures are exclusive of professional students, and include +only those who are studying in what would be called, in Germany, the +philosophical faculty. (See also UNIVERSITIES.) + +Most extensive provision is made in America for professional, technical +and special education of all kinds, and for the care and training of the +dependent and defective classes (see BLINDNESS and DEAF AND DUMB), as +well as for the education of the Indian (see INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN), +and--in the Southern states--of the negro (q.v.). (N. M. B.) + +_Statistics._--Details as to education in each state of the American +Union are given in the articles under state headings. But a more +comprehensive view may be obtained here from the general statistics. The +introduction to the statistical tables in vol. ii. of the Commissioner +of Education's Report for 1907 may usefully be quoted. Mr Edward L. +Thorndike, of the Teachers' College, Columbia University, there +summarizes the national account as follows:-- + + "We use in formal school education a material plant valued at from + twelve to thirteen hundred million dollars, the labour of 550,000 + teachers or other educational officers, and more or less of the time + of some eighteen million students.... We pay for the labour of these + teachers, many of whom work for only part of the normal city-school + year, about $300,000,000. We pay for fuel, light, janitorial services, + repairs, depreciation of books, school supplies, insurance and the + like, about $90,000,000. For depreciation of the plant not so charged + we should properly provide during the year a sinking fund of perhaps + $25,000,000. Adding an interest charge of 5% on the investment in the + plant, our annual bill for formal school education comes to over + $475,000,000. Additions to the plant were made [in 1906-1907] to the + extent of from ninety to a hundred million dollars. As a partial + estimate of the returns from this investment we may take the number of + students whose education has been carried to a specified standard of + accomplishment and power. Thus I estimate that, in 1907, 3000 students + reached the standard denoted by three years or more of academic, + technical or professional study in advance of a reputable college + degree; that 25,000 students reached the standard denoted by at least + three and not over four years of such study in advance of a four-year + high-school course; than an eighth of a million students reached the + standard denoted by at least three and not over four years of study in + advance of an eight-year elementary-school course; and that + three-quarters of a million students reached the standard of + completion of an elementary-school course of seven or eight years or + its equivalent.... Roughly, nine-tenths of elementary education and + the education of teachers, over two-thirds of secondary education, and + over a third of college and higher technical education are provided + and controlled by the public. Professional education, other than the + training of teachers and engineers, is still largely a function of + private provision and control. + + "The following rough comparison may serve to define further the status + of education in the country at large. The plant used for formal + education is valued at 1% of our entire national wealth, or twice the + value of our telephone systems, or ten times the value of our Pullman + and private cars, or one-tenth the value of our railroads. The number + of teachers is approximately that of the clergymen, engineers, lawyers + and physicians together, five times that of the regular army and navy, + and about twice that of the saloon-keepers and bar-tenders and their + assistants. The annual expenditure for education, exclusive of + additions to the plant, is somewhat over twice the expenditure for the + war and navy departments of the national government. It is three and a + half times the expenditure of the national government in 1907 for + pensions. It is about one and a fourth times the cost (New York + wholesale prices) of the sugar and coffee we consume annually." + +The above comparison indicates perhaps, not inadequately, the "business" +conception of the value of education prevailing in the United States, +where its practical advantages are realized as in no other country, not +even Germany. + +From the same report the following statistics may be cited for +1906-1907. + + + _Common Schools (including Elementary and Secondary Public + Schools only)._ + + Total number of pupils of all ages 16,820,386[5] + Average number of days schools open 151.2 + Average number of days attended by each pupil 106.2 + Number of male teachers 105,773 + Number of female teachers 369,465 + Number of school houses 259,115 + Average monthly wage of male teachers $56.10 + Average monthly wage of female teachers $43.67 + Value of all school property $843,309,410 + Income from permanent funds and rents $16,579,551 + Income from State taxes $46,281,501 + Income from local taxes $230,424,554 + Income from other sources $50,317,132 + Expenditure on sites, buildings, furniture, + libraries and apparatus $65,817,870 + Expenditure on salaries $196,980,919 + Expenditure on other purposes $67,882,012 + Expenditure per head of population $3.90 + Expenditure per pupil $27.98 + + The Bureau of Education in 1907 received reports from 606 + universities, colleges and technological schools; they had a teaching + force of 24,679, and an enrolment of 293,343 students. The number of + public and private normal schools reporting was 259, with an enrolment + of 70,439 students in the regular training courses for teachers, + 12,541 graduates and 3660 instructors. There were 148 manual and + industrial training schools (independently of the manual training + taught in the public schools and in 66 Indian schools), with 1692 + teachers and an enrolment of 68,427 students; and 445 independent + commercial and business schools, with 2856 instructors and 137,364 + students. (X.) + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For the study of education as an aspect of religious, + social, moral and intellectual development, the material is + practically inexhaustible, and much of the most valuable does not + treat specifically of the education given in schools and colleges. The + most useful guide is E.P. Cubberley's _Syllabus of Lectures on the + History of Education_ (1902), which consists of an analytic outline of + topics with copious and detailed references to authorities. See also + W.S. Monroe's _Bibliography of Education_ (1897). The best general + history in English is P. Monroe's _Text-Book in the History of + Education_ (1905), which, like Davidson's much briefer _History of + Education_, treats the subject broadly and in relation to other + aspects of life. Williams's _History of Ancient, Medieval, and Modern + Education_ is a useful statement of the main facts of educational + progress taken somewhat by itself. In German the standard work is K.A. + Schmid's _Geschichte der Erziehung_, a comprehensive and detailed + treatment in which each period is dealt with by a specialist. + Ziegler's _Geschichte der Padagogik_ is a good short history. In + French, Letourneau's _L'Evolution de l'education_ is especially good + on ancient and non-European education. Draper's _Intellectual + Development of Europe_ is vigorous and interesting, but marred by its + depreciation of the work of the Church. Guizot's _History of + Civilization_ is still of value, as are parts of Hallam's _Literary + History_. Lecky's _History of the Rise and Influence of the Spirit of + Rationalism in Europe_, and Buckle's _History of Civilization_ in + England, contain much that is of value. The best encyclopaedias are W. + Rein's _Encyklopadisches Handbuch der Padagogik_, and F. Buisson's + _Dictionnaire de pedagogie, premiere partie_. Sir Henry Craik's _The + State and Education_ (1883) is an excellent text-book on national + education. + + Of books dealing with special periods and topics, S. Laurie's + _Historical Sketch of Pre-Christian Education_, Freeman's _Schools of + Hellas_, Girard's _L'Education athenienne au V^e et au IV^e siecle + avant_ J.-C., Davidson's _Education of the Greek People_, Mahaffy's + _Old Greek Education_ and _Greek Life and Thought_, Nettleship's + article on "Education in Plato's Republic" in _Hellenica_, Capes's + _University Life in Athens_, Hobhouse's _Theory and Practice of + Ancient Education_, Grasberger's _Erziehung und Unterricht im + classischen Alterthum_, Wilkin's _Roman Education_, and Clarke's + _Education of Children at Rome_, are valuable for classical times. + + For the somewhat obscure transition centuries there is much of value + in Taylor's _Classical Heritage of the Middle Ages_, Dill's _Roman + Society in the Last Century of the Western Empire_, especially the + chapter on "Culture in the 4th and 5th centuries," Boissier's _La Fin + du paganisme_, and Hatch's _Influence of Greek Thought upon the + Christian Church_. + + The best general account of medieval education is in Drane's + _Christian Schools and Scholars_; and J.B. Mullinger's _Schools of + Charles the Great_ treats well of the Carolingian Revival. G.B. + Adams's _Civilization during the Middle Ages_ is excellent; and + Sandys's _History of Classical Scholarship_ is a valuable book of + reference. On the scholastic philosophy Turner's _History of + Philosophy_, and Haureau's _Histoire de la philosophie scolastique_, + are useful. Medieval schools are described in Furnivall's preface to + _The Babees Book_, which deals with "Education in Early England," and + in Leach's _Old Yorkshire Schools_ and _History of Winchester + College_. The most important books on the universities are Rashdall's + _Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages_, Jourdain's _Histoire de + l'universite de Paris aux XVII^e et XVIII^e siecles_, Lyte's _History + of the University of Oxford to 1530_, and Mullinger's _History of the + University of Cambridge to the Accession of Charles I._ Paulsen's + _Geschichte des gelehrten Unterrichts auf den deutschen Schulen und + Universitaten_ is the best history of education in Germany. + + On the Renaissance in Italy, Villari's Introduction to his _Life and + Times of Machiavelli_, and Burckhardt's _Die Kultur der Renaissance in + Italien_ (translated into English), are of the first importance. Other + valuable books are the first volume of the _Cambridge Modern History_ + and Symonds's great work on _The Renaissance in Italy_, especially the + volume on _The Revival of Learning_. Dealing more specifically with + education are Woodward's excellent monographs on _Education during the + Renaissance_, _Vittorino da Feltre_ and _Erasmus_. Janssen's + _Geschichte des deutschen Volkes_ (translated into English) gives a + good account of the social and intellectual condition of Germany in + the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries. Christie's _Life of Etienne Dolet_ + is of value for the Renaissance in France. For the movement in England + Seebohm's _Oxford Reformers_, Gasquet's _Eve of the Reformation in + England_, Einstein's _The Italian Renaissance in England_, and Leach's + _English Schools at the Reformation, 1546-1548_, are particularly + important. + + For later times the material is chiefly in the form of monographs, of + which the following, among others, are of value: Adamson's _Pioneers + of Modern Education_, Laas's _Die Padagogik des Johannes Sturm_, + Beard's _Port Royal_, vol. ii., Kuno Fischer's _Fr. Bacon und seine + Nachfolger_, Laurie's _John Amos Comenius_, Morley's _Rousseau_, + Pinloche's _La Reforme de l'education en Allemagne au dix-huitieme + siecle_, Biedermann's _Deutschlands geistige, sittliche, und gesellige + Zustande im XVIII. Jahrhundert_. + + For the 19th century and after, the best sources of information are + the official Reports, such as those of the Royal Commissions on the + English Universities, the Public Schools, and the other English + secondary schools; the "Special Reports," issued by the English Board + of Education; the encyclopaedic annual Reports of the American + Commissioner of Education (dealing not only with the United States, + but with progress in other countries); monographs in the French _Musee + pedagogique_, and various German Reports. + + For education in the United States, see also Boone's _History of + Education in U.S.A._ (1889); N.M. Butler (editor), _Education in the + U.S.A._ (1900), a series of monographs prepared for the Paris + Exposition; E.G. Dexter's _History of Education in the United States_ + (1904); and the _Proceedings_ of the National Educational Association. + + On the leading writers on education the monographs in the Great + Educator Series are useful, and editions and translations of the best + known of these writers are available. The greatest systematic + collection is the _Monumenta Germaniae paedagogica_. On the + development of the means of education, Montmorency's two books on + _State Intervention in English Education from the Earliest Times to + 1833_, and _The Progress of Education in England_, Balfour's + _Educational Systems of Great Britain and Ireland_, Allain's + _L'Instruction primaire en France avant la Revolution_, Lantoine's + _Histoire de l'enseignement secondaire en France au XVIII^e et au + debut du XVIII^e siecle_, and Konrad Fischer's _Geschichte des + deutschen Volkschullehrerstands_, may be mentioned. (J. Wn.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] For the evolution of the school as such from early times see + SCHOOLS. + + [2] See especially _Das offentliche Unterrichtswesen Deutschlands_, + by Dr Paul Stotzner (Leipzig, 1901). + + [3] A valuable bibliography of Mr Harris's contributions to + educational literature is given in the Report of the Commissioner of + Education for 1907 (Washington, 1908). + + [4] See especially the second Annual Report of the President of the + Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching (pp. 76-80), + quoted in the Report for 1907 of the Commissioner of Education. + + [5] In private schools there were also 1,304,547 pupils. + + + + +EDWARD, "THE ELDER" (d. 924), king of the Angles and Saxons, was the +second son of Alfred the Great, and with his sister Aethelflaed was +carefully educated at the court of his father. During his father's +lifetime he took an active part in the campaigns against the Danes, +especially in that of 894, and as early as 898 he signs a charter as +"rex," showing that he was definitely associated with his father in the +kingship. He succeeded his father in October 899,[1] but not without +opposition. The Aetheling Aethelwold, son of Alfred's elder brother +Aethelred, seized Wimborne and Christchurch. Edward advanced against him, +and Aethelwold took refuge among the Danes in Northumbria. In 904 +Aethelwold landed in Essex, and in the next year he enticed the East +Anglian Danes to revolt. They ravaged all southern Mercia and, in spite +of Edward's activity, returned home victorious, though Aethelwold fell in +the battle of the Holme. In 905 or 906 Edward made a peace with the East +Anglian and Northumbrian Danes at "Yttingaford," near Linslade in +Buckinghamshire, perhaps the peace known as "the Laws of Edward and +Guthrum." In 909 and 910 fresh campaigns took place owing to southerly +raids by the Danes, and victories were won at Tettenhall and Wednesfield +in Staffordshire.[2] From 907 onwards Edward and his sister Aethelflaed, +the Lady of the Mercians, were busy strengthening their hold on Mercia +and Wessex. Forts were built at Lincoln (907), "Bremesbyrig" (910), +"Scergeat" and Bridgenorth (912), and when in the year 911 Aethelflaed's +husband Aethelred died, Edward took over from Mercia the government of +London and Oxford, with the lands belonging to them, i.e. probably +Oxfordshire and Middlesex. The policy of constructing "burhs" or +fortified towns was continued. Hertford was fortified in 911, Witham in +912, while Aethelflaed fortified Cherbury in Shropshire, "Weardbyrig" and +Runcorn (all in 915). In 913 the Danes in Eastern Mercia gave +considerable trouble, and in 914 a fresh horde of pirates, coming from +Brittany, sailed up the Severn. They raided southern Wales, but were +hemmed in by the English forces and besieged until they promised to +leave the king's territory. Edward watched the southern shores of the +Bristol Channel so carefully that the Danes failed to secure a hold +there, and were ultimately forced to sail to Ireland. In the same year +Edward fortified Buckingham and received the submission of the jarls and +chief men of Bedford. In 915 he fortified Bedford itself, Maldon in 916, +and Towcester and "Wigingamere" in 917. In the last-mentioned year +Edward captured and destroyed the Danish stronghold of Tempsford, and +later in the year he took Colchester. An attack by the Danes on Maldon +failed, and in 915 Edward went to Passenham and received the submission +of the men of the "borough" of Northampton. The Danish strongholds of +Huntingdon and Colchester were now restored and repaired, and Edward +received the submission of the whole of the East Anglian Danes. Before +midsummer of this year Edward had fortified Stamford, and on the death +of his sister he received the submission of the Mercians at Tamworth. +There also three kings of the North Welsh took Edward as their lord. +Nottingham was now fortified; Thelwall in Cheshire (919) and Manchester +soon followed; Nottingham was strengthened by a second fort; Bakewell +was fortified and garrisoned, and then came the greatest triumph of +Edward's reign. He was "chosen as father and lord" by the Scottish king +and nation, by Raegenald, the Norwegian king of Northumbria, by Ealdred +of Bamborough, and by the English, Danes or Norwegians in Northumbria, +and by the Strathclyde Welsh. + +With the conclusion of his wars Edward's activity ceased, and we hear no +more of him until in 924 he died at Farndon in Cheshire and was buried +in the "New Minster" at Winchester. He was thrice married: (1) to +Ecgwyn, a lady of rank, by whom he had a son Aethelstan, who succeeded +him, and a daughter Eadgyth, who married Sihtric of Northumbria in 924. +This marriage was probably an irregular one. (2) To Aelflaed, by whom he +had two sons--Aelfweard, who died a fortnight after his father, and +Eadwine, who was drowned in 933--and six daughters, Aethelflaed and +Aethelhild nuns, and four others (see AeTHELSTAN). (3) To Eadgifu, the +mother of Kings Edmund and Edred, and of two daughters. + + AUTHORITIES.--_Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_ (ed. Plummer and Earle, Oxford); + Florence of Worcester (Mon. Hist. Brit.); William of Malmesbury, + _Gesta regum_ (Rolls Series); Simeon of Durham (Rolls Series); + Ethelweard (Mon. Hist. Brit.); Birch, _Cartularium Saxonicum_, Nos. + 588-635; _D.N.B._, s.v. (A. Mw.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See Stevenson's article in _Eng. Hist. Rev._ vol. xiii. pp. + 71-77. The whole chronology of this reign is very difficult and + certainly is often impossible of attainment. + + [2] It is possible that these battles are one and the same; the + places are within 2 to 3 m. of each other. + + + + +EDWARD, "THE MARTYR" (c. 926-978), king of the English, was the son of +Edgar by his wife Aethelflaed. Edward's brief reign was marked by an +anti-monastic reaction. Aelfhere, earl of Mercia, once more expelled many +of the monks whom Bishop Aethelwold had installed. There seems also to +have been some change in administrative policy, perhaps with regard to +the Danes, for Earl Oslac, whom Edgar had appointed to Northumbria, was +driven from his province. In ecclesiastical matters there were two +parties in the kingdom, the monastic, which had its chief hold in Essex +and East Anglia, and the anti-monastic, led by Aelfhere of Mercia. +Conferences were held at Kirtlington in Oxfordshire and at Calne in +Wiltshire in 977 and 978, but nothing definite seems to have been +decided. On the 18th of March 978 Edward's reign was suddenly cut short +by his assassination at Corfe Castle in Dorsetshire. The crime was +probably inspired by his stepmother, Aelfthryth, who was anxious to +secure the succession of her son Aelthelred. The body was hastily +interred at Wareham and remained there till 980, when Archbishop Dunstan +and Aelfhere of Mercia united in transferring it with great ceremony to +Shaftesbury. Edward seems to have been personally popular, and the poem +on his death in the chronicle calls his murder the worst deed in English +history. Very shortly after his death he was popularly esteemed to be +both saint and martyr. + + See _Saxon Chronicle_; _Vita S. Oswaldi_ (_Hist. of Ch. of York_, + Rolls Series); _Memorials of St Dunstan_ (ed. Stubbs, Rolls Series). + (A. Mw.) + + + + +EDWARD, "THE CONFESSOR" (d. 1066), so called on account of his +reputation for sanctity, king of the English, was the son of Aethelred +II. and Emma, daughter of Richard, duke of Normandy, and was born at +Islip in Oxfordshire. On the recognition of Sweyn as king of England in +1013, Aethelred, with his wife and family, took refuge in Normandy, and +Edward continued to reside at the Norman court until he was recalled in +1041 by Hardicanute. He appears to have been formally recognized as heir +to the throne, if not actually associated in the kingship, and on the +death of Hardicanute in 1042 "all folk received him to be king," though +his actual coronation was delayed until Easter 1043. A few months later +Edward, in conjunction with the three great earls of the kingdom, made a +raid on the queen-mother Aelfgifu, or Emma, seized all her possessions +and compelled her to live in retirement. + +In the earlier years of the reign the influence of Earl Godwine was +predominant, though not unopposed. His daughter Edith or Eadgyth became +Edward's queen in 1045. But the king's personal tastes inclined much +more to foreigners than to Englishmen, and he fell more and more into +the hands of favourites from beyond the sea. Between Godwine, +representing the spirit of nationalism, and these favourites (especially +their leader Robert of Jumieges, successively bishop of London and +archbishop of Canterbury) there was war to the knife. In 1046 Magnus, +king of Norway, who had succeeded Hardicanute in Denmark and claimed to +succeed him in England as well, threatened an invasion, but the +necessity of defending Denmark against his rival Sweyn Estrithson +prevented him from carrying it into effect. In 1049, Godwine's son +Sweyn, who had been outlawed for the seduction of the abbess of +Leominster, returned and demanded his restoration. This was refused and +Sweyn returned into exile, but not before he had with foulest treachery +murdered his young kinsman Beorn. He was, however, inlawed next year. +The influence of Godwine, already shaken, received a severe blow in 1051 +in the appointment of Robert of Jumieges to the archbishopric of +Canterbury, and the same year saw the triumph of the foreigners for the +moment complete. Edward, indignant at the resistance offered by the men +of Dover to the insolence of his brother-in-law Eustace of Boulogne and +his French followers, ordered Godwine to punish the town. Godwine +refused. The king at the prompting of the archbishop then summoned a +meeting of the witan, at which the old charge against Godwine of +complicity in the murder of the Aetheling Alfred was to be revived. About +the same time came news of a fresh outrage by the foreigners. Godwine +gathered his forces and demanded redress, while the earls Leofric of +Mercia and Siward of Northumbria hastened to the side of the king. Civil +war seemed imminent, but at length a compromise was effected by which +the matter was referred to a meeting of the witan to be held at London. +At the appointed time Godwine presented himself at Southwark. But his +followers were rapidly deserting him, nor would the king give hostages +for his security. Alarmed for his safety, he fled to Flanders, while his +son Harold went to Ireland. But their exile was brief. The tale of +Godwine excited universal sympathy, for it was realized that he +represented the cause of national independence. Encouraged by assurances +from England, he sailed thither, and joining forces with Harold sailed +along the south coast and up the Thames. The king would have resisted +but found no support. Yielding to circumstances, he allowed himself to +be reconciled, and Godwine and his house were restored to their old +position. The queen at the same time was brought back from the monastery +of Wherwell, whither she had been despatched after her father's flight. +The foreigners had already ignominiously fled the country, and +henceforth the influence of Godwine, and, after his death, of Harold, +was supreme. In 1063 Harold made a great expedition into Wales, in which +he crushed the power of King Gruffyd, who was killed by his own people. +But despite his prowess and his power, he was the minister of the king +rather than his personal favourite. This latter position belonged to his +younger brother Tostig, who on the death of Siward in 1055 was appointed +earl of Northumbria. Here his severity and arbitrary temper rendered him +intensely unpopular, and in 1065 his subjects broke into revolt. They +elected Morkere as their earl, then marching south demanded Tostig's +banishment. Edward desired to crush the revolt by force of arms, but he +was overborne and forced to submit. The election of Morkere was +recognized, and Tostig went into exile. Intensely mortified at this +humiliation, the king fell sick, and henceforth his health failed +rapidly. He was unable to gratify his intense desire to be present at +the consecration of his new abbey of Westminster, the foundation of +which had been the chief interest of his closing years, and on the 5th +of January 1066 he died. + +The virtues of Edward were monkish rather than kingly. In the qualities +of a ruler he was conspicuously deficient; always dependent on others, +he ever inclined to the unworthier master. But the charm of his +character for the monastic biographer, and the natural tendency to +glorify the days before the Norman oppression began, combined to cast +about his figure a halo which had not attached to it in life. Allowed to +keep her property by William the Conqueror, his widow, Edith, passed the +remainder of her life at Winchester, dying on the 19th of December 1075. + + SOURCES.--A number of lives of Edward are brought together in a volume + of the Rolls Series entitled _Lives of Edward the Confessor_, and + edited by Dr H.R. Luard (London, 1858). Of these by far the most + valuable is the contemporary _Vita Edwardi_, which would appear from + internal evidence to have been written by an unknown writer soon after + the Norman Conquest--some time between 1066 and 1074. The other chief + authorities for the reign are (1) the _Saxon Chronicle_, (C. Plummer, + Oxford, 1892-1899); (2) _Florence of Worcester_, ed. B. Thorpe, + English Historical Society (London, 1848-1849). Reference may also be + made to J.M. Kemble, _Codex diplomaticus aevi Saxonici_ (London, + 1839-1848). (C. S. P.*) + + + + +EDWARD I. (1239-1307), king of England, born at Westminster on the 17th +of June 1239, was the eldest son of Henry III. and Eleanor of Provence. +He was baptized Edward after Edward the Confessor, for whom Henry had +special veneration, and among his godfathers was Simon de Montfort, earl +of Leicester, his aunt Eleanor's husband. His political career begins +when the conclusion of a treaty with Alphonso X. of Castile, by which he +was to marry the Spanish king's half sister Eleanor, necessitated the +conferring on him of an adequate establishment. His father granted him +the duchy of Gascony, the earldom of Chester, the king's lands in Wales +and much else. The provision made was so liberal that Henry's subjects +declared he was left no better than a mutilated king. In May 1254 Edward +went to Gascony to take possession of his inheritance. He then crossed +the Pyrenees, and in October was dubbed knight by Alphonso and married +to Eleanor at the Cistercian convent of Las Huelgas, near Burgos. He +remained in Gascony till November 1255, but his father was too jealous +to allow him a free hand in its administration. After his return, the +attempts of his agents to establish English laws in his Welsh +possessions brought Edward into hostile relations with the Welsh. Here +also his father would give him no help, and his first campaign brought +him little result. Edward became extremely unpopular through his +association with his Lusignan kinsfolk, his pride and violence, and the +disorders of his household. In 1258 his strenuous opposition to the +Provisions of Oxford further weakened his position, but, after the +banishment of the foreigners, he began to take up a wiser line. In 1259 +he led the young nobles who insisted that the triumphant oligarchy +should carry out the reforms to which it was pledged. For a moment it +looked as if Edward and Leicester might make common cause, but Edward +remained an enemy of Montfort, though he strove to infuse his father's +party with a more liberal and national spirit. He was the soul of the +reconstituted royalist party formed about 1263. In 1264 he took a +prominent part in the fighting between the king and the barons. At the +battle of Lewes his rash pursuit of the Londoners contributed to his +father's defeat. Two days later Edward surrendered to Leicester as a +hostage for the good behaviour of his allies. He was forced to give up +his earldom of Chester to Leicester, but at Whitsuntide 1265 he escaped +from his custodians, and joined the lords of the Welsh march who were +still in arms. With their aid he defeated and slew Leicester at Evesham +on the 4th of August 1265. + +For the rest of Henry III.'s reign Edward controlled his father's policy +and appropriated enough of Leicester's ideals to make the royalist +restoration no mere reaction. So peaceful became the outlook of affairs +that in 1268 Edward took the cross, hoping to join the new crusade of St +Louis. Want of money delayed his departure till 1270, by which time St +Louis was dead, and a truce concluded with the infidel. Refusing to be a +party to such treason to Christendom, Edward went with his personal +followers to Acre, where he abode from May 1271 to August 1272. Despite +his energy and valour he could do little to prop up the decaying +crusading kingdom and he narrowly escaped assassination. At last the +declining health of his father induced him to return to the West. He +learned in Sicily the death of Henry III. on the 16th of November 1272. +On the 20th of November, the day of Henry's funeral, he was recognized +as king by the English barons, and from that day his regnal years were +subsequently computed. Affairs in England were so peaceful that Edward +did not hurry home. After a slow journey through Italy and France he did +homage to his cousin Philip III. at Paris, on the 26th of July 1273. He +then went to Gascony, where he stayed nearly a year. At last he landed +at Dover on the 2nd of August 1274, and was crowned at Westminster on +the 18th of the same month. + +Edward was thirty-five years old when he became king, and the rude +schooling of his youth had developed his character and suggested the +main lines of the policy which he was to carry out as monarch. He was a +tall, well-proportioned and handsome man, extravagantly devoted to +military exercises, tournaments and the rougher and more dangerous forms +of hunting. He had learned to restrain the hot temper of his youth, and +was proud of his love of justice and strict regard to his plighted word. +His domestic life was unstained, he was devoted to his friends, and +loyal to his subordinates. Without any great originality either as +soldier or statesman, he was competent enough to appropriate the best +ideas of the time and make them his own. His defects were a hardness of +disposition which sometimes approached cruelty and a narrow and pedantic +temper, which caused him to regard the letter rather than the spirit of +his promises. His effectiveness and love of strong government stand in +strong contrast to his father's weakness. Though he loved power, and +never willingly surrendered it, he saw that to be successful he must +make his policy popular. Thus he continued the system which Montfort had +formed with the object of restraining the monarchy, because he saw in a +close alliance with his people the best means of consolidating the power +of the crown. + +The first years of Edward's reign were mainly occupied by his efforts to +establish a really effective administration. In carrying out this task +he derived great help from his chancellor, Robert Burnell, bishop of +Bath and Wells. Administrative reform soon involved legislation, and +from 1275 to 1290 nearly every year was marked by an important law. Few +of these contained anything that was very new or original. They rather +illustrate that policy which caused Dr Stubbs to describe his reign as a +"period of definition." Yet the results of his conservative legislation +were almost revolutionary. In particular he left the impress of his +policy on the land laws of England, notably by the clause _De Donis_ of +the Westminster statute of 1285, and the statute _Quia Emptores_ of +1290. The general effect of his work was to eliminate feudalism from +political life. At first he aimed at abolishing all franchises whose +holders could not produce written warranty for them. This was the policy +of the statute of Gloucester of 1278, but the baronial opposition was so +resolute that Edward was forced to permit many immunities to remain. +Though the most orthodox of churchmen, his dislike of authority not +emanating from himself threatened to involve him in constant conflict +with the Church, and notably with John Peckham, the Franciscan friar, +who was archbishop of Canterbury from 1279 to 1292. The statute of +Mortmain of 1279, which forbade the further grant of lands to +ecclesiastical corporations without the royal consent, and the writ +_Circumspecte Agatis_ of 1285, which limited the church courts to +strictly ecclesiastical business, both provoked strong clerical +opposition. However, Peckham gave way to some extent, and Edward +prudently acquiesced in many clerical assumptions which he disliked. He +was strong enough to refuse to pay the tribute to Rome which John had +promised, and his reign saw the end of that papal overlordship over +England which had greatly complicated the situation under his father. + +Besides administration and legislation, the other great event of the +first fifteen years of Edward's reign was the conquest of the +principality of Wales. It was part of Edward's policy of reconciliation +after the battle of Evesham that in the treaty of Shrewsbury of 1267 he +had fully recognized the great position which Llewelyn ab Gruffyd, +prince of Wales, had gained as the ally of Simon de Montfort. However, +Llewelyn's early successes had blinded the Welsh prince to the +limitations of his power, and he profited by Edward's early absences +from England to delay in performing his feudal obligations to the new +king. Even after Edward's return Llewelyn continued to evade doing +homage. At last Edward lost patience, and in 1277 invaded north Wales. +He conducted his campaign like a great siege, blocking all the avenues +to Snowdon, and forcing Llewelyn to surrender from lack of supplies. He +thereupon reduced the Welsh prince to the position of a petty north +Welsh chieftain strictly dependent on the English. For the next five +years Edward did his best to set up the English system of government in +the ceded districts. The Welsh resentment of this soon gave Llewelyn +another chance, and compelled Edward to devote the years 1282-1283 to +completing his conquest. In 1284 he issued the statute of Wales, which +provided for a scheme for the future government of the principality. +Edward is often called the conqueror of Wales, but in truth he only +effected the conquest of Llewelyn's dominions. The march of Wales was +only indirectly affected by his legislation, and remained subject to its +feudal marcher lords until the 16th century. + +Edward was very careful in his foreign policy. Though preserving nominal +peace with his cousin Philip III. of France, his relations with that +country were constantly strained. After Philip III.'s death in 1285, +Edward crossed the Channel in 1286, to perform homage to his successor, +Philip the Fair. He remained abroad till 1289, busied in attempts to +improve the administration of Gascony, and making repeated and finally +successful efforts to end by his mediation the still continuing struggle +between the houses of Anjou and Aragon. His long absence threw the +government of England into confusion, and on his return in 1289 he was +compelled to dismiss most of his judges and ministers for corruption. In +1290 he expelled all Jews from England. + +The affairs of Scotland furnished Edward with his chief preoccupation +for the rest of his reign. After the death of Alexander III., in 1286, +Scotland was governed in the name of his granddaughter Margaret, the +Maid of Norway. The English king had suggested that Edward of Carnarvon, +his eldest surviving son, should marry the little queen of Scots, and +thus bring about the union of the two countries. Unluckily the death of +Margaret in 1290 frustrated the scheme. The Scottish throne was now +disputed by many claimants, and the Scots asked Edward to arbitrate +between them. Edward accepted the position, but insisted that, before he +acted, the Scots should recognize him as their overlord. The claimants +set the example of submission, and soon the chief Scots nobles followed. +Thereupon Edward undertook the arbitration, and in 1292 adjudged the +throne to John Baliol. The new king did homage to Edward, but his +subjects soon began to resent the claims of jurisdiction over Scotland, +which Edward declared were the natural results of his feudal supremacy. +At last the Scots deprived John of nearly all his power, repudiated +Edward's claims, and made an alliance with the French. During the years +of the Scottish arbitration Edward had slowly been drifting into war +with France. The chronic difficulties caused by French attempts to +confine Edward's power in Gascony were now accentuated by the quarrels +between the sailors and merchants of the two countries. In 1293 Edward +was persuaded by his brother, Edmund, earl of Lancaster, to yield up +Gascony temporarily to Philip the Fair. But Philip refused to restore +the duchy, and Edward, seeing that he had been tricked, declared war +against France, at the very moment when the Scottish resistance gave the +French a firm ally in Britain. To make matters worse, the Welsh rose in +rebellion. It was therefore quite impossible for Edward to recover +Gascony. + +The most critical years of Edward's reign now began. He saw that he +could only meet his difficulties by throwing himself on the support of +his own subjects, and convoked, in 1295, a representative parliament of +the three estates, which has been called in later times the Model +Parliament, because it first illustrated the type which was to be +perpetuated in all subsequent parliaments. "What touches all," ran +Edward's writ of summons, "should be approved of all, and it is also +clear that common dangers should be met by measures agreed upon in +common." The parliamentary constitution of England was established as +the result of Edward's action. + +Secure of his subjects' allegiance, Edward put down the Welsh revolt, +and conquered Scotland in 1296. When quiet was restored to Britain, he +hoped to throw all his energy into the recovery of Gascony, but new +troubles arose at home which once more diverted him from his supreme +purpose. Led by Archbishop Winchelsea, Peckham's successor, the clergy +refused to pay taxes in obedience to the bull of Pope Boniface VIII., +called _Clericis Laicos_. Edward declared that if the clergy would not +contribute to support the state, the state could afford them no +protection. But the clerical opposition was soon joined by a baronial +opposition. Headed by the earls of Hereford and Norfolk, many of the +barons declined to join in an expedition to Gascony, and Edward was +forced to sail to the French war, leaving them behind. Thereupon the +recalcitrant barons forced upon the regency a fresh confirmation of the +charters, to which new articles were added, safeguarding the people from +arbitrary taxation. Edward at Ghent reluctantly accepted this +_Confirmatio Cariarum_, but even his submission did not end the crisis. +In the same year (1297), all Scotland rose in revolt under the popular +hero William Wallace, and next year (1298), Edward was forced to +undertake its reconquest. The battle of Falkirk, won on the 22nd of +July, was the greatest of Edward's military triumphs; but, though it +destroyed the power of Wallace, it did not put an end to Scottish +resistance. Bitter experience taught Edward that he could not fight the +French and the Scots at the same time, and in 1299 he made peace with +Philip, and, Eleanor having died in November 1290, he married the French +king's sister Margaret (c. 1282-1318), and some years later obtained the +restitution of Gascony. In the same spirit he strove to destroy the +clerical and baronial opposition. He did not succeed in the former task +until a complacent pope arose in his own subject, Clement V., who +abandoned Winchelsea to his anger, and suffered the archbishop to be +driven into exile. The baronial leaders could not be wholly overthrown +by force, and Edward was compelled to make them fresh concessions. + +It was not until 1303 that Edward was able to undertake seriously the +conquest of Scotland. By 1305 the land was subdued, and Wallace beheaded +as a traitor. But Edward had hardly organized the government of his new +conquest when a fresh revolt broke out under Robert Bruce, grandson of +the chief rival of Baliol in 1290. Bruce was soon crowned king of Scots, +and at the age of seventy Edward had to face the prospect of conquering +Scotland for the third time. He resolved to take the field in person; +but the effort was too great, and on the 7th of July 1307 he died at +Burgh-on-Sands, near Carlisle. His death destroyed the last faint hope +of conquering Scotland, and showed that the chief ambition of his life +was a failure. Yet his conquest of Wales, his legislation, his triumph +over his barons, his ecclesiastics, and the greatest of French medieval +kings indicate the strength and permanence of his work. He was buried +at Westminster under a plain slab on which was inscribed _Edwardus +primus Scottorum malleus hic est. Pactum serva._ + +By Eleanor of Castile Edward had four sons, his successor Edward II. and +three who died young, and nine daughters, including Joan, or Joanna +(1272-1307), the wife of Gilbert de Clare, earl of Gloucester (d. 1295), +and then of Ralph de Monthermer; Margaret (1275-1318), the wife of John +II., duke of Brabant; and Eleanor (1282-1316), who married John I., +count of Holland, and then Humphrey Bohun, earl of Hereford (d. 1322). +By Margaret of France the king had two sons: Thomas of Brotherton, earl +of Norfolk, and Edmund of Woodstock, earl of Kent. + + The principal modern authorities for this reign are: W. Stubbs, + _Constitutional History of England_, vol. ii. chaps. xiv. and xv. + (1896); T.F. Tout, _Edward I._ (1893), and _Political History of + England, 1216-1377_, pp. 136-235 (1905); R.B. Seeley, _Life and Reign + of Edward I._ (1872); R. Pauli, _Geschichte von England_, iv. pp. + 1-198 (Hamburg, 1864-1875); W. Hunt, article on "Edward I." in + _Dictionary of National Biography_; J.E. Morris, _Welsh Wars of Edward + I._ (Oxford, 1901); and C.V. Langlois's _Philippe le Hardi_ (Paris, + 1887). (T. F. T.) + + + + +EDWARD II. (1284-1327), "of Carnarvon," king of England, the fourth son +of Edward I. by his first wife Eleanor of Castile, was born at Carnarvon +Castle on the 25th of April 1284. The story that the king presented the +new-born child to the Welsh as their future native prince is quite +unfounded, for Edward was only made prince of Wales in the Lincoln +parliament of 1301. When a few months old, he became by his elder +brother's death the heir to the throne, and Edward I. took great pains +to train him in warfare and statecraft. He took part in several Scots +campaigns, but all his father's efforts could not prevent his acquiring +the habits of extravagance and frivolity which he retained all through +his life. The old king attributed his son's defects to the bad influence +of his friend, the Gascon knight Piers Gaveston, and drove the favourite +into exile. When Edward I. died, on the 7th of July 1307, the first act +of the prince, now Edward II., was to recall Gaveston. His next was to +abandon the Scots campaign on which his father had set his heart. + +The new king was physically almost as fine a man as Edward I. He was, +however, destitute of any serious purpose, and was, as Dr Stubbs says, +"the first king after the Conquest who was not a man of business." He +cared for nothing but amusing himself, and found his chief delight in +athletics and in the practice of mechanical crafts. He was not so much +vicious as foolish, and wanting in all serious interests. He had so +little confidence in himself that he was always in the hands of some +favourite who possessed a stronger will than his own. In the early years +of his reign Gaveston held this role, acting as regent when Edward went +to France--where, on the 25th of January 1308, he married Isabella, the +daughter of Philip the Fair--and receiving the earldom of Cornwall with +the hand of the king's niece, Margaret of Gloucester. The barons soon +grew indignant at Edward's devotion to his "brother Piers," and twice +insisted on his banishment. On each occasion Edward soon recalled his +friend, whereupon the barons, headed by the king's cousin Thomas, earl +of Lancaster, went to war against king and favourite, and in 1312 +treacherously put Gaveston to death. Edward was not strong enough even +to avenge his loss. He was forced to stand aside and suffer the realm to +be governed by the baronial committee of twenty-one lords ordainers, +who, in 1311, had drawn up a series of ordinances, whose effect was to +substitute ordainers for the king as the effective government of the +country. But in all the ordinances nothing was said about the commons +and lower clergy. Parliament meant to the new rulers an assembly of +barons just as it had done to the opponents of Henry III. in 1258. The +effect of their triumph was to change England from a monarchy to a +narrow oligarchy. + +During the quarrels between Edward and the ordainers, Robert Bruce was +steadily conquering Scotland. His progress was so great that he had +occupied all the fortresses save Stirling, which he closely besieged. +The danger of losing Stirling shamed Edward and the barons into an +attempt to retrieve their lost ground. In June 1314 Edward led a great +army into Scotland in the hope of relieving Stirling. On the 24th of +June his ill-disciplined and badly led host was completely defeated by +Robert Bruce at Bannockburn. Henceforth Bruce was sure of his position +as king of Scots, and his pitiless devastation of the northern counties +of England was his wild vengeance for the sufferings his land had +previously experienced from the English. Edward's disgraceful defeat +made him more dependent on his barons than ever. His kinsman, Thomas of +Lancaster, had now an opportunity of saving England from the +consequences of the king's incompetence. He had shown some capacity as a +leader of opposition, but though he had great wealth, and was lord of +five earldoms, he had small ability and no constructive power. In his +desire to keep the king weak, he was suspected to have made a secret +understanding with Robert Bruce. Before long the opposition split up +under his incompetent guidance into fiercely contending factions. Under +Aymer of Valence, earl of Pembroke, a middle party arose, which hated +Lancaster so much that it supported the king to put an end to +Lancaster's rule. After 1318 the effect of its influence was to restore +Edward to some portion of his authority. However, the king hated +Pembroke almost as much as Lancaster. He now found a competent adviser +in Hugh le Despenser, a baron of great experience. What was more +important to him, he had in Despenser's son, Hugh le Despenser the +younger, a personal friend and favourite, who was able in some measure +to replace Gaveston. The fierce hatred which the barons manifested to +the Despensers showed that they could hate a deserter as bitterly as +they had hated the Gascon adventurer. They were indignant at the favours +which Edward lavished upon the favourite and his father, and were +especially alarmed when the younger Despenser strove to procure for +himself the earldom of Gloucester in right of his wife, Edward's niece. + +At last, in 1321, the barons met in parliament, and under Lancaster's +guidance procured the banishment of the Despensers. The disasters of his +friends inspired Edward to unwonted activity. In 1322 he recalled them +from exile, and waged war against the barons on their behalf. Triumph +crowned his exertions. Lancaster, defeated at Boroughbridge, was +executed at Pontefract. For the next five years the Despensers ruled +England. Unlike the ordainers, they took pains to get the Commons on +their side, and a parliament held at York in 1322 revoked the ordinances +because they trenched upon the rights of the crown, and were drawn up by +the barons only. From this time no statute was technically valid unless +the Commons had agreed to it. This marks the most important step forward +in Edward II.'s reign. But the rule of the Despensers soon fell away +from this wise beginning. They thought only of heaping up wealth for +themselves, and soon stirred up universal indignation. In particular, +they excited the ill-will of the queen, Isabella of France. Craftily +dissembling her indignation, Isabella kept silence until 1325, when she +went to France in company with her eldest son, Edward of Windsor, who +was sent to do homage for Aquitaine to her brother, the new French king. +When her business was over, Isabella declined to return to her husband +as long as the Despensers remained his favourites. She formed a criminal +connexion with Roger Mortimer of Wigmore, one of the baronial exiles, +and in September 1326 landed in Essex accompanied by Mortimer and her +son, declaring that she was come to avenge the murder of Lancaster, and +to expel the Despensers. Edward's followers deserted him, and on the 2nd +of October he fled from London to the west, where he took refuge in the +younger Despenser's estates in Glamorgan. His wife followed him, put to +death both the Despensers, and, after a futile effort to escape by sea, +Edward was captured on the 16th of November. He was imprisoned at +Kenilworth Castle, and a parliament met at Westminster in January 1327, +which chose his son to be king as Edward III. It was thought prudent to +compel the captive king to resign the crown, and on the 20th of January +Edward was forced to renounce his office before a committee of the +estates. The government of Isabella and Mortimer was so weakly +established that it dared not leave the deposed king alive. On the 3rd +of April he was secretly removed from Kenilworth and entrusted to the +custody of two dependants of Mortimer. After various wanderings he was +imprisoned at Berkeley Castle in Gloucestershire. Every indignity was +inflicted upon him, and he was systematically ill-treated in the hope +that he would die of disease. When his strong constitution seemed likely +to prevail over the ill-treatment of his enemies he was cruelly put to +death on the 21st of September. It was announced that he had died a +natural death, and he was buried in St Peter's Abbey at Gloucester, now +the cathedral, where his son afterwards erected a magnificent tomb. + +Edward's wife, Isabella (c. 1292-1358), bore him two sons, Edward III. +and John of Eltham, earl of Cornwall (1316-1336), and two daughters, +Isabella and Joanna (1321-1362), wife of David II., king of Scotland. +After the execution of her paramour, Roger Mortimer, in 1330, Isabella +retired from public life; she died at Hertford on the 23rd of August +1358. + + See R. Pauli, _Geschichte von England_, iv. pp. 199-306; T.F. Tout, + _Political History of England_, 1216-1307, pp. 236-304, and article in + _Dictionary of National Biography_; W. Stubbs, _Constitutional + History_, vol. ii. pp. 319-386, and _Introductions to Chronicles of + the Reigns of Edward I. and Edward II._ in Rolls series. + (T. F. T.) + + + + +EDWARD III. (1312-1377), "of Windsor," king of England, eldest son of +Edward II. and Isabella of France, was born at Windsor on the 13th of +November 1312. In 1320 he was made earl of Chester, and in 1325 duke of +Aquitaine, but he never received the title of prince of Wales. +Immediately after his appointment to Aquitaine, he was sent to France to +do homage to his uncle Charles IV., and remained abroad until he +accompanied his mother and Mortimer in their expedition to England. To +raise funds for this he was betrothed to Philippa, daughter of the count +of Hainaut. On the 26th of October 1326, after the fall of Bristol, he +was proclaimed warden of the kingdom during his father's absence. On the +13th of January 1327 parliament recognized him as king, and he was +crowned on the 29th of the same month. + +For the next four years Isabella and Mortimer governed in his name, +though nominally his guardian was Henry, earl of Lancaster. In the +summer he took part in an abortive campaign against the Scots, and was +married to Philippa at York on the 24th of January 1328. On the 15th of +June 1330 his eldest child, Edward, the Black Prince, was born. Soon +after, Edward made a successful effort to throw off his degrading +dependence on his mother and her paramour. In October 1330 he entered +Nottingham Castle by night, through a subterranean passage, and took +Mortimer prisoner. On the 29th of November the execution of the +favourite at Tyburn completed the young king's emancipation. Edward +discreetly drew a veil over his mother's relations with Mortimer, and +treated her with every respect. There is no truth in the stories that +henceforth he kept her in honourable confinement, but her political +influence was at an end. + +Edward III.'s real reign now begins. Young, ardent and active, he strove +with all his might to win back for England something of the position +which it had acquired under Edward I. He bitterly resented the +concession of independence to Scotland by the treaty of Northampton of +1328, and the death of Robert Bruce in 1329 gave him a chance of +retrieving his position. The new king of Scots, David, who was his +brother-in-law, was a mere boy, and the Scottish barons, exiled for +their support of Robert Bruce, took advantage of the weakness of his +rule to invade Scotland in 1332. At their head was Edward Baliol, whose +victory at Dupplin Moor established him for a brief time as king of +Scots. After four months Baliol was driven out by the Scots, whereupon +Edward for the first time openly took up his cause. In 1333 the king won +in person the battle of Halidon Hill over the Scots, but his victory did +not restore Baliol to power. The Scots despised him as a puppet of the +English king, and after a few years David was finally established in +Scotland. During these years England gradually drifted into hostility +with France. The chief cause of this was the impossible situation which +resulted from Edward's position as duke of Gascony. Contributing causes +were Philip's support of the Scots and Edward's alliance with the +Flemish cities, which were then on bad terms with their French overlord, +and the revival of Edward's claim, first made in 1328, to the French +crown. War broke out in 1337, and in 1338 Edward visited Coblenz, where +he made an alliance with the emperor Louis the Bavarian. In 1339 and +1340 Edward endeavoured to invade France from the north with the help of +his German and Flemish allies, but the only result of his campaigns was +to reduce him to bankruptcy. + +In 1340, however, he took personal part in the great naval battle off +Sluys, in which he absolutely destroyed the French navy. In the same +year he assumed the title of king of France. At first he did this to +gratify the Flemings, whose scruples in fighting their overlord, the +French king, disappeared when they persuaded themselves that Edward was +the rightful king of France. However, his pretensions to the French +crown gradually became more important. The persistence with which he and +his successors urged them made stable peace impossible for more than a +century, and this made the struggle famous in history as the Hundred +Years' War. Till the days of George III. every English king also called +himself king of France. + +Despite his victory at Sluys, Edward was so exhausted by his land +campaign that he was forced before the end of 1340 to make a truce and +return to England. He unfairly blamed his chief minister, Archbishop +Stratford, for his financial distress, and immediately on his return +vindictively attacked him. Before the truce expired a disputed +succession to the duchy of Brittany gave Edward an excuse for renewing +hostilities with France. In 1342 he went to Brittany and fought an +indecisive campaign against the French. He was back in England in 1343. +In the following years he spent much time and money in rebuilding +Windsor Castle, and instituting the order of the Garter, which he did in +order to fulfil a vow that he had taken to restore the Round Table of +Arthur. His finances, therefore, remained embarrassed despite the +comparative pause in the war, although in 1339 he had repudiated his +debt to his Italian creditors, a default that brought about widespread +misery in Florence. + +A new phase of the French war begins when in July 1346 Edward landed in +Normandy, accompanied by his eldest son, Edward, prince of Wales, a +youth of sixteen. In a memorable campaign Edward marched from La Hogue +to Caen, and from Caen almost to the gates of Paris. It was a plundering +expedition on a large scale, and like most of Edward's campaigns showed +some want of strategic purpose. But Edward's decisive victory over the +French at Crecy, in Ponthieu, on the 26th of August, where he scattered +the army with which Philip VI. attempted to stay his retreat from Paris +to the northern frontier, signally demonstrated the tactical superiority +of Edward's army over the French. Next year Edward effected the +reduction of Calais. This was the most solid and lasting of his +conquests, and its execution compelled him to greater efforts than the +Crecy campaign. Other victories in Gascony and Brittany further +emphasized his power. In 1346, David, king of Scots, was also defeated +and taken prisoner at Neville's Cross, near Durham. In the midst of his +successes, however, want of money forced Edward to make a new truce in +1347. He was as far from the conquest of France as ever. + +Edward returned to England in October 1347. He celebrated his triumph by +a series of splendid tournaments, and completed his scheme for the +establishment of the order of the Garter. In 1348 he rejected an offer +of the imperial throne. In the same year the Black Death first appeared +in England, and raged until 1349. Yet the horrors which it wrought +hardly checked the magnificent revels of Edward's court, and neither the +plague nor the truce stayed the course of the French war, though what +fighting there was was indecisive and on a small scale. Edward's martial +exploits during the next years were those of a gallant knight rather +than those of a responsible general. Conspicuous among them were his +famous combat with Eustace de Ribemont, near Calais, in 1349, and the +hard-fought naval victory over the Spaniards off Winchelsea, in 1350. +Efforts to make peace, initiated by Pope Innocent VI., came to nothing, +though the English commons were now weary of the war. The result of this +failure was the renewal of war on a large scale. In 1355 Edward led an +unsuccessful raid out of Calais, and in January and February 1356 +harried the Lothians, in the expedition famous as the Burned Candlemas. +His exploits sank into insignificance as compared with those of his son, +whose victory at Poitiers, on the 19th of September 1356, resulted in +the captivity of King John, and forced the French to accept a new truce. +Edward entertained his royal captive very magnificently, and in 1359 +concluded with him the treaty of London, by which John surrendered so +much that the French repudiated the treaty. Edward thereupon resolved to +invade France afresh and compel its acceptance. On the 28th of October +he landed at Calais, and advanced to Reims, where he hoped to be crowned +king of France. The strenuous resistance of the citizens frustrated this +scheme, and Edward marched into Burgundy, whence he made his way back +towards Paris. Failing in an attack on the capital, he was glad to +conclude, on the 8th of May 1360, preliminaries of peace at Bretigny, +near Chartres. This treaty, less onerous to France than that of London, +took its final form in the treaty of Calais, ratified by King John on +the 9th of October. By it Edward renounced his claim to France in return +for the whole of Aquitaine. + +The treaty of Calais did not bring rest or prosperity either to England +or France. Fresh visitations of the Black Death, in 1362 and 1369, +intensified the social and economic disturbances which had begun with +the first outbreak in 1348. Desperate, but not very successful, efforts +were made to enforce the statute of Labourers, of 1351, by which it was +sought to maintain prices and wages as they had been before the +pestilence. Another feature of these years was the anti-papal, or rather +anti-clerical, legislation embodied in the statutes of Provisors and +Praemunire. These measures were first passed in 1351 and 1353, but often +repeated. In 1366 Edward formally repudiated the feudal supremacy over +England, still claimed by the papacy by reason of John's submission. +Another feature of the time was the strenuous effort made by Edward to +establish his numerous family without too great expense. In the end the +estates of the houses of Lancaster, Kent, Bohun, Burgh and Mortimer +swelled the revenues of Edward's children and grandchildren, in whose +favour also the new title of duke was introduced. + +In 1369 the French king, Charles V., repudiated the treaty of Calais and +renewed the war. Edward's French dominions gladly reverted to their old +allegiance, and Edward showed little of his former vigour in meeting +this new trouble. He resumed the title and arms of king of France, but +left most of the fighting and administration of his foreign kingdoms to +his sons, Edward and John. While the latter were struggling with little +success against the rising tide of French national feeling, Edward's +want of money made him a willing participator in the attack on the +wealth and privileges of the Church. In 1371 a clerical ministry was +driven from office, and replaced by laymen, who proved, however, less +effective administrators than their predecessors. Meanwhile Aquitaine +was gradually lost; the defeat of Pembroke off La Rochelle deprived +England of the command of the sea, and Sir Owen ap Thomas, a +grand-nephew of Llewelyn ab Gruffyd, planned, with French help, an +abortive invasion of Wales. In 1371 the Black Prince came back to +England with broken health, and in 1373 John of Lancaster marched to +little purpose through France, from Calais to Bordeaux. In 1372 Edward +made his final effort to lead an army, but contrary winds prevented his +even landing his troops in France. In 1375 he was glad to make a truce, +which lasted until his death. By it the only important possessions +remaining in English hands were Calais, Bordeaux, Bayonne and Brest. + +Edward was now sinking into his dotage. After the death of Queen +Philippa he fell entirely under the influence of a greedy mistress named +Alice Perrers, while the Black Prince and John of Gaunt became the +leaders of sharply divided parties in the court and council of the king. +With the help of Alice Perrers John of Gaunt obtained the chief +influence with his father, but his administration was neither +honourable nor successful. His chief enemies were the higher +ecclesiastics, headed by William of Wykeham, bishop of Winchester, who +had been excluded from power in 1371. John further irritated the clergy +by making an alliance with John Wycliffe. The opposition to John was led +by the Black Prince and Edmund Mortimer, earl of March, the husband of +Edward's grand-daughter, Philippa of Clarence. At last popular +indignation against the courtiers came to a head in the famous Good +Parliament of 1376. Alice Perrers was removed from court, and Duke +John's subordinate instruments were impeached. But in the midst of the +parliament the death of the Black Prince robbed the commons of their +strongest support. John of Gaunt regained power, and in 1377 a new +parliament, carefully packed by the courtiers, reversed the acts of the +Good Parliament. Not long after Edward III. died, on the 21st of June +1377. + +Edward III. was not a great man like Edward I. He was, however, an +admirable tactician, a consummate knight, and he possessed extraordinary +vigour and energy of temperament. His court, described at length in +Froissart's famous chronicle, was the most brilliant in Europe, and he +was himself well fitted to be the head of the magnificent chivalry that +obtained fame in the French wars. Though his main ambition was military +glory, he was not a bad ruler of England. He was liberal, kindly, +good-tempered and easy of access, and his yielding to his subjects' +wishes in order to obtain supplies for carrying on the French war +contributed to the consolidation of the constitution. His weak points +were his wanton breaches of good faith, his extravagance, his frivolity +and his self-indulgence. Like that of Edward I. his ambition transcended +his resources, and before he died even his subjects were aware of his +failure. + +Edward had twelve children, seven sons and five daughters. Five of his +sons played some part in the history of their time, these being Edward +the Black Prince, Lionel of Antwerp, duke of Clarence, John of Gaunt, +duke of Lancaster, Edmund of Langley, afterwards duke of York, and +Thomas of Woodstock, afterwards duke of Gloucester. John and Edmund are +also important as the founders of the rival houses of Lancaster and +York. Each of the last four was named from the place of his birth, and +for the same reason the Black Prince is sometimes called Edward of +Woodstock. The king's two other sons both died in infancy. Of his +daughters, three died unmarried; the others were Isabella, who married +into the family of Coucy, and Mary, who married into that of Montfort. + + AUTHORITIES.--The two chief modern lives of Edward III. are W. + Longman's _Life and Times of Edward III._, and J. Mackinnon's _History + of Edward III._ Neither work can be regarded as adequate, and in some + ways J. Barnes's quaint _History of Edward III._ (1688) is less + unsatisfactory. The general history of the time can be read in W. + Stubbs's _Constitutional History of England_, vol. ii. chapters xvi. + and xvii.; in T.F. Tout's _Political History of England_, 1216-1377, + pp. 301-441; in R. Pauli's _Geschichte von England_, iv. pp. 307-504; + and in Edward's life by W. Hunt in the _Dictionary of National + Biography_. For the Hundred Years' War, see E. Deprez's _Les + Preliminaires de la guerre de cent ans, 1328-1342_, and H. Denifle's + _La Desolation des eglises, monasteres et hopitaux en France pendant + la guerre de cent ans_. For economic and social history see W.J. + Ashley's _English Economic History_, and W. Cunningham's _Growth of + English Industry and Commerce during the Early and Middle Ages_. For + the end of the reign see S. Armitage Smith's _John of Gaunt_, J. + Lechler's _Wiclif und die Vorgeschichte der Reformation_, translated + as _Wycliffe and his English Precursors_, R.L. Poole's _Wycliffe and + Movements for Reform_, and G.M. Trevelyan's _England in the Age of + Wycliffe_. (T. F. T.) + + + + +EDWARD IV. (1442-1483), king of England, son of Richard, duke of York, +by Cicely Neville, was born at Rouen on the 28th of April 1442. As a boy +he was styled earl of March, and spent most of his time at Ludlow. After +the Yorkist failure at Ludlow field in October 1459, Edward fled with +the earls of Salisbury and Warwick, his uncle and cousin, to Calais. +Thence in the following July he accompanied them in their successful +invasion of England, to be welcomed in London, and to share in the +victory over the Lancastrians at Northampton. After the acceptance of +Richard of York as heir to the crown, Edward returned to the Welsh +marches, where early in the new year he heard of his father's defeat +and death at Wakefield. Hastily gathering an army he defeated the earls +of Pembroke and Wiltshire at Mortimer's Cross on the 2nd of February +1461, and then marched on London. He was acclaimed by the citizens in an +assembly at Clerkenwell, declared king by a Yorkist council, and took +possession of the regality on the 4th of March. Soon after the new king +and the earl of Warwick went north, and on the 28th of March won a +decisive victory at Towton. + +Edward owed his throne to his kinsmen the Nevilles, and he was content +for the time to be guided by them. For himself he was young and fond of +pleasure. Still he made frequent progresses, and took some part in the +fighting that went on in the north during 1462 and 1463. But he was +absent from the final victory at Hexham on the 14th of May 1464, and was +at the very time engaged in contracting a secret marriage with +Elizabeth, daughter of Richard Woodville, Lord Rivers, and widow of Sir +John Grey of Groby (d. 1461). The marriage was disclosed at Michaelmas, +much to the vexation of Warwick, who in pursuit of his foreign policy +had projected a match with a French princess. Edward heaped favours on +his new relatives; his father-in-law was made treasurer, and great +marriages were found for his wife's sisters and brothers. In foreign +affairs also Edward thwarted Warwick's plans by favouring an alliance +with Burgundy rather than France. There was, however, no open breach +till 1469, when Warwick, taking advantage of the unpopularity of the +Woodvilles, and supported by the king's next brother George, duke of +Clarence, appeared in arms. Edward was surprised and made prisoner at +Middleham, and Rivers was beheaded. For six months Edward had to submit +to Warwick's tutelage; then on the occasion of a rising in Lincolnshire +he gathered an army of his own. Sir Robert Welles, the leader of this +rebellion, made a confession implicating Warwick, who fled with Clarence +to France. The king thought himself secure, but when Warwick and +Clarence made terms with the Lancastrian exiles, Edward in his turn had +to seek refuge in Holland (September 1470). His brother-in-law, Charles +of Burgundy, at first refused him any assistance, but at last furnished +him with money, and on the 14th of March 1471 Edward and his brother +Richard landed with a small force at Ravenspur near Hull. Marching south +he was welcomed at London on the 11th of April, defeated Warwick at +Barnet three days later, and the Lancastrians at Tewkesbury on the 4th +of May. From thenceforth Edward's possession of the crown was secure. +His position was strengthened by the birth of a son (2nd of November +1470, during his exile), and by the wealth which he acquired through the +confiscation of the estates of his opponents. Clarence had made his +peace with Edward, but was at enmity with his other brother Richard of +Gloucester, who now married Warwick's second daughter and claimed a +share in the Neville inheritance. Their rivalry and Clarence's continued +intrigues furnished Edward with his chief domestic difficulty; the +trouble was ended by the judicial murder of Clarence in 1478. + +The only serious enterprise of these latter years was the short French +war of 1475, from which Edward was bought out by the treaty of +Pecquigny. As foreign policy it was inglorious, and involved a departure +from Edward's earlier plan of a Burgundian alliance. However, it shows a +certain recognition of England's need to concentrate her energies on her +own development. The annual subsidy which Louis XI. agreed to pay +further served Edward's purposes by providing him with money for home +government, and enabled him to avoid possible trouble through the +necessity for too frequent parliaments and heavy taxation. So Edward's +personal rule became in its character autocratic; but it was in the art +of courting popularity and concealing despotism that he most shows +himself as a type of tyranny. He lacked neither ambition nor capacity, +but was indolent and only exerted himself spasmodically. He could be +ruthless, but was not habitually cruel. His strongest weapons were the +fine presence, the affable manners (even with citizens), and the love of +pleasure and entertainments which secured his personal popularity. In +his last years he was given to self-indulgence and scandalous excesses, +which did not, however, alienate the London citizens, with whose wives +he was too familiar. Most of the power at court was in the hands of the +Woodvilles, in spite of their unpopularity; the more arduous work of +administration in the north was left to Richard of Gloucester. If as a +prince of the Renaissance Edward was the first to rule tyrannically in +England, he also deserves credit as a patron of the new culture and +friend of Caxton; he further resembles his Italian contemporaries in the +commercial purposes to which he applied his wealth in partnership with +London merchants. + +Edward died at Westminster on the 9th of April 1483, and was buried at +Windsor. By Elizabeth Woodville, who died on the 8th of June 1492, he +had two sons, Edward V. and Richard of York, who were murdered in the +Tower; and five daughters, of whom the eldest, Elizabeth, married Henry +VII. Of his numerous mistresses the most notorious was Jane Shore. +Before his marriage he had been contracted to Lady Eleanor Butler, and +this was alleged by Richard III. to have made his children by Elizabeth +Woodville illegitimate. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Of original authorities for Edward's reign the chief + are the _Continuation of the Cropland Chronicle_ in Fulman's + _Scriptores_; the various London Chronicles, especially for the early + years _Gregory's Chronicle_; Warkworth's _Chronicle_, and the + _Arrivall of King Edward IV._ (a partisan account of events in + 1470-1471), published by the Camden Society; the _Paston Letters_ with + Dr Gairdner's valuable Introduction; and for foreign affairs the + _Memoires_ of Philippe de Comines; the collection called _Chronicles + of the White Rose_ is useful. For modern authors, consult Sir James + Ramsay's _Lancaster and York_ (1892), and the _Political History of + England_, vol. iv. (1906), by Prof. C. Oman. (C. L. K.) + + + + +EDWARD V. (1470-1483), king of England, was the elder son of Edward IV. +by his wife Elizabeth Woodville, and was born, during his father's +temporary exile, in the sanctuary of Westminster Abbey on the 2nd of +November 1470. In June 1471 he was created prince of Wales. When Edward +IV. died in April 1483 a struggle for power took place between the young +king's paternal uncle, Richard, duke of Gloucester, who had been +appointed as his guardian by Edward IV., and his maternal uncle, Richard +Woodville, Earl Rivers. Gloucester obtained possession of the king's +person, and, having arrested Rivers and some of his supporters, assumed +the crown himself after a very slight and feigned reluctance, on the +ground that the marriage of Edward and Elizabeth Woodville was invalid, +and consequently its issue was illegitimate. At this time Edward and his +brother Richard, duke of York, were living in the Tower of London. +Shortly afterwards a movement was organized to free them from captivity, +and then it became known that they were already dead; but, though it was +the general conviction that they had been murdered, it was twenty years +before the manner of this deed was discovered. According to the +narrative of Sir Thomas More, Sir Robert Brackenbury, the constable of +the Tower, refused to obey Richard's command to put the young princes to +death; but he complied with a warrant ordering him to give up his keys +for one night to Sir James Tyrell, who had arranged for the +assassination. Two men, Miles Forest and John Dighton, then smothered +the youths under pillows while they were asleep. The murder was +committed most probably in August or September 1483. Horace Walpole has +attempted to cast doubts upon the murder of the princes, and Sir C.R. +Markham has argued that the deed was committed by order of Henry VII. +Both these views, however, have been traversed by James Gairdner, and +there seems little doubt that Sir Thomas More's story is substantially +correct. + + See RICHARD III.; and in addition, Sir Thomas More, _History of + Richard III._, edited by J.R. Lumby (Cambridge, 1883); Horace Walpole, + _Historic Doubts on the Life and Reign of Richard III._ (London, + 1768); J. Gairdner, _Richard III._ (Cambridge, 1898); J. Gairdner and + C.R. Markham in the _English Historical Review_, vol. vi. (London, + 1891); Sir C.R. Markham, _Richard III._ (1907). + + + + +EDWARD VI. (1537-1553), king of England and Ireland, born at Greenwich +on the 12th of October 1537, was the only child of Henry VIII. by his +third wife, Jane Seymour, who died of puerperal fever twelve days later. +The story that the mother's life was deliberately sacrificed by the +performance of Caesarean section is unfounded, although Jane's death +was little noticed amid the rejoicings which greeted the advent of a +male heir to the throne. But in spite of Holbein's vivacious portrait of +Edward at the age of two (now at Hanover), he was a frail child, and a +short life was anticipated for him from his early years. This did not +prevent a strenuous education; until the age of six he was naturally +left in the charge of women, but when he was only seven his tutor Dr +Coxe, afterwards bishop of Ely, writes that he could decline any Latin +noun and conjugate any regular verb (_L. and P._, 1544, ii. 726); "every +day in the mass-time he readeth a portion of Solomon's Proverbs, wherein +he delighteth much." Sir John Cheke, Sir Anthony Cooke and Roger Ascham +all helped to teach him Latin, Greek and French; and by the age of +thirteen he had read Aristotle's _Ethics_ in the original and was +himself translating Cicero's _De philosophia_ into Greek. + +Edward was duke of Cornwall from his birth, but he was never prince of +Wales, and he was only nine when he succeeded his father as king of +England and Ireland and supreme head of the church (28th of January +1546/7). His nonage threw power into the hands of Somerset and then of +Northumberland, and enabled Gardiner and Bonner to maintain that the +royal supremacy over the church was, or should be, in abeyance. Projects +for his marriage were hardly even the occasion, but only the excuse, for +Somerset's war on Scotland and Northumberland's subsequent alliance with +France. All factions sought to control his person, not because of his +personality but because of his position; he was like the Great Seal, +only more so, an indispensable adjunct to the wielder of authority. The +Protector's brother tried to bribe him with pocket-money; Northumberland +was more subtle and established a complete dominion over his mind, and +then put him forward at the age of fourteen as entitled to all the power +of Henry VIII. But he was only Northumberland's mask; of his individual +influence on the course of history during his reign there is hardly a +trace. A posthumous effort was made to give him the credit of a humane +desire to save Joan Bocher from the flames; but he recorded with +apparently cold-blooded indifference the execution of both his uncles, +and he certainly made no attempt to mitigate the harassing attentions +which the council paid his sister Mary. This passed for piety with the +zealots, and the persecutions of Mary's reign reflected a halo on that +of the Protestant Josiah. So strong was the regret that rumours of his +survival persisted, and hare-brained youths were found to personate him +throughout Mary's and even far into Elizabeth's reign. + +It was well that they were false, for Edward showed signs of all the +Tudor obstinacy, and he was a fanatic into the bargain, as no other +Tudor was except Mary. The combination would probably have involved +England in disasters far greater than any that ensued upon his premature +death; and it was much better that the Anglican settlement of religion +should have been left to the compromising temper of Elizabeth. As it +was, he bequeathed a legacy of woe; his health began to fail in 1552, +and in May 1553 it was known that he was dying. But his will and the +various drafts of it only betray the agitated and illogical efforts of +Northumberland to contrive some means whereby he might continue to +control the government and prevent the administration of justice. Mary +and Elizabeth were to be excluded from the throne, as not sufficiently +pliant instruments; Mary Stuart was ignored as being under Scottish, +Catholic and French influence; the duchess of Suffolk, Lady Jane's +mother, was excluded because she was married, and the duke her husband +might claim the crown matrimonial. In fact, all females were excluded, +except Jane, on the ground that no woman could reign; even she was +excluded in the first draft, and the crown was left to "the Lady Jane's +heirs male." But this draft was manipulated so as to read "the Lady Jane +and her heirs male." That Edward himself was responsible for these +delirious provisions is improbable. But he had been so impregnated with +the divine right of kings and the divine truth of Protestantism that he +thought he was entitled and bound to override the succession as +established by law and exclude a Catholic from the throne; and his last +recorded words were vehement injunctions to Cranmer to sign the will. +He died at Greenwich on the 6th of July 1553, and was buried in Henry +VII.'s chapel by Cranmer with Protestant rites on the 8th of August, +while Mary had Mass said for his soul in the Tower. + + J.G. Nichols collected almost all that is known of Edward VI. in his + excellent edition of the king's _Journal_. A few additional facts and + suggestions can be gleaned from the _Letters and Papers of Henry + VIII._ vols. xii.-xxi.; _Acts of the Privy Council_, ed. Dasent, vols. + i.-iv.; Domestic, Spanish, Venetian and Foreign _Calendars of State + Papers_; Froude's _History_; Dixon's _Hist. Church of England_; A.F. + Pollard's _England under Somerset_ and _Life of Cranmer_; and _English + Historical Review_, xxiii. 286, &c. Sir Clements Markham's _Edward + VI._ (1907) emphasizes his interest in geography. (A. F. P.) + + + + +EDWARD VII. (ALBERT EDWARD) (1841-1910), king of Great Britain and +Ireland, and of the British Dominions beyond the Seas, emperor of India, +the eldest son and second child of Queen Victoria and of Albert, prince +consort, was born at Buckingham Palace on the 9th of November 1841. He +was created prince of Wales and earl of Chester on the 4th of December +following, and was baptized on the 25th of January 1842. In his +childhood he was educated by the dowager Lady Lyttelton; and in his +boyhood successively by the Rev. Henry Mildred Birch, Mr F.W. Gibbes, +the Rev. C.F. Tarver and Mr Herbert W. Fisher. He afterwards resided at +Edinburgh, studying chemistry in its industrial applications under +Professor (afterwards Lord) Playfair at the university; at Christ +Church, Oxford; and at Trinity College, Cambridge. In November 1858 he +was made a knight of the Garter and a colonel in the army. In 1859 he +travelled in Italy and Spain, and in 1860 paid a visit as "Lord Renfrew" +to the United States and Canada. + +Upon the completion of his Cambridge course in June 1861 he joined the +camp at the Curragh. The prince consort died on the 13th of December, +and in 1862 the prince of Wales went for a tour in the Holy Land +(February-June) under the guidance of Arthur Penrhyn Stanley, afterwards +dean of Westminster. Early in 1863 he was sworn of the privy council, +and took his seat in the House of Lords as duke of Cornwall. The estate +of Sandringham, in Norfolk, was purchased for him out of the savings of +his minority, and his town residence was fixed at Marlborough House. + +His impending marriage to the princess Alexandra, daughter of Christian +IX., king of Denmark (b. December 1, 1844), had already been announced, +and took place on the 10th of March at Windsor, the beauty and grace of +the princess captivating the heart of the nation. Parliament granted the +prince an income of L40,000 a year, exclusive of the revenues of the +duchy of Cornwall, and he relinquished his right of succession to the +duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. Prince Albert Victor, afterwards duke of +Clarence, was the first offspring of the marriage, being born on the 8th +of January 1864. The births followed of Prince George Frederick Ernest +Albert, afterwards duke of York (see GEORGE V.), on the 3rd of June +1865; Princess Louise Victoria Alexandra Dagmar, by marriage duchess of +Fife, princess royal, on the 20th of February 1867; Princess Victoria +Alexandra Olga Mary, on the 6th of July 1868; and Princess Maud +Charlotte Mary Victoria, afterwards queen of Norway, on the 26th of +November 1869. + +From the time of their marriage the prince and princess were prominently +before the country. Queen Victoria remained in retirement, but they +filled her place at important public functions. The prince's readiness +to promote every worthy cause was most marked; no one was a more +constant attendant at meetings for objects of public utility of a +non-political nature, and his speeches were always characterized by +excellent sense. The most important external event of these years was a +tour to Egypt, undertaken in 1869 in company with the duke of +Sutherland, Sir Samuel Baker and others, an account of which was +published by Mrs William Grey. The prince also visited Ireland more than +once, and opened the International Exhibition of 1871. + +On the 23rd of November 1871 it was announced that the prince would be +prevented from paying a visit which had been arranged to the Maharajah +Dhuleep Singh by a feverish attack. It soon appeared that the malady was +typhoid, contracted as was supposed, on a visit to Scarborough. The +case became so serious that on November 29 the queen and Princess Alice +hurried to Sandringham. On the 1st of December there was a slight rally, +but on the 8th so serious a relapse occurred that for some days the +prince's life was despaired of. Under the skilful treatment of Sir +William Jenner, Sir William Gull and Sir James Paget, however, the +crisis was surmounted by December 16, and by Christmas day the danger +was regarded as virtually over. On the 27th of February 1872 a +thanksgiving was held at St Paul's, amid imposing demonstrations of +public joy. + +In January 1874 the prince of Wales attended the marriage at St. +Petersburg of his brother, the duke of Edinburgh, with the grand-duchess +Marie of Russia. In the same year he paid a historic visit to +Birmingham, where Mr Joseph Chamberlain, not yet a member of parliament, +received him officially as mayor. In March 1875 it was officially +announced that he would make a visit to India, carrying out an idea +originally conceived by the first Indian viceroy, Earl Canning. He was +supposed to travel as heir-apparent, not as representative of the queen; +but the characters could not be kept apart, and in fact the prince's +visit was a political event of great importance. Leaving England on +October 11, he was received at Bombay by the viceroy, Lord Northbrook. +Here he met a very large number of Indian feudatory princes, whose +acquaintance he subsequently improved by visiting at their courts during +the seventeen weeks which he spent in the country. During these four +months the prince travelled nearly 8000 m. by land and 2500 m. by sea, +became acquainted with more rajahs than had all the viceroys who had +reigned over India, and saw more of the country than any living +Englishman. The visit led up to the queen's assumption of the title of +empress of India in the following year. + +The prince's life after this date was full of conspicuous public +appearances. In 1885 he visited Ireland at a time of much political +excitement, and was received enthusiastically in many quarters and +without symptoms of ill-will in any. In 1886 he filled the presidency of +the Indian and Colonial Exhibition, opened the Mersey Tunnel, and laid +the first stone of the Tower Bridge. In 1887 a large share of the +arrangements for the queen's Jubilee devolved upon him. On the 27th of +July 1589 his eldest daughter, Princess Louise, was married to the duke +of Fife. In the autumn he paid a semi-incognito visit to Paris, where he +was always highly popular, viewed the Exhibition, and ascended the +Eiffel Tower. In 1890 he opened the Forth Bridge. On the 14th of January +1892, however, a heavy blow fell upon him and his house by the death of +his eldest son, Prince Albert Victor, duke of Clarence, after a brief +illness. The young prince, who with his brother George had made the tour +of the world (1879-1882) in H.M.S. "Bacchante," and after a short career +at Oxford and Cambridge was just settling down to play his part in +public life, had recently become engaged to Princess Victoria Mary of +Teck (b. May 26, 1867), and the popularity of the heir to the crown had +been increased by the expression of his satisfaction at his son's bride +being an English princess. On the 6th of July 1893 the broken thread was +reunited by her marriage to Prince George, duke of York. + +The year 1894 was a busy one for the prince of Wales, who became a +member of the royal commission on the housing of the poor, opened the +Tower Bridge, attended the Welsh Eisteddfod and was duly initiated, and +paid two visits to Russia--one for the marriage of the grand-duchess +Xenia, the other for the funeral of the tsar, his brother-in-law. In +1896 he became first chancellor of the university of Wales, and his +first act after his installation at Aberystwyth was to confer an +honorary degree upon the princess. He had already been for some years a +trustee of the British Museum. On the 22nd of July 1896 his daughter. +Princess Maud, was married to Prince Charles of Denmark, who in 1905 was +offered and accepted the crown of the new kingdom of Norway. The +arrangements for the queen's Jubilee of 1897 depended upon the prince +even more than those of the corresponding celebration in 1887: he rode +on the queen's right at the great procession to St Paul's, and as an +admiral of the fleet presided at the naval review at Spithead. In July +1898 the prince had the misfortune to fracture his knee-cap while on a +visit to Baron Ferdinand de Rothschild, but completely recovered from +the effects of the accident. In December 1899, while passing through +Brussels on his way to St Petersburg, he was fired at by a miserable lad +named Sipido, crazed by reading anarchist literature. Fortunately no +injury was done. + +It was the especial distinction of Albert Edward, while prince of Wales, +to have been a substantial support of the throne before he was called +upon to fill it. This cannot be said of any of his predecessors except +Edward the Black Prince. He was exemplary in the discharge of his public +duties, and in his scrupulous detachment from party politics. He was a +keen patron of the theatre, and his thoroughly British taste for sport +was as pronounced as his inclination for most of the contemporary +amusements of society. The "Tranby Croft Case" (1890), in which Sir +William Gordon Cumming brought an unsuccessful libel action for having +been accused of cheating at a game of baccarat, caused some comment in +connexion with the prince's appearance in the witness-box on behalf of +the defendants. But it did him no disservice with the people to have +twice won the Derby with his horses Persimmon (1896) and Diamond Jubilee +(1900)--his third victory, in 1909, with Minoru, being the first +occasion on which the race had been won by a reigning sovereign; and his +interest in yacht-racing was conspicuously shown at all the important +fixtures, his yacht "Britannia" being one of the best of her day. His +activity in the life of the nation may be illustrated by his +establishment (1897) of the Prince of Wales's (afterwards King Edward's) +Hospital Fund, his devotion to the cause of Masonry (he was first +elected grand master of the Freemasons of England in 1874), and his +position as a bencher of the Middle Temple, where he also became (1887) +treasurer. + +On the death of Queen Victoria on the 22nd of January 1901, the question +what title the new king would assume was speedily set at rest by the +popular announcement that he would be called Edward the Seventh. The new +reign began auspiciously by the holding of a privy council at St James's +Palace, at which the king announced his intention to follow in his +predecessor's footsteps and to govern as a constitutional sovereign, and +received the oaths of allegiance. On the 14th of February the king and +queen opened parliament in state. Shortly afterwards it was announced +that the visit of the duke and duchess of York to Australia, in order to +inaugurate the new Commonwealth, which had been sanctioned by Queen +Victoria, would be proceeded with; and on the 16th of March they set out +on board the "Ophir" with a brilliant suite. The tour lasted till +November 1, the duke and duchess having visited Australia, New Zealand, +the Cape and Canada; and on their return the king, on November 9, +created the duke prince of Wales and earl of Chester. Meanwhile +parliament had settled the new civil list at L470,000 a year, and the +royal title had been enlarged to include the colonial empire by an act +enabling the king to style himself "Edward VII., by the grace of God, of +the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and of all the British +Dominions beyond the Seas, King, Defender of the Faith, Emperor of +India." At the end of May 1902 the long-drawn-out war in South Africa +came at last to an end, and the coronation was fixed for the 26th of +June. But on the 24th, amid general consternation, the king was +announced to be suffering from perityphlitis, necessitating the +immediate performance of an operation; and the coronation, for which +unprecedented preparations had been made, had to be postponed. The +operation--performed by Sir Frederick Treves--was, however, so +marvellously successful, and the king's progress towards recovery so +rapid and uninterrupted, that within a fortnight he was pronounced out +of danger, and soon afterwards it was decided to hold the coronation +service on August 9. Though shorn of much of the magnificence which +would have been added to it in June by the presence of foreign royalties +and the preparations for a great procession through London, the +solemnity duly took place on that date in Westminster Abbey amid great +rejoicings. The king spent several weeks (partly in a yachting trip +round the coast and up to Stornoway) in recruiting his health, and on +the 25th of October he went in procession through the main streets of +south London, when he was most enthusiastically received. Next day the +king and queen attended St Paul's cathedral in state to return thanks +for his restoration to health. On New Year's day 1903 the coronation was +proclaimed in India at a magnificent durbar at Delhi. + +At home the king opened parliament in person in February 1903, and on +the 31st of March he sailed from Portsmouth to pay a visit to the king +of Portugal at Lisbon, leaving Lisbon for Gibraltar on the 7th of April. +On the 11th he held a review of the garrison troops and next day left +for Malta, and the tour was continued to Naples (23rd of April). On the +27th of April he was received at Rome by the king of Italy--the first +time an English king as such had been there; and two days later he paid +a visit to Leo XIII. at the Vatican. On May day he was received in Paris +by President Loubet. Later in the year return visits were paid to +England by President Loubet (July) and the king and queen of Italy +(November). On the 11th of May His Majesty paid his first formal visit +to Edinburgh, and held courts at Holyrood. In July the king and queen +went to Ireland, and though the Dublin corporation refused to vote a +loyal address the reception was generally cordial. In September the king +took his annual "cure" at Marienbad, and paid a visit to Vienna, where +he was received by the Austrian emperor. In 1904 again the king and +queen went to Ireland; in June the king was cordially received by the +German emperor at the yacht-races at Kiel, and he included a visit to +Hamburg, where the welcome was hearty. In November the king and queen of +Portugal were entertained at Windsor and at the Guildhall. + +The success of King Edward as a promoter of international friendliness, +and the advantage of so efficient a type of kingship, attracted +universal attention, and treaties of arbitration were concluded by Great +Britain with France, Spain, Italy, Germany and Portugal in 1903 and +1904. In his first two years the king had already earned the title of +Edward the Peacemaker, and established his position as a source of new +strength to the state. This reputation was confirmed in the years which +followed, during which the royal hand was to be seen in the progress of +foreign affairs in a manner somewhat new to old-fashioned politicians. +The _entente_ with France was promoted by his influence, notably by his +reception of President Fallieres in England in 1908. It was noticed that +the permanent under-secretary for foreign affairs, Sir Charles Hardinge, +generally accompanied the king, as one of his suite, on his visits +abroad: and the conclusion of the Anglo-Russian agreement (1907)--which +was attributed with some reason to royal policy--was hotly criticized in +Radical quarters. It was pointed out that neither the foreign secretary +(Sir E. Grey) nor any other secretary of state accompanied the king on +his foreign visits. These objections were, however, scouted by the +government, and undeniably public opinion approved of the sovereign's +personal activity in a sphere peculiarly his own. The strengthening of +British influence in Europe, which was the marked result of the +Anglo-French and Anglo-Russian _ententes_, and of the closer ties +between England and countries like Portugal and Spain (whose young king +Alfonso married Princess Ena of Battenberg, King Edward's niece), had, +indeed, temporarily the effect of rousing German suspicion, the view +taken being that the object of British foreign policy was to isolate +Germany; and during 1907 and 1908 the political situation was coloured +by the discussions in the press with regard to Anglo-German rivalry. But +in February 1909 the king and queen paid a state visit to the Kaiser in +Berlin, where the greatest cordiality was displayed on all sides; the +event was prepared for, in both countries, as a means of dispelling the +clouds which had gathered over the relations between England and +Germany, and the success of the visit proved once more how powerful King +Edward's personality could be as an agency for peace and international +amity. + +During the year 1909, however, the political situation at home was +developing into an acute constitutional crisis, which seemed likely to +involve the Crown in serious difficulties. Mr Lloyd-George's budget +convulsed the House of Commons and the country, and was eventually +rejected by the House of Lords; and the Liberal government now put in +the forefront of its programme the abolition of the Peers' "veto." As +was hinted, not obscurely, later by the doctors, King Edward, although +certainly not prejudiced against a Liberal ministry, was seriously +disturbed in mind and health by the progress of events, which culminated +in the return of Mr Asquith to office after the elections of January +1910, and in his statement that, if necessary, guarantees would be +sought from the Crown for the purpose of enforcing the will of the +representative chamber. A remarkable sign of the king's discomfort was +his insertion, in the official "King's Speech" at the opening of +parliament, of the words "in the opinion of my advisers," in connexion +with the passage dealing with the House of Lords. The king had been far +from robust for some little time, and while he was taking change and +rest at Biarritz in the early spring of 1910 he had a bronchial attack +which caused some anxiety, although the public heard nothing of it. When +he returned to England there is no doubt that he was acutely affected by +the prospect of being forcibly dragged into the political conflict. In +the country at large there was indeed considerable confidence that the +king's tact and experience would help to bring order out of chaos; but +this was not to be. Within two days the public heard with consternation +that he was ill, and then was dead. On May 5 it was announced that he +had bronchitis; and he died at 11.45 P.M. on the 6th, of heart failure. +On May 17, 18 and 19 there was an impressive lying-in-state in +Westminster Hall, attended by unprecedented crowds; and on May 20 the +burial took place at Windsor, after a great funeral procession through +London, the coffin being followed by the new king, George V., and by +eight foreign sovereigns--the German emperor, the kings of Greece, +Spain, Portugal, Denmark, Norway, Belgium and Bulgaria--besides the +archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria (heir to the throne of +Austria-Hungary), the prince consort of Holland and many other +royalties, and a number of special ambassadors, including Mr Roosevelt +as representative of the United States. Mourning was as sincere as it +was universal; for not only England and the British Empire, but the +world, had lost a king who was both a very human man and a tried and +trusted statesman. + +Queen Victoria's long reign had solidly established the constitutional +monarchy; it remained for her son to rehabilitate the idea of English +kingship by showing how the sovereign could be no less constitutional +but personally more monarchical. While prince of Wales he had had little +real training in statecraft, but when he became king his genuine +capacity for affairs was shown. Ably advised by such men as Lord Knollys +and Lord Esher, he devoted himself to the work of removing the Throne +from its former isolation, and bringing it into touch with all sections +of the community for the promotion of social happiness and welfare. His +own love of pageantry and his interest in the stately ordering of court +functions responded, moreover, to a marked inclination on the part of +the public and of "society" for such things. It was significant that +even Radicals and Socialists began to advocate extensions of the +prerogative, and to insist on the active part which the Crown should +play in public life. The king won the genuine affection and confidence +of the people; and in Queen Alexandra he had an ideal consort, to whom +all hearts went out. (H. Ch.) + + + + +EDWARD, prince of Wales, known as "THE BLACK PRINCE" (1330-1376), the +eldest son of Edward III. and Philippa of Hainaut, was born at Woodstock +on the 15th of June 1330. Contemporaries called him Edward of Woodstock, +and his surname of the Black Prince cannot be traced back earlier than +the 16th century. It is supposed to have been derived from his wearing +black armour. In 1333 he was made earl of Chester, and in 1337 duke of +Cornwall, being the first duke ever created in England. Nominal warden +of England during his father's absences abroad in 1338 and 1342, he was +created prince of Wales in 1343, and in 1345 he first accompanied his +father on a foreign expedition. + +His real career begins, however, with Edward III.'s Norman campaign of +1346. On landing at La Hogue he was knighted by his father, and took a +prominent part in the whole of the campaign. He commanded the right wing +of the English forces at Crecy, and, though hard pressed for a time by +the French, took his full share in gaining the victory. Next year he was +at the siege of Calais, and returned to England in October 1347 with his +father. He was one of the original knights of the Garter, and +participated in his father's chivalrous adventures at Calais in 1349 and +in the battle off Winchelsea in 1350. In September 1355 he was sent to +Gascony at the head of an English army, having been appointed his +father's lieutenant there in July. He was warmly welcomed by the +Gascons, and at once led a foray through Armagnac and Languedoc. By +November he had got as far as Narbonne, whence he returned to Bordeaux, +where he kept his Christmas court. In August 1356 he started from +Bergerac on another marauding expedition, this time in a northerly +direction. He penetrated as far as the Loire, but was there compelled to +retire before the superior forces of King John of France. On the 19th of +September the two armies met in the battle of Poitiers, fought about 6 +m. south-east of the city. It was the hardest-fought and most important +battle of the Hundred Years' War, and Edward's victory was due both to +the excellence of his tactical disposition of his forces and to the +superior fighting capacity of his army. The flank march of the Captal de +Buch, which decided the fate of the day, was of Edward's own devising, +and the captivity of King John attested the completeness of his triumph. +He treated his prisoner with almost ostentatious magnanimity, and took +him to Bordeaux, whence they sailed to England in May 1357. On the 24th +of that month he led his prisoner in triumph through the streets of +London. In 1359 he took part in his father's invasion of northern +France, and had a large share in the negotiations at Bretigny and +Calais. + +In October 1361 Edward married his cousin Joan, countess of Kent +(1328-1385), the daughter and heiress of Edmund of Woodstock, earl of +Kent, the younger son of Edward I. by his second wife Margaret of +France. The lady, who enjoyed a great reputation for beauty, was in her +thirty-third year, and the widow of Sir Thomas Holand, by whom she had +had three children. Froissart says that the marriage was a love match, +and that the king had no knowledge of it. However, Edward III. approved +of his son's choice, and in July 1362 handed over to him all his +dominions in southern France, with the title of prince of Aquitaine. In +February 1363 Edward and Joan took ship for Gascony, which became his +ordinary place of residence for the next eight years. He maintained a +brilliant court at Bordeaux and Angouleme, and did his best to win the +support of the Gascons. He was not, however, successful in winning over +the greater nobles, who, with John, count of Armagnac, at their head, +were dissatisfied with the separation from France, and looked with +suspicion upon Edward's attempts to reform the administration as being +likely to result in the curtailment of their feudal rights. Edward was +better able to conciliate the towns, whose franchises he favoured and +whose trade he fostered, hoping that they would prove a counterpoise to +the aristocracy. He kept the chief posts of the administration mainly in +English hands, and never really identified himself with the local life +and traditions of his principality. He succeeded in clearing Aquitaine +of the free companies, and kept good peace for nearly six years. + +In 1367 Peter the Cruel, the deposed king of Castile, visited Edward at +Bordeaux, and persuaded him to restore him to his throne by force. In +February 1367 Edward led an army into Spain over the pass of +Roncesvalles. After a difficult and dangerous march Edward reached the +Ebro, and on the 3rd of April defeated Bertrand du Guesclin at Najera, +the last of his great victories. He then proceeded to Burgos, and +restored Peter to the throne of Castile. He remained in Castile for four +months, living principally at Valladolid. His army wasted away during +the hot Spanish summer, and Edward himself contracted the beginnings of +a mortal disease. In August 1367 Edward led the remnant of his troops +back through the pass of Roncesvalles, and returned to Bordeaux early in +September. He had exhausted all his resources on the Spanish expedition, +and was forced to seek from the estates of Aquitaine extraordinary +sources of supply. A hearth tax for five years was willingly granted to +him, and generally paid. The greater barons, however, found in this +impost a pretext for revolt. The count of Armagnac, who had already made +a secret understanding with Charles V., appealed against the hearth tax +to the parlement of Paris. Cited before this body in January 1369, +Edward declared that he would answer at Paris with sixty thousand men +behind him. War broke out again, and Edward III. resumed the title of +king of France. Thereupon Charles V. declared that all the English +possessions in France were forfeited, and before the end of 1369 all +Aquitaine was in full revolt. With weak health and impaired resources, +the Black Prince showed little activity in dealing with his insurgent +subjects, or in warding off French invasion. Though too ill to ride on +horseback, he insisted upon commanding his troops, and on the 19th of +September 1370 won his last barren success, by capturing the revolted +city of Limoges and putting the population to the sword. Early in 1371 +he returned to England, leaving the impossible task of holding Gascony +to his brother John of Gaunt. In August 1372 he joined his father in an +abortive expedition to France, but contrary winds prevented their +landing, and he now abandoned military life for good. In October he +resigned his principality on the ground that he could not afford to +retain any longer so expensive a charge. His health now rapidly +declined, but he still followed politics with interest, and did what he +could to support the constitutional opposition of the great +ecclesiastics to the administration of John of Gaunt and the +anti-clerical courtiers. His last public act was to inspire the attack +on Lancaster's influence made by the Good Parliament in the spring of +1376. The famous parliament was still in session when he died at +Westminster on the 8th of July. He was buried in the east end of +Canterbury cathedral on the 29th of September, where his magnificent +tomb, erected in accordance with the instructions in his will, may still +be seen. By Joan, "the fair maid of Kent," who died on the 7th of August +1385, the Black Prince left an only son, afterwards King Richard II. + + For authorities see EDWARD III. To these may be added W. Hunt's + article in the _Dict. Nat. Biog._; A. Collins's _Life of Edward, + Prince of Wales_ (1740); G.P.R. James's _Life of Edward the Black + Prince_ (1839); J. Moisant's _Le Prince Noir en Aquitaine_ (1894); and + R.P. Dunn-Pattison's _The Black Prince_ (1910). (T. F. T.) + + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 8, Slice 10, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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