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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 13, Slice 3, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 13, Slice 3
+       "Helmont, Jean" to "Hernosand"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: April 12, 2012 [EBook #39435]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 13, SLICE 3 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
+      letters.
+
+(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE HEMIMORPHITE: "Hemimorphite occurs with other ores of zinc
+      (calamine and blende), forming veins and beds in sedimentary
+      limestones." 'sedimentary' amended from 'sedimentry'.
+
+    ARTICLE HEMP: "But typically the drug is an intoxicant, resembling
+      alcohol in many features of its action, but differing in others."
+      'is' amended from 'in'.
+
+    ARTICLE HENLEY, WILLIAM ERNEST: "In 1890 Henley published Views and
+      Reviews, a volume of notable criticisms, described by himself as
+      'less a book than a mosaic of scraps and shreds recovered from the
+      shot rubbish of some fourteen years of journalism.'" 'mosaic'
+      amended from 'mosiac'.
+
+    ARTICLE HENRY VIII.: "... and the Councils of Wales and of the
+      North were given summary powers derived from the Roman civil law
+      similar to those exercised by the Star Chamber at Westminster and
+      the court of Castle Chamber at Dublin." 'similar' amended from
+      'similiar'.
+
+    ARTICLE HERBARIUM: "... some species being almost always found
+      parasitical on particular plants." Duplicated 'found'.
+
+    ARTICLE HERCULES: "Hera sent two serpents to destroy the new-born
+      Hercules, but he strangled them." 'destroy' amended from 'destory'.
+
+    ARTICLE HEREDITAMENT: "An example of a corporeal hereditament is
+      land held in freehold, of incorporeal hereditaments, tithes,
+      advowsons, pensions, annuities, rents, franchises, &c."
+      'hereditaments' amended from 'herditaments'.
+
+    ARTICLE HEREFORDSHIRE: "Herefordshire probably originated as a
+      shire in the time of Æthelstan, and is mentioned in the Saxon
+      Chronicle in 1051." 'Chronicle' amended from 'Chroncile'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+           VOLUME XIII, SLICE III
+
+         HELMONT, JEAN to HERNÖSAND
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  HELMONT, JEAN BAPTISTE VAN        HENRY, ROBERT
+  HELMSTEDT                         HENRY, VICTOR
+  HELMUND                           HENRY, WILLIAM
+  HELM WIND                         HENRYSON, ROBERT
+  HELOTS                            HENSCHEL, GEORGE
+  HELPS, SIR ARTHUR                 HENSELT, ADOLF VON
+  HELSINGBORG                       HENSLOW, JOHN STEVENS
+  HELSINGFORS                       HENSLOWE, PHILIP
+  HELST, BARTHOLOMAEUS VAN DER      HENTY, GEORGE ALFRED
+  HELSTON                           HENWOOD, WILLIAM JORY
+  HELVETIC CONFESSIONS              HENZADA
+  HELVETII                          HEPBURN, SIR JOHN
+  HELVÉTIUS, CLAUDE ADRIEN          HEPHAESTION (Macedonian general)
+  HELVIDIUS PRISCUS                 HEPHAESTION (Alexandrian grammarian)
+  HELY-HUTCHINSON, JOHN             HEPHAESTUS
+  HELYOT, PIERRE                    HEPPENHEIM
+  HEMANS, FELICIA DOROTHEA          HEPPLEWHITE, GEORGE
+  HEMEL HEMPSTEAD                   HEPTARCHY
+  HEMEROBAPTISTS                    HERA
+  HEMICHORDA                        HERACLEA
+  HEMICYCLE                         HERACLEON
+  HEMIMERUS                         HERACLEONAS
+  HEMIMORPHITE                      HERACLIDAE
+  HEMINGBURGH, WALTER OF            HERACLIDES PONTICUS
+  HEMIPTERA                         HERACLITUS
+  HEMLOCK                           HERACLIUS
+  HEMP                              HERALD
+  HEMSTERHUIS, FRANÇOIS             HERALDRY
+  HEMSTERHUIS, TIBERIUS             HERAT
+  HEMY, CHARLES NAPIER              HÉRAULT
+  HEN                               HÉRAULT DE SÉCHELLES, MARIE JEAN
+  HÉNAULT, CHARLES JEAN FRANÇOIS    HERB
+  HENBANE                           HERBARIUM
+  HENCHMAN                          HERBART, JOHANN FRIEDRICH
+  HENDERSON, ALEXANDER              HERBELOT DE MOLAINVILLE, BARTHÉLEMY D'
+  HENDERSON, EBENEZER               HERBERAY DES ESSARTS, NICOLAS DE
+  HENDERSON, GEORGE FRANCIS ROBERT  HERBERT (Family)
+  HENDERSON, JOHN                   HERBERT, GEORGE
+  HENDERSON (Kentucky, U.S.A.)      HERBERT, HENRY WILLIAM
+  HENDIADYS                         HERBERT, SIR THOMAS
+  HENDON                            HERBERT OF CHERBURY, EDWARD HERBERT
+  HENDRICKS, THOMAS ANDREWS         HERBERT OF LEA, SIDNEY HERBERT
+  HENGELO                           HERBERTON
+  HENGEST and HORSA                 HERCULANEUM
+  HENGSTENBERG, ERNST WILHELM       HERCULANO DE CARVALHO, ALEXANDRE
+  HENKE, HEINRICH PHILIPP KONRAD    HERCULES (hero of Hellas)
+  HENLE, FRIEDRICH GUSTAV JAKOB     HERCULES (constellation)
+  HENLEY, JOHN                      HERD
+  HENLEY, WILLIAM ERNEST            HERDER, JOHANN GOTTFRIED VON
+  HENLEY-ON-THAMES                  HEREDIA, JOSÉ MARIA DE
+  HENNA                             HEREDIA Y CAMPUZANO, JOSÉ MARIA
+  HENNEBONT                         HEREDITAMENT
+  HENNEQUIN, PHILIPPE AUGUSTE       HEREDITY
+  HENNER, JEAN JACQUES              HEREFORD
+  HENRIETTA MARIA                   HEREFORDSHIRE
+  HENRY (name origin)               HERERO
+  HENRY I. (German king)            HERESY
+  HENRY II. (Roman emperor)         HEREWARD
+  HENRY III. (Roman emperor)        HERFORD
+  HENRY IV. (Roman emperor)         HERGENRÖTHER, JOSEPH VON
+  HENRY V. (Roman emperor)          HERINGSDORF
+  HENRY VI. (Roman emperor)         HERIOT, GEORGE
+  HENRY VII. (Roman emperor)        HERIOT
+  HENRY VII. (German king)          HERISAU
+  HENRY RASPE                       HERITABLE JURISDICTIONS
+  HENRY (emperor of Romania)        HERKIMER
+  HENRY I. (king of England)        HERKOMER, SIR HUBERT VON
+  HENRY II. (king of England)       HERLEN, FRITZ
+  HENRY III. (king of England)      HERMAE
+  HENRY IV. (king of England)       HERMAGORAS
+  HENRY V. (king of England)        HERMANDAD
+  HENRY VI. (king of England)       HERMAN DE VALENCIENNES
+  HENRY VII. (king of England)      HERMANN I.
+  HENRY VIII. (king of England)     HERMANN OF REICHENAU
+  HENRY I. (king of Castile)        HERMANN OF WIED
+  HENRY I. (king of France)         HERMANN, FRIEDRICH WILHELM VON
+  HENRY II. (king of France)        HERMANN, JOHANN GOTTFRIED JAKOB
+  HENRY III. (king of France)       HERMANN, KARL FRIEDRICH
+  HENRY IV. (king of France)        HERMAPHRODITUS
+  HENRY I. (king of Navarre)        HERMAS, SHEPHERD OF
+  HENRY II. (king of Navarre)       HERMENEUTICS
+  HENRY I. (king of Portugal)       HERMES (Greek god)
+  HENRY II. (duke of Brunswick-W.)  HERMES, GEORG
+  HENRY (the Proud, duke of Saxony) HERMES TRISMEGISTUS
+  HENRY (the Lion, duke of Saxony)  HERMESIANAX
+  HENRY (Prince of Battenberg)      HERMIAS
+  HENRY FITZ HENRY                  HERMIPPUS
+  HENRY (Cardinal York)             HERMIT
+  HENRY OF PORTUGAL                 HERMOGENES
+  HENRY OF ALMAIN                   HERMON
+  HENRY OF BLOIS                    HERMSDORF
+  HENRY OF GHENT                    HERNE, JAMES A.
+  HENRY OF HUNTINGDON               HERNE (town of Germany)
+  HENRY OF LAUSANNE                 HERNE BAY
+  HENRY, EDWARD LAMSON              HERNE THE HUNTER
+  HENRY, JAMES                      HERNIA
+  HENRY, JOSEPH                     HERNICI
+  HENRY, MATTHEW                    HERNÖSAND
+  HENRY, PATRICK
+
+
+
+
+HELMONT, JEAN BAPTISTE VAN (1577-1644), Belgian chemist, physiologist
+and physician, a member of a noble family, was born at Brussels in
+1577.[1] He was educated at Louvain, and after ranging restlessly from
+one science to another and finding satisfaction in none, turned to
+medicine, in which he took his doctor's degree in 1599. The next few
+years he spent in travelling through Switzerland, Italy, France and
+England. Returning to his own country he was at Antwerp at the time of
+the great plague in 1605, and having contracted a rich marriage settled
+in 1609 at Vilvorde, near Brussels, where he occupied himself with
+chemical experiments and medical practice until his death on the 30th of
+December 1644. Van Helmont presents curious contradictions. On the one
+hand he was a disciple of Paracelsus (though he scornfully repudiates
+his errors was well as those of most other contemporary authorities), a
+mystic with strong leanings to the supernatural, an alchemist who
+believed that with a small piece of the philosopher's stone he had
+transmuted 2000 times as much mercury into gold; on the other hand he
+was touched with the new learning that was producing men like Harvey,
+Galileo and Bacon, a careful observer of nature, and an exact
+experimenter who in some cases realized that matter can neither be
+created nor destroyed. As a chemist he deserves to be regarded as the
+founder of pneumatic chemistry, even though it made no substantial
+progress for a century after his time, and he was the first to
+understand that there are gases distinct in kind from atmospheric air.
+The very word "gas" he claims as his own invention, and he perceived
+that his "gas sylvestre" (our carbon dioxide) given off by burning
+charcoal is the same as that produced by fermenting must and that which
+sometimes renders the air of caves irrespirable. For him air and water
+are the two primitive elements of things. Fire he explicitly denies to
+be an element, and earth is not one because it can be reduced to water.
+That plants, for instance, are composed of water he sought to show by
+the ingenious quantitative experiment of planting a willow weighing 5
+lb. in 200 lb. of dry soil and allowing it to grow for five years; at
+the end of that time it had become a tree weighing 169 lb., and since it
+had received nothing but water and the soil weighed practically the same
+as at the beginning, he argued that the increased weight of wood, bark
+and roots had been formed from water alone. It was an old idea that the
+processes of the living body are fermentative in character, but he
+applied it more elaborately than any of his predecessors. For him
+digestion, nutrition and even movement are due to ferments, which
+convert dead food into living flesh in six stages. But having got so far
+with the application of chemical principles to physiological problems,
+he introduces a complicated system of supernatural agencies like the
+_archei_ of Paracelsus, which preside over and direct the affairs of the
+body. A central _archeus_ controls a number of subsidiary _archei_ which
+move through the ferments, and just as diseases are primarily caused by
+some affection (_exorbitatio_) of the _archeus_, so remedies act by
+bringing it back to the normal. At the same time chemical principles
+guided him in the choice of medicines--undue acidity of the digestive
+juices, for example, was to be corrected by alkalies and _vice versa_;
+he was thus a forerunner of the iatrochemical school, and did good
+service to the art of medicine by applying chemical methods to the
+preparation of drugs. Over and above the _archeus_ he taught that there
+is the sensitive soul which is the husk or shell of the immortal mind.
+Before the Fall the _archeus_ obeyed the immortal mind and was directly
+controlled by it, but at the Fall men received also the sensitive soul
+and with it lost immortality, for when it perishes the immortal mind can
+no longer remain in the body. In addition to the _archeus_, which he
+described as "aura vitalis seminum, vitae directrix," Van Helmont had
+other governing agencies resembling the _archeus_ and not always clearly
+distinguished from it. From these he invented the term _blas_, defined
+as the "vis motus tam alterivi quam localis." Of _blas_ there were
+several kinds, e.g. _blas humanum_ and _blas meteoron_; the heavens he
+said "constare gas materiâ et blas efficiente." He was a faithful
+Catholic, but incurred the suspicion of the Church by his tract _De
+magnetica vulnerum curatione_ (1621), which was thought to derogate from
+some of the miracles. His works were collected and published at
+Amsterdam as _Ortus medicinae, vel opera et opuscula omnia_ in 1668 by
+his son Franz Mercurius (b. 1618 at Vilvorde, d. 1699 at Berlin), in
+whose own writings, e.g. _Cabbalah Denudata_ (1677) and _Opuscula
+philosophica_ (1690), mystical theosophy and alchemy appear in still
+wilder confusion.
+
+  See M. Foster, _Lectures on the History of Physiology_ (1901); also
+  Chevreul in _Journ. des savants_ (Feb. and March 1850), and Cap in
+  _Journ. pharm. chim._ (1852). Other authorities are Poultier d'Elmoth,
+  _Mémoire sur J. B. van Helmont_ (1817); Rixner and Sieber, _Beiträge
+  zur Geschichte der Physiologie_ (1819-1826), vol. ii.; Spiers,
+  _Helmont's System der Medicin_ (1840); Melsens, _Leçons sur van
+  Helmont_ (1848); Rommelaere, _Études sur J. B. van Helmont_ (1860).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] An alternative date for his birth is 1579 and for his death 1635
+    (see _Bull. Roy. Acad. Belg._, 1907, 7, p. 732).
+
+
+
+
+HELMSTEDT, or more rarely Helmstädt, a town of Germany, in the duchy of
+Brunswick, 30 m. N.W. of Magdeburg on the main line of railway to
+Brunswick. Pop. (1905) 15,415. The principal buildings are the Juleum,
+the former university, built in the Renaissance style towards the close
+of the 16th century, and containing a library of 40,000 volumes; the
+fine Stephanskirche dating from the 12th century; the Walpurgiskirche
+restored in 1893-1894; the Marienberger Kirche, a beautiful church in
+the Roman style, and the Roman Catholic church. The Augustinian nunnery
+of Marienberg founded in 1176 is now a Lutheran school. The town
+contains the ruins of the Benedictine abbey of St Ludger, which was
+secularized in 1803. The educational institutions include several
+schools. The principal manufactures are furniture, yarn, soap, tobacco,
+sugar, vitriol and earthenware. Near the town is Bad Helmstedt, which
+has an iron mineral spring, and the Lübbensteine, two blocks of granite
+on which sacrifices to Woden are said to have been offered. Near Bad
+Helmstedt a monument has been erected to those who fell in the
+Franco-German War; in the town there is one to those killed at Waterloo.
+Helmstedt originated, according to legend, in connexion with the
+monastery founded by Ludger or Liudger (d. 809), the first bishop of
+Münster. There appears, however, little doubt that this tradition is
+mythical and that Helmstedt was not founded until about 900. It obtained
+civic rights in 1099 and, although destroyed by the archbishop of
+Magdeburg in 1199, it was soon rebuilt. In 1457 it joined the Hanseatic
+League, and in 1490 it came into the possession of Brunswick. In 1576
+Julius, duke of Brunswick, founded a university here, and throughout the
+17th century this was one of the chief seats of Protestant learning. It
+was closed by Jerome, king of Westphalia, in 1809.
+
+  See Ludewig, _Geschichte und Beschreibung der Stadt Helmstedt_
+  (Helmstedt, 1821).
+
+
+
+
+HELMUND, a river of Afghanistan, in length about 600 m. The Helmund,
+which is identical with the ancient Etymander, is the most important
+river in Afghanistan, next to the Kabul river, which it exceeds both in
+volume and length. It rises in the recesses of the Koh-i-Baba to the
+west of Kabul, its infant stream parting the Unai pass from the Irak,
+the two chief passes on the well-known road from Kabul to Bamian. For 50
+m. from its source its course is ascertained, but beyond that point for
+the next 50 no European has followed it. About the parallel of 33° N. it
+enters the Zamindawar province which lies to the N.W. of Kandahar, and
+thenceforward it is a well-mapped river to its termination in the lake
+of Seistan. Till about 40 m. above Girishk the character of the Helmund
+is that of a mountain river, flowing through valleys which in summer are
+the resort of pastoral tribes. On leaving the hills it enters on a flat
+country, and extends over a gravelly bed. Here also it begins to be used
+in irrigation. At Girishk it is crossed by the principal route from
+Herat to Kandahar. Forty-five miles below Girishk the Helmund receives
+its greatest tributary, the Arghandab, from the high Ghilzai country
+beyond Kandahar, and becomes a very considerable river, with a width of
+300 or 400 yds. and an occasional depth of 9 to 12 ft. Even in the dry
+season it is never without a plentiful supply of water. The course of
+the river is more or less south-west from its source till in Seistan it
+crosses meridian 62°, when it turns nearly north, and so flows for 70 or
+80 m. till it falls into the Seistan hamuns, or swamps, by various
+mouths. In this latter part of its course it forms the boundary between
+Afghan and Persian Seistan, and owing to constant changes in its bed and
+the swampy nature of its borders it has been a fertile source of
+frontier squabbles. Persian Seistan was once highly cultivated by means
+of a great system of canal irrigation; but for centuries, since the
+country was devastated by Timur, it has been a barren, treeless waste of
+flat alluvial plain. In years of exceptional flood the Seistan lakes
+spread southwards into an overflow channel called the Shelag which,
+running parallel to the northern course of the Helmund in the opposite
+direction, finally loses its waters in the Gaod-i-Zirreh swamp, which
+thus becomes the final bourne of the river. Throughout its course from
+its confluence with the Arghandab to the ford of Chahar Burjak, where it
+bends northward, the Helmund valley is a narrow green belt of fertility
+sunk in the midst of a wide alluvial desert, with many thriving villages
+interspersed amongst the remains of ancient cities, relics of Kaiani
+rule. The recent political mission to Seistan under Sir Henry McMahon
+(1904-1905) added much information respecting the ancient and modern
+channels of the lower Helmund, proving that river to have been
+constantly shifting its bed over a vast area, changing the level of the
+country by silt deposits, and in conjunction with the terrific action of
+Seistan winds actually altering its configuration.     (T. H. H.*)
+
+
+
+
+HELM WIND, a wind that under certain conditions blows over the
+escarpment of the Pennines, near Cross Fell from the eastward, when a
+helm (helmet) cloud covers the summit. The helm bar is a roll of cloud
+that forms in front of it, to leeward.
+
+  See "Report on the Helm Wind Inquiry," by W. Marriott, _Quart. Journ.
+  Roy. Met. Soc._ xv. 103.
+
+
+
+
+HELOTS (Gr. [Greek: heilôtes] or [Greek: heilôtai]), the serfs of the
+ancient Spartans. The word was derived in antiquity from the town of
+Helos in Laconia, but is more probably connected with [Greek: helos], a
+fen, or with the root of [Greek: helein], to capture. Some scholars
+suppose them to have been of Achaean race, but they were more probably
+the aborigines of Laconia who had been enslaved by the Achaeans before
+the Dorian conquest. After the second Messenian war (see SPARTA) the
+conquered Messenians were reduced to the status of helots, from which
+Epaminondas liberated them three centuries later after the battle of
+Leuctra (371 B.C.). The helots were state slaves bound to the
+soil--_adscripti glebae_--and assigned to individual Spartiates to till
+their holdings ([Greek: klêroi]); their masters could neither emancipate
+them nor sell them off the land, and they were under an oath not to
+raise the rent payable yearly in kind by the helots. In time of war they
+served as light-armed troops or as rowers in the fleet; from the
+Peloponnesian War onwards they were occasionally employed as heavy
+infantry ([Greek: hoplitai]), distinguished bravery being rewarded by
+emancipation. That the general attitude of the Spartans towards them was
+one of distrust and cruelty cannot be doubted. Aristotle says that the
+ephors of each year on entering office declared war on the helots so
+that they might be put to death at any time without violating religious
+scruple (Plutarch, _Lycurgus_ 28), and we have a well-attested record of
+2000 helots being freed for service in war and then secretly
+assassinated (Thuc. iv. 80). But when we remember the value of the
+helots from a military and agricultural point of view we shall not
+readily believe that the _crypteia_ was really, as some authors
+represent it, an organized system of massacre; we shall see in it "a
+good police training, inculcating hardihood and vigour in the young,"
+while at the same time getting rid of any helots who were found to be
+plotting against the state (see further CRYPTEIA).
+
+Intermediate between Helots and Spartiates were the two classes of
+_Neodamodes_ and _Mothones_. The former were emancipated helots, or
+possibly their descendants, and were much used in war from the end of
+the 5th century; they served especially on foreign campaigns, as those
+of Thibron (400-399 B.C.) and Agesilaus (396-394 B.C.) in Asia Minor.
+The _mothones_ or _mothakes_ were usually the sons of Spartiates and
+helot mothers; they were free men sharing the Spartan training, but were
+not full citizens, though they might become such in recognition of
+special merit.
+
+  See C. O. Müller, _History and Antiquities of the Doric Race_ (Eng.
+  trans.), bk. iii. ch. 3.; G. Gilbert, _Greek Constitutional
+  Antiquities_ (Eng. trans.), pp. 30-35; A. H. J. Greenidge, _Handbook
+  of Greek Constitutional History_, pp. 83-85; G. Busolt, _Die griech.
+  Staats- u. Rechtsaltertümer_, § 84; _Griechische Geschichte_, i.[2]
+  525-528; G. F. Schömann, _Antiquities of Greece: The State_ (Eng.
+  trans.) pp. 194 ff.     (M. N. T.)
+
+
+
+
+HELPS, SIR ARTHUR (1813-1875), English writer and clerk of the Privy
+Council, youngest son of Thomas Helps, a London merchant, was born near
+London on the 10th of July 1813. He was educated at Eton and at Trinity
+College, Cambridge, coming out 31st wrangler in the mathematical tripos
+in 1835. He was recognized by the ablest of his contemporaries there as
+a man of superior gifts, and likely to make his mark in after life. As a
+member of the Conversazione Society, better known as the "Apostles," a
+society established in 1820 for the purposes of discussion on social and
+literary questions by a few young men attracted to each other by a
+common taste for literature and speculation, he was associated with
+Charles Buller, Frederick Maurice, Richard Chenevix Trench, Monckton
+Milnes, Arthur Hallam and Alfred Tennyson. His first literary effort,
+_Thoughts in the Cloister and the Crowd_ (1835), was a series of
+aphorisms upon life, character, politics and manners. Soon after leaving
+the university Arthur Helps became private secretary to Spring Rice
+(afterwards Lord Monteagle), then chancellor of the exchequer. This
+appointment he filled till 1839, when he went to Ireland as private
+secretary to Lord Morpeth (afterwards earl of Carlisle), chief secretary
+for Ireland. In the meanwhile (28th October 1836) Helps had married
+Bessy, daughter of Captain Edward Fuller. He was one of the
+commissioners for the settlement of certain Danish claims which dated so
+far back as the siege of Copenhagen; but with the fall of the Melbourne
+administration (1841) his official experience closed for a period of
+nearly twenty years. He was not, however, forgotten by his political
+friends. He possessed admirable tact and sagacity; his fitness for
+official life was unmistakable, and in 1860 he was appointed clerk of
+the Privy Council, on the recommendation of Lord Granville.
+
+His _Essays written in the Intervals of Business_ had appeared in 1841,
+and his _Claims of Labour, an Essay on the Duties of the Employers to
+the Employed_, in 1844. Two plays, _King Henry the Second, an Historical
+Drama_, and _Catherine Douglas, a Tragedy_, published in 1843, have no
+particular merit. Neither in these, nor in his only other dramatic
+effort, _Oulita the Serf_ (1858) did he show any real qualifications as
+a playwright.
+
+Helps possessed, however, enough dramatic power to give life and
+individuality to the dialogues with which he enlivened many of his other
+books. In his _Friends in Council, a Series of Readings and Discourse
+thereon_ (1847-1859), Helps varied his presentment of social and moral
+problems by dialogues between imaginary personages, who, under the names
+of Milverton, Ellesmere and Dunsford, grew to be almost as real to
+Helps's readers as they certainly became to himself. The book was very
+popular, and the same expedient was resorted to in _Conversations on War
+and General Culture_, published in 1871. The familiar speakers, with
+others added, also appeared in his _Realmah_ (1868) and in the best of
+its author's later works, _Talk about Animals and their Masters_ (1873).
+
+A long essay on slavery in the first series of _Friends in Council_ was
+subsequently elaborated into a work in two volumes published in 1848 and
+1852, called _The Conquerors of the New World and their Bondsmen_. Helps
+went to Spain in 1847 to examine the numerous MSS. bearing upon his
+subject at Madrid. The fruits of these researches were embodied in an
+historical work based upon his _Conquerors of the New World_, and called
+_The Spanish Conquest in America, and its Relation to the History of
+Slavery and the Government of Colonies_ (4 vols., 1855-1857-1861). But
+in spite of his scrupulous efforts after accuracy, the success of the
+book was marred by its obtrusively moral purpose and its discursive
+character.
+
+_The Life of Las Casas, the Apostle of the Indians_ (1868), _The Life of
+Columbus_ (1869), _The Life of Pizarro_ (1869), and _The Life of
+Hernando Cortes_ (1871), when extracted from the work and published
+separately, proved successful. Besides the books which have been already
+mentioned he wrote: _Organization in Daily Life, an Essay_ (1862),
+_Casimir Maremma_ (1870), _Brevia_, _Short Essays and Aphorisms_ (1871),
+_Thoughts upon Government_ (1872), _Life and Labours of Mr Thomas
+Brassey_ (1872), _Ivan de Biron_ (1874), _Social Pressure_ (1875).
+
+His appointment as clerk of the Council brought him into personal
+communication with Queen Victoria and the Prince Consort, both of whom
+came to regard him with confidence and respect. After the Prince's
+death, the Queen early turned to Helps to prepare an appreciation of her
+husband's life and character. In his introduction to the collection
+(1862) of the Prince Consort's speeches and addresses Helps adequately
+fulfilled his task. Some years afterwards he edited and wrote a preface
+to the Queen's _Leaves from a Journal of our Life in the Highlands_
+(1868). In 1864 he received the honorary degree of D.C.L. from the
+university of Oxford. He was made a C.B. in 1871 and K.C.B. in the
+following year. His later years were troubled by financial
+embarrassments, and he died on the 7th of March 1875.
+
+
+
+
+HELSINGBORG, a seaport of Sweden in the district (_län_) of Malmöhus, 35
+m. N. by E. of Copenhagen by rail and water. Pop. (1900), 24,670. It is
+beautifully situated at the narrowest part of Öresund, or the Sound,
+here only 3 m. wide, opposite Helsingör (Elsinore) in Denmark. Above the
+town the brick tower of a former castle crowns a hill, commanding a fine
+view over the Sound. On the outskirts are the Öresund Park, gardens
+containing iodide and bromide springs, and frequented sea-baths. On the
+coast to the north is the royal _château_ of Sofiero; to the south, the
+small spa of Ramlösa. A system of electric trams is maintained. North
+and east of Helsingborg lies the only coalfield in Sweden, extending
+into the lofty Kullen peninsula, which forms the northern part of the
+east shore of the Sound. Potter's clay is also found. Helsingborg ranks
+among the first manufacturing towns of Sweden, having copper works,
+using ore from Sulitelma in Norway, india-rubber works and breweries.
+The artificial harbour has a depth of 24 ft., and there are extensive
+docks. The chief exports are timber, butter and iron. The town is the
+headquarters of the first army division.
+
+The original site of the town is marked by the tower of the old
+fortress, which is first mentioned in 1135. In the 14th century it was
+several times besieged. From 1370 along with other towns in the province
+of Skåne, it was united for fifteen years with the Hanseatic League. The
+fortress was destroyed by fire in 1418, and about 1425 Eric XIII. built
+another near the sea, and caused the town to be transported thither,
+bestowing upon it important privileges. Until 1658 it belonged to
+Denmark, and it was again occupied by the Danes in 1676 and 1677. In
+1684 its fortifications were dismantled. It was taken by Frederick IV.
+of Denmark in November 1709, but on the 28th of February 1710 the Danes
+were defeated in the neighbourhood, and the town came finally into the
+possession of Sweden, though in 1711 it was again bombarded by the
+Danes. A tablet on the quay commemorates the landing of Bernadotte after
+his election as successor to the throne in 1810.
+
+
+
+
+HELSINGFORS (Finnish _Helsinki_), a seaport and the capital of Finland
+and of the province of Nyland, centre of the administrative, scientific,
+educational and industrial life of Finland. The fine harbour is divided
+into two parts by a promontory, and is protected at its entrance by a
+group of small islands, on one of which stands the fortress of Sveaborg.
+A third harbour is situated on the west side of the promontory, and all
+three have granite quays. The city, which in 1810 had only 4065
+inhabitants, Åbo the then capital having 10,224, has increased with
+great rapidity, having 22,228 inhabitants in 1860, 61,530 in 1890 and
+111,654 in 1904. It is the centre of an active shipping trade with the
+Baltic ports and with England, and of a railway system connecting it
+with all parts of the grand duchy and with St Petersburg. Helsingfors is
+handsome and well laid out with wide streets, parks, gardens and
+monuments. The principal square contains the cathedral of St Nicholas,
+the Senate House and the university, all striking buildings of
+considerable architectural distinction. In the centre is the statue of
+the Tsar Alexander II., who is looked upon as the protector of the
+liberties of Finland, the monument being annually decorated with wreaths
+and garlands. The university has a teaching staff of 141 with (1906)
+1921 students, of whom 328 were women. The university is well provided
+with museums and laboratories and has a library of over 250,000 volumes.
+Other public institutions are the Athenaeum, with picture gallery, a
+Swedish theatre and opera house, a Finnish theatre, the Archives, the
+Senate House, the Nobles' House (_Riddarhuset_) and the House of the
+Estates, the German (Lutheran) church and the Russian church. Some of
+the scientific societies of Helsingfors have a wide repute, such as the
+academy of sciences, the geographical, historical, Finno-Ugrian,
+biblical, medical, law, arts and forestry societies, as also societies
+for the spread of popular education and of arts and crafts. There are a
+polytechnic, ten high schools, navigation and trade schools, institutes
+for the blind and the mentally deficient, and numerous elementary
+schools. The general standard of education is high, the publication of
+books, reviews and newspapers being very active. The language of culture
+is Swedish, but owing to recent manufacturing developments the majority
+of the population is Finnish-speaking. Helsingfors displays great
+manufacturing and commercial activity, the imports being coal,
+machinery, sugar, grain and clothing. The manufactures of the city
+consist largely of tobacco, beer and spirits, carpets, machinery and
+sugar.
+
+
+
+
+HELST, BARTHOLOMAEUS VAN DER, Dutch painter, was born in Holland at the
+opening of the 17th century, and died at Amsterdam in 1670. The date and
+place of his birth are uncertain; and it is equally difficult to confirm
+or to deny the time-honoured statement that he was born in 1613 at
+Amsterdam. It has been urged indeed by competent authority that Van der
+Helst was not a native of Amsterdam, because a family of that name lived
+as early as 1607 at Haarlem, and pictures are shown as works of Van der
+Helst in the Haarlem Museum which might tend to prove that he was in
+practice there before he acquired repute at Amsterdam. Unhappily
+Bartholomew has not been traced amongst the children of Severijn van der
+Helst, who married at Haarlem in 1607, and there is no proof that the
+pictures at Haarlem are really his; though if they were so they would
+show that he learnt his art from Frans Hals and became a skilled master
+as early as 1631. Scheltema, a very competent judge in matters of Dutch
+art chronology, supposes that Van der Heist was a resident at Amsterdam
+in 1636. His first great picture, representing a gathering of civic
+guards at a brewery, is variously assigned to 1639 and 1643, and still
+adorns the town-hall of Amsterdam. His noble portraits of the
+burgomaster Bicker and Andreas Bicker the younger, in the gallery of
+Amsterdam, of the same date no doubt as Bicker's wife lately in the Ruhl
+collection at Cologne, were completed in 1642. From that time till his
+death there is no difficulty in tracing Van der Helst's career at
+Amsterdam. He acquired and kept the position of a distinguished
+portrait-painter, producing indeed little or nothing besides portraits
+at any time, but founding, in conjunction with Nicolaes de Helt Stokade,
+the painters' guild at Amsterdam in 1654. At some unknown date he
+married Constance Reynst, of a good patrician family in the Netherlands,
+bought himself a house in the Doelenstrasse and ended by earning a
+competence. His likeness of Paul Potter at the Hague, executed in 1654,
+and his partnership with Backhuysen, who laid in the backgrounds of some
+of his pictures in 1668, indicate a constant companionship with the best
+artists of the time. Wagen has said that his portrait of Admiral
+Kortenaar, in the gallery of Amsterdam, betrays the teaching of Frans
+Hals, and the statement need not be gainsaid; yet on the whole Van der
+Helst's career as a painter was mainly a protest against the systems of
+Hals and Rembrandt. It is needless to dwell on the pictures which
+preceded that of 1648, called the Peace of Münster, in the gallery of
+Amsterdam. The Peace challenges comparison at once with the so-called
+Night Watch by Rembrandt and the less important but not less
+characteristic portraits of Hals and his wife in a neighbouring room.
+Sir Joshua Reynolds was disappointed by Rembrandt, whilst Van der Helst
+surpassed his expectation. But Bürger asked whether Reynolds had not
+already been struck with blindness when he ventured on this criticism.
+The question is still an open one. But certainly Van der Helst attracts
+by qualities entirely differing from those of Rembrandt and Frans Hals.
+Nothing can be more striking than the contrast between the strong
+concentrated light and the deep gloom of Rembrandt and the contempt of
+chiaroscuro peculiar to his rival, except the contrast between the
+rapid sketchy touch of Hals and the careful finish and rounding of van
+der Helst. "The Peace" is a meeting of guards to celebrate the signature
+of the treaty of Münster. The members of the Doele of St George meet to
+feast and congratulate each other not at a formal banquet but in a spot
+laid out for good cheer, where de Wit, the captain of his company, can
+shake hands with his lieutenant Waveren, yet hold in solemn state the
+great drinking-horn of St George. The rest of the company sit, stand or
+busy themselves around--some eating, others drinking, others carving or
+serving--an animated scene on a long canvas, with figures large as life.
+Well has Bürger said, the heads are full of life and the hands
+admirable. The dresses and subordinate parts are finished to a nicety
+without sacrifice of detail or loss of breadth in touch or impast. But
+the eye glides from shape to shape, arrested here by expressive
+features, there by a bright stretch of colours, nowhere at perfect rest
+because of the lack of a central thought in light and shade, harmonies
+or composition. Great as the qualities of van der Helst undoubtedly are,
+he remains below the line of demarcation which separates the second from
+the first-rate masters of art.
+
+  His pictures are very numerous, and almost uniformly good; but in his
+  later creations he wants power, and though still amazingly careful, he
+  becomes grey and woolly in touch. At Amsterdam the four regents in the
+  Werkhuys (1650), four syndics in the gallery (1656), and four syndics
+  in the town-hall (1657) are masterpieces, to which may be added a
+  number of fine single portraits. Rotterdam, notwithstanding the fire
+  of 1864, still boasts of three of van der Helst's works. The Hague
+  owns but one. St Petersburg, on the other hand, possesses ten or
+  eleven, of various shades of excellence. The Louvre has three, Munich
+  four. Other pieces are in the galleries of Berlin, Brunswick,
+  Brussels, Carlsruhe, Cassel, Darmstadt, Dresden, Frankfort, Gotha,
+  Stuttgart and Vienna.
+
+
+
+
+HELSTON, a market town and municipal borough in the Truro parliamentary
+division of Cornwall, England, 11 m. by road W.S.W. of Falmouth, on a
+branch of the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 3088. It is pleasantly
+situated on rising ground above the small river Cober, which, a little
+below the town, expands into a picturesque estuary called Looe Pool, the
+water being banked up by the formation of Looe Bar at the mouth.
+Formerly, when floods resulted from this obstruction, the townsfolk of
+Helston acquired the right of clearing a passage through it by
+presenting leathern purses containing three halfpence to the lord of the
+manor. The mining industry on which the town formerly depended is
+extinct, but the district is agricultural and dairy farming is carried
+on, while the town has flour mills, tanneries and iron foundries. As
+Helston has the nearest railway station to the Lizard, with its
+magnificent coast-scenery, there is a considerable tourist traffic in
+summer. Some trade passes through the small port of Porthleven, 3 m.
+S.W., where the harbour admits vessels of 500 tons. On the 8th of May a
+holiday is still observed in Helston and known as Flora or Furry day. It
+has been regarded as a survival of the Roman _Floralia_, but its origin
+is believed by some to be Celtic. Flowers and branches were gathered,
+and dancing took place in the streets and through the houses, all being
+thrown open, while a pageant was also given and a special ancient
+folk-song chanted. This ceremony, after being almost forgotten, has been
+revived in modern times. The borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12
+councillors. Area, 309 acres.
+
+Helston (Henliston, Haliston, Helleston), the capital of the Meneage
+district of Cornwall, was held by Earl Harold in the time of the
+Confessor and by King William at the Domesday Survey. At the latter date
+besides seventy-three villeins, bordars and serfs there were forty
+_cervisarii_, a species of unfree tenants who rendered their custom in
+the form of beer. King John (1201) constituted Helleston a free borough,
+established a gild merchant, and granted the burgesses freedom from toll
+and other similar dues throughout the realm, and the cognizance of all
+pleas within the borough except crown pleas. Richard, king of the Romans
+(1260), extended the boundaries of the borough and granted permission
+for the erection of an additional mill. Edward I. (1304) granted the
+pesage of tin, and Edward III. a Saturday market and four fairs. Of
+these the Saturday market and a fair on the feast of SS. Simon and Jude
+are still held, also five other fairs of uncertain origin. In 1585
+Elizabeth granted a charter of incorporation under the name of the mayor
+and commonalty of Helston. This was confirmed in 1641, when it was also
+provided that the mayor and recorder should be _ipso facto_ justices of
+the peace. From 1294 to 1832 Helston returned two members to parliament.
+In 1774 the number of electors (which by usage had been restricted to
+the mayor, aldermen and freemen elected by them) had dwindled to six,
+and in 1790 to one person only, whose return of two members, however,
+was rejected and that of the general body of the freemen accepted. In
+1832 Helston lost one of its members, and in 1885 it lost the other and
+became merged in the county.
+
+
+
+
+HELVETIC CONFESSIONS, the name of two documents expressing the common
+belief of the reformed churches of Switzerland. The first, known also as
+the Second Confession of Basel, was drawn up at that city in 1536 by
+Bullinger and Leo Jud of Zürich, Megander of Bern, Oswald Myconius and
+Grynaeus of Basel, Bucer and Capito of Strassburg, with other
+representatives from Schaffhausen, St Gall, Mühlhausen and Biel. The
+first draft was in Latin and the Zürich delegates objected to its
+Lutheran phraseology.[1] Leo Jud's German translation was, however,
+accepted by all, and after Myconius and Grynaeus had modified the Latin
+form, both versions were agreed to and adopted on the 26th of February
+1536.
+
+The Second Helvetic Confession was written by Bullinger in 1562 and
+revised in 1564 as a private exercise. It came to the notice of the
+elector palatine Friedrich III., who had it translated into German and
+published. It gained a favourable hold on the Swiss churches, who had
+found the First Confession too short and too Lutheran. It was adopted by
+the Reformed Church not only throughout Switzerland but in Scotland
+(1566), Hungary (1567), France (1571), Poland (1578), and next to the
+Heidelberg Catechism is the most generally recognized Confession of the
+Reformed Church.
+
+  See L. Thomas, _La Confession helvétique_ (Geneva, 1853); P. Schaff,
+  _Creeds of Christendom_, i. 390-420, iii. 234-306; Müller, _Die
+  Bekenntnisschriften der reformierten Kirche_ (Leipzig, 1903).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Some of the delegates, especially Bucer, were anxious to effect a
+    union of the Reformed and Lutheran Churches. There was also a desire
+    to lay the Confession before the council summoned at Mantua by Pope
+    Paul III.
+
+
+
+
+HELVETII ([Greek: Helouêtioi], [Greek: Helbêttioi]), a Celtic people,
+whose original home was the country between the Hercynian forest
+(probably the Rauhe Alp), the Rhine and the Main (Tacitus, _Germania_,
+28). In Caesar's time they appear to have been driven farther west,
+since, according to him (_Bell. Gall._ i. 2. 3) their boundaries were on
+the W. the Jura, on the S. the Rhone and the Lake of Geneva, on the N.
+and E. the Rhine as far as Lake Constance. They thus inhabited the
+western part of modern Switzerland. They were divided into four cantons
+(_pagi_), common affairs being managed by the cantonal assemblies. They
+possessed the elements of a higher civilization (gold coinage, the Greek
+alphabet), and, according to Caesar, were the bravest people of Gaul.
+The reports of gold and plunder spread by the Cimbri and Teutones on
+their way to southern Gaul induced the Helvetii to follow their example.
+In 107, under Divico, two of their tribes, the Tougeni and Tigurini,
+crossed the Jura and made their way as far as Aginnum (Agen on the
+Garonne), where they utterly defeated the Romans under L. Cassius
+Longinus, and forced them to pass under the yoke (Livy, _Epit._ 65;
+according to a different reading, the battle took place near the Lake of
+Geneva). In 102 the Helvetii joined the Cimbri in the invasion of Italy,
+but after the defeat of the latter by Marius they returned home. In 58,
+hard pressed by the Germans and incited by one of their princes,
+Orgetorix, they resolved to found a hew home west of the Jura. Orgetorix
+was thrown into prison, being suspected of a design to make himself
+king, but the Helvetii themselves persisted in their plan. Joined by the
+Rauraci, Tulingi, Latobrigi and some of the Boii--according to their own
+reckoning 368,000 in all--they agreed to meet on the 28th of March at
+Geneva and to advance through the territory of the Allobroges. They were
+overtaken, however, by Caesar at Bibracte, defeated and forced to
+submit. Those who survived were sent back home to defend the frontier of
+the Rhine against German invaders. During the civil wars and for some
+time after the death of Caesar little is heard of the Helvetii.
+
+Under Augustus Helvetia (not so called till later times, earlier _ager
+Helvetiorum_) proper was included under Gallia Belgica. Two Roman
+colonies had previously been founded at Noviodunum (Colonia Julia
+Equestris, mod. _Nyon_) and at Colonia Rauracorum (afterwards Augusta
+Rauracorum, _Augst_ near Basel) to keep watch over the inhabitants, who
+were treated with generosity by their conquerors. Under the name of
+_foederati_ they retained their original constitution and division into
+four cantons. They were under an obligation to furnish a contingent to
+the Roman army for foreign service, but were allowed to maintain
+garrisons of their own, and their magistrates had the right to call out
+a militia. Their religion was not interfered with; they managed their
+own local affairs and kept their own language, although Latin was used
+officially. Their chief towns were Aventicum (_Avenches_) and Vindonissa
+(_Windisch_). Under Tiberius the Helvetii were separated from Gallia
+Belgica and made part of Germania Superior. After the death of Galba
+(A.D. 69), having refused submission to Vitellius, their land was
+devastated by Alienus Caecina, and only the eloquent appeal of one of
+their leaders named Claudius Cossus saved them from annihilation. Under
+Vespasian they attained the height of their prosperity. He greatly
+increased the importance of Aventicum, where his father had carried on
+business. Its inhabitants, with those of other towns, probably obtained
+the _ius Latinum_, had a senate, a council of _decuriones_, a prefect of
+public works and flamens of Augustus. After the extension of the eastern
+frontier, the troops were withdrawn from the garrisons and fortresses,
+and Helvetia, free from warlike disturbances, gradually became
+completely romanized. Aventicum had an amphitheatre, a public gymnasium
+and an academy with Roman professors. Roads were made wherever possible,
+and commerce rapidly developed. The old Celtic religion was also
+supplanted by the Roman. The west of the country, however, was more
+susceptible to Roman influence, and hence preserved its independence
+against barbarian invaders longer than its eastern portion. During the
+reign of Gallienus (260-268) the Alamanni overran the country; and
+although Probus, Constantius Chlorus, Julian, Valentinian I. and Gratian
+to some extent checked the inroads of the barbarians, it never regained
+its former prosperity. In the subdivision of Gaul in the 4th century,
+Helvetia, with the territory of the Sequani and Rauraci, formed the
+Provincia Maxima Sequanorum, the chief town of which was Vesontio
+(_Besançon_). Under Honorius (395-423) it was probably definitely
+occupied by the Alamanni, except in the west, where the small portion
+remaining to the Romans was ceded in 436 by Aëtius to the Burgundians.
+
+  See L. von Haller, _Helvetien unter den Römern_ (Bern, 1811); T.
+  Mommsen, _Die Schweiz in römischer Zeit_ (Zürich, 1854); J. Brosi,
+  _Die Kelten und Althelvetier_ (Solothurn, 1851); L. Hug and R. Stead,
+  "Switzerland" in _Story of the Nations_, xxvi.; C. Dändliker,
+  _Geschichte der Schweiz_ (1892-1895), and English translation (of a
+  shorter history by the same) by E. Salisbury (1899); _Die Schweiz
+  unter den Römern_ (anonymous) published by the Historischer Verein of
+  St Gall (Scheitlin and Zollikofer, St Gall, 1862); and G. Wyss, "Über
+  das römische Helvetien" in _Archiv für schweizerische Geschichte_,
+  vii. (1851). For Caesar's campaign against the Helvetii, see T. R.
+  Holmes, _Caesar's Conquest of Gaul_ (1899) and Mommsen, _Hist. of
+  Rome_ (Eng. trans.), bk. v. ch. 7; ancient authorities in A. Holder,
+  _Altkeltischer Sprachschatz_ (1896), _s.v._ Elvetii.
+
+
+
+
+HELVÉTIUS, CLAUDE ADRIEN (1715-1771), French philosopher and
+littérateur, was born in Paris in January 1715. He was descended from a
+family of physicians, whose original name was Schweitzer (latinized as
+Helvetius). His grandfather introduced the use of ipecacuanha; his
+father was first physician to Queen Marie Leczinska of France. Claude
+Adrien was trained for a financial career, but he occupied his spare
+time with writing verses. At the age of twenty-three, at the queen's
+request, he was appointed farmer-general, a post of great responsibility
+and dignity worth a 100,000 crowns a year. Thus provided for, he
+proceeded to enjoy life to the utmost, with the help of his wealth and
+liberality, his literary and artistic tastes. As he grew older, however,
+his social successes ceased, and he began to dream of more lasting
+distinctions, stimulated by the success of Maupertuis as a
+mathematician, of Voltaire as a poet, of Montesquieu as a philosopher.
+The mathematical dream seems to have produced nothing; his poetical
+ambitions resulted in the poem called _Le Bonheur_ (published
+posthumously, with an account of Helvétius's life and works, by C. F. de
+Saint-Lambert, 1773), in which he develops the idea that true happiness
+is only to be found in making the interest of one that of all; his
+philosophical studies ended in the production of his famous book _De
+l'esprit_. It was characteristic of the man that, as soon as he thought
+his fortune sufficient, he gave up his post of farmer-general, and
+retired to an estate in the country, where he employed his large means
+in the relief of the poor, the encouragement of agriculture and the
+development of industries. _De l'esprit_ (Eng. trans. by W. Mudford,
+1807), intended to be the rival of Montesquieu's _L'Esprit des lois_,
+appeared in 1758. It attracted immediate attention and aroused the most
+formidable opposition, especially from the dauphin, son of Louis XV. The
+Sorbonne condemned the book, the priests persuaded the court that if was
+full of the most dangerous doctrines, and the author, terrified at the
+storm he had raised, wrote three separate retractations; yet, in spite
+of his protestations of orthodoxy, he had to give up his office at the
+court, and the book was publicly burned by the hangman. The virulence of
+the attacks upon the work, as much as its intrinsic merit, caused it to
+be widely read; it was translated into almost all the languages of
+Europe. Voltaire said that it was full of commonplaces, and that what
+was original was false or problematical; Rousseau declared that the very
+benevolence of the author gave the lie to his principles; Grimm thought
+that all the ideas in the book were borrowed from Diderot; according to
+Madame du Deffand, Helvétius had raised such a storm by saying openly
+what every one thought in secret; Madame de Graffigny averred that all
+the good things in the book had been picked up in her own _salon_. In
+1764 Helvétius visited England, and the next year, on the invitation of
+Frederick II., he went to Berlin, where the king paid him marked
+attention. He then returned to his country estate and passed the
+remainder of his life in perfect tranquillity. He died on the 26th of
+December 1771.
+
+His philosophy belongs to the utilitarian school. The four discussions
+of which his book consists have been thus summed up: (1) All man's
+faculties may be reduced to physical sensation, even memory, comparison,
+judgment; our only difference from the lower animals lies in our
+external organization. (2) Self-interest, founded on the love of
+pleasure and the fear of pain, is the sole spring of judgment, action,
+affection; self-sacrifice is prompted by the fact that the sensation of
+pleasure outweighs the accompanying pain; it is thus the result of
+deliberate calculation; we have no liberty of choice between good and
+evil; there is no such thing as absolute right--ideas of justice and
+injustice change according to customs. (3) All intellects are equal;
+their apparent inequalities do not depend on a more or less perfect
+organization, but have their cause in the unequal desire for
+instruction, and this desire springs from passions, of which all men
+commonly well organized are susceptible to the same degree; and we can,
+therefore, all love glory with the same enthusiasm and we owe all to
+education. (4) In this discourse the author treats of the ideas which
+are attached to such words as _genius_, _imagination_, _talent_,
+_taste_, _good sense_, &c. The only original ideas in his system are
+those of the natural equality of intelligences and the omnipotence of
+education, neither of which, however, is generally accepted, though both
+were prominent in the system of J. S. Mill. There is no doubt that his
+thinking was unsystematic; but many of his critics have entirely
+misrepresented him (e.g. Cairns in his _Unbelief in the Eighteenth
+Century_). As J. M. Robertson (_Short History of Free Thought_) points
+out, he had great influence upon Bentham, and C. Beccaria states that he
+himself was largely inspired by Helvétius in his attempt to modify penal
+laws. The keynote of his thought was that public ethics has a
+utilitarian basis, and he insisted strongly on the importance of culture
+in national development.
+
+  A sort of supplement to the _De l'esprit_, called _De l'homme, de ses
+  facultés intellectuelles et de son éducation_ (Eng. trans. by W.
+  Hooper, 1777), found among his manuscripts, was published after his
+  death, but created little interest. There is a complete edition of the
+  works of Helvétius, published at Paris, 1818. For an estimate of his
+  work and his place among the philosophers of the 18th century see
+  Victor Cousin's _Philosophie sensualiste_ (1863); P. L. Lezaud,
+  _Résumés philosophiques_ (1853); F. D. Maurice, in his _Modern
+  Philosophy_ (1862), pp. 537 seq.; J. Morley, _Diderot and the
+  Encyclopaedists_ (London, 1878); D. G. Mostratos, _Die Pädagogik des
+  Helvétius_ (Berlin, 1891); A. Guillois, _Le Salon de Madame Helvétius_
+  (1894); A. Piazzi, _Le Idee filosofiche specialmente pedagogiche de C.
+  A. Helvétius_ (Milan, 1889); G. Plekhanov, _Beiträge zur Geschichte
+  des Materialismus_ (Stuttgart, 1896); L. Limentani, _Le Teorie
+  psicologiche di C. A. Helvétius_ (Verona, 1902); A. Keim, _Helvétius,
+  sa vie et son oeuvre_ (1907).
+
+
+
+
+HELVIDIUS PRISCUS, Stoic philosopher and statesman, lived during the
+reigns of Nero, Galba, Otho, Vitellius and Vespasian. Like his
+father-in-law, Thrasea Paetus, he was distinguished for his ardent and
+courageous republicanism. Although he repeatedly offended his rulers, he
+held several high offices. During Nero's reign he was quaestor of Achaea
+and tribune of the plebs (A.D. 56); he restored peace and order in
+Armenia, and gained the respect and confidence of the provincials. His
+declared sympathy with Brutus and Cassius occasioned his banishment in
+66. Having been recalled to Rome by Galba in 68, he at once impeached
+Eprius Marcellus, the accuser of Thrasea Paetus, but dropped the charge,
+as the condemnation of Marcellus would have involved a number of
+senators. As praetor elect he ventured to oppose Vitellius in the senate
+(Tacitus, _Hist._ ii. 91), and as praetor (70) he maintained, in
+opposition to Vespasian, that the management of the finances ought to be
+left to the discretion of the senate; he proposed that the capitol,
+which had been destroyed in the Neronian conflagration, should be
+restored at the public expense; he saluted Vespasian by his private
+name, and did not recognize him as emperor in his praetorian edicts. At
+length he was banished a second time, and shortly afterwards was
+executed by Vespasian's order. His life, in the form of a warm
+panegyric, written at his widow's request by Herennius Senecio, caused
+its author's death in the reign of Domitian.
+
+  Tacitus, _Hist._ iv. 5, _Dialogus_, 5; Dio Cassius lxvi. 12, lxvii.
+  13; Suetonius, _Vespasian_, 15; Pliny, _Epp._ vii. 19.
+
+
+
+
+HELY-HUTCHINSON, JOHN (1724-1794), Irish lawyer, statesman, and provost
+of Trinity College, Dublin, son of Francis Hely, a gentleman of County
+Cork, was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and was called to the
+Irish bar in 1748. He took the additional name of Hutchinson on his
+marriage in 1751 with Christiana Nixon, heiress of her uncle, Richard
+Hutchinson. He was elected member of the Irish House of Commons for the
+borough of Lanesborough in 1759, but after 1761 he represented the city
+of Cork. He at first attached himself to the "patriotic" party in
+opposition to the government, and although he afterwards joined the
+administration he never abandoned his advocacy of popular measures. He
+was a man of brilliant and versatile ability, whom Lord Townshend, the
+lord lieutenant, described as "by far the most powerful man in
+parliament." William Gerard Hamilton said of him that "Ireland never
+bred a more able, nor any country a more honest man." Hely-Hutchinson
+was, however, an inveterate place-hunter, and there was point in Lord
+North's witticism that "if you were to give him the whole of Great
+Britain and Ireland for an estate, he would ask the Isle of Man for a
+potato garden." After a session or two in parliament he was made a privy
+councillor and prime serjeant-at-law; and from this time he gave a
+general, though by no means invariable, support to the government. In
+1767 the ministry contemplated an increase of the army establishment in
+Ireland from 12,000 to 15,000 men, but the Augmentation Bill met with
+strenuous opposition, not only from Flood, Ponsonby and the habitual
+opponents of the government, but from the Undertakers, or proprietors of
+boroughs, on whom the government had hitherto relied to secure them a
+majority in the House of Commons. It therefore became necessary for
+Lord Townshend to turn to other methods for procuring support. Early In
+1768 an English act was passed for the increase of the army, and a
+message from the king setting forth the necessity for the measure was
+laid before the House of Commons in Dublin. An address favourable to the
+government policy was, however, rejected; and Hely-Hutchinson, together
+with the speaker and the attorney-general, did their utmost both in
+public and private to obstruct the bill. Parliament was dissolved in May
+1768, and the lord lieutenant set about the task of purchasing or
+otherwise securing a majority in the new parliament. Peerages, pensions
+and places were bestowed lavishly on those whose support could be thus
+secured; Hely-Hutchinson was won over by the concession that the Irish
+army should be established by the authority of an Irish act of
+parliament instead of an English one. The Augmentation Bill was carried
+in the session of 1769 by a large majority. Hely-Hutchinson's support
+had been so valuable that he received as reward an addition of £1000 a
+year to the salary of his sinecure of Alnagar, a major's commission in a
+cavalry regiment, and a promise of the secretaryship of state. He was at
+this time one of the most brilliant debaters in the Irish parliament,
+and he was enjoying an exceedingly lucrative practice at the bar. This
+income, however, together with his well-salaried sinecure, and his place
+as prime serjeant, he surrendered in 1774, to become provost of Trinity
+College, although the statute requiring the provost to be in holy orders
+had to be dispensed with in his favour.
+
+For this great academic position Hely-Hutchinson was in no way
+qualified, and his appointment to it for purely political service to the
+government was justly criticized with much asperity. His conduct in
+using his position as provost to secure the parliamentary representation
+of the university for his eldest son brought him into conflict with
+Duigenan, who attacked him in _Lacrymae academicae_, and involved him in
+a duel with a Mr Doyle; while a similar attempt on behalf of his second
+son in 1790 led to his being accused before a select committee of the
+House of Commons of impropriety as returning officer. But although
+without scholarship Hely-Hutchinson was an efficient provost, during
+whose rule material benefits were conferred on Trinity College. He
+continued to occupy a prominent place in parliament, where he advocated
+free trade, the relief of the Catholics from penal legislation, and the
+reform of parliament. He was one of the very earliest politicians to
+recognize the soundness of Adam Smith's views on trade; and he quoted
+from the _Wealth of Nations_, adopting some of its principles, in his
+_Commercial Restraints of Ireland_, published in 1779, which Lecky
+pronounces "one of the best specimens of political literature produced
+in Ireland in the latter half of the 18th century." In the same year,
+the economic condition of Ireland being the cause of great anxiety, the
+government solicited from several leading politicians their opinion on
+the state of the country with suggestions for a remedy.
+Hely-Hutchinson's response was a remarkably able state paper (MS. in the
+Record Office), which also showed clear traces of the influence of Adam
+Smith. The _Commercial Restraints_, condemned by the authorities as
+seditious, went far to restore Hely-Hutchinson's popularity which had
+been damaged by his greed of office. Not less enlightened were his views
+on the Catholic question. In a speech in parliament on Catholic
+education in 1782 the provost declared that Catholic students were in
+fact to be found at Trinity College, but that he desired their presence
+there to be legalized on the largest scale. "My opinion," he said, "is
+strongly against sending Roman Catholics abroad for education, nor would
+I establish Popish colleges at home. The advantage of being admitted
+into the university of Dublin will be very great to Catholics; they need
+not be obliged to attend the divinity professor, they may have one of
+their own; and I would have a part of the public money applied to their
+use, to the support of a number of poor lads as sizars, and to provide
+premiums for persons of merit, for I would have them go into
+examinations and make no distinction between them and the Protestants
+but such as merit might claim." And after sketching a scheme for
+increasing the number of diocesan schools where Roman Catholics might
+receive free education, he went on to urge that "it is certainly a
+matter of importance that the education of their priests should be as
+perfect as possible, and that if they have any prejudices they should be
+prejudices in favour of their own country. The Roman Catholics should
+receive the best education in the established university at the public
+expense; but by no means should Popish colleges be allowed, for by them
+we should again have the press groaning with themes of controversy, and
+subjects of religious disputation that have long slept in oblivion would
+again awake, and awaken with them all the worst passions of the human
+mind."[1]
+
+In 1777 Hely-Hutchinson became secretary of state. When Grattan in 1782
+moved an address to the king containing a declaration of Irish
+legislative independence, Hely-Hutchinson supported the
+attorney-general's motion postponing the question; but on the 16th of
+April, after the Easter recess, he read a message from the lord
+lieutenant, the duke of Portland, giving the king's permission for the
+House to take the matter into consideration, and he expressed his
+personal sympathy with the popular cause which Grattan on the same day
+brought to a triumphant issue (see GRATTAN, HENRY). Hely-Hutchinson
+supported the opposition on the regency question in 1788, and one of his
+last votes in the House was in favour of parliamentary reform. In 1790
+he exchanged the constituency of Cork for that of Taghmon in County
+Wexford, for which borough he remained member till his death at Buxton
+on the 4th of September 1794.
+
+In 1785 his wife had been created Baroness Donoughmore and on her death
+in 1788, his eldest son Richard (1756-1825) succeeded to the title. Lord
+Donoughmore was an ardent advocate of Catholic emancipation. In 1797 he
+was created Viscount Donoughmore,[2] and in 1800 (having voted for the
+Union, hoping to secure Catholic emancipation from the united
+parliament) he was further created earl of Donoughmore of Knocklofty,
+being succeeded first by his brother John Hely-Hutchinson (1757-1832)
+and then by his nephew John, 3rd earl (1787-1851), from whom the title
+descended.
+
+  See W. E. H. Lecky, _Hist. of Ireland in the Eighteenth Century_ (5
+  vols., London, 1892); J. A. Froude, _The English in Ireland in the
+  Eighteenth Century_ (3 vols., London, 1872-1874); H. Grattan, _Memoirs
+  of the Life and Times of Henry Grattan_ (8 vols., London, 1839-1846);
+  _Baratariana_, by various writers (Dublin, 1773).     (R. J. M.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _Irish Parl. Debates_, i. 309, 310.
+
+  [2] It is generally supposed that the title conferred by this patent
+    was that of Viscount Suirdale, and such is the courtesy title by
+    which the heir apparent of the earls of Donoughmore is usually
+    styled. This, however, appears to be an error. In all the three
+    creations (barony 1783, viscountcy 1797, earldom 1800) the title is
+    "Donoughmore of Knocklofty." In 1821 the 1st earl was further created
+    Viscount Hutchinson of Knocklofty in the peerage of the United
+    Kingdom. The courtesy title of the earl's eldest son should,
+    therefore, apparently be either "Viscount Hutchinson" or "Viscount
+    Knocklofty." See G. E. C. _Complete Peerage_ (London, 1890).
+
+
+
+
+HELYOT, PIERRE (1660-1716), Franciscan friar and historian, was born at
+Paris in January 1660, of supposed English ancestry. After spending his
+youth in study, he entered in his twenty-fourth year the convent of the
+third order of St Francis, founded at Picpus, near Paris, by his uncle
+Jérôme Helyot, canon of St Sepulchre. There he took the name of Père
+Hippolyte. Two journeys to Rome on monastic business afforded him the
+opportunity of travelling over most of Italy; and after his final return
+he saw much of France, while acting as secretary to various provincials
+of his order there. Both in Italy and France he was engaged in
+collecting materials for his great work, which occupied him about
+twenty-five years, _L'Histoire des ordres monastiques, religieux, et
+militaires, et des congrégations séculières, de l'un et de l'autre sexe,
+qui ont été établies jusqu'à présent_, published in 8 volumes in
+1714-1721. Helyot died on the 5th of January 1716, before the fifth
+volume appeared, but his friend Maximilien Bullot completed the edition.
+Helyot's only other noteworthy work is _Le Chrétien mourant_ (1695).
+
+  The _Histoire_ is a work of first importance, being the great
+  repertory of information for the general history of the religious
+  orders up to the end of the 17th century. It is profusely illustrated
+  by large plates exhibiting the dress of the various orders, and in
+  the edition of 1792 the plates are coloured. It was translated into
+  Italian (1737) and into German (1753). The material has been arranged
+  in dictionary form in Migne's _Encyclopédie théologique_, under the
+  title "Dictionnaire des orders religieux" (4 vols., 1858).
+
+
+
+
+HEMANS, FELICIA DOROTHEA (1793-1835), English poet, was born in Duke
+Street, Liverpool, on the 25th of September 1793. Her father, George
+Browne, of Irish extraction, was a merchant in Liverpool, and her
+mother, whose maiden name was Wagner, was the daughter of the Austrian
+and Tuscan consul at Liverpool. Felicia, the fifth of seven children,
+was scarcely seven years old when her father failed in business, and
+retired with his family to Gwrych, near Abergele, Denbighshire; and
+there the young poet and her brothers and sisters grew up in a romantic
+old house by the sea-shore, and in the very midst of the mountains and
+myths of Wales. Felicia's education was desultory. Books of chronicle
+and romance, and every kind of poetry, she read with avidity; and she
+also studied Italian, Spanish, Portuguese and German. She played both
+harp and piano, and cared especially for the simple national melodies of
+Wales and Spain. In 1808, when she was only fourteen, a quarto volume of
+her _Juvenile Poems_, was published by subscription, and was harshly
+criticized in the _Monthly Review_. Two of her brothers were fighting in
+Spain under Sir John Moore; and Felicia, fired with military enthusiasm,
+wrote _England and Spain, or Valour and Patriotism_, a poem afterwards
+translated into Spanish. Her second volume, _The Domestic Affections and
+other Poems_, appeared in 1812, on the eve of her marriage to Captain
+Alfred Hemans. She lived for some time at Daventry, where her husband
+was adjutant of the Northamptonshire militia. About this time her father
+went to Quebec on business and died there; and, after the birth of her
+first son, she and her husband went to live with her mother at
+Bronwylfa, a house near St Asaph. Here during the next six years four
+more children--all boys--were born; but in spite of domestic cares arid
+failing health she still read and wrote indefatigably. Her poem entitled
+_The Restoration of Works of Art to Italy_ was published in 1816, her
+_Modern Greece_ in 1817, and in 1818 _Translations from Camoens and
+other Poets_.
+
+In 1818 Captain Hemans went to Rome, leaving his wife, shortly before
+the birth of their fifth child, with her mother at Bronwylfa. There
+seems to have been a tacit agreement, perhaps on account of their
+limited means, that they should separate. Letters were interchanged, and
+Captain Hemans was often consulted about his children; but the husband
+and wife never met again. Many friends--among them the bishop of St
+Asaph and Bishop Heber--gathered round Mrs Hemans and her children. In
+1819 she published _Tales and Historic Scenes in Verse_, and gained a
+prize of £50 offered for the best poem on _The Meeting of Wallace and
+Bruce on the Banks of the Carron_. In 1820 appeared _The Sceptic and
+Stanzas to the Memory of the late King_. In June 1821 she won the prize
+awarded by the Royal Society of Literature for the best poem on the
+subject of _Dartmoor_, and began her play, _The Vespers of Palermo_. She
+now applied herself to a course of German reading. Körner was her
+favourite German poet, and her lines on the grave of Körner were one of
+the first English tributes to the genius of the young soldier-poet. In
+the summer of 1823 a volume of her poems was published by Murray,
+containing "The Siege of Valencia," "The Last Constantine" and
+"Belshazzar's Feast." _The Vespers of Palermo_ was acted at Covent
+Garden, December 12, 1823, and Mrs Hemans received £200 for the
+copyright; but, though the leading parts were taken by Young and Charles
+Kemble, the play was a failure, and was withdrawn after the first
+performance. It was acted again in Edinburgh in the following April with
+greater success, when an epilogue, written for it by Sir Walter Scott at
+Joanna Baillie's request, was spoken by Harriet Siddons. This was the
+beginning of a cordial friendship between Mrs Hemans and Scott. In the
+same year she wrote _De Chatillon, or the Crusaders_; but the manuscript
+was lost, and the poem was published after her death, from a rough copy.
+In 1824 she began "The Forest Sanctuary," which appeared a year later
+with the "Lays of Many Lands" and miscellaneous pieces collected from
+the _New Monthly Magazine_ and other periodicals.
+
+In the spring of 1825 Mrs Hemans removed from Bronwylfa, which had been
+purchased by her brother, to Rhyllon, a house on an opposite height
+across the river Clwyd. The contrast between the two houses suggested
+her _Dramatic Scene between Bronwylfa and Rhyllon_. The house itself was
+bare and unpicturesque, but the beauty of its surroundings has been
+celebrated in "The Hour of Romance," "To the River Clwyd in North
+Wales," "Our Lady's Well" and "To a Distant Scene." This time seems to
+have been the most tranquil in Mrs Hemans's life. But the death of her
+mother in January 1827 was a second great breaking-point in her life.
+Her heart was affected, and she was from this time an acknowledged
+invalid. In the summer of 1828 the _Records of Woman_ was published by
+Blackwood, and in the same year the home in Wales was finally broken up
+by the marriage of Mrs Hemans's sister and the departure of her two
+elder boys to their father in Rome. Mrs Hemans removed to Wavertree,
+near Liverpool. But, although she had a few intimate friends
+there--among them her two subsequent biographers, Henry F. Chorley and
+Mrs Lawrence of Wavertree Hall--she was disappointed in her new home.
+She thought the people of Liverpool stupid and provincial; and they, on
+the other hand, found her uncommunicative and eccentric. In the
+following summer she travelled by sea to Scotland with two of her boys,
+to visit the Hamiltons of Chiefswood.
+
+Here she enjoyed "constant, almost daily, intercourse" with Sir Walter
+Scott, with whom she and her boys afterwards stayed some time at
+Abbotsford. "There are some whom we meet, and should like ever after to
+claim as kith and kin; and you are one of those," was Scott's compliment
+to her at parting. One of the results of her Edinburgh visit was an
+article, full of praise, judiciously tempered with criticism, by Jeffrey
+himself for the _Edinburgh Review_. Mrs Hemans returned to Wavertree to
+write her _Songs of the Affections_, which were published early in 1830.
+In the following June, however, she again left home, this time to visit
+Wordsworth and the Lake country; and in August she paid a second visit
+to Scotland. In 1831 she removed to Dublin. Her poetry of this date is
+chiefly religious. Early in 1834 her _Hymns for Childhood_, which had
+appeared some years before in America, were published in Dublin. At the
+same time appeared her collection of _National Lyrics_, and shortly
+afterwards _Scenes and Hymns of Life_. She was planning also a series of
+German studies, one of which, on Goethe's _Tasso_, was completed and
+published in the _New Monthly Magazine_ for January 1834. In intervals
+of acute suffering she wrote the lyric _Despondency and Aspiration_, and
+dictated a series of sonnets called _Thoughts during Sickness_, the last
+of which, "Recovery," was written when she fancied she was getting well.
+After three months spent at Redesdale, Archbishop Whately's country
+seat, she was again brought into Dublin, where she lingered till spring.
+Her last poem, the _Sabbath Sonnet_, was dedicated to her brother on
+Sunday April 26th, and she died in Dublin on the 16th of May 1835 at the
+age of forty-one.
+
+Mrs Hemans's poetry is the production of a fine imaginative and
+enthusiastic temperament, but not of a commanding intellect or very
+complex or subtle nature. It is the outcome of a beautiful but
+singularly circumscribed life, a life spent in romantic seclusion,
+without much worldly experience, and warped and saddened by domestic
+unhappiness and physical suffering. An undue preponderance of the
+emotional is its prevailing characteristic. Scott complained that it was
+"too poetical," that it contained "too many flowers" and "too little
+fruit." Many of her short poems, such as "The Treasures of the Deep,"
+"The Better Land," "The Homes of England," "Casabianca," "The Palm
+Tree," "The Graves of a Household," "The Wreck," "The Dying
+Improvisatore," and "The Lost Pleiad," have become standard English
+lyrics. It is on the strength of these that her reputation must rest.
+
+  Mrs Hemans's _Poetical Works_ were collected in 1832; her _Memorials_
+  &c., by H. F. Chorley (1836).
+
+
+
+
+
+HEMEL HEMPSTEAD, a market-town and municipal borough in the Watford
+parliamentary division of Hertfordshire, England, 25 m. N.W. from
+London, with a station on a branch of the Midland railway from
+Harpenden, and near Boxmoor station on the London and North Western main
+line. Pop. (1891) 9678; (1901) 11,264. It is pleasantly situated in the
+steep-sided valley of the river Gade, immediately above its junction
+with the Bulbourne, near the Grand Junction canal. The church of St Mary
+is a very fine Norman building with Decorated additions. Industries
+include the manufacture of paper, iron founding, brewing and tanning.
+Boxmoor, within the parish, is a considerable township of modern growth.
+Hemel Hempstead is governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors.
+Area, 7184 acres.
+
+Settlements in the neighbourhood of Hemel Hempstead (_Hamalamstede_,
+_Hemel Hampsted_) date from pre-Roman times, and a Roman villa has been
+discovered at Boxmoor. The manor, royal demesne in 1086, was granted by
+Edmund Plantagenet in 1285 to the house of Ashridge, and the town
+developed under monastic protection. In 1539 a charter incorporated the
+bailiff and inhabitants. A mayor, aldermen and councillors received
+governing power by a charter of 1898. The town has never had
+parliamentary representation. A market on Thursday and a fair on the
+feast of Corpus Christi were conferred in 1539. A statute fair, for long
+a hiring fair, originated in 1803.
+
+
+
+
+HEMEROBAPTISTS, an ancient Jewish sect, so named from their observing a
+practice of daily ablution as an essential part of religion. Epiphanius
+(_Panarion_, i. 17), who mentions their doctrine as the fourth heresy
+among the Jews, classes the Hemerobaptists doctrinally with the
+Pharisees (q.v.) from whom they differed only in, like the Sadducees,
+denying the resurrection of the dead. The name has been sometimes given
+to the Mandaeans on account of their frequent ablutions; and in the
+_Clementine Homilies_ (ii. 23) St John the Baptist is spoken of as a
+Hemerobaptist. Mention of the sect is made by Hegesippus (see Euseb.
+_Hist. Eccl._ iv. 22) and by Justin Martyr in the _Dialogue with
+Trypho_, § 80. They were probably a division of the Essenes.
+
+
+
+
+HEMICHORDA, or HEMICHORDATA, a zoological term introduced by W. Bateson
+in 1884, without special definition, as equivalent to Enteropneusta,
+which then included the single genus _Balanoglossus_, and now generally
+employed to cover a group of marine worm-like animals believed by many
+zoologists to be related to the lower vertebrates and so to represent
+the invertebrate stock from which Vertebrates have been derived.
+Vertebrates, or as they are sometimes termed Chordates, are
+distinguished from other animals by several important features. The
+chief of these is the presence of an elastic rod, the notochord, which
+forms the longitudinal axis of the body, and which persists throughout
+life in some of the lowest forms, but which appears only in the embryo
+of the higher forms, being replaced by the jointed backbone or vertebral
+column. A second feature is the development of outgrowths of the pharynx
+which unite with the skin of the neck and form a series of perforations
+leading to the exterior. These structures are the gill-slits, which in
+fishes are lined with vascular tufts, but which in terrestrial breathing
+animals appear only in the embryo. The third feature of importance is
+the position of structure of the central nervous system, which in all
+the Chordates lies dorsally to the alimentary canal and is formed by the
+sinking in of a longitudinal media dorsal groove. Of these structures
+the Vertebrata or Craniata possess all three in a typical form; the
+Cephalochordata (see Amphioxus) also possess them, but the notochord
+extends throughout the whole length of the body to the extreme tip of
+the snout; the Urochordata (see TUNICATA) possess them in a larval
+condition, but the notochord is present only in the tail, whilst in the
+adult the notochord disappears and the nervous system becomes profoundly
+modified; in the Hemichorda, the respiratory organs very closely
+resemble gill-slits, and structures comparable with the notochord and
+the tubular dorsal nervous system are present.
+
+The Hemichorda include three orders, the Phoronidea (q.v.), the
+Pterobranchia (q.v.) and the Enteropneusta (see BALANOGLOSSUS), but the
+relationship to the Chordata expressed in the designation Hemichordata
+cannot be regarded as more than an attractive theory with certain
+arguments in its favour.     (P. C. M.)
+
+
+
+
+HEMICYCLE (Gr. [Greek: hêmi-], half, and [Greek: kyklos], circle), a
+semicircular recess of considerable size which formed one of the most
+conspicuous features in the Roman Thermae, where it was always covered
+with a hemispherical vault. A small example exists in Pompeii, in the
+street of tombs, with a seat round inside, where those who came to pay
+their respects to the departed could rest. An immense hemicycle was
+designed by Bramante for the Vatican, where it constitutes a fine
+architectural effect at the end of the great court.
+
+
+
+
+HEMIMERUS, an Orthopterous or Dermapterous insect, the sole
+representative of the family _Hemimeridae_, which has affinities with
+both the _Forficulidae_ (earwigs) and the _Blattidae_ (cockroaches).
+Only two species have been discovered, both from West Africa. The better
+known of these (_H. hanseni_) lives upon a large rat-like rodent
+(_Cricetomys gambianus_) feeding perhaps upon its external parasites,
+perhaps upon scurf and other dermal products. Like many epizoic or
+parasitic insects, _Hemimerus_ is wingless, eyeless and has relatively
+short and strong legs. Correlated also with its mode of life is the
+curious fact that it is viviparous, the young being born in an advanced
+stage of growth.
+
+
+
+
+HEMIMORPHITE, a mineral consisting of hydrous zinc silicate, H2Zn2SiO5,
+of importance as an ore of the metal, of which it contains 54.4%. It is
+interesting crystallographically by reason of the hemimorphic
+development of its orthorhombic crystals; these are prismatic in habit
+and are differently terminated at the two ends. In the figure, the faces
+at the upper end of the crystal are the basal plane k and the domes o,
+p, l, m, whilst at the lower end there are only the four faces of the
+pyramid P. Connected with this polarity of the crystals is their
+pyroelectric character--when a crystal is subjected to changes of
+temperature it becomes positively electrified at one end and negatively
+at the opposite end. There are perfect cleavages parallel to the prism
+faces (d in the figure). Crystals are usually colourless, sometimes
+yellowish or greenish, and transparent; they have vitreous lustre. The
+hardness is 5, and the specific gravity 3.45. The mineral also occurs as
+stalactitic or botryoidal masses with a fibrous structure, or in a
+massive, cellular or granular condition intermixed with calamine and
+clay. It is decomposed by hydrochloric acid with gelatinization; this
+property affords a ready means of distinguishing hemimorphite from
+calamine (zinc carbonate), these two minerals being, when not
+crystallized, very like each other in appearance. The water contained in
+hemimorphite is expelled only at a red heat, and the mineral must
+therefore be considered as a basic metasilicate, (ZnOH)2SiO3.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The name hemimorphite was given by G. A. Kenngott in 1853 because of the
+typical hemimorphic development of the crystals. The mineral had long
+been confused with _calamine_ (q.v.) and even now this name is often
+applied to it. On account of its pyroelectric properties, it was called
+_electric calamine_ by J. Smithson in 1803.
+
+Hemimorphite occurs with other ores of zinc (calamine and blende),
+forming veins and beds in sedimentary limestones. British localities are
+Matlock, Alston, Mendip Hills and Leadhills; at Roughten Gill, Caldbeck
+Fells, Cumberland, it occurs as mammillated incrustations of a sky-blue
+colour. Well-crystallized specimens have been found in the zinc mines at
+Altenberg near Aachen in Rhenish Prussia, Nerchinsk mining district in
+Siberia, and Elkhorn in Montana.     (L. J. S.)
+
+
+
+
+HEMINGBURGH, WALTER OF, also commonly, but erroneously, called WALTER
+HEMINGFORD, a Latin chronicler of the 14th century, was a canon regular
+of the Austin priory of Gisburn in Yorkshire. Hence he is sometimes
+known as Walter of Gisburn (Walterus Gisburnensis). Bale seems to have
+been the first to give him the name by which he became more commonly
+known. His chronicle embraces the period of English history from the
+Conquest (1066) to the nineteenth year of Edward III., with the
+exception of the years 1316-1326. It ends with the title of a chapter in
+which it was proposed to describe the battle of Creçy (1346); but the
+chronicler seems to have died before the required information reached
+him. There is, however, some controversy as to whether the later
+portions which are lacking in some of the MSS. are by him. In compiling
+the first part, Hemingburgh apparently used the histories of Eadmer,
+Hoveden, Henry of Huntingdon, and William of Newburgh; but the reigns of
+the three Edwards are original, composed from personal observation and
+information. There are several manuscripts of the history extant--the
+best perhaps being that presented to the College of Arms by the earl of
+Arundel. The work is correct and judicious, and written in a pleasing
+style. One of its special features is the preservation in its pages of
+copies of the great charters, and Hemingburgh's versions have more than
+once supplied deficiencies and cleared up obscurities in copies from
+other sources.
+
+  The first three books were published by Thomas Gale in 1687, in his
+  _Historiae Anglicanae scriptores quinque_, and the remainder by Thomas
+  Hearne in 1731. The first portion was again published in 1848 by the
+  English Historical Society, under the title _Chronicon Walteri de
+  Hemingburgh, vulgo Hemingford nuncupati, de gestis regum Angliae_,
+  edited by H. C. Hamilton.
+
+
+
+
+HEMIPTERA (Gr. [Greek: hêmi-], half and [Greek: pteron], a wing), the
+name applied in zoological classification to that order of the class
+Hexapoda (q.v.) which includes bugs, cicads, aphids and scale-insects.
+The name was first used by Linnaeus (1735), who derived it from the
+half-coriaceous and half-membranous condition of the forewing in many
+members of the order. But the wings vary considerably in different
+families, and the most distinctive feature is the structure of the jaws,
+which form a beak-like organ with stylets adapted for piercing and
+sucking. Hence the name _Rhyngota_ (or _Rhynchota_), proposed by J. C.
+Fabricius (1775), is used by many writers in preference to Hemiptera.
+
+[Illustration: After Marlatt, _Bull._ 14 (N.S.) _Div. Ent. U.S. Dept.
+Agr._
+
+FIG. 1.--Head and Prothorax of Cicad from side.
+
+    I., Frons.
+   II., Base of mandible.
+  III., Base of first maxillae.
+   IV., Second maxillae forming rostrum.
+    V., Pronotum.]
+
+_Structure._--The head varies greatly in shape, and the feelers have
+usually but few segments--often only four or five. The arrangement of
+the jaws is remarkably constant throughout the order, if we exclude from
+it the lice (_Anoplura_). Taking as our type the head of a cicad, we
+find a jointed rostrum or beak (figs. 1 and 2, IV. b, c) with a deep
+groove on its anterior face; this organ is formed by the second pair of
+maxillae and corresponds therefore to the labium or "lower lip" of
+biting insects. Within the groove of the rostrum two pairs of slender
+piercers--often barbed at the tip--work to and fro. One of these pairs
+(fig. 2, II. a, b, c) represents the mandibles, the other (fig. 2, III.
+a, b, c) the first maxillae. The piercing portions of the
+latter--representing their inner lobes or laciniae--lie median to the
+mandibular piercers in the natural position of the organs. These
+homologies of the hemipterous jaws were determined by J. C. Savigny in
+1816, and though disputed by various subsequent writers, they have been
+lately confirmed by the embryological researches of R. Heymons (1899).
+Vestigial palps have been described in various species of Hemiptera, but
+the true nature of these structures is doubtful. In front of the rostrum
+and the piercers lies the pointed flexible labrum and within its base a
+small hypopharynx (fig. 2, IV. d) consisting of paired conical
+processes which lie dorsal to the "syringe" of the salivary glands. This
+latter organ injects a secretion into the plant or animal tissue from
+which the insect is sucking. The point of the rostrum is pressed against
+the surface to be pierced; then the stylets come into play and the fluid
+food is believed to pass into the mouth by capillary attraction.
+
+[Illustration: After Marlatt, _Bull. 14_ (N.S.) _Div. Ent. U.S. Dept.
+Agr._
+
+FIG. 2.--Head and Prothorax of Cicad, parts separated.
+
+    I., a, frons; b, clypeus; c, labrum; d, epipharynx.
+   I'., Same from behind.
+   II., Mandible.
+  III., 1st maxillae, a, base; b, sheath; c, stylet; c´, muscle.
+   IV., 2nd maxillae, a, sub-mentum; b, mentum; c, ligula, forming beak;
+          d, hypopharynx (shown also from front d´, and behind d´´).
+    V., Prothorax, b, haunch; a, trochanter.]
+
+The prothorax (figs. 1 and 2, V.) in Hemiptera is large and free, and
+the mesothoracic scutellum is usually extensive. The number of tarsal
+segments is reduced; often three, two or only one may be present instead
+of the typical insectan number five. The wings will be described in
+connexion with the various sub-orders, but an interesting peculiarity of
+the Hemiptera is the occasional presence of winged and wingless races of
+the same species. Eleven abdominal segments can be recognized, at least
+in the early stages; as the adult condition is reached, the hinder
+segments become reduced or modified in connexion with the external
+reproductive organs, and show, in some male Hemiptera, a marked
+asymmetry. The typical insectan ovipositor with its three pairs of
+processes, one pair belonging to the eighth and two pairs to the ninth
+abdominal segment, can be distinguished in the female.
+
+[Illustration: After Marlatt, _Bull. 4_ (N.S.) _Div. Ent. U.S. Dept.
+Agr._
+
+FIG. 3.--a, Cast-off nymphal skin of Bed-bug (_Cimex lectularius_); b,
+Second instar after emergence from a; c, The same after a meal.]
+
+In the nervous system the concentration of the trunk ganglia into a
+single nerve-centre situated in the thorax is remarkable. The digestive
+system has a slender gullet, a large crop and no gizzard; in some
+Hemiptera the hinder region of the mid-gut forms a twisted loop with the
+gullet. Usually there are four excretory (Malpighian) tubes; but there
+are only two in the _Coccidae_ and none in the _Aphidae_. "Stink
+glands," which secrete a nauseous fluid with a defensive function, are
+present in many Hemiptera. In the adult there is a pair of such glands
+opening ventrally on the hindmost thoracic segment, or at the base of
+the abdomen; but in the young insect the glands are situated dorsally
+and open to the exterior on a variable number of the abdominal terga.
+
+_Development._--In most Hemiptera the young insect (fig. 3) resembles
+its parents except for the absence of wings, and is active through all
+stages of its growth. In all Hemiptera the wing-rudiments develop
+externally on the nymphal cuticle, but in some families--the cicads for
+example--the young insect (fig. 10) is a larva differing markedly in
+form from its parent, and adapted for a different mode of life, while
+the nymph before the final moult is sluggish and inactive. In the male
+_Coccidae_ (Scale-insects) the nymph (fig. 4) remains passive and takes
+no food. The order of the Hemiptera affords, therefore, some interesting
+transition stages towards the complete metamorphosis of the higher
+insects.
+
+[Illustration: After Riley and Howard, _Insect Life_, vol. i. (U.S.
+Dept. Agr.).
+
+FIG. 4.--Passive Nymph or "Pupa" of male scale-insect (_Icerya_).]
+
+_Distribution and Habits._--Hemiptera are widely distributed, and are
+plentiful in most quarters of the globe, though they probably have not
+penetrated as far into remote and inhospitable regions as have the
+Coleoptera, Diptera and Aptera. They feed entirely by suction, and the
+majority of the species pierce plant tissues and suck sap. The leaves of
+plants are for the most part the objects of attack, but many aphids and
+scale-insects pierce stems, and some go underground and feed on roots.
+The enormous rate at which aphids multiply under favourable conditions
+makes them of the greatest economic importance, since the growth of
+immense numbers of the same kind of plant in close proximity--as in
+ordinary farm-crops--is especially advantageous to the insects that feed
+on them. Several families of bugs are predaceous in habit, attacking
+other insects--often members of their own order--and sucking their
+juices. Others are scavengers feeding on decaying organic matter; the
+pond skaters, for example, live mostly on the juices of dead floating
+insects. And some, like the bed-bugs, are parasites of vertebrate
+animals, on whose bodies they live temporarily or permanently, and whose
+blood they suck.
+
+The Hemiptera are especially interesting as an order from the variety of
+aquatic insects included therein. Some of these--the _Hydrometridae_ or
+pond-skaters, for example--move over the surface-film, on which they are
+supported by their elongated, slender legs, the body of the insect being
+raised clear of the water. They are covered with short hairs which form
+a velvet-like pile, so dense that water cannot penetrate. Consequently
+when the insect dives, an air-bubble forms around it, a supply of oxygen
+is thus secured for breathing and the water is kept away from the
+spiracles. In many of these insects, while most individuals of the
+species are wingless, winged specimens are now and then met with. The
+occasional development of wings is probably of service to the species in
+enabling the insects to reach new fresh-water breeding-grounds. This
+family of Hemiptera (the _Hydrometridae_) and the _Saldidae_ contain
+several insects that are marine, haunting the tidal margin. One genus of
+_Hydrometridae_ (_Halobates_) is even oceanic in its habit, the species
+being met with skimming over the surface of the sea hundreds of miles
+from land. Probably they dive when the surface becomes ruffled. In these
+marine genera the abdomen often undergoes excessive reduction (fig. 5).
+
+Other families of Hemiptera--such as the "Boatmen" (_Notonectidae_) and
+the "Water-scorpions" (fig. 6) and their allies (_Nepidae_) dive and
+swim through the water. They obtain their supply of air from the
+surface. The _Nepidae_ breathe by means of a pair of long, grooved tail
+processes (really outgrowths of the abdominal pleura) which when
+pressed together form a tube whose point can pierce the surface film and
+convey air to the hindmost spiracles which are alone functional in the
+adult. The _Notonectidae_ breathe mostly through the thoracic spiracles;
+the air is conveyed to these from the tail-end, which is brought to the
+surface, along a kind of tunnel formed by overlapping hairs.
+
+[Illustration: After Carpenter, _Proc. R. Dublin Soc._, vol. viii.
+
+FIG. 5.--A reef-haunting hemipteron (_Hermatobates haddonii_) with
+excessively reduced abdomen. Magnified.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Water-scorpion (_Nepa cinerea_) with raptorial
+fore-legs, heteropterous wings, and long siphon for conveying air to
+spiracles. Somewhat magnified. sc, scutellum; co, cl, m, corium, clavus
+and membrane of forewing.]
+
+[Illustration: From Marlatt, _Bull._ 14 (N.S.) _Div. Ent. U.S. Dept.
+Agr._
+
+FIG. 7.
+
+  a, Body of male Cicad from below, showing cover-plates of musical
+       organs;
+  b, From above showing drums, natural size;
+  c, Section showing muscles which vibrate drum (magnified);
+  d, A drum at rest;
+  e, Thrown into vibration, more highly magnified.]
+
+_Sound-producing Organs._--The Hemiptera are remarkable for the variety
+of their stridulating organs. In many genera of the _Pentatomidae_,
+bristle-bearing tubercles on the legs are scraped across a set of fine
+striations on the abdominal sterna. In _Halobates_ a comb-like series of
+sharp spines on the fore-shin can be drawn across a set of blunt
+processes on the shin of the opposite leg. Males of the little
+water-bugs of the genus _Corixa_ make a shrill chirping note by drawing
+a row of teeth on the flattened fore-foot across a group of spines on
+the haunch of the opposite leg. But the loudest and most remarkable
+vocal organs of all insects are those of the male cicads, which "sing"
+by the rapid vibration of a pair of "drums" or membranes within the
+metathorax. These drums are worked by special muscles, and the cavities
+in which they lie are protected by conspicuous plates visible beneath
+the base of the abdomen (see fig. 7).
+
+_Fossil History._--The Heteroptera can be traced back farther than any
+other winged insects if the fossil _Protocimex silurica_ Moberg, from
+the Ordovician slates of Sweden is rightly regarded as the wing of a
+bug. But according to the recent researches of A. Handlirsch it is not
+insectan at all. Both Heteropterous and Homopterous genera have been
+described from the Carboniferous, but the true nature of some of these
+is doubtful. _Eugereon_ is a remarkable Permian fossil, with jaws that
+are typically hemipterous except that the second maxillae are not fused
+and with cockroach-like wings. In the Jurassic period many of the
+existing families, such as the _Cicadidae_, _Fulgoridae_, _Aphidae_,
+_Nepidae_, _Reduviidae_, _Hydrometridae_, _Lygaeidae_ and _Coreidae_,
+had already become differentiated.
+
+  _Classification._--The number of described species of Hemiptera must
+  now be nearly 20,000. The order is divided into two sub-orders, the
+  Heteroptera and the Homoptera. The Anoplura or lice should not be
+  included among the Hemiptera, but it has been thought convenient to
+  refer briefly to them at the close of this article.
+
+
+    HETEROPTERA
+
+  In this sub-order are included the various families of bugs and their
+  aquatic relations. The front of the head is not in contact with the
+  haunches of the fore-legs. There is usually a marked difference
+  between the wings of the two pairs. The fore-wing is generally divided
+  into a firm coriaceous basal region, occupying most of the area, and a
+  membranous terminal portion, while the hind-wing is delicate and
+  entirely membranous (see fig. 6). In the firm portion of the fore-wing
+  two distinct regions can usually be distinguished; most of the area is
+  formed by the _corium_ (fig. 6, co), which is separated by a
+  longitudinal suture from the _clavus_ (fig. 6, cl) on its hinder edge,
+  and in some families there is also a _cuneus_ (fig. 9 cu) external to
+  and an _embolium_ in front of the _corium_.
+
+  [Illustration: After Marlatt, _Bull._ 4 (N.S.) _Div. Ent. U.S. Dept.
+  Agr._
+
+  FIG. 8.--Bed-bug (_Cimex lectularius_, Linn.).
+
+    a, Female from above;
+    b, From beneath;
+    c, Vestigial wing;
+    d, Jaws, very highly magnified (tips of mandibles and 1st maxillae
+         still more highly magnified).]
+
+  Most Heteroptera are flattened in form, and the wings lie flat, or
+  nearly so, when closed. The young Heteropteron is hatched from the egg
+  in a form not markedly different from that of its parent; it is active
+  and takes food through all the stages of its growth. It is usual to
+  divide the Heteroptera into two tribes--the Gymnocerata and the
+  Cryptocerata.
+
+  _Gymnocerata._--This tribe includes some eighteen families of
+  terrestrial, arboreal and marsh-haunting bugs, as well as those
+  aquatic Heteroptera that live on the surface-film of water. The
+  feelers are elongate and conspicuous. The _Pentatomidae_
+  (shield-bugs), some of which are metallic or otherwise brightly
+  coloured, are easily recognized by the great development of the
+  scutellum, which reaches at least half-way back towards the tip of the
+  abdomen, and in some genera covers the whole of the hind body, and
+  also the wings when these are closed. The _Coreidae_ have a smaller
+  scutellum, and the feelers are inserted high on the head, while in the
+  _Lygaeidae_ they are inserted lower down. These three families have
+  the foot with three segments. In the curious little _Tingidae_, whose
+  integuments exhibit a pattern of network-like ridges, the feet are
+  two-segmented and the scutellum is hidden by the pronotum. The
+  _Aradidae_ have two segmented feet, and a large visible scutellum. The
+  _Hydrometridae_ are a large family including the pond-skaters and
+  other dwellers on the surface-film of fresh water, as well as the
+  remarkable oceanic genus _Halobates_ already referred to. The
+  _Reduviidae_ are a family of predaceous bugs that attack other
+  insects and suck their juices; the beak is short, and carried under
+  the head in a hook-like curve, not--as in the preceding
+  families--lying close against the breast. The _Cimicidae_ have the
+  feet three-segmented and the forewings greatly reduced; most of the
+  species are parasites on birds and bats, but one--_Cimex lectidarius_
+  (figs. 3, 8)--is the well-known "bed-bug" which abounds in unclean
+  dwellings and sucks human blood (see BUG). The _Anthocoridae_ are
+  nearly related to the _Cimicidae_, but the wings are usually well
+  developed and the forewing possesses cuneus and embolium as well as
+  corium and clavus. The _Capsidae_ are a large family of rather
+  soft-skinned bugs mostly elongate in form with the two basal segments
+  of the feelers stouter than the two terminal. The forewing in this
+  family has a cuneus (fig. 9 cu), but not an embolium. These insects
+  are often found in large numbers on plants whose juices they suck.
+
+  [Illustration: After M. V. Slingerland, _Cornell Univ. Ent. Bull._ 58.
+
+  FIG. 9.--Capsid Leaf-bug (_Poecilocapsus lineatus_) N. America.
+  Magnified--, cu cuneus.]
+
+  [Illustration: From Mariatt, _Bull._ 14 (N. S.), _Div. Ent. U.S. Dept.
+  Agr._
+
+  FIG. 10.--a, Nymph (4th stage) of Cicad, magnified; c, d, inner and
+  outer faces of front leg, magnified--; b, teeth on thigh, more highly
+  magnified.]
+
+  _Cryptocerata._--In this tribe are included five or six families of
+  aquatic Heteroptera which spend the greater part of their lives
+  submerged, diving and swimming through the water. The feelers are very
+  small and are often hidden in cavities beneath the head. The
+  _Naucoridae_ and _Belostomatidae_ are flattened insects, with
+  four-segmented feelers and fore-legs inserted at the front of the
+  prosternum. Two species of the former family inhabit our islands, but
+  the _Belostomatidae_ are found only in the warmer regions of the
+  globe; some of them, attaining a length of 4 to 5 in., are giants
+  among insects. The _Nepidae_ (fig. 6) or water-scorpions (q.v.)--two
+  British species--are distinguished by their three-segmented feelers,
+  their raptorial fore-legs (in which the shin and foot, fused together,
+  work like a sharp knife-blade on the grooved thigh), and their
+  elongate tail-processes formed of the abdominal pleura and used for
+  respiration. The _Notonectidae_, or "water-boatmen" (q.v.) have convex
+  ovoid bodies admirably adapted for aquatic life. By means of the
+  oar-like hind-legs they swim actively through the water with the
+  ventral surface upwards; the fore-legs are inserted at the hinder edge
+  of the prosternum. The _Corixidae_ are small flattened water-bugs,
+  with very short unjointed beak, the labrum being enclosed within the
+  second maxillae, and the foot in the fore and intermediate leg having
+  but a single segment. The hinder abdominal segments in the male show a
+  curious asymmetrical arrangement, the sixth segment bearing on its
+  upper side a small stalked plate (_strigil_) of unknown function,
+  furnished with rows of teeth. On account of the reduction and
+  modification of the jaws in the _Corixidae_, C. Börner has lately
+  suggested that they should form a special sub-order of Hemiptera--the
+  Sandaliorrhyncha.
+
+
+    HOMOPTERA
+
+  This sub-order includes the cicads, lantern-flies, frog-hoppers,
+  aphids and scale-insects. The face has such a marked backward slope
+  (see fig. 1) as to bring the beak into close contact with the haunches
+  of the fore-legs. The feelers have one or more thickened basal
+  segments, while the remaining segments are slender and thread-like.
+  The fore-wings are sometimes membranous like the hind-wings, usually
+  they are firmer in texture, but they never show the distinct areas
+  that characterize the wings of Heteroptera. When at rest the wings of
+  Homoptera slope roofwise across the back of the insect. In their
+  life-history the Homoptera are more specialized than the Heteroptera;
+  the young insect often differs markedly from its parent and does not
+  live in the same situations; while in some families there is a passive
+  stage before the last moult.
+
+  [Illustration: After Weed, Riley and Howard, _Insect Life_, vol iii.
+
+  FIG. 11.--Cabbage Aphid (_Aphisbrassicae_). a, Male; c, female
+  (wingless). Magnified. b and d, Head and feelers of male and female,
+  more highly magnified.]
+
+  [Illustration: After Howard, _Year Book U.S. Dept. Agr._, 1894.
+
+  FIG. 12.--Apple Scale Insect (_Mytilaspis pomorum_). a, Male; e,
+  female; c, larva magnified--; b, foot of male; d, feeler of larva,
+  more highly magnified.]
+
+  The _Cicadidae_ are for the most part large insects with ample wings;
+  they are distinguished from other Homoptera by the front thighs being
+  thickened and toothed beneath. The broad head carries, in addition to
+  the prominent compound eyes, three simple eyes (ocelli) on the crown,
+  while the feeler consists of a stout basal segment, followed by five
+  slender segments. The female, by means of her serrated ovipositor,
+  lays her eggs in slits cut in the twigs of plants. The young have
+  simple feelers and stout fore-legs (fig. 10) adapted for digging; they
+  live underground and feed on the roots of plants. In the case of a
+  North American species it is known that this larval life lasts for
+  seventeen years. The "song" of the male cicads is notorious and the
+  structures by which it is produced have already been described (see
+  also CICADA). There are about 900 known species, but the family is
+  mostly confined to warm countries; only a single cicad is found in
+  England, and that is restricted to the south.
+
+  The _Fulgoridae_ and _Membracidae_ are two allied families most of
+  whose members are also natives of hot regions. The _Fulgoridae_ have
+  the head with two ocelli and three-segmented feelers; frequently as in
+  the tropical "lantern-flies" (q.v.) the head is prolonged into a
+  conspicuous bladder, or trunk-like process. The _Membracidae_ are
+  remarkable on account of the backward prolongation of the pronotum
+  into a process or hood-like structure which may extend far behind the
+  tail-end of the abdomen. Two other allied families, the _Cercopidae_
+  and _Jassidae_, are more numerously represented in our islands. The
+  young of many of these insects are green and soft-skinned, protecting
+  themselves by the well-known frothy secretion that is called
+  "cuckoo-spit."
+
+  [Illustration: After Howard, _Year Book U.S. Dept. Agr._, 1894.
+
+  FIG. 13.--Apple Scale Insect (_Mytilaspis pomorum_). a, Scale from
+  beneath showing female and eggs; b, from above, magnified--; c and e,
+  female and male scales on twigs, natural size; d, male scale
+  magnified.]
+
+  [Illustration: From Osborn (after Denny), _Bull._ 5 (N.S.), _Div. Ent.
+  U.S. Dept. Agr._
+
+  FIG. 14.--Louse (_Pediculus vestimenti_). Magnified.]
+
+  [Illustration: From Osborn (after Schiödte), _Bull._ 5; (N.S.), _Div.
+  Ent. U.S. Dept. Agr._
+
+  FIG. 15.--Proboscis of Pediculus. Highly magnified.]
+
+  In all the above-mentioned families of Homoptera there are three
+  segments in each foot. The remaining four families have feet with only
+  two segments. They are of very great zoological interest on account of
+  the peculiarities of their life-history--parthenogenesis being of
+  normal occurrence among most of them. The families _Psyllidae_ (or
+  "jumpers") with eight or ten segments in the feeler and the
+  _Aleyrodidae_ (or "snowy-flies") distinguished by their white mealy
+  wings, are of comparatively slight importance. The two families to
+  which special attention has been paid are the _Aphidae_ or plant-lice
+  ("green fly") and the _Coccidae_ or scale-insects. The aphids (fig.
+  11) have feelers with seven or fewer distinct segments, and the fifth
+  abdominal segment usually carries a pair of tubular processes through
+  which a waxy secretion is discharged. The sweet "honey-dew," often
+  sought as a food by ants, is secreted from the intestines of aphids.
+  The peculiar life-cycle in which successive generations are produced
+  through the summer months by virgin females--the egg developing within
+  the body of the mother--is described at length in the articles APHIDES
+  and PHYLLOXERA. The _Coccidae_ have only a single claw to the foot;
+  the males (fig. 12 _a_) have the fore-wings developed and the
+  hind-wings greatly reduced, while in the female wings are totally
+  absent and the body undergoes marked degradation (figs. 12, _e_, 13,
+  _a_, _b_). In the Coccids the formation of a protective waxy
+  secretion--present in many genera of Homoptera--reaches its most
+  extreme development. In some coccids--the "mealy-bugs" (_Dactylopius_,
+  &c.) for example--the secretion forms a white thread-like or
+  plate-like covering which the insect carries about. But in most
+  members of the family, the secretion, united with cast cuticles and
+  excrement, forms a firm "scale," closely attached by its edges to the
+  surface of the plant on which the insect lives, and serving as a
+  shield beneath which the female coccid, with her eggs (fig. 13 _a_)
+  and brood, finds shelter. The male coccid passes through a passive
+  stage (fig. 4) before attaining the perfect condition. Many
+  scale-insects are among the most serious of pests, but various species
+  have been utilized by man for the production of wax (lac) and red dye
+  (cochineal). See ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY, SCALE-INSECT.
+
+
+    ANOPLURA
+
+  The Anoplura or lice (see LOUSE) are wingless parasitic insects (fig.
+  14) forming an order distinct from the Hemiptera, their sucking and
+  piercing mouth-organs being apparently formed on quite a different
+  plan from those of the Heteroptera and Homoptera. In front of the head
+  is a short tube armed with strong recurved hooks which can be fixed
+  into the skin of the host, and from the tube an elongate more slender
+  sucking-trunk can be protruded (fig. 15). Each foot is provided with a
+  single strong claw which, opposed to a process on the shin, serves to
+  grasp a hair of the host, all the lice being parasites on different
+  mammals. Although G. Enderlein has recently shown that the jaws of the
+  Hemiptera can be recognized in a reduced condition in connexion with
+  the louse's proboscis, the modification is so excessive that the group
+  certainly deserves ordinal separation.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--A recent standard work on the morphology of the
+  Hemiptera by R. Heymons (_Nova Acta Acad. Leop. Carol._ lxxiv. 3,
+  1899) contains numerous references to older literature. An excellent
+  survey of the order is given by D. Sharp (_Cambridge Nat. Hist._ vol.
+  vi., 1898). For internal structure of Heteroptera see R. Dufour, _Mem.
+  savans étrangers_ (Paris, iv., 1833); of Homoptera, E. Witlaczil
+  (_Arb. Zool. Inst. Wien_, iv., 1882, _Zeits. f. wiss. Zool._ xliii.,
+  1885). The development of Aphids has been dealt with by T. H. Huxley
+  (_Trans. Linn. Soc._ xxii., 1858) and E. Witlaczil (_Zeits. f. wiss.
+  Zool._ xl., 1884). Fossil Hemiptera are described by S. H. Scudder in
+  K. Zittel's _Paléontologie_ (French translation, vol. ii. Paris, 1887,
+  and English edition, vol. i., London, 1900), and by A. Handlirsch
+  (_Verh. zool. bot. Gesell. Wien_, lii., 1902). Among general
+  systematic works on Heteroptera may be mentioned J. C. Schiödte (_Ann.
+  Mag. Nat. Hist._ (4) vi., 1870); C. Stal's _Enumeratio Hemipterorum_
+  (_K. Svensk. Vet. Akad. Handl._ ix.-xiv., 1870-1876); L. Lethierry and
+  G. Severin's _Catalogue générale des hémiptères_ (Brussels 1893, &c.);
+  G. C. Champion's volumes in the _Biologia Centrali-Americana_; W. L.
+  Distant's Oriental Cicadidae (London, 1889-1892), and many other
+  papers; M. E. Fernald's _Catalogue of the Coccidae_ (Amherst, U.S.A.,
+  1903). European Hemiptera have been dealt with in numerous papers by
+  A. Puton. For British species we have E. Saunders's
+  _Hemiptera-Heteroptera of the British Isles_ (London, 1892); J.
+  Edwards's Hemiptera-Homoptera of the British Isles (London, 1896); J.
+  B. Buckton's _British Aphidae_ (London, Ray Society, 1875-1882); and
+  R. Newstead's _British Coccidae_ (London, Ray Society, 1901-1903).
+  Aquatic Hemiptera are described by L. C. Miall (_Nat. History Aquatic
+  Insects_; London, 1895), and by G. W. Kirkaldy in numerous recent
+  papers (_Entomologist_, &c.). For marine Hemiptera (_Halobates_) see
+  F. B. White (_Challenger Reports_, vii., 1883); J. J. Walker (_Ent.
+  Mo. Mag._, 1893); N. Nassonov (Warsaw, 1893), and G. H. Carpenter
+  (_Knowledge_, 1901, and _Report, Pearl Oyster Fisheries, Royal
+  Society_, 1906). Sound-producing organs of Heteroptera are described
+  by A. Handlirsch (_Ann. Hofmus. Wien_, xv. 1900), and G. W. Kirkaldy
+  (_Journ. Quekett Club_ (2) viii. 1901); of Cicads by G. Carlet (_Ann.
+  Sci. Nat. Zool._ (6) v. 1877). For the Anoplura see E. Piaget's
+  _Pediculines_ (Leiden, 1880-1905), and G. Enderlein (_Zool. Anz._
+  xxviii., 1904).     (G. H. C.)
+
+
+
+
+HEMLOCK (in O. Eng. _hemlic_ or _hymlice_; no cognate is found in any
+other language, and the origin is unknown), the _Conium maculatum_ of
+botanists, a biennial umbelliferous plant, found wild in many parts of
+Great Britain and Ireland, where it occurs in waste places on
+hedge-banks, and by the borders of fields, and also widely spread over
+Europe and temperate Asia, and naturalized in the cultivated districts
+of North and South America. It is an erect branching plant, growing from
+3 to 6 ft. high, and emitting a disagreeable smell, like that of mice.
+The stems are hollow, smooth, somewhat glaucous green, spotted with dull
+dark purple, as alluded to in the specific name, _maculatum_. The
+root-leaves have long furrowed footstalks, sheathing the stem at the
+base, and are large, triangular in outline, and repeatedly divided or
+compound, the ultimate and very numerous segments being small, ovate,
+and deeply incised at the edge. These leaves generally perish after the
+growth of the flowering stem, which takes place in the second year,
+while the leaves produced on the stem became gradually smaller upwards.
+The branches are all terminated by compound many-rayed umbels of small
+white flowers, the general involucres consisting of several, the partial
+ones of about three short lanceolate bracts, the latter being usually
+turned towards the outside of the umbel. The flowers are succeeded by
+broadly ovate fruits, the mericarps (half-fruits) having five ribs
+which, when mature, are waved or crenated; and when cut across the
+albumen is seen to be deeply furrowed on the inner face, so as to
+exhibit in section a reniform outline. The fruits when triturated with a
+solution of caustic potash evolve a most unpleasant odour.
+
+Hemlock is a virulent poison, but it varies much in potency according to
+the conditions under which it has grown, and the season or stage of
+growth at which it is gathered. In the first year the leaves have little
+power, nor in the second are their properties developed until the
+flowering period, at which time, or later on when the fruits are fully
+grown, the plant should be gathered. The wild plant growing in exposed
+situations is to be preferred to garden-grown samples, and is more
+potent in dry warm summers than in those which are dull and moist.
+
+The poisonous property of hemlock resides chiefly in the alkaloid
+_conine_ or _conia_ which is found in both the fruits and the leaves,
+though in exceedingly small proportions in the latter. Conine resembles
+nicotine in its deleterious action, but is much less powerful. No
+chemical antidote for it is known. The plant also yields a second less
+poisonous crystallizable base called _conhydrine_, which may be
+converted into conine by the abstraction of the elements of water. When
+collected for medicinal purposes, for which both leaves and fruits are
+used, the former should be gathered at the time the plant is in full
+blossom, while the latter are said to possess the greatest degree of
+energy just before they ripen. The fruits are the chief source whence
+conine is prepared. The principal forms in which hemlock is employed are
+the extract and juice of hemlock, hemlock poultice, and the tincture of
+hemlock fruits. Large doses produce vertigo, nausea and paralysis; but
+in smaller quantities, administered by skilful hands, it has a sedative
+action on the nerves. It has also some reputation as an alterative and
+resolvent, and as an anodyne.
+
+The acrid narcotic properties of the plant render it of some importance
+that one should be able to identify it, the more so as some of the
+compound-leaved umbellifers, which have a general similarity of
+appearance to it, form wholesome food for man and animals. Not only is
+this knowledge desirable to prevent the poisonous plant being
+detrimentally used in place of the wholesome one; it is equally
+important in the opposite case, namely, to prevent the inert being
+substituted for the remedial agent. The plant with which hemlock is most
+likely to be confounded is _Anthriscus sylvestris_, or cow-parsley, the
+leaves of which are freely eaten by cattle and rabbits; this plant, like
+the hemlock, has spotted stems but they are hairy, not hairless; it has
+much-divided leaves of the same general form, but they are downy and
+aromatic, not smooth and nauseous when bruised; and the fruit of
+_Anthriscus_ is linear-oblong and not ovate.
+
+
+
+
+HEMP (in O. Eng. _henep_, cf. Dutch _hennep_, Ger. _Hanf_, cognate with
+Gr. [Greek: kannabis], Lat. _cannabis_), an annual herb (_Cannabis
+sativa_) having angular rough stems and alternate deeply lobed leaves.
+The bast fibres of _Cannabis_ are the hemp of commerce, but,
+unfortunately, the products from many totally different plants are often
+included under the general name of hemp. In some cases the fibre is
+obtained from the stem, while in others it comes from the leaf. Sunn
+hemp, Manila hemp, Sisal hemp, and Phormium (New Zealand flax, which is
+neither flax nor hemp) are treated separately. All these, however, are
+often classed under the above general name, and so are the
+following:--Deccan or Ambari hemp, _Hibiscus cannabinus_, an Indian and
+East Indian malvaceous plant, the fibre from which is often known as
+brown hemp or Bombay hemp; Pité hemp, which is obtained from the
+American aloe, _Agave americana_; and Moorva or bowstring-hemp,
+_Sansevieria zeylanica_, which is obtained from an aloe-like plant, and
+is a native of India and Ceylon. Then there are Canada hemp, _Apocynum
+cannabinum_, Kentucky hemp, _Urtica cannabina_, and others.
+
+The hemp plant, like the hop, which is of the same natural order,
+Cannabinaceae, is dioecious, i.e. the male and female flowers are borne
+on separate plants. The female plant grows to a greater height than the
+male, and its foliage is darker and more luxuriant, but the plant takes
+from five to six weeks longer to ripen. When the male plants are ripe
+they are pulled, put up into bundles, and steeped in a similar manner to
+flax, but the female plants are allowed to remain until the seed is
+perfectly ripe. They are then pulled, and after the seed has been
+removed are retted in the ordinary way. The seed is also a valuable
+product; the finest is kept for sowing, a large quantity is sold for the
+food of cage birds, while the remainder is sent to the oil mills to be
+crushed. The extracted oil is used in the manufacture of soap, while the
+solid remains, known as oil-cake, are valuable as a food for cattle. The
+leaves of hemp have five to seven leaflets, the form of which is
+lanceolate-acuminate, with a serrate margin. The loose panicles of male
+flowers, and the short spikes of female flowers, arise from the axils of
+the upper leaves. The height of the plant varies greatly with season,
+soil and manuring; in some districts it varies from 3 to 8 ft., but in
+the Piedmont province it is not unusual to see them from 8 to 16 ft. in
+height, whilst a variety (_Cannabis sativa_, variety gigantea) has
+produced specimens over 17 ft. in height.
+
+All cultivated hemp belongs to the same species, _Cannabis sativa_; the
+special varieties such as _Cannabis indica_, _Cannabis chinensis_, &c.,
+owe their differences to climate and soil, and they lose many of their
+peculiarities when cultivated in temperate regions. Rumphius (in the
+17th century) had noticed these differences between Indian and European
+hemp.
+
+Wild hemp still grows on the banks of the lower Ural, and the Volga,
+near the Caspian Sea. It extends to Persia, the Altai range and northern
+and western China. The authors of the _Pharmacographia_ say:--"It is
+found in Kashmir and in the Himalaya, growing 10 to 12 ft. high, and
+thriving vigorously at an elevation of 6000 to 10,000 ft." Wild hemp is,
+however, of very little use as a fibre producer, although a drug is
+obtained from it.
+
+It would appear that the native country of the hemp plant is in some
+part of temperate Asia, probably near the Caspian Sea. It spread
+westward throughout Europe, and southward through the Indian peninsula.
+
+The names given to the plant and to its products in different countries
+are of interest in connexion with the utilization of the fibre and
+resin. In Sans. it is called _goni_, _sana_, _shanapu_, _banga_ and
+_ganjika_; in Bengali, _ganga_; Pers. _bang_ and _canna_; Arab. _kinnub_
+or _cannub_; Gr. _kannabis_; Lat. _cannabis_; Ital. _canappa_; Fr.
+_chanvre_; Span. _cáñamo_; Portuguese, _cánamo_; Russ. _konópel_;
+Lettish and Lithuanian, _kannapes_; Slav. _konopi_; Erse, _canaib_ and
+_canab_; A. Sax. _hoenep_; Dutch, _hennep_; Ger. _Hanf_; Eng. _hemp_;
+Danish and Norwegian, _hamp_; Icelandic, _hampr_; and in Swed. _hampa_.
+The English word _canvas_ sufficiently reveals its derivation from
+_cannabis_.
+
+Very little hemp is now grown in the British Isles, although this
+variety was considered to be of very good quality, and to possess great
+strength. The chief continental hemp-producing countries are Italy,
+Russia and France; it is also grown in several parts of Canada and the
+United States and India. The Central Provinces, Bengal and Bombay are
+the chief centres of hemp cultivation in India, where the plant is of
+most use for narcotics. The satisfactory growth of hemp demands a light,
+rich and fertile soil, but, unlike most substances, it may be reared for
+a few years in succession. The time of sowing, the quantity of seed per
+acre (about three bushels) and the method of gathering and retting are
+very similar to those of flax; but, as a rule, it is a hardier plant
+than flax, does not possess the same pliability, is much coarser and
+more brittle, and does not require the same amount of attention during
+the first few weeks of its growth.
+
+The very finest hemp, that grown in the province of Piedmont, Italy,
+is, however, very similar to flax, and in many cases the two fibres are
+mixed in the same material. The hemp fibre has always been valuable for
+the rope industry, and it was at one time very extensively used in the
+production of yarns for the manufacture of sail cloth, sheeting, covers,
+bagging, sacking, &c. Much of the finer quality is still made into
+cloth, but almost all the coarser quality finds its way into ropes and
+similar material.
+
+A large quantity of hemp cloth is still made for the British navy. The
+cloth, when finished, is cut up into lengths, made into bags and tarred.
+They are then used as coal sacks. There is also a quantity made into
+sacks which are intended to hold very heavy material. Hemp yarns are
+also used in certain classes of carpets, for special bags for use in cop
+dyeing and for similar special purposes, but for the ordinary bagging
+and sacking the employment of hemp yarns has been almost entirely
+supplanted by yarns made from the jute fibre.
+
+Hemp is grown for three products--(1) the fibre of its stem; (2) the
+resinous secretion which is developed in hot countries upon its leaves
+and flowering heads; (3) its oily seeds.
+
+Hemp has been employed for its fibre from ancient times. Herodotus (iv.
+74) mentions the wild and cultivated hemp of Scythia, and describes the
+hempen garments made by the Thracians as equal to linen in fineness.
+Hesychius says the Thracian women made sheets of hemp. Moschion (about
+200 B.C.) records the use of hempen ropes for rigging the ship
+"Syracusia" built for Hiero II. The hemp plant has been cultivated in
+northern India from a considerable antiquity, not only as a drug but for
+its fibre. The Anglo-Saxons were well acquainted with the mode of
+preparing hemp. Hempen cloth became common in central and southern
+Europe in the 13th century.
+
+_Hemp-resin._--Hemp as a drug or intoxicant for smoking and chewing
+occurs in the three forms of bhang, ganja and charas.
+
+1. _Bhang_, the Hindustani _siddhi_ or _sabzi_, consists of the dried
+leaves and small stalks of the hemp; a few fruits occur in it. It is of
+a dark brownish-green colour, and has a faint peculiar odour and but a
+slight taste. It is smoked with or without tobacco; or it is made into a
+sweetmeat with honey, sugar and aromatic spices; or it is powdered and
+infused in cold water, yielding a turbid drink, _subdschi_. _Hashish_ is
+one of the Arabic names given to the Syrian and Turkish preparations of
+the resinous hemp leaves. One of the commonest of these preparations is
+made by heating the bhang with water and butter, the butter becoming
+thus charged with the resinous and active substances of the plant.
+
+2. _Ganja_, the guaza of the London brokers, consists of the flowering
+and fruiting heads of the female plant. It is brownish-green, and
+otherwise resembles bhang, as in odour and taste. Some of the more
+esteemed kinds of hashish are prepared from this ganja. Ganja is met
+with in the Indian bazaars in dense bundles of 24 plants or heads
+apiece. The hashish in such extensive use in Central Asia is often seen
+in the bazaars of large cities in the form of cakes, 1 to 3 in. thick, 5
+to 10 in. broad and 10 to 15 in. long.
+
+3. _Charas_, or churrus, is the resin itself collected, as it exudes
+naturally from the plant, in different ways. The best sort is gathered
+by the hand like opium; sometimes the resinous exudation of the plant is
+made to stick first of all to cloths, or to the leather garments of men,
+or even to their skin, and is then removed by scraping, and afterwards
+consolidated by kneading, pressing and rolling. It contains about
+one-third or one-fourth its weight of the resin. But the churrus
+prepared by different methods and in different countries differs greatly
+in appearance and purity. Sometimes it takes the form of egg-like masses
+of greyish-brown colour, having when of high quality a shining resinous
+fracture. Often it occurs in the form of irregular friable lumps, like
+pieces of impure linseed oil-cake.
+
+The medicinal and intoxicating properties of hemp have probably been
+known in Oriental countries from a very early period. An ancient Chinese
+herbal, part of which was written about the 5th century B.C., while the
+remainder is of still earlier date, notices the seed and flower-bearing
+kinds of hemp. Other early writers refer to hemp as a remedy. The
+medicinal and dietetic use of hemp spread through India, Persia and
+Arabia in the early middle ages. The use of hemp (bhang) in India was
+noticed by Garcia d'Orta in 1563. Berlu in his _Treasury of Drugs_
+(1690) describes it as of "an infatuating quality and pernicious use."
+Attention was recalled to this drug, in consequence of Napoleon's
+Egyptian expedition, by de Sacy (1809) and Rouger (1810). Its modern
+medicinal use is chiefly due to trials by Dr O'Shaughnessy in Calcutta
+(1838-1842). The plant is grown partly and often mainly for the sake of
+its resin in Persia, northern India and Arabia, in many parts of Africa
+and in Brazil.
+
+_Pharmacology and Therapeutics._--The composition of this drug is still
+extremely obscure; partly, perhaps, because it varies so much in
+individual specimens. It appears to contain at least two
+alkaloids--cannabinine and tetano-cannabine--of which the former is
+volatile. The chief active principle may possibly be neither of these,
+but the substance cannabinon. There are also resins, a volatile oil and
+several other constituents. Cannabis indica--as the drug is termed in
+the pharmacopoeias--may be given as an extract (dose ¼-1 gr.) or
+tincture (dose 5-15 minims).
+
+The drug has no external action. The effects of its absorption, whether
+it be swallowed or smoked, vary within wide limits in different
+individuals and races. So great is this variation as to be inexplicable
+except on the view that the nature and proportions of the active
+principles vary greatly in different specimens. But typically the drug
+is an intoxicant, resembling alcohol in many features of its action, but
+differing in others. The early symptoms are highly pleasurable, and it
+is for these, as in the case of other stimulants, that the drug is so
+largely consumed in the East. There is a subjective sensation of mental
+brilliance, but, as in other cases, this is not borne out by the
+objective results. It has been suggested that the incoordination of
+nervous action under the influence of Indian hemp may be due to
+independent and non-concerted action on the part of the two halves of
+the cerebrum. Following on a decided lowering of the pain and touch
+senses, which may even lead to complete loss of cutaneous sensation,
+there comes a sleep which is often accompanied by pleasant dreams. There
+appears to be no evidence in the case of either the lower animals or the
+human subject that the drug is an aphrodisiac. Excessive indulgence in
+cannabis indica is very rare, but may lead to general ill-health and
+occasionally to insanity. The apparent impossibility of obtaining pure
+and trustworthy samples of the drug has led to its entire abandonment in
+therapeutics. When a good sample is obtained it is a safe and efficient
+hypnotic, at any rate in the case of a European. The tincture should not
+be prescribed unless precautions are taken to avoid the precipitation of
+the resin which follows its dilution with water.
+
+  See Watt, _Dictionary of the Economic Products of India_.
+
+
+
+
+HEMSTERHUIS, FRANÇOIS (1721-1790), Dutch writer on aesthetics and moral
+philosophy, son of Tiberius Hemsterhuis, was born at Franeker in
+Holland, on the 27th of December 1721. He was educated at the university
+of Leiden, where he studied Plato. Failing to obtain a professorship, he
+entered the service of the state, and for many years acted as secretary
+to the state council of the United Provinces. He died at the Hague on
+the 7th of July 1790. Through his philosophical writings he became
+acquainted with many distinguished persons--Goethe, Herder, Princess
+Amalia of Gallitzin, and especially Jacobi, with whom he had much in
+common. Both were idealists, and their works suffer from a similar lack
+of arrangement, although distinguished by elegance of form and refined
+sentiment. His most valuable contributions are in the department of
+aesthetics or the general analysis of feeling. His philosophy has been
+characterized as Socratic in content and Platonic in form. Its
+foundation was the desire for self-knowledge and truth, untrammelled by
+the rigid bonds of any particular system.
+
+  His most important works, all of which were written in French, are:
+  _Lettre sur la sculpture_ (1769), in which occurs the well-known
+  definition of the Beautiful as "that which gives us the greatest
+  number of ideas in the shortest space of time"; its continuation,
+  _Lettre sur les désirs_ (1770); _Lettre sur l'homme et ses rapports_
+  (1772), in which the "moral organ" and the theory of knowledge are
+  discussed; _Sopyle_ (1778), a dialogue on the relation between the
+  soul and the body, and also an attack on materialism; _Aristée_
+  (1779), the "theodicy" of Hemsterhuis, discussing the existence of God
+  and his relation to man; _Simon_ (1787), on the four faculties of the
+  soul, which are the will, the imagination, the moral principle (which
+  is both passive and active); _Alexis_ (1787), an attempt to prove that
+  there are three golden ages, the last being the life beyond the grave;
+  _Lettre sur l'athéisme_ (1787).
+
+  The best collected edition of his works is by P. S. Meijboom
+  (1846-1850); see also S. A. Gronemann, _F. Hemsterhuis, de
+  Nederlandische Wijsgeer_ (Utrecht, 1867); E. Grucker, _François
+  Hemsterhuis, sa vie et ses oeuvres_ (Paris, 1866); E. Meyer, _Der
+  Philosoph Franz Hemsterhuis_ (Breslau, 1893), with bibliographical
+  notice.
+
+
+
+
+HEMSTERHUIS, TIBERIUS (1685-1766), Dutch philologist and critic, was
+born on the 9th of January 1685 at Groningen in Holland. His father, a
+learned physician, gave him so good an early education that, when he
+entered the university of his native town in his fifteenth year, he
+speedily proved himself to be the best student of mathematics. After a
+year or two at Groningen, he was attracted to the university of Leiden
+by the fame of Perizonius; and while there he was entrusted with the
+duty of arranging the manuscripts in the library. Though he accepted an
+appointment as professor of mathematics and philosophy at Amsterdam in
+his twentieth year, he had already directed his attention to the study
+of the ancient languages. In 1706 he completed the edition of Pollux's
+_Onomasticon_ begun by Lederlin; but the praise he received from his
+countrymen was more than counterbalanced by two letters of criticism
+from Bentley, which mortified him so keenly that for two months he
+refused to open a Greek book. In 1717 Hemsterhuis was appointed
+professor of Greek at Franeker, but he did not enter on his duties there
+till 1720. In 1738 he became professor of national history also. Two
+years afterwards he was called to teach the same subjects at Leiden,
+where he died on the 7th of April 1766. Hemsterhuis was the founder of a
+laborious and useful Dutch school of criticism, which had famous
+disciples in Valckenaer, Lennep and Ruhnken.
+
+  His chief writings are the following: _Luciani colloquia et Timon_
+  (1708); _Aristophanis Plutus_ (1744); _Notae, &c., ad Xenophontem
+  Ephesium in the Miscellanea critica_ of Amsterdam, vols. iii. and iv.;
+  _Observationes ad Chrysostomi homilias; Orationes_ (1784); a Latin
+  translation of the _Birds_ of Aristophanes, in Küster's edition; notes
+  to Bernard's _Thomas Magister_, to Alberti's _Hesychius_, to Ernesti's
+  _Callimachus_ and to Burmann's _Propertius_. See _Elogium T.
+  Hemsterhusii_ (with Bentley's letters) by Ruhnken (1789), and
+  _Supplementa annotationis ad elogium T. Hemsterhusii, &c._ (Leiden,
+  1874); also J. E. Sandys' _Hist. Class. Scholarship_, ii. (1908).
+
+
+
+
+HEMY, CHARLES NAPIER (1841-   ), British painter, born at
+Newcastle-on-Tyne, was trained in the Newcastle school of art, in the
+Antwerp academy and in the studio of Baron Leys. He has produced some
+figure subjects and landscapes, but is best known by his admirable
+marine paintings. He was elected an associate of the Royal Academy in
+1898, associate of the Royal Society of Painters in Water Colours in
+1890 and member in 1897. Two of his paintings, "Pilchards" (1897) and
+"London River" (1904), are in the National Gallery of British Art.
+
+
+
+
+HEN, a female bird, especially the female of the common fowl (q.v.). The
+O. Eng. _hæn_ is the feminine form of _hana_, the male bird, a
+correlation of words which is represented in other Teutonic languages,
+cf. Ger. _Hahn_, _Henne_, Dutch _haan_, _hen_, Swed. _hane_, _hönne_,
+&c. The O. Eng. name for the male bird has disappeared, its place being
+taken by "cock," a word probably of onomatopoeic origin, being from a
+base _kuk_- or _kik_-, seen also in "chicken." This word also appears in
+Fr. _coq_, and medieval Lat. _coccus_.
+
+
+
+
+HÉNAULT, CHARLES JEAN FRANÇOIS (1685-1770), French historian, was born
+in Paris on the 8th of February 1685. His father, a farmer-general of
+taxes, was a man of literary tastes, and young Hénault obtained a good
+education at the Jesuit college. Captivated by the eloquence of
+Massillon, in his fifteenth year he entered the Oratory with the view of
+becoming a preacher, but after two years' residence he changed his
+intention, and, inheriting a position which secured him access to the
+most select society of Paris, he achieved distinction at an early period
+by his gay, witty and graceful manners. His literary talent, manifested
+in the composition of various light poetical pieces, an opera, a tragedy
+(_Cornélie vestale_, 1710), &c., obtained his entrance to the Academy
+(1723). _Petit-maître_ as he was, he had also serious capacity, for he
+became councillor of the _parlement_ of Paris (1705), and in 1710 he was
+chosen president of the court of _enquêtes_. After the death of the
+count de Rieux (son of the famous financier, Samuel Bernard) he became
+(1753) superintendent of the household of Queen Marie Leszczynska, whose
+intimate friendship he had previously enjoyed. On his recovery in his
+eightieth year from a dangerous malady (1765) he professed to have
+undergone religious conversion and retired into private life, devoting
+the remainder of his days to study and devotion. His religion was,
+however, according to the marquis d'Argenson, "exempt from fanaticism,
+persecution, bitterness and intrigue"; and it did not prevent him from
+continuing his friendship with Voltaire, to whom it is said he had
+formerly rendered the service of saving the manuscript of _La Henriade_,
+when its author was about to commit it to the flames. The literary work
+on which Hénault bestowed his chief attention was the _Abrégé
+chronologique de l'histoire de France_, first published in 1744 without
+the author's name. In the compass of two volumes he comprised the whole
+history of France from the earliest times to the death of Louis XIV. The
+work has no originality. Hénault had kept his note-books of the history
+lectures at the Jesuit college, of which the substance was taken from
+Mézeray and P. Daniel. He revised them first in 1723, and later put them
+in the form of question and answer on the model of P. le Ragois, and by
+following Dubos and Boulainvilliers and with the aid of the abbé Boudot
+he compiled his _Abrégé_. The research is all on the surface and is only
+borrowed. But the work had a prodigious success, and was translated into
+several languages, even into Chinese. This was due partly to Hénault's
+popularity and position, partly to the agreeable style which made the
+history readable. He inserted, according to the fashion of the period,
+moral and political reflections, which are always brief and generally as
+fresh and pleasing as they are just. A few masterly strokes reproduced
+the leading features of each age and the characters of its illustrious
+men; accurate chronological tables set forth the most interesting events
+in the history of each sovereign and the names of the great men who
+flourished during his reign; and interspersed throughout the work are
+occasional chapters on the social and civil state of the country at the
+close of each era in its history. Continuations of the work have been
+made at separate periods by Fantin des Odoards, by Anguis with notes by
+Walckenaer, and by Michaud. He died at Paris on the 24th of November
+1770.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Hénault's _Mémoires_ have come down to us in two
+  different versions, both claiming to be authentic. One was published
+  in 1855 by M. du Vigan; the other was owned by the Comte de Coutades,
+  who permitted Lucien Perey to give long extracts in his work on
+  President Hénault (Paris, 1893). The memoirs are fragmentary and
+  disconnected, but contain interesting anecdotes and details concerning
+  persons of note. See the _Correspondance_ of Grimm, of Madame du
+  Deffand and of Voltaire; the notice by Walckenaer in the edition of
+  the _Abrégé_; Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du lundi_, vol. xi.; and the
+  _Origines de l'abrégé_ (_Ann. Bulletin de la Société de l'histoire de
+  France_, 1901). Also H. Lion, _Le Président Hénault_ (Paris, 1903).
+
+
+
+
+HENBANE (Fr. _jusquiaume_, from the Gr. [Greek: hyoskuamos], or
+hog's-bean; Ital. _giusquiamo_; Ger. _Schwarzes Bilsenkraut_,
+_Hühnertod_, _Saubohne_ and _Zigeuner-Korn_ or "gipsies' corn"), the
+common name of the plant _Hyoscyamus niger_, a member of the natural
+order Solanaceae, indigenous to Britain, found wild in waste places, on
+rubbish about villages and old castles, and cultivated for medicinal use
+in various counties in the south and east of England. It occurs also in
+central and southern Europe and in western Asia extending to India and
+Siberia, and has long been naturalized in the United States. There are
+two forms of the plant, an annual and a biennial, which spring
+indifferently from the same crop of seed--the one growing on during
+summer to a height of from 1 to 2 ft., and flowering and perfecting
+seed; the other producing the first season only a tuft of radical
+leaves, which disappear in winter, leaving underground a thick fleshy
+root, from the crown of which arises in spring a branched flowering
+stem, usually much taller and more vigorous than the flowering stems of
+the annual plants. The biennial form is that which is considered
+officinal. The radical leaves of this biennial plant spread out flat on
+all sides from the crown of the root; they are ovate-oblong, acute,
+stalked, and more or less incisely-toothed, of a greyish-green colour,
+and covered with viscid hairs; these leaves perish at the approach of
+winter. The flowering stem pushes up from the root-crown in spring,
+ultimately reaching from 3 to 4 ft. in height, and as it grows becoming
+branched, and furnished with alternate sessile leaves, which are
+stem-clasping, oblong, unequally-lobed, clothed with glandular clammy
+hairs, and of a dull grey-green, the whole plant having a powerful
+nauseous odour. The flowers are shortly-stalked, the lower ones growing
+in the fork of the branches, the upper ones sessile in one-sided leafy
+spikes which are rolled back at the top before flowering, the leaves
+becoming smaller upwards and taking the place of bracts. The flowers
+have an urn-shaped calyx which persists around the fruit and is strongly
+veined, with five stiff, broad, almost prickly lobes; these, when the
+soft matter is removed by maceration, form very elegant specimens when
+associated with leaves prepared in a similar way. The corollas are
+obliquely funnel-shaped, of a dirty yellow or buff, marked with a close
+reticulation of purple veins. The capsule opens transversely by a convex
+lid and contains numerous seeds. Both the leaves and the seeds are
+employed in pharmacy. The Mahommedan doctors of India are accustomed to
+prescribe the seeds. Henbane yields a poisonous alkaloid, _hyoscyamine_,
+which is stated to have properties almost identical with those of
+atropine, from which it differs in being more soluble in water. It is
+usually obtained in an amorphous, scarcely ever in a crystalline state.
+Its properties have been investigated in Germany by T. Husemann,
+Schroff, Höhn, &c. Höhn finds its chemical composition expressed by
+C18H28N2O3. (Compare Hellmann, _Beiträge zur Kenntnis der physiolog.
+Wirkung des Hyoscyamins_, &c., Jena, 1874.) In small and repeated doses
+henbane has been found to have a tranquillizing effect upon persons
+affected by severe nervous irritability. In poisonous doses it causes
+loss of speech, distortion and paralysis. In the form of extract or
+tincture it is a valuable remedy in the hands of a medical man, either
+as an anodyne, a hypnotic or a sedative. The extract of henbane is rich
+in nitrate of potassium and other inorganic salts. The smoking of the
+seeds and capsules of henbane is noted in books as a somewhat dangerous
+remedy adopted by country people for toothache. Accidental poisoning
+from henbane occasionally occurs, owing sometimes to the apparent
+edibility and wholesomeness of the root.
+
+  See Bentley and Trumen, _Medicinal Plants_, 194 (1880).
+
+
+
+
+HENCHMAN, originally, probably, one who attended on a horse, a groom,
+and hence, like groom (q.v.), a title of a subordinate official in royal
+or noble households. The first part of the word is the O. Eng.
+_hengest_, a horse, a word which occurs in many Teutonic languages, cf.
+Ger. and Dutch _hengst_. The word appears in the name, Hengest, of the
+Saxon chieftain (see HENGEST AND HORSA) and still survives in English in
+place and other names beginning with Hingst- or Hinx-. Henchmen, pages
+of honour or squires, rode or walked at the side of their master in
+processions and the like, and appear in the English royal household from
+the 14th century till Elizabeth abolished the royal henchmen, known also
+as the "children of honour." The word was obsolete in English from the
+middle of the 17th century, and seems to have been revived through Sir
+Walter Scott, who took the word and its derivation, according to the
+_New English Dictionary_, from Edward Burt's _Letters from a Gentleman
+in the North of Scotland_, together with its erroneous derivation from
+"haunch." The word is, in this sense, used as synonymous with "gillie,"
+the faithful personal follower of a Highland chieftain, the man who
+stands at his master's "haunch," ready for any emergency. It is this
+sense that usually survives in modern usage of the word, where it is
+often used of an out-and-out adherent or partisan, ready to do anything.
+
+
+
+
+
+HENDERSON, ALEXANDER (1583-1646), Scottish ecclesiastic, was born in
+1583 at Criech, Fifeshire. He graduated at the university of St Andrews
+in 1603, and in 1610 was appointed professor of rhetoric and philosophy
+and questor of the faculty of arts. Shortly after this he was presented
+to the living of Leuchars. As Henderson was forced upon his parish by
+Archbishop George Gladstanes, and was known to sympathize with
+episcopacy, his settlement was at first extremely unpopular; but he
+subsequently changed his views and became a Presbyterian in doctrine and
+church government, and one of the most esteemed ministers in Scotland.
+He early made his mark as a church leader, and took an active part in
+petitioning against the "five acts" and later against the introduction
+of a service-book and canons drawn up on the model of the English
+prayer-book. On the 1st of March 1638 the public signing of the
+"National Covenant" began in Greyfriars Church, Edinburgh. Henderson was
+mainly responsible for the final form of this document, which consisted
+of (1) the "king's confession" drawn up in 1581 by John Craig, (2) a
+recital of the acts of parliament against "superstitious and papistical
+rites," and (3) an elaborate oath to maintain the true reformed
+religion. Owing to the skill shown on this occasion he seems to have
+been applied to when any manifesto of unusual ability was required. In
+July of the same year he proceeded to the north to debate on the
+"Covenant" with the famous Aberdeen doctors; but he was not well
+received by them. "The voyd church was made fast, and the keys keeped by
+the magistrate," says Baillie. Henderson's next public opportunity was
+in the famous Assembly which met in Glasgow on the 21st of November
+1638. He was chosen moderator by acclamation, being, as Baillie says,
+"incomparablie the ablest man of us all for all things." James Hamilton,
+3rd marquess of Hamilton, was the king's commissioner; and when the
+Assembly insisted on proceeding with the trial of the bishops, he
+formally dissolved the meeting under pain of treason. Acting on the
+constitutional principle that the king's right to convene did not
+interfere with the church's independent right to hold assemblies, they
+sat till the 20th of December, deposed all the Scottish bishops,
+excommunicated a number of them, repealed all acts favouring episcopacy,
+and reconstituted the Scottish Kirk on thorough Presbyterian principles.
+During the sitting of this Assembly it was carried by a majority of
+seventy-five votes that Henderson should be transferred to Edinburgh. He
+had been at Leuchars for about twenty-three years, and was extremely
+reluctant to leave it.
+
+While Scotland and England were preparing for the "First Bishops' War,"
+Henderson drew up two papers, entitled respectively _The Remonstrance of
+the Nobility_ and _Instructions for Defensive Arms_. The first of these
+documents he published himself; the second was published against his
+wish by John Corbet (1603-1641), a deposed minister. The "First Bishops'
+War" did not last long. At the Pacification of Birks the king virtually
+granted all the demands of the Scots. In the negotiations for peace
+Henderson was one of the Scottish commissioners, and made a very
+favourable impression on the king. In 1640 Henderson was elected by the
+town council rector of Edinburgh University--an office to which he was
+annually re-elected till his death. The Pacification of Birks had been
+wrung from the king; and the Scots, seeing that he was preparing for the
+"Second Bishops' War," took the initiative, and pressed into England so
+vigorously that Charles had again to yield everything. The maturing of
+the treaty of peace took a considerable time, and Henderson was again
+active in the negotiations, first at Ripon (October 1st) and afterwards
+in London. While he was in London he had a personal interview with the
+king, with the view of obtaining assistance for the Scottish
+universities from the money formerly applied to the support of the
+bishops. On Henderson's return to Edinburgh in July 1641 the Assembly
+was sitting at St Andrews. To suit the convenience of the parliament,
+however, it removed to Edinburgh; Henderson was elected moderator of the
+Edinburgh meeting. In this Assembly he proposed that "a confession of
+faith, a catechism, a directory for all the parts of the public worship,
+and a platform of government, wherein possibly England and we might
+agree," should be drawn up. This was unanimously approved of, and the
+laborious undertaking was left in Henderson's hands; but the "notable
+motion" did not lead to any immediate results. During Charles's second
+state-visit to Scotland, in the autumn of 1641, Henderson acted as his
+chaplain, and managed to get the funds, formerly belonging to the
+bishopric of Edinburgh, applied to the metropolitan university. In 1642
+Henderson, whose policy was to keep Scotland neutral in the war which
+had now broken out between the king and the parliament, was engaged in
+corresponding with England on ecclesiastical topics; and, shortly
+afterwards, he was sent to Oxford to mediate between the king and his
+parliament; but his mission proved a failure.
+
+A memorable meeting of the General Assembly was held in August 1643.
+Henderson was elected moderator for the third time. He presented a draft
+of the famous "Solemn League and Covenant," which was received with
+great enthusiasm. Unlike the "National Covenant" of 1638, which applied
+to Scotland only, this document was common to the two kingdoms.
+Henderson, Baillie, Rutherford and others were sent up to London to
+represent Scotland in the Assembly at Westminster. The "Solemn League
+and Covenant," which pledged both countries to the extirpation of
+prelacy, leaving further decision as to church government to be decided
+by the "example of the best reformed churches," after undergoing some
+slight alterations, passed the two Houses of Parliament and the
+Westminster Assembly, and thus became law for the two kingdoms. By means
+of it Henderson has had considerable influence on the history of Great
+Britain. As Scottish commissioner to the Westminster Assembly, he was in
+England from August 1643 till August 1646; his principal work was the
+drafting of the directory for public worship. Early in 1645 Henderson
+was sent to Uxbridge to aid the commissioners of the two parliaments in
+negotiating with the king; but nothing came of the conference. In 1646
+the king joined the Scottish army; and, after retiring with them to
+Newcastle, he sent for Henderson, and discussed with him the two systems
+of church government in a number of papers. Meanwhile Henderson was
+failing in health. He sailed to Scotland, and eight days after his
+arrival died, on the 19th of August 1646. He was buried in Greyfriars
+churchyard, Edinburgh; and his death was the occasion of national
+mourning in Scotland. On the 7th of August Baillie had written that he
+had heard that Henderson was dying "most of heartbreak." A document was
+published in London purporting to be a "Declaration of Mr Alexander
+Henderson made upon his Death-bed"; and, although this paper was
+disowned, denounced and shown to be false in the General Assembly of
+August 1648, the document was used by Clarendon as giving the impression
+that Henderson had recanted. Its foundation was probably certain
+expressions lamenting Scottish interference in English affairs.
+
+Henderson is one of the greatest men in the history of Scotland and,
+next to Knox, is certainly the most famous of Scottish ecclesiastics. He
+had great political genius; and his statesmanship was so influential
+that "he was," as Masson well observes, "a cabinet minister without
+office." He has made a deep mark on the history, not only of Scotland,
+but of England; and the existing Presbyterian churches in Scotland are
+largely indebted to him for the forms of their dogmas and their
+ecclesiastical organization. He is thus justly considered the second
+founder of the Reformed Church in Scotland.
+
+  See M'Crie's _Life of Alexander Henderson_ (1846); Aiton's _Life and
+  Times of Alexander Henderson_ (1836); _The Letters and Journals of
+  Robert Baillie_ (1841-1842) (an exceedingly valuable work, from an
+  historical point of view); J. H. Burton's _History of Scotland_; D.
+  Masson's _Life of Drummond of Hawthornden_; and, above all, Masson's
+  _Life of Milton_; Andrew Lang, _Hist. of Scotland_ (1907), vol. iii.
+  Henderson's own works are chiefly contributions to current
+  controversies, speeches and sermons.     (T. Gi.; D. Mn.)
+
+
+
+
+HENDERSON, EBENEZER (1784-1858), a Scottish divine, was born at the Linn
+near Dunfermline on the 17th of November 1784, and died at Mortlake on
+the 17th of May 1858. He was the youngest son of an agricultural
+labourer, and after three years' schooling spent some time at
+watchmaking and as a shoemaker's apprentice. In 1803 he joined Robert
+Haldane's theological seminary, and in 1805 was selected to accompany
+the Rev. John Paterson to India; but as the East India Company would not
+allow British vessels to convey missionaries to India, Henderson and his
+colleague went to Denmark to await the chance of a passage to Serampur,
+then a Danish port. Being unexpectedly delayed, and having begun to
+preach in Copenhagen, they ultimately decided to settle in Denmark, and
+in 1806 Henderson became pastor at Elsinore. From this time till about
+1817 he was engaged in encouraging the distribution of Bibles in the
+Scandinavian countries, and in the course of his labours he visited
+Sweden and Lapland (1807-1808), Iceland (1814-1815) and the mainland of
+Denmark and part of Germany (1816). During most of this time he was an
+agent of the British and Foreign Bible Society. On the 6th of October
+1811 he formed the first Congregational church in Sweden. In 1818, after
+a visit to England, he travelled in company with Paterson through Russia
+as far south as Tiflis, but, instead of settling as was proposed at
+Astrakhan, he retraced his steps, having resigned his connexion with the
+Bible Society owing to his disapproval of a translation of the
+Scriptures which had been made in Turkish. In 1822 he was invited by
+Prince Alexander (Galitzin) to assist the Russian Bible Society in
+translating the Scriptures into various languages spoken in the Russian
+empire. After twenty years of foreign labour Henderson returned to
+England, and in 1825 was appointed tutor of the Mission College,
+Gosport. In 1830 he succeeded Dr William Harrison as theological
+lecturer and professor of Oriental languages in Highbury Congregational
+College. In 1850, on the amalgamation of the colleges of Homerton,
+Coward and Highbury, he retired on a pension. In 1852-1853 he was pastor
+of Sheen Vale chapel at Mortlake. His last work was a translation of the
+book of Ezekiel. Henderson was a man of great linguistic attainment. He
+made himself more or less acquainted, not only with the ordinary
+languages of scholarly accomplishment and the various members of the
+Scandinavian group, but also with Hebrew, Syriac, Ethiopic, Russian,
+Arabic, Tatar, Persian, Turkish, Armenian, Manchu, Mongolian and Coptic.
+He organized the first Bible Society in Denmark (1814), and paved the
+way for several others. In 1817 he was nominated by the Scandinavian
+Literary Society a corresponding member; and in 1840 he was made D.D. by
+the university of Copenhagen. He was honorary secretary for life of the
+Religious Tract Society, and one of the first promoters of the British
+Society for the Propagation of the Gospel among the Jews. The records of
+his travels in Iceland (1818) were valuable contributions to our
+knowledge of that island. His other principal works are: _Iceland, or
+the Journal of a Residence in that Island_ (2 vols., 1818); _Biblical
+Researches and Travels in Russia_ (1826); _Elements of Biblical
+Criticism and Interpretation_ (1830); _The Vaudois, a Tour of the
+Valleys of Piedmont_ (1845).
+
+  See _Memoirs of Ebenezer Henderson_, by Thulia S. Henderson (his
+  daughter) (London, 1859); _Congregational Year Book_ (1859).
+
+
+
+
+HENDERSON, GEORGE FRANCIS ROBERT (1854-1903), British soldier and
+military writer, was born in Jersey in 1854. Educated at Leeds Grammar
+School, of which his father, afterwards Dean of Carlisle, was
+headmaster, he was early attracted to the study of history, and obtained
+a scholarship at St John's College, Oxford. But he soon left the
+University for Sandhurst, whence he obtained his first commission in
+1878. One year later, after a few months' service in India, he was
+promoted lieutenant and returned to England, and in 1882 he went on
+active service with his regiment, the York and Lancaster (65th/84th) to
+Egypt. He was present at Tell-el-Mahuta and Kassassin, and at
+Tell-el-Kebir was the first man of his regiment to enter the enemy's
+works. His conduct attracted the notice of Sir Garnet (afterwards Lord)
+Wolseley, and he received the 5th class of the Medjidieh order. His name
+was, further, noted for a brevet-majority, which he did not receive till
+he became captain in 1886. During these years he had been quietly
+studying military art and history at Gibraltar, in Bermuda and in Nova
+Scotia, in spite of the difficulties of research, and in 1889 appeared
+(anonymously) his first work, _The Campaign of Fredericksburg_. In the
+same year he became Instructor in Tactics, Military Law and
+Administration at Sandhurst. From this post he proceeded as Professor of
+Military Art and History to the Staff College (1892-1899), and there
+exercised a profound influence on the younger generation of officers.
+His study on _Spicheren_ had been begun some years before, and in 1898
+appeared, as the result of eight years' work, his masterpiece,
+_Stonewall Jackson and the American Civil War_. In the South African War
+Lieutenant-Colonel Henderson served with distinction on the staff of
+Lord Roberts as Director of Intelligence. But overwork and malaria broke
+his health, and he had to return home, being eventually selected to
+write the official history of the war. But failing health obliged him to
+go to Egypt, where he died at Assuan on the 5th of March 1903. He had
+completed the portion of the history of the South African War dealing
+with the events up to the commencement of hostilities, amounting to
+about a volume, but the War Office decided to suppress this, and the
+work was begun _de novo_ and carried out by Sir F. Maurice.
+
+  Various lectures and papers by Henderson were collected and published
+  in 1905 by Captain Malcolm, D.S.O., under the title _The Science of
+  War_; to this collection a memoir was contributed by Lord Roberts. See
+  also Journal of the Royal United Service Institution, vol. xlvii. No.
+  302.
+
+
+
+
+HENDERSON, JOHN (1747-1785), English actor, of Scottish descent, was
+born in London. He made his first appearance on the stage at Bath on the
+6th of October 1772 as Hamlet. His success in this and other
+Shakespearian parts led to his being called the "Bath Roscius." He had
+great difficulty in getting a London engagement, but finally appeared at
+the Haymarket in 1777 as Shylock, and his success was a source of
+considerable profit to Colman, the manager. Sheridan then engaged him to
+play at Drury Lane, where he remained for two years. When the companies
+joined forces he went to Covent Garden, appearing as Richard III. in
+1778, and creating original parts in many of the plays of Cumberland,
+Shirley, Jephson and others. His last appearance was in 1785 as Horatius
+in _The Roman Father_, and he died on the 25th of November of that year
+and was buried in Westminster Abbey. Garrick was very jealous of
+Henderson, and the latter's power of mimicry separated him also from
+Colman, but he was always gratefully remembered by Mrs. Siddons and
+others of his profession whom he had encouraged. He was a close friend
+of Gainsborough, who painted his portrait, as did also Stewart and
+Romney. He was co-author of Sheridan and Henderson's _Practical Method
+of Reading and Writing English Poetry_.
+
+
+
+
+HENDERSON, a city and the county-seat of Henderson county, Kentucky,
+U.S.A., on the S. bank of the Ohio river, about 142 m. W.S.W. of
+Louisville. Pop. (1890), 8835; (1900), 10,272, of whom 4029 were
+negroes; (1910 census) 11,452. It is served by the Illinois Central, the
+Louisville & Nashville, and the Louisville, Henderson & St. Louis
+railways, and has direct communication by steamboat with Louisville,
+Evansville, Cairo, Memphis and New Orleans. Henderson is built on the
+high bank of the river, above the flood level; the river is spanned here
+by a fine steel bridge, designed by George W. G. Ferris (1859-1896), the
+designer of the Ferris Wheel. The city has a public park of 80 acres and
+a Carnegie library. It is situated in the midst of a region whose soil
+is said to be the best in the world for the raising of dark,
+heavy-fibred tobacco, and is well adapted also for the growing of fruit,
+wheat and Indian corn. Bituminous coal is obtained from the surrounding
+country. Immense quantities of stemmed tobacco are shipped from here,
+and the city is an important market for Indian corn. The manufactures of
+the city include cotton and woollen goods, hominy, meal, flour, tobacco
+and cigars, carriages, baskets, chairs and other furniture, bricks, ice,
+whisky and beer; the value of the city's factory products in 1905 was
+$1,365,120. The municipality owns and operates its water works, gas
+plant and electric-lighting plant. Henderson, named in honour of Richard
+Henderson (1734-1785), was settled as early as 1784, was first known as
+Red Banks, was laid out as a town by Henderson's company in 1797, was
+incorporated as a town in 1810, and was first chartered as a city in
+1854. The city boundary lines were extended in 1905 by the annexation of
+Audubon and Edgewood. Henderson was for some time the home of John James
+Audubon, the ornithologist.
+
+
+
+
+HENDIADYS, the name adopted from the Gr. [Greek: hen dia duoin] ("one by
+means of two") for a rhetorical figure, in which two words connected by
+a copulative conjunction are used of a single idea; usually the figure
+takes the form of two substantives instead of a substantive and
+adjective, as in the classical example _pateris libamus et auro_
+(Virgil, _Georgics_, ii. 192), "we pour libations in cups and gold" for
+"cups of gold."
+
+
+
+
+HENDON, an urban district in the Harrow parliamentary division of
+Middlesex, England, on the river Brent, 8 m. N.W. of St Paul's
+Cathedral, London, served by the Midland railway. Pop. (1891), 15,843;
+(1901), 22,450. The nucleus of the township lies on high ground to the
+east of the Edgware road, which crosses the Welsh Harp reservoir of
+Regent's Canal, a favourite fishing and skating resort. The church of St
+Mary is mainly Perpendicular, and contains a Norman font and monuments
+of the 18th century. To the north of the village, which has extended
+greatly as a residential suburb of the metropolis, is Mill Hill, with a
+Roman Catholic Missionary College, opened in 1871, with branches at
+Rosendaal, Holland and Brixen, Austria, and a preparatory school at
+Freshfield near Liverpool; and a large grammar school founded by
+Nonconformists in 1807. The manor belonged at an early date to the abbot
+of Westminster.
+
+
+
+
+HENDRICKS, THOMAS ANDREWS (1819-1885), American political leader,
+vice-president of the United States in 1885, was born near Zanesville,
+Ohio, on the 7th of September 1819. He graduated at Hanover College,
+Hanover, Indiana, in 1841, and began in 1843 a successful career at the
+bar. Identifying himself with the Democratic party, he served in the
+state House of Representatives in 1848, and was a prominent member of
+the convention for the revision of the state constitution in 1850-1851,
+a representative in Congress (1851-1855), commissioner of the United
+States General Land Office (1855-1859), a United States senator
+(1863-1869), and governor of Indiana (1873-1877). From 1868 until his
+death he was put forward for nomination for the presidency at every
+national Democratic Convention save in 1872. Both in 1876 and 1884,
+after his failure to receive the nomination for the presidency, he was
+nominated by the Democratic National Convention for vice-president, his
+nomination in each of these conventions being made partly, it seems,
+with the hope of gaining "greenback" votes--Hendricks had opposed the
+immediate resumption of specie payments. In 1876, with S. J. Tilden, he
+lost the disputed election by the decision of the electoral commission,
+but he was elected with Grover Cleveland in 1884. He died at
+Indianapolis on the 25th of November 1885.
+
+
+
+
+HENGELO, or HENGELOO, a town in the province of Overyssel, Holland, and
+a junction station 5 m. by rail N.W. of Enschede. Pop. (1900), 14,968.
+The castle belonging to the ancient territorial lords of Hengelo has
+long since disappeared, and the only interest the town now possesses is
+as the centre of the flourishing industries of the Twente district. The
+manufacture of cotton in all its branches is very actively carried on,
+and there are dye-works and breweries, besides the engineering works of
+the state railway company.
+
+
+
+
+HENGEST and HORSA, the brother chieftains who led the first Saxon bands
+which settled in England. They were apparently called in by the British
+king Vortigern (q.v.) to defend him against the Picts. The place of
+their landing is said to have been Ebbsfleet in Kent. Its date is not
+certainly known, 450-455 being given by the English authorities, 428 by
+the Welsh (see KENT). The settlers of Kent are described by Bede as
+Jutes (q.v.), and there are traces in Kentish custom of differences from
+the other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. Hengest and Horsa were at first given
+the island of Thanet as a home, but soon quarrelled with their British
+allies, and gradually possessed themselves of what became the kingdom of
+Kent. In 455 the Saxon Chronicle records a battle between Hengest and
+Horsa and Vortigern at a place called Aegaels threp, in which Horsa was
+slain. Thenceforward Hengest reigned in Kent, together with his son Aesc
+(Oisc). Both the _Saxon Chronicle_ and the _Historia Brittonum_ record
+three subsequent battles, though the two authorities disagree as to
+their issue. There is no doubt, however, that the net result was the
+expulsion of the Britons from Kent. According to the _Chronicle_, which
+probably derived its information from a lost list of Kentish kings,
+Hengest died in 488, while his son Aesc continued to reign until 512.
+
+  Bede, _Hist. Eccl._ (Plummer, 1896), i. 15, ii. 5; _Saxon Chronicle_
+  (Earle and Plummer, 1899), s.a. 449, 455, 457, 465, 473; Nennius,
+  _Historia Brittonum_ (San Marte, 1844), §§ 31, 37, 38, 43-46, 58.
+
+
+
+
+HENGSTENBERG, ERNST WILHELM (1802-1869), German Lutheran divine and
+theologian, was born at Fröndenberg, a Westphalian village, on the 20th
+of October 1802. He was educated by his father, who was a minister of
+the Reformed Church, and head of the Fröndenberg convent of canonesses
+(Fräuleinstift). Entering the university of Bonn in 1819, he attended
+the lectures of G. G. Freytag for Oriental languages and of F. K. L.
+Gieseler for church history, but his energies were principally devoted
+to philosophy and philology, and his earliest publication was an edition
+of the Arabic _Moallakat_ of Amru'l-Qais, which gained for him the prize
+at his graduation in the philosophical faculty. This was followed in
+1824 by a German translation of Aristotle's _Metaphysics_. Finding
+himself without the means to complete his theological studies under
+Neander and Tholuck in Berlin, he accepted a post at Basel as tutor in
+Oriental languages to J. J. Stähelin, who afterwards became professor at
+the university. Then it was that he began to direct his attention to a
+study of the Bible, which led him to a conviction, never afterwards
+shaken, not only of the divine character of evangelical religion, but
+also of the unapproachable adequacy of its expression in the Augsburg
+Confession. In 1824 he joined the philosophical faculty of Berlin as a
+_Privatdozent_, and in 1825 he became a licentiate in theology, his
+theses being remarkable for their evangelical fervour and for their
+emphatic protest against every form of "rationalism," especially in
+questions of Old Testament criticism. In 1826 he became professor
+extraordinarius in theology; and in July 1827 appeared, under his
+editorship, the _Evangelische Kirchenzeitung_, a strictly orthodox
+journal, which in his hands acquired an almost unique reputation as a
+controversial organ. It did not, however, attain to great notoriety
+until in 1830 an anonymous article (by E. L. von Gerlach) appeared,
+which openly charged Wilhelm Gesenius and J. A. L. Wegscheider with
+infidelity and profanity, and on the ground of these accusations
+advocated the interposition of the civil power, thus giving rise to the
+prolonged _Hallische Streit_. In 1828 the first volume of Hengstenberg's
+_Christologie des Alten Testaments_ passed through the press; in the
+autumn of that year he became professor ordinarius in theology, and in
+1829 doctor of theology. He died on the 28th of May 1869.
+
+  The following is a list of his principal works: _Christologie des
+  Alten Testaments_ (1829-1835; 2nd ed., 1854-1857; Eng. trans. by R.
+  Keith, 1835-1839, also in Clark's "Foreign Theological Library," by T.
+  Meyer and J. Martin, 1854-1858), a work of much learning, the estimate
+  of which varies according to the hermeneutical principles of the
+  individual critic; _Beiträge zur Einleitung in das Alte Testament_
+  (1831-1839); Eng. trans., _Dissertations on the Genuineness of Daniel
+  and the Integrity of Zechariah_ (Edin., 1848), and _Dissertations on
+  the Genuineness of the Pentateuch_ (Edin., 1847), in which the
+  traditional view on each question is strongly upheld, and much capital
+  is made of the absence of harmony among the negative critics; _Die
+  Bücher Moses und Ägypten_ (1841); _Die Geschichte Bileams u. seiner
+  Weissagungen_ (1842; translated along with the Dissertations on Daniel
+  and Zechariah); _Commentar über die Psalmen_ (1842-1847; 2nd ed.,
+  1849-1852; Eng. trans. by P. Fairbairn and J. Thomson, Edin.,
+  1844-1848), which shares the merits and defects of the _Christologie;
+  Die Offenbarung Johannis erläutert_ (1849-1851; 2nd ed., 1861-1862;
+  Eng. trans. by P. Fairbairn, also in Clark's "Foreign Theological
+  Library," 1851-1852); _Das Hohe Lied ausgelegt_ (1853); _Der Prediger
+  Salomo ausgelegt_ (1859); _Das Evangelium Johannis erläutert_
+  (1861-1863; 2nd ed., 1867-1871; Eng. trans., 1865) and _Die
+  Weissagungen des Propheten Ezechiel erläutert_ (1867-1868). Of minor
+  importance are _De rebus Tyriorum commentatio academica_ (1832); _Über
+  den Tag des Herrn_ (1852); _Das Passa, ein Vortrag_ (1853); and _Die
+  Opfer der heiligen Schrift_ (1859). Several series of papers also, as,
+  for example, on "The Retention of the Apocrypha," "Freemasonry"
+  (1854), "Duelling" (1856) and "The Relation between the Jews and the
+  Christian Church" (1857; 2nd ed., 1859), which originally appeared in
+  the _Kirchenzeitung_, were afterwards printed in a separate form.
+  _Geschichte des Reiches Gottes unter dem Alten Bunde_ (1869-1871),
+  _Das Buch Hiob erläutert_ (1870-1875) and _Vorlesungen über die
+  Leidensgeschichte_ (1875) were published posthumously.
+
+  See J. Bachmann's _Ernst Wilhelm Hengstenberg_ (1876-1879); also his
+  article in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_ (1899), and the article in
+  the _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_. Also F. Lichtenberger, _History
+  of German Theology in the Nineteenth Century_ (1889), pp. 212-217;
+  Philip Schaff, _Germany; its Universities, Theology and Religion_
+  (1857), pp. 300-319.
+
+
+
+
+HENKE, HEINRICH PHILIPP KONRAD (1752-1809), German theologian, best known
+as a writer on church history, was born at Hehlen, Brunswick, on the 3rd
+of July 1752. He was educated at the gymnasium of Brunswick and the
+university of Helmstädt, and from 1778 to 1809 he was professor, first of
+philosophy, then of theology, in that university. In 1803 he was
+appointed principal of the Carolinum in Brunswick as well. He died on the
+2nd of May 1809. Henke belonged to the rationalistic school. His
+principal work (_Allgemeine Geschichte der christl. Kirche_, 6 vols.,
+1788-1804; 2nd ed., 1795-1806) is commended by F. C. Baur for fullness,
+accuracy and artistic composition. His other works are _Lineamenta
+institutionum fidei Christianae historico-criticarum_ (1783), _Opuscula
+academica_ (1802) and two volumes of _Predigten_. He was also editor of
+the _Magazin für die Religionsphilosophie, Exegese und Kirchengeschichte_
+(1793-1802) and the _Archiv für die neueste Kirchengeschichte_
+(1794-1799).
+
+His son, ERNST LUDWIG THEODOR HENKE (1804-1872), after studying at the
+university of Jena, became _professor extraordinarius_ there in 1833,
+and professor ordinarius of Marburg in 1839. He is known as the author
+of monographs upon _Georg Calixt u. seine Zeit_ (1853-1860), _Papst Pius
+VII._ (1860), _Konrad von Marburg_ (1861), _Kaspar Peucer u. Nik. Krell_
+(1865), _Jak. Friedr. Fries_ (1867), _Zur neuern Kirchengeschichte_
+(1867).
+
+
+
+
+HENLE, FRIEDRICH GUSTAV JAKOB (1809-1885), German pathologist and
+anatomist, was born on the 9th of July 1809 at Fürth, in Franconia.
+After studying medicine at Heidelberg and at Bonn, where he took his
+doctor's degree in 1832, he became prosector in anatomy to Johannes
+Müller at Berlin. During the six years he spent in that position he
+published a large amount of work, including three anatomical monographs
+on new species of animals, and papers on the structure of the lacteal
+system, the distribution of epithelium in the human body, the structure
+and development of the hair, the formation of mucus and pus, &c. In 1840
+he accepted the chair of anatomy at Zürich, and in 1844 he was called to
+Heidelberg, where he taught not only anatomy, but physiology and
+pathology. About this period he was engaged on his complete system of
+general anatomy, which formed the sixth volume of the new edition of S.
+T. von Sömmerring's treatise, published at Leipzig between 1841 and
+1844. While at Heidelberg he published a zoological monograph on the
+sharks and rays, in conjunction with his master Müller, and in 1846 his
+famous _Manual of Rational Pathology_ began to appear; this marked the
+beginning of a new era in pathological study, since in it physiology and
+pathology were treated, in Henle's own words, as "branches of one
+science," and the facts of disease were systematically considered with
+reference to their physiological relations. In 1852 he moved to
+Göttingen, whence he issued three years later the first instalment of
+his great _Handbook of Systematic Human Anatomy_, the last volume of
+which was not published till 1873. This work was perhaps the most
+complete and comprehensive of its kind that had so far appeared, and it
+was remarkable not only for the fullness and minuteness of the
+anatomical descriptions, but also for the number and excellence of the
+illustrations with which they were elucidated. During the latter half of
+his life Henle's researches were mainly histological in character, his
+investigations embracing the minute anatomy of the blood vessels, serous
+membranes, kidney, eye, nails, central nervous system, &c. He died at
+Göttingen on the 13th of May 1885.
+
+
+
+
+HENLEY, JOHN (1692-1759), English clergyman, commonly known as "Orator
+Henley," was born on the 3rd of August 1692 at Melton-Mowbray, where his
+father was vicar. After attending the grammar schools of Melton and
+Oakham, he entered St John's College, Cambridge, and while still an
+undergraduate he addressed in February 1712, under the pseudonym of
+Peter de Quir, a letter to the _Spectator_ displaying no small wit and
+humour. After graduating B.A., he became assistant and then headmaster
+of the grammar school of his native town, uniting to these duties those
+of assistant curate. His abundant energy found still further expression
+in a poem entitled _Esther, Queen of Persia_ (1714), and in the
+compilation of a grammar of ten languages entitled _The Complete
+Linguist_ (2 vols., London, 1719-1721). He then decided to go to London,
+where he obtained the appointment of assistant preacher in the chapels
+of Ormond Street and Bloomsbury. In 1723 he was presented to the rectory
+of Chelmondiston in Suffolk; but residence being insisted on, he
+resigned both his appointments, and on the 3rd of July 1726 opened what
+he called an "oratory" in Newport Market, which he licensed under the
+Toleration Act. In 1729 he transferred the scene of his operations to
+Lincoln's Inn Fields. Into his services he introduced many peculiar
+alterations: he drew up a "Primitive Liturgy," in which he substituted
+for the Nicene and Athanasian creeds two creeds taken from the
+Apostolical Constitutions; for his "Primitive Eucharist" he made use of
+unleavened bread and mixed wine; he distributed at the price of one
+shilling medals of admission to his oratory, with the device of a sun
+rising to the meridian, with the motto _Ad summa_, and the words
+_Inveniam viam aut faciam_ below. But the most original element in the
+services was Henley himself, who is described by Pope in the _Dunciad_
+as
+
+  "Preacher at once and zany of his age."
+
+He possessed some oratorical ability and adopted a very theatrical style
+of elocution, "tuning his voice and balancing his hands"; and his
+addresses were a strange medley of solemnity and buffoonery, of clever
+wit and the wildest absurdity, of able and original disquisition and the
+worst artifices of the oratorical charlatan. His services were much
+frequented by the "free-thinkers," and he himself expressed his
+determination "to die a rational." Besides his Sunday sermons, he
+delivered Wednesday lectures on social and political subjects; and he
+also projected a scheme for connecting with the "oratory" a university
+on quite a utopian plan. For some time he edited the _Hyp Doctor_, a
+weekly paper established in opposition to the _Craftsman_, and for this
+service he enjoyed a pension of £100 a year from Sir Robert Walpole. At
+first the orations of Henley drew great crowds, but, although he never
+discontinued his services, his audience latterly dwindled almost
+entirely away. He died on the 13th of October 1759.
+
+  Henley is the subject of several of Hogarth's prints. His life,
+  professedly written by A. Welstede, but in all probability by himself,
+  was inserted by him in his _Oratory Transactions_. See J. B. Nichols,
+  _History of Leicestershire_; I. Disraeli, _Calamities of Authors_.
+
+
+
+
+HENLEY, WILLIAM ERNEST (1849-1903), British poet, critic and editor, was
+born on the 23rd of August 1849 at Gloucester, and was educated at the
+Crypt Grammar School in that city. The school was a sort of Cinderella
+sister to the Cathedral School, and Henley indicated its shortcomings in
+his article (_Pall Mall Magazine_, Nov. 1900) on T. E. Brown the poet,
+who was headmaster there for a brief period. Brown's appointment,
+uncongenial to himself, was a stroke of luck for Henley, for whom, as he
+said, it represented a first acquaintance with a man of genius. "He was
+singularly kind to me at a moment when I needed kindness even more than
+I needed encouragement." Among other kindnesses Brown did him the
+essential service of lending him books. To the end Henley was no
+classical scholar, but his knowledge and love of literature were vital.
+Afflicted with a physical infirmity, he found himself in 1874, at the
+age of twenty-five, an inmate of the hospital at Edinburgh. From there
+he sent to the _Cornhill Magazine_ poems in irregular rhythms,
+describing with poignant force his experiences in hospital. Leslie
+Stephen, then editor, being in Edinburgh, visited his contributor in
+hospital and took Robert Louis Stevenson, another recruit of the
+_Cornhill_, with him. The meeting between Stevenson and Henley, and the
+friendship of which it was the beginning, form one of the best-known
+episodes in recent literature (see especially Stevenson's letter to Mrs
+Sitwell, Jan. 1875, and Henley's poems "An Apparition" and "Envoy to
+Charles Baxter"). In 1877 Henley went to London and began his editorial
+career by editing _London_, a journal of a type more usual in Paris than
+London, written for the sake of its contributors rather than of the
+public. Among other distinctions it first gave to the world _The New
+Arabian Nights_ of Stevenson. Henley himself contributed to his journal
+a series of verses chiefly in old French forms. He had been writing
+poetry since 1872, but (so he told the world in his "advertisement" to
+his collected _Poems_, 1898) he "found himself about 1877 so utterly
+unmarketable that he had to own himself beaten in art and to addict
+himself to journalism for the next ten years." After the decease of
+_London_, he edited the _Magazine of Art_ from 1882 to 1886. At the end
+of that period he came before the public as a poet. In 1887 Mr Gleeson
+White made for the popular series of _Canterbury Poets_ (edited by Mr
+William Sharp) a selection of poems in old French forms. In his
+selection Mr Gleeson White included a considerable number of pieces from
+_London_, and only after he had completed the selection did he discover
+that the verses were all by one hand, that of Henley. In the following
+year, Mr H. B. Donkin in his volume _Voluntaries_, done for an East End
+hospital, included Henley's unrhymed rhythms quintessentializing the
+poet's memories of the old Edinburgh Infirmary. Mr Alfred Nutt read
+these, and asked for more; and in 1888 his firm published _A Book of
+Verse_. Henley was by this time well known in a restricted literary
+circle, and the publication of this volume determined for them his fame
+as a poet, which rapidly outgrew these limits, two new editions of this
+volume being called for within three years. In this same year (1888) Mr
+Fitzroy Bell started the _Scots Observer_ in Edinburgh, with Henley as
+literary editor, and early in 1889 Mr Bell left the conduct of the paper
+to him. It was a weekly review somewhat on the lines of the old
+_Saturday Review_, but inspired in every paragraph by the vigorous and
+combative personality of the editor. It was transferred soon after to
+London as the _National Observer_, and remained under Henley's
+editorship until 1893. Though, as Henley confessed, the paper had almost
+as many writers as readers, and its fame was mainly confined to the
+literary class, it was a lively and not uninfluential feature of the
+literary life of its time. Henley had the editor's great gift of
+discerning promise, and the "Men of the _Scots Observer_," as Henley
+affectionately and characteristically called his band of contributors,
+in most instances justified his insight. The paper found utterance for
+the growing imperialism of its day, and among other services to
+literature gave to the world Mr Kipling's _Barrack-Room Ballads_. In
+1890 Henley published _Views and Reviews_, a volume of notable
+criticisms, described by himself as "less a book than a mosaic of scraps
+and shreds recovered from the shot rubbish of some fourteen years of
+journalism." The criticisms, covering a wide range of authors (except
+Heine and Tolstoy, all English and French), though wilful and often
+one-sided were terse, trenchant and picturesque, and remarkable for
+insight and gusto. In 1892 he published a second volume of poetry, named
+after the first poem, _The Song of the Sword_, but on the issue of the
+second edition (1893) re-christened _London Voluntaries_ after another
+section. Stevenson wrote that he had not received the same thrill of
+poetry since Mr Meredith's "Joy of Earth" and "Love in the Valley," and
+he did not know that that was so intimate and so deep. "I did not guess
+you were so great a magician. These are new tunes; this is an undertone
+of the true Apollo. These are not verse; they are poetry." In 1892
+Henley published also three plays written with Stevenson--_Beau Austin_,
+_Deacon Brodie_ and _Admiral Guinea_. In 1895 followed _Macaire_,
+afterwards published in a volume with the other plays. _Deacon Brodie_
+was produced in Edinburgh in 1884 and later in London. Beerbohm Tree
+produced _Beau Austin_ at the Haymarket on the 3rd of November 1890 and
+_Macaire_ at His Majesty's on the 2nd of May 1901. _Admiral Guinea_ also
+achieved stage performance. In the meantime Henley was active in the
+magazines and did notable editorial work for the publishers: the _Lyra
+Heroica_, 1891; _A Book of English Prose_ (with Mr Charles Whibley),
+1894; the centenary Burns (with Mr T. F. Henderson) in 1896-1897, in
+which Henley's Essay (published separately 1898) roused considerable
+controversy. In 1892 he undertook for Mr Nutt the general editorship of
+the _Tudor Translations_; and in 1897 began for Mr Heinemann an edition
+of Byron, which did not proceed beyond one volume of letters. In 1898 he
+published a collection of his _Poems_ in one volume, with the
+autobiographical "advertisement" above quoted; in 1899 _London Types_,
+Quatorzains to accompany Mr William Nicolson's designs; and in 1900
+during the Boer War, a patriotic poetical brochure, _For England's
+Sake_. In 1901 he published a second volume of collected poetry with the
+title _Hawthorn and Lavender_, uniform with the volume of 1898. In 1902
+he collected his various articles on painters and artists and published
+them as a companion volume of _Views and Reviews: Art_. These with "A
+Song of Speed" printed in May 1903 within two months of his death make
+up his tale of work. At the close of his life he was engaged upon his
+edition of the Authorized Version of the Bible for his series of _Tudor
+Translations_. There remained uncollected some of his scattered articles
+in periodicals and reviews, especially the series of literary articles
+contributed to the _Pall Mall Magazine_ from 1899 until his death. These
+contain the most outspoken utterances of a critic never mealy-mouthed,
+and include the splenetic attack on the memory of his dead friend R. L.
+Stevenson, which aroused deep regret and resentment. In 1894 Henley lost
+his little six-year-old daughter Margaret; he had borne the
+"bludgeonings of chance" with "the unconquerable soul" of which he
+boasted, not unjustifiably, in a well-known poem; but this blow broke
+his heart. With the knowledge of this fact, some of these outbursts may
+be better understood; yet we have the evidence of a clear-eyed critic
+who knew Henley well, that he found him more generous, more sympathetic
+at the close of his life than he had been before. He died on the 11th of
+July 1903. In spite of his too boisterous mannerism and prejudices, he
+exercised by his originality, independence and fearlessness an inspiring
+and inspiriting influence on the higher class of journalism. This
+influence he exercised by word of mouth as well as by his pen, for he
+was a famous talker, and figures as "Burly" in Stevenson's essay on
+_Talk and Talkers_. As critic he was a good hater and a good fighter.
+His virtue lay in his vital and vitalizing love of good literature, and
+the vivid and pictorial phrases he found to give it expression. But his
+fame must rest on his poetry. He excelled alike in his delicate
+experiments in complicated metres, and the strong impressionism of
+_Hospital Sketches_ and _London Voluntaries_. The influence of Heine may
+be discerned in these "unrhymed rhythms"; but he was perhaps a truer and
+more successful disciple of Heine in his snatches of passionate song,
+the best of which should retain their place in English literature.
+
+  See also references in _Stevenson's Letters_; _Cornhill Magazine_
+  (1903) (Sidney Low); _Fortnightly Review_ (August 1892) (Arthur
+  Symons); and for bibliography, _English Illustrated Magazine_, vol.
+  xxix. p. 548.     (W. P. J.)
+
+
+
+
+HENLEY-ON-THAMES, a market town and municipal borough in the Henley
+parliamentary division of Oxfordshire, England, on the left bank of the
+Thames, the terminus of a branch of the Great Western railway, by which
+it is 35¾ m. W. of London, while it is 57½ m. by river. Pop. (1901)
+5984. It occupies one of the most beautiful situations on the Thames, at
+the foot of the finely wooded Chiltern Hills. The river is crossed by an
+elegant stone bridge of five arches, constructed in 1786. The parish
+church (Decorated and Perpendicular) possesses a lofty tower of
+intermingled flint and stone, attributed to Cardinal Wolsey, but more
+probably erected by Bishop Longland. The grammar school, founded in
+1605, is incorporated with a Blue Coat school. Henley is a favourite
+summer resort, and is celebrated for the annual Henley Royal Regatta,
+the principal gathering of amateur oarsmen in England, first held in
+1839 and usually taking place in July. Henley is governed by a mayor, 4
+aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 549 acres.
+
+Henley-on-Thames (Hanlegang, Henle, Handley), not mentioned in Domesday,
+was a manor or ancient demesne of the crown and was granted (1337) to
+John de Molyns, whose family held it for about 250 years. It is said
+that members for Henley sat in parliaments of Edward I. and Edward III.,
+but no writs have been found. Henry VIII. having granted the use of the
+titles "mayor" and "burgess," the town was incorporated in 1570-1571 by
+the name of the warden, portreeves, burgesses and commonalty. Henley
+suffered from both parties in the Civil War. William III. on his march
+to London (1688) rested here and received a deputation from the Lords.
+The period of prosperity in the 17th and 18th centuries was due to
+manufactures of glass and malt, and to trade in corn and wool. The
+existing Thursday market was granted by a charter of John and the
+existing Corpus Christi fair by a charter of Henry VI.
+
+  See J. S. Burn, _History of Henley-on-Thames_ (London, 1861).
+
+
+
+
+HENNA, the Persian name for a small shrub found in India, Persia, the
+Levant and along the African coasts of the Mediterranean, where it is
+frequently cultivated. It is the _Lawsonia alba_ of botanists, and from
+the fact that young trees are spineless, while older ones have the
+branchlets hardened into spines, it has also received the names of
+_Lawsonia inermis_ and _L. spinosa_. It forms a slender shrubby plant of
+from 8 to 10 ft. high, with opposite lance-shaped smooth leaves, which
+are entire at the margins, and bears small white four-petalled
+sweet-scented flowers disposed in panicles. Its Egyptian name is
+_Khenna_, its Arabic name _Al Khanna_, its Indian name _Mendee_, while
+in England it is called _Egyptian privet_, and in the West Indies, where
+it is naturalized, _Jamaica mignonette_.
+
+Henna or Henné is of ancient repute as a cosmetic. This consists of the
+leaves of the _Lawsonia_ powdered and made up into a paste; this is
+employed by the Egyptian women, and also by the Mahommedan women in
+India, to dye their fingernails and other parts of their hands and feet
+of an orange-red colour, which is considered to add to their beauty. The
+colour lasts for three or four weeks, when it requires to be renewed. It
+is moreover used for dyeing the hair and beard, and even the manes of
+horses; and the same material is employed for dyeing skins and
+morocco-leather a reddish-yellow, but it contains no tannin. The
+practice of dyeing the nails was common amongst the Egyptians, and not
+to conform to it would have been considered indecent. It has descended
+from very remote ages, as is proved by the evidence afforded by Egyptian
+mummies, the nails of which are most commonly stained of a reddish hue.
+Henna is also said to have been held in repute amongst the Hebrews,
+being considered to be the plant referred to as camphire in the Bible
+(Song of Solomon i. 14, iv. 13). "The custom of dyeing the nails and
+palms of the hands and soles of the feet of an iron-rust colour with
+henna," observes Dr J. Forbes Royle, "exists throughout the East from
+the Mediterranean to the Ganges, as well as in northern Africa. In some
+parts the practice is not confined to women and children, but is also
+followed by men, especially in Persia. In dyeing the beard the hair is
+turned to red by this application, which is then changed to black by a
+preparation of indigo. In dyeing the hair of children, and the tails and
+manes of horses and asses, the process is allowed to stop at the red
+colour which the henna produces." Mahomet, it is said, used henna as a
+dye for his beard, and the fashion was adopted by the caliphs. "The use
+of henna," remarks Lady Callcott in her _Scripture Herbal_, "is scarcely
+to be called a caprice in the East. There is a quality in the drug which
+gently restrains perspiration in the hands and feet, and produces an
+agreeable coolness equally conducive to health and comfort." She further
+suggests that if the Jewish women were not in the habit of using this
+dye before the time of Solomon, it might probably have been introduced
+amongst them by his wife, the daughter of Pharaoh, and traces to this
+probability the allusion to "camphire" in the passages in Canticles
+above referred to.
+
+The preparation of henna consists in reducing the leaves and young twigs
+to a fine powder, catechu or lucerne leaves in a pulverized state being
+sometimes mixed with them. When required for use, the powder is made
+into a pasty mass with hot water, and is then spread upon the part to be
+dyed, where it is generally allowed to remain for one night. According
+to Lady Callcott, the flowers are often used by the Eastern women to
+adorn their hair. The distilled water from the flowers is used as a
+perfume.
+
+
+
+
+HENNEBONT, a town of western France, in the department of Morbihan, 6 m.
+N.E. of Lorient by road. Pop. (1906) 7250. It is situated about 10 m.
+from the mouth of the Blavet, which divides it into two parts--the
+_Ville Close_, the medieval military town, and the _Ville Neuve_ on the
+left bank and the _Vieille Ville_ on the right bank. The Ville Close,
+surrounded by ramparts and entered by a massive gateway flanked by
+machicolated towers, consists of narrow quiet streets bordered by houses
+of the 16th and 17th centuries. The Ville Neuve, which lies nearer the
+river, developed during the 17th century and later than the Ville Close,
+while the Vieille Ville is older than either. The only building of
+architectural importance is the church of Notre-Dame de Paradis (16th
+century) preceded by a tower with an ornamented stone spire. There are
+scanty remains of the old fortress. Hennebont has a small but busy
+river-port accessible to vessels of 200 to 300 tons. An important
+foundry in the environs of the town employs 1400 work-people in the
+manufacture of tin-plate for sardine boxes and other purposes.
+Boat-building, tanning, distilling and the manufacture of earthenware,
+white lead and chemical manures are also carried on. Granite is worked
+in the neighbourhood. Hennebont is famed for the resistance which it
+made, under the widow of Jean de Montfort, when besieged in 1342 by the
+armies of Philip of Valois and Charles of Blois during the War of the
+Succession in Brittany (see BRITTANY).
+
+
+
+
+HENNEQUIN, PHILIPPE AUGUSTE (1763-1833), French painter, was a pupil of
+David. He was born at Lyons in 1763, distinguished himself early by
+winning the "Grand Prix," and left France for Italy. The disturbances at
+Rome, during the course of the Revolution, obliged him to return to
+Paris, where he executed the Federation of the 14th of July, and he was
+at work on a large design commissioned for the town-hall of Lyons, when
+in July 1794 he was accused before the revolutionary tribunal and thrown
+into prison. Hennequin escaped, only to be anew accused and imprisoned
+in Paris, and after running great danger of death, seems to have devoted
+himself thenceforth wholly to his profession. At Paris he finished the
+picture ordered for the municipality of Lyons, and in 1801 produced his
+chief work, "Orestes pursued by the Furies" (Louvre, engraved by Landon,
+_Annales du Musée_, vol. i. p. 105). He was one of the four painters who
+competed when in 1802 Gros carried off the official prize for a picture
+of the Battle of Nazareth, and in 1808 Napoleon himself ordered
+Hennequin to illustrate a series of scenes from his German campaigns,
+and commanded that his picture of the "Death of General Salomon" should
+be engraved. After 1815 Hennequin retired to Liége, and there, aided by
+subventions from the Government, carried out a large historical picture
+of the "Death of the Three Hundred in defence of Liége"--a sketch of
+which he himself engraved. In 1824 Hennequin settled at Tournay, and
+became director of the academy; he exhibited various works at Lille in
+the following year, and continued to produce actively up to the day of
+his death in May 1833.
+
+
+
+
+HENNER, JEAN JACQUES (1829-1905), French painter, was born on the 5th of
+March 1829 at Dornach (Alsace). At first a pupil of Drolling and of
+Picot, he entered the École des Beaux-Arts in 1848, and took the Prix de
+Rome with a painting of "Adam and Eve finding the Body of Abel" (1858).
+At Rome he was guided by Flandrin, and, among other works, painted four
+pictures for the gallery at Colmar. He first exhibited at the Salon in
+1863 a "Bather Asleep," and subsequently contributed "Chaste Susanna"
+(1865); "Byblis turned into a Spring" (1867); "The Magdalene" (1878);
+"Portrait of M. Hayem" (1878); "Christ Entombed" (1879); "Saint Jerome"
+(1881); "Herodias" (1887); "A Study" (1891); "Christ in His Shroud," and
+a "Portrait of Carolus-Duran" (1896); a "Portrait of Mlle Fouquier"
+(1897); "The Levite of the Tribe of Ephraim" (1898), for which a
+first-class medal was awarded to him; and "The Dream" (1900). Among
+other professional distinctions Henner also took a Grand Prix for
+painting at the Paris International Exhibition of 1900. He was made
+Knight of the Legion of Honour in 1873, Officer in 1878 and Commander in
+1889. In 1889 he succeeded Cabanel in the Institut de France.
+
+  See E. Bricon, _Psychologie d'art_ (Paris, 1900); C. Phillips, _Art
+  Journal_ (1888); F. Wedmore, _Magazine of Art_ (1888).
+
+
+
+
+HENRIETTA MARIA (1609-1666), queen of Charles I. of England, born on the
+25th of November 1609, was the daughter of Henry IV. of France. When the
+first serious overtures for her hand were made on behalf of Charles,
+prince of Wales, in the spring of 1624, she was little more than
+fourteen years of age. Her brother, Louis XIII., only consented to the
+marriage on the condition that the English Roman Catholics were relieved
+from the operation of the penal laws. When therefore she set out for her
+new home in June 1625, she had already pledged the husband to whom she
+had been married by proxy on the 1st of May to a course of action which
+was certain to bring unpopularity on him as well as upon herself.
+
+That husband was now king of England. The early years of the married
+life of Charles I. were most unhappy. He soon found an excuse for
+breaking his promise to relieve the English Catholics. His young wife
+was deeply offended by treatment which she naturally regarded as
+unhandsome. The favourite Buckingham stirred the flames of his master's
+discontent. Charles in vain strove to reduce her to tame submission.
+After the assassination of Buckingham in 1628 the barrier between the
+married pair was broken down, and the bond of affection which from that
+moment united them was never loosened. The children of the marriage were
+Charles II. (b. 1630), Mary, princess of Orange (b. 1631), James II (b.
+1633), Elizabeth (b. 1636) Henry, duke of Gloucester (b. 1640), and
+Henrietta, duchess at Orleans (b. 1644).
+
+For some years Henrietta Maria's chief interests lay in her young
+family, and in the amusements of a gay and brilliant court. She loved to
+be present at dramatic entertainments, and her participation in the
+private rehearsals of the _Shepherd's Pastoral_, written by her
+favourite Walter Montague, probably drew down upon her the savage attack
+of Prynne. With political matters she hardly meddled as yet. Even her
+co-religionists found little aid from her till the summer of 1637. She
+had then recently opened a diplomatic communication with the see of
+Rome. She appointed an agent to reside at Rome, and a papal agent, a
+Scotsman named George Conn, accredited to her, was soon engaged in
+effecting conversions amongst the English gentry and nobility. Henrietta
+Maria was well pleased to become a patroness of so holy a work,
+especially as she was not asked to take any personal trouble in the
+matter. Protestant England took alarm at the proceedings of a queen who
+associated herself so closely with the doings of "the grim wolf with
+privy paw."
+
+When the Scottish troubles broke out, she raised money from her
+fellow-Catholics to support the king's army on the borders in 1639.
+During the session of the Short Parliament in the spring of 1640, the
+queen urged the king to oppose himself to the House of Commons in
+defence of the Catholics. When the Long Parliament met, the Catholics
+were believed to be the authors and agents of every arbitrary scheme
+which was supposed to have entered into the plans of Strafford or Laud.
+Before the Long Parliament had sat for two months, the queen was urging
+upon the pope the duty of lending money to enable her to restore her
+husband's authority. She threw herself heart and soul into the schemes
+for rescuing Strafford and coercing the parliament. The army plot, the
+scheme for using Scotland against England, and the attempt upon the five
+members were the fruits of her political activity.
+
+In the next year the queen effected her passage to the Continent. In
+February 1643 she landed at Burlington Quay, placed herself at the head
+of a force of loyalists, and marched through England to join the king
+near Oxford. After little more than a year's residence there, on the 3rd
+of April 1644, she left her husband, to see his face no more. Henrietta
+Maria found a refuge in France. Richelieu was dead, and Anne of Austria
+was compassionate. As long as her husband was alive the queen never
+ceased to encourage him to resistance.
+
+During her exile in France she had much to suffer. Her husband's
+execution in 1649 was a terrible blow. She brought up her youngest child
+Henrietta in her own faith, but her efforts to induce her youngest son,
+the duke of Gloucester, to take the same course only produced discomfort
+in the exiled family. The story of her marriage with her attached
+servant Lord Jermyn needs more confirmation than it has yet received to
+be accepted, but all the information which has reached us of her
+relations with her children points to the estrangement which had grown
+up between them. When after the Restoration she returned to England, she
+found that she had no place in the new world. She received from
+parliament a grant of £30,000 a year in compensation for the loss of her
+dower-lands, and the king added a similar sum as a pension from himself.
+In January 1661 she returned to France to be present at the marriage of
+her daughter Henrietta to the duke of Orleans. In July 1662 she set out
+again for England, and took up her residence once more at Somerset
+House. Her health failed her, and on the 24th of June 1665, she departed
+in search of the clearer air of her native country. She died on the 31st
+of August 1666, at Colombes, not far from Paris.
+
+  See I. A. Taylor, _The Life of Queen Henrietta Maria_ (1905).
+
+
+
+
+HENRY (Fr. _Henri_; Span. _Enrique_; Ger. _Heinrich_; Mid. H. Ger.
+_Heinrîch_ and _Heimrîch_; O.H.G. _Haimi-_ or _Heimirîh_, i.e. "prince,
+or chief of the house," from O.H.G. _heim_, the Eng. _home_, and _rîh_,
+Goth. _reiks_; compare Lat. _rex_ "king"--"rich," therefore "mighty,"
+and so "a ruler." Compare Sans. _radsh_ "to shine forth, rule, &c." and
+mod. _raj_ "rule" and _raja_, "king"), the name of many European
+sovereigns, the more important of whom are noticed below in the
+following order: (1) emperors and German kings; (2) kings of England;
+(3) other kings in the alphabetical order of their states; (4) other
+reigning princes in the same order; (5) non-reigning princes; (6)
+bishops, nobles, chroniclers, &c.
+
+
+
+
+HENRY I. (c. 876-936), surnamed the "Fowler," German king, son of Otto
+the Illustrious, duke of Saxony, grew to manhood amid the disorders
+which witnessed to the decay of the Carolingian empire, and in early
+life shared in various campaigns for the defence of Saxony. He married
+Hatburg, a daughter of Irwin, count of Merseburg, but as she had taken
+the veil on the death of a former husband this union was declared
+illegal by the church, and in 909 he married Matilda, daughter of a
+Saxon count named Thiederich, and a reputed descendant of the hero
+Widukind. On his father's death in 912 he became duke of Saxony, which
+he ruled with considerable success, defending it from the attacks of the
+Slavs and resisting the claims of the German king Conrad I. (see
+SAXONY). He afterwards won the esteem of Conrad to such an extent that
+in 918 the king advised the nobles to make the Saxon duke his successor.
+After Conrad's death the Franks and the Saxons met at Fritzlar in May
+919 and chose Henry as German king, after which the new king refused to
+allow his election to be sanctioned by the church. His authority, save
+in Saxony, was merely nominal; but by negotiation rather than by warfare
+he secured a recognition of his sovereignty from the Bavarians and the
+Swabians. A struggle soon took place between Henry and Charles III., the
+Simple, king of France, for the possession of Lorraine. In 921 Charles
+recognized Henry as king of the East Franks, and when in 923 the French
+king was taken prisoner by Herbert, count of Vermandois, Lorraine came
+under Henry's authority, and Giselbert, who married his daughter
+Gerberga, was recognized as duke. Turning his attention to the east,
+Henry reduced various Slavonic tribes to subjection, took Brennibor, the
+modern Brandenburg, from the Hevelli, and secured both banks of the Elbe
+for Saxony. In 923 he had bought a truce for ten years with the
+Hungarians, by a promise of tribute, but on its expiration he gained a
+great victory over these formidable foes in March 933. The Danes were
+defeated, and territory as far as the Eider secured for Germany; and the
+king sought further to extend his influence by entering into relations
+with the kings of England, France and Burgundy. He is said to have been
+contemplating a journey to Rome, when he died at Memleben on the 2nd of
+July 936, and was buried at Quedlinburg. By his first wife, Hatburg, he
+left a son, Thankmar, who was excluded from the succession as
+illegitimate; and by Matilda he left three sons, the eldest of whom,
+Otto (afterwards the emperor Otto the Great), succeeded him, and two
+daughters. Henry was a successful ruler, probably because he was careful
+to undertake only such enterprises as he was able to carry through.
+Laying more stress on his position as duke of Saxony than king of
+Germany, he conferred great benefits on his duchy. The founder of her
+town life and the creator of her army, he ruled in harmony with her
+nobles and secured her frontiers from attack. The story that he received
+the surname of "Fowler" because the nobles, sent to inform him of his
+election to the throne, found him engaged in laying snares for the
+birds, appears to be mythical.
+
+  See Widukind of Corvei, _Res gestae Saxonicae_, edited by G. Waitz in
+  the _Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scriptores_, Band iii. (Hanover
+  and Berlin, 1826 seq.); "Die Urkunde des deutschen Königs Heinrichs
+  I.," edited by T. von Sickel in the _Monumenta Germaniae historica.
+  Diplomata_ (Hanover, 1879); W. von Giesebrecht, _Geschichte der
+  deutschen Kaiserzeit_, Bände i., ii. (Leipzig, 1881); G. Waitz,
+  _Jahrbücher des deutschen Reichs unter König Heinrich I._ (Leipzig,
+  1885); and F. Löher, _Die deutsche Politik König Heinrich I._ (Munich,
+  1857).
+
+
+
+
+HENRY II. (973-1024), surnamed the "Saint," Roman emperor, son of Henry
+II, the Quarrelsome, duke of Bavaria, and Gisela, daughter of Conrad,
+king of Burgundy, or Arles (d. 993), and great-grandson of the German
+king Henry I., the Fowler, was born on the 6th of May 973. When his
+father was driven from his duchy in 976 it was intended that Henry
+should take holy orders, and he received the earlier part of a good
+education at Hildesheim. This idea, however, was abandoned when his
+father was restored to Bavaria in 985; but young Henry, whose education
+was completed at Regensburg, retained a lively interest in
+ecclesiastical affairs. He became duke of Bavaria on his father's death
+in 995, and appears to have governed his duchy quietly and successfully
+for seven years. He showed a special regard for monastic reform and
+church government, accompanied his kinsman, the emperor Otto III., on
+two occasions to Italy, and about 1001 married Kunigunde (d. 1037),
+daughter of Siegfried, count of Luxemburg. When Otto III. died childless
+in 1002, Henry sought to secure the German throne, and seizing the
+imperial insignia made an arrangement with Otto I., duke of Carinthia.
+There was considerable opposition to his claim; but one rival, Ekkard
+I., margrave of Meissen, was murdered, and, hurrying to Mainz, Henry was
+chosen German king by the Franks and Bavarians on the 7th of June 1002,
+and subsequently crowned by Willigis, archbishop of Mainz, who had been
+largely instrumental in securing his election. Having ravaged the lands
+of another rival, Hermann II., duke of Swabia, Henry purchased the
+allegiance of the Thuringians and the Saxons; and when shortly
+afterwards the nobles of Lorraine did homage and Hermann of Swabia
+submitted, he was generally recognized as king. Danger soon arose from
+Boleslaus I., the Great, king of Poland, who had extended his authority
+over Meissen and Lusatia, seized Bohemia, and allied himself with some
+discontented German nobles, including the king's brother, Bruno, bishop
+of Augsburg. Henry easily crushed his domestic foes; but the incipient
+war with Boleslaus was abandoned in favour of an expedition into Italy,
+where Arduin, margrave of Ivrea, had been elected king. Crossing the
+Alps Henry met with no resistance from Arduin, and in May 1004 he was
+chosen and crowned king of the Lombards at Pavia; but a tumult caused by
+the presence of the Germans soon arose in the city, and having received
+the homage of several cities of Lombardy the king returned to Germany.
+He then freed Bohemia from the rule of the Poles, led an expedition into
+Friesland, and was successful in compelling Boleslaus to sue for peace
+in 1005. A struggle with Baldwin IV., count of Flanders, in 1006 and
+1007 was followed by trouble with the king's brothers-in-law, Dietrich
+and Adalbero of Luxemburg, who had seized respectively the bishopric of
+Metz and the archbishopric of Trier (Treves). Henry sought to dislodge
+them, but aided by their elder brother Henry, who had been made duke of
+Bavaria in 1004, they held their own in a desultory warfare in Lorraine.
+In 1009, however, the eldest of the three brothers was deprived of
+Bavaria, while Adalbero had in the previous year given up his claim to
+Trier, but Dietrich retained the bishopric of Metz. The Polish war had
+been renewed in 1007, but it was not until 1010 that the king was able
+to take a personal part in these campaigns. Meeting with indifferent
+success, he made peace with Boleslaus early in 1013, when the duke
+retained Lusatia, but did homage to Henry at Merseburg.
+
+In 1013 the king made a second journey to Italy where two popes were
+contending for the papal chair, and meeting with no opposition was
+received with great honour at Rome. Having recognized Benedict VIII. as
+the rightful pope, he was crowned emperor on the 14th of February 1014,
+and soon returned to Germany laden with treasures from Italian cities.
+But the struggle with the Poles now broke out afresh, and in 1015 and
+1017 the king, having obtained assistance from the heathen Liutici, led
+formidable armies against Boleslaus. During the campaign of 1017 he had
+as an ally the grand duke of Russia, but his troops suffered
+considerable loss, and on the 30th of January 1018 he made peace at
+Bautzen with Boleslaus, who again retained Lusatia. As early as 1006
+Henry had concluded a succession treaty with his uncle Rudolph III., the
+childless king of Burgundy, or Arles; but when Rudolph desired to
+abdicate in 1016 Henry's efforts to secure possession of the territory
+were foiled by the resistance of the nobles. In 1020 the emperor was
+visited at Bamberg by Pope Benedict, in response to whose entreaty for
+assistance against the Greeks of southern Italy he crossed the Alps in
+1021 for the third and last time. With the aid of the Normans he
+captured many fortresses and seriously crippled the power of the Greeks,
+but was compelled by the ravages of pestilence among his troops to
+return to Germany in 1022. It was probably about this time that Henry
+gave Benedict the diploma which ratified the gifts made by his
+predecessors to the papacy. Spending his concluding years in disputes
+over church reform he died on the 13th of July 1024 at Grona near
+Göttingen, and was buried at Bamberg, where he had founded and richly
+endowed a bishopric.
+
+Henry was an enthusiast for church reform, and under the influence of
+his friend Odilo, abbot of Cluny, sought to further the principles of
+the Cluniacs, and seconded the efforts of Benedict VIII. to prevent the
+marriage of the clergy and the sale of spiritual dignities. He was
+energetic and capable, but except in his relations with the church was
+not a strong ruler. But though devoted to the church and a strict
+observer of religious rites, he was by no means the slave of the clergy.
+He appointed bishops without the formality of an election, and attacked
+clerical privileges although he made clerics the representatives of the
+imperial power. He held numerous diets and issued frequent ordinances
+for peace, but feuds among the nobles were common, and the frontiers of
+the empire were insecure. Henry, who was the last emperor of the Saxon
+house, was the first to use the title "King of the Romans." He died
+childless, and a tradition of the 12th century says he and his wife took
+vows of chastity. He was canonized in 1146 by Pope Eugenius III.
+
+  See Adalbold of Utrecht, _Vita Heinrici II._, Thietmar of Merseburg,
+  _Chronicon_, both in the _Monumenta Germaniae historica, Scriptores_,
+  Bände iii. and iv. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826 seq.); W. von
+  Giesebrecht, _Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit_ (Leipzig,
+  1881-1890); S. Hirsch, continued by R. Usinger, H. Pabst and H.
+  Bresslau, _Jahrbücher des deutschen Reichs unter Kaiser Heinrich II_.
+  (Leipzig, 1874); A. Cohn, _Kaiser Heinrich II_. (Halle, 1867); H.
+  Zeissberg, _Die Kriege Kaiser Heinrichs II. mit Boleslaw I. von Polen_
+  (Vienna, 1868); and G. Matthaei, _Die Klosterpolitik Kaiser Heinrichs
+  II_. (Göttingen, 1877).
+
+
+
+
+HENRY III. (1017-1056), surnamed the "Black," Roman emperor, only son of
+the emperor Conrad II., and Gisela, widow of Ernest I., duke of Swabia,
+was born on the 28th of October 1017, designated as his father's
+successor in 1026, and crowned German king at Aix-la-Chapelle by
+Pilgrim, archbishop of Cologne, on the 14th of April 1028. In 1027 he
+was appointed duke of Bavaria, and his early years were mainly spent in
+this country, where he received an excellent education under the care of
+Bruno, bishop of Augsburg and, afterwards, of Egilbert, bishop of
+Freising. He soon began to take part in the business of the empire. In
+1032 he took part in a campaign in Burgundy; in 1033 led an expedition
+against Ulalrich, prince of the Bohemians; and in June 1036 was married
+at Nijmwegen to Gunhilda, afterwards called Kunigunde, daughter of
+Canute, king of Denmark and England. In 1038 he followed his father to
+Italy, and in the same year the emperor formally handed over to him the
+kingdom of Burgundy, or Arles, and appointed him duke of Swabia. In
+spite of the honours which Conrad heaped upon Henry the relations
+between father and son were not uniformly friendly, as Henry disapproved
+of the emperor's harsh treatment of some of his allies and adherents.
+When Conrad died in June 1039, Henry became sole ruler of the empire,
+and his authority was at once recognized in all parts of his dominions.
+Three of the duchies were under his direct rule, no rival appeared to
+contest his claim, and the outlying parts of the empire, as well as
+Germany, were practically free from disorder. This peaceful state of
+affairs was, however, soon broken by the ambition of Bretislaus, prince
+of the Bohemians, who revived the idea of an independent Slavonic state,
+and conquered various Polish towns. Henry took up arms, and having
+suffered two defeats in 1040 renewed the struggle with a stronger force
+in the following year, when he compelled Bretislaus to sue for peace and
+to do homage for Bohemia at Regensburg. In 1042 he received the homage
+of the Burgundians and his attention was then turned to the Hungarians,
+who had driven out their king Peter, and set up in his stead one Aba
+Samuel, or Ovo, who attacked the eastern border of Bavaria.
+
+In 1043 and the two following years Henry crushed the Hungarians,
+restored Peter, and brought Hungary completely under the power of the
+German king. In 1038 Queen Kunigunde had died in Italy, and in 1043 the
+king was married at Ingelheim to Agnes, daughter of William V., duke of
+Guienne, a union which drew him much nearer to the reforming party in
+the church. In 1044 Gothelon (Gozelo), duke of Lorraine, died, and some
+disturbance arose over Henry's refusal to grant the whole of the duchy
+to his son Godfrey, called the Bearded. Godfrey took up arms, but after
+a short imprisonment was released and confirmed in the possession of
+Upper Lorraine in 1046 which, however, he failed to secure. About this
+time Henry was invited to Italy where three popes were contending for
+power, and crossing the Alps with a large army he marched to Rome.
+Councils held at Sutri and at Rome having declared the popes deposed,
+the king secured the election of Suidger, bishop of Bamberg, who took
+the name of Clement II., and by this pontiff Henry was crowned as
+emperor on the 25th of December 1046. He was immediately recognized by
+the Romans as _Patricius_, an office which carried with it at this time
+the right to appoint the pope. Supreme in church and state alike, ruler
+of Germany, Italy and Burgundy, overlord of Hungary and Bohemia, Henry
+occupied a commanding position, and this time may be regarded as marking
+the apogee of the power of the Roman empire of the Germans. The emperor
+assisted Pope Clement in his efforts to banish simony. He made a
+victorious progress in southern Italy, where he restored Pandulph IV. to
+the principality of Capua, and asserted his authority over the Normans
+in Apulia and Aversa. Returning to Germany in 1047 he appointed two
+popes, Damasus II. and Leo IX., in quick succession, and turned to face
+a threatening combination in the west of the empire, where Godfrey of
+Lorraine was again in revolt, and with the help of Baldwin V., count of
+Flanders and Dirk IV., count of Holland, who had previously caused
+trouble to Henry, was ravaging the lands of the emperor's
+representatives in Lorraine. Assisted by the kings of England and
+Denmark, Henry succeeded with some difficulty in bringing the rebels to
+submission in 1050. Godfrey was deposed; but Baldwin soon found an
+opportunity for a further revolt, which an expedition undertaken by the
+emperor in 1054 was unable to crush.
+
+Meanwhile a reaction against German influence had taken place in
+Hungary. King Peter had been driven out in 1046 and his place taken by
+Andreas I. Inroads into Bavaria followed, and in 1051 and 1052 Henry led
+his forces against the Hungarians, and after the pope had vainly
+attempted to mediate, peace was made in 1053. It was quickly broken,
+however, and the emperor, occupied elsewhere, soon lost most of his
+authority in the east; although in 1054 he made peace between Brestislav
+of Bohemia and Casimir I., duke of the Poles. Henry had not lost sight
+of affairs in Italy during these years, and had received several visits
+from the pope, whose aim was to bring southern Italy under his own
+dominion. Henry had sent military assistance to Leo, and had handed over
+to him the government of the principality of Benevento in return for the
+bishopric of Bamberg. But the pope's defeat by the Normans was followed
+by his death. Henry then nominated Gebhard, bishop of Eichstädt, who
+took the name of Victor II., to the vacant chair, and promised his
+assistance to the reluctant candidate. In 1055 the emperor went a second
+time to Italy, where his authority was threatened by Godfrey of
+Lorraine, who had married Beatrice, widow of Boniface III., margrave of
+Tuscany, and was ruling her vast estates. Godfrey fled, however, on the
+appearance of Henry, who only remained a short time in Italy, during
+which he granted the duchy of Spoleto to Pope Victor, and negotiated for
+an attack upon the Normans. Before the journey to Italy, Henry had found
+it necessary to depose Conrad III., duke of Bavaria, and to suppress a
+rising in southern Germany. During his absence Conrad formed an alliance
+with Welf, duke of Carinthia, and Gebhard III., bishop of Regensburg. A
+conspiracy to depose the emperor, support for which was found in
+Lorraine, was quickly discovered, and Henry, leaving Victor as his
+representative in Italy, returned in 1055 to Germany to receive the
+submission of his foes. In 1056, the emperor was visited by the pope;
+and on the 5th of October in the same year he died at Bodfeld and was
+buried at Spires. Henry was a pious and peace-loving prince, who
+favoured church reform, sought earnestly to suppress private warfare,
+and alone among the early emperors is said to have been innocent of
+simony. Although under his rule Germany enjoyed considerable
+tranquillity, and a period of wealth and progress set in for the towns,
+yet his secular and ecclesiastical policy showed signs of weakness.
+Unable, or unwilling, seriously to curb the increasing power of the
+church, he alienated the sympathies of the nobles as a class, and by
+allowing the southern duchies to pass into other hands restored a power
+which true to its traditions was not always friendly to the royal house.
+Henry was a patron of learning, a founder of schools, and built or
+completed cathedrals at Spires, Worms and Mainz.
+
+  The chief original authorities for the life and reign of Henry III.
+  are the _Chronicon_ of Herimann of Reichenau, the _Annales
+  Sangallenses majores_, the _Annales Hildesheimenses_, all in the
+  _Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scriptores_ (Hanover and Berlin, 1826
+  fol.). The best modern authorities are W. von Giesebrecht, _Geschichte
+  der deutschen Kaiserzeit_, Band ii. (Leipzig, 1888); M. Perlbach, "Die
+  Kriege Heinrichs III. gegen Böhmen," in the _Forschungen zur deutschen
+  Geschichte_, Band x. (Göttingen, 1862-1886); E. Steindorff,
+  _Jahrbücher des deutschen Reichs unter Heinrich III._ (Leipzig,
+  1874-1881); and F. Steinhoff, _Das Königthum und Kaiserthum Heinrichs
+  III._ (Göttingen, 1865).
+
+
+
+
+HENRY IV. (1050-1106), Roman emperor, son of the emperor Henry III. and
+Agnes, daughter of William V., duke of Guienne, was born on the 11th of
+November 1050, chosen German king at Tribur in 1053, and crowned at
+Aix-la-Chapelle on the 17th of July 1054. In 1055 he was appointed duke
+of Bavaria, and on his father's death in October 1056 inherited the
+kingdoms of Germany, Italy and Burgundy. These territories were governed
+in his name by his mother, who was unable to repress the internal
+disorder or to take adequate measures for their defence. Some opposition
+was soon aroused, and in 1062 Anno, archbishop of Cologne, and others
+planned to seize the person of the young king and to deprive Agnes of
+power. This plot met with complete success. Henry, who was at
+Kaiserwerth, was persuaded to board a boat lying in the Rhine; it was
+immediately unmoored and the king sprang into the stream, but was
+rescued by one of the conspirators and carried to Cologne. Agnes made no
+serious effort to regain her control, and the chief authority was
+exercised for a time by Anno; but his rule proved unpopular, and he was
+soon compelled to share his power with Adalbert, archbishop of Bremen.
+The education and training of Henry were supervised by Anno, who was
+called his _magister_, while Adalbert was styled _patronus_; but Anno
+was disliked by Henry, and during his absence in Italy the chief power
+passed into the hands of Adalbert. Henry's education seems to have been
+neglected, and his wilful and headstrong nature was developed by the
+conditions under which his early years were passed. In March 1065 he was
+declared of age, and in the following year a powerful coalition of
+ecclesiastical and lay nobles brought about the banishment of Adalbert
+from court and the return of Anno to power. In 1066 Henry was persuaded
+to marry Bertha, daughter of Otto, count of Savoy, to whom he had been
+betrothed since 1055. For some time he regarded his wife with strong
+dislike and sought in vain for a divorce, but after she had borne him a
+son in 1071 she gained his affections, and became his most trusted
+friend and companion.
+
+In 1069 the king took the reins of government into his own hands. He
+recalled Adalbert to court; led expeditions against the Liutici, and
+against Dedo or Dedi II., margrave of a district east of Saxony; and
+soon afterwards quarrelled with Rudolph, duke of Swabia, and Berthold,
+duke of Carinthia. Much more serious was Henry's struggle with Otto of
+Nordheim, duke of Bavaria. This prince, who occupied an influential
+position in Germany, was accused in 1070 by a certain Egino of being
+privy to a plot to murder the king. It was decided that a trial by
+battle should take place at Goslar, but when the demand of Otto for a
+safe conduct for himself and his followers, to and from the place of
+meeting, was refused, he declined to appear. He was thereupon declared
+deposed in Bavaria, and his Saxon estates were plundered. He obtained
+sufficient support, however, to carry on a struggle with the king in
+Saxony and Thuringia until 1071, when he submitted at Halberstadt. Henry
+aroused the hostility of the Thuringians by supporting Siegfried,
+archbishop of Mainz, in his efforts to exact tithes from them; but still
+more formidable was the enmity of the Saxons, who had several causes of
+complaint against the king. He was the son of one enemy, Henry III., and
+the friend of another, Adalbert of Bremen. He had ordered a restoration
+of all crown lands in Saxony and had built forts among this people,
+while the country was ravaged to supply the needs of his courtiers, and
+its duke Magnus was a prisoner in his hands. All classes were united
+against him, and when the struggle broke out in 1073 the Thuringians
+joined the Saxons; and the war, which lasted with slight intermissions
+until 1088, exercised a most potent influence upon Henry's fortunes
+elsewhere (see SAXONY).
+
+Henry soon found himself confronted by an abler and more stubborn
+antagonist than either Thuringian or Saxon. In 1073 Hildebrand became
+pope as Gregory VII. Two years later this great ecclesiastic issued his
+memorable prohibition of lay investiture, and the blow then struck at
+the secular power by the papacy threatened seriously to undermine the
+imperial authority. Spurred on by his advisers, Henry did not refuse the
+challenge. Threatened with the papal ban, he summoned a synod of German
+bishops which met at Worms in January 1076 and declared Gregory deposed;
+and he wrote his famous letter to the pope, in which he referred to him
+as "not pope, but false monk." The king was at once excommunicated. His
+adherents gradually fell away, the Saxons were again in arms, and Otto
+of Nordheim succeeded in uniting the malcontents of north and south
+Germany. In October 1076 an important diet met at Tribur, and after
+discussing the deposition of the king, decided that he should be judged
+by an assembly to be held at Augsburg in the following February under
+the presidency of the pope. This union of the temporal and spiritual
+forces was too strong for the king, and he decided to submit.
+
+Crossing the Alps, Henry appeared in January 1077 as a penitent before
+the castle of Canossa, where Gregory had taken refuge. The story of
+this famous occurrence, which represents the king as standing in the
+courtyard of the castle for three days in the snow, clad as a penitent,
+and entreating to be admitted to the pope's presence, is now regarded as
+mythical in its details; but there is no doubt that the king visited the
+castle at intervals, and prayed for admission for three days until the
+28th of January, when he was received by Gregory and absolved, after
+promising to submit to the pope's authority and to secure for him a safe
+journey to Germany. No historical incident has more profoundly impressed
+the imagination of the Western world. It marked the highest point
+reached by papal authority, and presents a vivid picture of the awe
+inspired during the middle ages by the supernatural powers supposed to
+be wielded by the church.
+
+Scorned by his Lombard allies, Henry left Italy to find that in his
+absence Rudolph, duke of Swabia, had been chosen German king; and
+although Gregory had taken no part in this election, Henry sought to
+prevent the pope's journey to Germany, and regaining courage, tried to
+recover his former position. Supported by most of the German bishops and
+by the Lombards, now reconciled to him, and recognized in Burgundy,
+Bavaria and Franconia, Henry (who at this time is referred to by Bruno,
+the author of _De bello Saxonico_, as _exrex_) appeared stronger than
+his rival Rudolph; but the ensuing war was waged with varying success.
+He was beaten at Mellrichstadt in 1078, and at Flarchheim in 1080, but
+these defeats were due rather to the fierce hostility of the Saxons, and
+the military skill of Otto of Nordheim, than to any general sympathy
+with Rudolph. Gregory's attitude remained neutral, in spite of appeals
+from both sides, until March 1080, when he again excommunicated Henry,
+but without any serious effect on the fortunes of the king. At Henry's
+initiative, Gregory was declared deposed on three occasions, and an
+anti-pope was elected in the person of Wibert, archbishop of Ravenna,
+who took the name of Clement III.
+
+The death of Rudolph in October 1080, and a consequent lull in the war,
+enabled the king to go to Italy early in 1081. He found considerable
+support in Lombardy; placed Matilda, marchioness of Tuscany, the
+faithful friend of Gregory, under the imperial ban; took the Lombard
+crown at Pavia; and secured the recognition of Clement by a council.
+Marching to Rome, he undertook the siege of the city, but was soon
+compelled to retire to Tuscany, where he granted privileges to various
+cities, and obtained monetary assistance from a new ally, the eastern
+emperor, Alexius I. A second and equally unsuccessful attack on Rome was
+followed by a war of devastation in northern Italy with the adherents of
+Matilda; and towards the end of 1082 the king made a third attack on
+Rome. After a siege of seven months the Leonine city fell into his
+hands. A treaty was concluded with the Romans, who agreed that the
+quarrel between king and pope should be decided by a synod, and secretly
+bound themselves to induce Gregory to crown Henry as emperor, or to
+choose another pope. Gregory, however, shut up in the castle of St
+Angelo, would hear of no compromise; the synod was a failure, as Henry
+prevented the attendance of many of the pope's supporters; and the king,
+in pursuance of his treaty with Alexius, marched against the Normans.
+The Romans soon fell away from their allegiance to the pope; and,
+recalled to the city, Henry entered Rome in March 1084, after which
+Gregory was declared deposed and Clement was recognized by the Romans.
+On the 31st of March 1084 Henry was crowned emperor by Clement, and
+received the patrician authority. His next step was to attack the
+fortresses still in the hands of Gregory. The pope was saved by the
+advance of Robert Guiscard, duke of Apulia, with a large force, which
+compelled Henry to return to Germany.
+
+Meanwhile the German rebels had chosen a fresh anti-king, Hermann, count
+of Luxemburg, whom Henry's supporters had already driven to his last
+line of defence in Saxony. During the campaign of 1086 Henry was
+defeated near Würzburg, but in 1088 Hermann abandoned the struggle and
+the emperor was generally recognized in Saxony, to which country he
+showed considerable clemency. Although Henry's power was in the
+ascendent, a few powerful nobles adhered to the cause of Gregory's
+successor, Urban II. Among them was Welf, son of Welf I., the deposed
+duke of Bavaria, whose marriage with Matilda of Tuscany rendered him too
+formidable to be neglected. The emperor accordingly returned to Italy in
+1090, where Mantua and Milan were taken, and Pope Clement was restored
+to Rome. Henry's communications with Germany were, however, threatened
+by a league of the Lombard cities, and his anxieties were soon augmented
+by domestic troubles.
+
+Henry's first wife had died in 1087, and in 1089 he had married a
+Russian princess, Praxedis, afterwards called Adelaide. Her conduct soon
+aroused his suspicions, and his own eldest son, Conrad, who had been
+crowned German king in 1087, was thought to be a partner in her guilt.
+Escaping from prison, Adelaide fled to Henry's enemies and brought grave
+charges against her husband; while the papal party induced Conrad to
+desert his father and to be crowned king of Italy at Monza in 1093.
+Crushed by this blow, Henry remained almost helpless and inactive in
+northern Italy for five years, until 1097, when having lost every shred
+of authority in that country, he returned to Germany, where his position
+was stronger than ever. Welf had submitted, had forsaken the cause of
+Matilda and had been restored to Bavaria, and in 1098 the diet assembled
+at Mainz declared Conrad deposed, and chose the emperor's second son,
+Henry, afterwards the emperor Henry V., as German king. The crusade of
+1096 had freed Germany from many turbulent spirits, and the emperor,
+meeting with some success in his efforts to restore order, could afford
+to ignore his repeated excommunication. A successful campaign in
+Flanders was followed in 1103 by a diet at Mainz, where serious efforts
+were made to restore peace, and Henry himself promised to go on crusade.
+But this plan was shattered by the revolt of the younger Henry in 1104,
+who, encouraged by the adherents of the pope, declared he owed no
+allegiance to an excommunicated father. Saxony and Thuringia were soon
+in arms, the bishops held mainly to the younger Henry, while the emperor
+was supported by the towns. A desultory warfare was unfavourable,
+however, to the emperor, who, deceived by false promises, became a
+prisoner in the hands of his son in 1105. The diet met at Mainz in
+December, when he was compelled to abdicate; but contrary to the
+conditions, he was detained at Ingelheim and denied his freedom.
+Escaping to Cologne, he found considerable support in the lower
+Rhineland; he entered into negotiations with England, France and
+Denmark, and was engaged in collecting an army when he died at Liége on
+the 7th of August 1106. His body was buried by the bishop of Liége with
+suitable ceremony, but by command of the papal legate it was unearthed,
+taken to Spires, and placed in an unconsecrated chapel. After being
+released from the sentence of excommunication the remains were buried in
+the cathedral of Spires in August 1111.
+
+Henry IV. was very licentious and in his early years was careless and
+self-willed, but better qualities were developed in his later life. He
+displayed much diplomatic ability, and his abasement at Canossa may
+fairly be regarded as a move of policy to weaken the pope's position at
+the cost of a personal humiliation to himself. He was always regarded as
+a friend of the lower orders, was capable of generosity and gratitude,
+and showed considerable military skill. Unfortunate in the time in which
+he lived, and in the troubles with which he had to contend, he holds an
+honourable position in history as a monarch who resisted the excessive
+pretensions both of the papacy and of the ambitious feudal lords of
+Germany.
+
+  The authorities for the life and reign of Henry are Lambert of
+  Hersfeld, _Annales_; Bernold of Reichenau, Chronicon; Ekkehard of
+  Aura, _Chronicon_; and Bruno, _De bello Saxonico_, which gives several
+  of the more important letters that passed between Henry and Gregory
+  VII. These are all found in the _Monumenta Germaniae historica.
+  Scriptores_, Bände v. and vi. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826-1892). There
+  is an anonymous _Vita Heinrici IV._, edited by W. Wattenbach (Hanover,
+  1876). The best modern authorities are: G. Meyer von Knonau,
+  _Jahrbücher des deutschen Reiches unter Heinrich IV._ (Leipzig, 1890);
+  H. Floto, _Kaiser Heinrich IV. und sein Zeitalter_ (Stuttgart, 1855);
+  E. Kilian, _Itinerar Kaiser Heinrichs IV._ (Karlsruhe, 1886); K. W.
+  Nitzsch, "Das deutsche Reich und Heinrich IV.," in the _Historische
+  Zeitschrift_, Band xlv. (Munich, 1859); H. Ulmann, _Zum Verständniss
+  der sächsischen Erhebung gegen Heinrich IV._ (Hanover, 1886), W. von
+  Giesebrecht, _Geschichte_ _der deutschen Kaiserzeit_ (Leipzig,
+  1881-1890); B. Gebhardt, _Handbuch der deutschen Geschichte_ (Berlin,
+  1901). For a list of other works, especially those on the relations
+  between Henry and Gregory, see Dahlmann-Waitz, _Quellenkunde der
+  deutschen Geschichte_ (Göttingen, 1894).     (A. W. H.*)
+
+
+
+
+HENRY V. (1081-1125), Roman emperor, son of the emperor Henry IV., was
+born on the 8th of January 1081, and after the revolt and deposition of
+his elder brother, the German king Conrad (d. 1101), was chosen as his
+successor in 1098. He promised to take no part in the business of the
+Empire during his father's lifetime, and was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle
+on the 6th of January 1099. In spite of his oath Henry was induced by
+his father's enemies to revolt in 1104, and some of the princes did
+homage to him at Mainz in January 1106. In August of the same year the
+elder Henry died, when his son became sole ruler of the Empire. Order
+was soon restored in Germany, the citizens of Cologne were punished by a
+fine, and an expedition against Robert II., count of Flanders, brought
+this rebel to his knees. In 1107 a campaign, which was only partially
+successful, was undertaken to restore Boriwoj II. to the dukedom of
+Bohemia, and in the year following the king led his forces into Hungary,
+where he failed to take Pressburg. In 1109 he was unable to compel the
+Poles to renew their accustomed tribute, but in 1110 he succeeded in
+securing the dukedom of Bohemia for Ladislaus I.
+
+The main interest of Henry's reign centres in the controversy over lay
+investiture, which had caused a serious dispute during the previous
+reign. The papal party who had supported Henry in his resistance to his
+father hoped he would assent to the decrees of the pope, which had been
+renewed by Paschal II. at the synod of Guastalla in 1106. The king,
+however, continued to invest the bishops, but wished the pope to hold a
+council in Germany to settle the question. Paschal after some hesitation
+preferred France to Germany, and, after holding a council at Troyes,
+renewed his prohibition of lay investiture. The matter slumbered until
+1110, when, negotiations between king and pope having failed, Paschal
+renewed his decrees and Henry went to Italy with a large army. The
+strength of his forces helped him to secure general recognition in
+Lombardy, and at Sutri he concluded an arrangement with Paschal by which
+he renounced the right of investiture in return for a promise of
+coronation, and the restoration to the Empire of all lands given by
+kings, or emperors, to the German church since the time of Charlemagne.
+It was a treaty impossible to execute, and Henry, whose consent to it is
+said to have been conditional on its acceptance by the princes and
+bishops of Germany, probably foresaw that it would occasion a breach
+between the German clergy and the pope. Having entered Rome and sworn
+the usual oaths, the king presented himself at St Peter's on the 12th of
+February 1111 for his coronation and the ratification of the treaty. The
+words commanding the clergy to restore the fiefs of the crown to Henry
+were read amid a tumult of indignation, whereupon the pope refused to
+crown the king, who in return declined to hand over his renunciation of
+the right of investiture. Paschal was seized by Henry's soldiers and, in
+the general disorder into which the city was thrown, an attempt to
+liberate the pontiff was thwarted in a struggle during which the king
+himself was wounded. Henry then left the city carrying the pope with
+him; and Paschal's failure to obtain assistance drew from him a
+confirmation of the king's right of investiture and a promise to crown
+him emperor. The coronation ceremony accordingly took place on the 13th
+of April 1111, after which the emperor returned to Germany, where he
+sought to strengthen his power by granting privileges to the inhabitants
+of the region of the upper Rhine.
+
+In 1112 Lothair, duke of Saxony, rose in arms against Henry, but was
+easily quelled. In 1113, however, a quarrel over the succession to the
+counties of Weimar and Orlamünde gave occasion for a fresh outbreak on
+the part of Lothair, whose troops were defeated at Warnstädt, after
+which the duke was pardoned. Having been married at Mainz on the 7th of
+January 1114 to Matilda, or Maud, daughter of Henry I., king of England,
+the emperor was confronted with a further rising, initiated by the
+citizens of Cologne, who were soon joined by the Saxons and others.
+Henry failed to take Cologne, his forces were defeated at Welfesholz on
+the 11th of February 1115, and complications in Italy compelled him to
+leave Germany to the care of Frederick II. of Hohenstaufen, duke of
+Swabia, and his brother Conrad, afterwards the German king Conrad III.
+After the departure of Henry from Rome in 1111 a council had declared
+the privilege of lay investiture, which had been extorted from Paschal,
+to be invalid, and Guido, archbishop of Vienne, excommunicated the
+emperor and called upon the pope to ratify this sentence. Paschal,
+however, refused to take so extreme a step; and the quarrel entered upon
+a new stage in 1115 when Matilda, daughter and heiress of Boniface,
+margrave of Tuscany, died leaving her vast estates to the papacy.
+Crossing the Alps in 1116 Henry won the support of town and noble by
+privileges to the one and presents to the other, took possession of
+Matilda's lands, and was gladly received in Rome. By this time Paschal
+had withdrawn his consent to lay investiture and the excommunication had
+been published in Rome; but the pope was compelled to fly from the city.
+Some of the cardinals withstood the emperor, but by means of bribes he
+broke down the opposition, and was crowned a second time by Burdinas,
+archbishop of Braga. Meanwhile the defeat at Welfesholz had given heart
+to Henry's enemies; many of his supporters, especially among the
+bishops, fell away; the excommunication was published at Cologne, and
+the pope, with the assistance of the Normans, began to make war. In
+January 1118 Paschal died and was succeeded by Gelasius II. The emperor
+immediately returned from northern Italy to Rome. But as the new pope
+escaped from the city, Henry, despairing of making a treaty, secured the
+election of an antipope who took the name of Gregory VIII., and who was
+left in possession of Rome when the emperor returned across the Alps in
+1118. The opposition in Germany was gradually crushed and a general
+peace declared at Tribur, while the desire for a settlement of the
+investiture dispute was growing. Negotiations, begun at Würzburg, were
+continued at Worms, where the new pope, Calixtus II., was represented by
+Cardinal Lambert, bishop of Ostia. In the concordat of Worms, signed in
+September 1122, Henry renounced the right of investiture with ring and
+crozier, recognized the freedom of election of the clergy and promised
+to restore all church property. The pope agreed to allow elections to
+take place in presence of the imperial envoys, and the investiture with
+the sceptre to be granted by the emperor as a symbol that the estates of
+the church were held under the crown. Henry, who had been solemnly
+excommunicated at Reims by Calixtus in October 1119, was received again
+into the communion of the church, after he had abandoned his nominee,
+Gregory, to defeat and banishment. The emperor's concluding years were
+occupied with a campaign in Holland, and with a quarrel over the
+succession to the margraviate of Meissen, two disputes in which his
+enemies were aided by Lothair of Saxony. In 1124 he led an expedition
+against King Louis VI. of France, turned his arms against the citizens
+of Worms, and on the 23rd of May 1125 died at Utrecht and was buried at
+Spires. Having no children, he left his possessions to his nephew,
+Frederick II. of Hohenstaufen, duke of Swabia, and on his death the line
+of Franconian, or Salian, emperors became extinct.
+
+The character of Henry is unattractive. His love of power was
+inordinate; he was wanting in generosity, and he did not shrink from
+treachery in pursuing his ends.
+
+  The chief authority for the life and reign of Henry V. is Ekkehard of
+  Aura, _Chronicon_, edited by G. Waitz in the _Monumenta Germaniae
+  historica. Scriptores_, Band vi. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826-1892), See
+  also W. von Giesebrecht, _Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit_, Band
+  iii. (Leipzig, 1881-1890); L. von Ranke, _Weltgeschichte_, pt. vii.
+  (Leipzig, 1886); M. Manitius, _Deutsche Geschichte_ (Stuttgart, 1889);
+  G. Meyer von Knonau, _Jahrbücher des deutschen Reiches unter Heinrich
+  IV. und Heinrich V._ (Leipzig, 1890); E. Gervais, _Politische
+  Geschichte Deutschlands unter der Regierung der Kaiser Heinrich V. und
+  Lothar III._ (Leipzig, 1841-1842); G. Peiser, _Der deutsche
+  Investiturstreit unter Kaiser Heinrich V._ (Berlin, 1883); C. Stutzer,
+  "Zur Kritik der Investiturverhandlungen im Jahre 1119," in the
+  _Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte_, Band xviii. (Göttingen,
+  1862-1886); T. von Sickel and H. Bresslau, "Die kaiserliche
+  Ausfertigung des Wormser Konkordats," in the _Mittheilungen des
+  Instituts für österreichische Geschichtsforschung_ (Innsbruck, 1880);
+  B. Gebhardt, _Handbuch der deutschen Geschichte_, Band i. (Berlin,
+  1901), and E. Bernheim, _Zur Geschichte des Wormser Konkordats_
+  (Göttingen, 1878).
+
+
+
+
+HENRY VI. (1165-1197), Roman emperor, son of the emperor Frederick I.
+and Beatrix, daughter of Renaud III., count of upper Burgundy, was born
+at Nijmwegen, and educated under the care of Conrad of Querfurt,
+afterwards bishop of Hildesheim and Würzburg. Chosen German king, or
+king of the Romans, at Bamberg in June 1169, he was crowned at
+Aix-la-Chapelle on the 15th of August 1169, invested with lands in
+Germany in 1179, and at Whitsuntide 1184 his knighthood was celebrated
+in the most magnificent manner at Mainz. Frederick was anxious to
+associate his son with himself in the government of the empire, and when
+he left Germany in 1184 Henry remained behind as regent, while his
+father sought to procure his coronation from Pope Lucius III. The pope
+was hesitating when he heard that the emperor had arranged a marriage
+between Henry and Constance, daughter of the late king of Sicily, Roger
+I., and aunt and heiress of the reigning king, William II.; and this
+step, which threatened to unite Sicily with Germany, decided him to
+refuse the proposal. This marriage took place at Milan on the 27th of
+January 1186, and soon afterwards Henry was crowned king of Italy. The
+claim of Henry and his wife on Sicily was recognized by the barons of
+that kingdom; and having been recognized by the pope as Roman emperor
+elect, Henry returned to Germany, and was again appointed regent when
+Frederick set out on crusade in May 1189. His attempts to bring peace to
+Germany were interrupted by the return of Henry the Lion, duke of
+Saxony, in October 1189, and a campaign against him was followed by a
+peace made at Fulda in July 1190.
+
+Henry's desire to make this peace was due to the death of William of
+Sicily, which was soon followed by that of the emperor Frederick.
+Germany and Italy alike seemed to need the king's presence, but for him,
+like all the Hohenstaufen, Italy had the greater charm, and having
+obtained a promise of his coronation from Pope Clement III. he crossed
+the Alps in the winter of 1190. He purchased the support of the cities
+of northern Italy, but on reaching Rome he found Clement was dead and
+his successor, Celestine III., disinclined to carry out the engagement
+of his predecessor. The strength of the German army and a treaty made
+between the king and the Romans induced him, however, to crown Henry as
+emperor on the 14th of April 1191. The aid of the Romans had been
+purchased by the king's promise to place in their possession the city of
+Tusculum, which they had attacked in vain for three years. After the
+ceremony the emperor fulfilled this contract, when the city was
+destroyed and many of the inhabitants massacred. Meanwhile a party in
+Sicily had chosen Tancred, an illegitimate son of Roger, son of King
+Roger II., as their king, and he had already won considerable authority
+and was favoured by the pope. Leaving Rome Henry met with no resistance
+until he reached Naples, which he was unable to take, as the ravages of
+fever and threatening news from Germany, where his death was reported,
+compelled him to raise the siege. In December 1191 he returned to
+Germany. Disorder was general and a variety of reasons induced both the
+Welfs and their earlier opponents to join in a general league against
+the emperor. Vacancies in various bishoprics added to the confusion, and
+Henry's enemies gained in numbers and strength when it was suspected
+that he was implicated in the murder of Albert, bishop of Liége. Henry
+acted energetically in fighting this formidable combination, but his
+salvation came from the captivity of Richard I., king of England, and
+the skill with which he used this event to make peace with his foes;
+and, when Henry the Lion came to terms in March 1194, order was restored
+to Germany.
+
+In the following May, Henry made his second expedition to Italy, where
+Pope Celestine had definitely espoused the cause of Tancred. The ransom
+received from Richard enabled him to equip a large army, and aided by a
+fleet fitted out by Genoa and Pisa he soon secured a complete mastery
+over the Italian mainland. When he reached Sicily he found Tancred
+dead, and, meeting with very little resistance, he entered Palermo,
+where he was crowned king on Christmas day 1194. A stay of a few months'
+duration enabled Henry to settle the affairs of the kingdom; and leaving
+his wife, Constance, as regent, and appointing many Germans to positions
+of influence, he returned to Germany in June 1195.
+
+Having established his position in Germany and Italy, Henry began to
+cherish ideas of universal empire. Richard of England had already owned
+his supremacy, and declaring he would compel the king of France to do
+the same Henry sought to stir up strife between France and England. Nor
+did the Spanish kingdoms escape his notice. Tunis and Tripoli were
+claimed, and when the eastern emperor, Isaac Angelus, asked his help, he
+demanded in return the cession of the Balkan peninsula. The kings of
+Cyprus and Armenia asked for investiture at his hands; and in general
+Henry, in the words of a Byzantine chronicler, put forward his demands
+as "the lord of all lords, the king of all kings." To complete this
+scheme two steps were necessary, a reconciliation with the pope and the
+recognition of his young son, Frederick, as his successor in the Empire.
+The first was easily accomplished; the second was more difficult. After
+attempting to suppress the renewed disorder in Germany, Henry met the
+princes at Worms in December 1195 and put his proposal before them. In
+spite of promises they disliked the suggestion as tending to draw them
+into Sicilian troubles, and avoided the emperor's displeasure by
+postponing their answer. By threats or negotiations, however, Henry won
+the consent of about fifty princes; but though the diet which met at
+Würzburg in April 1196 agreed to the scheme, the vigorous opposition of
+Adolph, archbishop of Cologne, and others rendered it inoperative. In
+June 1196 Henry went again to Italy, sought vainly to restore order in
+the north, and tried to persuade the pope to crown his son who had been
+chosen king of the Romans at Frankfort. Celestine, who had many causes
+of complaint against the emperor and his vassals, refused. The emperor
+then went to the south, where the oppression of his German officials had
+caused an insurrection, which was put down with terrible cruelty. At
+Messina on the 28th of September 1197 Henry died from a cold caught
+whilst hunting, and was buried at Palermo. He was a man of small frame
+and delicate constitution, but possessed considerable mental gifts and
+was skilled in knightly exercises. His ambition was immense, and to
+attain his ends he often resorted deliberately to cruelty and treachery.
+His chief recreation was hunting, and he also found pleasure in the
+society of the Minnesingers and in writing poems, which appear in F. H.
+von der Hagen's _Minnesinger_ (Leipzig, 1838). He left an only son
+Frederick, afterwards the emperor Frederick II.
+
+  The chief authorities for the life and reign of Henry VI. are Otto of
+  Freising, _Chronicon_, continued by Otto of St Blasius; Godfrey of
+  Viterbo, _Gesta Friderici I._ and _Gesta Heinrici VI._; Giselbert of
+  Mons, _Chronicon Hanoniense_, all of which appear in the _Monumenta
+  Germaniae historica. Scriptores_, Bände xx., xxi., xxii. (Hanover and
+  Berlin, 1826-1892), and the various annals of the time.
+
+  The best modern authorities are: W. von Giesebrecht, _Geschichte der
+  deutschen Kaiserzeit_, Band iv. (Brunswick, 1877); T. Toeche, _Kaiser
+  Heinrich VI._ (Leipzig, 1867); H. Bloch, _Forschungen zur Politik
+  Kaiser Heinrichs VI._ (Berlin, 1892), and K. A. Kneller, _Des Richard
+  Löwenherz deutsche Gefangenschaft_ (Freiburg, 1893).
+
+
+
+
+HENRY VII. (c. 1269-1313), Roman emperor, son of Henry III., count of
+Luxemburg, was knighted by Philip IV., king of France, and passed his
+early days under French influences, while the French language was his
+mother-tongue. His father was killed in battle in 1288, and Henry ruled
+his tiny inheritance with justice and prudence, but came into collision
+with the citizens of Trier over a question of tolls. In 1292 he married
+Margaret (d. 1311), daughter of John I., duke of Brabant, and after the
+death of the German king, Albert I., he was elected to the vacant throne
+on the 27th of November 1308. Recognized at once by the German princes
+and by Pope Clement V., the aspirations of the new king turned to Italy,
+where he hoped by restoring the imperial authority to prepare the way
+for the conquest of the Holy Land. Meanwhile he strove to secure his
+position in Germany. The Rhenish archbishops were pacified by the
+restoration of the Rhine tolls, negotiations were begun with Philip IV.,
+king of France, and with Robert, king of Naples, and the Habsburgs were
+confirmed in their possessions. At this time Bohemia was ruled by Henry
+V., duke of Carinthia, but the terrible disorder which prevailed induced
+some of the Bohemians to offer the crown, together with the hand of
+Elizabeth, daughter of the late king Wenceslas II., to John, the son of
+the German king. Henry accepted the offer, and in August 1310 John was
+invested with Bohemia and his marriage was celebrated. Before John's
+coronation at Prague, however, in February 1311, Henry had crossed the
+Alps. His hopes of reuniting Germany and Italy and of restoring the
+empire of the Hohenstaufen were flattered by an appeal from the
+Ghibellines to come to their assistance, and by the fact that many
+Italians, sharing the sentiments expressed by Dante in his _De
+Monarchia_, looked eagerly for a restoration of the imperial authority.
+In October 1310 he reached Turin where, on receiving the homage of the
+Lombard cities, he declared that he favoured neither Guelphs nor
+Ghibellines, but only sought to impose peace. Having entered Milan he
+placed the Lombard crown upon his head on the 6th of January 1311. But
+trouble soon showed itself. His poverty compelled him to exact money
+from the citizens; the peaceful professions of the Guelphs were
+insincere, and Robert, king of Naples, watched his progress with
+suspicion. Florence was fortified against him, and the mutual hatred of
+Guelph and Ghibelline was easily renewed. Risings took place in various
+places and, after the capture of Brescia, Henry marched to Rome only to
+find the city in the hands of the Guelphs and the troops of King Robert.
+Some street fighting ensued, and the king, unable to obtain possession
+of St Peter's, was crowned emperor on the 29th of June 1312 in the
+church of St John Lateran by some cardinals who declared they only acted
+under compulsion. Failing to subdue Florence, the emperor from his
+headquarters at Pisa prepared to attack Robert of Naples, for which
+purpose he had allied himself with Frederick III., king of Sicily. But
+Clement, anxious to protect Robert, threatened Henry with
+excommunication. Undeterred by the threat the emperor collected fresh
+forces, made an alliance with the Venetians, and set out for Naples. On
+the march he was, however, taken ill, and died at Buonconvento near
+Siena on the 24th of August 1313, and was buried at Pisa. His death was
+attributed, probably without reason, to poison given him by a Dominican
+friar in the sacramental wine. Henry is described by his contemporary
+Albertino Mussato, in the _Historia Augusta_, as a handsome man, of
+well-proportioned figure, with reddish hair and arched eyebrows, but
+disfigured by a squint. He adds, among other details, that he was slow
+and laconic in his speech, magnanimous and devout, but impatient of any
+compacts with his subjects, loathing the mention of the Guelph and
+Ghibelline factions, and insisting on the absolute authority of the
+Empire over all (_cuncta absoluto complectens Imperio_). He was,
+however, a lover of justice, and as a knight both bold and skilful. He
+was hailed by Dante as the deliverer of Italy, and in the _Paradiso_ the
+poet reserved for him a place marked by a crown.
+
+  The contemporary documents for the life and reign of Henry VII. are
+  very numerous. Many of them are found in the _Rerum Italicarum
+  scriptores_, edited by L. A. Muratori (Milan, 1723-1751), others in
+  _Fontes rerum Germanicarum_, edited by J. F. Böhmer (Stuttgart,
+  1843-1868), and in _Die Geschichtsschreiber der deutschen Vorzeit_,
+  Bände 79 and 80 (Leipzig, 1884). The following modern works may also
+  be consulted: _Acta Henrici VII. imperatoris Romanorum_, edited by G.
+  Dönniges (Berlin, 1839); F. Bonaini, _Acta Henrici VII. Romanorum
+  imperatoris_ (Florence, 1877); T. Lindner, _Deutsche Geschichte unter
+  den Habsburgern und Luxemburgern_ (Stuttgart, 1888-1893); J.
+  Heidemann, "Die Königswahl Heinrichs von Luxemburg," in the
+  _Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte_, Band xi. (Göttingen,
+  1862-1886); B. Thomas, _Zur Königswahl des Grafen Heinrich von
+  Luxemburg_ (Strassburg, 1875); D. König, _Kritische Erörterungen zu
+  einigen italienischen Quellen für die Geschichte des Römerzuges Königs
+  Heinrich VII._ (Göttingen, 1874); K. Wenck, _Clemens V. und Heinrich
+  VII._ (Halle, 1882); F. W. Barthold, _Der Römerzug König Heinrichs von
+  Lützelburg_ (Königsberg, 1830-1831); R. Pöhlmann, _Der Römerzug König
+  Heinrichs VII. und die Politik der Curie_ (Nuremberg, 1875); W.
+  Dönniges, _Kritik der Quellen für die Geschichte Heinrichs VII. des
+  Luxemburgers_ (Berlin, 1841), and G. Sommerfeldt, _Die Romfahrt Kaiser
+  Heinrichs VII._ (Königsberg, 1888).
+
+
+
+
+HENRY VII. (1211-1242), German king, son of the emperor Frederick II.
+and his first wife Constance, daughter of Alphonso II., king of Aragon,
+was crowned king of Sicily in 1212 and made duke of Swabia in 1216. Pope
+Innocent III. had favoured his coronation as king of Sicily in the hope
+that the union of this island with the Empire would be dissolved, and
+had obtained a promise from Frederick to this effect. In spite of this,
+however, Henry was chosen king of the Romans, or German king, at
+Frankfort in April 1220, and crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle on the 8th of
+May 1222 by his guardian Engelbert, archbishop of Cologne. He appears to
+have spent most of his youth in Germany, and on the 18th of November
+1225 was married at Nuremberg to Margaret (d. 1267), daughter of Leopold
+VI., duke of Austria. Henry's marriage was the occasion of some
+difference of opinion, as Engelbert wished him to marry an English
+princess, and the name of a Bohemian princess was also mentioned in this
+connexion, but Frederick insisted upon the union with Margaret. The
+murder of Engelbert in 1225 was followed by an increase of disorder in
+Germany in which Henry soon began to participate, and in 1227 he took
+part in a quarrel which had arisen on the death of Henry V., the
+childless count palatine of the Rhine. About this time the relations
+between Frederick and his son began to be somewhat strained. The emperor
+had favoured the Austrian marriage because Margaret's brother, Duke
+Frederick II., was childless; but Henry took up a hostile attitude
+towards his brother-in-law and wished to put away his wife and marry
+Agnes, daughter of Wenceslaus I., king of Bohemia. Other causes of
+trouble probably existed, for in 1231 Henry not only refused to appear
+at the diet at Ravenna, but opposed the privileges granted by Frederick
+to the princes at Worms. In 1232, however, he submitted to his father,
+promising to adopt the emperor's policy and to obey his commands. He did
+not long keep his word and was soon engaged in thwarting Frederick's
+wishes in several directions, until in 1233 he took the decisive step of
+issuing a manifesto to the princes, and the following year raised the
+standard of revolt at Boppard. He obtained very little support in
+Germany, however, while the suspicion that he favoured heresy deprived
+him of encouragement from the pope. On the other hand, he succeeded in
+forming an alliance with the Lombards in December 1234, but his few
+supporters fell away when the emperor reached Germany in 1235, and,
+after a vain attack on Worms, Henry submitted and was kept for some time
+as a prisoner in Germany, though his formal deposition as German king
+was not considered necessary, as he had broken the oath taken in 1232.
+He was soon removed to San Felice in Apulia, and afterwards to Martirano
+in Calabria, where he died, probably by his own hand, on the 12th of
+February 1242, and was buried at Cosenza. He left two sons, Frederick
+and Henry, both of whom died in Italy about 1251.
+
+  See J. Rohden, _Der Sturz Heinrichs VII._ (Göttingen, 1883); F. W.
+  Schirrmacher, _Die letzten Hohenstaufen_ (Göttingen, 1871), and E.
+  Winkelmann, _Kaiser Friedrich II._ (Leipzig, 1889).
+
+
+
+
+HENRY RASPE (c. 1202-1247), German king and landgrave of Thuringia, was
+the second surviving son of Hermann I., landgrave of Thuringia, and
+Sophia, daughter of Otto I., duke of Bavaria. When his brother the
+landgrave Louis IV. died in Italy in September 1227, Henry seized the
+government of Thuringia and expelled his brother's widow, St Elizabeth
+of Hungary, and her son Hermann. With some trouble Henry made good his
+position, although his nephew Hermann II. was nominally the landgrave,
+and was declared of age in 1237. Henry, who governed with a zealous
+regard for his own interests, remained loyal to the emperor Frederick
+II. during his quarrel with the Lombards and the revolt of his son
+Henry. In 1236 he accompanied the emperor on a campaign against
+Frederick II., duke of Austria, and took part in the election of his son
+Conrad as German king at Vienna in 1237. He appears, however, to have
+become somewhat estranged from Frederick after this expedition, for he
+did not appear at the diet of Verona in 1238; and it is not improbable
+that he disliked the betrothal of his nephew Hermann to the emperor's
+daughter Margaret. At all events, when the projected marriage had been
+broken off the landgrave publicly showed his loyalty to the emperor in
+1239 in opposition to a plan formed by various princes to elect an
+anti-king. Henry, whose attitude at this time was very important to
+Frederick, was probably kept loyal by the influence which his brother
+Conrad, grand-master of the Teutonic Order, exercised over him, for
+after the death of this brother in 1241 Henry's loyalty again wavered,
+and he was himself mentioned as a possible anti-king. Frederick's visit
+to Germany in 1242 was successful in preventing this step for a time,
+and in May of that year the landgrave was appointed administrator of
+Germany for King Conrad; and by the death of his nephew in this year he
+became the nominal, as well as the actual, ruler of Thuringia. Again he
+contemplated deserting the cause of Frederick, and in April 1246 Pope
+Innocent IV. wrote to the German princes advising them to choose Henry
+as their king in place of Frederick who had just been declared deposed.
+Acting on these instructions, Henry was elected at Veitshöchheim on the
+22nd of May 1246, and owing to the part played by the spiritual princes
+in this election was called the _Pfaffenkönig_, or parsons' king.
+Collecting an army, he defeated King Conrad near Frankfort on the 5th of
+August 1246, and then, after holding a diet at Nuremberg, undertook the
+siege of Ulm. But he was soon compelled to give up this enterprise, and
+returning to Thuringia died at the Wartburg on the 17th of February
+1247. Henry married Gertrude, sister of Frederick II., duke of Austria,
+but left no children, and on his death the male line of his family
+became extinct.
+
+  See F. Reuss, _Die Wahl Heinrich Raspes_ (Lüdenscheid, 1878); A.
+  Rübesamen, _Landgraf Heinrich Raspe von Thüringen_ (Halle, 1885); F.
+  W. Schirrmacher, _Die letzten Hohenstaufen_ (Göttingen, 1871); E.
+  Winkelmann, _Kaiser Friedrich II._ (Leipzig, 1889), and T.
+  Knochenhauer, _Geschichte Thüringens zur Zeit des ersten
+  Landgrafenhauses_ (Gotha, 1871).
+
+
+
+
+HENRY (c. 1174-1216), emperor of Romania, or Constantinople, was a
+younger son of Baldwin, count of Flanders and Hainaut (d. 1195). Having
+joined the Fourth Crusade about 1201, he distinguished himself at the
+siege of Constantinople in 1204 and elsewhere, and soon became prominent
+among the princes of the new Latin empire of Constantinople. When his
+brother, the emperor Baldwin I., was captured at the battle of
+Adrianople in April 1205, Henry was chosen regent of the empire,
+succeeding to the throne when the news of Baldwin's death arrived. He
+was crowned on the 20th of August 1205. Henry was a wise ruler, whose
+reign was largely passed in successful struggles with the Bulgarians and
+with his rival, Theodore Lascaris I., emperor of Nicaea. Henry appears
+to have been brave but not cruel, and tolerant but not weak; possessing
+"the superior courage to oppose, in a superstitious age, the pride and
+avarice of the clergy." The emperor died, poisoned, it is said, by his
+Greek wife, on the 11th of June 1216.
+
+  See Gibbon's _Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_, vol. vi. (ed. J.
+  B. Bury, 1898).
+
+
+
+
+HENRY I. (1068-1135), king of England, nicknamed Beauclerk, the fourth
+and youngest son of William I. by his queen Matilda of Flanders, was
+born in 1068 on English soil. Of his life before 1086, when he was
+solemnly knighted by his father at Westminster, we know little. He was
+his mother's favourite, and she bequeathed to him her English estates,
+which, however, he was not permitted to hold in his father's lifetime.
+Henry received a good education, of which in later life he was proud; he
+is credited with the saying that an unlettered king is only a crowned
+ass. His attainments included Latin, which he could both read and write;
+he knew something of the English laws and language, and it may have been
+from an interest in natural history that he collected, during his reign,
+the Woodstock menagerie which was the admiration of his subjects. But
+from 1087 his life was one of action and vicissitudes which left him
+little leisure. Receiving, under the Conqueror's last dispositions, a
+legacy of five thousand pounds of silver, but no land, he traded upon
+the pecuniary needs of Duke Robert of Normandy, from whom he purchased,
+for the small sum of £3000, the district of the Cotentin. He negotiated
+with Rufus to obtain the possession of their mother's inheritance, but
+only incurred thereby the suspicions of the duke, who threw him into
+prison. In 1090 the prince vindicated his loyalty by suppressing, on
+Robert's behalf, a revolt of the citizens of Rouen which Rufus had
+fomented. But when his elder brothers were reconciled in the next year
+they combined to evict Henry from the Cotentin. He dissembled his
+resentment for a time, and lived for nearly two years in the French
+Vexin in great poverty. He then accepted from the citizens of Domfront
+an invitation to defend them against Robert of Bellême; and
+subsequently, coming to an agreement with Rufus, assisted the king in
+making war on their elder brother Robert. When Robert's departure for
+the First Crusade left Normandy in the hands of Rufus (1096) Henry took
+service under the latter, and he was in the royal hunting train on the
+day of Rufus's death (August 2nd, 1100). Had Robert been in Normandy the
+claim of Henry to the English crown might have been effectually opposed.
+But Robert only returned to the duchy a month after Henry's coronation.
+In the meantime the new king, by issuing his famous charter, by
+recalling Anselm, and by choosing the Anglo-Scottish princess
+Edith-Matilda, daughter of Malcolm III., king of the Scots, as his
+future queen, had cemented that alliance with the church and with the
+native English which was the foundation of his greatness. Anselm
+preached in his favour, English levies marched under the royal banner
+both to repel Robert's invasion (1101) and to crush the revolt of the
+Montgomeries headed by Robert of Bellême (1102). The alliance of crown
+and church was subsequently imperilled by the question of Investitures
+(1103-1106). Henry was sharply criticized for his ingratitude to Anselm
+(q.v.), in spite of the marked respect which he showed to the
+archbishop. At this juncture a sentence of excommunication would have
+been a dangerous blow to Henry's power in England. But the king's
+diplomatic skill enabled him to satisfy the church without surrendering
+any rights of consequence (1106); and he skilfully threw the blame of
+his previous conduct upon his counsellor, Robert of Meulan. Although the
+Peterborough Chronicle accuses Henry of oppression in his early years,
+the nation soon learned to regard him with respect. William of
+Malmesbury, about 1125, already treats Tinchebrai (1106) as an English
+victory and the revenge for Hastings. Henry was disliked but feared by
+the baronage, towards whom he showed gross bad faith in his disregard of
+his coronation promises. In 1110 he banished the more conspicuous
+malcontents, and from that date was safe against the plots of his
+English feudatories.
+
+With Normandy he had more trouble, and the military skill which he had
+displayed at Tinchebrai was more than once put to the test against
+Norman rebels. His Norman, like his English administration, was popular
+with the non-feudal classes, but doubtless oppressive towards the
+barons. The latter had abandoned the cause of Duke Robert, who remained
+a prisoner in England till his death (1134); but they embraced that of
+Robert's son William the Clito, whom Henry in a fit of generosity had
+allowed to go free after Tinchebrai. The Norman conspiracies of 1112,
+1118, and 1123-24 were all formed in the Clito's interest. Both France
+and Anjou supported this pretender's cause from time to time; he was
+always a thorn in Henry's side till his untimely death at Alost (1128),
+but more especially after the catastrophe of the White Ship (1120)
+deprived the king of his only lawful son. But Henry emerged from these
+complications with enhanced prestige. His campaigns had been uneventful,
+his chief victory (Brémule, 1119) was little more than a skirmish. But
+he had held his own as a general, and as a diplomatist he had shown
+surpassing skill. The chief triumphs of his foreign policy were the
+marriage of his daughter Matilda to the emperor Henry V. (1114) which
+saved Normandy in 1124; the detachment of the pope, Calixtus II., from
+the side of France and the Clito (1119), and the Angevin marriages which
+he arranged for his son William Aetheling (1119) and for the widowed
+empress Matilda (1129) after her brother's death. This latter match,
+though unpopular in England and Normandy, was a fatal blow to the
+designs of Louis VI., and prepared the way for the expansion of English
+power beyond the Loire. After 1124 the disaffection of Normandy was
+crushed. The severity with which Henry treated the last rebels was
+regarded as a blot upon his fame; but the only case of merely vindictive
+punishment was that of the poet Luke de la Barre, who was sentenced to
+lose his eyes for a lampoon upon the king, and only escaped the sentence
+by committing suicide.
+
+Henry's English government was severe and grasping; but he "kept good
+peace" and honourably distinguished himself among contemporary statesmen
+in an age when administrative reform was in the air. He spent more time
+in Normandy than in England. But he showed admirable judgment in his
+choice of subordinates; Robert of Meulan, who died in 1118, and Roger of
+Salisbury, who survived his master, were statesmen of no common order;
+and Henry was free from the mania of attending in person to every
+detail, which was the besetting sin of medieval sovereigns. As a
+legislator Henry was conservative. He issued few ordinances; the
+unofficial compilation known as the _Leges Henrici_ shows that, like the
+Conqueror, he made it his ideal to maintain the "law of Edward." His
+itinerant justices were not altogether a novelty in England or Normandy.
+It is characteristic of the man that the exchequer should be the chief
+institution created in his reign. The eulogies of the last _Peterborough
+Chronicle_ on his government were written after the anarchy of Stephen's
+reign had invested his predecessor's "good peace" with the glamour of a
+golden age. Henry was respected and not tyrannous. He showed a lofty
+indifference to criticism such as that of Eadmer in the _Historia
+novorum_, which was published early in the reign. He showed, on some
+occasions, great deference to the opinions of the magnates. But dark
+stories, some certainly unfounded, were told of his prison-houses. Men
+thought him more cruel and more despotic than he actually was.
+
+Henry was twice married. After the death of his first wife, Matilda
+(1080-1118), he took to wife Adelaide, daughter of Godfrey, count of
+Louvain (1121), in the hope of male issue. But the marriage proved
+childless, and the empress Matilda was designated as her father's
+successor, the English baronage being compelled to do her homage both in
+1126, and again, after the Angevin marriage, in 1131. He had many
+illegitimate sons and daughters by various mistresses. Of these bastards
+the most important is Robert, earl of Gloucester, upon whom fell the
+main burden of defending Matilda's title against Stephen.
+
+Henry died near Gisors on the 1st of December, 1135, in the thirty-sixth
+year of his reign, and was buried in the abbey of Reading which he
+himself had founded.
+
+  ORIGINAL AUTHORITIES.--_The Peterborough Chronicle_ (ed. Plummer,
+  Oxford, 1882-1889); _Florence of Worcester_ and his first continuator
+  (ed. B. Thorpe, 1848-1849); Eadmer, _Historia novorum_ (ed. Rule,
+  Rolls Series, 1884); William of Malmesbury, _Gesta regum_ and
+  _Historia novella_ (ed. Stubbs, Rolls Series, 1887-1889); Henry of
+  Huntingdon, _Historia Anglorum_ (ed. Arnold, Rolls Series, 1879);
+  Simeon of Durham (ed. Arnold, Rolls Series, 1882-1885); Orderic
+  Vitalis, _Historia ecclesiastica_ (ed. le Prévost, Paris, 1838-1855);
+  Robert of Torigni, _Chronica_ (ed. Howlett, Rolls Series, 1889), and
+  _Continuatio Willelmi Gemmeticensis_ (ed. Duchesne, _Hist. Normannorum
+  scriptores_, pp. 215-317, Paris, 1619). See also the Pipe Roll of 31
+  H. I. (ed. Hunter, _Record Commission_, 1833); the documents in W.
+  Stubbs's _Select Chapters_ (Oxford, 1895); the _Leges Henrici_ in
+  Liebermann's _Gesetze der Angel-Sachsen_ (Halle, 1898, &c.); and the
+  same author's monograph, _Leges Henrici_ (Halle, 1901); the treaties,
+  &c., in the Record Commission edition of Thomas Rymer's _Foedera_,
+  vol. i. (1816).
+
+  MODERN AUTHORITIES.--E. A. Freeman, _History of the Norman Conquest_,
+  vol. v.; J. M. Lappenberg, _History of England under the Norman Kings_
+  (tr. Thorpe, Oxford, 1857); Kate Norgate, _England under the Angevin
+  Kings_, vol. i. (1887); Sir James Ramsay, _Foundations of England_,
+  vol. ii.; W. Stubbs, _Constitutional History_, vol. i.; H. W. C.
+  Davis, _England under the Normans and Angevins_; Hunt and Poole,
+  _Political History of England_, vol. ii.     (H. W. C. D.)
+
+
+
+
+HENRY II. (1133-1189), king of England, son of Geoffrey Plantagenet,
+count of Anjou, by Matilda, daughter of Henry I., was born at Le Mans on
+the 25th of March 1133. He was brought to England during his mother's
+conflict with Stephen (1142), and was placed under the charge of a tutor
+at Bristol. He returned to Normandy in 1146. He next appeared on English
+soil in 1149[1] when he came to court the help of Scotland and the
+English baronage against King Stephen. The second visit was of short
+duration. In 1150 he was invested with Normandy by his father, whose
+death in the next year made him also count of Anjou. In 1152 by a
+marriage with Eleanor of Aquitaine, the divorced wife of the French king
+Louis VII., he acquired Poitou, Guienne and Gascony; but in doing so
+incurred the ill-will of his suzerain from which he suffered not a
+little in the future. Lastly in 1153 he was able, through the aid of the
+Church and his mother's partisans, to extort from Stephen the
+recognition of his claim to the English succession; and this claim was
+asserted without opposition immediately after Stephen's death (25th of
+October 1154). Matilda retired into seclusion, although she possessed,
+until her death (1167), great influence with her son.
+
+The first years of the reign were largely spent in restoring the public
+peace and recovering for the crown the lands and prerogatives which
+Stephen had bartered away. Amongst the older partisans of the Angevin
+house the most influential were Archbishop Theobald, whose good will
+guaranteed to Henry the support of the Church, and Nigel, bishop of Ely,
+who presided at the exchequer. But Thomas Becket, archdeacon of
+Canterbury, a younger statesman whom Theobald had discovered and
+promoted, soon became all-powerful. Becket lent himself entirely to his
+master's ambitions, which at this time centred round schemes of
+territorial aggrandizement. In 1155 Henry asked and obtained from Adrian
+IV. a licence to invade Ireland, which the king contemplated bestowing
+upon his brother, William of Anjou. This plan was dropped; but Malcolm
+of Scotland was forced to restore the northern counties which had been
+ceded to David; North Wales was invaded in 1157; and in 1159 Henry made
+an attempt, which was foiled by the intervention of Louis VII., to
+assert his wife's claims upon Toulouse. After vainly invoking the aid of
+the emperor Frederick I., the young king came to terms with Louis
+(1160), whose daughter was betrothed to Henry's namesake and heir. The
+peace proved unstable, and there was desultory skirmishing in 1161. The
+following year was chiefly spent in reforming the government of the
+continental provinces. In 1163 Henry returned to England, and almost
+immediately embarked on that quarrel with the Church which is the
+keynote to the middle period of the reign.
+
+Henry had good cause to complain of the ecclesiastical courts, and had
+only awaited a convenient season to correct abuses which were admitted
+by all reasonable men. But he allowed the question to be complicated by
+personal issues. He was bitterly disappointed that Becket, on whom he
+bestowed the primacy, left vacant by the death of Theobald (1162), at
+once became the champion of clerical privilege; he and the archbishop
+were no longer on speaking terms when the Constitutions of Clarendon
+came up for debate. The king's demands were not intrinsically
+irreconcilable with the canon law, and the papacy would probably have
+allowed them to take effect _sub silentio_, if Becket (q.v.) had not
+been goaded to extremity by persecution in the forms of law. After
+Becket's flight (1164), the king put himself still further in the wrong
+by impounding the revenues of Canterbury and banishing at one stroke a
+number of the archbishop's friends and connexions. He showed, however,
+considerable dexterity in playing off the emperor against Alexander III.
+and Louis VII., and contrived for five years, partly by these means,
+partly by insincere negotiations with Becket, to stave off a papal
+interdict upon his dominions. When, in July 1170, he was forced by
+Alexander's threats to make terms with Becket, the king contrived that
+not a word should be said of the Constitutions. He undoubtedly hoped
+that in this matter he would have his way when Becket should be more in
+England and within his grasp. For the murder of Becket (Dec. 29, 1170)
+the king cannot be held responsible, though the deed was suggested by
+his impatient words. It was a misfortune to the royal cause; and Henry
+was compelled to purchase the papal absolution by a complete surrender
+on the question of criminous clerks (1172). When he heard of the murder
+he was panic-stricken; and his expedition to Ireland (1171), although so
+momentous for the future, was originally a mere pretext for placing
+himself beyond the reach of Alexander's censures.
+
+Becket's fate, though it supplied an excuse, was certainly not the real
+cause of the troubles with his sons which disturbed the king's later
+years (1173-1189). But Henry's misfortunes were largely of his own
+making. Queen Eleanor, whom he alienated by his faithlessness, stirred
+up her sons to rebellion; and they had grievances enough to be easily
+persuaded. Henry was an affectionate but a suspicious and close-handed
+father. The titles which he bestowed on them carried little power, and
+served chiefly to denote the shares of the paternal inheritance which
+were to be theirs after his death. The excessive favour which he showed
+to John, his youngest-born, was another cause of heart-burning; and
+Louis, the old enemy, did his utmost to foment all discords. It must,
+however, be remembered in Henry's favour, that the supporters of the
+princes, both in England and in the foreign provinces, were animated by
+resentment against the soundest features of the king's administration;
+and that, in the rebellion of 1173, he received from the English commons
+such hearty support that any further attempt to raise a rebellion in
+England was considered hopeless. Henry, like his grandfather, gained in
+popularity with every year of his reign. In 1183 the death of Prince
+Henry, the heir-apparent, while engaged in a war against his brother
+Richard and their father, secured a short interval of peace. But in 1184
+Geoffrey of Brittany and John combined with their father's leave to make
+war upon Richard, now the heir-apparent. After Geoffrey's death (1186)
+the feud between John and Richard drove the latter into an alliance with
+Philip Augustus of France. The ill-success of the old king in this war
+aggravated the disease from which he was suffering; and his heart was
+broken by the discovery that John, for whose sake he had alienated
+Richard, was in secret league with the victorious allies. Henry died at
+Chinon on the 6th of July 1189, and was buried at Fontevraud. By Eleanor
+of Aquitaine the king had five sons and three daughters. His eldest son,
+William, died young; his other sons, Henry, Richard, Geoffrey and John,
+are all mentioned above. His daughters were: Matilda (1156-1189), who
+became the wife of Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony; Eleanor (1162-1214),
+who married Alphonso III., king of Castile; and Joanna, who, after the
+death of William of Sicily in 1189, became the wife of Raymund VI.,
+count of Toulouse, having previously accompanied her brother, Richard,
+to Palestine. He had also three illegitimate sons: Geoffrey, archbishop
+of York; Morgan; and William Longsword, earl of Salisbury.
+
+Henry's power impressed the imagination of his contemporaries, who
+credited him with aiming at the conquest of France and the acquisition
+of the imperial title. But his ambitions of conquest were comparatively
+moderate in his later years. He attempted to secure Maurienne and Savoy
+for John by a marriage-alliance, for which a treaty was signed in 1173.
+But the project failed through the death of the intended bride; nor did
+the marriage of his third daughter, the princess Joanna (1165-1199),
+with William II., king of Sicily (1177) lead to English intervention in
+Italian politics. Henry once declined an offer of the Empire, made by
+the opponents of Frederick Barbarossa; and he steadily supported the
+young Philip Augustus against the intrigues of French feudatories. The
+conquest of Ireland was carried out independently of his assistance, and
+perhaps against his wishes. He asserted his suzerainty over Scotland by
+the treaty of Falaise (1175), but not so stringently as to provoke
+Scottish hostility. This moderation was partly due to the embarrassments
+produced by the ecclesiastical question and the rebellions of the
+princes. But Henry, despite a violent and capricious temper, had a
+strong taste for the work of a legislator and administrator. He devoted
+infinite pains and thought to the reform of government both in England
+and Normandy. The legislation of his reign was probably in great part
+of his own contriving. His supervision of the law courts was close and
+jealous; he transacted a great amount of judicial business in his own
+person, even after he had formed a high court of justice which might sit
+without his personal presence. To these activities he devoted his scanty
+intervals of leisure. His government was stern; he over-rode the
+privileges of the baronage without regard to precedent; he persisted in
+keeping large districts under the arbitrary and vexatious jurisdiction
+of the forest-courts. But it is the general opinion of historians that
+he had a high sense of his responsibilities and a strong love of
+justice; despite the looseness of his personal morals, he commanded the
+affection and respect of Gilbert Foliot and Hugh of Lincoln, the most
+upright of the English bishops.
+
+  ORIGINAL AUTHORITIES.--Henry's laws are printed in W. Stubb's _Select
+  Charters_ (Oxford, 1895). The chief chroniclers of his reign are
+  William of Newburgh, Ralph de Diceto, the so-called Benedict of
+  Peterborough, Roger of Hoveden, Robert de Torigni (or de Monte),
+  Jordan Fantosme, Giraldus Cambrensis, Gervase of Canterbury; all
+  printed in the Rolls Series. The biographies and letters contained in
+  the 7 vols. of _Materials for the History of Thomas Becket_ (ed. J. C.
+  Robertson, Rolls Series, 1875-1885) are valuable for the early and
+  middle part of the reign. For Irish affairs the _Song of Dermot_ (ed.
+  Orpen, Oxford, 1892), for the rebellions of the princes the metrical
+  _Histoire de Guillaume le Maréchal_ (ed. Paul Meyer, 3 vols., Paris,
+  1891, &c.) are of importance. Henry's legal and administrative reforms
+  are illustrated by the _Tractatus de legibus_ attributed to Ranulph
+  Glanville, his chief justiciar (ed. G. Phillips, Berlin, 1828); by the
+  _Dialogus de scaccario_ of Richard fitz Nigel (Oxford, 1902); the
+  _Pipe Rolls_, printed by J. Hunter for the Record Commission (1844)
+  and by the Pipe-Roll Society (London, 1884, &c.) supply valuable
+  details. The works of John of Salisbury (ed. Giles, 1848), Peter of
+  Blois (ed. Migne), Walter Map (Camden Society, 1841, 1850) and the
+  letters of Gilbert Foliot (ed. J. A. Giles, Oxford, 1845) are useful
+  for the social and Church history of the reign.
+
+  MODERN AUTHORITIES.--R. W. Eyton, _Itinerary of Henry II._ (London,
+  1878); W. Stubbs, _Constitutional History_, vol. i. (Oxford, 1893),
+  _Lectures on Medieval and Modern History_ (Oxford, 1886) and _Early
+  Plantagenets_ (London, 1876); the same author's introduction to the
+  Rolls editions of "Benedict," Gervase, Diceto, Hoveden; Mrs J. R.
+  Green, Henry II. (London, 1888); Miss K. Norgate, _England under the
+  Angevin Kings_ (2 vols., London, 1887); Sir J. H. Ramsay's _The
+  Angevin Empire_ (London, 1893); H. W. C. Davis's _England under the
+  Normans and Angevins_ (London, 1905); Sir F. Pollock and F. W.
+  Maitland, _History of English Law_ (2 vols., Cambridge, 1898); and F.
+  Hardegen, _Imperialpolitik König Heinrichs II. von England_
+  (Heidelberg, 1905).     (H. W. C. D.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] For a supposed visit in 1147, see J. H. Round in _English
+    Historical Review_, v. 747.
+
+
+
+
+HENRY III. (1207-1272), king of England, was the eldest son of King John
+by Isabella of Angoulême. Born on the 1st of October 1207, the prince
+was but nine years old at the time of his father's death. The greater
+part of eastern England being in the hands of the French pretender,
+Prince Louis, afterwards King Louis VIII., and the rebel barons, Henry
+was crowned by his supporters at Gloucester, the western capital. John
+had committed his son to the protection of the Holy See; and a share in
+the government was accordingly allowed to the papal legates, Gualo and
+Pandulf, both during the civil war and for some time afterwards. But the
+title of regent was given by the loyal barons to William Marshal, the
+aged earl of Pembroke; and Peter des Roches, the Poitevin bishop of
+Winchester, received the charge of the king's person. The cause of the
+young Henry was fully vindicated by the close of the year 1217. Defeated
+both by land and sea, the French prince renounced his pretensions and
+evacuated England, leaving the regency to deal with the more difficult
+questions raised by the lawless insolence of the royal partisans. Henry
+remained a passive spectator of the measures by which William Marshal
+(d. 1219), and his successor, the justiciar Hubert de Burgh, asserted
+the royal prerogative against native barons and foreign mercenaries. In
+1223 Honorius III. declared the king of age, but this was a mere
+formality, intended to justify the resumption of the royal castles and
+demesnes which had passed into private hands during the commotions of
+the civil war.
+
+The personal rule of Henry III. began in 1227, when he was again
+proclaimed of age. Even then he remained for some time under the
+influence of Hubert de Burgh, whose chief rival, Peter des Roches, found
+it expedient to quit the kingdom for four years. But Henry was ambitions
+to recover the continental possessions which his father had lost.
+Against the wishes of the justiciar he planned and carried out an
+expedition to the west of France (1230); when it failed he laid the
+blame upon his minister. Other differences arose soon afterwards. Hubert
+was accused, with some reason, of enriching himself at the expense of
+the crown, and of encouraging popular riots against the alien clerks for
+whom the papacy was providing at the expense of the English Church. He
+was disgraced in 1232; and power passed for a time into the hands of
+Peter des Roches, who filled the administration with Poitevins. So began
+the period of misrule by which Henry III. is chiefly remembered in
+history. The Poitevins fell in 1234; they were removed at the demand of
+the barons and the primate Edmund Rich, who held them responsible for
+the tragic fate of the rebellious Richard Marshal. But the king replaced
+them with a new clique of servile and rapacious favourites. Disregarding
+the wishes of the Great Council, and excluding all the more important of
+the barons and bishops from office, he acted as his own chief minister
+and never condescended to justify his policy except when he stood in
+need of subsidies. When these were refused, he extorted aids from the
+towns, the Jews or the clergy, the three most defenceless interests in
+the kingdom. Always in pecuniary straits through his extravagance, he
+pursued a foreign policy which would have been expensive under the most
+careful management. He hoped not only to regain the French possessions
+but to establish members of his own family as sovereigns in Italy and
+the Empire. These plans were artfully fostered by the Savoyard kinsmen
+of Eleanor, daughter of Raymond Berenger, count of Provence, whom he
+married at Canterbury in January 1236, and by his half-brothers, the
+sons of Queen Isabella and Hugo, count of la Marche. These favourites,
+not content with pushing their fortunes in the English court, encouraged
+the king in the wildest designs. In 1242 he led an expedition to Gascony
+which terminated disastrously with the defeat of Taillebourg; and
+hostilities with France were intermittently continued for seventeen
+years. The Savoyards encouraged his natural tendency to support the
+Papacy against the Empire; at an early date in the period of misrule he
+entered into a close alliance with Rome, which resulted in heavy
+taxation of the clergy and gave great umbrage to the barons. A
+cardinal-legate was sent to England at Henry's request, and during four
+years (1237-1241) administered the English Church in a manner equally
+profitable to the king and to the pope. After the recall of the legate
+Otho the alliance was less open and less cordial. Still the pope
+continued to share the spoils of the English clergy with the king, and
+the king to enforce the demands of Roman tax-collectors.
+
+Circumstances favoured Henry's schemes. Archbishop Edmund Rich was timid
+and inexperienced; his successor, Boniface of Savoy, was a kinsman of
+the queen; Grosseteste, the most eminent of the bishops, died in 1253,
+when he was on the point of becoming a popular hero. Among the lay
+barons, the first place naturally belonged to Richard of Cornwall who,
+as the king's brother, was unwilling to take any steps which might
+impair the royal prerogative; while Simon de Montfort, earl of
+Leicester, the ablest man of his order, was regarded with suspicion as a
+foreigner, and linked to Henry's cause by his marriage with the princess
+Eleanor. Although the Great Council repeatedly protested against the
+king's misrule and extravagance, their remonstrances came to nothing for
+want of leaders and a clear-cut policy. But between 1248 and 1252 Henry
+alienated Montfort from his cause by taking the side of the Gascons,
+whom the earl had provoked to rebellion through his rigorous
+administration of their duchy. A little later, when Montfort was
+committed to opposition, Henry foolishly accepted from Innocent IV. the
+crown of Sicily for his second son Edmund Crouchback (1255). Sicily was
+to be conquered from the Hohenstaufen at the expense of England; and
+Henry pledged his credit to the papacy for enormous subsidies, although
+years of comparative inactivity had already overwhelmed him with debts.
+On the publication of the ill-considered bargain the baronage at length
+took vigorous action. They forced upon the king the Provisions of Oxford
+(1258), which placed the government in the hands of a feudal oligarchy;
+they reduced expenditure, expelled the alien favourites from the
+kingdom, and insisted upon a final renunciation of the French claims.
+The king submitted for the moment, but at the first opportunity
+endeavoured to cancel his concessions. He obtained a papal absolution
+from his promises; and he tricked the opposition into accepting the
+arbitration of the French king, Louis IX., whose verdict was a foregone
+conclusion. But Henry was incapable of protecting with the strong hand
+the rights which he had recovered by his double-dealing. Ignominiously
+defeated by Montfort at Lewes (1264) he fell into the position of a
+cipher, equally despised by his opponents and supporters. He acquiesced
+in the earl's dictatorship; left to his eldest son, Edward, the
+difficult task of reorganizing the royal party; marched with the
+Montfortians to Evesham; and narrowly escaped sharing the fate of his
+gaoler. After Evesham he is hardly mentioned by the chroniclers. The
+compromise with the surviving rebels was arranged by his son in concert
+with Richard of Cornwall and the legate Ottobuono; the statute of
+Marlborough (1267), which purchased a lasting peace by judicious
+concessions, was similarly arranged between Edward and the earl of
+Gloucester. Edward was king in all but name for some years before the
+death of his father, by whom he was alternately suspected and adored.
+
+Henry had in him some of the elements of a fine character. His mind was
+cultivated; he was a discriminating patron of literature, and
+Westminster Abbey is an abiding memorial of his artistic taste. His
+personal morality was irreproachable, except that he inherited the
+Plantagenet taste for crooked courses and dissimulation in political
+affairs; even in this respect the king's reputation has suffered unduly
+at the hands of Matthew Paris, whose literary skill is only equalled by
+his malice. The ambitions which Henry cherished, if extravagant, were
+never sordid; his patriotism, though seldom attested by practical
+measures, was thoroughly sincere. Some of his worst actions as a
+politician were due to a sincere, though exaggerated, gratitude for the
+support which the Papacy had given him during his minority. But he had
+neither the training nor the temper of a statesman. His dreams of
+autocracy at home and far-reaching dominion abroad were anachronisms in
+a century of constitutional ideas and national differentiation. Above
+all he earned the contempt of Englishmen and foreigners alike by the
+instability of his purpose. Matthew Paris said that he had a heart of
+wax; Dante relegated him to the limbo of ineffectual souls; and later
+generations have endorsed these scathing judgments.
+
+Henry died at Westminster on the 16th of November 1272; his widow,
+Eleanor, took the veil in 1276 and died at Amesbury on the 25th of June
+1291. Their children were: the future king Edward I.; Edmund, earl of
+Lancaster; Margaret (1240-1275), the wife of Alexander III., king of
+Scotland; Beatrice; and Katherine.
+
+  ORIGINAL AUTHORITIES.--Roger of Wendover, _Flores historiarum_ (ed. H.
+  O. Coxe, 4 vols., 1841-1844); and Matthew of Paris, _Chronica majora_
+  (ed. H. R. Luard, Rolls Series, 7 vols., 1872-1883) are the chief
+  narrative sources. See also the _Annales monastici_ (ed. H. R. Luard,
+  Rolls Series, 5 vols., 1864-1869); the collection of _Royal and other
+  Historical Letters_ edited by W. Shirley (Rolls Series, 2 vols.,
+  1862-1866); the Close and Patent Rolls edited for the Record
+  Commission and the Master of the Rolls; the _Epistolae Roberti
+  Grosseteste_ (ed. H. R. Luard, Rolls Series, 1861); the _Monumenta
+  Franciscana_, vol. i. (ed. J. S. Brewer, Rolls Series, 1858); the
+  documents in the new _Foedera_, vol. i. (Record Commission, 1816).
+
+  MODERN WORKS.--G. J. Turner's article on the king's minority in
+  _Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, New Series_, vol.
+  xviii.; Dom Gasquet's _Henry III. and the Church_ (1905); the lives of
+  Simon de Montfort by G. W. Prothero (1871), R. Pauli (Eng. ed., 1876)
+  and C. Bémont (Paris, 1884); W. Stubbs's _Constitutional History of
+  England_, vol. ii. (1887); R. Pauli's _Geschichte von England_, vol.
+  iii. (Hamburg, 1853); T. F. Tout in the _Political History of
+  England_, vol. iii. (1905), and H. W. C. Davis in _England under the
+  Normans and Angevins_ (1905).     (H. W. C. D.)
+
+
+
+
+HENRY IV. (1367-1413), king of England, son of John of Gaunt, by
+Blanche, daughter of Henry, duke of Lancaster, was born on the 3rd of
+April 1367, at Bolingbroke in Lincolnshire. As early as 1377 he is
+styled earl of Derby, and in 1380 he married Mary de Bohun (d. 1394)
+one of the co-heiresses of the last earl of Hereford. In 1387 he
+supported his uncle Thomas, duke of Gloucester, in his armed opposition
+to Richard II. and his favourites. Afterwards, probably through his
+father's influence, he changed sides. He was already distinguished for
+his knightly prowess, and for some years devoted himself to adventure.
+He thought of going on the crusade to Barbary; but instead, in July
+1390, went to serve with the Teutonic knights in Lithuania. He came home
+in the following spring, but next year went again to Prussia, whence he
+journeyed by way of Venice to Cyprus and Jerusalem. After his return to
+England he sided with his father and the king against Gloucester, and in
+1397 was made duke of Hereford. In January 1398 he quarrelled with the
+duke of Norfolk, who charged him with treason. The dispute was to have
+been decided in the lists at Coventry in September; but at the last
+moment Richard intervened and banished them both.
+
+When John of Gaunt died in February 1399 Richard, contrary to his
+promise, confiscated the estates of Lancaster. Henry then felt himself
+free, and made friends with the exiled Arundels. Early in July, whilst
+Richard was absent in Ireland, he landed at Ravenspur in Yorkshire. He
+was at once joined by the Percies; and Richard, abandoned by his
+friends, surrendered at Flint on the 19th of August. In the parliament,
+which assembled on the 30th of September, Richard was forced to
+abdicate. Henry then made his claim as coming by right line of blood
+from King Henry III., and through his right to recover the realm which
+was in point to be undone for default of governance and good law.
+Parliament formally accepted him, and thus Henry became king, "not so
+much by title of blood as by popular election" (Capgrave). The new
+dynasty had consequently a constitutional basis. With this Henry's own
+political sympathies well accorded. But though the revolution of 1399
+was popular in form, its success was due to an oligarchical faction.
+From the start Henry was embarrassed by the power and pretensions of the
+Percies. Nor was his hereditary title so good as that of the Mortimers.
+To domestic troubles was added the complication of disputes with
+Scotland and France. The first danger came from the friends of Richard,
+who plotted prematurely, and were crushed in January 1400. During the
+summer of 1400 Henry made a not over-successful expedition to Scotland.
+The French court would not accept his overtures, and it was only in the
+summer of 1401 that a truce was patched up by the restoration of
+Richard's child-queen, Isabella of Valois. Meantime a more serious
+trouble had arisen through the outbreak of the Welsh revolt under Owen
+Glendower (q.v.). In 1400 and again in each of the two following autumns
+Henry invaded Wales in vain. The success of the Percies over the Scots
+at Homildon Hill (Sept. 1402) was no advantage. Henry Percy (Hotspur)
+and his father, the earl of Northumberland, thought their services
+ill-requited, and finally made common cause with the partisans of
+Mortimer and the Welsh. The plot was frustrated by Hotspur's defeat at
+Shrewsbury (21st of July 1403); and Northumberland for the time
+submitted. Henry had, however, no one on whom he could rely outside his
+own family, except Archbishop Arundel. The Welsh were unsubdued; the
+French were plundering the southern coast; Northumberland was fomenting
+trouble in the north. The crisis came in 1405. A plot to carry off the
+young Mortimers was defeated; but Mowbray, the earl marshal, who had
+been privy to it, raised a rebellion in the north supported by
+Archbishop Scrope of York. Mowbray and Scrope were taken and beheaded;
+Northumberland escaped into Scotland. For the execution of the
+archbishop Henry was personally responsible, and he could never free
+himself from its odium. Popular belief regarded his subsequent illness
+as a judgment for his impiety. Apart from ill-health and unpopularity
+Henry had succeeded--relations with Scotland were secured by the capture
+of James, the heir to the crown; Northumberland was at last crushed at
+Bramham Moor (Feb. 1408); and a little later the Welsh revolt was
+mastered.
+
+Henry, stricken with sore disease, was unable to reap the advantage. His
+necessities had all along enabled the Commons to extort concessions in
+parliament, until in 1406 he was forced to nominate a council and govern
+by its advice. However, with Archbishop Arundel as his chancellor, Henry
+still controlled the government. But in January 1410 Arundel had to give
+way to the king's half-brother, Thomas Beaufort. Beaufort and his
+brother Henry, bishop of Winchester, were opposed to Arundel and
+supported by the prince of Wales. For two years the real government
+rested with the prince and the council. Under the prince's influence the
+English intervened in France in 1411 on the side of Burgundy. In this,
+and in some matters of home politics, the king disagreed with his
+ministers. There is good reason to suppose that the Beauforts had gone
+so far as to contemplate a forced abdication on the score of the king's
+ill-health. However, in November 1411 Henry showed that he was still
+capable of vigorous action by discharging the prince and his supporters.
+Arundel again became chancellor, and the king's second son, Thomas, took
+his brother's place. The change was further marked by the sending of an
+expedition to France in support of Orleans. But Henry's health was
+failing steadily. On the 20th of March 1413, whilst praying in
+Westminster Abbey he was seized with a fainting fit, and died that same
+evening in the Jerusalem Chamber. At the time he was believed to have
+been a leper, but as it would appear without sufficient reason.
+
+As a young man Henry had been chivalrous and adventurous, and in
+politics anxious for good government and justice. As king the loss and
+failure of friends made him cautious, suspicious and cruel. The
+persecution of the Lollards, which began with the burning statute of
+1401, may be accounted for by Henry's own orthodoxy, or by the influence
+of Archbishop Arundel, his one faithful friend. But that political
+Lollardry was strong is shown by the proposal in the parliament of 1410
+for a wholesale confiscation of ecclesiastical property. Henry's faults
+may be excused by his difficulties. Throughout he was practical and
+steadfast, and he deserved credit for maintaining his principles as a
+constitutional ruler. So after all his troubles he founded his dynasty
+firmly, and passed on the crown to his son with a better title. He is
+buried under a fine tomb at Canterbury.
+
+By Mary Bohun Henry had four sons: his successor Henry V., Thomas, duke
+of Clarence, John, duke of Bedford, and Humphrey, duke of Gloucester;
+and two daughters, Blanche, who married Louis III., elector palatine of
+the Rhine, and Philippa, who married Eric XIII., king of Sweden. Henry's
+second wife was Joan, or Joanna, (c. 1370-1437), daughter of Charles the
+Bad, king of Navarre, and widow of John IV. or V., duke of Brittany, who
+survived until July 1437. By her he had no children.
+
+  The chief contemporary authorities are the _Annales Henrici Quarti_
+  and T. Walsingham's _Historia Anglicana_ (Rolls Series), Adam of Usk's
+  _Chronicle_ and the various _Chronicles of London_. The life by John
+  Capgrave (_De illustribus Henricis_) is of little value. Some personal
+  matter is contained in _Wardrobe Accounts of Henry, Earl of Derby_
+  (Camden Soc.). For documents consult T. Rymer's _Foedera_; Sir N. H.
+  Nicolas, _Proceedings and Ordinances of the Privy Council_; Sir H.
+  Ellis, _Original Letters illustrative of English History_ (London,
+  1825-1846); _Rolls of Parliament_; _Royal and Historical Letters,
+  Henry IV._ (Rolls Series) and the _Calendars of Patent Rolls_. Of
+  modern authorities the foremost is J. H. Wylie's minute and learned
+  _Hist. of England under Henry IV._ (4 vols., London, 1884-1898). See
+  also W. Stubbs, _Constitutional History_; Sir J. Ramsay, _Lancaster
+  and York_ (2 vols., Oxford, 1892), and C. W. C. Oman, _The Political
+  History of England_, vol. iv.     (C. L. K.)
+
+
+
+
+HENRY V. (1387-1422), king of England, son of Henry IV. by Mary de
+Bohun, was born at Monmouth, in August 1387. On his father's exile in
+1398 Richard II. took the boy into his own charge, and treated him
+kindly. Next year the Lancastrian revolution forced Henry into
+precocious prominence as heir to the throne. From October 1400 the
+administration of Wales was conducted in his name; less than three years
+later he was in actual command of the English forces and fought against
+the Percies at Shrewsbury. The Welsh revolt absorbed his energies till
+1408. Then through the king's ill-health he began to take a wider share
+in politics. From January 1410, helped by his uncles Henry and Thomas
+Beaufort, he had practical control of the government. Both in foreign
+and domestic policy he differed from the king, who in November 1411
+discharged the prince from the council. The quarrel of father and son
+was political only, though it is probable that the Beauforts had
+discussed the abdication of Henry IV., and their opponents certainly
+endeavoured to defame the prince. It may be that to political enmity the
+tradition of Henry's riotous youth, immortalized by Shakespeare, is
+partly due. To that tradition Henry's strenuous life in war and politics
+is a sufficient general contradiction. The most famous incident, his
+quarrel with the chief-justice, has no contemporary authority and was
+first related by Sir Thomas Elyot in 1531. The story of Falstaff
+originated partly in Henry's early friendship for Oldcastle (q.v.). That
+friendship, and the prince's political opposition to Archbishop Arundel,
+perhaps encouraged Lollard hopes. If so, their disappointment may
+account for the statements of ecclesiastical writers, like Walsingham,
+that Henry on becoming king was changed suddenly into a new man.
+
+Henry succeeded his father on the 20th of March 1413. With no past to
+embarrass him, and with no dangerous rivals, his practical experience
+had full scope. He had to deal with three main problems--the restoration
+of domestic peace, the healing of schism in the Church and the recovery
+of English prestige in Europe. Henry grasped them all together, and
+gradually built upon them a yet wider policy. From the first he made it
+clear that he would rule England as the head of a united nation, and
+that past differences were to be forgotten. Richard II. was honourably
+reinterred; the young Mortimer was taken into favour; the heirs of those
+who had suffered in the last reign were restored gradually to their
+titles and estates. With Oldcastle Henry used his personal influence in
+vain, and the gravest domestic danger was Lollard discontent. But the
+king's firmness nipped the movement in the bud (Jan. 1414), and made his
+own position as ruler secure. Save for the abortive Scrope and Cambridge
+plot in favour of Mortimer in July 1415, the rest of his reign was free
+from serious trouble at home. Henry could now turn his attention to
+foreign affairs. A writer of the next generation was the first to allege
+that Henry was encouraged by ecclesiastical statesmen to enter on the
+French war as a means of diverting attention from home troubles. For
+this story there is no foundation. The restoration of domestic peace was
+the king's first care, and until it was assured he could not embark on
+any wider enterprise abroad. Nor was that enterprise one of idle
+conquest. Old commercial disputes and the support which the French had
+lent to Glendower gave a sufficient excuse for war, whilst the
+disordered state of France afforded no security for peace. Henry may
+have regarded the assertion of his own claims as part of his kingly
+duty, but in any case a permanent settlement of the national quarrel was
+essential to the success of his world policy. The campaign of 1415, with
+its brilliant conclusion at Agincourt (October 25), was only the first
+step. Two years of patient preparation followed. The command of the sea
+was secured by driving the Genoese allies of the French out of the
+Channel. A successful diplomacy detached the emperor Sigismund from
+France, and by the Treaty of Canterbury paved the way to end the schism
+in the Church. So in 1417 the war was renewed on a larger scale. Lower
+Normandy was quickly conquered, Rouen cut off from Paris and besieged.
+The French were paralysed by the disputes of Burgundians and Armagnacs.
+Henry skilfully played them off one against the other, without relaxing
+his warlike energy. In January 1419 Rouen fell. By August the English
+were outside the walls of Paris. The intrigues of the French parties
+culminated in the assassination of John of Burgundy by the dauphin's
+partisans at Montereau (September 10, 1419). Philip, the new duke, and
+the French court threw themselves into Henry's arms. After six months'
+negotiation Henry was by the Treaty of Troyes recognized as heir and
+regent of France, and on the 2nd of June 1420 married Catherine, the
+king's daughter. He was now at the height of his power. His eventual
+success in France seemed certain. He shared with Sigismund the credit of
+having ended the Great Schism by obtaining the election of Pope Martin
+V. All the states of western Europe were being brought within the web of
+his diplomacy. The headship of Christendom was in his grasp, and
+schemes for a new crusade began to take shape. He actually sent an envoy
+to collect information in the East; but his plans were cut short by
+death. A visit to England in 1421 was interrupted by the defeat of
+Clarence at Baugé. The hardships of the longer winter siege of Meaux
+broke down his health, and he died at Bois de Vincennes on the 31st of
+August 1422.
+
+Henry's last words were a wish that he might live to rebuild the walls
+of Jerusalem. They are significant. His ideal was founded consciously on
+the models of Arthur and Godfrey as national king and leader of
+Christendom. So he is the typical medieval hero. For that very reason
+his schemes were doomed to end in disaster, since the time was come for
+a new departure. Yet he was not reactionary. His policy was
+constructive: a firm central government supported by parliament; church
+reform on conservative lines; commercial development; and the
+maintenance of national prestige. His aims in some respects anticipated
+those of his Tudor successors, but he would have accomplished them on
+medieval lines as a constitutional ruler. His success was due to the
+power of his personality. He could train able lieutenants, but at his
+death there was no one who could take his place as leader. War,
+diplomacy and civil administration were all dependent on his guidance.
+His dazzling achievements as a general have obscured his more sober
+qualities as a ruler, and even the sound strategy, with which he aimed
+to be master of the narrow seas. If he was not the founder of the
+English navy he was one of the first to realize its true importance.
+Henry had so high a sense of his own rights that he was merciless to
+disloyalty. But he was scrupulous of the rights of others, and it was
+his eager desire to further the cause of justice that impressed his
+French contemporaries. He has been charged with cruelty as a religious
+persecutor; but in fact he had as prince opposed the harsh policy of
+Archbishop Arundel, and as king sanctioned a more moderate course.
+Lollard executions during his reign had more often a political than a
+religious reason. To be just with sternness was in his eyes a duty. So
+in his warfare, though he kept strict discipline and allowed no wanton
+violence, he treated severely all who had in his opinion transgressed.
+In his personal conduct he was chaste, temperate and sincerely pious. He
+delighted in sport and all manly exercises. At the same time he was
+cultured, with a taste for literature, art and music. Henry lies buried
+in Westminster Abbey. His tomb was stripped of its splendid adornment
+during the Reformation. The shield, helmet and saddle, which formed part
+of the original funeral equipment, still hang above it.
+
+  Of original authorities the best on the English side is the _Gesta
+  Henrici Quinti_ (down to 1416), printed anonymously for the English
+  Historical Society, but probably written by Thomas Elmham, one of
+  Henry's chaplains. Two lives edited by Thomas Hearne under the names
+  of Elmham and Titus Livius Forojuliensis come from a common source;
+  the longer, which Hearne ascribed incorrectly to Elmham, is perhaps
+  the original work of Livius, who was an Italian in the service of
+  Humphrey of Gloucester, and wrote about 1440. Other authorities are
+  the Chronicles of Walsingham and Otterbourne, the _English Chronicle_
+  or _Brut_, and the various _London Chronicles_. On the French side the
+  most valuable are Chronicles of Monstrelet and St Rémy (both
+  Burgundian) and the _Chronique du religieux de S. Denys_ (the official
+  view of the French court). For documents and modern authorities see
+  under HENRY IV. See also Sir N. H. Nicolas, _Hist. of the Battle of
+  Agincourt and the Expedition of 1415_ (London, 1833); C. L. Kingsford,
+  _Henry V., the Typical Medieval Hero_ (New York, 1901), where a fuller
+  bibliography will be found.     (C. L. K.)
+
+
+
+
+HENRY VI. (1421-1471), king of England, son of Henry V. and Catherine of
+Valois, was born at Windsor on the 6th of December 1421. He became king
+of England on the 1st of September 1422, and a few weeks later, on the
+death of his grandfather Charles VI., was proclaimed king of France
+also. Henry V. had directed that Richard Beauchamp, earl of Warwick
+(q.v.), should be his son's preceptor; Warwick took up his charge in
+1428; he trained his pupil to be a good man and refined gentleman, but
+he could not teach him kingship. As early as 1423 the baby king was made
+to appear at public functions and take his place in parliament. He was
+knighted by his uncle Bedford at Leicester in May 1426, and on the 6th
+of November 1429 was crowned at Westminster. Early in the next year he
+was taken over to France, and after long delay crowned in Paris on the
+16th of December 1431. His return to London on the 14th of February 1432
+was celebrated with a great pageant devised by Lydgate.
+
+During these early years Bedford ruled France wisely and at first with
+success, but he could not prevent the mischief which Humphrey of
+Gloucester (q.v.) caused both at home and abroad. Even in France the
+English lost ground steadily after the victory of Joan of Arc before
+Orleans in 1429. The climax came with the death of Bedford, and
+defection of Philip of Burgundy in 1435. This closed the first phase of
+Henry's reign. There followed fifteen years of vain struggle in France,
+and growing disorder at home. The determining factor in politics was the
+conduct of the war. Cardinal Beaufort, and after him Suffolk, sought by
+working for peace to secure at least Guienne and Normandy. Gloucester
+courted popularity by opposing them throughout; with him was Richard of
+York, who stood next in succession to the crown. Beaufort controlled the
+council, and it was under his guidance that the king began to take part
+in the government. Thus it was natural that as Henry grew to manhood he
+seconded heartily the peace policy. That policy was wise, but national
+pride made it unpopular and difficult. Henry himself had not the
+strength or knowledge to direct it, and was unfortunate in his advisers.
+The cardinal was old, his nephews John and Edmund Beaufort were
+incompetent, Suffolk, though a man of noble character, was tactless.
+Suffolk, however, achieved a great success by negotiating the marriage
+of Henry to Margaret of Anjou (q.v.) in 1445. Humphrey of Gloucester and
+Cardinal Beaufort both died early in 1447. Suffolk was now all-powerful
+in the favour of the king and queen. But his home administration was
+unpopular, whilst the incapacity of Edmund Beaufort ended in the loss of
+all Normandy and Guienne. Suffolk's fall in 1450 left Richard of York
+the foremost man in England. Henry's reign then entered on its last
+phase of dynastic struggle. Cade's rebellion suggested first that
+popular discontent might result in a change of rulers. But York, as heir
+to the throne, could abide his time. The situation was altered by the
+mental derangement of the king, and the birth of his son in 1453. York
+after a struggle secured the protectorship, and for the next year ruled
+England. Then Henry was restored to sanity, and the queen and Edmund
+Beaufort, now Duke of Somerset, to power. Open war followed, with the
+defeat and death of Somerset at St Albans on the 22nd of May 1455.
+Nevertheless a hollow peace was patched up, which continued during four
+years with lack of all governance. In 1459 war broke out again. On the
+10th of July 1460 Henry was taken prisoner at Northampton, and forced to
+acknowledge York as heir, to the exclusion of his own son. Richard of
+York's death at Wakefield (Dec. 29, 1460), and the queen's victory at St
+Albans (Feb. 17, 1461), brought Henry his freedom and no more. Edward of
+York had himself proclaimed king, and by his decisive victory at Towton
+on the 29th of March, put an end to Henry's reign. For over three years
+Henry was a fugitive in Scotland. He returned to take part in an
+abortive rising in 1464. A year later he was captured in the north, and
+brought a prisoner to the Tower. For six months in 1470-1471 he emerged
+to hold a shadowy kingship as Warwick's puppet. Edward's final victory
+at Tewkesbury was followed by Henry's death on the 21st of May 1471,
+certainly by violence, perhaps at the hands of Richard of Gloucester.
+
+Henry was the most hapless of monarchs. He was so honest and
+well-meaning that he might have made a good ruler in quiet times. But he
+was crushed by the burden of his inheritance. He had not the genius to
+find a way out of the French entanglement or the skill to steer a
+constitutional monarchy between rival factions. So the system and policy
+which were the creations of Henry IV. and Henry V. led under Henry VI.
+to the ruin of their dynasty. Henry's very virtues added to his
+difficulties. He was so trusting that any one could influence him, so
+faithful that he would not give up a minister who had become impossible.
+Thus even in the middle period he had no real control of the government.
+In his latter years he was mentally too weak for independent action. At
+his best he was a "good and gentle creature," but too kindly and
+generous to rule others. Religious observances and study were his chief
+occupations. His piety was genuine; simple and pure, he was shocked at
+any suggestion of impropriety, but his rebuke was only "Fie, for shame!
+forsooth ye are to blame." For education he was really zealous. Even as
+a boy he was concerned for the upbringing of his half-brothers, his
+mother's children by Owen Tudor. Later, the planning of his great
+foundations at Eton and King's College, Cambridge, was the one thing
+which absorbed his interest. To both he was more than a royal founder,
+and the credit of the whole scheme belongs to him. The charter for Eton
+was granted on the 11th of October 1440, and that for King's College in
+the following February. Henry himself laid the foundation-stones of both
+buildings. He frequently visited Cambridge to superintend the progress
+of the work. When at Windsor he loved to send for the boys from his
+school and give them good advice.
+
+Henry's only son was Edward, prince of Wales (1453-1471), who, having
+shared the many journeys and varying fortunes of his mother, Margaret,
+was killed after the battle of Tewkesbury (May 4, 1471) by some noblemen
+in attendance on Edward IV.
+
+  There is a life of Henry by his chaplain John Blakman (printed at the
+  end of Hearne's edition of Otterbourne); but it is concerned only with
+  his piety and patience in adversity. English chronicles for the reign
+  are scanty; the best are the _Chronicles of London_ (ed. C. L.
+  Kingsford), with the analogous _Gregory's Chronicle_ (ed. J. Gairdner
+  for Camden Soc.) and _Chronicle of London_ (ed. Sir H. N. Nicolas).
+  _The Paston Letters_, with James Gairdner's valuable Introductions,
+  are indispensable. Other useful authorities are Joseph Stevenson's
+  _Letters and Papers illustrative of the Wars of the English in France
+  during the Reign of Henry VI._; and _Correspondence of T. Bekynton_
+  (both in "Rolls" series). For the French war the chief sources are the
+  _Chronicles_ of Monstrelet, D'Escouchy and T. Basin. For other
+  documents and modern authorities see under HENRY IV. For Henry's
+  foundations see Sir H. C. Maxwell-Lyte, _History of Eton College_
+  (London, 1899), and J. B. Mullinger, _History of the University of
+  Cambridge_ (London, 1888).     (C. L. K.)
+
+
+
+
+HENRY VII. (1457-1509), king of England, was the first of the Tudor
+dynasty. His claim to the throne was through his mother from John of
+Gaunt and Catherine Swynford, whose issue born before their marriage had
+been legitimated by parliament. This, of course, was only a Lancastrian
+claim, never valid, even as such, till the direct male line of John of
+Gaunt had become extinct. By his father the genealogists traced his
+pedigree to Cadwallader, but this only endeared him to the Welsh when he
+had actually become king. His grandfather, Owen Tudor, however, had
+married Catherine, the widow of Henry V. and daughter to Charles VI. of
+France. Their son Edmund, being half brother of Henry VI., was created
+by that king earl of Richmond, and having married Margaret Beaufort,
+only daughter of John, duke of Somerset, died more than two months
+before their only child, Henry, was born in Pembroke Castle in January
+1457. The fatherless child had sore trials. Edward IV. won the crown
+when he was four years old, and while Wales partly held out against the
+conqueror, he was carried for safety from one castle to another. Then
+for a time he was made a prisoner; but ultimately he was taken abroad by
+his uncle Jasper, who found refuge in Brittany. At one time the duke of
+Brittany was nearly induced to surrender him to Edward IV.; but he
+remained safe in the duchy till the cruelties of Richard III. drove more
+and more Englishmen abroad to join him. An invasion of England was
+planned in 1483 in concert with the duke of Buckingham's rising; but
+stormy weather at sea and an inundation in the Severn defeated the two
+movements. A second expedition, two years later, aided this time by
+France, was more successful. Henry landed at Milford Haven among his
+Welsh allies and defeated Richard at the battle of Bosworth (August 22,
+1485). He was crowned at Westminster on the 30th of October following.
+Then, in fulfilment of pledges by which he had procured the adhesion of
+many Yorkist supporters, he was married at Westminster to Elizabeth
+(1465-1503), eldest daughter and heiress of Edward IV. (Jan. 18, 1486),
+whose two brothers had both been murdered by Richard III. Thus the Red
+and White Roses were united and the pretexts for civil war done away
+with.
+
+Nevertheless, Henry's reign was much disturbed by a succession of
+Yorkist conspiracies and pretenders. Of the two most notable impostors,
+the first, Lambert Simnel, personated the earl of Warwick, son of the
+duke of Clarence, a youth of seventeen whom Henry had at his accession
+taken care to imprison in the Tower. Simnel, who was but a boy, was
+taken over to Ireland to perform his part, and the farce was wonderfully
+successful. He was crowned as Edward VI. in Christchurch Cathedral,
+Dublin, and received the allegiance of every one--bishops, nobles and
+judges, alike with others. From Ireland, accompanied by some bands of
+German mercenaries procured for him in the Low Countries, he invaded
+England; but the rising was put down at Stoke near Newark in
+Nottinghamshire, and, Simnel being captured, the king made him a menial
+of his kitchen.
+
+This movement had been greatly assisted by Margaret, duchess dowager of
+Burgundy, sister of Edward IV., who could not endure to see the House of
+York supplanted by that of Tudor. The second pretender, Perkin Warbeck,
+was also much indebted to her support; but he seems to have entered on
+his career at first without it. And his story, which was more prolonged,
+had to do with the attitude of many countries towards England. Anxious
+as Henry was to avoid being involved in foreign wars, it was not many
+years before he was committed to a war with France, partly by his desire
+of an alliance with Spain, and partly by the indignation of his own
+subjects at the way in which the French were undermining the
+independence of Brittany. Henry gave Brittany defensive aid; but after
+the duchess Anne had married Charles VIII. of France, he felt bound to
+fulfil his obligations to Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, and also to
+the German king Maximilian, by an invasion of France in 1492. His
+allies, however, were not equally scrupulous or equally able to fulfil
+their obligations to him; and after besieging Boulogne for some little
+time, he received very advantageous offers from the French king and made
+peace with him.
+
+Now Perkin Warbeck had first appeared in Ireland in 1491, and had
+somehow been persuaded there to personate Richard, duke of York, the
+younger of the two princes murdered in the Tower, pretending that he had
+escaped, though his brother had been killed. Charles VIII., then
+expecting war with England, called him to France, recognized his
+pretensions and gave him a retinue; but after the peace he dismissed
+him. Then Margaret of Burgundy received him as her nephew, and
+Maximilian, now estranged from Henry, recognized him as king of England.
+With a fleet given him by Maximilian he attempted to land at Deal, but
+sailed away to Ireland and, not succeeding very well there either,
+sailed farther to Scotland, where James IV. received him with open arms,
+married him to an earl's daughter and made a brief and futile invasion
+of England along with him. But in 1497 he thought best to dismiss him,
+and Perkin, after attempting something again in Ireland, landed in
+Cornwall with a small body of men.
+
+Already Cornwall had risen in insurrection that year, not liking the
+taxation imposed for the purpose of repelling the Scotch invasion. A
+host of the country people, led first by a blacksmith, but afterwards by
+a nobleman, marched up towards London and were only defeated at
+Blackheath. But the Cornishmen were quite ready for another revolt, and
+indeed had invited Perkin to their shores. He had little fight in him,
+however, and after a futile siege of Exeter and an advance to Taunton he
+stole away and took sanctuary at Beaulieu in Hampshire. But, being
+assured of his life, he surrendered, was brought to London, and was only
+executed two years later, when, being imprisoned near the earl of
+Warwick in the Tower, he inveigled that simple-minded youth into a
+project of escape. For this Warwick, too, was tried, condemned and
+executed--no doubt to deliver Henry from repeated conspiracies in his
+favour.
+
+Henry had by this time several children, of whom the eldest, Arthur, had
+been proposed in infancy for a bridegroom to Catherine, daughter of
+Ferdinand of Aragon. The match had always been kept in view, but its
+completion depended greatly on the assurance Ferdinand and Isabella
+could feel of Henry's secure position upon the throne. At last Catherine
+was brought to England and was married to Prince Arthur at St Paul's on
+the 14th of November 1501. The lad was just over fifteen and the
+co-habitation of the couple was wisely delayed; but he died on the 2nd
+of April following. Another match was presently proposed for Catherine
+with the king's second son, Henry, which only took effect when the
+latter had become king himself. Meanwhile Henry's eldest daughter
+Margaret was married to James IV. of Scotland--a match distinctly
+intended to promote international peace, and make possible that ultimate
+union which actually resulted from it. The espousals had taken place at
+Richmond in 1502, and the marriage was celebrated in Scotland the year
+after. In the interval between these two events Henry lost his queen,
+who died on the 11th of February 1503, and during the remainder of his
+reign he made proposals in various quarters for a second
+marriage--proposals in which political objects were always the chief
+consideration; but none of them led to any result. In his latter years
+he became unpopular from the extortions practised by his two
+instruments, Empson and Dudley, under the authority of antiquated
+statutes. From the beginning of his reign he had been accumulating
+money, mainly for his own security against intrigues and conspiracies,
+and avarice had grown upon him with success. He died in April 1509,
+undoubtedly the richest prince in Christendom. He was not a niggard,
+however, in his expenditure. Before his death he had finished the
+hospital of the Savoy and made provision for the magnificent chapel at
+Westminster which bears his name. His money-getting was but part of his
+statesmanship, and for his statesmanship his country owes him not a
+little gratitude. He not only terminated a disastrous civil war and
+brought under control the spirit of ancient feudalism, but with a clear
+survey of the conditions of foreign powers he secured England in almost
+uninterrupted peace while he developed her commerce, strengthened her
+slender navy and built, apparently for the first time, a naval dock at
+Portsmouth.
+
+In addition to his sons Arthur and Henry, Henry VII. had several
+daughters, one of whom, Margaret, married James IV., king of Scotland,
+and another, Mary, became the wife of Louis XII. of France, and
+afterwards of Charles Brandon, duke of Suffolk.
+
+  The popular view of Henry VII.'s reign has always been derived from
+  Bacon's _History_ of that king. This has been edited by J. R. Lumby
+  (Cambridge, 1881). But during the last half century large accessions
+  to our knowledge have been made from foreign and domestic archives,
+  and the sources of Bacon's work have been more critically examined.
+  For a complete account of those sources the reader may be referred to
+  W. Busch's _England under the Tudors_, published in German in 1892 and
+  in an English translation in 1895. Some further information of a
+  special kind will be found in M. Oppenheim's _Naval Accounts and
+  Inventories_, published by the Navy Records Society in 1896. See also
+  J. Gairdner's _Henry VII._ (1889).     (J. Ga.)
+
+
+
+
+HENRY VIII. (1491-1547), king of England and Ireland, the third child
+and second son of Henry VII. and Elizabeth of York, was born on the 28th
+of June 1491 and, like all the Tudor sovereigns except Henry VII., at
+Greenwich. His two brothers, Prince Arthur and Edmund, duke of Somerset,
+and two of his sisters predeceased their father; Henry was the only son,
+and Margaret, afterwards queen of Scotland, and Mary, afterwards queen
+of France and duchess of Suffolk, were the only daughters who survived.
+Henry is said, on authority which has not been traced farther back than
+Paolo Sarpi, to have been destined for the church; but the story is
+probably a mere surmise from his theological accomplishments, and from
+his earliest years high secular posts such as the viceroyalty of Ireland
+were conferred upon the child. He was the first English monarch to be
+educated under the influence of the Renaissance, and his tutors included
+the poet Skelton; he became an accomplished scholar, linguist, musician
+and athlete, and when by the death of his brother Arthur in 1502 and of
+his father on the 22nd of April 1509 Henry VIII. succeeded to the
+throne, his accession was hailed with universal acclamation.
+
+He had been betrothed to his brother's widow Catherine of Aragon, and in
+spite of the protest which he had been made to register against the
+marriage, and of the doubts expressed by Julius II. and Archbishop
+Warham as to its validity, it was completed in the first few months of
+his reign. This step was largely due to the pressure brought to bear by
+Catherine's father Ferdinand upon Henry's council; he regarded England
+as a tool in his hands and Catherine as his resident ambassador. The
+young king himself at first took little interest in politics, and for
+two years affairs were managed by the pacific Richard Fox (q.v.) and
+Warham. Then Wolsey became supreme, while Henry was immersed in the
+pursuit of sport and other amusements. He took, however, the keenest
+interest from the first in learning and in the navy, and his inborn
+pride easily led him to support Wolsey's and Ferdinand's warlike designs
+on France. He followed an English army across the Channel in 1513, and
+personally took part in the successful sieges of Therouanne and Tournay
+and the battle of Guinegate which led to the peace of 1514. Ferdinand,
+however, deserted the English alliance, and amid the consequent
+irritation against everything Spanish, there was talk of a divorce
+between Henry and Catherine (1514), whose issue had hitherto been
+attended with fatal misfortune. But the renewed antagonism between
+England and France which followed the accession of Francis I. (1515) led
+to a rapprochement with Ferdinand; the birth of the lady Mary (1516)
+held out hopes of the male issue which Henry so much desired; and the
+question of a divorce was postponed. Ferdinand died in that year (1516)
+and the emperor Maximilian in 1519. Their grandson Charles V. succeeded
+them both in all their realms and dignities in spite of Henry's hardly
+serious candidature for the empire; and a lifelong rivalry broke out
+between him and Francis I. Wolsey used this antagonism to make England
+arbiter between them; and both monarchs sought England's favour in 1520,
+Francis at the Field of Cloth of Gold and Charles V. more quietly in
+Kent. At the conference of Calais in 1521 English influence reached its
+zenith; but the alliance with Charles destroyed the balance on which
+that influence depended. Francis was overweighted, and his defeat at
+Pavia in 1525 made the emperor supreme. Feeble efforts to challenge his
+power in Italy provoked the sack of Rome in 1527; and the peace of
+Cambrai in 1529 was made without any reference to Wolsey or England's
+interests.
+
+Meanwhile Henry had been developing a serious interest in politics, and
+he could brook no superior in whatever sphere he wished to shine. He
+began to adopt a more critical attitude towards Wolsey's policy, foreign
+and domestic; and to give ear to the murmurs against the cardinal and
+his ecclesiastical rule. Parliament had been kept at arm's length since
+1515 lest it should attack the church; but Wolsey's expensive foreign
+policy rendered recourse to parliamentary subsidies indispensable. When
+it met in 1523 it refused Wolsey's demands, and forced loans were the
+result which increased the cardinal's unpopularity. Nor did success
+abroad now blunt the edge of domestic discontent. His fate, however, was
+sealed by his failure to obtain a divorce for Henry from the papal
+court. The king's hopes of male issue had been disappointed, and by 1526
+it was fairly certain that Henry could have no male heir to the throne
+while Catherine remained his wife. There was Mary, but no queen regnant
+had yet ruled in England; Margaret Beaufort had been passed over in
+favour of her son in 1485, and there was a popular impression that women
+were excluded from the throne. No candidate living could have secured
+the succession without a recurrence of civil war. Moreover the
+unexampled fatality which had attended Henry's issue revived the
+theological scruples which had always existed about the marriage; and
+the breach with Charles V. in 1527 provoked a renewal of the design of
+1514. All these considerations were magnified by Henry's passion for
+Anne Boleyn, though she certainly was not the sole or the main cause of
+the divorce. That the succession was the main point is proved by the
+fact that Henry's efforts were all directed to securing a wife and not a
+mistress. Wolsey persuaded him that the necessary divorce could be
+obtained from Rome, as it had been in the case of Louis XII. of France
+and Margaret of Scotland. For a time Clement VII. was inclined to
+concede the demand, and Campeggio in 1528 was given ample powers. But
+the prospect of French success in Italy which had encouraged the pope
+proved delusive, and in 1529 he had to submit to the yoke of Charles V.
+This involved a rejection of Henry's suit, not because Charles cared
+anything for his aunt, but because a divorce would mean disinheriting
+Charles's cousin Mary, and perhaps the eventual succession of the son of
+a French princess to the English throne.
+
+Wolsey fell when Campeggio was recalled, and his fall involved the
+triumph of the anti-ecclesiastical party in England. Laymen who had
+resented their exclusion from power were now promoted to offices such as
+those of lord chancellor and lord privy seal which they had rarely held
+before; and parliament was encouraged to propound lay grievances against
+the church. On the support of the laity Henry relied to abolish papal
+jurisdiction and reduce clerical privilege and property in England; and
+by a close alliance with Francis I. he insured himself against the
+enmity of Charles V. But it was only gradually that the breach was
+completed with Rome. Henry had defended the papacy against Luther in
+1521 and had received in return the title "defender of the faith." He
+never liked Protestantism, and he was prepared for peace with Rome on
+his own terms. Those terms were impossible of acceptance by a pope in
+Clement VII.'s position; but before Clement had made up his mind to
+reject them, Henry had discovered that the papacy was hardly worth
+conciliating. His eyes were opened to the extent of his own power as the
+exponent of national antipathy to papal jurisdiction and ecclesiastical
+privilege; and his appetite for power grew. With Cromwell's help he
+secured parliamentary support, and its usefulness led him to extend
+parliamentary representation to Wales and Calais, to defend the
+privileges of Parliament, and to yield rather than forfeit its
+confidence. He had little difficulty in securing the Acts of Annates,
+Appeals and Supremacy which completed the separation from Rome, or the
+dissolution of the monasteries which, by transferring enormous wealth
+from the church to the crown, really, in Cecil's opinion, ensured the
+reformation.
+
+The abolition of the papal jurisdiction removed all obstacles to the
+divorce from Catherine and to the legalization of Henry's marriage with
+Anne Boleyn (1533). But the recognition of the royal supremacy could
+only be enforced at the cost of the heads of Sir Thomas More, Bishop
+Fisher and a number of monks and others among whom the Carthusians
+signalized themselves by their devotion (1535-1536). Anne Boleyn fared
+no better than the Catholic martyrs; she failed to produce a male heir
+to the throne, and her conduct afforded a jury of peers, over which her
+uncle, the duke of Norfolk, presided, sufficient excuse for condemning
+her to death on a charge of adultery (1536). Henry then married Jane
+Seymour, who was obnoxious to no one, gave birth to Edward VI., and then
+died (1537). The dissolution of the monasteries had meanwhile evoked a
+popular protest in the north, and it was only by skilful and
+unscrupulous diplomacy that Henry was enabled to suppress so easily the
+Pilgrimage of Grace. Foreign intervention was avoided through the
+renewal of war between Francis and Charles; and the insurgents were
+hampered by having no rival candidate for the throne and no means of
+securing the execution of their programme.
+
+Nevertheless their rising warned Henry against further doctrinal change.
+He had authorized the English Bible and some approach towards Protestant
+doctrine in the Ten Articles. He also considered the possibility of a
+political and theological alliance with the Lutheran princes of Germany.
+But in 1538 he definitely rejected their theological terms, while in
+1539-1540 they rejected his political proposals. By the statute of Six
+Articles (1539) he took his stand on Catholic doctrine; and when the
+Lutherans had rejected his alliance, and Cromwell's nominee, Anne of
+Cleves, had proved both distasteful on personal grounds and unnecessary
+because Charles and Francis were not really projecting a Catholic
+crusade against England, Anne was divorced and Cromwell beheaded. The
+new queen Catherine Howard represented the triumph of the reactionary
+party under Gardiner and Norfolk; but there was no idea of returning to
+the papal obedience, and even Catholic orthodoxy as represented by the
+Six Articles was only enforced by spasmodic outbursts of persecution and
+vain attempts to get rid of Cranmer.
+
+The secular importance of Henry's activity has been somewhat obscured by
+his achievements in the sphere of ecclesiastical politics; but no small
+part of his energies was devoted to the task of expanding the royal
+authority at the expense of temporal competitors. Feudalism was not yet
+dead, and in the north and west there were medieval franchises in which
+the royal writ and common law hardly ran at all. Wales and its marches
+were brought into legal union with the rest of England by the statutes
+of Wales (1534-1536); and after the Pilgrimage of Grace the Council of
+the North was set up to bring into subjection the extensive
+jurisdictions of the northern earls. Neither they nor the lesser chiefs
+who flourished on the lack of common law and order could be reduced by
+ordinary methods, and the Councils of Wales and of the North were given
+summary powers derived from the Roman civil law similar to those
+exercised by the Star Chamber at Westminster and the court of Castle
+Chamber at Dublin. Ireland had been left by Wolsey to wallow in its own
+disorder; but disorder was anathema to Henry's mind, and in 1535 Sir
+William Skeffington was sent to apply English methods and artillery to
+the government of Ireland. Sir Anthony St Leger continued his policy
+from 1540; Henry, instead of being merely lord of Ireland dependent on
+the pope, was made by an Irish act of parliament king, and supreme head
+of the Irish church. Conciliation was also tried with some success;
+plantation schemes were rejected in favour of an attempt to Anglicize
+the Irish; their chieftains were created earls and endowed with monastic
+lands; and so peaceful was Ireland in 1542 that the lord-deputy could
+send Irish kernes and gallowglasses to fight against the Scots.
+
+Henry, however, seems to have believed as much in the coercion of
+Scotland as in the conciliation of Ireland. Margaret Tudor's marriage
+had not reconciled the realms; and as soon as James V. became a possible
+pawn in the hands of Charles V., Henry bethought himself of his old
+claims to suzerainty over Scotland. At first he was willing to
+subordinate them to an attempt to win over Scotland to his anti-papal
+policy, and he made various efforts to bring about an interview with his
+nephew. But James V. was held aloof by Beaton and two French marriages;
+and France was alarmed by Henry's growing friendliness with Charles V.,
+who was mollified by his cousin Mary's restoration to her place in the
+succession to the throne. In 1542 James madly sent a Scottish army to
+ruin at Solway Moss; his death a few weeks later left the Scottish
+throne to his infant daughter Mary Stuart, and Henry set to work to
+secure her hand for his son Edward and the recognition of his own
+suzerainty. A treaty was signed with the Scottish estates; but it was
+torn up a few months later under the influence of Beaton and the
+queen-dowager Mary of Guise, and Hertford was sent in 1544 to punish
+this breach of promise by sacking Edinburgh.
+
+Perhaps to prevent French intervention in Scotland Henry joined Charles
+V. in invading France, and captured Boulogne (Sept. 1544). But Charles
+left his ally in the lurch and concluded the peace of Crépy that same
+month; and in 1545 Henry had to face alone a French invasion of the Isle
+of Wight. This attack proved abortive, and peace between England and
+France was made in 1546. Charles V.'s desertion inclined Henry to listen
+to the proposals of the threatened Lutheran princes, and the last two
+years of his reign were marked by a renewed tendency to advance in a
+Protestant direction. Catherine Howard had been brought to the block
+(1542) on charges in which there was probably a good deal of truth, and
+her successor, Catherine Parr, was a patroness of the new learning. An
+act of 1545 dissolved chantries, colleges and other religious
+foundations; and in the autumn of 1546 the Spanish ambassador was
+anticipating further anti-ecclesiastical measures. Gardiner had almost
+been sent to the Tower, and Norfolk and Surrey were condemned to death,
+while Cranmer asserted that it was Henry's intention to convert the mass
+into a communion service. An opportunist to the last, he would readily
+have sacrificed any theological convictions he may have had in the
+interests of national uniformity. He died on the 28th of January 1547,
+and was buried in St George's Chapel, Windsor.
+
+The atrocity of many of Henry's acts, the novelty and success of his
+religious policy, the apparent despotism of his methods, or all
+combined, have made it difficult to estimate calmly the importance of
+Henry's work or the conditions which made it possible. Henry's egotism
+was profound, and personal motives underlay his public action. While
+political and ecclesiastical conditions made the breach with Rome
+possible--and in the view of most Englishmen desirable--Henry VIII. was
+led to adopt the policy by private considerations. He worked for the
+good of the state because he thought his interests were bound up with
+those of the nation; and it was the real coincidence of this private and
+public point of view that made it possible for so selfish a man to
+achieve so much for his country. The royal supremacy over the church and
+the means by which it was enforced were harsh and violent expedients;
+but it was of the highest importance that England should be saved from
+religious civil war, and it could only be saved by a despotic
+government. It was necessary for the future development of England that
+its governmental system should be centralized and unified, that the
+authority of the monarchy should be more firmly extended over Wales and
+the western and northern borders, and that the still existing feudal
+franchises should be crushed; and these objects were worth the price
+paid in the methods of the Star Chamber and of the Councils of the North
+and of Wales. Henry's work on the navy requires no apology; without it
+Elizabeth's victory over the Spanish Armada, the liberation of the
+Netherlands and the development of English colonies would have been
+impossible; and "of all others the year 1545 best marks the birth of the
+English naval power" (Corbett, _Drake_, i. 59). His judgment was more at
+fault when he conquered Boulogne and sought by violence to bring
+Scotland into union with England. But at least Henry appreciated the
+necessity of union within the British Isles; and his work in Ireland
+relaid the foundations of English rule. No less important was his
+development of the parliamentary system. Representation was extended to
+Wales, Cheshire, Berwick and Calais; and parliamentary authority was
+enhanced, largely that it might deal with the church, until men began to
+complain of this new parliamentary infallibility. The privileges of the
+two Houses were encouraged and expanded, and parliament was led to
+exercise ever wider powers. This policy was not due to any belief on
+Henry's part in parliamentary government, but to opportunism, to the
+circumstance that parliament was willing to do most of the things which
+Henry desired, while competing authorities, the church and the old
+nobility, were not. Nevertheless, to the encouragement given by Henry
+VIII. parliament owed not a little of its future growth, and to the aid
+rendered by parliament Henry owed his success.
+
+He has been described as a "despot under the forms of law"; and it is
+apparently true that he committed no illegal act. His despotism consists
+not in any attempt to rule unconstitutionally, but in the extraordinary
+degree to which he was able to use constitutional means in the
+furtherance of his own personal ends. His industry, his remarkable
+political insight, his lack of scruple, and his combined strength of
+will and subtlety of intellect enabled him to utilize all the forces
+which tended at that time towards strong government throughout western
+Europe. In Michelet's words, "le nouveau Messie est le roi"; and the
+monarchy alone seemed capable of guiding the state through the social
+and political anarchy which threatened all nations in their transition
+from medieval to modern organization. The king was the emblem, the focus
+and the bond of national unity; and to preserve it men were ready to put
+up with vagaries which to other ages seem intolerable. Henry could thus
+behead ministers and divorce wives with comparative impunity, because
+the individual appeared to be of little importance compared with the
+state. This impunity provoked a licence which is responsible for the
+unlovely features of Henry's reign and character. The elevation and the
+isolation of his position fostered a detachment from ordinary virtues
+and compassion, and he was a remorseless incarnation of Machiavelli's
+_Prince_. He had an elastic conscience which was always at the beck and
+call of his desire, and he cared little for principle. But he had a
+passion for efficiency, and for the greatness of England and himself.
+His mind, in spite of its clinging to the outward forms of the old
+faith, was intensely secular; and he was as devoid of a moral sense as
+he was of a genuine religious temperament. His greatness consists in his
+practical aptitude, in his political perception, and in the
+self-restraint which enabled him to confine within limits tolerable to
+his people an insatiable appetite for power.
+
+  The original materials for Henry VIII.'s biography are practically all
+  incorporated in the monumental _Letters and Papers of the Reign of
+  Henry VIII._ (21 vols.), edited by Brewer and Gairdner and completed
+  after fifty years' labour in 1910. A few further details may be
+  gleaned from such contemporary sources as Hall's _Chronicle_,
+  Cavendish's _Life of Wolsey_, W. Thomas's _The Pilgrim_ and others;
+  and some additions have been made to the documentary sources contained
+  in the _Letters and Papers_ by recent works, such as Ehses' _Römische
+  Dokumente_, and Merriman's _Life and Letters of Thomas Cromwell_. Lord
+  Herbert of Cherbury's _Life and Reign of Henry VIII._ (1649), while
+  good for its time, is based upon a very partial knowledge of the
+  sources and somewhat antiquated principles of historical scholarship.
+  Froude's famous portraiture of Henry is coloured by the ideas of
+  hero-worship and history which the author imbibed from Carlyle, and
+  the rival portraits in Lingard, R. W. Dixon's _Church History_ and
+  Gasquet's _Henry VIII. and the Monasteries_ by strong religious
+  feeling. A more discriminating estimate is attempted by H. A. L.
+  Fisher in Messrs Longmans' _Political History of England_, vol. v.
+  (1906). Of the numerous paintings of Henry none is by Holbein, who,
+  however, executed the striking chalk-drawing of Henry's head, now at
+  Munich, and the famous but decaying cartoon at Devonshire House. The
+  well-known three-quarter length at Windsor, usually attributed to
+  Holbein, is by an inferior artist. The best collection of Henry's
+  portraits was exhibited at the Burlington Fine Arts Club in 1909, and
+  the catalogue of that exhibition contains the best description of
+  them; several are reproduced in Pollard's _Henry VIII._ (Goupil)
+  (1902), the letterpress of which was published by Longmans in a
+  cheaper edition (1905). Henry composed numerous state papers still
+  extant; his only book was his _Assertio septem sacramentorum contra M.
+  Lutherum_ (1521), a copy of which, signed by Henry himself, is at
+  Windsor. Several anthems composed by him are extant; and one at least,
+  _O Lord, the Maker of all Things_, is still occasionally rendered in
+  English cathedrals.     (A. F. P.)
+
+
+
+
+HENRY I. (1214-1217), king of Castile, son of Alphonso VIII. of Castile,
+and his wife Eleanor of Aquitaine, daughter of Henry II. of England,
+after whom he was named, was born about 1207. He was killed, while still
+a boy, by the fall of a tile from a roof.
+
+HENRY II. of Trastamara (1369-1379), king of Castile, founder of the
+dynasty known as "the new kings," was the eldest son of Alphonso XI. and
+of his mistress Leonora de Guzman. He was born in 1333. His father
+endowed him with great lordships in northern Spain, and made him count
+of Trastamara. After the death of Alphonso XI. in 1350, Leonora was
+murdered to satisfy the revenge of the king's neglected wife. Several of
+the numerous children she had borne to Alphonso were slain at different
+times by Peter the Cruel, the king's legitimate son and successor. Henry
+preserved his life by submissions and by keeping out of the king's way.
+At last, after taking part in several internal commotions, he fled to
+France in 1356. In 1366 he persuaded the mercenary soldiers paid off by
+the kings of England and France to accompany him on an expedition to
+upset Peter, who was driven out. The Black Prince having intervened on
+behalf of Peter, Henry was defeated at Najera (3rd of April 1367) and
+had again to flee to Aragon. When the Black Prince was told that "the
+Bastard" had neither been slain nor taken, he said that nothing had been
+done. And so it turned out; for, when the Black Prince had left Spain,
+Henry came back with a body of French soldiers of fortune under du
+Guesclin, and drove his brother into the castle of Montiel in La Mancha.
+Peter was tempted out by du Guesclin, and the half brothers met in the
+Frenchman's tent. They rushed at one another, and Peter, the stronger
+man, threw Henry down, and fell on him. One of Henry's pages seized the
+king by the leg and threw him on his back. Henry then pulled up Peter's
+hauberk and stabbed him mortally in the stomach, on the 23rd of March
+1369. He reigned for ten years, with some success both in pacifying the
+kingdom and in war with Portugal. But as his title was disputed he was
+compelled to purchase support by vast grants to the nobles and
+concessions to the cities, by which he gained the title of _El de las
+Mercedes_--he of the largesse. Henry was a strong ally of the French
+king in his wars with the English, who supported the claims of Peter's
+natural daughters. He died on the 30th of May 1379.
+
+HENRY III. (1390-1406) king of Castile, called _El Doliente_, the
+Sufferer, was the son of John I. of Castile and Leon, and of his wife
+Beatrice, daughter of Ferdinand of Portugal. He was born in 1379. The
+period of minority was exceptionally anarchical, even for Castile, but
+as the cities, always the best supporters of the royal authority, were
+growing in strength, Henry was able to reduce his kingdom to obedience,
+and, when he took the government into his own hands after 1393, to
+compel his nobles with comparative ease to surrender the crown lands
+they had seized. The meeting of the Cortes summoned by him at Madrid in
+1394 marked a great epoch in the establishment of a practically despotic
+royal authority, based on the consent of the commons, who looked to the
+crown to protect them against the excesses of the nobles. Henry
+strengthened his position still further by his marriage with Catherine,
+daughter of John of Gaunt and of Constance, elder daughter of Peter the
+Cruel and Maria de Padilla. This union combined the rival claims of the
+descendants of Peter and of Henry of Trastamara. The king's bodily
+weakness limited his real capacity, and his early death on the 25th of
+December 1406 cut short the promise of his reign.
+
+HENRY IV. (1453-1474), king of Castile, surnamed the Impotent, or the
+Spendthrift, was the son of John II. of Castile and Leon, and of his
+wife, Mary, daughter of Ferdinand I. of Aragon and Sicily. He was born
+at Valladolid on the 6th of January 1425. The surnames given to this
+king by his subjects are of much more than usual accuracy. His personal
+character was one of mere weakness, bodily and mental. Henry was an
+undutiful son, and his reign was one long period of confusion, marked by
+incidents of the most ignominious kind. He divorced his first wife
+Blanche of Navarre in 1453 on the ground of "mutual impotence." Yet in
+1468 he married Joan of Portugal, and when she bore a daughter, first
+repudiated her as adulterine, and then claimed her for his own. In 1468
+he was solemnly deposed in favour of his brother Alphonso, on whose
+death in the same year his authority was again recognized. The last
+years of his life were spent in vain endeavours, first to force his
+half-sister Isabella, afterwards queen, to marry his favourite, the
+Master of Santiago, and then to exclude her from the throne. Henry died
+at Madrid on the 12th of December 1474.
+
+
+
+
+HENRY I. (1008-1060), king of France, son of King Robert and his queen,
+Constance of Aquitaine, and grandson of Hugh Capet, came to the throne
+upon the death of his father in 1031, although in 1027 he had been
+anointed king at Reims and associated in the government with his father.
+His mother, who favoured her younger son Robert, and had retired from
+court upon Henry's coronation, formed a powerful league against him, and
+he was forced to take refuge with Robert II., duke of Normandy. In the
+civil war which resulted, Henry was able to break up the league of his
+opponents in 1032. Constance died in 1034, and the rebel brother Robert
+was given the duchy of Burgundy, thus founding that great collateral
+line which was to rival the kings of France for three centuries. Henry
+atoned for this by a reign marked by unceasing struggle against the
+great barons. From 1033 to 1043 he was involved in a life and death
+contest with those nobles whose territory adjoined the royal domains,
+especially with the great house of Blois, whose count, Odo II., had been
+the centre of the league of Constance, and with the counts of Champagne.
+Henry's success in these wars was largely due to the help given him by
+Robert of Normandy, but upon the accession of Robert's son William (the
+Conqueror), Normandy itself became the chief danger. From 1047 to the
+year of his death, Henry was almost constantly at war with William, who
+held his own against the king's formidable leagues and beat back two
+royal invasions, in 1055 and 1058. Henry's reign marks the height of
+feudalism. The Normans were independent of him, with their frontier
+barely 25 m. west of Paris; to the south his authority was really
+bounded by the Loire; in the east the count of Champagne was little more
+than nominally his subject, and the duchy of Burgundy was almost
+entirely cut off from the king. Yet Henry maintained the independence of
+the clergy against the pope Leo IX., and claimed Lorraine from the
+emperor Henry III. In an interview at Ivois, he reproached the emperor
+with the violation of promises, and Henry III. challenged him to a
+single combat. According to the German chronicle--which French
+historians doubt--the king of France declined the combat and fled from
+Ivois during the night. In 1059 he had his eldest son Philip crowned as
+joint king, and died the following year. Henry's first wife was Maud,
+niece of the emperor Henry III., whom he married in 1043. She died
+childless in 1044. Historians have sometimes confused her with Maud (or
+Matilda), the emperor Conrad II.'s daughter, to whom Henry was affianced
+in 1033, but who died before the marriage. In 1051 Henry married the
+Russian princess Anne, daughter of Yaroslav I., grand duke of Kiev. She
+bore him two sons, Philip, his successor, and Hugh the great, count of
+Vermandois.
+
+  See the _Historiae_ of Rudolph Glaber, edited by M. Prou (Paris,
+  1886); F. Sochnée, _Catalogue des actes d'Henri I^er_ (1907); de Caiz
+  de Saint Aymour, _Anne de Russie, reine de France_ (1896); E. Lavisse,
+  _Histoire de France_, tome ii. (1901), and the article on Henry I. in
+  _La Grande Encyclopédie_ by M. Prou.
+
+
+
+
+HENRY II. (1519-1559), king of France, the second son of Francis I. and
+Claude, succeeded to the throne in 1547. When only seven years old he
+was sent by his father, with his brother the dauphin Francis, as a
+hostage to Spain in 1526, whence they returned after the conclusion of
+the peace of Cambrai in 1530. Henry was too young to have carried away
+any abiding impressions, yet throughout his life his character, dress
+and bearing were far more Spanish than French. In 1533 his father
+married him to Catherine de' Medici, from which match, as he said,
+Francis hoped to gain great advantage, even though it might be somewhat
+of a misalliance. In 1536 Henry, hitherto duke of Orleans, became
+dauphin by the death of his elder brother Francis. From that time he was
+under the influence of two personages, who dominated him completely for
+the remainder of his life--Diane de Poitiers, his mistress, and Anne de
+Montmorency, his mentor. Moreover, his younger brother, Charles of
+Orleans, who was of a more sprightly temperament, was his father's
+favourite; and the rivalry of Diane and the duchesse d'Étampes helped to
+make still wider the breach between the king and the dauphin. Henry
+supported the constable Montmorency when he was disgraced in 1541;
+protested against the treaty of Crépy in 1544; and at the end of the
+reign held himself completely aloof. His accession in 1547 gave rise to
+a veritable revolution at the court. Diane, Montmorency and the Guises
+were all-powerful, and dismissed Cardinal de Tournon, de Longueval, the
+duchesse d'Étampes and all the late king's friends and officials. At
+that time Henry was twenty-eight years old. He was a robust man, and
+inherited his father's love of violent exercise; but his character was
+weak and his intelligence mediocre, and he had none of the superficial
+and brilliant gifts of Francis I. He was cold, haughty, melancholy and
+dull. He was a bigoted Catholic, and showed to the Protestants even less
+mercy than his father. During his reign the royal authority became more
+severe and more absolute than ever. Resistance to the financial
+extortions of the government was cruelly chastised, and the "Chambre
+Ardente" was instituted against the Reformers. Abroad, the struggle was
+continued against Charles V. and Philip II., which ended in the
+much-discussed treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis. Some weeks afterwards high
+feast was held on the occasion of the double marriage of the king's
+daughter Elizabeth with the king of Spain, and of his sister Margaret
+with the duke of Savoy. On the 30th of June 1559, when tilting with the
+count of Montgomery, Henry was wounded in the temple by a lance. In
+spite of the attentions of Ambroise Paré he died on the 10th of July. By
+his wife Catherine de' Medici he had seven children living: Elizabeth,
+queen of Spain; Claude, duchess of Lorraine; Francis (II), Charles
+(IX.) and Henry (III.), all of whom came to the throne; Marguerite, who
+became queen of Navarre in 1572; and Francis, duke of Alençon and
+afterwards of Anjou, who died in 1584.
+
+  The bulk of the documents for the reign of Henry II. are unpublished,
+  and are in the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris. Of the published
+  documents, see especially the correspondence of Catherine de' Medici
+  (ed. by de la Ferrière, Paris, 1880), of Diane de Poitiers (ed. by
+  Guiffrey, Paris, 1866), of Antoine de Bourbon and Jeanne d'Albret (ed.
+  by Rochambeau, Paris, 1877), of Odet de Selve, ambassador to England
+  (ed. by Lefèvre-Pontalis, Paris, 1888) and of Dominique du Gabre,
+  ambassador to Venice (ed. by Vitalis, Paris, 1903); Ribier, _Lettres
+  et mémoires d'estat_ (Paris, 1666); _Relations des ambassadeurs
+  vénitiens_, &c. Of the contemporary memoirs and histories, see
+  Brantôme (ed. by Lalanne, Paris, 1864-1882), François de Lorraine (ed.
+  by Michaud and Poujoulat, Paris, 1839), Montluc (ed. by de Ruble,
+  Paris, 1864), F. de Boyvin du Villars (Michaud and Poujoulat), F. de
+  Rabutin (_Panthéon littéraire_, Paris, 1836). See also de Thou,
+  _Historia sui temporis_ ... (London, 1733); Decrue, _Anne de
+  Montmorency_ (Paris, 1889); H. Forneron, _Les Ducs de Guise et leur
+  époque_, vol. i. (Paris, 1877); and H. Lemonnier, "La France sous
+  Henri II" (Paris, 1904), in the _Histoire de France_, by E. Lavisse,
+  which contains a fuller bibliography of the subject.
+
+
+
+
+HENRY III. (1551-1589), king of France, third son of Henry II. and
+Catherine de' Medici, was born at Fontainebleau on the 19th of September
+1551, and succeeded to the throne of France on the death of his brother
+Charles IX. in 1574. In his youth, as duke of Anjou, he was warmly
+attached to the Huguenot opinions, as we learn from his sister
+Marguerite de Valois; but his unstable character soon gave way before
+his mother's will, and both Henry and Marguerite remained choice
+ornaments of the Catholic Church. Henry won, under the direction of
+Marshal de Tavannes, two brilliant victories at Jarnac and Moncontour
+(1569). He was the favourite son of his mother, and took part with her
+in organizing the massacre of St Bartholomew. In 1573 Catherine procured
+his election to the throne of Poland. Passionately enamoured of the
+princess of Condé, he set out reluctantly to Warsaw, but, on the death
+of his brother Charles IX. in 1574, he escaped from his Polish subjects,
+who endeavoured to retain him by force, came back to France and assumed
+the crown. He returned to a wretched kingdom, torn with civil war. In
+spite of his good intentions, he was incapable of governing, and
+abandoned the power to his mother and his favourites. Yet he was no
+dullard. He was a man of keen intelligence and cultivated mind, and
+deserves as much as Francis I. the title of patron of letters and art.
+But his incurable indolence and love of pleasure prevented him from
+taking any active part in affairs. Surrounded by his _mignons_, he
+scandalized the people by his effeminate manners. He dressed himself in
+women's clothes, made a collection of little dogs and hid in the cellars
+when it thundered. The disgust aroused by the vices and effeminacy of
+the king increased the popularity of Henry of Guise. After the "day of
+the barricades" (the 12th of May 1588), the king, perceiving that his
+influence was lost, resolved to rid himself of Guise by assassination;
+and on the 23rd of December 1588 his faithful bodyguard, the
+"forty-five," carried out his design at the château of Blois. But the
+fanatical preachers of the League clamoured furiously for vengeance, and
+on the 1st of August 1589, while Henry III. was investing Paris with
+Henry of Navarre, Jacques Clement, a Dominican friar, was introduced
+into his presence on false letters of recommendation, and plunged a
+knife into the lower part of his body. He died a few hours afterwards
+with great fortitude. By his wife Louise of Lorraine, daughter of the
+count of Vaudémont, he had no children, and on his deathbed he
+recognized Henry of Navarre as his successor.
+
+  See the memoirs and chronicles of l'Estoile, Villeroy, Ph. Hurault de
+  Cheverny, Brantôme, Marguerite de Valois, la Huguerye, du
+  Plessis-Mornay, &c.; _Archives curieuses_ of Cimber and Danjou, vols.
+  x. and xi.; _Mémoires de la Ligue_ (new ed., Amsterdam, 1758); the
+  histories of T. A. d'Aubigné and J. A. de Thou; Correspondence of
+  Catherine de' Medici and of Henry IV. (in the _Collection de documents
+  inédits_), and of the Venetian ambassadors, &c.; P. Matthieu,
+  _Histoire de France_, vol. i. (1631); Scipion Dupleix, _Histoire de
+  Henri III_ (1633); Robiquet, _Paris et la Ligue_ (1886); and J. H.
+  Mariéjol, "La Réforme et la Ligue," in the _Histoire de France_, by E.
+  Lavisse (Paris, 1904), which contains a more complete bibliography.
+
+
+
+
+HENRY IV. (1553-1610), king of France, the son of Antoine de Bourbon,
+duke of Vendôme, head of the younger branch of the Bourbons, descendant
+of Robert of Clermont, sixth son of St Louis and of Jeanne d'Albret,
+queen of Navarre, was born at Pau (Basses Pyrénées) on the 14th of
+December 1553. He was educated as a Protestant, and in 1557 was sent to
+the court at Amiens. In 1561 he entered the Collège de Navarre at Paris,
+returning in 1565 to Béarn. During the third war of religion in France
+(1568-1570) he was taken by his mother to Gaspard de Coligny, leader of
+the Protestant forces since the death of Louis I., prince of Condé, at
+Jarnac, and distinguished himself at the battle of Arnay-le-Duc in
+Burgundy in 1569. On the 9th of June 1572, Jeanne d'Albret died and
+Henry became king of Navarre, marrying Margaret of Valois, sister of
+Charles IX. of France, on the 18th of August of that year. He escaped
+the massacre of St Bartholomew on the 24th of August by a feigned
+abjuration. On the 2nd of February 1576, after several vain attempts, he
+escaped from the court, joined the combined forces of Protestants and of
+opponents of the king, and obtained by the treaty of Beaulieu (1576) the
+government of Guienne. In 1577 he secured the treaty of Bergerac, which
+foreshadowed the edict of Nantes. As a result of quarrels with his
+unworthy wife, and the unwelcome intervention of Henry III., he
+undertook the seventh war of religion, known as the "war of the lovers"
+(_des amoureux_), seized Cahors on the 5th of May 1580, and signed the
+treaty of Fleix on the 26th of November 1580. On the 10th of June 1584
+the death of Monsieur, the duke of Anjou, brother of King Henry III.,
+made Henry of Navarre heir presumptive to the throne of France. Excluded
+from it by the treaty of Nemours (1585) he began the "war of the three
+Henrys" by a campaign in Guienne (1586) and defeated Anne, duc de
+Joyeuse, at Coutras on the 20th of October 1587. Then Henry III., driven
+from Paris by the League on account of his murder of the duke of Guise
+at Blois (1588), sought the aid of the king of Navarre to win back his
+capital, recognizing him as his heir. The assassination of Henry III. on
+the 1st of August 1589 left Henry king of France; but he had to struggle
+for ten more years against the League and against Spain before he won
+his kingdom. The main events in that long struggle were the victory of
+Arques over Charles, duke of Mayenne, on the 28th of September 1589; of
+Ivry, on the 14th of March 1590; the siege of Paris (1590); of Rouen
+(1592); the meeting of the Estates of the League (1593), which the
+_Satire Ménippée_ turned to ridicule; and finally the conversion of
+Henry IV. to Catholicism in July 1593--an act of political wisdom, since
+it brought about the collapse of all opposition. Paris gave in to him on
+the 22nd of March 1594 and province by province yielded to arms or
+negotiations; while the victory of Fontaine-Française (1595) and the
+capture of Amiens forced Philip II. of Spain to sign the peace of
+Vervins on the 2nd of May 1598. On the 13th of April of that year Henry
+IV. had promulgated the Edict of Nantes.
+
+Then Henry set to work to pacify and restore prosperity to his kingdom.
+Convinced by the experience of the wars that France needed an energetic
+central power, he pushed at times his royal prerogatives to excess,
+raising taxes in spite of the Estates, interfering in the administration
+of the towns, reforming their constitutions, and holding himself free to
+reject the advice of the notables if he consulted them. Aided by his
+faithful friend Maximilien de Béthune, baron de Rosny and duc de Sully
+(q.v.), he reformed the finances, repressed abuses, suppressed useless
+offices, extinguished the formidable debt and realized a reserve of
+eighteen millions. To alleviate the distress of the people, he undertook
+to develop both agriculture and industry: planting colonies of Dutch and
+Flemish settlers to drain the marshes of Saintonge, issuing prohibitive
+measures against the importation of foreign goods (1597), introducing
+the silk industry, encouraging the manufacture of cloth, of glass-ware,
+of tapestries (Gobelins), and under the direction of Sully--named
+_grand-voyer de France_--improving and increasing the routes for
+commerce. A complete system of canals was planned, that of Briare partly
+dug. New capitulations were concluded with the sultan Ahmed I. (1604)
+and treaties of commerce with England (1606), with Spain and Holland.
+Attempts were made in 1604 and 1608 to colonize Canada (see CHAMPLAIN,
+SAMUEL DE). The army was reorganized, its pay raised and assured, a
+school of cadets formed to supply it with officers, artillery
+constituted and strongholds on the frontier fortified. While lacking the
+artistic tastes of the Valois, Henry beautified Paris, building the
+great gallery of the Louvre, finishing the Tuileries, building the Pont
+Neuf, the Hôtel-de-Ville and the Place Royale.
+
+The foreign policy of Henry IV. was directed against the Habsburgs.
+Without declaring war, he did all possible harm to them by alliances and
+diplomacy. In Italy he gained the grand duke of Tuscany--marrying his
+niece Marie de' Medici in 1600--the duke of Mantua, the republic of
+Venice and Pope Paul V. The duke of Savoy, who had held back from the
+treaty of Vervins in 1598, signed the treaty of Lyons in 1601; in
+exchange for the marquisate of Saluzzo, France acquired Bresse, Bugey,
+Valromey and the bailliage of Gex. In the Low Countries, Henry sent
+subsidies to the Dutch in their struggle against Spain. He concluded
+alliances with the Protestant princes in Germany, with the duke of
+Lorraine, the Swiss cantons (treaty of Soleure, 1602) and with Sweden.
+
+The opening on the 25th of March 1609 of the question of the succession
+of John William the Good, duke of Cleves, of Jülich and of Berg, led
+Henry, in spite of his own hesitations and those of his German allies,
+to declare war on the emperor Rudolph II. But he was assassinated by
+Ravaillac (q.v.) on the 14th of May 1610, upon the eve of his great
+enterprise, leaving his policy to be followed up later by Richelieu.
+Sully in his _Économies royales_ attributes to his master the "great
+design" of constituting, after having defeated Austria, a vast European
+confederation of fifteen states--a "Christian Republic"--directed by a
+general council of sixty deputies reappointed every three years. But
+this "design" has been attributed rather to the imagination of Sully
+himself than to the more practical policy of the king.
+
+No figure in France has been more popular than that of "Henry the
+Great." He was affable to the point of familiarity, quick-witted like a
+true Gascon, good-hearted, indulgent, yet skilled in reading the
+character of those around him, and he could at times show himself severe
+and unyielding. His courage amounted almost to recklessness. He was a
+better soldier than strategist. Although at bottom authoritative he
+surrounded himself with admirable advisers (Sully, Sillery, Villeroy,
+Jeannin) and profited from their co-operation. His love affairs,
+undoubtedly too numerous (notably with Gabrielle d'Estrées and Henriette
+d'Entragues), if they injure his personal reputation, had no bad effect
+on his policy as king, in which he was guided only by an exalted ideal
+of his royal office, and by a sympathy for the common people, his
+reputation for which has perhaps been exaggerated somewhat in popular
+tradition by the circumstances of his reign.
+
+Henry IV. had no children by his first wife, Margaret of Valois. By
+Marie de' Medici he had Louis, later Louis XIII.; Gaston, duke of
+Orleans; Elizabeth, who married Philip IV. of Spain; Christine, duchess
+of Savoy; and Henrietta, wife of Charles I. of England. Among his
+bastards the most famous were the children of Gabrielle
+d'Estrées--Caesar, duke of Vendôme, Alexander of Vendôme, and Catherine
+Henriette, duchess of Elbeuf.
+
+Several portraits of Henry are preserved at Paris, in the Bibliothèque
+Nationale (cf. Bouchot, _Portraits au crayon_, p. 189), at the Louvre
+(by Probus, bust by Barthélemy Prieur) at Versailles, Geneva (Henry at
+the age of fifteen), at Hampton Court, at Munich and at Florence.
+
+  The works dealing with Henry IV. and his reign are too numerous to be
+  enumerated here. For sources, see the _Recueil des lettres missives de
+  Henri IV_, published from 1839 to 1853 by B. de Xivrey, in the
+  _Collection de documents inédits relatifs à l'histoire de France_, and
+  the various researches of Galitzin, Bautiot, Halphen, Dussieux and
+  others. Besides their historic interest, the letters written
+  personally by Henry, whether love notes or letters of state, reveal a
+  charming writer. Mention should be made of Auguste Poirson's _Histoire
+  du règne de Henri IV_ (2nd ed., 4 vols., Paris, 1862-1867) and of J.
+  H. Mariéjol's volume (vi.) in the _Histoire de France_, edited by
+  Ernest Lavisse (Paris, 1905), where main sources and literature are
+  given with each chapter. A _Revue Henri IV_ has been founded at Paris
+  (1905). Finally, a complete survey of the sources for the period
+  1494-1610 is given by Henri Hauser in vol. vii. of _Sources de
+  l'histoire de France_ (Paris, 1906) in continuation of A. Molinier's
+  collection of the sources for French history during the middle ages.
+
+
+
+
+HENRY I. (c. 1210-1274), surnamed _le Gros_, king of Navarre and count
+of Champagne, was the youngest son of Theobald I. king of Navarre by
+Margaret of Foix, and succeeded his eldest brother Theobald III. as king
+of Navarre and count of Champagne in December 1270. His proclamation at
+Pamplona, however, did not take place till March of the following year,
+and his coronation was delayed until May 1273. After a brief reign,
+characterized, it is said, by dignity and talent, he died in July 1274,
+suffocated, according to the generally received accounts, by his own
+fat. In him the male line of the counts of Champagne and kings of
+Navarre, became extinct. He married in 1269 Blanche, daughter of Robert,
+count of Artois, and niece of King Louis IX. and was succeeded by his
+only legitimate child, Jeanne or Joanna, by whose marriage to Philip IV.
+afterwards king of France in 1284, the crown of Navarre became united to
+that of France.
+
+
+
+
+HENRY II. (1503-1555), titular king of Navarre, was the eldest son of
+Jean d'Albret (d. 1516) by his wife Catherine de Foix, sister and
+heiress of Francis Phoebus, king of Navarre, and was born at Sanquesa in
+April 1503. When Catherine died in exile in 1517 Henry succeeded her in
+her claim on Navarre, which was disputed by Ferdinand I. king of Spain;
+and under the protection of Francis I. of France he assumed the title of
+king. After ineffectual conferences at Noyon in 1516 and at Montpellier
+in 1518, an active effort was made in 1521 to establish him in the _de
+facto_ sovereignty; but the French troops which had seized the country
+were ultimately expelled by the Spaniards. In 1525 Henry was taken
+prisoner at the battle of Pavia, but he contrived to escape, and in 1526
+married Margaret, the sister of Francis I. and widow of Charles, duke of
+Alençon. By her he was the father of Jeanne d'Albret (d. 1572), and was
+consequently the grandfather of Henry IV. of France. Henry, who had some
+sympathy with the Huguenots, died at Pau on the 25th of May 1555.
+
+
+
+
+HENRY I. (1512-1580), king of Portugal, third son of Emanuel the
+Fortunate, was born in Lisbon, on the 31st of January 1512. He was
+destined for the church, and in 1532 was raised to the archiepiscopal
+see of Braga. In 1542 he received the cardinal's hat, and in 1578 when
+he was called to succeed his grandnephew Sebastian on the throne, he
+held the archbishoprics of Lisbon and Coimbra as well as that of Braga,
+in addition to the wealthy abbacy of Alcobazar. As an ecclesiastic he
+was pious, pure, simple in his mode of life, charitable, and a learned
+and liberal patron of letters; but as a sovereign he proved weak, timid
+and incapable. On his death in 1580, after a brief reign of seventeen
+months, the male line of the royal family which traced its descent from
+Henry, first count of Portugal (c. 1100), came to an end; and all
+attempts to fix the succession during his lifetime having ignominiously
+failed, Portugal became an easy prey to Philip II. of Spain.
+
+
+
+
+HENRY II. (1489-1568), duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, was a son of Duke
+Henry I., and was born on the 10th of November 1489. He began to reign in
+1514, but his brother William objected to the indivisibility of the duchy
+which had been decreed by the elder Henry, and it was only in 1535, after
+an imprisonment of eleven years, that William recognized his brother's
+title. Sharing in an attack on John, bishop of Hildesheim, Henry was
+defeated at the battle of Soltau in June 1519, but afterwards he was more
+successful, and when peace was made received some lands from the bishop.
+In 1525 he assisted Philip, landgrave of Hesse, to crush the rising of
+the peasants in north Germany, and in 1528 took help to Charles V. in
+Italy, where he narrowly escaped capture. As a pronounced opponent of the
+reformed doctrines, he joined the Catholic princes in concerting measures
+for defence at Dessau and elsewhere, but on the other hand promised
+Philip of Hesse to aid him in restoring his own brother-in-law Ulrich,
+duke of Württemberg, to his duchy. However he gave no assistance when
+this enterprise was undertaken in 1534, and subsequently the hostility
+between Philip and himself was very marked. Henry was attacked by Luther
+with unmeasured violence in a writing _Wider Hans Worst_; but more
+serious was his isolation in north Germany. The duke soon came into
+collision with the Protestant towns of Goslar and Brunswick, against the
+former of which a sentence of restitution had been pronounced by the
+imperial court of justice (_Reichskammergericht_). To conciliate the
+Protestants Charles V. had suspended the execution of this sentence, a
+proceeding which Henry declared was _ultra vires_. The league of
+Schmalkalden, led by Philip of Hesse and John Frederick, elector of
+Saxony, then took up arms to defend the towns; and in 1542 Brunswick was
+overrun and the duke forced to flee. In September 1545 he made an attempt
+to regain his duchy, but was taken prisoner by Philip, and only released
+after the victory of Charles V. at Mühlberg in April 1547. Returning to
+Brunswick, where he was very unpopular, he soon quarrelled with his
+subjects both on political and religious questions, while his duchy was
+ravaged by Albert Alcibiades, prince of Bayreuth. Henry was among the
+princes who banded themselves together to crush Albert, and after the
+death of Maurice, elector of Saxony, at Sievershausen in July 1553, he
+took command of the allied troops and defeated Albert in two engagements.
+In his later years he became more tolerant, and was reconciled with his
+Protestant subjects. He died at Wolfenbüttel on the 11th of June 1568.
+The duke was twice married, firstly in 1515 to Maria (d. 1541), sister of
+Ulrich of Württemberg, and secondly in 1556 to Sophia (d. 1575) daughter
+of Sigismund I., king of Poland. He attained some notoriety through his
+romantic attachment to Eva von Trott, whom he represented as dead and
+afterwards kept concealed at Staufenburg. Henry was succeeded by his only
+surviving son, Julius (1528-1589).
+
+  See F. Koldewey, _Heinz von Wolfenbüttel_ (Halle, 1883); and F. Bruns,
+  _Die Vertreibung Herzog Heinrichs von Braunschweig durch den
+  Schmalkaldischen Bund_ (Marburg, 1889).
+
+
+
+
+HENRY (c. 1108-1139), surnamed the "Proud," duke of Saxony and Bavaria,
+second son of Henry the Black, duke of Bavaria, and Wulfhild, daughter
+of Magnus Billung, duke of Saxony, was a member of the Welf family. His
+father and mother both died in 1126, and as his elder brother Conrad had
+entered the church, Henry became duke of Bavaria and shared the family
+possessions in Saxony, Bavaria and Swabia with his younger brother,
+Welf. At Whitsuntide 1127 he was married to Gertrude, the only child of
+the German king, Lothair the Saxon, and at once took part in the warfare
+between the king and the Hohenstaufen brothers, Frederick II., duke of
+Swabia, and Conrad, afterwards the German king Conrad III. While engaged
+in this struggle Henry was also occupied in suppressing a rising in
+Bavaria, led by Frederick, count of Bogen, during which both duke and
+count sought to establish their own candidates in the bishopric of
+Regensburg. After a war of devastation, Frederick submitted in 1133, and
+two years later the Hohenstaufen brothers made their peace with Lothair.
+In 1136 Henry accompanied his father-in-law to Italy, and taking command
+of one division of the German army marched into southern Italy,
+devastating the land as he went. It was probably about this time that he
+was invested with the margraviate of Tuscany and the lands of Matilda,
+the late margravine. Having distinguished himself by his military genius
+during this campaign Henry left Italy with the German troops, and was
+appointed by the emperor as his successor in the dukedom of Saxony. When
+Lothair died in December 1137 Henry's wealth and position made him a
+formidable candidate for the German throne; but the same qualities which
+earned for him the surname of "Proud," aroused the jealousy of the
+princes, and so prevented his election. The new king, Conrad III.,
+demanded the imperial _insignia_ which were in Henry's possession, and
+the duke in return asked for his investiture with the Saxon duchy. But
+Conrad, who feared his power, refused to assent to this on the pretext
+that it was unlawful for two duchies to be in one hand. Attempts at a
+settlement failed, and in July 1138 the duke was placed under the ban,
+and Saxony was given to Albert the Bear, afterwards margrave of
+Brandenburg. War broke out in Saxony and Bavaria, but was cut short by
+Henry's sudden death at Quedlinburg on the 20th of October 1139. He was
+buried at Königslutter. Henry was a man of great ability, and his early
+death alone prevented him from playing an important part in German
+history. Conrad the Priest, the author of the _Rolandslied_, was in
+Henry's service, and probably wrote this poem at the request of the
+duchess, Gertrude.
+
+  See S. Riezler, _Geschichte Bayerns_, Band i. (Gotha, 1878); W.
+  Bernhardi, _Lothar von Supplinburg_ (Leipzig, 1879); W. von
+  Giesebrecht, _Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit_, Band iv.
+  (Brunswick, 1877).
+
+
+
+
+HENRY (1129-1195), surnamed the "Lion," duke of Saxony and Bavaria, only
+son of Henry the Proud, duke of Saxony and Bavaria, and Gertrude,
+daughter of the emperor Lothair the Saxon, was born at Ravensburg, and
+was a member of the family of Welf. In 1138 the German king Conrad III.
+had sought to deprive Henry the Proud of his duchies, and when the duke
+died in the following year the interests of his young son were
+maintained in Saxony by his mother, and his grandmother Richenza, widow
+of Lothair, and in Bavaria by his uncle, Count Welf VI. This struggle
+ended in May 1142 when Henry was invested as duke of Saxony at
+Frankfort, and Bavaria was given to Henry II., Jasomirgott, margrave of
+Austria, who married his mother Gertrude. In 1147 he married Clementia,
+daughter of Conrad, duke of Zähringen (d. 1152), and began to take an
+active part in administering his dukedom and extending its area. He
+engaged in a successful expedition against the Abotrites, or Obotrites,
+in 1147, and won a considerable tract of land beyond the Elbe, in which
+were re-established the bishoprics of Mecklenburg,[1] Oldenburg[2] and
+Ratzeburg. Hartwig, archbishop of Bremen, wished these sees to be under
+his authority, but Henry contested this claim, and won the right to
+invest these bishops himself, a privilege afterwards confirmed by the
+emperor Frederick I. Henry, meanwhile, had not forgotten Bavaria. In
+1147 he made a formal claim on this duchy, and in 1151 sought to take
+possession, but failing to obtain the aid of his uncle Welf, did not
+effect his purpose. The situation was changed in his favour when
+Frederick I., who was anxious to count the duke among his supporters,
+succeeded Conrad as German king in February 1152. Frederick was unable
+at first to persuade Henry Jasomirgott to abandon Bavaria, but in June
+1154 he recognized the claim of Henry the Lion, who accompanied him on
+his first Italian campaign and distinguished himself in suppressing a
+rising at Rome, Henry's formal investiture as duke of Bavaria taking
+place in September 1156 on the emperor's return to Germany. Henry soon
+returned to Saxony, where he found full scope for his untiring energy.
+Adolph II., count of Holstein, was compelled to cede Lübeck to him in
+1158; campaigns in 1163 and 1164 beat down further resistance of the
+Abotrites; and Saxon garrisons were established in the conquered lands.
+The duke was aided in this work by the alliance of Valdemar I., king of
+Denmark, and, it is said, by engines of war brought from Italy. During
+these years he had also helped Frederick I. in his expedition of 1157
+against the Poles, and in July 1159 had gone to his assistance in Italy,
+where he remained for about two years.
+
+The vigorous measures taken by Henry to increase his power aroused
+considerable opposition. In 1166 a coalition was formed against him at
+Merseburg under the leadership of Albert the Bear, margrave of
+Brandenburg, and Archbishop Hartwig. Neither side met with much success
+in the desultory warfare that ensued, and Frederick made peace between
+the combatants at Würzburg in June 1168. Having obtained a divorce from
+his first wife in 1162, Henry was married at Minden in February 1168 to
+Matilda (1156-1189), daughter of Henry II., king of England, and was
+soon afterwards sent by the emperor Frederick I. on an embassy to the
+kings of England and France. A war with Valdemar of Denmark, caused by a
+quarrel over the booty obtained from the conquest of Rügen, engaged
+Henry's activity until June 1171, when, in pursuance of a treaty which
+restored peace, Henry's daughter, Gertrude, married the Danish prince,
+Canute. Henry, whose position was now very strong, made a pilgrimage to
+Jerusalem in 1172, was received with great respect by the eastern
+emperor Manuel Comnenus at Constantinople, and returned to Saxony in
+1173.
+
+A variety of reasons were leading to a rupture in the harmonious
+relations between Frederick and Henry, whose increasing power could not
+escape the emperor's notice, and who showed little inclination to
+sacrifice his interests in Germany in order to help the imperial cause
+in Italy. He was not pleased when he heard that his uncle, Welf, had
+bequeathed his Italian and Swabian lands to the emperor, and the crisis
+came after Frederick's check before Alessandria in 1175. The emperor
+appealed personally to Henry for help in February, or March 1176, but
+Henry made no move in response, and his defection contributed in some
+measure to the emperor's defeat at Legnano. The peace of Venice provided
+for the restoration of Ulalrich to his see of Halberstadt. Henry,
+however, refused to give up the lands which he had seized belonging to
+the bishopric, and this conduct provoked a war in which Ulalrich was
+soon joined by Philip, archbishop of Cologne. No attack on Henry appears
+to have been contemplated by Frederick to whom both parties carried
+their complaints, and a day was fixed for the settlement of the dispute
+at Worms. But neither then, nor on two further occasions, did Henry
+appear to answer the charges preferred against him; accordingly in
+January 1180 he was placed under the imperial ban at Würzburg, and was
+declared deprived of all his lands.
+
+Meanwhile the war with Ulalrich continued, but after his victory at
+Weissensee Henry's allies began to fall away, and his cause to decline.
+When Frederick took the field in June 1181 the struggle was soon over.
+Henry sought for peace, and the conditions were settled at Erfurt in
+November 1181, when he was granted the counties of Lüneburg and
+Brunswick, but was banished under oath not to return without the
+emperor's permission. In July 1182 he went to his father-in-law's court
+in Normandy, and afterwards to England, returning to Germany with
+Frederick's permission in 1185. He was soon regarded once more as a
+menace to the peace of Germany, and of the three alternatives presented
+to him by the emperor in 1188 he rejected the idea of making a formal
+renunciation of his claim, or of participating in the crusade, and chose
+exile, going again to England in 1189. In October of the same year,
+however, he returned to Saxony, excusing himself by asserting that his
+lands had not been defended according to the emperor's promise. He found
+many allies, took Lübeck, and soon almost the whole of Saxony was in his
+power. King Henry VI. was obliged to take the field against him, after
+which the duke's cause declined, and in July 1190 a peace was arranged
+at Fulda, by which he retained Brunswick and Lüneburg, received half the
+revenues of Lübeck, and gave two of his sons as hostages. Still hoping
+to regain his former position, he took advantage of a league against
+Henry VI. in 1193 to engage in a further revolt; but the captivity of
+his brother-in-law Richard I., king of England, led to a reconciliation.
+Henry passed his later years mainly at his castle of Brunswick, where he
+died on the 6th of August 1195, and was buried in the church of St
+Blasius which he had founded in the town. He had by his first wife a son
+and a daughter, and by his second wife five sons and a daughter. One of
+his sons was Otto, afterwards the emperor Otto IV., and another was
+Henry (d. 1227) count palatine of the Rhine.
+
+Henry was a man of great ambition, and won his surname of "Lion" by his
+personal bravery. His influence on the fortunes of Saxony and northern
+Germany was very considerable. He planted Flemish and Dutch settlers in
+the land between the Elbe and the Oder, fostered the growth and trade of
+Lübeck, and in other ways encouraged trade and agriculture. He sought to
+spread Christianity by introducing the Cistercians, founding bishoprics,
+and building churches and monasteries. In 1874 a colossal statue was
+erected to his memory at Brunswick.
+
+  The authorities for the life of Henry the Lion are those dealing with
+  the reign of the emperor Frederick I., and the early years of his son
+  King Henry VI. The chief modern works are H. Prutz, _Heinrich der
+  Löwe_ (Leipzig, 1865); M. Philippson, _Geschichte Heinrichs des Löwen_
+  (Leipzig, 1867); and L. Weiland, _Das sächsische Herzogthum unter
+  Lothar und Heinrich dem Löwen_ (Greifswald, 1866).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The see was transferred to Schwerin by Henry in 1167.
+
+  [2] Transferred to Lübeck in 1163.
+
+
+
+
+HENRY, PRINCE OF BATTENBERG (1858-1896), was the third son of Prince
+Alexander of Hesse and his morganatic wife, the beautiful Countess Julia
+von Hauke, to whom was granted in 1858 the title of princess of
+Battenberg, which her children inherited. He was born at Milan on the
+5th of October 1858, was educated with a special view to military
+service, and in due time became a lieutenant in the first regiment of
+Rhenish hussars. By their relationship to the grand dukes of Hesse the
+princes of Battenberg were brought into close contact with the English
+court, and Prince Henry paid several visits to England, where he soon
+became popular both in public and in private circles. It therefore
+created but little surprise when, towards the close of 1884, it was
+announced that Queen Victoria had sanctioned his engagement to the
+Princess Beatrice. The wedding took place at Whippingham on the 23rd of
+July 1885, and after the honeymoon the prince and princess settled down
+to a quiet home life with the queen, being seldom absent from the court,
+and accompanying her majesty in her annual visits to the continent.
+Three sons and a daughter were the issue of the marriage. On the 31st of
+July 1885 a bill to naturalize Prince Henry was passed by the House of
+Lords, and he received the title of royal highness. He was made a Knight
+of the Garter and a member of the Privy Council, and also appointed a
+colonel in the army, and afterwards captain-general and governor of the
+Isle of Wight and governor of Carisbrooke Castle. He adapted himself
+very readily to English country life, for he was an excellent shot and
+an enthusiastic yachtsman. Coming of a martial race, the prince would
+gladly have embraced an active military career, and when the Ashanti
+expedition was organized in November 1895 he volunteered to join it. But
+when the expedition reached Prahsu, about 30 m. from Kumasi, he was
+struck down by fever, and being promptly conveyed back to the coast, was
+placed on board H.M.S. "Blonde." On the 17th of January he seemed to
+recover slightly, but a relapse occurred on the 19th, and he died on the
+evening of the 20th off the coast of Sierra Leone.
+
+
+
+
+HENRY FITZ HENRY (1155-1183), second son of Henry II., king of England,
+by Eleanor of Aquitaine, became heir to the throne on the death of his
+brother William (1156), and at the age of five was married to
+Marguerite, the infant daughter of Louis VII. In 1170 he was crowned at
+Westminster by Roger of York. The protests of Becket against this
+usurpation of the rights of Canterbury were the ultimate cause of the
+primate's murder. The young king soon quarrelled with his father, who
+allowed him no power and a wholly inadequate revenue, and headed the
+great baronial revolt of 1173. He was assisted by his father-in-law, to
+whose court he had repaired; but, failing to shake the old king's power
+either in Normandy or England, made peace in 1174. Despite the generous
+terms which he received, he continued to intrigue with Louis VII., and
+was in consequence jealously watched by his father. In 1182 he and his
+younger brother Geoffrey took up arms, on the side of the Poitevin
+rebels, against Richard Coeur de Lion; apparently from resentment at the
+favour which Henry II. had shown to Richard in giving him the government
+of Poitou while they were virtually landless. Henry II. took the field
+in aid of Richard; but the young king and Geoffrey had no scruples about
+withstanding their father, and continued to aid the Aquitanian rising
+until the young king fell ill of a fever which proved fatal to him (June
+11, 1183). His death was bitterly regretted by his father and by all who
+had known him. Though of a fickle and treacherous nature, he had all the
+personal fascination of his family, and is extolled by his
+contemporaries as a mirror of chivalry. His train was full of knights
+who served him without pay for the honour of being associated with his
+exploits in the tilting-lists and in war.
+
+  The original authorities for Henry's life are Robert de Torigni,
+  _Chronica_; Giraldus Cambrensis, _De instructione principum, Guillaume
+  le Maréchal_ (ed. P. Meyer, Paris, 1891, &c.); Benedict, _Gesta
+  Henrici_, William of Newburgh. See also Kate Norgate, _England under
+  the Angevin Kings_ (1887); Sir James Ramsay, _Angevin Empire_ (1903);
+  and C. E. Hodgson, _Jung Heinrich, König von England_ (Jena, 1906).
+
+
+
+
+HENRY, or in full, HENRY BENEDICT MARIA CLEMENT STUART (1725-1807),
+usually known as Cardinal York, the last prince of the royal house of
+Stuart, was the younger son of James Stuart, and was born in the Palazzo
+Muti at Rome on the 6th of March 1725. He was created duke of York by
+his father soon after his birth, and by this title he was always alluded
+to by Jacobite adherents of his house. British visitors to Rome speak of
+him as a merry high-spirited boy with martial instincts; nevertheless,
+he grew up studious, peace-loving and serious. In order to be of
+assistance to his brother Charles, who was then campaigning in Scotland,
+Henry was despatched in the summer of 1745 to France, where he was
+placed in nominal command of French troops at Dunkirk, with which the
+marquis d'Argenson had some vague idea of invading England. Seven months
+after Charles's return from Scotland Henry secretly departed to Rome
+and, with the full approval of his father, but to the intense disgust of
+his brother, was created a cardinal deacon under the title of the
+cardinal of York by Pope Benedict XIV. on the 3rd of July 1747. In the
+following year he was ordained priest, and nominated arch-priest of the
+Vatican Basilica. In 1759 he was consecrated archbishop of Corinth _in
+partibus_, and in 1761 bishop of Frascati (the ancient Tusculum) in the
+Alban Hills near Rome. Six years later he was appointed vice-chancellor
+of the Holy See. Henry Stuart likewise held sinecure benefices in
+France, Spain and Spanish America, so that he became one of the
+wealthiest churchmen of the period, his annual revenue being said to
+amount to £30,000 sterling. On the death of his father, James Stuart
+(whose affairs he had managed during the last five years of his life),
+Henry made persistent attempts to induce Pope Clement XIII. to
+acknowledge his brother Charles as legitimate king of Great Britain, but
+his efforts were defeated, chiefly through the adverse influence of
+Cardinal Alessandro Albani, who was bitterly opposed to the Stuart
+cause. On Charles's death in 1788 Henry issued a manifesto asserting his
+hereditary right to the British crown, and likewise struck a medal,
+commemorative of the event, with the legend "Hen. IX. Mag. Brit. Fr. et
+Hib. Rex. Fid. Def. Card. Ep. Tusc:" (Henry the Ninth of Great Britain,
+France and Ireland, King, Defender of the Faith, Cardinal, Bishop of
+Frascati). In February 1798, at the approach of the invading French
+forces, Henry was forced to fly from Frascati to Naples, whence at the
+close of the same year he sailed to Messina. From Messina he proceeded
+by sea in order to be present at the expected conclave at Venice, where
+he arrived in the spring of 1799, aged, ill and almost penniless. His
+sad plight was now made known by Cardinal Stefano Borgia to Sir John
+Coxe Hippisley (d. 1825), who had formerly acted semi-officially on
+behalf of the British government at the court of Pius VI. Sir John
+Hippisley appealed to George III., who on the warm recommendation of
+Prince Augustus Frederick, duke of Sussex, gave orders for the annual
+payment of a pension of £4000 to the last of the Royal Stuarts. Henry
+received the proffered assistance gratefully, and in return for the
+king's kindness subsequently left by his will certain British crown
+jewels in his possession to the prince regent. In 1800 Henry was able to
+return to Rome, and in 1803, being now senior cardinal bishop, he became
+_ipso facto_ dean of the Sacred College and bishop of Ostia and
+Velletri. He died at Frascati on the 13th of July 1807, and was buried
+in the _Grotte Vaticane_ of St Peter's in an urn bearing the title of
+"Henry IX."; he is also commemorated in Canova's well-known monument to
+the Royal Stuarts (see JAMES). The Stuart archives, once the property of
+Cardinal York, were subsequently presented by Pope Pius VII. to the
+prince regent, who placed them in the royal library at Windsor Castle.
+
+  See B. W. Kelly, _Life of Cardinal York_; H. M. Vaughan, _Last of the
+  Royal Stuarts_; and A. Shield, _Henry Stuart, Cardinal of York, and
+  his Times_ (1908).     (H. M. V.)
+
+
+
+
+HENRY OF PORTUGAL, surnamed the "Navigator" (1394-1460), duke of Viseu,
+governor of the Algarve, was born at Oporto on the 4th of March 1394. He
+was the third (or, counting children who died in infancy, the fifth) son
+of John (João) I., the founder of the Aviz dynasty, under whom Portugal,
+victorious against Castile and against the Moors of Morocco, began to
+take a prominent place among European nations; his mother was Philippa,
+daughter of John of Gaunt. When Ceuta, the "African Gibraltar," was
+taken in 1415, Prince Henry performed the most distinguished service of
+any Portuguese leader, and received knighthood; he was now created duke
+of Viseu and lord of Covilham, and about the same time began his
+explorations, which, however, limited in their original conception,
+certainly developed into a search for a better knowledge of the western
+ocean and for a sea-way along the unknown coast of Africa to the
+supposed western Nile (our Senegal), to the rich negro lands beyond the
+Sahara desert, to the half-true, half-fabled realm of Prester John, and
+so ultimately to the Indies.
+
+Disregarding the traditions which assign 1412 or even 1410 as the
+commencement of these explorations, it appears that in 1415, the year of
+Ceuta, the prince sent out one John de Trasto on a voyage which brought
+the Portuguese to Grand Canary. There was no discovery here, for the
+whole Canarian archipelago was now pretty well known to French and
+Spanish mariners, especially since the conquest of 1402-06 by French
+adventurers under Castillan overlordship; but in 1418 Henry's captain,
+João Gonçalvez Zarco rediscovered Porto Santo, and in 1420 Madeira, the
+chief members of an island group which had originally been discovered
+(probably by Genoese pioneers) before 1351 or perhaps even before 1339,
+but had rather faded from Christian knowledge since. The story of the
+rediscovery of Madeira by the Englishman Robert Machim or Machin,
+eloping from Bristol with his lady-love, Anne d'Arfet, in the reign of
+Edward III. (about 1370), has been the subject of much controversy; in
+any case it does not affect the original Italian discovery, nor the
+first sighting of Porto Santo by Zarco, who, while exploring the west
+African mainland coast, was driven by storms to this island. In
+1424-1425 Prince Henry attempted to purchase the Canaries, and began the
+colonization of the Madeira group, both in Madeira itself and in Porto
+Santo; to aid this latter movement he procured the famous charters of
+1430 and 1433 from the Portuguese crown. In 1427, again, with the
+co-operation of his father King John, he seems to have sent out the
+royal pilot Diogo de Sevill, followed in 1431 by Gonçalo Velho Cabral,
+to explore the Azores, first mentioned and depicted in a Spanish
+treatise of 1345 (the _Conosçimiento de todos los Reynos_) and in an
+Italian map of 1351 (the _Laurentian Portolano_, also the first
+cartographical work to give us the Madeiras with modern names), but
+probably almost unvisited from that time to the advent of Sevill. This
+rediscovery of the far western archipelago, and the expeditions which,
+even within Prince Henry's life (as in 1452) pushed still deeper into
+the Atlantic, seem to show that the infante was not entirely forgetful
+of the possibility of such a western route to Asia as Columbus attempted
+in 1492, only to find America across his path. Meantime, in 1418, Henry
+had gone in person to relieve Ceuta from an attack of Morocco and
+Granada Mussulmans; had accomplished his task, and had planned, though
+he did not carry out, a seizure of Gibraltar. About this time, moreover,
+it is probable that he had begun to gather information from the Moors
+with regard to the coast of "Guinea" and the interior of Africa. In
+1419, after his return to Portugal, he was created governor of the
+"kingdom" of Algarve, the southernmost province of Portugal; and his
+connexion now appears to have begun with what afterwards became known as
+the "Infante's Town" (_Villa do Iffante_) at Sagres, close to Cape St
+Vincent; where, before 1438, a _Tercena Nabal_ or naval arsenal grew up;
+where, from 1438, after the Tangier expedition, the prince certainly
+resided for a great part of his later life; and where he died in 1460.
+
+In 1433 died King John, exhorting his son not to abandon those schemes
+which were now, in the long-continued failure to round Cape Bojador,
+ridiculed by many as costly absurdities; and in 1434 one of the
+prince's ships, commanded by Gil Eannes, at length doubled the cape. In
+1435 Affonso Gonçalvez Baldaya, the prince's cup-bearer, passed fifty
+leagues beyond; and before the close of 1436 the Portuguese had almost
+reached Cape Blanco. Plans of further conquest in Morocco, resulting in
+1437 in the disastrous attack upon Tangier, and followed in 1438 by the
+death of King Edward (Duarte) and the domestic troubles of the earlier
+minority of Affonso V., now interrupted Atlantic and African exploration
+down to 1441, except only in the Azores. Here rediscovery and
+colonization both progressed, as is shown by the royal licence of the
+2nd of July 1439, to people "the seven islands" of the group then known.
+In 1441 exploration began again in earnest with the venture of Antam
+Gonçalvez, who brought to Portugal the first slaves and gold-dust from
+the Guinea coasts beyond Bojador; while Nuno Tristam in the same year
+pushed on to Cape Blanco. These successes produced a great effect; the
+cause of discovery, now connected with boundless hopes of profit, became
+popular; and many volunteers, especially merchants and seamen from
+Lisbon and Lagos, came forward. In 1442 Nuno Tristam reached the Bay or
+Bight of Arguim, where the infante erected a fort in 1448, and where for
+years the Portuguese carried on vigorous slave-raiding. Meantime the
+prince, who had now, in 1443, been created by Henry VI. a knight of the
+Garter of England, proceeded with his Sagres buildings, especially the
+palace, church and observatory (the first in Portugal) which formed the
+nucleus of the "Infante's Town," and which were certainly commenced soon
+after the Tangier fiasco (1437), if not earlier. In 1444-1446 there was
+an immense burst of maritime and exploring activity; more than 30 ships
+sailed with Henry's licence to Guinea; and several of their commanders
+achieved notable success. Thus Diniz Diaz, Nuno Tristam, and others
+reached the Senegal in 1445; Diaz rounded Cape Verde in the same year;
+and in 1446 Alvaro Fernandez pushed on almost to our Sierra Leone, to a
+point 110 leagues beyond Cape Verde. This was perhaps the most distant
+point reached before 1461. In 1444, moreover, the island of St Michael
+in the Azores was sighted (May 8), and in 1445 its colonization was
+begun. During this latter year also John Fernandez (q.v.) spent seven
+months among the natives of the Arguim coast, and brought back the first
+trustworthy first-hand European account of the Sahara hinterland.
+Slave-raiding continued ceaselessly; by 1446 the Portuguese had carried
+off nearly a thousand captives from the newly surveyed coasts; but
+between this time and the voyages of Cadamosto (q.v.) in 1455-1456, the
+prince altered his policy, forbade the kidnapping of the natives (which
+had brought about fierce reprisals, causing the death of Nuno Tristam in
+1446, and of other pioneers in 1445, 1448, &c.), and endeavoured to
+promote their peaceful intercourse with his men. In 1445-1446, again,
+Dom Henry renewed his earlier attempts (which had failed in 1424-1425)
+to purchase or seize the Canaries for Portugal; by these he brought his
+country to the verge of war with Castile; but the home government
+refused to support him, and the project was again abandoned. After 1446
+our most voluminous authority, Azurara, records but little; his
+narrative ceases altogether in 1448; one of the latest expeditions
+noticed by him is that of a foreigner in the prince's service, "Vallarte
+the Dane," which ended in utter destruction near the Gambia, after
+passing Cape Verde in 1448. After this the chief matters worth notice in
+Dom Henry's life are, first, the progress of discovery and colonization
+in the Azores--where Terceira was discovered before 1450, perhaps in
+1445, and apparently by a Fleming, called "Jacques de Bruges" in the
+prince's charter of the 2nd of March 1450 (by this charter Jacques
+receives the captaincy of this isle as its intending colonizer);
+secondly, the rapid progress of civilization in Madeira, evidenced by
+its timber trade to Portugal, by its sugar, corn and honey, and above
+all by its wine, produced from the Malvoisie or Malmsey grape,
+introduced from Crete; and thirdly, the explorations of Cadamosto and
+Diogo Gomez (q.v.). Of these the former, in his two voyages of 1455 and
+1456, explored part of the courses of the Senegal and the Gambia,
+discovered the Cape Verde Islands (1456), named and mapped more
+carefully than before a considerable section of the African littoral
+beyond Cape Verde, and gave much new information on the trade-routes of
+north-west Africa and on the native races; while Gomez, in his first
+important venture (after 1448 and before 1458), though not accomplishing
+the full Indian purpose of his voyage (he took a native interpreter with
+him for use "in the event of reaching India"), explored and observed in
+the Gambia valley and along the adjacent coasts with fully as much care
+and profit. As a result of these expeditions the infante seems to have
+sent out in 1458 a mission to convert the Gambia negroes. Gomez' second
+voyage, resulting in another "discovery" of the Cape Verde Islands, was
+probably in 1462, after the death of Prince Henry; it is likely that
+among the infante's last occupations were the necessary measures for the
+equipment and despatch of this venture, as well as of Pedro de Sintra's
+important expedition of 1461.
+
+The infante's share in home politics was considerable, especially in the
+years of Affonso V.'s minority (1438, &c.) when he helped to make his
+elder brother Pedro regent, reconciled him with the queen-mother, and
+worked together with them both in a council of regency. But when Dom
+Pedro rose in revolt (1447), Henry stood by the king and allowed his
+brother to be crushed. In the Morocco campaigns of his last years,
+especially at the capture of Alcazar the Little (1458), he restored the
+military fame which he had founded at Ceuta and compromised at Tangier,
+and which brought him invitations from the pope, the emperor and the
+kings of Castile and England, to take command of their armies. The
+prince was also grand master of the Order of Christ, the successor of
+the Templars in Portugal; and most of his Atlantic and African
+expeditions sailed under the flag of his order, whose revenues were at
+the service of his explorations, in whose name he asked and obtained the
+official recognition of Pope Eugenius IV. for his work, and on which he
+bestowed many privileges in the new-won lands--the tithes of St Michael
+in the Azores and one-half of its sugar revenues, the tithe of all
+merchandise from Guinea, the ecclesiastical dues of Madeira, &c. As
+"protector of Portuguese studies," Dom Henry is credited with having
+founded a professorship of theology, and perhaps also chairs of
+mathematics and medicine, in Lisbon--where also, in 1431, he is said to
+have provided house-room for the university teachers and students. To
+instruct his captains, pilots and other pioneers more fully in the art
+of navigation and the making of maps and instruments he procured, says
+Barros, the aid of one Master Jacome from Majorca, together with that of
+certain Arab and Jewish mathematicians. We hear also of one Master
+Peter, who inscribed and illuminated maps for the infante; the
+mathematician Pedro Nunes declares that the prince's mariners were well
+taught and provided with instruments and rules of astronomy and geometry
+"which all map-makers should know"; Cadamosto tells us that the
+Portuguese caravels in his day were the best sailing ships afloat;
+while, from several matters recorded by Henry's biographers, it is clear
+that he devoted great attention to the study of earlier charts and of
+any available information he could gain upon the trade-routes of
+north-west Africa. Thus we find an Oran merchant corresponding with him
+about events happening in the negro-world of the Gambia basin in 1458.
+Even if there were never a formal "geographical school" at Sagres, or
+elsewhere in Portugal, founded by Prince Henry, it appears certain that
+his court was the centre of active and useful geographical study, as
+well as the source of the best practical exploration of the time.
+
+The prince died on the 13th of November 1460, in his town near Cape St
+Vincent, and was buried in the church of St Mary in Lagos, but a year
+later his body was removed to the superb monastery of Batalha. His
+great-nephew, King Dom Manuel, had a statue of him placed over the
+centre column of the side gate of the church of Belem. On the 24th of
+July 1840, a monument was erected to him at Sagres at the instance of
+the marquis de Sá da Bandeira.
+
+The glory attaching to the name of Prince Henry does not rest merely on
+the achievements effected during his own lifetime, but on the subsequent
+results to which his genius and perseverance had lent the primary
+inspiration. To him the human race is indebted, in large measure, for
+the maritime exploration, within one century (1420-1522), of more than
+half the globe, and especially of the great waterways from Europe to
+Asia both by east and by west. His own life only sufficed for the
+accomplishment of a small portion of his task. The complete opening out
+of the African or south-east route to the Indies needed nearly forty
+years of somewhat intermittent labour after his death (1460-1498), and
+the prince's share has often been forgotten in that of pioneers who were
+really his executors--Diogo Cam, Bartholomew Diaz or Vasco da Gama. Less
+directly, other sides of his activity may be considered as fulfilled by
+the Portuguese penetration of inland Africa, especially of Abyssinia,
+the land of the "Prester John" for whom Dom Henry sought, and even by
+the finding of a western route to Asia through the discoveries of
+Columbus, Balboa and Magellan.
+
+  See _Alguns documentos do archivo nacional da Torre do Tombo acerca
+  das navegações ... portuguezas_ (Lisbon, 1892); Alves, _Dom Henrique o
+  Infante_ (Oporto, 1894); _Archivo dos Açores_ (Ponta Delgada,
+  1878-1894); Gomes Eannes de Azurara, _Chronica do descobrimento e
+  conquista de Guiné_, ed. Carreira and Santarem (Paris, 1841; Eng.
+  trans. by Raymond Beazley and Edgar Prestage, Hakluyt Society, London,
+  1896-1899); João de Barros, _Decadas da Asia_ (Lisbon, 1652); Raymond
+  Beazley, _Prince Henry the Navigator_ (London, 1895), and introduction
+  to Azurara, vol. ii., in Hakluyt Soc. trans. (see above); Antonio
+  Cordeiro, _Historia Insultana_ (Lisbon, 1717); Freire (Candido
+  Lusitano), _Vida do Infante D. Henrique_ (Lisbon, 1858); "Diogo
+  Gomez," in Dr Schmeller's _Über Valentim Fernandez Alemão_, vol. iv.
+  pt. iii., in the publications of the 1st class of the Royal Bavarian
+  Academy of Sciences (Munich, 1845); R. H. Major, _The Life of Henry of
+  Portugal, surnamed the Navigator_ (London, 1868); Jules Mees, _Henri
+  le Navigateur et l'académie ... de Sagres_ (Brussels, 1901), and
+  _Histoire de la découverte des îles Açores_ (Ghent, 1901); Duarte
+  Pacheco Pereira, _Esmeraldo de situ orbis_ (Lisbon, 1892); Sophus
+  Ruge, "Prinz Heinrich der Seefahrer," in vol. 65 of _Globus_, p. 153
+  (Brunswick, 1894); Gustav de Veer, _Prinz Heinrich der Seefahrer_
+  (Danzig, 1863); H. E. Wauwerman, _Henri le Navigateur et l'académie
+  portugaise de Sagres_ (Antwerp and Brussels, 1890).     (C. R. B.)
+
+
+
+
+HENRY OF ALMAIN (1235-1271), so called from his father's German
+connexions, was the son of Richard, earl of Cornwall and king of the
+Romans. As a nephew of both Henry III. and Simon de Montfort he wavered
+between the two at the beginning of the Barons' War, but finally took
+the royalist side and was among the prisoners taken by Montfort at Lewes
+(1264). In 1268 he took the cross with his cousin Edward, who, however,
+sent him back from Sicily to pacify the unruly province of Gascony.
+Henry took the land route with the kings of France and Sicily. While
+attending mass at Viterbo (13 March 1271) he was attacked by Guy and
+Simon de Montfort, sons of Earl Simon, and foully murdered. This revenge
+was the more outrageous since Henry had personally exerted himself on
+behalf of the Montforts after Evesham. The deed is mentioned by Dante,
+who put Guy de Montfort in the seventh circle of hell.
+
+  See W. H. Blaauw's _The Barons' War_ (ed. 1871); Ch. Bémont's _Simon
+  de Montfort_ (1884).
+
+
+
+
+HENRY OF BLOIS, bishop of Winchester (1101-1171), was the son of
+Stephen, count of Blois, by Adela, daughter of William I., and brother
+of King Stephen. He was educated at Cluny, and consistently exerted
+himself for the principles of Cluniac reform. If these involved high
+claims of independence and power for the Church, they also asserted a
+high standard of devotion and discipline. Henry was brought to England
+by Henry I. and made abbot of Glastonbury. In 1129 he was given the
+bishopric of Winchester and allowed to hold his abbey in conjunction
+with it. His hopes of the see of Canterbury were disappointed, but he
+obtained in 1139 a legatine commission which gave him a higher rank than
+the primate. In fact as well as in theory he became the master of the
+Church in England. He even contemplated the erection of a new province,
+with Winchester as its centre, which was to be independent of
+Canterbury. Owing both to local and to general causes the power of the
+Church in England has never been higher than in the reign of Stephen
+(1135-1154), Henry as its leader and a legate of the pope was the real
+"lord of England," as the chronicles call him. Indeed, one of the
+ecclesiastical councils over which he presided formally declared that
+the election of the king in England was the special privilege of the
+clergy. Stephen owed his crown to Henry (1135), but they quarrelled
+when Stephen refused to give Henry the primacy; and the bishop took up
+the cause of Roger of Salisbury (1139). After the battle of Lincoln
+(1141) Henry declared for Matilda; but finding his advice treated with
+contempt, rejoined his brother's side, and his successful defence of
+Winchester against the empress (Aug.-Sept. 1141) was the turning-point
+of the civil war. The expiration of his legatine commission of 1144
+deprived him of much of his power. He spent the rest of Stephen's reign
+in trying to procure its renewal. But his efforts were unsuccessful,
+though he made a personal visit to Rome. At the accession of Henry II.
+(1154) he retired from the world and spent the rest of his life in works
+of charity and penitence. He died in 1171. Henry seems to have been a
+man of high character, great courage, resolution and ability. Like most
+great bishops of his age he had a passion for architecture. He built,
+among other castles, that of Farnham; and he began the hospital of St
+Cross at Winchester.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Original: William of Malmesbury, _De gestis regum_; the
+  _Gesta Stephani_. Modern: Sir James Ramsay, _Foundations of England_,
+  vol. ii.; Kate Norgate's _Angevin Kings_; Kitchin's _Winchester_.
+
+
+
+
+HENRY OF GHENT [Henricus a Gandavo] (c. 1217-1293), scholastic
+philosopher, known as "Doctor Solennis," was born in the district of
+Mude, near Ghent, and died at Tournai (or Paris). He is said to have
+belonged to an Italian family named Bonicolli, in Flemish Goethals, but
+the question of his name has been much discussed (see authorities
+below). He studied at Ghent and then at Cologne under Albertus Magnus.
+After obtaining the degree of doctor he returned to Ghent, and is said
+to have been the first to lecture there publicly on philosophy and
+theology. Attracted to Paris by the fame of the university, he took part
+in the many disputes between the orders and the secular priests, and
+warmly defended the latter. A contemporary of Aquinas, he opposed
+several of the dominant theories of the time, and united with the
+current Aristotelian doctrines a strong infusion of Platonism. He
+distinguished between knowledge of actual objects and the divine
+inspiration by which we cognize the being and existence of God. The
+first throws no light upon the second. Individuals are constituted not
+by the material element but by their independent existence, i.e.
+ultimately by the fact that they are created as separate entities.
+Universals must be distinguished according as they have reference to our
+minds or to the divine mind. In the divine intelligence exist exemplars
+or types of the genera and species of natural objects. On this subject
+Henry is far from clear; but he defends Plato against the current
+Aristotelian criticism, and endeavours to show that the two views are in
+harmony. In psychology, his view of the intimate union of soul and body
+is remarkable. The body he regards as forming part of the substance of
+the soul, which through this union is more perfect and complete.
+
+  WORKS.--_Quodlibeta theologica_ (Paris, 1518; Venice, 1608 and 1613);
+  _Summa theologiae_ (Paris, 1520; Ferrara, 1646); _De scriptoribus
+  ecclesiasticis_ (Cologne, 1580).
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--F. Huet's _Recherches hist. et crit. ... de H. de G._
+  (Paris, 1838) has been superseded by F. Ehrle's monograph in _Archiv
+  für Lit. u. Kirchengeschichte des Mittelalters_, i. (1885); see also
+  A. Wauters and N. de Pauw in the _Bull. de la Com. royale d'histoire
+  de Belgique_ (4th series, xiv., xv., xvi., 1887-1889); H. Delehaye,
+  _Nouvelles Recherches sur Henri de Gand_ (1886); C. Werner, _Heinrich
+  von Gent als Repräsentant des christlichen Platonismus im 13ten
+  Jahrh._ (Vienna, 1878); A. Stöckl, _Phil. d. Mittelalters_, ii.
+  738-758; C. Bréchillet Jourdain, _La Philosophie de St Thomas d'Aquin_
+  (1858), ii. 29-46; Alphonse le Roy in _Biographie nationale de
+  Belgique_, vii. (Brussels, 1880); and article SCHOLASTICISM.
+
+
+
+
+HENRY OF HUNTINGDON, English chronicler of the 12th century, was born,
+apparently, between the years 1080 and 1090. His father, by name
+Nicholas, was a clerk, who became archdeacon of Cambridge, Hertford and
+Huntingdon, in the time of Remigius, bishop of Lincoln (d. 1092). The
+celibacy of the clergy was not strictly enforced in England before 1102.
+Hence the chronicler makes no secret of his antecedents, nor did they
+interfere with his career. At an early age Henry entered the household
+of Bishop Robert Bloet, who appointed him, immediately after the death
+of Nicholas (1110), archdeacon of Hertford and Huntingdon. Henry was on
+familiar terms with his patron; and also, it would seem, with Bloet's
+successor, by whom he was encouraged to undertake the writing of an
+English history from the time of Julius Caesar. This work, undertaken
+before 1130, was first published in that year; the author subsequently
+published in succession four more editions, of which the last ends in
+1154 with the accession of Henry II. The only recorded fact of the
+chronicler's later life is that he went with Archbishop Theobald to Rome
+in 1139. On the way Henry halted at Bec, and there made the acquaintance
+of Robert de Torigni, who mentions their encounter in the preface to his
+Chronicle.
+
+  The _Historia Anglorum_ was first printed in Savile, _Rerum Anglicarum
+  scriptores post Bedam_ (London, 1596). The first six books excepting
+  the third, which is almost entirely taken from Bede, are given in
+  _Monumenta historica Britannica_, vol. i. (ed. H. Petrie and J.
+  Sharpe, London, 1848). The standard edition is that of T. Arnold in
+  the Rolls Series (London, 1879). There is a translation by T. Forester
+  in Bohn's _Antiquarian Library_ (London, 1853). The Historia is of
+  little independent value before 1126. Up to that point the author
+  compiles from Eutropius, Aurelius Victor, Nennius, Bede and the
+  English chronicles, particularly that of Peterborough; in some cases
+  he professes to supplement these sources from oral tradition; but most
+  of his amplifications are pure rhetoric (see F. Liebermann in
+  _Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte_ for 1878, pp. 265 seq.). Arnold
+  prints, in an appendix, a minor work from Henry's pen, the _Epistola
+  ad Walterum de contemptu mundi_, which was written in 1135. It is a
+  moralizing tract, but contains some interesting anecdotes about
+  contemporaries. Henry also wrote epistles to Henry I. (on the
+  succession of kings and emperors in the great monarchies of the world)
+  and to "Warinus, a Briton" (on the early British kings, after Geoffrey
+  of Monmouth). A book, _De miraculis_, composed of extracts from Bede,
+  was appended along with these three epistles to the later recensions
+  of the _Historia_. Henry composed eight books of Latin epigrams; two
+  books survive in the Lambeth MS., No. 118. His value as a historian,
+  formerly much overrated, is discussed at length by Liebermann and in
+  T. Arnold's introduction to the Rolls edition of the _Historia_.
+       (H. W. C. D.)
+
+
+
+
+HENRY OF LAUSANNE (variously known as of Bruys, of Cluny, of Toulouse,
+and as the Deacon), French heresiarch of the first half of the 12th
+century. Practically nothing is known of his origin or early life. He
+may have been one of those hermits who at that time swarmed in the
+forests of western Europe, and particularly in France, always surrounded
+by popular veneration, and sometimes the founders of monasteries or
+religious orders, such as those of Prémontré or Fontevrault. If St
+Bernard's reproach (_Ep._ 241) be well founded, Henry was an apostate
+monk--a "black monk" (Benedictine) according to the chronicler Alberic
+de Trois Fontaines. The information we possess as to his degree of
+instruction is scarcely more precise or less conflicting. When he
+arrived at Le Mans in 1101, his _terminus a quo_ was probably Lausanne.
+At that moment Hildebert, the bishop of Le Mans, was absent from his
+episcopal town, and this is one of the reasons why Henry was granted
+permission to preach (March to July 1101), a function jealously guarded
+by the regular clergy. Whether by his prestige as a hermit and ascetic
+or by his personal charm, he soon acquired enormous influence over the
+people. His doctrine at that date appears to have been very vague; he
+seemingly rejected the invocation of saints and also second marriages,
+and preached penitence. Women, inflamed by his words, gave up their
+jewels and luxurious apparel, and young men married courtesans in the
+hope of reclaiming them. Henry was peculiarly fitted for a popular
+preacher. In person he was tall and had a long beard; his voice was
+sonorous, and his eyes flashed fire. He went bare-footed, preceded by a
+man carrying a staff surmounted with an iron cross; he slept on the bare
+ground, and lived by alms. At his instigation the inhabitants of Le Mans
+soon began to slight the clergy of their town and to reject all
+ecclesiastical authority. On his return from Rome, Hildebert had a
+public disputation with Henry, in which, according to the bishop's _Acta
+episcoporum Cenomannensium_, Henry was shown to be less guilty of heresy
+than of ignorance. He, however, was forced to leave Le Mans, and went
+probably to Poitiers and afterwards to Bordeaux. Later we find him in
+the diocese of Arles, where the archbishop arrested him and had his case
+referred to the tribunal of the pope. In 1134 Henry appeared before Pope
+Innocent III. at the council of Pisa, where he was compelled to abjure
+his errors and was sentenced to imprisonment. It appears that St Bernard
+offered him an asylum at Clairvaux; but it is not known if he reached
+Clairvaux, nor do we know when or in what circumstances he resumed his
+activities. Towards 1139, however, Peter the Venerable, abbot of Cluny,
+wrote a treatise called _Epistola seu tractatus adversus Petrobrusianos_
+(Migne, _Patr. Lat._ clxxxix.) against the disciples of Peter of Bruys
+and Henry of Lausanne, whom he calls Henry of Bruys, and whom, at the
+moment of writing, he accuses of preaching, in all the dioceses in the
+south of France, errors which he had inherited from Peter of Bruys.
+According to Peter the Venerable, Henry's teaching is summed up as
+follows: rejection of the doctrinal and disciplinary authority of the
+church; recognition of the Gospel freely interpreted as the sole rule of
+faith; condemnation of the baptism of infants, of the eucharist, of the
+sacrifice of the mass, of the communion of saints, and of prayers for
+the dead; and refusal to recognize any form of worship or liturgy. The
+success of this teaching spread very rapidly in the south of France.
+Speaking of this region, St Bernard (_Ep._ 241) says: "The churches are
+without flocks, the flocks without priests, the priests without honour;
+in a word, nothing remains save Christians without Christ." On several
+occasions St Bernard was begged to fight the innovator on the scene of
+his exploits, and in 1145, at the instance of the legate Alberic,
+cardinal bishop of Ostia, he set out, passing through the diocese of
+Angoulême and Limoges, sojourning for some time at Bordeaux, and finally
+reaching the heretical towns of Bergerac, Périgueux, Sarlat, Cahors and
+Toulouse. At Bernard's approach Henry quitted Toulouse, leaving there
+many adherents, both of noble and humble birth, and especially among the
+weavers. But Bernard's eloquence and miracles made many converts, and
+Toulouse and Albi were quickly restored to orthodoxy. After inviting
+Henry to a disputation, which he refused to attend, St Bernard returned
+to Clairvaux. Soon afterwards the heresiarch was arrested, brought
+before the bishop of Toulouse, and probably imprisoned for life. In a
+letter to the people of Toulouse, undoubtedly written at the end of
+1146, St Bernard calls upon them to extirpate the last remnants of the
+heresy. In 1151, however, some Henricians still remained in Languedoc,
+for Matthew Paris relates (_Chron. maj._, at date 1151) that a young
+girl, who gave herself out to be miraculously inspired by the Virgin
+Mary, was reputed to have converted a great number of the disciples of
+Henry of Lausanne. It is impossible to designate definitely as
+Henricians one of the two sects discovered at Cologne and described by
+Everwin, provost of Steinfeld, in his letter to St Bernard (Migne,
+_Patr. Lat._, clxxxii. 676-680), or the heretics of Périgord mentioned
+by a certain monk Heribert (Martin Bouquet, _Recueil des historiens des
+Gaules et de la France_, xii. 550-551).
+
+  See "Les Origines de l'hérésie albigeoise," by Vacandard in the _Revue
+  des questions historiques_ (Paris, 1894, pp. 67-83).     (P. A.)
+
+
+
+
+HENRY, EDWARD LAMSON (1841-   ), American genre painter, was born in
+Charleston, South Carolina, on the 12th of January 1841. He was a pupil
+of the schools of the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts in Philadelphia,
+and of Gleyre and Courbet in Paris, and in 1870 was elected to the
+National Academy of Design, New York. As a painter of colonial and early
+American themes and incidents of rural life, he displays a quaint humour
+and a profound knowledge of human nature. Among his best-known
+compositions are some of early railroad travel, incidents of stage coach
+and canal boat journeys, rendered with much detail on a minute scale.
+
+
+
+
+HENRY, JAMES (1798-1876), Irish classical scholar, was born in Dublin on
+the 13th of December 1798. He was educated at Trinity College, and until
+1845 practised as a physician in the city. In spite of his
+unconventionally and unorthodox views on religion and his own
+profession, he was very successful. His accession to a large fortune
+enabled him to devote himself entirely to the absorbing occupation of
+his life--the study of Virgil. Accompanied by his wife and daughter, he
+visited all those parts of Europe where he was likely to find rare
+editions or MSS. of the poet. He died near Dublin on the 14th of July
+1876. As a commentator on Virgil Henry will always deserve to be
+remembered, notwithstanding the occasional eccentricity of his notes and
+remarks. The first fruits of his researches were published at Dresden in
+1853 under the quaint title _Notes of a Twelve Years' Voyage of
+Discovery in the first six Books of the Eneis_. These were embodied,
+with alterations and additions, in the _Aeneidea, or Critical,
+Exegetical and Aesthetical Remarks on the Aeneis_ (1873-1892), of which
+only the notes on the first book were published during the author's
+lifetime. As a textual critic Henry was exceedingly conservative. His
+notes, written in a racy and interesting style, are especially valuable
+for their wealth of illustration and references to the less-known
+classical authors. Henry was also the author of several poems, some of
+them descriptive accounts of his travels, and of various pamphlets of a
+satirical nature.
+
+  See obituary notice by J. P. Mahaffy in the _Academy_ of the 12th of
+  August 1876, where a list of his works, nearly all of which were
+  privately printed, is given.
+
+
+
+
+HENRY, JOSEPH (1797-1878), American physicist, was born in Albany, N.Y.,
+on the 17th of December 1797. He received his education at an ordinary
+school, and afterwards at the Albany Academy, which enjoyed considerable
+reputation for the thoroughness of its classical and mathematical
+courses. On finishing his academic studies he contemplated adopting the
+medical profession, and prosecuted his studies in chemistry, anatomy and
+physiology with that view. He occasionally contributed papers to the
+Albany Institute, in the years 1824 and 1825, on chemical and mechanical
+subjects; and in the latter year, having been unexpectedly appointed
+assistant engineer on the survey of a route for a state road from the
+Hudson river to Lake Erie, a distance somewhat over 300 m., he at once
+embarked with zeal and success in the new enterprise. This diversion
+from his original bent gave him an inclination to the career of civil
+and mechanical engineering; and in the spring of 1826 he was elected by
+the trustees of the Albany Academy to the chair of mathematics and
+natural philosophy in that institution. In the latter part of 1827 he
+read before the Albany Institute his first important contribution, "On
+Some Modifications of the Electro-Magnetic Apparatus." Struck with the
+great improvements then recently introduced into such apparatus by
+William Sturgeon of Woolwich, he had still further extended their
+efficiency, with considerable reduction of battery-power, by adopting in
+all the experimental circuits (where applicable) the principle of J. S.
+C. Schweigger's "multiplier," that is, by substituting for single wire
+circuits, voluminous coils (_Trans. Albany Institute_, 1827, 1, p. 22).
+In June 1828 and in March 1829 he exhibited before the institute small
+electro-magnets closely and repeatedly wound with silk-covered wire,
+which had a far greater lifting power than any then known. Henry appears
+to have been the first to adopt insulated or silk-covered wire for the
+magnetic coil; and also the first to employ what may be called the
+"spool" winding for the limbs of the magnet. He was also the first to
+demonstrate experimentally the difference of action between what he
+called a "quantity" magnet excited by a "quantity" battery of a single
+pair, and an "intensity" magnet with long fine wire coil excited by an
+"intensity" battery of many elements, having their resistances suitably
+proportioned. He pointed out that the latter form alone was applicable
+to telegraphic purposes. A detailed account of these experiments and
+exhibitions was not, however, published till 1831 (_Sill. Journ._, 19,
+p. 400). Henry's "quantity" magnets acquired considerable celebrity at
+the time, from their unprecedented attractive power--one (August 1830)
+lifting 750 lb., another (March 1831) 2300, and a third (1834) 3500.
+
+Early in 1831 he arranged a small office-bell to be tapped by the
+polarized armature of an "intensity" magnet, whose coil was in
+continuation of a mile of insulated copper wire, suspended about one of
+the rooms of his academy. This was the first instance of magnetizing
+iron at a distance, or of a suitable combination of magnet and battery
+being so arranged as to be capable of such action. It was, therefore,
+the earliest example of a true "magnetic" telegraph, all preceding
+experiments to this end having been on the galvanometer or needle
+principle. About the same time he devised and constructed the first
+electromagnetic engine with automatic polechanger (_Sill. Journ._, 1831,
+20, p. 340; and Sturgeon's _Annals Electr._, 1839, 3, p. 554). Early in
+1832 he discovered the induction of a current on itself, in a long
+helical wire, giving greatly increased intensity of discharge (_Sill.
+Journ._, 1832, 22, p. 408). In 1832 he was elected to the chair of
+natural philosophy in the New Jersey college at Princeton. In 1834 he
+continued and extended his researches "On the Influence of a Spiral
+Conductor in increasing the Intensity of Electricity from a Galvanic
+Arrangement of a Single Pair," a memoir of which was read before the
+American Philosophical Society on the 5th of February 1835. In 1835 he
+combined the short circuit of his monster magnet (of 1834) with the
+small "intensity" magnet of an experimental telegraph wire, thereby
+establishing the fact that very powerful mechanical effects could be
+produced at a great distance by the agency of a very feeble magnet used
+as a circuit maker and breaker, or as a "trigger"--the precursor of
+later forms of relay and receiving magnets. In 1837 he paid his first
+visit to England and Europe. In 1838 he made important investigations in
+regard to the conditions and range of induction from electrical
+currents--showing that induced currents, although merely momentary,
+produce still other or tertiary currents, and thus on through successive
+orders of induction, with alternating signs, and with reversed initial
+and terminal signs. He also discovered similar successive orders of
+induction in the case of the passage of frictional electricity (_Trans.
+Am. Phil. Soc._, 6, pp. 303-337). Among many minor observations, he
+discovered in 1842 the oscillatory nature of the electrical discharge,
+magnetizing about a thousand needles in the course of his experiments
+(_Proc. Am. Phil. Soc._, 1, p. 301). He traced the influence of
+induction to surprising distances, magnetizing needles in the lower
+story of a house through several intervening floors by means of
+electrical discharges in the upper story, and also by the secondary
+current in a wire 220 ft. distant from the wire of the primary circuit.
+The five numbers of his _Contributions to Electricity and Magnetism_
+(1835-1842) were separately republished from the _Transactions_. In 1843
+he made some interesting original observations on "Phosphorescence"
+(_Proc. Am. Phil. Soc._, 3, pp. 38-44). In 1844, by experiments on the
+tenacity of soap-bubbles, he showed that the molecular cohesion of water
+is equal (if not superior) to that of ice, and hence, generally, that
+solids and their liquids have practically the same amount of cohesion
+(_Proc. Am. Phil. Soc._, 4, pp. 56 and 84). In 1845 he showed, by means
+of a thermo-galvanometer, that the solar spots radiate less heat than
+the general solar surface (_Proc. Am. Phil. Soc._, 4, pp. 173-176).
+
+In December 1846 Henry was elected secretary and director of the
+Smithsonian Institution, then just established. While closely occupied
+with the exacting duties of that office, he still found time to
+prosecute many original inquiries--as into the application of acoustics
+to public buildings, and the best construction and arrangement of
+lecture-rooms, into the strength of various building materials, &c.
+Having early devoted much attention to meteorology, both in observing
+and in reducing and discussing observations, he (among his first
+administrative acts) organized a large and widespread corps of
+observers, and made arrangements for simultaneous reports by means of
+the electric telegraph, which was yet in its infancy (_Smithson. Report_
+for 1847, pp. 146, 147). He was the first to apply the telegraph to
+meteorological research, to have the atmospheric conditions daily
+indicated on a large map, to utilize the generalizations made in weather
+forecasts, and to embrace a continent under a single system--British
+America and Mexico being included in the field of observation. In 1852,
+on the reorganization of the American lighthouse system, he was
+appointed a member of the new board; and in 1871 he became the presiding
+officer of the establishment--a position he continued to hold during the
+rest of his life. His diligent investigations into the efficiency of
+various illuminants in differing circumstances, and into the best
+conditions for developing their several maximum powers of brilliancy,
+while greatly improving the usefulness of the line of beacons along the
+extensive coast of the United States, effected at the same time a great
+economy of administration. His equally careful experiments on various
+acoustic instruments also resulted in giving to his country the most
+serviceable system of fog-signals known to maritime powers. In the
+course of these varied and prolonged researches from 1865 to 1877, he
+also made important contributions to the science of acoustics; and he
+established by several series of laborious observations, extending over
+many years and along a wide coast range, the correctness of G. G.
+Stokes's hypothesis (_Report Brit. Assoc._, 1857, part ii. 27) that the
+wind exerts a very marked influence in refracting sound-beams. From 1868
+Henry continued to be annually chosen as president of the National
+Academy of Sciences; and he was also president of the Philosophical
+Society of Washington from the date of its organization in 1871.
+
+Henry was by general concession the foremost of American physicists. He
+was a man of varied culture, of large breadth and liberality of views,
+of generous impulses, of great gentleness and courtesy of manner,
+combined with equal firmness of purpose and energy of action. He died at
+Washington on the 13th of May 1878.     (S. F. B.)
+
+
+
+
+HENRY, MATTHEW (1662-1714), English nonconformist divine, was born at
+Broad Oak, a farm-house on the confines of Flintshire and Shropshire, on
+the 18th of October 1662. He was the son of Philip Henry, who had, two
+months earlier, been ejected by the Act of Uniformity. Unlike most of
+his fellow-sufferers, Philip Henry possessed some private means, and was
+thus enabled to give a good education to his son, who went first to a
+school at Islington, and then to Gray's Inn. He soon relinquished his
+legal studies for theology, and in 1687 became minister of a
+Presbyterian congregation at Chester, removing in 1712 to Mare Street,
+Hackney. Two years later (22nd of June 1714), he died suddenly of
+apoplexy at Nantwich while on a journey from Chester to London. Henry's
+well-known _Exposition of the Old and New Testaments_ (1708-1710) is a
+commentary of a practical and devotional rather than of a critical kind,
+covering the whole of the Old Testament, and the Gospels and Acts in the
+New. Here it was broken off by the author's death, but the work was
+finished by a number of ministers, and edited by G. Burder and John
+Hughes in 1811. Of no value as criticism, its unfailing good sense, its
+discriminating thought, its high moral tone, its simple piety and its
+singular felicity of practical application, combine with the
+well-sustained flow of its racy English style to secure for it the
+foremost place among works of its class.
+
+His _Miscellaneous Writings_, including a _Life of Mr Philip Henry_,
+_The Communicant's Companion_, _Directions for Daily Communion with
+God_, _A Method for Prayer_, _A Scriptural Catechism_, and numerous
+sermons, were edited in 1809 and in 1830. See biographies by W. Tong
+(1816), C. Chapman (1859), J. B. Williams (1828, new ed. 1865); and M.
+H. Lee's _Diaries and Letters of Philip Henry_ (1883).
+
+
+
+
+HENRY, PATRICK (1736-1799), American statesman and orator, was born at
+Studley, Hanover county, Virginia, on the 29th of May 1736. He was the
+son of John Henry, a well-educated Scotsman, among whose relatives was
+the historian William Robertson, and who served in Virginia as county
+surveyor, colonel and judge of a county court. His mother was one of a
+family named Winston, of Welsh descent, noted for conversational and
+musical talent. At the age of ten Patrick was making slow progress in
+the study of reading, writing and arithmetic at a small country school,
+when his father became his tutor and taught him Latin, Greek and
+mathematics for five years, but with limited success. His school days
+being then terminated, he was employed as a store-clerk for one year.
+Within the seven years next following he failed twice as a storekeeper
+and once as a farmer; but in the meantime acquired a taste for reading,
+of history especially, and read and re-read the history of Greece and
+Rome, of England, and of her American colonies. Then, poor but not
+discouraged, he resolved to be a lawyer, and after reading _Coke upon
+Littleton_ and the Virginia laws for a few weeks only, he strongly
+impressed one of his examiners, and was admitted to the bar at the age
+of twenty-four, on condition that he spend more time in study before
+beginning to practise. He rapidly acquired a considerable practice, his
+fee books shewing that for the first three years he charged fees in 1185
+cases. Then in 1763 was delivered his speech in "The Parson's Cause"--a
+suit brought by a clergyman, Rev. James Maury, in the Hanover County
+Court, to secure restitution for money considered by him to be due on
+account of his salary (16,000 pounds of tobacco by law) having been paid
+in money calculated at a rate less than the current market price of
+tobacco. This speech, which, according to reports, was extremely radical
+and denied the right of the king to disallow acts of the colonial
+legislature, made Henry the idol of the common people of Virginia and
+procured for him an enormous practice. In 1765 he was elected a member
+of the Virginia legislature, where he became in the same year the author
+of the "Virginia Resolutions," which were no less than a declaration of
+resistance to the Stamp Act and an assertion of the right of the
+colonies to legislate for themselves independently of the control of the
+British parliament, and gave a most powerful impetus to the movement
+resulting in the War of Independence. In a speech urging their adoption
+appear the often-quoted words: "Tarquin and Caesar had each his Brutus,
+Charles the First his Cromwell, and George the Third [here he was
+interrupted by cries of "Treason"] and George the Third may profit by
+their example! If _this_ be treason, make the most of it." Until 1775 he
+continued to sit in the House of Burgesses, as a leader during all that
+eventful period. He was prominent as a radical in all measures in
+opposition to the British government, and was a member of the first
+Virginia committee of correspondence. In 1774 and 1775 he was a delegate
+to the Continental Congress and served on three of its most important
+committees: that on colonial trade and manufactures, that for drawing up
+an address to the king, and that for stating the rights of the colonies.
+In 1775, in the second revolutionary convention of Virginia, Henry,
+regarding war as inevitable, presented resolutions for arming the
+Virginia militia. The more conservative members strongly opposed them as
+premature, whereupon Henry supported them in a speech familiar to the
+American school-boy for several generations following, closing with the
+words, "Is life so dear or peace so sweet as to be purchased at the
+price of chains and slavery? Forbid it, Almighty God! I know not what
+course others may take, but as for me, give me liberty or give me
+death!" The resolutions were passed and their author was made chairman
+of the committee for which they provided. The chief command of the newly
+organized army was also given to him, but previously, at the head of a
+body of militia, he had demanded satisfaction for powder removed from
+the public store by order of Lord Dunmore, the royal governor, with the
+result that £330 was paid in compensation. But his military appointment
+required obedience to the Committee of Public Safety, and this body,
+largely dominated by Edmund Pendleton, so restrained him from active
+service that he resigned on the 28th of February 1776. In the Virginia
+convention of 1776 he favoured the postponement of a declaration of
+independence, until a firm union of the colonies and the friendship of
+France and Spain had been secured. In the same convention he served on
+the committee which drafted the first constitution for Virginia, and was
+elected governor of the State--to which office he was re-elected in 1777
+and 1778, thus serving as long as the new constitution allowed any man
+to serve continuously. As governor he gave Washington able support and
+sent out the expedition under George Rogers Clark (q.v.) into the
+Illinois country. In 1778 he was chosen a delegate to Congress, but
+declined to serve. From 1780 to 1784 and from 1787 to 1790 he was again
+a member of his State legislature; and from 1784 to 1786 was again
+governor. Until 1786 he was a leading advocate of a stronger central
+government but when chosen a delegate to the Philadelphia constitutional
+convention of 1787, he had become cold in the cause and declined to
+serve. Moreover, in the state convention called to decide whether
+Virginia should ratify the Federal Constitution he led the opposition,
+contending that the proposed Constitution, because of its centralizing
+character, was dangerous to the liberties of the country. This change of
+attitude is thought to have been due chiefly to his suspicion of the
+North aroused by John Jay's proposal to surrender to Spain for
+twenty-five or thirty years the navigation of the Mississippi. From 1794
+until his death he declined in succession the following offices: United
+States senator (1794), secretary of state in Washington's cabinet
+(1795), chief justice of the United States Supreme Court (1795),
+governor of Virginia (1796), to which office he had been elected by the
+Assembly, and envoy to France (1799). In 1799, however, he consented to
+serve again in his State legislature, where he wished to combat the
+Virginia Resolutions; he never took his seat, since he died, on his Red
+Hill estate in Charlotte county, Virginia, on the 6th of June of that
+year. Henry was twice married, first to Sarah Skelton, and second to
+Dorothea Spotswood Dandridge, a grand-daughter of Governor Alexander
+Spotswocd.
+
+  See Moses Coit Tyler, _Patrick Henry_ (Boston, 1887; new ed., 1899),
+  and William Wirt Henry (Patrick Henry's grandson), _Patrick Henry:
+  Life, Correspondence and Speeches_ (New York, 1890-1891); these
+  supersede the very unsatisfactory biography by William Wirt, _Sketches
+  of the Life and Character of Patrick Henry_ (Philadelphia, 1817). See
+  also George Morgan, _The True Patrick Henry_ (Philadelphia, 1907).
+       (N. D. M.)
+
+
+
+
+HENRY, ROBERT (1718-1790), British historian, was the son of James
+Henry, a farmer of Muirton, near Stirling. Born on the 18th of February
+1718 he was educated at the parish school of St Ninians, and at the
+grammar school of Stirling, and, after completing his course at
+Edinburgh University, became master of the grammar school at Annan. In
+1746 he was licensed to preach, and in 1748 was chosen minister of a
+Presbyterian congregation at Carlisle, where he remained until 1760,
+when he removed to a similar charge at Berwick-on-Tweed. In 1768 he
+became minister of the New Greyfriars' Church, Edinburgh, and having
+received the degree of D.D. from Edinburgh University in 1771, and
+served as moderator of the general assembly of the church of Scotland in
+1774, he was appointed one of the ministers of the Old Greyfriars'
+Church, Edinburgh, in 1776, remaining in this charge until his death on
+the 24th of November 1790. During his residence in Berwick, Henry
+commenced his _History of Great Britain, written on a new plan_; but,
+owing to the difficulty of consulting the original authorities, he did
+not make much progress with the work until his removal to Edinburgh in
+1768. The first five volumes appeared between 1771 and 1785, and the
+sixth, edited and completed by Malcolm Laing, was published three years
+after the author's death. A life of Henry was prefixed to this volume.
+The _History_ covers the years between the Roman invasion and the death
+of Henry VIII., and the "new plan" is the combination of an account of
+the domestic life and commercial and social progress of the people with
+the narrative of the political events of each period. The work was
+virulently assailed by Dr Gilbert Stuart (1742-1786), who appeared
+anxious to damage the sale of the book; but the injury thus effected was
+only slight, as Henry received £3300 for the volumes published during
+his lifetime. In 1781, through the influence of the earl of Mansfield,
+he obtained a pension of £100 a year from the British government.
+
+  The _History of Great Britain_ has been translated into French, and
+  has passed into several English editions. An account of Stuart's
+  attack on Henry is given in Isaac D'Israeli's _Calamities of Authors_.
+
+
+
+
+HENRY, VICTOR (1850-   ), French philologist, was born at Colmar in
+Alsace. Having held appointments at Douai and Lille, he was appointed
+professor of Sanskrit and comparative grammar in the university of
+Paris. A prolific and versatile writer, he is probably best known by the
+English translations of his _Précis de Grammaire comparée de l'anglais
+et de l'allemand_ and _Précis ... du Grec et du Latin_. Important works
+by him on India and Indian languages are: _Manuel pour étudier le
+Sanscrit vedique_ (with A. Bergaigne, 1890); _Éléments de Sanscrit
+classique_ (1902); _Précis de grammaire Pâlie_ (1904); _Les Littératures
+de l'Inde: Sanscrit, Pâli, Prâcrit_ (1904); _La Magie dans l'Inde
+antique_ (1904); _Le Parsisme_ (1905); _L'Agnistoma_ (1906). Obscure
+languages (such as Innok, Quichua, Greenland) and local dialects
+(_Lexique étymologique du Breton moderne; Le Dialecte Alaman de Colmar_)
+also claimed his attention. _Le Langage Martien_ is a curious book. It
+contains a discussion of some 40 phrases (amounting to about 300 words),
+which a certain Mademoiselle Hélène Smith (a well-known spiritualist
+medium of Geneva), while on a hypnotic visit to the planet Mars, learnt
+and repeated and even wrote down during her trance as specimens of a
+language spoken there, explained to her by a disembodied interpreter.
+
+
+
+
+HENRY, WILLIAM (1775-1836), English chemist, son of Thomas Henry
+(1734-1816), an apothecary and writer on chemistry, was born at
+Manchester on the 12th of December 1775. He began to study medicine at
+Edinburgh in 1795, taking his doctor's degree in 1807, but ill-health
+interrupted his practice as a physician, and he devoted his time mainly
+to chemical research, especially in regard to gases. One of his
+best-known papers (_Phil. Trans._, 1803) describes experiments on the
+quantity of gases absorbed by water at different temperatures and under
+different pressures, the conclusion he reached ("Henry's law") being
+that "water takes up of gas condensed by one, two or more additional
+atmospheres, a quantity which, ordinarily compressed, would be equal to
+twice, thrice, &c. the volume absorbed under the common pressure of the
+atmosphere." Others of his papers deal with gas-analysis, fire-damp,
+illuminating gas, the composition of hydrochloric acid and of ammonia,
+urinary and other morbid concretions, and the disinfecting powers of
+heat. His _Elements of Experimental Chemistry_ (1799) enjoyed
+considerable vogue in its day, going through 11 editions in 30 years. He
+died at Pendlebury, near Manchester, on the 2nd of September 1836.
+
+
+
+
+HENRYSON, ROBERT (c. 1425-c. 1500), Scottish poet, was born about 1425.
+It has been surmised that he was connected with the family of Henderson
+of Fordell, but of this there is no evidence. He is described, on the
+title-page of the 1570 edition of his _Fables_, as "scholemaister of
+Dunfermeling," probably of the grammar-school of the Benedictine Abbey
+there. There is no record of his having studied at St Andrews, the only
+Scottish university at this time; but in 1462 a "Master Robert Henryson"
+is named among those incorporated in the recently founded university of
+Glasgow. It is therefore likely that his first studies were completed
+abroad, at Paris or Louvain. He would appear to have been in lower
+orders, if, in addition to being master of the grammar-school, he is the
+notary Robert Henryson who subscribes certain deeds in 1478. As Dunbar
+(q.v.) refers to him as deceased in his _Lament for the Makaris_, his
+death may be dated about 1500.
+
+Efforts have been made to draw up a chronology of his poems; but every
+scheme of this kind, is, in a stronger sense than in the case of Dunbar,
+mere guess-work. There are no biographical or bibliographical facts to
+guide us, and the "internal evidence" is inconclusive.
+
+Henryson's longest, and in many respects his most original and effective
+work, is his _Morall Fabillis of Esope_, a collection of thirteen
+fables, chiefly based on the versions of Anonymus, Lydgate and Caxton.
+The outstanding merit of the work is its freshness of treatment. The old
+themes are retold with such vivacity, such fresh lights on human
+character, and with so much local "atmosphere," that they deserve the
+credit of original productions. They are certainly unrivalled in English
+fabulistic literature. The earliest available texts are the Charteris
+text printed by Lekpreuik in Edinburgh in 1570 and the Harleian MS. No.
+3865 in the British Museum.
+
+In the _Testament of Cresseid_ Henryson supplements Chaucer's tale of
+Troilus with the story of the tragedy of Cresseid. Here again his
+literary craftsmanship saves him from the disaster which must have
+overcome another poet in undertaking to continue the part of the story
+which Chaucer had intentionally left untold. The description of
+Cresseid's leprosy, of her meeting with Troilus, of his sorrow and
+charity, and of her death, give the poem a high place in writings of
+this _genre_.
+
+The poem entitled _Orpheus and Eurydice_, which is drawn from Boethius,
+contains some good passages, especially the lyrical lament of Orpheus,
+with the refrains "Quhar art thow gane, my luf Erudices?" and "My lady
+quene and luf, Erudices." It is followed by a long _moralitas_, in the
+manner of the _Fables_.
+
+Thirteen shorter poems have been ascribed to Henryson. Of these the
+pastoral dialogue "Robene and Makyne," perhaps the best known of his
+work, is the most successful. Its model may perhaps be found in the
+_pastourelles_, but it stands safely on its own merits. Unlike most of
+the minor poems it is independent of Chaucerian tradition. The other
+pieces deal with the conventional 15th-century topics: Age, Death, Hasty
+Credence, Want of Wise Men and the like. The verses entitled "Sum
+Practysis of Medecyne," in which some have failed to see Henryson's
+hand, is an example of that boisterous alliterative burlesque which is
+represented by a single specimen in the work of the greatest makers,
+Dunbar, Douglas and Lyndsay. For this reason, if not for others, the
+difference of its manner is no argument against its authenticity.
+
+  The MS. authorities for the text are the Asloan, Bannatyne, Maitland
+  Folio, Makculloch, Gray and Riddell. Chepman and Myllar's Prints
+  (1508) have preserved two of the minor poems and a fragment of
+  _Orpheus and Eurydice_. The first complete edition was prepared by
+  David Laing (1 vol., Edinburgh, 1865). A more exhaustive edition in
+  three volumes, containing all the texts, was undertaken by the
+  Scottish Text Society (ed. G. Gregory Smith), the first volume of the
+  text (vol. ii. of the work) appearing in 1907. For a critical account
+  of Henryson, see Irving's _History of Scottish Poetry_, Henderson's
+  _Vernacular Scottish Literature_, Gregory Smith's _Transition Period_,
+  J. H. Millar's _Literary History of Scotland_, and the second volume
+  of the _Cambridge History of English Literature_ (1908).     (G. G. S.)
+
+
+
+
+HENSCHEL, GEORGE [ISIDOR GEORG] (1850-   ), English musician (naturalized
+1890), of German family, was born at Breslau, and educated as a pianist,
+making his first public appearance in Berlin in 1862. He subsequently,
+however, took up singing, having developed a fine baritone voice; and in
+1868 he sang the part of Hans Sachs in _Meistersinger_ at Munich. In
+1877 he began a successful career in England, singing at the principal
+concerts; and in 1881 he married the American soprano, Lilian Bailey (d.
+1901), who was associated with him in a number of vocal recitals. He was
+also prominent as a conductor, starting the London symphony concerts in
+1886, and both in England and America (where he was the first conductor
+of the Boston symphony concerts, 1881) he took a leading part in
+advancing his art. He composed a number of instrumental works, a fine
+_Stabat Mater_ (Birmingham festival, 1894), &c., and an opera, _Nubia_
+(Dresden, 1899).
+
+
+
+
+HENSELT, ADOLF VON (1814-1889), German composer, was born at Schwabach,
+in Bavaria, on the 12th of May 1814. At three years old he began to
+learn the violin, and at five the pianoforte under Frau v. Fladt. On
+obtaining financial help from King Louis I. he went to study under
+Hummel in Weimar, and thence in 1832 to Vienna, where, besides studying
+composition under Simon Sechter, he made a great success as a concert
+pianist. In order to recruit his health he made a prolonged tour in 1836
+through the chief German towns. In 1837 he settled at Breslau, where he
+had married, but in the following year he migrated to St Petersburg,
+where previous visits had made him _persona grata_ at Court. He then
+became court pianist and inspector of musical studies in the Imperial
+Institute of Female Education, and was ennobled. In 1852 and again in
+1867 he visited England, though in the latter year he made no public
+appearance. St Petersburg was his home practically until his death,
+which took place at Warmbrunn on the 10th of October 1889. The
+characteristic of Henselt's playing was a combination of Liszt's
+sonority with Hummel's smoothness. It was full of poetry, remarkable for
+the great use he made of extended chords, and for his perfect technique.
+He excelled in his own works and in those of Weber and Chopin. His
+concerto in F minor is frequently played on the continent; and of his
+many valuable studies, _Si oiseau j'étais_ is very familiar. His A minor
+trio deserves to be better known. At one time Henselt was second to
+Rubinstein in the direction of the St Petersburg Conservatorium.
+
+
+
+
+HENSLOW, JOHN STEVENS (1796-1861), English botanist and geologist, was
+born at Rochester on the 6th of February 1796. From his father, who was
+a solicitor in that city, he imbibed a love of natural history which
+largely influenced his career. He was educated at St John's College,
+Cambridge, where he graduated as sixteenth wrangler in 1818, the year in
+which Sedgwick became Woodwardian professor of geology. He accompanied
+Sedgwick in 1819 during a tour in the Isle of Wight, and there he
+learned his first lessons in geology. He also studied chemistry under
+Professor James Cumming and mineralogy under E. D. Clarke. In the autumn
+of 1819 he made some valuable observations on the geology of the Isle of
+Man (_Trans. Geol. Soc._, 1821), and in 1821 he investigated the geology
+of parts of Anglesey, the results being printed in the first volume of
+the _Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society_ (1821), the
+foundation of which society was originated by Sedgwick and Henslow.
+Meanwhile, Henslow had studied mineralogy with considerable zeal, so
+that on the death of Clarke he was in 1822 appointed professor of
+mineralogy in the university at Cambridge. Two years later he took holy
+orders. Botany, however, had claimed much of his attention, and to this
+science he became more and more attached, so that he gladly resigned the
+chair of mineralogy in 1825, to succeed to that of botany. As a teacher
+both in the class-room and in the field he was eminently successful. To
+him Darwin largely owed his attachment to natural history, and also his
+introduction to Captain Fitzroy of H.M.S. "Beagle." In 1832 Henslow was
+appointed vicar of Cholsey-cum-Moulsford in Berkshire, and in 1837
+rector of Hitcham in Suffolk, and at this latter parish he lived and
+laboured, endeared to all who knew him, until the close of his life. His
+energies were devoted to the improvement of his parishioners, but his
+influence was felt far and wide. In 1843 he discovered nodules of
+coprolitic origin in the Red Crag at Felixstowe in Suffolk, and two
+years later he called attention to those also in the Cambridge Greensand
+and remarked that they might be of use in agriculture. Although Henslow
+derived no benefit, these discoveries led to the establishment of the
+phosphate industry in Suffolk and Cambridgeshire; and the works proved
+lucrative until the introduction of foreign phosphates. The museum at
+Ipswich, which was established in 1847, owed much to Henslow, who was
+elected president in 1850, and then superintended the arrangement of the
+collections. He died at Hitcham on the 16th of May 1861. His
+publications included _A Catalogue of British Plants_ (1829; ed. 2,
+1835); _Principles of Descriptive and Physiological Botany_ (1835);
+_Flora of Suffolk_ (with E. Skepper) (1860).
+
+  _Memoir_, by the Rev. Leonard Jenyns (1862).
+
+
+
+
+HENSLOWE, PHILIP (d. 1616), English theatrical manager, was the son of
+Edmund Henslowe of Lindfield, Sussex, master of the game in Ashdown
+Forest and Broil Park. He was originally a servant in the employment of
+the bailiff to Viscount Montague, whose property included Montague House
+in Southwark, and his duties led him to settle there before 1577. He
+subsequently married the bailiff's widow, and, with the fortune he got
+with her, he developed into a clever business man and became a
+considerable owner of Southwark property. He started his connexion with
+the stage when, on the 24th of March 1584, he bought land near what is
+now the southern end of Southwark Bridge, on which stood the Little Rose
+playhouse, afterwards rebuilt as the Rose. Successive companies played
+in it under Henslowe's financial management between 1592 and 1603. The
+theatre at Newington Butts was also under him in 1594. A share of the
+control in the Swan theatre, which like the Rose was on the Bankside,
+fell to Henslowe before the close of the 16th century. With the actor
+Edward Alleyn, who married his step-daughter Joan Woodward, he built in
+Golden Lane, Cripplegate Without, the Fortune Playhouse, opened in
+November 1600. In December of 1594, they had secured the Paris Garden, a
+place for bear-baiting, on the Bankside, and in 1604 they bought the
+office of master of the royal game of bears, bulls and mastiffs from the
+holder, and obtained a patent. Alleyn sold his share to Henslowe in
+February 1610, and three years later Henslowe formed a new partnership
+with Jacob Meade and built the Hope playhouse, designed for stage
+performances as well as bull and bear-baiting, and managed by Meade.
+
+In Henslowe's theatres were first produced many plays by the famous
+Elizabethan dramatists. What is known as "Henslowe's Diary" contains
+some accounts referring to Ashdown Forest between 1576 and 1581, entered
+by John Henslowe, while the later entries by Philip Henslowe from 1592
+to 1609 are those which throw light on the theatrical matters of the
+time, and which have been subjected to much controversial criticism as a
+result of injuries done to the manuscript. "Henslowe's Diary" passed
+into the hands of Edward Alleyn, and thence into the Library of Dulwich
+College, where the manuscript remained intact for more than a hundred
+and fifty years. In 1780 Malone tried to borrow it, but it had been
+mislaid; in 1790 it was discovered and given into his charge. He was
+then at work on his _Variorum Shakespeare_. Malone had a transcript made
+of certain portions, and collated it with the original; and this
+transcript, with various notes and corrections by Malone, is now in the
+Dulwich Library. An abstract of this transcript he also published with
+his _Variorum Shakespeare_. The MS. of the diary was eventually returned
+to the library in 1812 by Malone's executor. In 1840 it was lent to J.
+P. Collier, who in 1845 printed for the Shakespeare Society what
+purported to be a full edition, but it was afterwards shown by G. F.
+Warner (_Catalogue_ of the Dulwich Library, 1881) that a number of
+forged interpolations have been made, the responsibility for which rests
+on Collier.
+
+  The complicated history of the forgeries and their detection has been
+  exhaustively treated in Walter W. Greg's edition of _Henslowe's Diary_
+  (London, 1904; enlarged 1908).
+
+
+
+
+HENTY, GEORGE ALFRED (1832-1902), English war-correspondent and author,
+was born at Trumpington, near Cambridge, in December 1832, and educated
+at Westminster School and Caius College, Cambridge. He served in the
+Crimea in the Purveyor's department, and after the peace filled various
+posts in the department in England and Ireland, but he found the routine
+little to his taste, and drifted into journalism for the London
+_Standard_. He volunteered as Special Correspondent for the
+Austro-Italian War of 1866, accompanied Garibaldi in his Tirolese
+Campaign, followed Lord Napier through the mountain gorges to Magdala,
+and Lord Wolseley across bush and swamp to Kumassi. Next he reported the
+Franco-German War, starved in Paris through the siege of the Commune,
+and then turned south to rough it in the Pyrenees during the Carlist
+insurrection. He was in Asiatic Russia at the time of the Khiva
+expedition, and later saw the desperate hand-to-hand fighting of the
+Turks in the Servian War. He found his real vocation in middle life.
+Invited to edit a magazine for boys called the _Union Jack_, he became
+the mainstay of the new periodical, to which he contributed several
+serials in succession. The stories pleased their public, and had ever
+increasing circulation in book form, until Henty became a name to
+conjure with in juvenile circles. Altogether he wrote about eighty of
+these books. Henty was an enthusiastic yachtsman, having spent at least
+six months afloat each year, and he died on board his yacht in Weymouth
+Harbour on the 16th of November 1902.
+
+
+
+
+HENWOOD, WILLIAM JORY (1805-1875), English mining geologist, was born at
+Perron Wharf, Cornwall, on the 16th of January 1805. In 1822 he
+commenced work as a clerk in a mining office, and soon took an active
+interest in the working of mines and in the metalliferous deposits. In
+1832 he was appointed to the office of assay-master and supervisor of
+tin in the duchy of Cornwall, a post from which he retired in 1838.
+Meanwhile he had commenced in 1826 to communicate papers on mining
+subjects to the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall, and the Geological
+Society of London, and in 1840 he was elected F.R.S. In 1843 he went to
+take charge of the Gongo-Soco mines in Brazil; afterwards he proceeded
+to India to report on certain metalliferous deposits for the Indian
+government; and in 1858, impaired in health, he retired and settled at
+Penzance. His most important memoirs on the metalliferous deposits of
+Cornwall and Devon were published in 1843 by the Royal Geological
+Society of Cornwall. At a much later date he communicated with enlarged
+experience a second series of _Observations on Metalliferous Deposits,
+and on Subterranean Temperature_ (reprinted from _Trans. R. Geol. Soc.
+Cornwall_, 2 vols., 1871). In 1874 he contributed a paper on the
+_Detrital Tin-ore of Cornwall_ (_Journ. R. Inst. Cornwall_). The
+Murchison medal of the Geological Society was awarded to him in 1875,
+and the mineral Henwoodite was named after him. He died at Penzance on
+the 5th of August 1875.
+
+
+
+
+HENZADA, a district of Lower Burma, formerly in the Pegu, but now in the
+Irrawaddy division. Area, 2870 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 484,558. It stretches
+from north to south in one vast plain, forming the valley of the
+Irrawaddy, and is divided by that river into two nearly equal portions.
+This country is protected from inundation by immense embankments, so
+that almost the whole area is suitable for rice cultivation. The chief
+mountains are the Arakan and Pegu Yoma ranges. The greatest elevation of
+the Arakan Yomas in Henzada, attained in the latitude of Myan-aung, is
+4003 ft. above sea-level. Numerous torrents pour down from the two
+boundary ranges, and unite in the plains to form large streams, which
+fall into the chief streams of the district, which are the Irrawaddy,
+Hlaing and Bassein, all of them branches of the Irrawaddy. The forests
+comprise almost every variety of timber found in Burma. The bulk of the
+cultivation is rice, but a number of acres are under tobacco. The chief
+town of the district is HENZADA, which had in 1901 a population of
+24,756. It is a municipal town, with ten elective and three _ex-officio_
+members. Other municipal towns in the district are Zalun, with a
+population of 6642; Myan-aung, with a population of 6351; and Kyangin,
+with a population of 7183, according to the 1901 census. The town of
+Lemyethna had a population of 5831. The steamers of the Irrawaddy
+Flotilla Company call at Henzada and Myan-aung.
+
+The district was once a portion of the Talaing kingdom of Pegu,
+afterwards annexed to the Burmese empire in 1753, and has no history of
+its own. During the second Burmese war, after Prome had been seized, the
+Burmese on the right bank of the Irrawaddy crossed the river and offered
+resistance to the British, but were completely routed. Meanwhile, in
+Tharawaddy, or the country east of the Irrawaddy, and in the south of
+Henzada, much disorder was caused by a revolt, the leaders of which
+were, however, defeated by the British and their gangs dispersed.
+
+
+
+
+HEPBURN, SIR JOHN (c. 1598-1636), Scottish soldier in the Thirty Years'
+War, was a son of George Hepburn of Athelstaneford near Haddington. In
+1620 and in the following years he served in Bohemia, on the lower Rhine
+and in the Netherlands, and in 1623 he entered the service of Gustavus
+Adolphus, who, two years later, appointed him colonel of a Scottish
+regiment of his army. He took part with his regiment in Gustavus's
+Polish wars, and in 1631, a few months before the battle of Breitenfeld
+he was placed in command of the "Scots" or "Green" brigade of the
+Swedish army. At Breitenfeld it was Hepburn's brigade which delivered
+the decisive stroke, and after this he remained with the king, who
+placed the fullest reliance on his skill and courage, until the battle
+of the Alte Veste near Nuremberg. He then entered the French service,
+and raised two thousand men in Scotland for the French army, to which
+force was added in France the historic Scottish archer bodyguard of the
+French kings. The existing Royal Scots (Lothian) regiment (late 1st
+Foot) represents in the British army of to-day Hepburn's French
+regiment, and indirectly, through the amalgamation referred to, the
+Scottish contingent of the Hundred Years' War. Hepburn's claim to the
+right of the line of battle was bitterly resented by the senior French
+regiments. Shortly after this, in 1633, Hepburn was under a _maréchal de
+camp_, and he took part in the campaigns in Alsace and Lorraine
+(1634-36). In 1635 Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar, on entering the French
+service, brought with him Hepburn's former Swedish regiment, which was
+at once amalgamated with the French "régiment d'Hébron," the latter thus
+attaining the unusual strength of 8300 men. Sir John Hepburn was killed
+shortly afterwards during the siege of Saverne (Zabern) on the 8th of
+July 1636. He was buried in Toul cathedral. With his friend Sir Robert
+Monro, Hepburn was the foremost of the Scottish soldiers of fortune who
+bore so conspicuous a part in the Thirty Years' War. He was a sincere
+Roman Catholic. It is stated that he left Gustavus owing to a jest about
+his religion, and at any rate he found in the French service, in which
+he ended his days, the opportunity of reconciling his beliefs with the
+desire of military glory which had led him into the Swedish army, and
+with the patriotic feeling which had first brought him out to the wars
+to fight for the Stuart princess, Queen Elizabeth of Bohemia.
+
+  See James Grant, _Memoirs of Sir John Hepburn_.
+
+
+
+
+HEPHAESTION, a Macedonian general, celebrated as the friend of Alexander
+the Great, who, comparing himself with Achilles, called Hephaestion his
+Patroclus. In the later campaigns in Bactria and India, he was entrusted
+with the task of founding cities and colonies, and built the fleet
+intended to sail down the Indus. He was rewarded with a golden crown and
+the hand of Drypetis, the sister of Alexander's wife Stateira (324). In
+the same year he died suddenly at Ecbatana. A general mourning was
+ordered throughout Asia; at Babylon a funeral pile was erected at
+enormous cost, and temples were built in his honour (see ALEXANDER THE
+GREAT).
+
+
+
+
+HEPHAESTION, a grammarian of Alexandria, who flourished in the age of
+the Antonines. He was the author of a manual (abridged from a larger
+work in 48 books) of Greek metres ([Greek: Hegcheiridion peri metrôn]),
+which is most valuable as the only complete treatise on the subject that
+has been preserved. The concluding chapter ([Greek: Peri poiêmatos])
+discusses the various kinds of poetical composition. It is written in a
+clear and simple style, and was much used as a school-book.
+
+  Editions by T. Gaisford (1855, with the valuable scholia); R. Westphal
+  (1886, in _Scriptores metrici Graeci_) and M. Consbruch (1906);
+  translation by T. F. Barham (1843); see also W. Christ, _Gesch. der
+  griech. Litt._ (1898); M. Consbruch, _De veterum_ [Greek: Peri
+  poiêmatos] _doctrina_ (1890); J. E. Sandys, _Hist. Class. Schol._ i.
+  (1906).
+
+
+
+
+HEPHAESTUS, in Greek mythology, the god of fire, analogous to, and by
+the ancients often confused with, the Roman god Vulcan (q.v.); the
+derivation of the name is uncertain, but it may well be of Greek origin.
+The elemental character of Hephaestus is far more apparent than is the
+case with the majority of the Olympian gods; the word Hephaestus was
+used as a synonym for fire not only in poetry (Homer, _Il._ ii. 426 and
+later), but also in common speech (Diod. v. 74). It is doubtful whether
+the origin of the god can be traced to any specific form of fire. As all
+earthly fire was thought to have come from heaven, Hephaestus has been
+identified with the lightning. This is supported by the myth of his fall
+from heaven, and by the fact that, according to the Homeric tradition,
+his father was Zeus, the heaven-god. On the other hand, the lightning is
+not associated with him in literature or cult, and his connexion with
+volcanic fires is so close as to suggest that he was originally a
+volcano-god. The connexion, however, though it may be early, is probably
+not primitive, and it seems reasonable to conclude that Hephaestus was a
+general fire-god, though some of his characteristics were due to
+particular manifestations of the element.
+
+In Homer the fire-god was the son of Zeus and Hera, and found a place in
+the Olympian system as the divine smith. The _Iliad_ contains two
+versions of his fall from heaven. In one account (i. 590) he was cast
+out by Zeus and fell on Lemnos; in the other, Hera threw him down
+immediately after his birth in disgust at his lameness, and he was
+received by the sea-goddesses Eurynome and Thetis. The Lemnian version
+is due to the prominence of his cult at Lemnos in very early times; and
+his fall into the sea may have been suggested by volcanic activity in
+Mediterranean islands, as at Lipara and Thera. The subsequent return of
+Hephaestus to Olympus is a favourite theme in early art. His wife was
+Charis, one of the Graces (in the _Iliad_) or Aphrodite (in the
+_Odyssey_). The connexion of the rough Hephaestus with these goddesses
+is curious; it may be due to the beautiful works of the smith-god
+([Greek: charienta erga]), but it is possibly derived from the supposed
+fertilizing and productive power of fire, in which case Hephaestus is a
+natural mate of Charis, a goddess of spring, and Aphrodite the goddess
+of love. In Homer, the skill of Hephaestus in metallurgy is often
+mentioned; his forge was on Olympus, where he was served by images of
+golden handmaids which he had animated. Similar myths are found in
+relation to the Finnish smith-god Ilmarinen, who made a golden woman,
+and the Teutonic Wieland; a belief in the magical power of metal-workers
+is a common survival from an age in which their art was new and
+mysterious. In epic poetry Hephaestus is rather a comic figure, and his
+limping gait provokes "Homeric laughter" among the gods. In Vedic poetry
+Agni, the fire-god, is footless; and the ancients themselves attributed
+this lameness to the crooked appearance of flame (Servius on _Aen._
+viii. 814), and possibly no better explanation can be found, though it
+has been suggested that in an early stage of society the trade of a
+smith would be suitable for the lame; Hephaestus and the lame Wieland
+would thus conform to the type of their human counterparts.
+
+Except in Lemnos and Attica, there are few indications of any cult of
+Hephaestus. His association with Lemnos can be traced from Homer to the
+Roman age. A town in the island was called Hephaestia, and the functions
+of the god must have been wide, as we are told that his Lemnian priests
+could cure snake-bites. Once a year every fire was extinguished on the
+island for nine days, during which period sacrifice was offered to the
+gods of the underworld and the dead. After the nine days were passed,
+new fire was brought from the sacred hearth at Delos. The significance
+of this and similar customs is examined by J. G. Frazer, _Golden Bough_,
+iii. ch. 4. The close connexion of Hephaestus with Lemnos and especially
+with its mountain Mosychlus has been explained by the supposed existence
+of a volcano; but no crater or other sign of volcanic agency is now
+apparent, and the "Lemnian fire"--a phenomenon attributed to
+Hephaestus--may have been due to natural gas (see LEMNOS). In Sicily,
+however, the volcanic nature of the god is prominent in his cult at
+Etna, as well as in the neighbouring Liparaean isles. The Olympian forge
+had been transferred to Etna or some other volcano, and Hephaestus had
+become a subterranean rather than a celestial power.
+
+The divine smith naturally became a "culture-god"; in Crete the
+invention of forging in iron was attributed to him, and he was honoured
+by all metal-workers. But we have little record of his cult in this
+aspect, except at Athens, where his worship was of real importance,
+belonging to the oldest stratum of Attic religion. A tribe was called
+after his name, and Erichthonius, the mythical father of the Attic
+people, was the son of Hephaestus. Terra-cotta statuettes of the god
+seem to have been placed before the hearths of Athenian houses. This
+temple has been identified, not improbably, with the so-called
+"Theseum"; it contained a statue of Athena, and the two deities are
+often associated, in literature and cult, as the joint givers of
+civilization to the Athenians. The class of artisans was under their
+special protection; and the joint festival of the two divinities--the
+Chalceia--commemorated the invention of bronze-working by Hephaestus. In
+the Hephaesteia (the particular festival of the god) there was a torch
+race, a ceremonial not indeed confined to fire-gods like Hephaestus and
+Prometheus, but probably in its origin connected with them, whether its
+object was to purify and quicken the land, or (according to another
+theory) to transmit a new fire with all possible speed to places where
+the fire was polluted. If the latter view is correct, the torch race
+would be closely akin to the Lemnian fire-ritual which has been
+mentioned. The relation between Hephaestus and Prometheus is in some
+respects close, though the distinction between these gods is clearly
+marked. The fire, as an element, belongs to the Olympian Hephaestus; the
+Titan Prometheus, a more human character, steals it for the use of man.
+Prometheus resembles the Polynesian Maui, who went down to fetch fire
+from the volcano of Mahuika, the fire-god. Hephaestus is a culture-god
+mainly in his secondary aspect as the craftsman, whereas Prometheus
+originates all civilization with the gift of fire. But the importance of
+Prometheus is mainly mythological; the Titan belonged to a fallen
+dynasty, and in actual cult was largely superseded by Hephaestus.
+
+In archaic art Hephaestus is generally represented as bearded, though
+occasionally a younger beardless type is found, as on a vase (in the
+British Museum), on which he appears as a young man assisting Athena in
+the creation of Pandora. At a later time the bearded type prevails. The
+god is usually clothed in a short sleeveless tunic, and wears a round
+close-fitting cap. His face is that of a middle-aged man, with unkempt
+hair. He is in fact represented as an idealized Greek craftsman, with
+the hammer, and sometimes the pincers. Some mythologists have compared
+the hammer of Hephaestus with that of Thor, and have explained it as the
+emblem of a thunder-god; but it is Zeus, not Hephaestus, who causes the
+thunder, and the emblems of the latter god are merely the signs of his
+occupation as a smith. In art no attempt was made, as a rule, to
+indicate the lameness of Hephaestus; but one sculptor (Alcamenes) is
+said to have suggested the deformity without spoiling the statue.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--L. Preller (ed. C. Robert), _Griech. Mythologie_, i. 174
+  f. (Berlin, 1894); W. H. Roscher, _Lex. der griech. u. röm.
+  Mythologie_, s.v. "Hephaistos" (Leipzig, 1884-1886); Harrison, _Myth.
+  and Mon. of Ancient Athens_, p. 119 f. (London, 1890); O. Gruppe,
+  _Griech. Mythologie u. Religionsgesch._ p. 1304 f. (Munich, 1906); O.
+  Schrader and F. B. Jevons, _Prehistoric Antiquities of the Aryan
+  People_, p. 161, &c. (London, 1890); L. R. Farnell, _Cults of the
+  Greek States_, v. (1909).     (E. E. S.)
+
+
+
+
+HEPPENHEIM, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, on
+the Bergstrasse, between Darmstadt and Heidelberg, 21 m. N. of the
+latter by rail. Pop. (1905), 6364. It possesses a parish church,
+occupying the site of one reputed to have been built by Charlemagne
+about 805, an interesting town hall and several schools. On an isolated
+hill close by stand the extensive ruins of the castle of Starkenburg,
+built by the abbot, Ulrich von Lorsch, about 1064 and destroyed during
+the Seven Years' War, and another hill, the Landberg, was a place of
+assembly in the middle ages. Heppenheim, at first the property of the
+abbey of Lorsch, became a town in 1318. After belonging to the Rhenish
+Palatinate, it came into the possession of Hesse-Darmstadt in 1803.
+Hops, wine and tobacco are grown, and there are large stone quarries,
+and several small industries in the town.
+
+
+
+
+HEPPLEWHITE, GEORGE (d. 1786), one of the most famous English
+cabinet-makers of the 18th century. There is practically no biographical
+material relating to Hepplewhite. The only facts that are known with
+certainty are that he was apprenticed to Gillow at Lancaster, that he
+carried on business in the parish of Saint Giles, Cripplegate, and that
+administration of his estate was granted to his widow Alice on the 27th
+of June 1786. The administrator's accounts, which were filed in the
+Prerogative Court of Canterbury a year later, indicate that his property
+was of considerable value. After his death the business was continued by
+his widow under the style of A. Hepplewhite & Co. Our only approximate
+means of identifying his work are _The Cabinet-Maker and Upholsterer's
+Guide_, which was first published in 1788, two years after his death,
+and ten designs in _The Cabinet-maker's London Book of Prices_ (1788),
+issued by the London Society of Cabinet-Makers. It is, however,
+exceedingly difficult to earmark any given piece of furniture as being
+the actual work or design of Hepplewhite, since it is generally
+recognized that to a very large extent the name represents rather a
+fashion than a man. Lightness, delicacy and grace are the distinguishing
+characteristics of Hepplewhite work. The massiveness of Chippendale had
+given place to conceptions that, especially in regard to chairs--which
+had become smaller as hoops went out of fashion--depended for their
+effect more upon inlay than upon carving. In one respect at least the
+Hepplewhite style was akin to that of Chippendale--in both cases the
+utmost ingenuity was lavished upon the chair, and if Hepplewhite was not
+the originator he appears to have been the most constant and successful
+user of the shield back. This elegant form was employed by the school in
+a great variety of designs, and nearly always in a way artistically
+satisfying. Where Chippendale, his contemporaries and his immediate
+successors had used the cabriole and the square leg with a good deal of
+carving, the Hepplewhite manner preferred a slighter leg, plain, fluted
+or reeded, tapering to a spade foot which often became the "spider leg"
+that characterized much of the late 18th-century furniture; this form of
+leg was indeed not confined to chairs but was used also for tables and
+sideboards. Of the dainty drawing-room grace of the style there can be
+no question. The great majority of modern chairs are of Hepplewhite
+inspiration, while he, or those who worked with him, appears to have a
+clear claim to have originated, or at all events popularized, the winged
+easy-chair, in which the sides are continued to the same height as the
+back. This is probably the most comfortable type of chair that has ever
+been made. The backs of Hepplewhite chairs were often adorned with
+galleries and festoons of wheat-ears or pointed fern leaves, and not
+infrequently with the prince of Wales's feathers in some more or less
+decorative form. The frequency with which this badge was used has led to
+the suggestion either that A. Hepplewhite & Co. were employed by George
+IV. when prince of Wales, or that the feathers were used as a political
+emblem. The former suggestion is obviously the more feasible, but there
+is little doubt that the feathers were used by other makers working in
+the same style. It has been objected as an artistic flaw in
+Hepplewhite's chairs that they have the appearance of fragility. They
+are, however, constructionally sound as a rule. The painted and japanned
+work has been criticized on safer grounds. This delicate type of
+furniture, often made of satinwood, and painted with wreaths and
+festoons, with amorini and musical instruments or floral motives, is the
+most elegant and pleasing that can be imagined. It has, however, no
+elements of decorative permanence. With comparatively little use the
+paintings wear off and have to be renewed. A piece of untouched painted
+satinwood is almost unknown, and one of the essential charms of old
+furniture as of all other antiques is that it should retain the patina
+of time. A large proportion of Hepplewhite furniture is inlaid with the
+exotic woods which had come into high favour by the third quarter of the
+18th century. While the decorative use upon furniture of so evanescent a
+medium as paint is always open to criticism, any form of marquetry is
+obviously legitimate, and, if inlaid furniture be less ravishing to the
+eye, its beauty is but enhanced by time. It was not in chairs alone that
+the Hepplewhite manner excelled. It acquired, for instance, a speciality
+of seats for the tall, narrow Georgian sash windows, which in the
+Hepplewhite period had almost entirely superseded the more picturesque
+forms of an earlier time. These window-seats had ends rolling over
+outwards, and no backs, and despite their skimpiness their elegant
+simplicity is decidedly pleasing. Elegance, in fact, was the note of a
+style which on the whole was more distinctly English than that which
+preceded or immediately followed it. The smaller Hepplewhite pieces are
+much prized by collectors. Among these may be included urn-shaped
+knife-boxes in mahogany and satinwood, charming in form and decorative
+in the extreme; inlaid tea-caddies, varying greatly in shape and
+material, but always appropriate and _coquet_; delicate little
+fire-screens with shaped poles; painted work-tables, and inlaid stands.
+Hepplewhite's bedsteads with carved and fluted pillars were very
+handsome and attractive. The evolution of the dining-room sideboard made
+rapid progress towards the end of the 18th century, but neither
+Hepplewhite nor those who worked in his style did much to advance it.
+Indeed they somewhat retarded its development by causing it to revert to
+little more than that side-table which had been its original form. It
+was, however, a very delightful table with its undulating front, its
+many elegant spade-footed legs and its delicate carving. If we were
+dealing with a less elusive personality it would be just to say that
+Hepplewhite's work varies from the extreme of elegance and the most
+delicious simplicity to an unimaginative commonplace, and sometimes to
+actual ugliness. As it is, this summary may well be applied to the style
+as a whole--a style which was assuredly not the creation of any one man,
+but owed much alike of excellence and of defect to a school of
+cabinet-makers who were under the influence of conflicting tastes and
+changing ideals. At its best the taste was so fine and so full of
+distinction, so simple, modest and sufficient, that it amounted to
+genius. On its lower planes it was clearly influenced by commercialism
+and the desire to make what tasteless people preferred. Yet this is no
+more than to say that the Hepplewhite style succumbed sometimes, perhaps
+very often, to the eternal enemy of all art--the uninspired banality of
+the average man.     (J. P.-B.)
+
+
+
+
+HEPTARCHY (Gr. [Greek: hepta], seven, and [Greek: archê], rule), a word
+which is frequently used to designate the period of English history
+between the coming of the Anglo-Saxons in 449 and the union of the
+kingdoms under Ecgbert in 828. It was first used during the 16th century
+because of the belief held by Camden and other older historians, that
+during this period there were exactly seven kingdoms in England, these
+being Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, Essex, Kent, Sussex and Wessex.
+This belief is erroneous, as the number of kingdoms varied considerably
+from time to time; nevertheless the word still serves a useful purpose
+to denote the period.
+
+
+
+
+HERA, in Greek mythology, the sister and wife of Zeus and queen of the
+Olympian gods; she was identified by the Romans with Juno. The
+derivation of the name is obscure, but there is no reason to doubt that
+she was a genuine Greek deity. There are no signs of Oriental influence
+in her cults, except at Corinth, where she seems to have been identified
+with Astarte. It is probable that she was originally a personification
+of some department of nature; but the traces of her primitive
+significance are vague, and have been interpreted to suit various
+theories. Some of the ancients connected her with the earth; Plato,
+followed by the Stoics, derived her name from [Greek: aêr], the air.
+Both theories have been revived in modern times, the former notably by
+F. G. Welcker, the latter by L. Preller. A third view, that Hera is the
+moon, is held by W. H. Roscher and others. Of these explanations, that
+advanced by Preller has little to commend it, even if, with O. Gruppe,
+we understand the air-goddess as a storm deity; some of the arguments in
+support of the two other theories will be examined in this article.
+
+Whatever may have been the origin of Hera, to the historic Greeks
+(except a few poets or philosophers) she was a purely anthropomorphic
+goddess, and had no close relation to any province of nature. In
+literature, from the times of Homer and Hesiod, she played an important
+part, appearing most frequently as the jealous and resentful wife of
+Zeus. In this character she pursues with vindictive hatred the heroines,
+such as Alcmene, Leto and Semele, who were beloved by Zeus. She visits
+his sins upon the children born of his intrigues, and is thus the
+constant enemy of Heracles and Dionysus. This character of the offended
+wife was borrowed by later poets from the Greek epic; but it belongs to
+literature rather than to cult, in which the dignity and power of the
+goddess is naturally more emphasized.
+
+The worship of Hera is found, in different degrees of prominence,
+throughout the Greek world. It was especially important in the ancient
+Achaean centres, Argos, Mycenae and Sparta, which she claims in the
+_Iliad_ (iv. 51) as her three dearest cities. Whether Hera was also
+worshipped by the early Dorians is uncertain; after the Dorian invasion
+she remained the chief deity of Argos, but her cult at Sparta was not so
+conspicuous. She received honour, however, in other parts of the
+Peloponnese, particularly in Olympia, where her temple was the oldest,
+and in Arcadia. In several Boeotian cities she seems to have been one of
+the principal objects of worship, while the neighbouring island of
+Euboea probably derived its name from a title of Hera, who was "rich in
+cows" ([Greek: Euboia]). Among the islands of the Aegean, Samos was
+celebrated for the cult of Hera; according to the local tradition, she
+was born in the island. As Hera Lacinia (from her Lacinian temple near
+Croton) she was extensively worshipped in Magna Graecia.
+
+The connexion of Zeus and Hera was probably not primitive, since Dione
+seems to have preceded Hera as the wife of Zeus at Dodona. The origin of
+the connexion may possibly be due to the fusion of two "Pelasgic"
+tribes, worshipping Zeus and Hera respectively; but speculation on the
+earliest cult of the goddess, before she became the wife of Zeus, must
+be largely conjectural. The close relation of the two deities appears in
+a frequent community of altars and sacrifices, and also in the [Greek:
+hieros gamos], a dramatic representation of their sacred marriage. The
+festival, which was certainly ancient, was held not only in Argos,
+Samos, Euboea and other centres of Hera-worship, but also in Athens,
+where the goddess was obscured by the predominance of Athena. The
+details of the [Greek: hieros gamos] may have varied locally, but the
+main idea of the ritual was the same. In the Daedala, as the festival
+was called at Plataea, an effigy was made from an oak-tree, dressed in
+bridal attire, and carried in a cart with a woman who acted as
+bridesmaid. The image was called Daedale, and the ritual was explained
+by a myth: Hera had left Zeus in her anger; in order to win her back,
+Zeus announced that he was about to marry, and dressed up a puppet to
+imitate a bride; Hera met the procession, tore the veil from the false
+bride, and, on discovering the ruse, became reconciled to her husband.
+The image was put away after each occasion; every sixty years a large
+number of such images, which had served in previous celebrations, were
+carried in procession to the top of Mount Cithaeron, and were burned on
+an altar together with animals and the altar itself. As Frazer notes
+(_Golden Bough_,² i. 227), this festival appears to belong to the large
+class of mimetic charms designed to quicken the growth of vegetation;
+the marriage of Zeus and Hera would in this case represent the union of
+the king and queen of May. But it by no means follows that Hera was
+therefore originally a goddess of the earth or of vegetation. When the
+real nature of the ritual had become lost or obscured, it was natural to
+explain it by the help of an aetiological myth; in European folklore,
+images, corresponding to those burnt at the Daedala, were sometimes
+called Judas Iscariot or Luther (_Golden Bough_,² iii. 315). At Samos
+the [Greek: hieros gamos] was celebrated annually; the image of Hera was
+concealed on the sea-shore and solemnly discovered. This rite seems to
+reflect an actual custom of abduction; or it may rather refer to the
+practice of intercourse between the betrothed before marriage. Such
+intercourse was sanctioned by the Samians, who excused it by the example
+of Zeus and Hera (schol. on _Il._ xiv. 296). There is nothing in the
+Samian [Greek: hieros gamos] to suggest a marriage of heaven and earth,
+or of two vegetation-spirits; as Dr Farnell points out, the ritual
+appears to explain the custom of human nuptials. The sacred marriage,
+therefore, though connected with vegetation at the Daedala, was not
+necessarily a vegetation-charm in its origin; consequently, it does not
+prove that Hera was an earth-goddess or tree-spirit. It is at least
+remarkable that, except at Argos, Hera had little to do with
+agriculture, and was not closely associated with such deities as Cybele,
+Demeter, Persephone and Dionysus, whose connexion with the earth, or
+with its fruits, is beyond doubt.
+
+In her general cult Hera was worshipped in two main capacities: (1) as
+the consort of Zeus and queen of heaven; (2) as the goddess who presided
+over marriage, and, in a wider sense, over the various phases of a
+woman's life. Dionysius of Halicarnassus (_Ars rhet._ ii. 2) calls Zeus
+and Hera the first wedded pair, and a sacrifice to Zeus [Greek: teleios]
+and Hera [Greek: teleia] was a regular feature of the Greek wedding.
+Girls offered their hair or veils to Hera before marriage. In
+Aristophanes (_Thesm._ 973) she "keeps the keys of wedlock." The
+marriage-goddess naturally became the protector of women in childbed,
+and bore the title of the birth-goddess (Eileithyia), at Argos and
+Athens. In Homer (_Il._ xi. 270) and Hesiod (_Theog._ 922) she is the
+mother of the Eileithyiae, or the single Eileithyia. Her cult-titles
+[Greek: parthenos] (or [Greek: pais]), [Greek: teleia] and [Greek:
+chêra] the "maiden," "wife," and "widow" (or "divorced") have been
+interpreted as symbolical of the earth in spring, summer, and winter;
+but they may well express the different conditions in the lives of her
+human worshippers. The Argives believed that Hera recovered her
+virginity every year by bathing in a certain spring (Paus. viii. 22, 2),
+a belief which probably reflects the custom of ceremonial purification
+after marriage (see Frazer, _Adonis_, p. 176). Although Hera was not the
+bestower of feminine charm to the same extent as Aphrodite, she was the
+patron of a contest for beauty in a Lesbian festival ([Greek:
+kallisteia]). This intimate relation with women has been held a proof
+that Hera was originally a moon-goddess, as the moon is often thought to
+influence childbirth and other aspects of feminine life. But Hera's
+patronage of women, though undoubtedly ancient, is not necessarily
+primitive. Further, the Greeks themselves, who were always ready to
+identify Artemis with the moon, do not seem to have recognized any lunar
+connexion in Hera.
+
+Among her particular worshippers, at Argos and Samos, Hera was much more
+than the queen of heaven and the marriage-goddess. As the patron of
+these cities ([Greek: poliouchos]) she held a place corresponding to
+that of Athena in Athens. The Argives are called "the people of Hera" by
+Pindar; the Heraeum, situated under a mountain significantly called Mt.
+Euboea, was the most important temple in Argolis. Here the agricultural
+character of her ritual is well marked; the first oxen used in ploughing
+were, according to an Argive myth, dedicated to her as [Greek:
+zeuxidia]; and the sprouting ears of corn were called "the flowers of
+Hera." She was worshipped as the goddess of flowers ([Greek: antheia]);
+girls served in her temple under the name of "flower-bearers," and a
+flower festival ([Greek: Hêrosantheia, Hêroanthia]) was celebrated by
+Peloponnesian women in spring. These rites recall our May day
+observance, and give colour to the earth-goddess theory. On the other
+hand it must be remembered that the patron deity of a Greek state had
+very wide functions; and it is not surprising to find that Hera
+(whatever her origin may have been) assumed an agricultural character
+among her own people whose occupations were largely agricultural. So,
+although the warlike character of Hera was not elsewhere prominent, she
+assumed a militant aspect in her two chief cities; a festival called the
+Shield ([Greek: aspis], in Pindar [Greek: agôn chalkeos]) was part of
+the Argive cult, and there was an armed procession in her honour at
+Samos. The city-goddess, whether Hera or Athena, must be chief alike in
+peace and war.
+
+The cow was the animal specially sacred to Hera both in ritual and in
+mythology. The story of Io, metamorphosed into a cow, is familiar; she
+was priestess of Hera, and was originally, no doubt, a form of the
+goddess herself. The Homeric epithet [Greek: boôpis] may have meant
+"cow-faced" to the earliest worshippers of Hera, though by Homer and the
+later Greeks it was understood as "large-eyed," like the cow. A car
+drawn by oxen seems to have been widely used in the processions of Hera,
+and the cow was her most frequent sacrifice. The origin of Hera's
+association with the cow is uncertain, but there is no need to see in
+it, with Roscher, a symbol of the moon. The cuckoo was also sacred to
+Hera, who, according to the Argive legend, was wooed by Zeus in the form
+of the bird. In later times the peacock, which was still unfamiliar to
+the Greeks in the 5th century, was her favourite, especially at Samos.
+
+The earliest recorded images of Hera preceded the rise of Greek
+sculpture; a log at Thespiae, a plank at Samos, a pillar at Argos served
+to represent the goddess. In the archaic period of sculpture the [Greek:
+xoanon] or wooden statue of the Samian Hera by Smilis was famous. In the
+first half of the 5th century the sacred marriage was represented on an
+extant metope from a temple at Selinus. The most celebrated statue of
+Hera was the chryselephantine work of Polyclitus, made for the Heraeum
+at Argos soon after 423 B.C. It is fully described by Pausanias, who
+says that Hera was seated on a throne, wearing a crown ([Greek:
+stephanos]), and carrying a sceptre in one hand and a pomegranate in the
+other. Various ancient writers testify to the beauty and dignity of the
+statue, which was considered equal to the Zeus of Pheidias. Polyclitus
+seems to have fixed the type of Hera as a youthful matron, but
+unfortunately the exact character of her head cannot be determined. A
+majestic and rather severe beauty marks the conception of Hera in later
+art, of which the Farnese bust at Naples and the Ludovisi Hera are the
+most conspicuous examples.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--F. G. Welcker, _Griech. Götterl._ i. 362 f. (Göttingen,
+  1857-1863); L. Preller (ed. C. Robert), _Griech. Mythologie_, i. 160
+  f. (Berlin, 1894); W. H. Roscher, _Lex. der griech. u. röm.
+  Mythologie_, s.v. (Leipzig, 1884); C. Daremberg and E. Saglio, _Dict.
+  des ant. grecques et rom._ s.v. "Juno" (Paris, 1877); L. R. Farnell,
+  _Cults of the Greek States_, i. 179 f. (Oxford, 1896); A. B. Cook in
+  _Class. Rev._ xx. 365 f. 416 f.; O. Gruppe, _Griech. Mythologie u.
+  Religionsgesch._ p. 1121 f. (Munich, 1903). In the article GREEK ART,
+  fig. 24, will be found a roughly executed head of Hera, from the
+  pediment of the treasury of the Megarians.     (E. E. S.)
+
+
+
+
+HERACLEA, the name of a large number of ancient cities founded by the
+Greeks.
+
+1. HERACLEA (Gr. [Greek: Hêrakleia]), an ancient city of Lucania,
+situated near the modern Policoro, 3 m. from the coast of the gulf of
+Tarentum, between the rivers Aciris (Agri) and Siris (Sinni) about 13 m.
+S.S.W. of Metapontum. It was a Greek colony founded by the Tarentines
+and Thurians in 432 B.C., the former being predominant. It was chosen as
+the meeting-place of the general assembly of the Italiot Greeks, which
+Alexander of Epirus, after his alienation from Tarentum, tried to
+transfer to Thurii. Here Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, defeated the consul
+Laevinus in 280 B.C., after he had crossed the river Siris. In 278 B.C.,
+or possibly in 282 B.C., probably in order to detach it from Tarentum,
+the Romans made a special treaty with Heraclea, on such favourable terms
+that in 89 B.C. the Roman citizenship given to the inhabitants by the
+Lex Plautia Papiria was only accepted after considerable hesitation. We
+hear that Heraclea surrendered under compulsion to Hannibal in 212 B.C.
+and that in the Social war the public records were destroyed by fire.
+Cicero in his defence of the poet Archias, an adopted citizen of
+Heraclea, speaks of it as a flourishing town. As a consequence of its
+having accepted Roman citizenship, it became a _municipium_; part of a
+copy of the Lex Iulia Municipalis of 46 B.C. (engraved on the back of
+two bronze tablets, on the front of which is a Greek inscription of the
+3rd century B.C. defining the boundaries of lands belonging to various
+temples), which was found between Heraclea and Metapontum, is of the
+highest importance for our knowledge of that law. It was still a place
+of some importance under the empire; a branch road from Venusia joined
+the coast road here. The circumstances of its destruction and
+abandonment was unknown; the site is now marked by a few heaps of ruins.
+Its medieval representative was Anglona, once a bishopric, but now
+itself a heap of ruins, among which are those of an 11th-century church.
+
+2. HERACLEA MINOA, an ancient town on the south coast of Sicily, at the
+mouth of the river Halycus, near the modern Montallegro, some 20 m. N.W.
+of Girgenti. It was at first an outpost of Selinus (Herod. v. 46), then
+overthrown by Carthage, later a border town of Agrigentum. It passed
+into Carthaginian hands by the treaty of 405 B.C., was won back by
+Dionysius in his first Punic war, but recovered by Carthage in 383. From
+this date onwards coins bearing its Semitic name, _Ras Melkart_, become
+common, and it was obviously an important border fortress. It was here
+that Dion landed in 357 B.C., when he attacked Syracuse. The
+Agrigentines won it back in 309, but it soon fell under the power of
+Agathocles. It was temporarily recovered for Greece by Pyrrhus.
+     (T. As.)
+
+3. HERACLEA PONTICA (mod. _Bender Eregli_), an ancient city on the coast
+of Bithynia in Asia Minor, at the mouth of the Kilijsu. It was founded
+by a Megarian colony, which soon subjugated the native Mariandynians and
+extended its power over a considerable territory. The prosperity of the
+city, rudely shaken by the Galatians and the Bithynians, was utterly
+destroyed in the Mithradatic war. It was the birthplace of Heraclides
+Ponticus. The modern town is best known for its lignite coal-mines, from
+which Constantinople receives a good part of its supply.
+
+4. HERACLEA SINTICA, a town in Thracian Macedonia, to the south of the
+Strymon, the site of which is marked by the village of Zervokhori, and
+identified by the discovery of local coins.
+
+5. HERACLEA, a town on the borders of Caria and Ionia, near the foot of
+Mount Latmus. In its neighbourhood was the burial cave of Endymion.
+
+6. HERACLEA-CYBISTRA (mod. _Eregli_ in the vilayet of Konia), under the
+name Cybistra, had some importance in Hellenistic times owing to its
+position near the point where the road to the Cilician Gates enters the
+hills. It lay in the way of armies and was more than once sacked by the
+Arab invaders of Asia Minor (A.D. 805 and 832). It became Turkish
+(Seljuk) in the 11th century. Modern Eregli had grown from a large
+village to a town since the railway reached it from Konia and Karaman in
+1904; and it has now an hotel and good shops. Three hours' ride S. is
+the famous "Hittite" rock-relief of Ivriz, representing a king (probably
+of neighbouring Tyana) adoring a god (see HITTITES). This was the first
+"Hittite" monument discovered in modern times (early 18th century, by
+the Swede Otter, an emissary of Louis XIV.).
+
+  For Heraclea Trachinia see TRACHIS, and for Heraclea Perinthus see
+  PERINTHUS.
+
+HERACLEA was also the name of one of the Sporades, between Naxos and
+Ios, which is still called Raklia, and bears traces of a Greek township
+with temples to Tyche and Zeus Lophites.     (D. G. H.)
+
+
+
+
+HERACLEON, a Gnostic who flourished about A.D. 125, probably in the
+south of Italy or in Sicily, and is generally classed by the early
+heresiologists with the Valentinian school of heresy. In his system he
+appears to have regarded the divine nature as a vast abyss in whose
+_pleroma_ were aeons of different orders and degrees,--emanations from
+the source of being. Midway between the supreme God and the material
+world was the Demiurgus, who created the latter, and under whose
+jurisdiction the lower, animal soul of man proceeded after death, while
+his higher, celestial soul returned to the pleroma whence at first it
+issued. Though conspicuously uniting faith in Christ with spiritual
+maturity, there are evidences that, like other Valentinians, Heracleon
+did not sufficiently emphasize abstinence from the moral laxity and
+worldliness into which his followers fell. He seems to have received the
+ordinary Christian scriptures; and Origen, who treats him as a notable
+exegete, has preserved fragments of a commentary by him on the fourth
+gospel (brought together by Grabe in the second volume of his
+_Spicilegium_), while Clement of Alexandria quotes from him what appears
+to be a passage from a commentary on Luke. These writings are remarkable
+for their intensely mystical and allegorical interpretations of the
+text.
+
+
+
+
+HERACLEONAS, east-Roman emperor (Feb.-Sept. 641), was the son of
+Heraclius (q.v.) and Martina. At the end of Heraclius' reign he obtained
+through his mother's influence the title of Augustus (638), and after
+his father's death was proclaimed joint emperor with his half-brother
+Constantine III. The premature death of Constantine, in May 641, left
+Heracleonas sole ruler. But a suspicion that he and Martina had murdered
+Constantine led soon after to a revolt, and to the mutilation and
+banishment of the supposed offenders. Nothing further is known about
+Heracleonas subsequent to 641.
+
+
+
+
+HERACLIDAE, the general name for the numerous descendants of Heracles
+(Hercules), and specially applied in a narrower sense to the descendants
+of Hyllus, the eldest of his four sons by Deïaneirathe, conquerors of
+Peloponnesus. Heracles, whom Zeus had originally intended to be ruler of
+Argos, Lacedaemon and Messenian Pylos, had been supplanted by the
+cunning of Hera, and his intended possessions had fallen into the hands
+of Eurystheus, king of Mycenae. After the death of Heracles, his
+children, after many wanderings, found refuge from Eurystheus at Athens.
+Eurystheus, on his demand for their surrender being refused, attacked
+Athens, but was defeated and slain. Hyllus and his brothers then invaded
+Peloponnesus, but after a year's stay were forced by a pestilence to
+quit. They withdrew to Thessaly, where Aegimius, the mythical ancestor
+of the Dorians, whom Heracles had assisted in war against the Lapithae,
+adopted Hyllus and made over to him a third part of his territory. After
+the death of Aegimius, his two sons, Pamphilus and Dymas, voluntarily
+submitted to Hyllus (who was, according to the Dorian tradition in
+Herodotus v. 72, really an Achaean), who thus became ruler of the
+Dorians, the three branches of that race being named after these three
+heroes. Being desirous of reconquering his paternal inheritance, Hyllus
+consulted the Delphic oracle, which told him to wait for "the third
+fruit," and then enter Peloponnesus by "a narrow passage by sea."
+Accordingly, after three years, Hyllus marched across the isthmus of
+Corinth to attack Atreus, the successor of Eurystheus, but was slain in
+single combat by Echemus, king of Tegea. This second attempt was
+followed by a third under Cleodaeus and a fourth under Aristomachus,
+both of which were equally unsuccessful. At last, Temenus, Cresphontes
+and Aristodemus, the sons of Aristomachus, complained to the oracle that
+its instructions had proved fatal to those who had followed them. They
+received the answer that by the "third fruit" the "third generation" was
+meant, and that the "narrow passage" was not the isthmus of Corinth, but
+the straits of Rhium. They accordingly built a fleet at Naupactus, but
+before they set sail, Aristodemus was struck by lightning (or shot by
+Apollo) and the fleet destroyed, because one of the Heraclidae had slain
+an Acarnanian soothsayer. The oracle, being again consulted by Temenus,
+bade him offer an expiatory sacrifice and banish the murderer for ten
+years, and look out for a man with three eyes to act as guide. On his
+way back to Naupactus, Temenus fell in with Oxylus, an Aetolian, who had
+lost one eye, riding on a horse (thus making up the three eyes) and
+immediately pressed him into his service. According to another account,
+a mule on which Oxylus rode had lost an eye. The Heraclidae repaired
+their ships, sailed from Naupactus to Antirrhium, and thence to Rhium in
+Peloponnesus. A decisive battle was fought with Tisamenus, son of
+Orestes, the chief ruler in the peninsula, who was defeated and slain.
+The Heraclidae, who thus became practically masters of Peloponnesus,
+proceeded to distribute its territory among themselves by lot. Argos
+fell to Temenus, Lacedaemon to Procles and Eurysthenes, the twin sons of
+Aristodemus; and Messene to Cresphontes. The fertile district of Elis
+had been reserved by agreement for Oxylus. The Heraclidae ruled in
+Lacedaemon till 221 B.C., but disappeared much earlier in the other
+countries. This conquest of Peloponnesus by the Dorians, commonly called
+the "Return of the Heraclidae," is represented as the recovery by the
+descendants of Heracles of the rightful inheritance of their hero
+ancestor and his sons. The Dorians followed the custom of other Greek
+tribes in claiming as ancestor for their ruling families one of the
+legendary heroes, but the traditions must not on that account be
+regarded as entirely mythical. They represent a joint invasion of
+Peloponnesus by Aetolians and Dorians, the latter having been driven
+southward from their original northern home under pressure from the
+Thessalians. It is noticeable that there is no mention of these
+Heraclidae or their invasion in Homer or Hesiod. Herodotus (vi. 52)
+speaks of poets who had celebrated their deeds, but these were limited
+to events immediately succeeding the death of Heracles. The story was
+first amplified by the Greek tragedians, who probably drew their
+inspiration from local legends, which glorified the services rendered by
+Athens to the rulers of Peloponnesus.
+
+  Apollodorus ii. 8; Diod. Sic. iv. 57, 58; Pausanias i. 32, 41, ii. 13,
+  18, iii. 1, iv. 3, v. 3; Euripides, _Heraclidae_; Pindar, _Pythia_,
+  ix. 137; Herodotus ix. 27. See Müller's _Dorians_, i. ch. 3;
+  Thirlwall, _History of Greece_, ch. vii.; Grote, _Hist. of Greece_,
+  pt. i. ch. xviii.; Busolt, _Griechische Geschichte_, i. ch. ii. sec.
+  7, where a list of modern authorities is given.
+
+
+
+
+HERACLIDES PONTICUS, Greek philosopher and miscellaneous writer, born at
+Heraclea in Pontus, flourished in the 4th century B.C. He studied
+philosophy at Athens under Speusippus, Plato and Aristotle. According to
+Suidas, Plato, on his departure for Sicily, left his pupils in charge of
+Heraclides. The latter part of his life was spent at Heraclea. He is
+said to have been vain and fat, and to have been so fond of display that
+he was nicknamed Pompicus, or the Showy (unless the epithet refers to
+his literary style). Various idle stories are related about him. On one
+occasion, for instance, Heraclea was afflicted with famine, and the
+Pythian priestess at Delphi, bribed by Heraclides, assured his inquiring
+townsmen that the dearth would be stayed if they granted a golden crown
+to that philosopher. This was done; but just as Heraclides was receiving
+his honour in a crowded assembly, he was seized with apoplexy, while the
+dishonest priestess perished at the same moment from the bite of a
+serpent. On his death-bed he is said to have requested a friend to hide
+his body as soon as life was extinct, and, by putting a serpent in its
+place, induce his townsmen to suppose that he had been carried up to
+heaven. The trick was discovered, and Heraclides received only ridicule
+instead of divine honours (Diogenes Laërtius v. 6). Whatever may be the
+truth about these stories, Heraclides seems to have been a versatile and
+prolific writer on philosophy, mathematics, music, grammar, physics,
+history and rhetoric. Many of the works attributed to him, however, are
+probably by one or more persons of the same name.
+
+  The extant fragment of a treatise _On Constitutions_ (C. W. Müller,
+  _F.H.G._ ii. 197-207) is probably a compilation from the _Politics_ of
+  Aristotle by Heraclides Lembos, who lived in the time of Ptolemy VI.
+  Philometor (181-146). See Otto Voss, _De Heraclidis Pontici vita et
+  scriptis_ (1896).
+
+
+
+
+HERACLITUS ([Greek: Hêrakleitos]; c. 540-475 B.C.), Greek philosopher,
+was born at Ephesus of distinguished parentage. Of his early life and
+education we know nothing; from the contempt with which he spoke of all
+his fellow-philosophers and of his fellow-citizens as a whole we may
+gather that he regarded himself as self-taught and a pioneer of wisdom.
+So intensely aristocratic (hence his nickname [Greek: ochloloidoros],
+"he who rails at the people") was his temperament that he declined to
+exercise the regal-hieratic office of [Greek: Basileus] which was
+hereditary in his family, and presented it to his brother. It is
+probable, however, that he did occasionally intervene in the affairs of
+the city at the period when the rule of Persia had given place to
+autonomy; it is said that he compelled the usurper Melancomas to
+abdicate. From the lonely life he led, and still more from the extreme
+profundity of his philosophy and his contempt for mankind in general, he
+was called the "Dark Philosopher" ([Greek: ho skoteinos]), or the
+"Weeping Philosopher," in contrast to Democritus, the "Laughing
+Philosopher."
+
+Heraclitus is in a real sense the founder of metaphysics. Starting from
+the physical standpoint of the Ionian physicists, he accepted their
+general idea of the unity of nature, but entirely denied their theory of
+being. The fundamental uniform fact in nature is constant change
+([Greek: panta chôrei kai ouden menei]); everything both is and is not
+at the same time. He thus arrives at the principle of Relativity;
+harmony and unity consist in diversity and multiplicity. The senses are
+"bad witnesses" ([Greek: kakoi martyres]); only the wise man can obtain
+knowledge.
+
+To appreciate the significance of the doctrines of Heraclitus, it must
+be borne in mind that to Greek philosophy the sharp distinction between
+subject and object which pervades modern thought was foreign, a
+consideration which suggests the conclusion that, while it is a great
+mistake to reckon Heraclitus with the materialistic cosmologists of the
+Ionic schools, it is, on the other hand, going too far to treat his
+theory, with Hegel and Lassalle, as one of pure Panlogism. Accordingly,
+when he denies the reality of Being, and declares Becoming, or eternal
+flux and change, to be the sole actuality, Heraclitus must be understood
+to enunciate not only the unreality of the abstract notion of being,
+except as the correlative of that of not-being, but also the physical
+doctrine that all phenomena are in a state of continuous transition from
+non-existence to existence, and vice versa, without either
+distinguishing these propositions or qualifying them by any reference to
+the relation of thought to experience. "Every thing is and is not"; all
+things are, and nothing remains. So far he is in general agreement with
+Anaximander (q.v.), but he differs from him in the solution of the
+problem, disliking, as a poet and a mystic, the primary matter which
+satisfied the patient researcher, and demanding a more vivid and
+picturesque element. Naturally he selects fire, according to him the
+most complete embodiment of the process of Becoming, as the principle of
+empirical existence, out of which all things, including even the soul,
+grow by way of a _quasi_ condensation, and into which all things must in
+course of time be again resolved. But this primordial fire is in itself
+that divine rational process, the harmony of which constitutes the law
+of the universe (see LOGOS). Real knowledge consists in comprehending
+this all-pervading harmony as embodied in the manifold of perception,
+and the senses are "bad-witnesses," because they apprehend phenomena,
+not as its manifestation, but as "stiff and dead." In like manner real
+virtue consists in the subordination of the individual to the laws of
+this harmony as the universal reason wherein alone true freedom is to be
+found. "The law of things is a law of Reason Universal ([Greek: logos]),
+but most men live as though they had a wisdom of their own." Ethics here
+stands to sociology in a close relation, similar, in many respects, to
+that which we find in Hegel and in Comte. For Heraclitus the soul
+approaches most nearly to perfection when it is most akin to the fiery
+vapour out of which it was originally created, and as this is most so in
+death, "while we live our souls are dead in us, but when we die our
+souls are restored to life." The doctrine of immortality comes
+prominently forward in his ethics, but whether this must not be reckoned
+with the figurative accommodation to the popular theology of Greece
+which pervades his ethical teaching, is very doubtful.
+
+The school of disciples founded by Heraclitus flourished for long after
+his death, the chief exponent of his teaching being Cratylus. A good
+deal of the information in regard to his doctrines has been gathered
+from the later Greek philosophy, which was deeply influenced by it.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The only authentic extant work of Heraclitus is the
+  [Greek: peri physeôs]. The best edition (containing also the probably
+  spurious [Greek: Epistolai]) is that of I. Bywater, _Heracliti Ephesii
+  reliquiae_ (Oxford, 1877); of the epistles alone by A. Westermann
+  (Leipzig, 1857). See also in A. H. Ritter and L. Preller's _Historia
+  philosophiae Graecae_ (8th ed. by E. Wellmann, 1898); F. W. A.
+  Mullach, _Fragm. philos. Graec._ (Paris, 1860); A. Fairbanks, _The
+  First Philosophers of Greece_ (1898); H. Diels, _Heraklit von Ephesus_
+  (2nd ed., 1909), Greek and German. English translation of Bywater's
+  edition with introduction by G. T. W. Patrick (Baltimore, 1889). For
+  criticism see, in addition to the histories of philosophy, F.
+  Lassalle, _Die Philosophie Herakleitos' des Dunklen_ (Berlin, 1858;
+  2nd ed., 1892), which, however, is too strongly dominated by modern
+  Hegelianism; Paul Schuster, _Heraklit von Ephesus_ (Leipzig, 1873); J.
+  Bernays, _Die heraklitischen Briefe_ (Berlin, 1869); T. Gomperz, _Zu
+  Heraclits Lehre und den Überresten seines Werkes_ (Vienna, 1887), and
+  in his _Greek Thinkers_ (English translation, L. Magnus, vol. i.
+  1901); J. Burnet, _Early Greek Philosophy_ (1892); A. Patin,
+  _Heraklits Einheitslehre_ (Leipzig, 1886); E. Pfleiderer, _Die
+  Philosophie des Heraklitus von Ephesus im Lichte der Mysterienidee_
+  (Berlin, 1886); G. T. Schäfer, _Die Philosophie des Heraklit von
+  Ephesus und die moderne Heraklitforschung_ (Leipzig, 1902); Wolfgang
+  Schultz, _Studien zur antiken Kultur_, i.; _Pythagoras und Heraklit_
+  (Leipzig, 1905); O. Spengler, _Heraklit. Eine Studie über den
+  energetischen Grundgedanken seiner Philosophie_ (Halle, 1904); A.
+  Brieger, "Die Grundzüge der heraklitischen Physik" in _Hermes_, xxxix.
+  (1904), 182-223, and "Heraklit der Dunkle" in _Neue Jahrb. f. das
+  klass. Altertum_ (1904), p. 687. For his place in the development of
+  early philosophy see also articles IONIAN SCHOOL OF PHILOSOPHY and
+  LOGOS. Ancient authorities: Diog. Laërt. ix.; Sext. Empiric., _Adv.
+  mathem._ vii. 126, 127, 133; Plato, _Cratylus_, 402 A and
+  _Theaetetus_, 152 E; Plutarch, _Isis and Osiris_, 45, 48; Arist. _Nic.
+  Eth._ vii. 3, 4; Clement of Alexandria, _Stromata_, v. 599, 603 (ed.
+  Paris).     (J. M. M.)
+
+
+
+
+HERACLIUS ([Greek: Hêrakleios]) (c. 575-642), East Roman emperor, was
+born in Cappadocia. His father held high military command under the
+emperor Maurice, and as governor of Africa maintained his independence
+against the usurper Phocas (q.v.). When invited to head a rebellion
+against the latter, he sent his son with a fleet which reached
+Constantinople unopposed, and precipitated the dethronement of Phocas.
+Proclaimed emperor, Heraclius set himself to reorganize the utterly
+disordered administration. At first he found himself helpless before the
+Persian armies (see PERSIA: _Ancient History_; and CHOSROËS II.) of
+Chosroës II., which conquered Syria and Egypt and since 616 had encamped
+opposite Constantinople; in 618 he even proposed in despair to abandon
+his capital and seek a refuge in Carthage, but at the entreaty of the
+patriarch he took courage. By securing a loan from the Church and
+suspending the corn-distribution at Constantinople, he raised sufficient
+funds for war, and after making a treaty with the Avars, who had nearly
+surprised the capital during an incursion in 619, he was at last able to
+take the field against Persia. During his first expedition (622) he
+failed to secure a footing in Armenia, whence he had hoped to take the
+Persians in flank, but by his unwearied energy he restored the
+discipline and efficiency of the army. In his second campaign (624-26)
+he penetrated into Armenia and Albania, and beat the enemy in the open
+field. After a short stay at Constantinople, which his son Constantine
+had successfully defended against renewed incursions by the Avars,
+Heraclius resumed his attacks upon the Persians (627). Though deserted
+by the Khazars, with whom he had made an alliance upon entering into
+Pontus, he gained a decisive advantage by a brilliant march across the
+Armenian highlands into the Tigris plain, and a hard-fought victory over
+Chosroës' general, Shahrbaraz, in which Heraclius distinguished himself
+by his personal bravery. A subsequent revolution at the Persian court
+led to the dethronement of Chosroës in favour of his son Kavadh II.
+(q.v.); the new king promptly made peace with the emperor, whose troops
+were already advancing upon the Persian capital Ctesiphon (628). Having
+thus secured his eastern frontier, Heraclius returned to Constantinople
+with ample spoils, including the true cross, which in 629 he brought
+back in person to Jerusalem. On the northern frontier of the empire he
+kept the Avars in check by inducing the Serbs to migrate from the
+Carpathians to the Balkan lands so as to divert the attention of the
+Avars.
+
+The triumphs which Heraclius had won through his own energy and skill
+did not bring him lasting popularity. In his civil administration he
+followed out his own ideas without deferring to the nobles or the
+Church, and the opposition which he encountered from these quarters went
+far to paralyse his attempts at reform. Worn out by continuous fighting
+and weakened by dropsy, Heraclius failed to show sufficient energy
+against the new peril that menaced his eastern provinces towards the end
+of his reign. In 629 the Saracens made their first incursion into Syria
+(see CALIPHATE, section A, § 1); in 636 they won a notable victory on
+the Yermuk (Hieromax), and in the following years conquered all Syria,
+Palestine and Egypt. Heraclius made no attempt to retrieve the
+misfortunes of his generals, but evacuated his possessions in sullen
+despair. The remaining years of his life he devoted to theological
+speculation and ecclesiastical reforms. His religious enthusiasm led him
+to oppress his Jewish subjects; on the other hand he sought to reconcile
+the Christian sects, and to this effect propounded in his _Ecthesis_ a
+conciliatory doctrine of monothelism. Heraclius died of his disease in
+642. He had been twice married; his second union, with his niece
+Martina, was frequently made a matter of reproach to him. In spite of
+his partial failures, Heraclius must be regarded as one of the greatest
+of Byzantine emperors, and his early campaigns were the means of saving
+the realm from almost certain destruction.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--G. Finlay, _History of Greece_ (Oxford, 1877) i.
+  311-358; J. B. Bury, _The Later Roman Empire_ (London, 1889), ii.
+  207-273; T. E. Evangelides, [Greek: Hêrakleios ho autokratôr tou
+  Byzantiou] (Odessa, 1903); A. Pernice, _L'Imperatore Eraclio_
+  (Florence, 1905). On the Persian campaigns: the epic of George Pisides
+  (ed. 1836, Bonn); F. Macler, _Histoire d'Héraclius par l'évêque
+  Sebèos_ (Paris, 1904); E. Gerland in _Byzantinische Zeitschrift_, iii.
+  (1894) 330-337; N. H. Baynes in the _English Historical Review_
+  (1904), pp. 694-702.     (M. O. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+HERALD (O. Fr. _heraut_, _herault_; the origin is uncertain, but O.H.G.
+_heren_, to call, or _hariwald_, leader of an army, have been proposed;
+the Gr. equivalent is [Greek: kêryx]: Lat. _praeco_, _caduceator_,
+_fetialis_), in Greek and Roman antiquities, the term for the officials
+described below; in modern usage, while the word "herald" is often used
+generally in a sense analogous to that of the ancients, it is more
+specially restricted to that dealt with in the article HERALDRY.
+
+The Greek heralds, who claimed descent from Hermes, the messenger of the
+gods, through his son Keryx, were public functionaries of high
+importance in early times. Like Hermes, they carried a staff of olive or
+laurel wood surrounded by two snakes (or with wool as messengers of
+peace); their persons were inviolable; and they formed a kind of
+priesthood or corporation. In the Homeric age, they summoned the
+assemblies of the people, at which they preserved order and silence;
+proclaimed war; arranged the cessation of hostilities and the conclusion
+of peace; and assisted at public sacrifices and banquets. They also
+performed certain menial offices for the kings (mixing and pouring out
+the wine for the guests), by whom they were treated as confidential
+servants. In later times, their position was a less honourable one;
+they were recruited from the poorer classes, and were mostly paid
+servants of the various officials. Pollux in his _Onomasticon_
+distinguishes four classes of heralds: (1) the sacred heralds at the
+Eleusinian mysteries;[1] (2) the heralds at the public games, who
+announced the names of the competitors and victors; (3) those who
+superintended the arrangements of festal processions; (4) those who
+proclaimed goods for sale in the market (for which purpose they mounted
+a stone), and gave notice of lost children and runaway slaves. To these
+should be added (5) the heralds of the boule and demos, who summoned the
+members of the council and ecclesia, recited the solemn formula of
+prayer before the opening of the meeting, called upon the orators to
+speak, counted the votes and announced the results; (6) the heralds of
+the law courts, who gave notice of the time of trials and summoned the
+parties. The heralds received payment from the state and free meals
+together with the officials to whom they were attached. Their
+appointment was subject to some kind of examination, probably of the
+quality of their voice. Like the earlier heralds, they were also
+employed in negotiations connected with war and peace.
+
+Among the Romans the _praecones_ or "criers" exercised their profession
+both in private and official business. As private criers they were
+especially concerned with auctions; they advertized the time, place and
+conditions of sale, called out the various bids, and like the modern
+auctioneer varied the proceedings with jokes. They gave notice in the
+streets of things that had been lost, and took over various commissions,
+such as funeral arrangements. Although the calling was held in little
+estimation, some of these criers amassed great wealth. The state criers,
+who were mostly freedmen and well paid, formed the lowest class of
+_apparitores_ (attendants on various magistrates). On the whole, their
+functions resembled those of the Greek heralds. They called the popular
+assemblies together, proclaimed silence and made known the result of the
+voting; in judicial cases, they summoned the plaintiff, defendant,
+advocates and witnesses; in criminal executions they gave out the
+reasons for the punishment and called on the executioner to perform his
+duty; they invited the people to the games and announced the names of
+the victors. Public criers were also employed at state auctions in the
+municipia and colonies, but, according to the lex Julia municipalis of
+Caesar, they were prohibited from holding office.
+
+Amongst the Romans the settlement of matters relating to war and peace
+was entrusted to a special class of heralds called _Fetiales_ (not
+_Feciales_), a word of uncertain etymology, possibly connected with
+_fateor_, _fari_, and meaning "the speakers." They formed a priestly
+college of 20 (or 15) members, the institution of which was ascribed to
+one of the kings. They were chosen from the most distinguished families,
+held office for life, and filled up vacancies in their number by
+co-optation. Their duties were to demand redress for insult or injury to
+the state, to declare war unless satisfaction was obtained within a
+certain number of days and to conclude treaties of peace. A deputation
+of four (or two), one of whom was called _pater patratus_, wearing
+priestly garments, with sacred herbs plucked from the Capitoline hill
+borne in front, proceeded to the frontier of the enemy's territory and
+demanded the surrender of the guilty party. This demand was called
+_clarigatio_ (perhaps from its being made in a loud, clear voice). If no
+satisfactory answer was given within 30 days, the deputation returned to
+Rome and made a report. If war was decided upon, the deputation again
+repaired to the frontier, pronounced a solemn formula, and hurled a
+charred and blood-stained javelin across the frontier, in the presence
+of three witnesses, which was tantamount to a declaration of war (Livy
+i. 24, 32). With the extension of the Roman empire, it became
+impossible to carry out this ceremonial, for which was substituted the
+hurling of a javelin over a column near the temple of Bellona in the
+direction of the enemy's territory. When the termination of a war was
+decided upon, the fetiales either made an arrangement for the suspension
+of hostilities for a definite term of years, after which the war
+recommenced automatically or they concluded a solemn treaty with the
+enemy. Conditions of peace or alliance proposed by the general on his
+own responsibility (_sponsio_) were not binding upon the people, and in
+case of rejection the general, with hands bound, was delivered by the
+fetiales to the enemy (Livy ix. 10). But if the terms were agreed to, a
+deputation carrying the sacred herbs and the flint stones, kept in the
+temple of Jupiter Feretrius for sacrificial purposes, met a deputation
+of fetiales from the other side. After the conditions of the treaty had
+been read, the sacrificial formula was pronounced and the victims slain
+by a blow from a stone (hence the expression _foedus ferire_). The
+treaty was then signed and handed over to the keeping of the fetial
+college. These ceremonies usually took place in Rome, but in 201 a
+deputation of fetiales went to Africa to ratify the conclusion of peace
+with Carthage. From that time little is heard of the fetiales, although
+they appear to have existed till the end of the 4th century A.D. The
+_caduceator_ (from _caduceus_, the latinized form of [Greek: kêrykeion])
+was the name of a person who was sent to treat for peace. His person was
+considered sacred; and like the fetiales he carried the sacred herbs,
+instead of the caduceus, which was not in use amongst the Romans.
+
+  For the Greek heralds, see Ch. Ostermann, _De praeconibus Graecorum_
+  (1845); for the Roman Praecones, Mommsen, _Römisches Staatsrecht_, i.
+  363 (3rd ed., 1887); also article PRAECONES in Pauly's
+  _Realencyclopädie_ (1852 edition); for the Fetiales, monographs by F.
+  C. Conradi (1734, containing all the necessary material), and G.
+  Fusinato (1884, from _Atti della R. Accad. dei Lincei_, series iii.
+  vol. 13); also Marquardt, _Römische Staatsverwaltung_, iii. 415 (3rd
+  ed., 1885), and A. Weiss in Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire des
+  antiquités_.     (J. H. F.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] These heralds are regarded by some as a branch of the Eumolpidae,
+    by others as of Athenian origin. They enjoyed great prestige and
+    formed a hieratic caste like the Eumolpidae, with whom they shared
+    the most important liturgical functions. From them were selected the
+    [Greek: dadouchos] or torch-bearer, the [Greek: hierokêryx], whose
+    chief duty was to proclaim silence, and [Greek: ho epi bômô], an
+    official connected with the service at the altar (see L. R. Farnell,
+    Cults of the Greek States, iii. 161; J. Töpffer, _Attische
+    Genealogie_ (1889); Dittenberger in _Hermes_, xx.; P. Foucart, "Les
+    Grands Mystères d'Eleusis" in _Mém. de l'Institut National de
+    France_, xxxvii. (1904).
+
+
+
+
+HERALDRY. Although the word Heraldry properly belongs to all the
+business of the herald (q.v.), it has long attached itself to that which
+in earlier times was known as armory, the science of armorial bearings.
+
+_History of Armorial Bearings._--In all ages and in all quarters of the
+world distinguishing symbols have been adopted by tribes or nations, by
+families or by chieftains. Greek and Roman poets describe the devices
+borne on the shields of heroes, and many such painted shields are
+pictured on antique vases. Rabbinical writers have supported the fancy
+that the standards of the tribes set up in their camps bore figures
+devised from the prophecy of Jacob, the ravening wolf for Benjamin, the
+lion's whelp for Judah and the ship of Zebulon. In the East we have such
+ancient symbols as the five-clawed dragon of the Chinese empire and the
+chrysanthemum of the emperor of Japan. In Japan, indeed, the
+systematized badges borne by the noble clans may be regarded as akin to
+the heraldry of the West, and the circle with the three asarum leaves of
+the Tokugawa shoguns has been made as familiar to us by Japanese lacquer
+and porcelain as the red pellets of the Medici by old Italian fabrics.
+Before the landing of the Spaniards in Mexico the Aztec chiefs carried
+shields and banners, some of whose devices showed after the fashion of a
+phonetic writing the names of their bearers; and the eagle on the new
+banner of Mexico may be traced to the eagle that was once carved over
+the palace of Montezuma. That mysterious business of totemism, which
+students of folk-lore have discovered among most primitive peoples, must
+be regarded as another of the forerunners of true heraldry, the totem of
+a tribe supplying a badge which was sometimes displayed on the body of
+the tribesman in paint, scars or tattooing. Totemism so far touches our
+heraldry that some would trace to its symbols the white horse of
+Westphalia, the bull's head of the Mecklenburgers and many other ancient
+armories.
+
+When true heraldry begins in Western Europe nothing is more remarkable
+than the suddenness of its development, once the idea of hereditary
+armorial symbols was taken by the nobles and knights. Its earliest
+examples are probably still to be discovered by research, but certain
+notes may be made which narrow the dates between which we must seek its
+origin. The older writers on heraldry, lacking exact archaeology, were
+wont to carry back the beginnings to the dark ages, even if they lacked
+the assurance of those who distributed blazons among the angelic host
+before the Creation. Even in our own times old misconceptions give
+ground slowly. Georg Ruexner's _Thurnier Buch_ of 1522 is still cited
+for its evidence of the tournament laws of Henry the Fowler, by which
+those who would contend in tournaments were forced to show four
+generations of arms-bearing ancestors. Yet modern criticism has
+shattered the elaborated fiction of Ruexner. In England many legends
+survive of arms borne by the Conqueror and his companions. But nothing
+is more certain than that neither armorial banners nor shields of arms
+were borne on either side at Hastings. The famous record of the Bayeux
+tapestry shows shields which in some cases suggest rudely devised
+armorial bearings, but in no case can a shield be identified as one
+which is recognized in the generations after the Conquest. So far is the
+idea of personal arms from the artist, that the same warrior, seen in
+different parts of the tapestry's history, has his shield with differing
+devices. A generation later, Anna Comnena, the daughter of the Byzantine
+emperor, describing the shields of the French knights who came to
+Constantinople, tells us that their polished faces were plain.
+
+Of all men, kings and princes might be the first to be found bearing
+arms. Yet the first English sovereign who appears on his great seal with
+arms on his shield is Richard I. His seal of 1189 shows his shield
+charged with a lion ramping towards the sinister side. Since one half
+only is seen of the rounded face of the shield, English antiquaries have
+perhaps too hastily suggested that the whole bearing was two lions face
+to face. But the mounted figure of Philip of Alsace, count of Flanders,
+on his seal of 1164 bears a like shield charged with a like lion, and in
+this case another shield on the counterseal makes it clear that this is
+the single lion of Flanders. Therefore we may take it that, in 1189,
+King Richard bore arms of a lion rampant, while, nine years later,
+another seal shows him with a shield of the familiar bearings which have
+been borne as the arms of England by each one of his successors.
+
+That seal of Philip of Alsace is the earliest known example of the arms
+of the great counts of Flanders. The ancient arms of the kings of
+France, the blue shield powdered with golden fleurs-de-lys, appear even
+later. Louis le Jeune, on the crowning of his son Philip Augustus,
+ordered that the young prince should be clad in a blue dalmatic and blue
+shoes, sewn with golden fleurs-de-lys, a flower whose name, as "Fleur de
+Loys," played upon that of his own, and possibly upon his epithet name
+of Florus. A seal of the same king has the device of a single lily. But
+the first French royal seal with the shield of the lilies is that of
+Louis VIII. (1223-1226). The eagle of the emperors may well be as
+ancient a bearing as any in Europe, seeing that Charlemagne is said, as
+the successor of the Caesars, to have used the eagle as his badge. The
+emperor Henry III. (1039-1056) has the sceptre on his seal surmounted by
+an eagle; in the 12th century the eagle was embroidered upon the
+imperial gloves. At Mölsen in 1080 the emperor's banner is said by
+William of Tyre to have borne the eagle, and with the beginning of
+regular heraldry this imperial badge would soon be displayed on a
+shield. The double-headed eagle is not seen on an imperial seal until
+after 1414, when the bird with one neck becomes the recognized arms of
+the king of the Romans.
+
+There are, however, earlier examples of shields of arms than any of
+these. A document of the first importance is the description by John of
+Marmoustier of the marriage of Geoffrey of Anjou with Maude the empress,
+daughter of Henry I., when the king is said to have hung round the neck
+of his son-in-law a shield with golden "lioncels." Afterwards the monk
+speaks of Geoffrey in fight, "pictos leones preferens in clypeo." Two
+notes may be added to this account. The first is that the enamelled
+plate now in the museum at Le Mans, which is said to have been placed
+over the tomb of Geoffrey after his death in 1151, shows him bearing a
+long shield of azure with six golden lioncels, thus confirming the
+monk's story. The second is the well-known fact that Geoffrey's bastard
+grandson, William with the Long Sword, undoubtedly bore these same arms
+of the six lions of gold in a blue field, even as they are still to be
+seen upon his tomb at Salisbury. Some ten years before Richard I. seals
+with the three leopards, his brother John, count of Mortain, is found
+using a seal upon which he bears two leopards, arms which later
+tradition assigns to the ancient dukes of Normandy and to their
+descendants the kings of England before Henry II., who is said to have
+added the third leopard in right of his wife, a legend of no value. Mr
+Round has pointed out that Gilbert of Clare, earl of Hertford, who died
+in 1152, bears on his seal to a document sealed after 1138 and not later
+than 1146, the three cheverons afterwards so well known in England as
+the bearings of his successors. An old drawing of the seal of his uncle
+Gilbert, earl of Pembroke (_Lansdowne MS._ 203), shows a cheveronny
+shield used between 1138 and 1148. At some date between 1144 and 1150,
+Waleran, count of Meulan, shows on his seal a pennon and saddle-cloth
+with a checkered pattern: the house of Warenne, sprung from his mother's
+son, bore shields checky of gold and azure. If we may trust the
+inventory of Norman seals made by M. Demay, a careful antiquary, there
+is among the archives of the Manche a grant by Eudes, seigneur du Pont,
+sealed with a seal and counterseal of arms, to which M. Demay gives a
+date as early as 1128. The writer has not examined this seal, the
+earliest armorial evidence of which he has any knowledge, but it may be
+remarked that the arms are described as varying on the seal and
+counterseal, a significant touch of primitive armory. Another type of
+seal common in this 12th century shows the personal device which had not
+yet developed into an armorial charge. A good example is that of
+Enguerrand de Candavène, count of St Pol, where, although the shield of
+the horseman is uncharged, sheaves of oats, playing on his name, are
+strewn at the foot of the seal. Five of these sheaves were the arms of
+Candavène when the house came to display arms. In the same fashion three
+different members of the family of Armenteres in England show one, two
+or three swords upon their seals, but here the writer has no evidence of
+a coat of arms derived from these devices.
+
+From the beginning of the 13th century arms upon shields increase in
+number. Soon the most of the great houses of the west display them with
+pride. Leaders in the field, whether of a royal army or of a dozen
+spears, saw the military advantage of a custom which made shield and
+banner things that might be recognized in the press. Although it is
+probable that armorial bearings have their first place upon the shield,
+the charges of the shield are found displayed on the knight's long
+surcoat, his "coat of arms," on his banner or pennon, on the trappers of
+his horse and even upon the peaks of his saddle. An attempt has been
+made to connect the rise of armory with the adoption of the
+barrel-shaped close helm; but even when wearing the earlier Norman
+helmet with its long nasal the knight's face was not to be recognized.
+The Conqueror, as we know, had to bare his head before he could persuade
+his men at Hastings that he still lived. Armory satisfied a need which
+had long been felt. When fully armed, one galloping knight was like
+another; but friend and foe soon learned that the gold and blue checkers
+meant that Warenne was in the field and that the gold and red vair was
+for Ferrers. Earl Simon at Evesham sent up his barber to a spying place
+and, as the barber named in turn the banners which had come up against
+him, he knew that his last fight was at hand. In spite of these things
+the growth of the custom of sealing deeds and charters had at least as
+much influence in the development of armory as any military need. By
+this way, women and clerks, citizens and men of peace, corporations and
+colleges, came to share with the fighting man in the use of armorial
+bearings. Arms in stone, wood and brass decorated the tombs of the dead
+and the houses of the living; they were broidered in bed-curtains,
+coverlets and copes, painted on the sails of ships and enamelled upon
+all manner of goldsmiths' and silversmiths' work. And, even by warriors,
+the full splendour of armory was at all times displayed more fully in
+the fantastic magnificence of the tournament than in the rougher
+business of war.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE I.
+
+PART OF A ROLL OF ARMS PAINTED IN ENGLAND AT THE BEGINNING OF THE 14TH
+CENTURY. THE NAMES HAVE BEEN ADDED BY A SOMEWHAT LATER HAND, AND ARE IN
+MANY CASES MISTAKEN AND MIS-SPELLED.
+
+_Drawn by William Gibb for the_ ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA.]
+
+There can be little doubt that ancient armorial bearings were chosen at
+will by the man who bore them, many reasons guiding his choice. Crosses
+in plenty were taken. Old writers have asserted that these crosses
+commemorate the badge of the crusaders, yet the fact that the cross was
+the symbol of the faith was reason enough. No symbolism can be found in
+such charges as bends and fesses; they are on the shield because a broad
+band, aslant or athwart, is a charge easily recognized. Medieval wisdom
+gave every noble and magnanimous quality to the lion, and therefore this
+beast is chosen by hundreds of knights as their bearing. We have already
+seen how the arms of a Candavène play upon his name. Such an example was
+imitated on all sides. Salle of Bedfordshire has two _sal_amanders
+_sal_tirewise; Belet has his namesake the weasel. In ancient shields
+almost all beasts and birds other than the lion and the eagle play upon
+the bearer's name. No object is so humble that it is unwelcome to the
+knight seeking a pun for his shield. Trivet has a three-legged trivet;
+Trumpington two trumps; and Montbocher three pots. The legends which
+assert that certain arms were "won in the Holy Land" or granted by
+ancient kings for heroic deeds in the field are for the most part
+worthless fancies.
+
+Tenants or neighbours of the great feudal lords were wont to make their
+arms by differencing the lord's shield or by bringing some charge of it
+into their own bearings. Thus a group of Kentish shields borrow lions
+from that of Leyborne, which is azure with six lions of silver. Shirland
+of Minster bore the same arms differenced with an ermine quarter.
+Detling had the silver lions in a sable field. Rokesle's lions are azure
+in a golden field with a fesse of gules between them; while Wateringbury
+has six sable lions in a field of silver, and Tilmanstone six ermine
+lions in a field of azure. The Vipont ring or annelet is in several
+shields of Westmorland knights, and the cheverons of Clare, the
+cinquefoil badge of Beaumont and the sheaves of Chester can be traced in
+the coats of many of the followers of those houses. Sometimes the lord
+himself set forth such arms in a formal grant, as when the baron of
+Greystock grants to Adam of Blencowe a shield in which his own three
+chaplets are charges. The Whitgreave family of Staffordshire still show
+a shield granted to their ancestor in 1442 by the earl of Stafford, in
+which the Stafford red cheveron on a golden field is four times
+repeated.
+
+_Differences._--By the custom of the middle ages the "whole coat," which
+is the undifferenced arms, belonged to one man only and was inherited
+whole only by his heirs. Younger branches differenced in many ways,
+following no rule. In modern armory the label is reckoned a difference
+proper only to an eldest son. But in older times, although the label was
+very commonly used by the son and heir apparent, he often chose another
+distinction during his father's lifetime, while the label is sometimes
+found upon the shields of younger sons. Changing the colours or varying
+the number of charges, drawing a bend or baston over the shield or
+adding a border are common differences of cadet lines. Beauchamp, earl
+of Warwick, bore "Gules with a fesse and six crosslets gold." His
+cousins are seen changing the crosslets for martlets or for billets.
+Bastards difference their father's arms, as a rule, in no more striking
+manner than the legitimate cadets. Towards the end of the 14th century
+we have the beginning of the custom whereby certain bastards of princely
+houses differenced the paternal arms by charging them upon a bend, a
+fesse or a chief, a cheveron or a quarter. Before his legitimation the
+eldest son of John of Gaunt by Katharine Swinford is said to have borne
+a shield party silver and azure with the arms of Lancaster on a bend.
+After his legitimation in 1397 he changed his bearings to the royal arms
+of France and England within a border gobony of silver and azure. Warren
+of Poynton, descended from the last earl Warenne and his concubine,
+Maude of Neirford, bore the checkered shield of Warenne with a quarter
+charged with the ermine lion of Neirford. By the end of the middle ages
+the baston under continental influence tended to become a bastard's
+difference in England and the jingle of the two words may have helped
+to support the custom. About the same time the border gobony began to
+acquire a like character. The "bar sinister" of the novelists is
+probably the baston sinister, with the ends couped, which has since the
+time of Charles II. been familiar on the arms of certain descendants of
+the royal house. But it has rarely been seen in England over other
+shields; and, although the border gobony surrounds the arms granted to a
+peer of Victorian creation, the modern heralds have fallen into the
+habit of assigning, in nineteen cases out of twenty, a wavy border as
+the standard difference for illegitimacy.
+
+Although no general register of arms was maintained it is remarkable
+that there was little conflict between persons who had chanced to assume
+the same arms. The famous suit in which Scrope, Grosvenor and Carminow
+all claimed the blue shield with the golden bend is well known, and
+there are a few cases in the 14th century of like disputes which were
+never carried to the courts. But the men of the middle ages would seem
+to have had marvellous memories for blazonry; and we know that rolls of
+arms for reference, some of them the records of tournaments, existed in
+great numbers. A few examples of these remain to us, with painted
+shields or descriptions in French blazon, some of them containing many
+hundreds of names and arms.
+
+[Illustration: Shield from seal of Robert de Pinkeny, an early example
+of parted arms.]
+
+[Illustration: Shield of Joan atte Pole, widow of Robert of Hemenhale,
+from her seal (1403), showing parted arms.]
+
+To women were assigned, as a rule, the undifferenced arms of their
+fathers. In the early days of armory married women--well-born spinsters
+of full age were all but unknown outside the walls of religious
+houses--have seals on which appear the shield of the husband or the
+father or both shields side by side. But we have some instances of the
+shield in which two coats of arms are parted or, to use the modern
+phrase, "impaled." Early in the reign of King John, Robert de Pinkeny
+seals with a parted shield. On the right or dexter side--the right hand
+of a shield is at the right hand of the person covered by it--are two
+fusils of an indented fesse: on the left or sinister side are three
+waves. The arms of Pinkeny being an indented fesse, we may see in this
+shield the parted arms of husband and wife--the latter being probably a
+Basset. In many of the earliest examples, as in this, the dexter half of
+the husband's shield was united with the sinister half of that of the
+wife, both coats being, as modern antiquaries have it, dimidiated. This
+"dimidiation," however, had its inconvenience. With some coats it was
+impossible. If the wife bore arms with a quarter for the only charge,
+her half of the shield would be blank. Therefore the practice was early
+abandoned by the majority of bearers of parted shields although there is
+a survival of it in the fact that borders and tressures continue to be
+"dimidiated" in order that the charges within them shall not be cramped.
+Parted shields came into common use from the reign of Edward II., and
+the rule is established that the husband's arms should take the dexter
+side. There are, however, several instances of the contrary practice. On
+the seal (1310) of Maude, wife of John Boutetort of Halstead, the
+engrailed saltire of the Boutetorts takes the sinister place. A
+twice-married woman would sometimes show a shield charged with her
+paternal arms between those of both of her husbands, as did Beatrice
+Stafford in 1404, while in 1412 Elizabeth, Lady of Clinton, seals with a
+shield paled with five coats--her arms of la Plaunche between those of
+four husbands. In most cases the parted shield is found on the wife's
+seal alone. Even in our own time it is recognized that the wife's arms
+should not appear upon the husband's official seal, upon his banner or
+surcoat or upon his shield when it is surrounded by the collar of an
+order. Parted arms, it may be noted, do not always represent a husband
+and wife. Richard II. parted with his quartered arms of France and
+England those ascribed to Edward the Confessor, and parting is often
+used on the continent where quartering would serve in England. In 1497
+the seal of Giles Daubeney and Reynold Bray, fellow justices in eyre,
+shows their arms parted in one shield. English bishops, by a custom
+begun late in the 14th century, part the see's arms with their own. By
+modern English custom a husband and wife, where the wife is not an heir,
+use the parted coat on a shield, a widow bearing the same upon the
+lozenge on which, when a spinster, she displayed her father's coat
+alone. When the wife is an heir, her arms are now borne in a little
+scocheon above those of her husband. If the husband's arms be in an
+unquartered shield the central charge is often hidden away by this
+scocheon.
+
+[Illustration: Shield of Beatrice Stafford from her seal (1404), showing
+her arms of Stafford between those of her husbands--Thomas, Lord Roos,
+and Sir Richard Burley.]
+
+[Illustration: Shield of John Talbot, first earl of Shrewsbury (d.
+1453), showing four coats quartered.]
+
+The practice of marshalling arms by quartering spread in England by
+reason of the example given by Eleanor, wife of Edward I., who displayed
+the castle of Castile quartered with the lion of Leon. Isabel of France,
+wife of Edward II., seals with a shield in whose four quarters are the
+arms of England, France, Navarre and Champagne. Early In the 14th
+century Simon de Montagu, an ancestor of the earls of Salisbury,
+quartered with his own arms a coat of azure with a golden griffon. In
+1340 we have Laurence Hastings, earl of Pembroke, quartering with the
+Hastings arms the arms of Valence, as heir of his great-uncle Aymer,
+earl of Pembroke. In the preceding year the king had already asserted
+his claim to another kingdom by quartering France with England, and
+after this quartered shields became common in the great houses whose
+sons were carefully matched with heirs female. When the wife was an heir
+the husband would quarter her arms with his own, displaying, as a rule,
+the more important coat in the first quarter. Marshalling becomes more
+elaborate with shields showing both quarterings and partings, as in the
+seal (1368) of Sibil Arundel, where Arundel (Fitzalan) is quartered with
+Warenne and parted with the arms of Montagu. In all, save one, of these
+examples the quartering is in its simplest form, with one coat repeated
+in the first and fourth quarters of the shield and another in the second
+and third. But to a charter of 1434 Sir Henry Bromflete sets a seal upon
+which Bromflete quarters Vesci in the second quarter, Aton in the third
+and St John in the fourth, after the fashion of the much earlier seal of
+Edward II.'s queen. Another development is that of what armorists style
+the "grand quarter," a quarter which is itself quartered, as in the
+shield of Reynold Grey of Ruthyn, which bears Grey in the first and
+fourth quarters and Hastings quartered with Valence in the third and
+fourth. Humphrey Bourchier, Lord Cromwell, in 1469, bears one grand
+quarter quartered with another, the first having Bourchier and Lovaine,
+the second Tatershall and Cromwell.
+
+[Illustration: Shield of Richard Beauchamp, earl of Warwick, from his
+garter stall-plate (after 1423). The arms are Beauchamp quartering
+Newburgh, with a scocheon of Clare quartering Despenser.]
+
+The last detail to be noted in medieval marshalling is the introduction
+into the shield of another surmounting shield called by old armorists
+the "innerscocheon" and by modern blazoners the "inescutcheon." John the
+Fearless, count of Flanders, marshalled his arms in 1409 as a quartered
+shield of the new and old coats of Burgundy. Above these coats a little
+scocheon, borne over the crossing of the quartering lines, had the black
+lion of Flanders, the arms of his mother. Richard Beauchamp, the
+adventurous earl of Warwick, who had seen most European courts during
+his wanderings, may have had this shield in mind when, over his arms of
+Beauchamp quartering Newburgh, he set a scocheon of Clare quartering
+Despenser, the arms of his wife Isabel Despenser, co-heir of the earls
+of Gloucester. The seal of his son-in-law, the King-Maker, shows four
+quarters--Beauchamp quartering Clare, Montagu quartering Monthermer,
+Nevill alone, and Newburgh quartering Despenser. An interesting use of
+the scocheon _en surtout_ is that made by Richard Wydvile, Lord Rivers,
+whose garter stall-plate has a grand quarter of Wydvile and Prouz
+quartering Beauchamp of Hache, the whole surmounted by a scocheon with
+the arms of Reviers or Rivers, the house from which he took the title of
+his barony. On the continent the common use of the scocheon is to bear
+the paternal arms of a sovereign or noble, surmounting the quarterings
+of his kingdoms, principalities, fiefs or seigniories. Our own prince of
+Wales bears the arms of Saxony above those of the United Kingdom
+differenced with his silver label. Marshalling takes its most elaborate
+form, the most removed from the graceful simplicity of the middle ages,
+in such shields as the "Great Arms" of the Austrian empire, wherein are
+nine grand quarters each marshalling in various fashions from three to
+eleven coats, six of the grand-quarters bearing scocheons _en surtout_,
+each scocheon ensigned with a different crown.
+
+_Crests._--The most important accessory of the arms is the crested helm.
+Like the arms it has its pre-heraldic history in the crests of the Greek
+helmets, the wings, the wild boar's and bull's heads of Viking
+headpieces. A little roundel of the arms of a Japanese house was often
+borne as a crest in the Japanese helmet, stepped in a socket above the
+middle of the brim. The 12th-century seal of Philip of Alsace, count of
+Flanders, shows a demi-lion painted or beaten on the side of the upper
+part of his helm, and on his seal of 1198 our own Richard Coeur de
+Lion's barrel-helm has a leopard upon the semicircular comb-ridge, the
+edge of which is set off with feathers arranged as two wings. Crests,
+however, came slowly into use in England, although before 1250 Roger de
+Quincy, earl of Winchester, is seen on his seal with a wyver upon his
+helm. Of the long roll of earls and barons sealing the famous letter to
+the pope in 1301 only five show true crests on their seals. Two of them
+are the earl of Lancaster and his brother, each with a wyver crest like
+that of Quincy. One, and the most remarkable, is John St John of
+Halnaker, whose crest is a leopard standing between two upright palm
+branches. Ralph de Monthermer has an eagle crest, while Walter de
+Moncy's helm is surmounted by a fox-like beast. In three of these
+instances the crest is borne, as was often the case, by the horse as
+well as the rider. Others of these seals to the barons' letter have the
+fan-shaped crest without any decoration upon it. But as the furniture of
+tournaments grew more magnificent the crest gave a new field for
+display, and many strange shapes appear in painted and gilded wood,
+metal, leather or parchment above the helms of the jousters. The
+Berkeleys, great patrons of abbeys, bore a mitre as their crest painted
+with their arms, like crests being sometimes seen on the continent where
+the wearer was _advocatus_ of a bishopric or abbey. The whole or half
+figures or the heads and necks of beasts and birds were employed by
+other families. Saracens' heads topped many helms, that of the great
+Chandos among them. Astley bore for his crest a silver harpy standing in
+marsh-sedge, a golden chain fastened to a crown about her neck. Dymoke
+played pleasantly on his name with a long-eared moke's scalp. Stanley
+took the eagle's nest in which the eagle is lighting down with a
+swaddled babe in his claws. Burnell had a burdock bush, la Vache a cow's
+leg, and Lisle's strange fancy was to perch a huge millstone on edge
+above his head. Many early helms, as that of Sir John Loterel, painted
+in the Loterel psalter, repeat the arms on the sides of a fan-crest.
+Howard bore for a crest his arms painted on a pair of wings, while
+simple "bushes" or feathers are seen in great plenty. The crest of a
+cadet is often differenced like the arms, and thus a wyver or a leopard
+will have a label about its neck. The Montagu griffon on the helm of
+John, marquess of Montagu, holds in its beak the gimel ring with which
+he differenced his father's shield. His brother, the King-Maker,
+following a custom commoner abroad than at home, shows two crested helms
+on his seal, one for Montagu and one for Beauchamp--none for his
+father's house of Nevill. It is often stated that a man, unless by some
+special grace or allowance, can have but one crest. This, however, is
+contrary to the spirit of medieval armory in which a man, inheriting the
+coat of arms of another house than his own, took with it all its
+belongings, crest, badge and the like. The heraldry books, with more
+reason, deny crests to women and to the clergy, but examples are not
+wanting of medieval seals in which even this rule is broken. It is
+perhaps unfair to cite the case of the bishops of Durham who ride in
+full harness on their palatinate seals; but Henry Despenser, bishop of
+Norwich, has a helm on which the winged griffon's head of his house
+springs from a mitre, while Alexander Nevill, archbishop of York, seals
+with shield, supporters and crowned and crested helm like those of any
+lay magnate. Richard Holt, a Northamptonshire clerk in holy orders,
+bears on his seal in the reign of Henry V. a shield of arms and a
+mantled helm with the crest of a collared greyhound's head. About the
+middle of the same century a seal cut for the wife of Thomas Chetwode, a
+Cheshire squire, has a shield of her husband's arms parted with her own
+and surmounted by a crowned helm with the crest of a demi-lion; and this
+is not the only example of such bearings by a woman.
+
+[Illustration: Ralph de Monthermer (1301), showing shield of arms, helm
+with crest and mantle, horse-crest and armorial trappers.]
+
+Before passing from the crest let us note that in England the juncture
+of crest and helm was commonly covered, especially after the beginning
+of the 15th century, by a torse or "wreath" of silk, twisted with one,
+two or three colours. Coronets or crowns and "hats of estate" often take
+the place of the wreath as a base for the crest, and there are other
+curious variants. With the wreath may be considered the mantle, a
+hanging cloth which, in its earliest form, is seen as two strips of silk
+or sendal attached to the top of the helm below the crest and streaming
+like pennants as the rider bent his head and charged. Such strips are
+often displayed from the conical top of an uncrested helm, and some
+ancient examples have the air of the two ends of a stole or of the
+_infulae_ of a bishop's mitre. The general opinion of antiquaries has
+been that the mantle originated among the crusaders as a protection for
+the steel helm from the rays of an Eastern sun; but the fact that
+mantles take in England their fuller form after our crusading days were
+over seems against this theory. When the fashion for slittering the
+edges of clothing came in, the edges of the mantle were slittered like
+the edge of the sleeve or skirt, and, flourished out on either side of
+the helm, it became the delight of the painter of armories and the seal
+engraver. A worthless tale, repeated by popular manuals, makes the
+slittered edge represent the shearing work of the enemy's sword, a fancy
+which takes no account of the like developments in civil dress. Modern
+heraldry in England paints the mantle with the principal colour of the
+shield, lining it with the principal metal. This in cases where no old
+grant of arms is cited as evidence of another usage. The mantles of the
+king and of the prince of Wales are, however, of gold lined with ermine
+and those of other members of the royal house of gold lined with silver.
+In ancient examples there is great variety and freedom. Where the crest
+is the head of a griffon or bird the feathering of the neck will be
+carried on to cover the mantle. Other mantles will be powdered with
+badges or with charges from the shield, others checkered, barred or
+paled. More than thirty of the mantles enamelled on the stall-plates of
+the medieval Garter-knights are of red with an ermine lining, tinctures
+which in most cases have no reference to the shields below them.
+
+[Illustration: Shield and crested helm with hat and mantle of Thomas of
+Hengrave (1401).]
+
+_Supporters._--Shields of arms, especially upon seals, are sometimes
+figured as hung round the necks of eagles, lions, swans and griffons, as
+strapped between the horns of a hart or to the boughs of a tree. Badges
+may fill in the blank spaces at the sides between the shield and the
+inscription on the rim, but in the later 13th and early 14th centuries
+the commonest objects so serving are sprigs of plants, lions, leopards,
+or, still more frequently, lithe-necked wyvers. John of Segrave in 1301
+flanks his shields with two of the sheaves of the older coat of Segrave:
+William Marshal of Hingham does the like with his two marshal's staves.
+Henry of Lancaster at the same time shows on his seal a shield and a
+helm crested with a wyver, with two like wyvers ranged on either side of
+the shield as "supporters." It is uncertain at what time in the 14th
+century these various fashions crystallize into the recognized use of
+beasts, birds, reptiles, men or inanimate objects, definitely chosen as
+"supporters" of the shield, and not to be taken as the ornaments
+suggested by the fancy of the seal engraver. That supporters originate
+in the decoration of the seal there can be little doubt. Some writers,
+the learned Menêtrier among them, will have it that they were first the
+fantastically clad fellows who supported and displayed the knight's
+shield at the opening of the tournament. If the earliest supporters were
+wild men, angels or Saracens, this theory might be defended; but lions,
+boars and talbots, dogs and trees are guises into which a man would put
+himself with difficulty. By the middle of the 14th century we find what
+are clearly recognizable as supporters. These, as in a lesser degree the
+crest, are often personal rather than hereditary, being changed
+generation by generation. The same person is found using more than one
+pair of them. The kings of France have had angels as supporters of the
+shield of the fleurs de lys since the 15th century, but the angels have
+only taken their place as the sole royal supporters since the time of
+Louis XIV. Sovereigns of England from Henry IV. to Elizabeth changed
+about between supporters of harts, leopards, antelopes, bulls,
+greyhounds, boars and dragons. James I. at his accession to the English
+throne brought the Scottish unicorn to face the English leopard rampant
+across his shield, and, ever since, the "lion and unicorn" have been the
+royal supporters.
+
+[Illustration: Arms of William, Lord Hastings, from his seal (1477),
+showing shield, crowned and crested helm with mantle and supporters.]
+
+[Illustration: Badge of John of Whethamstede, abbot of St Albans (d.
+1465), from his tomb in the abbey church.]
+
+[Illustration: Rudder badge of Willoughby.]
+
+An old herald wrote as his opinion that "there is little or nothing in
+precedent to direct the use of supporters." Modern custom gives them, as
+a rule, only to peers, to knights of the Garter, the Thistle and St
+Patrick, and to knights who are "Grand Crosses" or Grand Commanders of
+other orders. Royal warrants are sometimes issued for the granting of
+supporters to baronets, and, in rare cases, they have been assigned to
+untitled persons. But in spite of the jealousy with which official
+heraldry hedges about the display of these supporters once assumed so
+freely, a few old English families still assert their right by
+hereditary prescription to use these ornaments as their forefathers were
+wont to use them.
+
+[Illustration: Badge of Dacre of Gilsland and Dacre of the North.]
+
+_Badges._--The badge may claim a greater antiquity and a wider use than
+armorial bearings. The "Plantagenet" broom is an early example in
+England, sprigs of it being figured on the seal of Richard I. In the
+14th and 15th centuries every magnate had his badge, which he displayed
+on his horse-furniture, on the hangings of his bed, his wall and his
+chair of state, besides giving it as a "livery" to his servants and
+followers. Such were the knots of Stafford, Bourchier and Wake, the
+scabbard-crampet of La Warr, the sickle of Hungerford, the swan of
+Toesni, Bohun and Lancaster, the dun-bull of Nevill, the blue boar of
+Vere and the bear and ragged staff of Beauchamp, Nevill of Warwick and
+Dudley of Northumberland. So well known of all were these symbols that a
+political ballad of 1449 sings of the misfortunes of the great lords
+without naming one of them, all men understanding what signified the
+Falcon, the Water Bowge and the Cresset and the other badges of the
+doggerel. More famous still were the White Hart, the Red Rose, the White
+Rose, the Sun, the Falcon and Fetterlock, the Portcullis and the many
+other badges of the royal house. We still call those wars that blotted
+out the old baronage the Wars of the Roses, and the Prince of Wales's
+feathers are as well known to-day as the royal arms. The Flint and Steel
+of Burgundy make a collar for the order of the Golden Fleece.
+
+[Illustration: Ostrich feather badge of Beaufort, from a garter
+stall-plate of 1440. The silver feather has a quill gobony silver and
+azure.]
+
+_Mottoes._--The motto now accompanies every coat of arms in these
+islands. Few of these Latin aphorisms, these bald assertions of virtue,
+high courage, patriotism, piety and loyalty have any antiquity. Some
+few, however, like the "Espérance" of Percy, were the war-cries of
+remote ancestors. "I mak' sicker" of Kirkpatrick recalls pridefully a
+bloody deed done on a wounded man, and the "Dieu Ayde," "Agincourt" and
+"D'Accomplir Agincourt" of the Irish "Montmorencys" and the English
+Wodehouses and Dalisons, glorious traditions based upon untrustworthy
+genealogy. The often-quoted punning mottoes may be illustrated by that
+of Cust, who says "Qui Cust-odit caveat," a modern example and a fair
+one. Ancient mottoes as distinct from the war or gathering cry of a
+house are often cryptic sentences whose meaning might be known to the
+user and perchance to his mistress. Such are the "Plus est en vous" of
+Louis de Bruges, the Flemish earl of Winchester, and the "So have I
+cause" and "Till then thus" of two Englishmen. The word motto is of
+modern use, our forefathers speaking rather of their "word" or of their
+"reason."
+
+_Coronets of Rank._--Among accessories of the shield may now be counted
+the coronets of peers, whose present form is post-medieval. When Edward
+III. made dukes of his sons, gold circlets were set upon their heads in
+token of their new dignity. In 1385 John de Vere, marquess of Dublin,
+was created in the same fashion. Edward VI. extended the honour of the
+gold circle to earls. Caps of honour were worn with these circles or
+coronets, and viscounts wore the cap by appointment of James I., Vincent
+the herald stating that "a verge of pearls on top of the circulet of
+gold" was added at the creation of Robert Cecil as Viscount Cranborne.
+At the coronation of Charles I. the viscounts walked in procession with
+their caps and coronets. A few days before the coronation of Charles II.
+the privilege of the cap of honour was given to the lowest rank of the
+peerage, and letters patent of January 1661 assign to them both cap and
+coronet. The caps of velvet turned up with miniver, which are now always
+worn with the peer's coronet, are therefore the ancient caps of honour,
+akin to that "cap of maintenance" worn by English sovereigns on their
+coronation days when walking to the Abbey Church, and borne before them
+on occasions of royal state.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE II.
+
+SIXTEEN SHIELDS FROM A ROLL OF ARMS OF ENGLISH KNIGHTS AND BARONS MADE
+BY AN ENGLISH PAINTER EARLY IN THE REIGN OF EDWARD III.
+
+  _Drawn by William Gibb._
+  _Niagara Litho. Co., Buffalo, N. Y._]
+
+The ancient circles were enriched according to the taste of the bearer,
+and, although used at creations as symbols of the rank conferred, were
+worn in the 14th and 15th centuries by men and women of rank without the
+use signifying a rank in the peerage. Edmund, earl of March, in his will
+of 1380, named his _sercle ove roses, emeraudes et rubies d'alisaundre
+en les roses_, and bequeathed it to his daughter. Modern coronets are of
+silver-gilt, without jewels, set upon caps of crimson velvet turned up
+with ermine, with a gold tassel at the top. A duke's coronet has the
+circle decorated with eight gold "strawberry leaves"; that of a marquess
+has four gold strawberry leaves and four silver balls. The coronet of an
+earl has eight silver balls, raised upon points, with gold strawberry
+leaves between the points. A viscount's coronet has on the circle
+sixteen silver balls, and a baron's coronet six silver balls. On the
+continent the modern use of coronets is not ordered in the precise
+English fashion, men of gentle birth displaying coronets which afford
+but slight indication of the bearer's rank.
+
+_Lines._--Eleven varieties of lines, other than straight lines, which
+divide the shield, or edge our cheverons, pales, bars and the like, are
+pictured in the heraldry books and named as engrailed, embattled,
+indented, invected, wavy or undy, nebuly, dancetty, raguly, potenté,
+dovetailed and urdy.
+
+As in the case of many other such lists of the later armorists these
+eleven varieties need some pruning and a new explanation.
+
+The most commonly found is the line engrailed, which for the student of
+medieval armory must be associated with the line indented. In its
+earliest form the line which a roll of arms will describe indifferently
+as indented or engrailed takes almost invariably the form to which the
+name indented is restricted by modern armorists.
+
+[Illustration: Mohun.]
+
+The cross may serve as our first example. A cross, engrailed or
+indented, the words being used indifferently, is a cross so deeply
+notched at the edges that it seems made up of so many lozenge-shaped
+wedges or fusils. About the middle of the 14th century begins a
+tendency, resisted in practice by many conservative families, to draw
+the engrailing lines in the fashion to which modern armorists restrict
+the word "engrailed," making shallower indentures in the form of lines
+of half circles. Thus the engrailed cross of the Mohuns takes either of
+the two forms which we illustrate. Bends follow the same fashion, early
+bends engrailed or indented being some four or more fusils joined
+bendwise by their blunt sides, bends of less than four fusils being very
+rare. Thus also the engrailed or indented saltires, pales or cheverons,
+the exact number of the fusils which go to the making of these being
+unconsidered. For the fesse there is another law. The fesse indented or
+engrailed is made up of fusils as is the engrailed bend. But although
+early rolls of arms sometimes neglect this detail in their blazon, the
+fusils making a fesse must always be of an ascertained number. Montagu,
+earl of Salisbury, bore a fesse engrailed or indented of three fusils
+only, very few shields imitating this. Medieval armorists will describe
+his arms as a fesse indented of three indentures, as a fesse fusilly of
+three pieces, or as a fesse engrailed of three points or pieces, all of
+these blazons having the same value. The indented fesse on the red
+shield of the Dynhams has four such fusils of ermine. Four, however, is
+almost as rare a number as three, the normal form of a fesse indented
+being that of five fusils as borne by Percys, Pinkenys, Newmarches and
+many other ancient houses. Indeed, accuracy of blazon is served if the
+number of fusils in a fesse be named in the cases of threes and fours.
+Fesses of six fusils are not to be found. Note that bars indented or
+engrailed are, for a reason which will be evident, never subject to this
+counting of fusils. Fauconberg, for example, bore "Silver with two bars
+engrailed, or indented, sable." Displayed on a shield of the flat-iron
+outline, the lower bar would show fewer fusils than the upper, while on
+a square banner each bar would have an equal number--usually five or
+six.
+
+[Illustration: Montagu. Dynham. Percy. Fauconberg.]
+
+While bends, cheverons, crosses, saltires and pales often follow,
+especially in the 15th century, the tendency towards the rounded
+"engrailing," fesses keep, as a rule, their bold indentures--neither
+Percy nor Montagu being ever found with his bearings in aught but their
+ancient form. Borders take the newer fashion as leaving more room for
+the charges of the field. But indented chiefs do not change their
+fashion, although many saw-teeth sometimes take the place of the three
+or four strong points of early arms, and parti-coloured shields whose
+party line is indented never lose the bold zig-zag.
+
+[Illustration: West.]
+
+While bearing in mind that the two words have no distinctive force in
+ancient armory, the student and the herald of modern times may
+conveniently allow himself to blazon the sharp and saw-toothed line as
+"indented" and the scolloped line as "engrailed," especially when
+dealing with the debased armory in which the distinction is held to be a
+true one and one of the first importance. One error at least he must
+avoid, and that is the following of the heraldry-book compilers in their
+use of the word "dancetty." A "dancetty" line, we are told, is a line
+having fewer and deeper indentures than the line indented. But no
+dancetty line could make a bolder dash across the shield than do the
+lines which the old armorists recognized as "indented." In old armory we
+have fesses dancy--commonly called "dances"--bends dancy, or cheverons
+dancy; there are no chiefs dancy nor borders dancy, nor are there
+shields blazoned as parted with a dancy line. Waved lines, battled lines
+and ragged lines need little explanation that a picture cannot give. The
+word invecked or invected is sometimes applied by old-fashioned heraldic
+pedants to engrailed lines; later pedants have given it to a line found
+in modern grants of arms, an engrailed line reversed. Dove-tailed and
+urdy lines are mere modernisms. Of the very rare nebuly or clouded line
+we can only say that the ancient form, which imitated the conventional
+cloud-bank of the old painters, is now almost forgotten, while the bold
+"wavy" lines of early armory have the word "nebuly" misapplied to them.
+
+_The Ordinary Charges._--The writers upon armory have given the name of
+Ordinaries to certain conventional figures commonly charged upon
+shields. Also they affect to divide these into Honourable Ordinaries and
+Sub-Ordinaries without explaining the reason for the superior honour of
+the Saltire or for the subordination of the Quarter. Disregarding such
+distinctions, we may begin with the description of the "Ordinaries" most
+commonly to be found.
+
+From the first the Cross was a common bearing on English shields,
+"Silver a cross gules" being given early to St George, patron of knights
+and of England, for his arms; and under St George's red cross the
+English were wont to fight. Our armorial crosses took many shapes, but
+the "crosses innumerabill" of the Book of St Albans and its successors
+may be left to the heraldic dictionary makers who have devised them. It
+is more important to define those forms in use during the middle ages,
+and to name them accurately after the custom of those who bore them in
+war, a task which the heraldry books have never as yet attempted with
+success.
+
+The cross in its simple form needs no definition, but it will be noted
+that it is sometimes borne "voided" and that in a very few cases it
+appears as a lesser charge with its ends cut off square, in which case
+it must be clearly blazoned as "a plain Cross."
+
+  Andrew Harcla, the march-warden, whom Edward II. made an earl and
+  executed as a traitor, bore the arms of St George with a martlet sable
+  in the quarter.
+
+  Crevequer of Kent bore "Gold a voided cross gules."
+
+  Newsom (14th century) bore "Azure a fesse silver with three plain
+  crosses gules."
+
+[Illustration: St George. Harcla. Crevequer. Latimer.]
+
+Next to the plain Cross may be taken the Cross paty, the _croiz patee_
+or _pate_ of old rolls of arms. It has several forms, according to the
+taste of the artist and the age. So, in the 13th and early 14th
+centuries, its limbs curve out broadly, while at a later date the limbs
+become more slender and of even breadth, the ends somewhat resembling
+fleurs-de-lys. Each of these forms has been seized by the heraldic
+writers as the type of a distinct cross for which a name must be found,
+none of them, as a rule, being recognized as a cross paty, a word which
+has its misapplication elsewhere. Thus the books have "cross patonce"
+for the earlier form, while "cross clechée" and "cross fleurie" serve
+for the others. But the true identification of the various crosses is of
+the first importance to the antiquary, since without it descriptions of
+the arms on early seals or monuments must needs be valueless. Many
+instances of this need might be cited from the British Museum catalogue
+of seals, where, for example, the cross paty of Latimer is described
+twice as a "cross flory," six times as a "cross patonce," but not once
+by its own name, although there is no better known example of this
+bearing in England.
+
+  Latimer bore "Gules a cross paty gold."
+
+The cross formy follows the lines of the cross paty save that its
+broadening ends are cut off squarely.
+
+  Chetwode bore "Quarterly silver and gules with four crosses formy
+  countercoloured"--that is to say, the two crosses in the gules are of
+  silver and the two in the silver of gules.
+
+The cross flory or flowered cross, the "cross with the ends
+flowered"--_od les boutes floretes_ as some of the old rolls have
+it--is, like the cross paty, a mark for the misapprehension of writers
+on armory, who describe some shapes of the cross paty by its name.
+Playing upon discovered or fancied variants of the word, they bid us
+mark the distinctions between crosses "fleur-de-lisée," "fleury" and
+"fleurettée," although each author has his own version of the value
+which must be given these precious words. But the facts of the medieval
+practice are clear to those who take their armory from ancient examples
+and not from phrases plagiarized from the hundredth plagiarist. The
+flowered cross is one whose limbs end in fleur-de-lys, which spring
+sometimes from a knop or bud but more frequently issue from the square
+ends of a cross of the "formy" type.
+
+  Swynnerton bore "Silver a flowered cross sable."
+
+[Illustration: Mill-rinds.]
+
+The mill-rind, which takes its name from the iron of a mill-stone--_fer
+de moline_--must be set with the crosses. Some of the old rolls call it
+_croiz recercele_, from which armorial writers have leaped to imagine a
+distinct type. Also they call the mill-rind itself a "cross moline"
+keeping the word mill-rind for a charge having the same origin but of
+somewhat differing form. Since this charge became common in Tudor armory
+it is perhaps better that the original mill-rind should be called for
+distinction a mill-rind cross.
+
+  Willoughby bore "Gules a mill-rind cross silver."
+
+[Illustration: Chetwode. Swynnerton. Willoughby. Brerelegh.]
+
+The crosslet, cross botonny or cross crosletted, is a cross whose limbs,
+of even breadth, end as trefoils or treble buds. It is rarely found in
+medieval examples in the shape--that of a cross with limbs ending in
+squarely cut plain crosses--which it took during the 16th-century
+decadence. As the sole charge of a shield it is very rare; otherwise it
+is one of the commonest of charges.
+
+  Brerelegh bore "Silver a crosslet gules."
+
+Within these modest limits we have brought the greater part of that
+monstrous host of crosses which cumber the dictionaries. A few rare
+varieties may be noticed.
+
+  Dukinfield bore "Silver a voided cross with sharpened ends."
+
+  Skirlaw, bishop of Durham (d. 1406), the son of a basket-weaver, bore
+  "Silver a cross of three upright wattles sable, crossed and interwoven
+  by three more."
+
+  Drury bore "Silver a chief vert with a St Anthony's cross gold between
+  two golden molets, pierced gules."
+
+  Brytton bore "Gold a patriarch's cross set upon three degrees or steps
+  of gules."
+
+  Hurlestone of Cheshire bore "Silver a cross of four ermine tails
+  sable."
+
+  Melton bore "Silver a Toulouse cross gules." By giving this cross a
+  name from the counts of Toulouse, its best-known bearers, some
+  elaborate blazonry is spared.
+
+[Illustration: Skirlaw. Drury. St Anthony's Cross. Brytton.]
+
+The crosses paty and formy, and more especially the crosslets, are often
+borne fitchy, that is to say, with the lower limb somewhat lengthened
+and ending in a point, for which reason the 15th-century writers call
+these "crosses fixabill." In the 14th-century rolls the word "potent" is
+sometimes used for these crosses fitchy, the long foot suggesting a
+potent or staff. From this source modern English armorists derive many
+of their "crosses potent," whose four arms have the T heads of
+old-fashioned walking staves.
+
+  Howard bore "Silver a bend between six crosslets fitchy gules."
+
+  Scott of Congerhurst in Kent bore "Silver a crosslet fitchy sable."
+
+[Illustration: Hurlestone. Melton. Howard. Scott.]
+
+The Saltire is the cross in the form of that on which St Andrew
+suffered, whence it is borne on the banner of Scotland, and by the
+Andrew family of Northamptonshire.
+
+  Nevile of Raby bore "Gules a saltire silver."
+
+  Nicholas Upton, the 15th-century writer on armory, bore "Silver a
+  saltire sable with the ends couped and five golden rings thereon."
+
+  Aynho bore "Sable a saltire silver having the ends flowered between
+  four leopards gold."
+
+  "Mayster Elwett of Yorke chyre" in a 15th-century roll bears "Silver a
+  saltire of chains sable with a crescent in the chief."
+
+[Illustration: Nevile. Upton. Aynho. Elwett.]
+
+  Restwolde bore "Party saltirewise of gules and ermine."
+
+[Illustration: Fenwick.]
+
+The chief is the upper part of the shield and, marked out by a line of
+division, it is taken as one of the Ordinaries. Shields with a plain
+chief and no more are rare in England, but Tichborne of Tichborne has
+borne since the 13th century "Vair a chief gold." According to the
+heraldry books the chief should be marked off as a third part of the
+shield, but its depth varies, being broader when charged with devices
+and narrower when, itself uncharged, it surmounts a charged field.
+Fenwick bore "Silver a chief gules with six martlets countercoloured,"
+and in this case the chief would be the half of the shield. Clinging to
+the belief that the chief must not fill more than a third of the shield,
+the heraldry books abandon the word in such cases, blazoning them as
+"party per fesse."
+
+  Hastang bore "Azure a chief gules and a lion with a forked tail over
+  all."
+
+  Walter Kingston seals in the 13th century with a shield of "Two rings
+  or annelets in the chief."
+
+  Hilton of Westmoreland bore "Sable three rings gold and two saltires
+  silver in the chief."
+
+With the chief may be named the Foot, the nether part of the shield
+marked off as an Ordinary. So rare is this charge that we can cite but
+one example of it, that of the shield of John of Skipton, who in the
+14th century bore "Silver with the foot indented purple and a lion
+purple." The foot, however, is a recognized bearing in France, whose
+heralds gave it the name of _champagne_.
+
+[Illustration: Restwolde. Hastang. Hilton. Provence.]
+
+The Pale is a broad stripe running the length of the shield. Of a single
+pale and of three pales there are several old examples. Four red pales
+in a golden shield were borne by Eleanor of Provence, queen of Henry
+III.; but the number did not commend itself to English armorists. When
+the field is divided evenly into six pales it is said to be paly; if
+into four or eight pales, it is blazoned as paly of that number of
+pieces. But paly of more or less than six pieces is rarely found.
+
+  The Yorkshire house of Gascoigne bore "Silver a pale sable with a
+  golden conger's head thereon, cut off at the shoulder."
+
+  Ferlington bore "Gules three pales vair and a chief gold."
+
+  Strelley bore "Paly silver and azure."
+
+  Rothinge bore "Paly silver and gules of eight pieces."
+
+When the shield or charge is divided palewise down the middle into two
+tinctures it is said to be "party." "Party silver and gules" are the
+arms of the Waldegraves. Bermingham bore "Party silver and sable
+indented." Caldecote bore "Party silver and azure with a chief gules."
+Such partings of the field often cut through charges whose colours
+change about on either side of the parting line. Thus Chaucer the poet
+bore "Party silver and gules with a bend countercoloured."
+
+[Illustration: Gascoigne. Ferlington. Strelley. Rothinge.]
+
+The Fesse is a band athwart the shield, filling, according to the rules
+of the heraldic writers, a third part of it. By ancient use, however, as
+in the case of the chief and pale, its width varies with the taste of
+the painter, narrowing when set in a field full of charges and
+broadening when charges are displayed on itself. When two or three
+fesses are borne they are commonly called Bars. "Ermine _four_ bars
+gules" is given as the shield of Sir John Sully, a 14th-century Garter
+knight, on his stall-plate at Windsor: but the plate belongs to a later
+generation, and should probably have three bars only. Little bars borne
+in couples are styled Gemels (twins). The field divided into an even
+number of bars of alternate colours is said to be barry, barry of six
+pieces being the normal number. If four or eight divisions be found the
+number of pieces must be named; but with ten or more divisions the
+number is unreckoned and "burely" is the word.
+
+[Illustration: Bermingham. Caldecote. Colevile. Fauconberg.]
+
+  Colevile of Bitham bore "Gold a fesse gules."
+
+  West bore "Silver a dance (or fesse dancy) sable."
+
+  Fauconberg bore "Gold a fesse azure with three pales gules in the
+  chief."
+
+  Cayvile bore "Silver a fesse gules, flowered on both sides."
+
+[Illustration: Cayvile. Devereux. Chamberlayne. Harcourt.]
+
+  Devereux bore "Gules a fesse silver with three roundels silver in the
+  chief."
+
+  Chamberlayne of Northamptonshire bore "Gules a fesse and three
+  scallops gold."
+
+  Harcourt bore "Gules two bars gold."
+
+  Manners bore "Gold two bars azure and a chief gules."
+
+  Wake bore "Gold two bars gules with three roundels gules in the
+  chief."
+
+  Bussy bore "Silver three bars sable."
+
+  Badlesmere of Kent bore "Silver a fesse between two gemels gules."
+
+  Melsanby bore "Sable two gemels and a chief silver."
+
+[Illustration: Manners. Wake. Melsanby. Grey.]
+
+  Grey bore "Barry of silver and azure."
+
+  Fitzalan of Bedale bore "Barry of eight pieces gold and gules."
+
+  Stutevile bore "Burely of silver and gules."
+
+The Bend is a band traversing the shield aslant, arms with one, two or
+three bends being common during the middle ages in England. Bendy
+shields follow the rule of shields paly and barry, but as many as ten
+pieces have been counted in them. The bend is often accompanied by a
+narrow bend on either side, these companions being called Cotices. A
+single narrow bend, struck over all other charges, is the Baston, which
+during the 13th and 14th centuries was a common difference for the
+shields of the younger branches of a family, coming in later times to
+suggest itself as a difference for bastards.
+
+[Illustration: Fitzalan of Bedale. Mauley. Harley. Wallop.]
+
+The Bend Sinister, the bend drawn from right to left beginning at the
+"sinister" corner of the shield, is reckoned in the heraldry books as a
+separate Ordinary, and has a peculiar significance accorded to it by
+novelists. Medieval English seals afford a group of examples of Bends
+Sinister and Bastons Sinister, but there seems no reason for taking them
+as anything more than cases in which the artist has neglected the common
+rule.
+
+  Mauley bore "Gold a bend sable."
+
+  Harley bore "Gold a bend with two cotices sable."
+
+  Wallop bore "Silver a bend wavy sable."
+
+  Ralegh bore "Gules a bend indented, or engrailed, silver."
+
+[Illustration: Ralegh. Tracy. Bodrugan. St Philibert.]
+
+  Tracy bore "Gold two bends gules with a scallop sable in the chief
+  between the bends."
+
+  Bodrugan bore "Gules three bends sable."
+
+  St Philibert bore "Bendy of six pieces, silver and azure."
+
+  Bishopsdon bore "Bendy of six pieces, gold and azure, with a quarter
+  ermine."
+
+  Montfort of Whitchurch bore "Bendy of ten pieces gold and azure."
+
+[Illustration: Bishopsdon. Montfort. Lancaster. Fraunceys.]
+
+  Henry of Lancaster, second son of Edmund Crouchback, bore the arms of
+  his cousin, the king of England, with the difference of "a baston
+  azure."
+
+  Adam Fraunceys (14th century) bore "Party gold and sable bendwise with
+  a lion countercoloured." The parting line is here commonly shown as
+  "sinister."
+
+The Cheveron, a word found In medieval building accounts for the
+barge-boards of a gable, is an Ordinary whose form is explained by its
+name. Perhaps the very earliest of English armorial charges, and
+familiarized by the shield of the great house of Clare, it became
+exceedingly popular in England. Like the bend and the chief, its width
+varies in different examples. Likewise its angle varies, being sometimes
+so acute as to touch the top of the shield, while in post-medieval
+armory the point is often blunted beyond the right angle. One, two or
+three cheverons occur in numberless shields, and five cheverons have
+been found. Also there are some examples of the bearing of cheveronny.
+
+  The earls of Gloucester of the house of Clare bore "Gold three
+  cheverons gules" and the Staffords derived from them their shield of
+  "Gold a cheveron gules."
+
+  Chaworth bore "Azure two cheverons gold."
+
+  Peytevyn bore "Cheveronny of ermine and gules."
+
+  St Quintin of Yorkshire bore "Gold two cheverons gules and a chief
+  vair."
+
+  Sheffield bore "Ermine a cheveron gules between three sheaves gold."
+
+  Cobham of Kent bore "Gules a cheveron gold with three fleurs-de-lys
+  azure thereon."
+
+  Fitzwalter bore "Gold a fesse between two cheverons gules."
+
+[Illustration: Chaworth. Peytevyn. Sheffield. Cobham.]
+
+Shields parted cheveronwise are common in the 15th century, when they
+are often blazoned as having chiefs "enty" or grafted. Aston of Cheshire
+bore "Party sable and silver cheveronwise" or "Silver a chief enty
+sable."
+
+The Pile or stake (_estache_) is a wedge-shaped figure jutting from the
+chief to the foot of the shield, its name allied to the pile of the
+bridge-builder. A single pile is found in the notable arms of Chandos,
+and the black piles in the ermine shield of Hollis are seen as an
+example of the bearing of two piles. Three piles are more easily found,
+and when more than one is represented the points are brought together at
+the foot. In ancient armory piles in a shield are sometimes reckoned as
+a variety of pales, and a Basset with three piles on his shield is seen
+with three pales on his square banner.
+
+  Chandos bore "Gold a pile gules."
+
+  Bryene bore "Gold three piles azure."
+
+The Quarter is the space of the first quarter of the shield divided
+crosswise into four parts. As an Ordinary it is an ancient charge and a
+common one in medieval England, although it has all but disappeared from
+modern heraldry books, the "Canton," an alleged "diminutive," unknown to
+early armory, taking its place. Like the other Ordinaries, its size is
+found to vary with the scheme of the shield's charges, and this has
+persuaded those armorists who must needs call a narrow bend a "bendlet,"
+to the invention of the "Canton," a word which in the sense of a quarter
+or small quarter appears for the first time in the latter part of the
+15th century. Writers of the 14th century sometimes give it the name of
+the Cantel, but this word is also applied to the void space on the
+opposite side of the chief, seen above a bend.
+
+[Illustration: Aston. Hollis. Bryene. Blencowe.]
+
+  Blencowe bore "Gules a quarter silver."
+
+  Basset of Drayton bore "Gold three piles (or pales) gules with a
+  quarter ermine."
+
+  Wydvile bore "Silver a fesse and a quarter gules."
+
+  Odingseles bore "Silver a fesse gules with a molet gules in the
+  quarter."
+
+  Robert Dene of Sussex (14th century) bore "Gules a quarter azure
+  'embelif,' or aslant, and thereon a sleeved arm and hand of silver."
+
+Shields or charges divided crosswise with a downward line and a line
+athwart are said to be quarterly. An ancient coat of this fashion is
+that of Say who bore (13th century) "Quarterly gold and gules"--the
+first and fourth quarters being gold and the second and third red. Ever
+or Eure bore the same with the addition of "a bend sable with three
+silver scallops thereon." Phelip, Lord Bardolf, bore "Quarterly gules
+and silver with an eagle gold in the quarter."
+
+[Illustration: PLATE III.
+
+SHIELDS OF ARMS OF "LE ROY DARRABE," "LE ROY DE TARSSE," AND OTHER
+SOVEREIGNS. MOSTLY MYTHICAL. TAKEN FROM A ROLL OF ARMS MADE BY AN
+ENGLISH PAINTER IN THE TIME OF HENRY VI.
+
+  _Drawn by William Gibb._
+  _Niagara Litho. Co., Buffalo, N. Y._]
+
+[Illustration: Basset. Wydvile. Odingseles. Ever.]
+
+With the 15th century came a fashion of dividing the shield into more
+than four squares, six and nine divisions being often found in arms of
+that age. The heraldry books, eager to work out problems of blazonry,
+decide that a shield divided into six squares should be described as
+"Party per fesse with a pale counterchanged," and one divided into nine
+squares as bearing "a cross quarter-pierced." It seems a simpler
+business to follow a 15th-century fashion and to blazon such shields as
+being of six or nine "pieces." Thus John Garther (15th century) bore
+"Nine pieces erminees and ermine" and Whitgreave of Staffordshire "Nine
+pieces of azure and of Stafford's arms, which are gold with a cheveron
+gules." The Tallow Chandlers of London had a grant in 1456 of "Six
+pieces azure and silver with three doves in the azure, each with an
+olive sprig in her beak."
+
+Squared into more than nine squares the shield becomes checky or
+checkered and the number is not reckoned. Warenne's checker of gold and
+azure is one of the most ancient coats in England and checkered fields
+and charges follow in great numbers. Even lions have been borne
+checkered.
+
+  Warenne bore "Checky gold and azure."
+
+  Clifford bore the like with "a fesse gules."
+
+  Cobham bore "Silver a lion checky gold and sable."
+
+  Arderne bore "Ermine a fesse checky gold and gules."
+
+[Illustration: Phelip Lord Bardolf. Whitgreave. Tallow Chandlers.
+Warenne.]
+
+Such charges as this fesse of Arderne's and other checkered fesses,
+bars, bends, borders and the like, will commonly bear but two rows of
+squares, or three at the most. The heraldry writers are ready to note
+that when two rows are used "counter-compony" is the word in place of
+checky, and "compony-counter-compony" in the case of three rows. It is
+needless to say that these words have neither practical value nor
+antiquity to commend them. But bends and bastons, labels, borders and
+the rest are often coloured with a single row of alternating tinctures.
+In this case the pieces are said to be "gobony." Thus John Cromwell
+(14th century) bore "Silver a chief gules with a baston gobony of gold
+and azure."
+
+The scocheon or shield used as a charge is found among the earliest
+arms. Itself charged with arms, it served to indicate alliance by blood
+or by tenure with another house, as in the bearings of St Owen whose
+shield of "Gules with a cross silver" has a scocheon of Clare in the
+quarter. In the latter half of the 15th century it plays an important
+part in the curious marshalling of the arms of great houses and
+lordships.
+
+  Erpingham bore "Vert a scocheon silver with an orle (or border) of
+  silver martlets."
+
+  Davillers bore at the battle of Boroughbridge "Silver three scocheons
+  gules."
+
+The scocheon was often borne voided or pierced, its field cut away to a
+narrow border. Especially was this the case in the far North, where the
+Balliols, who bore such a voided scocheon, were powerful. The voided
+scocheon is wrongly named in all the heraldry books as an orle, a term
+which belongs to a number of small charges set round a central charge.
+Thus the martlets in the shield of Erpingham, already described, may be
+called an orle of martlets or a border of martlets. This misnaming of
+the voided scocheon has caused a curious misapprehension of its form,
+even Dr Woodward, in his _Heraldry, British and Foreign_, describing the
+"orle" as "a narrow border detached from the edge of the shield."
+Following this definition modern armorial artists will, in the case of
+quartered arms, draw the "orle" in a first or second quarter of a
+quartered shield as a rectangular figure and in a third or fourth
+quarter as a scalene triangle with one arched side. Thereby the original
+voided scocheon changes into forms without meaning.
+
+  Balliol bore "Gules a voided scocheon silver."
+
+  Surtees bore "Ermine with a quarter of the arms of Balliol."
+
+[Illustration: Clifford. Arderne. Cromwell. Erpingham.]
+
+The _Tressure_ or flowered tressure is a figure which is correctly
+described by Woodward's incorrect description of the orle as cited
+above, being a narrow inner border of the shield. It is distinguished,
+however, by the fleurs-de-lys which decorate it, setting off its edges.
+The double tressure which surrounds the lion in the royal shield of
+Scotland, and which is borne by many Scottish houses who have served
+their kings well or mated with their daughters, is carefully described
+by Scottish heralds as "flowered and counter-flowered," a blazon which
+is held to mean that the fleurs-de-lys show head and tail in turn from
+the outer rim of the outer tressure and from the inner rim of the
+innermost. But this seems to have been no essential matter with medieval
+armorists and a curious 15th-century enamelled roundel of the arms of
+Vampage shows that in this English case the flowering takes the more
+convenient form of allowing all the lily heads to sprout from the outer
+rim.
+
+  Vampage bore "Azure an eagle silver within a flowered tressure
+  silver."
+
+  The king of Scots bore "Gold a lion within a double tressure flowered
+  and counterflowered gules."
+
+  Felton bore "Gules two lions passant within a double tressure flory
+  silver."
+
+[Illustration: Davillers. Balliol. Surtees. Vampage.]
+
+The Border of the shield when marked out in its own tincture is counted
+as an Ordinary. Plain or charged, it was commonly used as a difference.
+As the principal charge of a shield it is very rare, so rare that in
+most cases where it apparently occurs we may, perhaps, be following
+medieval custom in blazoning the shield as one charged with a scocheon
+and not with a border. Thus Hondescote bore "Ermine a border gules" or
+"Gules a scocheon ermine."
+
+  Somerville bore "Burely silver and gules and a border azure with
+  golden martlets."
+
+  Paynel bore "Silver two bars sable with a border, or orle, of martlets
+  gules."
+
+The Flaunches are the flanks of the shield which, cut off by rounded
+lines, are borne in pairs as Ordinaries. These charges are found in many
+coats devised by 15th-century armorists. "Ermine two flaunches azure
+with six golden wheat-ears" was borne by John Greyby of Oxfordshire
+(15th century).
+
+The Label is a narrow fillet across the upper part of the chief, from
+which hang three, four, five or more pendants, the pendants being, in
+most old examples, broader than the fillet. Reckoned with the
+Ordinaries, it was commonly used as a means of differencing a cadet's
+shield, and in the heraldry books it has become the accepted difference
+for an eldest son, although the cadets often bore it in the middle ages.
+John of Hastings bore in 1300 before Carlaverock "Gold a sleeve (or
+maunche) gules," while Edmund his brother bore the same arms with a
+sable label. In modern armory the pendants are all but invariably
+reduced to three, which, in debased examples, are given a dovetailed
+form while the ends of the fillet are cut off.
+
+[Illustration: Scotland. Hondescote. Greyby. Hastings.]
+
+The Fret, drawn as a voided lozenge interlaced by a slender saltire, is
+counted an Ordinary. A charge in such a shape is extremely rare in
+medieval armory, its ancient form when the field is covered by it being
+a number of bastons--three being the customary number--interlaced by as
+many more from the sinister side. Although the whole is described as a
+fret in certain English blazons of the 15th century, the adjective
+"fretty" is more commonly used. Trussel's fret is remarkable for its
+bezants at the joints, which stand, doubtless, for the golden nail-heads
+of the "trellis" suggested by his name. Curwen, Wyvile and other
+northern houses bearing a fret and a chief have, owing to their fashion
+of drawing their frets, often seen them changed by the heraldry books
+into "three cheverons braced or interlaced."
+
+  Huddlestone bore "Gules fretty silver."
+
+  Trussel bore "Silver fretty gules, the joints bezanty."
+
+  Hugh Giffard (14th century) bore "Gules with an engrailed fret of
+  ermine."
+
+  Wyvile bore "Gules fretty vair with a chief gold."
+
+  Boxhull bore "Gold a lion azure fretty silver."
+
+[Illustration: Trussel. Giffard. Wyvile. Mortimer.]
+
+Another Ordinary is the Giron or Gyron--a word now commonly
+mispronounced with a hard "g." It may be defined as the lower half of a
+quarter which has been divided bendwise. No old example of a single
+giron can be found to match the figure in the heraldry books. Gironny,
+or gyronny, is a manner of dividing the field into sections, by lines
+radiating from a centre point, of which many instances may be given.
+Most of the earlier examples have some twelve divisions although later
+armory gives eight as the normal number, as Campbell bears them.
+
+  Bassingbourne bore "Gironny of gold and azure of twelve pieces."
+
+  William Stoker, who died Lord Mayor of London in 1484, bore "Gironny
+  of six pieces azure and silver with three popinjays in the silver
+  pieces."
+
+  A pair of girons on either side of a chief were borne in the strange
+  shield of Mortimer, commonly blazoned as "Barry azure and gold of six
+  pieces, the chief azure with two pales and two girons gold, a scocheon
+  silver over all." An early example shows that this shield began as a
+  plain field with a gobony border.
+
+With the Ordinaries we may take the Roundels or Pellets, disks or balls
+of various colours. Ancient custom gives the name of a bezant to the
+golden roundel, and the folly of the heraldic writers has found names
+for all the others, names which may be disregarded together with the
+belief that, while bezants and silver roundels, as representing coins,
+must be pictured with a flat surface, roundels of other hues must needs
+be shaded by the painter to represent rounded balls. Rings or Annelets
+were common charges in the North, where Lowthers, Musgraves and many
+more, differenced the six rings of Vipont by bearing them in various
+colours.
+
+[Illustration: Campbell. Bassingbourne. Stoker. Burlay.]
+
+  Burlay of Wharfdale bore "Gules a bezant."
+
+  Courtenay, earl of Devon, bore "Gold three roundels gules with a label
+  azure."
+
+  Caraunt bore "Silver three roundels azure, each with three cheverons
+  gules."
+
+  Vipont bore "Gold six annelets gules."
+
+  Avenel bore "Silver a fesse and six annelets (_aunels_) gules."
+
+  Hawberk of Stapleford bore "Silver a bend sable charged with three
+  pieces of a mail hawberk, each of three linked rings of gold."
+
+  Stourton bore "Sable a bend gold between six fountains." The fountain
+  is a roundel charged with waves of white and blue.
+
+[Illustration: Courtenay. Caraunt. Vipont. Avenel.]
+
+The Lozenge is linked in the heraldry book with the Fusil. This Fusil is
+described as a lengthened and sharper lozenge. But it will be understood
+that the Fusil, other than as part of an engrailed or indented bend,
+pale or fesse, is not known to true armory. Also it is one of the
+notable achievements of the English writers on heraldry that they should
+have allotted to the lozenge, when borne voided, the name of Mascle.
+This "mascle" is the word of the oldest armorists for the unvoided
+charge, the voided being sometimes described by them as a lozenge,
+without further qualifications. Fortunately the difficulty can be solved
+by following the late 14th-century custom in distinguishing between
+"lozenges" and "voided lozenges" and by abandoning altogether this
+misleading word Mascle.
+
+[Illustration: Hawberk. Stourton. Charles. Fitzwilliam.]
+
+  Thomas of Merstone, a clerk, bore on his seal in 1359 "Ermine a
+  lozenge with a pierced molet thereon."
+
+  Braybroke bore "Silver seven voided lozenges gules."
+
+  Charles bore "Ermine a chief gules with five golden lozenges.
+  thereon."
+
+  Fitzwilliam bore "Lozengy silver and gules."
+
+Billets are oblong figures set upright. Black billets in the arms of
+Delves of Cheshire stand for "delves" of earth and the gads of steel in
+the arms of the London Ironmongers' Company took a somewhat similar
+form.
+
+  Sir Ralph Mounchensy bore in the 14th century "Silver a cheveron
+  between three billets sable."
+
+  Haggerston bore "Azure a bend with cotices silver and three billets
+  sable on the bend."
+
+With the Billet, the Ordinaries, uncertain as they are in number, may be
+said to end. But we may here add certain armorial charges which might
+well have been counted with them.
+
+First of these is the Molet, a word corrupted in modern heraldry to
+Mullet, a fish-like change with nothing to commend it. This figure is as
+a star of five or six points, six points being perhaps the commonest
+form in old examples, although the sixth point is, as a rule, lost
+during the later period. Medieval armorists are not, it seems, inclined
+to make any distinction between molets of five and six points, but some
+families, such as the Harpedens and Asshetons, remained constant to the
+five-pointed form. It was generally borne pierced with a round hole, and
+then represents, as its name implies, the rowel of a spur. In ancient
+rolls of arms the word Rowel is often used, and probably indicated the
+pierced molet. That the piercing was reckoned an essential difference is
+shown by a roll of the time of Edward II., in which Sir John of Pabenham
+bears "Barry azure and silver, with a bend gules and three molets gold
+thereon," arms which Sir John his son differences by piercing the
+molets. Beside these names is that of Sir Walter Baa with "Gules a
+cheveron and three rowels silver," rowels which are shown on seals of
+this family as pierced molets. Probably an older bearing than the molet,
+which would be popularized when the rowelled spur began to take the
+place of the prick-spur, is the Star or Estoile, differing from the
+molet in that its five or six points are wavy. It is possible that
+several star bearings of the 13th century were changed in the 14th for
+molets. The star is not pierced in the fashion of the molet; but, like
+the molet, it tends to lose its sixth point in armory of the decadence.
+Suns, sometimes blazoned in old rolls as Sun-rays--_rays de soleil_--are
+pictured as unpierced molets of many points, which in rare cases are
+waved.
+
+  Harpeden bore "Silver a pierced molet gules."
+
+  Gentil bore "Gold a chief sable with two molets goles pierced gules."
+
+  Grimston bore "Silver a fesse sable and thereon three molets silver
+  pierced gules."
+
+  Ingleby of Yorkshire bore "Sable a star silver."
+
+  Sir John de la Haye of Lincolnshire bore "Silver a sun gules."
+
+[Illustration: Mounchensy. Haggerston. Harpeden. Gentil.]
+
+The Crescent is a charge which has to answer for many idle tales
+concerning the crusading ancestors of families who bear it. It is
+commonly borne with both points uppermost, but when representing the
+waning or the waxing moon--decrescent or increscent--its horns are
+turned to the sinister or dexter side of the shield.
+
+  Peter de Marines (13th century) bore on his seal a shield charged with
+  a crescent in the chief.
+
+  William Gobioun (14th century) bore "A bend between two waxing moons."
+
+  Longchamp bore "Ermine three crescents gules, pierced silver."
+
+_Tinctures._--The tinctures or hues of the shield and its charges are
+seven in number--gold or yellow, silver or white, red, blue, black,
+green and purple. Medieval custom gave, according to a rule often
+broken, "gules," "azure" and "sable" as more high-sounding names for the
+red, blue and black. Green was often named as "vert," and sometimes as
+"synobill," a word which as "sinople" is used to this day by French
+armorists. The song of the siege of Carlaverock and other early
+documents have red, gules or "vermeil," sable or black, azure or blue,
+but gules, azure, sable and vert came to be recognized as armorists'
+adjectives, and an early 15th-century romance discards the simple words
+deliberately, telling us of its hero that
+
+  "His shield was black and blue, sanz fable,
+   Barred of azure and of sable."
+
+But gold and silver served as the armorists' words for yellows and
+whites until late in the 16th century, when gold and silver made way for
+"or" and "argent," words which those for whom the interest of armory
+lies in its liveliest days will not be eager to accept. Likewise the
+colours of "sanguine" and "tenné" brought in by the pedants to bring the
+tinctures to the mystical number of nine may be disregarded.
+
+[Illustration: Grimston. Ingilby. Gobioun. Longchamp.]
+
+A certain armorial chart of the duchy of Brabant, published in 1600, is
+the earliest example of the practice whereby later engravers have
+indicated colours in uncoloured plates by the use of lines and dots.
+Gold is indicated by a powdering of dots; silver is left plain. Azure is
+shown by horizontal shading lines; gules by upright lines; sable by
+cross-hatching of upright and horizontal lines. Diagonal lines from
+sinister to dexter indicate purple; vert is marked with diagonal lines
+from dexter to sinister. The practice, in spite of a certain
+convenience, has been disastrous in its cramping effects on armorial
+art, especially when applied to seals and coins.
+
+Besides the two "metals" and five "colours," fields and charges are
+varied by the use of the furs ermine and vair. Ermine is shown by a
+white field flecked with black ermine tails, and vair by a conventional
+representation of a fur of small skins sewn in rows, white and blue
+skins alternately. In the 15th century there was a popular variant of
+ermine, white tails upon a black field. To this fur the books now give
+the name of "ermines"--a most unfortunate choice, since ermines is a
+name used in old documents for the original ermine. "Erminees," which
+has at least a 15th-century authority, will serve for those who are not
+content to speak of "sable ermined with silver." Vair, although silver
+and blue be its normal form, may be made up of gold, silver or ermine,
+with sable or gules or vert, but in these latter cases the colours must
+be named in the blazon. To the vairs and ermines of old use the heraldry
+books have added "erminois," which is a gold field with black ermine
+fails, "pean," which is "erminois" reversed, and "erminites," which is
+ermine with a single red hair on either side of each black tail. The
+vairs, mainly by misunderstanding of the various patterns found in old
+paintings, have been amplified with "countervair," "potent,"
+"counter-potent" and "vair-en-point," no one of which merits
+description.
+
+No shield of a plain metal or colour has ever been borne by an
+Englishman, although the knights at Carlaverock and Falkirk saw Amaneu
+d'Albret with his banner all of red having no charge thereon. Plain
+ermine was the shield of the duke of Brittany and no Englishman
+challenged the bearing. But Beauchamp of Hatch bore simple vair, Ferrers
+of Derby "Vairy gold and gules," and Ward "Vairy silver and sable."
+Gresley had "Vairy ermine and gules," and Beche "Vairy silver and
+gules."
+
+Only one English example has hitherto been discovered of a field covered
+not with a fur but with overlapping feathers. A 15th-century book of
+arms gives "Plumetty of gold and purple" for "Mydlam in Coverdale."
+
+Drops of various colours which variegate certain fields and charges are
+often mistaken for ermine tails when ancient seals are deciphered. A
+simple example of such spattering is in the shield of Grayndore, who
+bore "Party ermine and vert, the vert dropped with gold." Sir Richard
+le Brun (14th century) bore "Azure a silver lion dropped with gules."
+
+[Illustration: Brittany. Beauchamp. Mydlam. Grayndorge.]
+
+A very common variant of charges and fields is the sowing or "powdering"
+them with a small charge repeated many times. Mortimer of Norfolk bore
+"gold powdered with fleurs-de-lys sable" and Edward III. quartered for
+the old arms of France "Azure powdered with fleurs-de-lys gold," such
+fields being often described as flowered or flory. Golden billets were
+scattered in Cowdray's red shield, which is blazoned as "Gules billety
+gold," and bezants in that of Zouche, which is "Gules bezanty with a
+quarter ermine." The disposition of such charges varied with the users.
+Zouche as a rule shows ten bezants placed four, three, two and one on
+his shield, while the old arms of France in the royal coat allows the
+pattern of flowers to run over the edge, the shield border thus showing
+halves and tops and stalk ends of the fleurs-de-lys. But the commonest
+of these powderings is that with crosslets, as in the arms of John la
+Warr "Gules crusily silver with a silver lion."
+
+[Illustration: Mortimer. Cowdray. Zouche. La Warr. Cheyndut. Applegarth.
+Chester. Rye.]
+
+_Trees, Leaves and Flowers._--Sir Stephen Cheyndut, a 13th-century
+knight, bore an oak tree, the _cheyne_ of his first syllable, while for
+like reasons a Piriton had a pear tree on his shield. Three pears were
+borne (_temp._ Edward III.) by Nicholas Stivecle of Huntingdonshire, and
+about the same date is Applegarth's shield of three red apples in a
+silver field. Leaves of burdock are in the arms (14th century) of Sir
+John de Lisle and mulberry leaves in those of Sir Hugh de Morieus. Three
+roots of trees are given to one Richard Rotour in a 14th-century roll.
+Malherbe (13th century) bore the "evil herb"--a teazle bush. Pineapples
+are borne here and there, and it will be noted that armorists have not
+surrendered this, our ancient word for the "fir-cone," to the foreign
+_ananas_. Out of the cornfield English armory took the sheaf, three
+sheaves being on the shield of an earl of Chester early in the 13th
+century and Sheffield bearing sheaves for a play on his name. For a like
+reason Peverel's sheaves were sheaves of pepper. Rye bore three ears of
+rye on a bend, and Graindorge had barley-ears. Flowers are few in this
+field of armory, although lilies with their stalks and leaves are in the
+grant of arms to Eton College. Ousethorpe has water flowers, and now and
+again we find some such strange charges as those in the 15th-century
+shield of Thomas Porthelyne who bore "Sable a cheveron gules between
+three 'popyebolles,' or poppy-heads vert."
+
+The fleur-de-lys, a conventional form from the beginnings of armory,
+might well be taken amongst the "ordinaries." In England as in France it
+is found in great plenty.
+
+  Aguylon bore "Gules a fleur-de-lys silver."
+
+  Peyferer bore "Silver three fleur-de-lys sable."
+
+[Illustration: Eton College.]
+
+Trefoils are very rarely seen until the 15th century, although Hervey
+has them, and Gausill, and a Bosville coat seems to have borne them.
+They have always their stalk left hanging to them. Vincent, Hattecliffe
+and Massingberd all bore the quatrefoil, while the Bardolfs, and the
+Quincys, earls of Winchester, had cinqfoils. The old rolls of arms made
+much confusion between cinqfoils and sixfoils (_quintefoilles e
+sisfoilles_) and the rose. It is still uncertain how far that confusion
+extended amongst the families which bore these charges. The cinqfoil and
+sixfoil, however, are all but invariably pierced in the middle like the
+spur rowel, and the rose's blunt-edged petals give it definite shape
+soon after the decorative movement of the Edwardian age began to carve
+natural buds and flowers in stone and wood.
+
+[Illustration: Aguylon. Peyferer. Hervey. Vincent.]
+
+  Hervey bore "Gules a bend silver with three trefoils vert thereon."
+
+  Vincent bore "Azure three quatrefoils silver."
+
+  Quincy bore "Gules a cinqfoil silver."
+
+  Bardolf of Wormegay bore "Gules three cinqfoils silver."
+
+  Cosington bore "Azure three roses gold."
+
+  Hilton bore "Silver three chaplets or garlands of red roses."
+
+[Illustration: Quincy. Bardolf. Cosington. Hilton.]
+
+_Beasts and Birds._--The book of natural history as studied in the
+middle ages lay open at the chapter of the lion, to which royal beast
+all the noble virtues were set down. What is the oldest armorial seal of
+a sovereign prince as yet discovered bears the rampant lion of Flanders.
+In England we know of no royal shield earlier than that first seal of
+Richard I. which has a like device. A long roll of our old earls, barons
+and knights wore the lion on their coats--Lacy, Marshal, Fitzalan and
+Montfort, Percy, Mowbray and Talbot. By custom the royal beast is shown
+as rampant, touching the ground with but one foot and clawing at the air
+in noble rage. So far is this the normal attitude of a lion that the
+adjective "rampant" was often dropped, and we have leave and good
+authority for blazoning the rampant beast simply as "a lion," leave
+which a writer on armory may take gladly to the saving of much
+repetition. In France and Germany this licence has always been the rule,
+and the modern English herald's blazon of "Gules a lion rampant or" for
+the arms of Fitzalan, becomes in French _de gueules au lion d'or_ and in
+German _in Rot ein goldener Loewe_. Other positions must be named with
+care and the prowling "lion passant" distinguished from the rampant
+beast, as well as from such rarer shapes as the couchant lion, the lion
+sleeping, sitting or leaping. Of these the lion passant is the only one
+commonly encountered. The lion standing with his forepaws together is
+not a figure for the shield, but for the crest, where he takes this
+position for greater stableness upon the helm, and the sitting lion is
+also found rather upon helms than in shields. For a couchant lion or a
+dormant lion one must search far afield, although there are some
+medieval instances. The leaping lion is in so few shields that no maker
+of a heraldry book has, it would appear, discovered an example. In the
+books this "lion salient" is described as with the hind paws together on
+the ground and the fore paws together in the air, somewhat after the
+fashion of a diver's first movement. But examples from seals and
+monuments of the Felbrigges and the Merks show that the leaping lion
+differed only from the rampant in that he leans somewhat forward in his
+eager spring. The compiler of the British Museum catalogue of medieval
+armorial seals, and others equally unfamiliar with medieval armory,
+invariably describe this position as "rampant," seeing no distinction
+from other rampings. As rare as the leaping lion is the lion who looks
+backward over his shoulder. This position is called "regardant" by
+modern armorists. The old French blazon calls it _rere regardant or
+turnaunte le visage arere_, "regardant" alone meaning simply "looking,"
+and therefore we shall describe it more reasonably in plain English as
+"looking backward." The two-headed lion occurs in a 15th-century coat of
+Mason, and at the same period a monstrous lion of three bodies and one
+head is borne, apparently, by a Sharingbury.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE IV.
+
+THE BEGINNING OF A ROLL OF THE ARMS OF THOSE JOUSTING IN A TOURNAMENT
+HELD ON THE FIELD OF THE CLOTH OF GOLD. BESIDES THE ARMS OF THE KINGS OF
+FRANCE AND ENGLAND ARE TWO COLUMNS OF "CHEQUES," MARKED WITH THE NAMES
+AND SCORING POINTS OF THE JOUSTERS.
+
+  _Drawn by William Gibb._
+  _Niagara Litho. Co., Buffalo, N. Y._]
+
+[Illustration: England.]
+
+The lion's companion is the leopard. What might be the true form of this
+beast was a dark thing to the old armorist, yet knowing from the report
+of grave travellers that the leopard was begotten in spouse-breach
+between the lion and the pard, it was felt that his shape would favour
+his sire's. But nice distinctions of outline, even were they
+ascertainable, are not to be marked on the tiny seal, or easily
+expressed by the broad strokes of the shield painter. The leopard was
+indeed lesser than the lion, but in armory, as in the Noah's arks
+launched by the old yards, the bear is no bigger than the badger. Then a
+happy device came to the armorist. He would paint the leopard like the
+lion at all points. But as the lion looks forward the leopard should
+look sidelong, showing his whole face. The matter was arranged, and
+until the end of the middle ages the distinction held and served. The
+disregarded writers on armory, Nicholas Upton, and his fellows,
+protested that a lion did not become a leopard by turning his face
+sidelong, but none who fought in the field under lion and leopard
+banners heeded this pedantry from cathedral closes. The English king's
+beasts were leopards in blazon, in ballad and chronicle, and in the
+mouths of liegeman and enemy. Henry V.'s herald, named from his master's
+coat, was Leopard Herald; and Napoleon's gazettes never fail to speak of
+the English leopards. In our own days, those who deal with armory as
+antiquaries and students of the past will observe the old custom for
+convenience' sake. Those for whom the interest of heraldry lies in the
+nonsense-language brewed during post-medieval years may correct the
+medieval ignorance at their pleasure. The knight who saw the king's
+banner fly at Falkirk or Crécy tells us that it bore "Gules with three
+leopards of gold." The modern armorist will shame the uninstructed
+warrior with "Gules three lions passant gardant in pale or."
+
+As the lion rampant is the normal lion, so the normal leopard is the
+leopard passant, the adjective being needless. In a few cases only the
+leopard rises up to ramp in the lion's fashion, and here he must be
+blazoned without fail as a leopard rampant.
+
+Parts of the lion and the leopard are common charges. Chief of these are
+the demi-lion and the demi-leopard, beasts complete above their slender
+middles, even to the upper parts of their lashing tails. Rampant or
+passant, they follow the customs of the unmaimed brute. Also the heads
+of lion and leopard are in many shields, and here the armorist of the
+modern handbooks stumbles by reason of his refusal to regard clearly
+marked medieval distinctions. The instructed will know a lion's head
+because it shows but half the face and a leopard's head because it is
+seen full-face. But the handbooks of heraldry, knowing naught of
+leopards, must judge by absence or presence of a mane, speaking
+uncertainly of leopards' faces and lions' heads and faces. Here again
+the old path is the straighter. The head of a lion, or indeed of any
+beast, bird or monster, is generally painted as "razed," or torn away
+with a ragged edge which is pleasantly conventionalized. Less often it
+is found "couped" or cut off with a sheer line. But the leopard's head
+is neither razed nor couped, for no neck is shown below it. Likewise the
+lion's fore leg or paw--"gamb" is the book word--may be borne, razed or
+coupled. Its normal position is raided upright, although Newdegate seems
+to have borne "Gules three lions' legs razed silver, the paws downward."
+With the strange bearing of the lion's whip-like tail cut off at the
+rump, we may end the list of these oddments.
+
+  Fitzalan, earl of Arundel, bore "Gules a lion gold."
+
+  Simon de Montfort bore "Gules a silver lion with a forked tail."
+
+  Segrave bore "Sable a lion silver crowned gold."
+
+  Havering bore "Silver a lion rampant gules with a forked tail, having
+  a collar azure."
+
+  Felbrigge of Felbrigge bore "Gold a leaping lion gules."
+
+  Esturmy bore "Silver a lion sable (or purple) looking backward."
+
+  Marmion bore "Gules a lion vair."
+
+  Mason bore "Silver a two-headed lion gules."
+
+  Lovetot bore "Silver a lion parted athwart of sable and gules."
+
+  Richard le Jen bore "Vert a lion gold"--the arms of Wakelin of
+  Arderne--"with a fesse gules on the lion."
+
+  Fiennes bore "Azure three lions gold."
+
+  Leyburne of Kent bore "Azure six lions silver."
+
+[Illustration: Fitzalan. Felbrigge. Fiennes. Leyburne.]
+
+  Carew bore "Gold three lions passant sable."
+
+  Fotheringhay bore "Silver two lions passant sable, looking backward."
+
+  Richard Norton of Waddeworth (1357) sealed with arms of "A lion
+  dormant."
+
+  Lisle bore "Gules a leopard silver crowned gold."
+
+  Ludlowe bore "Azure three leopards silver."
+
+  Brocas bore "Sable a leopard rampant gold."
+
+[Illustration: Carew. Fotheringhay. Brocas. Lisle.]
+
+  John Hardrys of Kent seals in 1372 with arms of "a sitting leopard."
+
+  John Northampton, Lord Mayor of London in 1381, bore "Azure a crowned
+  leopard gold with two bodies rampant against each other."
+
+  Newenham bore "Azure three demi-lions silver."
+
+  A deed delivered at Lapworth in Warwickshire in 1466 is sealed with
+  arms of "a molet between three demi-leopards."
+
+  Kenton bore "Gules three lions' heads razed sable."
+
+[Illustration: Kenton. Pole. Cantelou. Pynchebek.]
+
+  Pole, earl and duke of Suffolk, bore "Azure a fesse between three
+  leopards' heads gold."
+
+  Cantelou bore "Azure three leopards' heads silver with silver
+  fleurs-de-lys issuing from them."
+
+  Wederton bore "Gules a cheveron between three lions' legs razed
+  silver."
+
+  Pynchebek bore "silver three forked tails of lions sable."
+
+The tiger is rarely named in collections of medieval arms. Deep mystery
+wrapped the shape of him, which was never during the middle ages
+standardized by artists. A crest upon a 15th-century brass shows him as
+a lean wolf-like figure, with a dash of the boar, gazing after his vain
+wont into a looking-glass; and the 16th-century heralds gave him the
+body of a lion with the head of a wolf, head and body being tufted here
+and there with thick tufts of hair. But it is noteworthy that the arms
+of Sir John Norwich, a well-known knight of the 14th century, are
+blazoned in a roll of that age as "party azure and gules with a tiger
+rampant ermine." Now this beast in the arms of Norwich has been commonly
+taken for a lion, and the Norwich family seem in later times to have
+accepted the lion as their bearing. But a portion of a painted roll of
+Sir John's day shows on careful examination that his lion has been given
+two moustache-like tufts to the nose. A copy made about 1600 of another
+roll gives the same decoration to the Norwich lion, and it is at least
+possible we have here evidence that the economy of the medieval armorist
+allowed him to make at small cost his lion, his leopard and his tiger
+out of a single beast form.
+
+Take away the lions and the leopards, and the other beasts upon medieval
+shields are a little herd. In most cases they are here to play upon the
+names of their bearers. Thus Swinburne of Northumberland has the heads
+of swine in his coat and Bacon has bacon pigs. Three white bears were
+borne by Barlingham, and a bear ramping on his hind legs is for Barnard.
+Lovett of Astwell has three running wolves, Videlou three wolves' heads,
+Colfox three foxes' heads.
+
+[Illustration: Lovett. Talbot. Saunders.]
+
+Three hedgehogs were in the arms of Heriz. Barnewall reminds us of
+extinct natives of England by bearing two beavers, and Otter of
+Yorkshire had otters. Harewell had hares' heads, Cunliffe conies,
+Mitford moles or moldiwarps. A Talbot of Lancashire had three purple
+squirrels in a silver shield. An elephant was brought to England as
+early as the days of Henry III., but he had no immediate armorial
+progeny, although Saunders of Northants may have borne before the end of
+the middle ages the elephants' heads which speak of Alysaunder the
+Great, patron of all Saunderses. Bevil of the west had a red bull, and
+Bulkeley bore three silver bulls' heads. The heads in Neteham's
+14th-century shield are neat's heads, ox heads are for Oxwyk. Calves are
+for Veel, and the same mild beasts are in the arms of that fierce knight
+Hugh Calveley. Stansfeld bore three rams with bells at their necks, and
+a 14th-century Lecheford thought no shame to bear the head of the ram
+who is the symbol of lechery. Lambton had lambs. Goats were borne by
+Chevercourt to play on his name, a leaping goat by Bardwell, and goats'
+heads by Gateshead. Of the race of dogs the greyhound and the talbot, or
+mastiff, are found most often. Thus Talbot of Cumberland had talbots,
+and Mauleverer, running greyhounds or "leverers" for his name's sake.
+The alaund, a big, crop-eared dog, is in the 15th-century shield of John
+Woode of Kent, and "kenets," or little tracking dogs, in a 13th-century
+coat of Kenet. The horse is not easily found as an English charge, but
+Moyle's white mule seems an old coat; horses' heads are in Horsley's
+shield, and ass heads make crests for more than one noble house. Askew
+has three asses in his arms. Three bats or flittermice are in the shield
+of Burninghill and in that of Heyworth of Whethamstede.
+
+As might be looked for in a land where forest and greenwood once linked
+from sea to sea, the wild deer is a common charge in the shield. Downes
+of Cheshire bore a hart "lodged" or lying down. Hertford had harts'
+heads, Malebis, fawns' heads (_testes de bis_), Bukingham, heads of
+bucks. The harts in Rotherham's arms are the roes of his name's first
+syllable. Reindeer heads were borne by Bowet in the 14th century.
+Antelopes, fierce beasts with horns that have something of the ibex,
+show by their great claws, their lion tails, and their boar muzzles and
+tusks that they are midway between the hart and the monster.
+
+[Illustration: Griffin.]
+
+Of the outlandish monsters the griffon is the oldest and the chief. With
+the hinder parts of a lion, the rest of him is eagle, head and
+shoulders, wings and fore legs. The long tuft under the beak and his
+pointed ears mark him out from the eagle when his head alone is borne.
+At an early date a griffon rampant, his normal position, was borne by
+the great house of Montagu as a quartering, and another griffon played
+upon Griffin's name.
+
+[Illustration: Drake.]
+
+The wyver, who becomes wyvern in the 16th century, and takes a new form
+under the care of inventive heralds, was in the middle ages a
+lizard-like dragon, generally with small wings. Sir Edmund Mauley in the
+14th century is found differencing the black bend of his elder brother
+by charging it with three wyvers of silver. During the middle ages there
+seems small distinction between the wyver and the still rarer dragon,
+which, with the coming of the Tudors, who bore it as their badge, is
+seen as a four-legged monster with wings and a tail that ends like a
+broad arrow. The monster in the arms of Drake, blazoned by Tudor heralds
+as a wyvern, is clearly a fire-drake or dragon in his origin.
+
+The unicorn rampant was borne by Harlyn of Norfolk, unicorn's heads by
+the Cambridgeshire family of Paris. The mermaid with her comb and
+looking-glass makes a 14th-century crest for Byron, while "Silver a bend
+gules with three silver harpies thereon" is found in the 15th century
+for Entyrdene.
+
+Concerning beasts and monsters the heraldry books have many adjectives
+of blazonry which may be disregarded. Even as it was once the pride of
+the cook pedant to carve each bird on the board with a new word for the
+act, so it became the delight of the pedant herald to order that the
+rampant horse should be "forcené," the rampant griffon "segreant," the
+passant hart "trippant"; while the same hart must needs be "attired" as
+to its horns and "unguled" as to its hoofs. There is ancient authority
+for the nice blazonry which sometimes gives a separate colour to the
+tongue and claws of the lion, but even this may be set aside. Though a
+black lion in a silver field may be armed with red claws, and a golden
+leopard in a red field given blue claws and tongues, these trifles are
+but fancies which follow the taste of the painter, and are never of
+obligation. The tusks and hoofs of the boar, and often the horns of the
+hart, are thus given in some paintings a colour of their own which
+elsewhere is neglected.
+
+As the lion is among armorial beasts, so is the eagle among the birds. A
+bold convention of the earliest shield painters displayed him with
+spread wing and claw, the feat of a few strokes of the brush, and after
+this fashion he appears on many scores of shields. Like the claws and
+tongue of the lion, the beak and claws of the eagle are commonly painted
+of a second colour in all but very small representations. Thus the
+golden eagle of Lymesey in a red field may have blue beak and claws, and
+golden beak and claws will be given to Jorce's silver eagle upon red. A
+lure, or two wings joined and spread like those of an eagle, is a rare
+charge sometimes found. When fitted with the cord by which a falconer's
+lure is swung, the cord must be named.
+
+  Monthermer bore "Gold an eagle vert."
+
+  Siggeston bore "Silver a two-headed eagle sable."
+
+  Gavaston, earl of Cornwall, bore "Vert six eagles gold."
+
+  Bayforde of Fordingbridge sealed (in 1388) with arms of "An eagle
+  bendwise, with a border engrailed and a baston."
+
+  Graunson bore "Paly silver and azure with a bend gules and three
+  golden eagles thereon."
+
+  Seymour bore "Gules a lure of two golden wings."
+
+Commoner than the eagle as a charge is the martlet, a humbler bird which
+is never found as the sole charge of a shield. In all but a few early
+representations the feathers of the legs are seen without the legs or
+claws. The martlet indicates both swallow and martin, and in the arms of
+the Cornish Arundels the martlets must stand for "hirundels" or
+swallows.
+
+[Illustration: Monthermer. Siggeston. Gavaston. Graunson. Arundel.]
+
+The falcon or hawk is borne as a rule with close wings, so that he may
+not be taken for the eagle. In most cases he is there to play on the
+bearer's name, and this may be said of most of the flight of lesser
+birds.
+
+  Naunton bore "Sable three martlets silver."
+
+  Heron bore "Azure three herons silver."
+
+  Fauconer bore "Silver three falcons gules."
+
+  Hauvile bore "Azure a dance between three hawks gold."
+
+  Twenge bore "Silver a fesse gules between three popinjays (or parrots)
+  vert."
+
+  Cranesley bore "Silver a cheveron gules between three cranes azure."
+
+  Asdale bore "Gules a swan silver."
+
+  Dalston bore "Silver a cheveron engrailed between three daws' heads
+  razed sable."
+
+  Corbet bore "Gold two corbies sable."
+
+[Illustration: Seymour. Naunton. Fauconer. Twenge.]
+
+  Cockfield bore "Silver three cocks gules."
+
+  Burton bore "Sable a cheveron sable between three silver owls."
+
+  Rokeby bore "Silver a cheveron sable between three rooks."
+
+  Duffelde bore "Sable a cheveron silver between three doves."
+
+  Pelham bore "Azure three pelicans silver."
+
+[Illustration: Asdale. Corbet. Cockfield. Burton.]
+
+  Sumeri (13th century) sealed with arms of "A peacock with his tail
+  spread."
+
+  John Pyeshale of Suffolk (14th century) sealed with arms of "Three
+  magpies."
+
+_Fishes, Reptiles and Insects._--Like the birds, the fishes are borne
+for the most part to call to mind their bearers' names. Unless their
+position be otherwise named, they are painted as upright in the shield,
+as though rising towards the water surface. The dolphin is known by his
+bowed back, old artists making him a grotesquely decorative figure.
+
+  Lucy bore "Gules three luces (or pike) silver."
+
+  Heringaud bore "Azure, crusilly gold, with six golden herrings."
+
+  Fishacre bore "Gules a dolphin silver."
+
+  La Roche bore "Three roach swimming."
+
+  John Samon (14th century) sealed with arms of "Three salmon swimming."
+
+  Sturgeon bore "Azure three sturgeon swimming gold, with a fret gules
+  over all."
+
+  Whalley bore "Silver three whales' heads razed sable."
+
+Shell-fish would hardly have place in English armory were it not for the
+abundance of scallops which have followed their appearance in the
+banners of Dacre and Scales. The crest of the Yorkshire Scropes,
+playing upon their name, was a pair of crabs' claws.
+
+  Dacre bore "Gules three scallops silver."
+
+  Shelley bore "Sable a fesse engrailed between three whelk-shells
+  gold."
+
+[Illustration: Rokeby. Pelham. Lucy. Fishacre. Roche.]
+
+Reptiles and insects are barely represented. The lizards in the crest
+and supporters of the Ironmongers of London belong to the 15th century.
+Gawdy of Norfolk may have borne the tortoise in his shield in the same
+age. "Silver three toads sable" was quartered as a second coat for
+Botreaux of Cornwall in the 16th century--Botereau or Boterel signifying
+a little toad in the old French tongue--but the arms do not appear on
+the old Botreaux seals beside their ancient bearing of the griffon.
+Beston bore "Silver a bend between six bees sable" and a 15-century
+Harbottle seems to have sealed with arms of three bluebottle flies.
+Three butterflies are in the shield of Presfen of Lancashire in 1415,
+while the winged insect shown on the seal of John Mayre, a King's Lynn
+burgess of the age of Edward I., is probably a mayfly.
+
+[Illustration: Dacre. Shelley. See of Salisbury. Isle of Man.]
+
+_Human Charges._--Man and the parts of him play but a small part in
+English shields, and we have nothing to put beside such a coat as that
+of the German Manessen, on which two armed knights attack each other's
+hauberks with their teeth. But certain arms of religious houses and the
+like have the whole figure, the see of Salisbury bearing the Virgin and
+Child in a blue field. And old crests have demi-Saracens and falchion
+men, coal-miners, monks and blackamoors. Sowdan bore in his shield a
+turbaned soldan's head; Eady, three old men's "'eads"! Heads of maidens,
+the "winsome marrows" of the ballad, are in the arms of Marow. The
+Stanleys, as kings of Man, quartered the famous three-armed legs
+whirling mill-sail fashion, and Tremayne of the west bore three men's
+arms in like wise. "Gules three hands silver" was for Malmeyns as early
+as the 13th century, and Tynte of Colchester displayed hearts.
+
+_Miscellaneous Charges._--Other charges of the shield are less frequent
+but are found in great variety, the reason for most of them being the
+desire to play upon the bearer's name.
+
+Weapons and the like are rare, having regard to the military
+associations of armory. Daubeney bore three helms; Philip Marmion took
+with his wife, the coheir of Kilpek, the Kilpek shield of a sword
+(_espek_). Tuck had a stabbing sword or "tuck." Bent bows were borne by
+Bowes, an arblast by Arblaster, arrows by Archer, birding-bolts or
+_bosouns_ by Bosun, the mangonel by Mangnall. The three lances of
+Amherst is probably a medieval coat; Leweston had battle-axes.
+
+A scythe was in the shield of Praers; Picot had picks; Bilsby a hammer
+or "beal"; Malet showed mallets. The chamberlain's key is in the shield
+of a Chamberlain, and the spenser's key in that of a Spenser. Porter
+bore the porter's bell, Boteler the butler's cup. Three-legged pots were
+borne by Monbocher. Crowns are for Coroun. Yarde had yard-wands;
+Bordoun a burdon or pilgrim's staff.
+
+Of horse-furniture we have the stirrups of Scudamore and Giffard, the
+horse-barnacles of Bernake, and the horse-shoes borne by many branches
+and tenants of the house of Ferrers.
+
+Of musical instruments there are pipes, trumps and harps for Pipe,
+Trumpington and Harpesfeld. Hunting horns are common among families
+bearing such names as Forester or Horne. Remarkable charges are the
+three organs of Grenville, who held of the house of Clare, the lords of
+Glamorgan.
+
+Combs play on the name of Tunstall, and gloves (_wauns_ or _gauns_) on
+that of Wauncy. Hose were borne by Hoese; buckles by a long list of
+families. But the most notable of the charges derived from clothing is
+the hanging sleeve familiar in the arms of Hastings, Conyers and Mansel.
+
+Chess-rooks, hardly to be distinguished from the _roc_ or _roquet_ at
+the head of a jousting-lance, were borne by Rokewode and by many more.
+Topcliffe had pegtops in his shield, while Ambesas had a cast of three
+dice which should each show the point of one, for "to throw ambesace" is
+an ancient phrase used of those who throw three aces.
+
+Although we are a sea-going people, there are few ships in our armory,
+most of these in the arms of sea-ports. Anchors are commoner.
+
+Castles and towers, bridges, portcullises and gates have all examples,
+and a minster-church was the curious charge borne by the ancient house
+of Musters of Kirklington.
+
+Letters of the alphabet are very rarely found in ancient armory; but
+three capital T's, in old English script, were borne by Toft of Cheshire
+in the 14th century. In the period of decadence whole words or
+sentences, commonly the names of military or naval victories, are often
+seen.
+
+_Blazonry._--An ill-service has been done to the students of armory by
+those who have pretended that the phrases in which the shields and their
+charges are described or blazoned must follow arbitrary laws devised by
+writers of the period of armorial decadence. One of these laws, and a
+mischievous one, asserts that no tincture should be named a second time
+in the blazon of one coat. Thus if gules be the hue of the field any
+charge of that colour must thereafter be styled "of the first." Obeying
+this law the blazoner of a shield of arms elaborately charged may find
+himself sadly involved among "of the first," "of the second," and "of
+the third." It is needless to say that no such law obtained among
+armorists of the middle ages. The only rule that demands obedience is
+that the brief description should convey to the reader a true knowledge
+of the arms described.
+
+The examples of blazonry given in that part of this article which deals
+with armorial charges will be more instructive to the student than any
+elaborated code of directions. It will be observed that the description
+of the field is first set down, the blazoner giving its plain tincture
+or describing it as burely, party, paly or barry, as powdered or sown
+with roses, crosslets or fleurs-de-lys. Then should follow the main or
+central charges, the lion or griffon dominating the field, the cheveron
+or the pale, the fesse, bend or bars, and next the subsidiary charges in
+the field beside the "ordinary" and those set upon it. Chiefs and
+quarters are blazoned after the field and its contents, and the border,
+commonly an added difference, is taken last of all. Where there are
+charges both upon and beside a bend, fesse or the like, a curious
+inversion is used by pedantic blazoners. The arms of Mr Samuel Pepys of
+the Admiralty Office would have been described in earlier times as
+"Sable a bend gold between two horses' heads razed silver, with three
+fleurs-de-lys sable on the bend." Modern heraldic writers would give the
+sentence as "Sable, on a bend or between two horses' heads erased
+argent, three fleurs-de-lys of the first." Nothing is gained by this
+inversion but the precious advantage of naming the bend but once. On the
+other side it may be said that, while the newer blazon couches itself in
+a form that seems to prepare for the naming of the fleurs-de-lys as the
+important element of the shield, the older form gives the fleurs-de-lys
+as a mere postscript, and rightly, seeing that charges in such a
+position are very commonly the last additions to a shield by way of
+difference. In like manner when a crest is described it is better to say
+"a lion's head out of a crown" than "out of a crown a lion's head." The
+first and last necessity in blazonry is lucidity, which is cheaply
+gained at the price of a few syllables repeated.
+
+_Modern Heraldry._--With the accession of the Tudors armory began a
+rapid decadence. Heraldry ceased to play its part in military affairs,
+the badges and banners under which the medieval noble's retinue came
+into the field were banished, and even the tournament in its later days
+became a renascence pageant which did not need the painted shield and
+armorial trappers. Treatises on armory had been rare in the days before
+the printing press, but even so early a writer as Nicholas Upton had
+shown himself as it were unconcerned with the heraldry that any man
+might see in the camp and the street. From the Book of St Albans onward
+the treatises on armory are informed with a pedantry which touches the
+point of crazy mysticism in such volumes as that of Sylvanus Morgan.
+Thus came into the books those long lists of "diminutions of
+ordinaries," the closets and escarpes, the endorses and ribands, the
+many scores of strange crosses and such wild fancies as the rule, based
+on an early German pedantry, that the tinctures in peers shields should
+be given the names of precious stones and those in the shields of
+sovereigns the names of planets. Blazon became cumbered with that
+vocabulary whose French of Stratford atte Bowe has driven serious
+students from a business which, to use a phrase as true as it is
+hackneyed, was at last "abandoned to the coachpainter and the
+undertaker."
+
+With the false genealogy came in the assumption or assigning of shields
+to which the new bearers had often no better claim than lay in a surname
+resembling that of the original owner. The ancient system of
+differencing arms disappeared. Now and again we see a second son obeying
+the book-rules and putting a crescent in his shield or a third son
+displaying a molet, but long before our own times the practice was
+disregarded, and the most remote kinsman of a gentle house displayed the
+"whole coat" of the head of his family.
+
+The art of armory had no better fate. An absurd rule current for some
+three hundred years has ordered that the helms of princes and knights
+should be painted full-faced and those of peers and gentlemen sidelong.
+Obeying this, the herald painters have displayed the crests of knights
+and princes as sideways upon a full-faced helm; the torse or wreath,
+instead of being twisted about the brow of the helm, has become a
+sausage-shaped bar see-sawing above the helm; and upon this will be
+balanced a crest which might puzzle the ancient craftsman to mould in
+his leather or parchment. A ship on a lee-shore with a thunderstorm
+lowering above its masts may stand as an example of such devices.
+"Tastes, of course, differ," wrote Dr Woodward, "but the writer can
+hardly think that the épergne given to Lieut.-General Smith by his
+friends at Bombay was a fitting ornament for a helmet." As with the
+crest, so with the shield. It became crowded with ill-balanced figures
+devised by those who despised and ignored the ancient examples whose
+painters had followed instinctively a simple and pleasant convention.
+Landscapes and seascapes, musical lines, military medals and corrugated
+boiler-flues have all made their appearance in the shield. Even as on
+the signs of public houses, written words have taken the place of
+figures, and the often-cited arms exemplified to the first Earl Nelson
+marked, it may be hoped, the high watermark of these distressing
+modernisms. Of late years, indeed, official armory in England has shown
+a disposition to follow the lessons of the archaeologist, although the
+recovery of medieval use has not yet been as successful as in Germany,
+where for a long generation a school of vigorous armorial art has
+flourished.
+
+_Officers of Arms._--Officers of arms, styled kings of arms, heralds and
+pursuivants, appear at an early period of the history of armory as the
+messengers in peace and war of princes and magnates. It is probable that
+from the first they bore in some wise their lord's arms as the badge of
+their office. In the 14th century we have heralds with the arms on a
+short mantle, witness the figure of the duke of Gelderland's herald
+painted in the _Armorial de Gelre_. The title of Blue Mantle
+pursuivant, as old as the reign of Edward III., suggests a like usage in
+England. When the tight-laced coat of arms went out of fashion among the
+knighthood the loose tabard of arms with its wide sleeves was at once
+taken in England as the armorial dress of both herald and cavalier, and
+the fashion of it has changed but little since those days. Clad in such
+a coat the herald was the image of his master and, although he himself
+was rarely chosen from any rank above that of the lesser gentry, his
+person, as a messenger, acquired an almost priestly sacredness. To
+injure or to insult him was to affront the coat that he wore.
+
+We hear of kings of arms in the royal household of the 13th century, and
+we may compare their title with those of such officers as the King of
+the Ribalds and the King of the Minstrels; but it is noteworthy that,
+even in modern warrants for heralds' patents, the custom of the reign of
+Edward III. is still cited as giving the necessary precedents for the
+officers' liveries. Officers of arms took their titles from their
+provinces or from the titles and badges of their masters. Thus we have
+Garter, Norroy and Clarenceux, March, Lancaster, Windsor, Leicester,
+Leopard, Falcon and Blanc Sanglier as officers attached to the royal
+house; Chandos, the herald of the great Sir John Chandos; Vert Eagle of
+the Nevill earls of Salisbury, Esperance and Crescent of the Percys of
+Northumberland. The spirit of Henry VII.'s legislation was against such
+usages in baronial houses, and in the age of the Tudors the last of the
+private heralds disappears.
+
+In England the royal officers of arms were made a corporation by Richard
+III. Nowadays the members of this corporation, known as the College of
+Arms or Heralds' College, are Garter Principal King of Arms, Clarenceux
+King of Arms South of Trent, Norroy King of Arms North of Trent, the
+heralds Windsor, Chester, Richmond, Somerset, York and Lancaster, and
+the pursuivants Rouge Croix, Bluemantle, Rouge Dragon and Portcullis.
+Another king of arms, not a member of this corporation, has been
+attached to the order of the Bath since the reign of George I., and an
+officer of arms, without a title, attends the order of St Michael and St
+George.
+
+There is no college or corporation of heralds in Scotland or Ireland. In
+Scotland "Lyon-king-of-arms," "Lyon rex armorum," or "Leo fecialis," so
+called from the lion on the royal shield, is the head of the office of
+arms. When first the dignity was constituted is not known, but Lyon was
+a prominent figure in the coronation of Robert II. in 1371. The office
+was at first, as in England, attached to the earl marshal, but it has
+long been conferred by patent under the great seal, and is held direct
+from the crown. Lyon is also king-of-arms for the national order of the
+Thistle. He is styled "Lord Lyon," and the office has always been held
+by men of family, and frequently by a peer who would appoint a "Lyon
+depute." He is supreme in all matters of heraldry in Scotland. Besides
+the "Lyon depute," there are the Scottish heralds, Albany, Ross and
+Rothesay, with precedence according to date of appointment; and the
+pursuivants, Carrick, March and Unicorn. Heralds and pursuivants are
+appointed by Lyon.
+
+In Ireland also there is but one king-of-arms, Ulster. The office was
+instituted by Edward VI. in 1553. The patent is given by Rymer, and
+refers to certain emoluments as "praedicto officio ... ab antiquo
+spectantibus." The allusion is to an Ireland king-of-arms mentioned in
+the reign of Richard II. and superseded by Ulster. Ulster holds office
+by patent, during pleasure; under him the Irish office of arms consists
+of two heralds, Cork and Dublin; and a pursuivant, Athlone. Ulster is
+king-of-arms to the order of St Patrick. He held visitations in parts of
+Ireland from 1568 to 1620, and these and other records, including all
+grants of arms from the institution of the office, are kept in the
+Birmingham Tower, Dublin.
+
+The armorial duties of the ancient heralds are not clearly defined. The
+patent of Edward IV., creating John Wrythe king of arms of England with
+the style of Garter, speaks vaguely of the care of the office of arms
+and those things which belong to that office. We know that the heralds
+had their part in the ordering of tournaments, wherein armory played its
+greatest part, and that their expert knowledge of arms gave them such
+duties as reckoning the noble slain on a battlefield. But it is not
+until the 15th century that we find the heralds following a recognized
+practice of granting or assigning arms, a practice on which John of
+Guildford comments, saying that such arms given by a herald are not of
+greater authority than those which a man has taken for himself. The Book
+of St Albans, put forth in 1486, speaking of arms granted by princes and
+lords, is careful to add that "armys bi a mannys proper auctorite take,
+if an other man have not borne theym afore, be of strength enogh,"
+repeating, as it seems, Nicholas Upton's opinion which, in this matter,
+does not conflict with the practice of his day. It is probable that the
+earlier grants of arms by heralds were made by reason of persons
+uncunning in armorial lore applying for a suitable device to experts in
+such matters--and that such setting forth of arms may have been
+practised even in the 14th century.
+
+The earliest known grants of arms in England by sovereigns or private
+persons are, as a rule, the conveyance of a right in a coat of arms
+already existing or of a differenced version of it. Thus in 1391 Thomas
+Grendale, a squire who had inherited through his grandmother the right
+in the shield of Beaumeys, granted his right in it to Sir William
+Moigne, a knight who seems to have acquired the whole or part of the
+Beaumeys manor in Sawtry. Under Henry VI. we have certain rare and
+curious letters of the crown granting nobility with arms "_in signum
+hujusmodi nobilitatis_" to certain individuals, some, and perhaps all of
+whom, were foreigners who may have asked for letters which followed a
+continental usage. After this time we have a regular series of grants by
+heralds who in later times began to assert that new arms, to be valid,
+must necessarily be derived from their assignments, although ancient use
+continued to be recognized.
+
+An account of the genealogical function of the heralds, so closely
+connected with their armorial duties will be found in the article
+GENEALOGY. In spite of the work of such distinguished men as Camden and
+Dugdale they gradually fell in public estimation until Blackstone could
+write of them that the marshalling of coat-armour had fallen into the
+hands of certain officers called heralds, who had allowed for lucre such
+falsity and confusion to creep into their records that even their common
+seal could no longer be received as evidence in any court of justice.
+From this low estate they rose again when the new archaeology included
+heraldry in its interests, and several antiquaries of repute have of
+late years worn the herald's tabard.
+
+In spite of the vast amount of material which the libraries catalogue
+under the head of "Heraldry," the subject has as yet received little
+attention from antiquaries working in the modern spirit. The old books
+are as remarkable for their detachment from the facts as for their
+folly. The work of Nicholas Upton, _De studio militari_, although
+written in the first half of the 15th century, shows, as has been
+already remarked, no attempt to reconcile the conceits of the author
+with the armorial practice which he must have seen about him on every
+side. Gerard Leigh, Bossewell, Ferne and Morgan carry on this bad
+tradition, each adding his own extravagances. The _Display of Heraldry_,
+first published in 1610 under the name of John Guillim, is more
+reasonable if not more learned, and in its various editions gives a
+valuable view of the decadent heraldry of the 17th century. In the 19th
+century many important essays on the subject are to be found in such
+magazines as the _Genealogist_, the _Herald and Genealogist_ and the
+_Ancestor_, while Planché's _Pursuivant of Arms_ contains some slight
+but suggestive work which attempts original enquiry. But Dr Woodward's
+_Treatise on Heraldry, British and Foreign_ (1896), in spite of many
+errors arising from the author's reliance upon unchecked material, must
+be counted the only scholarly book in English upon a matter which has
+engaged so many pens. Among foreign volumes may be cited those of
+Menestrier and Spener, and the vast compilation of the German
+Siebmacher. Notable ordinaries of arms are those of Papworth and
+Renesse, companions to the armorials of Burke and Rietstap. The student
+may be advised to turn his attention to all works dealing with the
+effigies, brasses and other monuments of the middle ages, to the ancient
+heraldic seals and to the heraldry of medieval architecture and
+ornament.     (O. Ba.)
+
+
+
+
+HERAT, a city and province of Afghanistan. The city of Herat lies in
+340° 20´ 30´´ N., and 62° 11´ 0´´ E., at an altitude of 2500 ft. above
+sea-level. Estimated pop. about 10,000. It is a city of great interest
+historically, geographically, politically and strategically, but in
+modern days it has quite lost its ancient commercial importance. From
+this central point great lines of communication radiate in all
+directions to Russian, British, Persian and Afghan territory. Sixty-six
+miles to the north lies the terminus of the Russian railway system; to
+the south-east is Kandahar (360 m.) and about 70 m. beyond that, New
+Chaman, the terminus of the British railway system. Southward lies
+Seistan (200 m.), and eastward Kabul (550 m.); while on the west four
+routes lead into Persia by Turbet to Meshed (215 m.), and by Birjend to
+Kerman (400 m.), to Yezd (500 m.), or to Isfahan (600 m.). The city
+forms a quadrangle of nearly 1 m. square (more accurately about 1600
+yds. by 1500 yds.); on the western, southern and eastern faces the line
+of defence is almost straight, the only projecting points being the
+gateways, but on the northern face the contour is broken by a double
+outwork, consisting of the _Ark_ or citadel, which is built of sun-dried
+brick on a high artificial mound within the enceinte, and a lower work
+at its foot, called the _Ark-i-nao_, or "new citadel," which extends 100
+yds. beyond the line of the city wall. That which distinguishes Herat
+from all other Oriental cities, and at the same time constitutes its
+main defence, is the stupendous character of the earthwork upon which
+the city wall is built. This earthwork averages 250 ft. in width at the
+base and about 50 ft. in height, and as it is crowned by a wall 25 ft.
+high and 14 ft. thick at the base, supported by about 150 semicircular
+towers, and is further protected by a ditch 45 ft. in width and 16 in
+depth, it presents an appearance of imposing strength. When the royal
+engineers of the Russo-Afghan Boundary Commission entered Herat in 1885
+they found its defences in various stages of disrepair. The gigantic
+rampart was unflanked, and the covered ways in the face of it subject to
+enfilade from end to end. The ditch was choked, the gates were
+unprotected; the tumbled mass of irregular mud buildings which
+constituted the city clung tightly to the walls; there were no gun
+emplacements. Outside, matters were almost worse than inside. To the
+north of the walls the site of old Herat was indicated by a vast mass of
+débris--mounds of bricks and pottery intersected by a network of shallow
+trenches, where the only semblance of a protective wall was the
+irregular line of the Tal-i-Bangi. South of the city was a vast area
+filled in with the graveyards of centuries. Here the trenches dug by the
+Persians during the last siege were still in a fair state of
+preservation; they were within a stone's-throw of the walls. Round about
+the city on all sides were similar opportunities for close approach;
+even the villages stretched out long irregular streets towards the city
+gates. To the north-west, beyond the Tal-i-Bangi, the magnificent
+outlines of the Mosalla filled a wide space with the glorious curves of
+dome and gateway and the stately grace of tapering minars, but the
+impressive beauty of this, by far the finest architectural structure in
+all Afghanistan, could not be permitted to weigh against the fact that
+the position occupied by this pile of solid buildings was fatal to the
+interests of effective defence. By the end of August 1885, when a
+political crisis had supervened between Great Britain and Russia, under
+the orders of the Amir the Mosalla was destroyed; but four minars
+standing at the corners of the wide plinth still remain to attest to the
+glorious proportions of the ancient structure, and to exhibit samples of
+that decorative tilework, which for intricate beauty of design and
+exquisite taste in the blending of colour still appeals to the memory as
+unique. At the same time the ancient graveyards round the city were
+swept smooth and levelled; obstructions were demolished, outworks
+constructed, and the defences generally renovated. Whether or no the
+strength of this bulwark of North-Western Afghanistan should ever be
+practically tested, the general result of the most recent investigations
+into the value of Herat as a strategic centre has been largely to
+modify the once widely-accepted view that the key to India lies within
+it. Abdur Rahman and his successor Habibullah steadfastly refused the
+offer of British engineers to strengthen its defences; and though the
+Afghans themselves have occasionally undertaken repairs, it is doubtful
+whether the old walls of Herat are maintained in a state of efficiency.
+
+The exact position of Herat, with reference to the Russian station of
+Kushk (now the terminus of a branch railway from Merv), is as follows:
+From Herat, a gentle ascent northwards for 3 m. reaches to the foot of
+the Koh-i-Mulla Khwaja, crossing the Jui Nao or "new" canal, which here
+divides the gravel-covered foot hills from the alluvial flats of the
+Hari Rud plain. The crest of the outer ridges of this subsidiary range
+is about 700 ft. above the city, at a distance of 4 m. from it. For 28
+m. farther the road winds first amongst the broken ridges of the
+Koh-i-Mulla Khwaja, then over the intervening _dasht_ into the southern
+spurs of the Paropamisus to the Ardewan pass. This is the highest point
+it attains, and it has risen about 2150 ft. from Herat. From the pass it
+drops over the gradually decreasing grades of a wide sweep of Chol
+(which here happens to be locally free from the intersecting network of
+narrow ravines which is generally a distinguishing feature of Turkestan
+loess formations) for a distance of 35 m. into the Russian railway
+station, falling some 2700 ft. from the crest of the Paropamisus. To the
+south the road from Herat to India through Kandahar lies across an open
+plain, which presents no great engineering difficulties, but is of a
+somewhat waterless and barren character.
+
+The city possesses five gates, two on the northern face, the Kutab-chak
+near the north-east angle of the wall, and the Malik at the re-entering
+angle of the Ark-i-nao; and three others in the centres of the remaining
+faces, the Irak gate on the west, the Kandahar gate on the south and the
+Kushk gate on the east face. Four streets called the _Chahar-súk_,
+running from the centre of each face, meet in the centre of the town in
+a small domed quadrangle. The principal street runs from the south or
+Kandahar gate to the market in front of the citadel, and is covered in
+with a vaulted roof through its entire length, the shops and buildings
+of this bazaar being much superior to those of the other streets, and
+the merchants' caravanserais, several of which are spacious and well
+built, all opening out on this great thoroughfare. Near the central
+quadrangle of the city is a vast reservoir of water, the dome of which
+is of bold and excellent proportions. The only other public building of
+any consequence in Herat is the great mosque or _Mesjid-i-Juma_, which
+comprises an area of 800 yds. square, and must have been a most
+magnificent structure. It was erected towards the close of the 15th
+century, during the reign of Shah Sultan Hussein of the family of Timur,
+and is said when perfect to have been 465 ft. long by 275 ft. wide, to
+have had 408 cupolas, 130 windows, 444 pillars and 6 entrances, and to
+have been adorned in the most magnificent manner with gilding, carving,
+precious mosaics and other elaborate and costly embellishments. Now,
+however, it is falling rapidly into ruin, the ever-changing provincial
+governors who administer Herat having neither the means nor the
+inclination to undertake the necessary repairs. Neither the palace of
+the Charbagh within the city wall, which was the residence of the
+British mission in 1840-1841, nor the royal quarters in the citadel
+deserve any special notice. At the present day, with the exception of
+the _Chahar-súk_, where there is always a certain amount of traffic, and
+where the great diversity of race and costume imparts much liveliness to
+the scene, Herat presents a very melancholy and desolate appearance. The
+mud houses in rear of the bazaars are for the most part uninhabited and
+in ruins, and even the burnt brick buildings are becoming everywhere
+dilapidated. The city is also one of the filthiest in the East, as there
+are no means of drainage or sewerage, and garbage of every description
+lies in heaps in the open streets.
+
+Along the slopes of the northern hills there is a space of some 4 m. in
+length by 3 m. in breadth, the surface of the plain, strewn over its
+whole extent with pieces of pottery and crumbling bricks, and also
+broken here and there by earthen mounds and ruined walls, the débris of
+palatial structures which at one time were the glory and wonder of the
+East. Of these structures indeed some have survived to the present day
+in a sufficiently perfect state to bear witness to the grandeur and
+beauty of the old architecture of Herat. Such was the mosque of the
+Mosalla before its destruction. Scarcely inferior in beauty of design
+and execution, though of more moderate dimensions, is the tomb of the
+saint Abdullah Ansari, in the same neighbourhood. This building, which
+was erected by Shah Rukh Mirza, the grandson of Timur, over 500 years
+ago, contains some exquisite specimens of sculpture in the best style of
+Oriental art. Adjoining the tomb also are numerous marble mausoleums,
+the sepulchres of princes of the house of Timur; and especially
+deserving of notice is a royal building tastefully decorated by an
+Italian artist named Geraldi, who was in the service of Shah Abbas the
+Great. The locality, which is further enlivened by gardens and running
+streams, is named _Gazir-gáh_, and is a favourite resort of the Heratis.
+It is held indeed in high veneration by all classes, and the famous Dost
+Mahommed Khan is himself buried at the foot of the tomb of the saint.
+Two other royal palaces named respectively _Bagh-i-Shah_ and
+_Takht-i-Sefer_, are situated on the same rising ground somewhat farther
+to the west. The buildings are now in ruins, but the view from the
+pavilions, shaded by splendid plane trees on the terraced gardens formed
+on the slope of the mountain, is said to be very beautiful.
+
+The population of Herat and the neighbourhood is of a very mixed
+character. The original inhabitants of Ariana were no doubt of the Aryan
+family, and immediately cognate with the Persian race, but they were
+probably intermixed at a very early period with the Sacae and
+Massagetae, who seem to have held the mountains from Kabul to Herat from
+the first dawn of history, and to whom must be ascribed--rather than to
+an infusion of Turco-Tartaric blood introduced by the armies of Jenghiz
+and Timur--the peculiar broad features and flattish countenance which
+distinguish the inhabitants of Herat, Seistan and the eastern provinces
+of Persia from their countrymen farther to the west. Under the
+government of Herat, however, there are a very large number cf tribes,
+ruled over by separate and semi-independent chiefs, and belonging
+probably to different nationalities. The principal group of tribes is
+called the _Chahar-Aimák_, or "four races," the constituent parts of
+which, however, are variously stated by different authorities both as to
+strength and nomenclature. The Heratis are an agricultural race, and are
+not nearly so warlike as the Pathans from the neighbourhood of Kabul or
+Kandahar.
+
+
+  Environs of Herat.
+
+The long narrow valley of the Hari Rud, starting from the western slopes
+of the Koh-i-Baba, extends almost due west for 300 m. before it takes
+its great northern bend at Kuhsan, and passes northwards through the
+broken ridges of the Siah Bubuk (the western extremity of the range
+which we now call Paropamisus) towards Sarakhs. For the greater part of
+its length it drains the southern slopes only of the Paropamisus and the
+northern slopes of a parallel range called Koh-i-Safed. The Paropamisus
+forms the southern face of the Turkestan plateau, which contains the
+sources of the Murghab river; the northern face of the same plateau is
+defined by the Band-i-Turkestan. On the south of the plateau we find a
+similar succession of narrow valleys dividing parallel flexures, or
+anticlinals, formed under similar geological conditions to those which
+appear to be universally applicable to the Himalaya, the Hindu Kush, and
+the Indus frontier mountain systems. From one of these long lateral
+valleys the Hari Rud receives its principal tributary, which joins the
+main river below Obeh, 180 m. from its source; and it is this tributary
+(separated from the Hari Rud by the narrow ridges of the Koh-i-Safed and
+Band-i-Baian) that offers the high road from Herat to Kabul, and not the
+Hari Rud itself. From its source to Obeh the Hari Rud is a valley of
+sandy desolation. There are no glaciers near its sources, although they
+must have existed there in geologically recent times, but masses of
+melting snow annually give rise to floods, which rush through the midst
+of the valley in a turbid red stream, frequently rendering the river
+impassable and cutting off the crazy brick bridges at Herat and Tirpul.
+It is impossible, whilst watching the rolling, seething volume of
+flood-water which swirls westwards in April, to imagine the waste
+stretches of dry river-bed which in a few months' time (when every
+available drop of water is carried off for irrigation) will represent
+the Hari Rud. The soft shales or clays of the hills bounding the valley
+render these hills especially subject to the action of denudation, and
+the result, in rounded slopes and easily accessible crests, determines
+the nature of the easy tracks and passes which intersect them. At the
+same time, any excessive local rainfall is productive of difficulty and
+danger from the floods of liquid mud and loose boulders which sweep like
+an avalanche down the hill sides. The intense cold which usually
+accompanies these sudden northern blizzards of Herat and Turkestan is a
+further source of danger.
+
+From Obeh, 50 m. east of Herat, the cultivated portion of the valley
+commences, and it extends, with a width which varies from 8 to 16 m., to
+Kuhsan, 60 m. west of the city. But the great stretch of highly
+irrigated and valuable fruit-growing land, which appears to spread from
+the walls of Herat east and west as far as the eye can reach, and to
+sweep to the foot of the hills north and south with an endless array of
+vineyards and melon-beds, orchards and villages, varied with a brilliant
+patchwork of poppy growth brightening the width of green wheat-fields
+with splashes of scarlet and purple--all this is really comprised within
+a narrow area which does not extend beyond a ten-miles' radius from the
+city. The system of irrigation by which these agricultural results are
+attained is most elaborate. The despised Herati Tajik, in blue shirt and
+skull-cap, and with no instrument better than a three-cornered spade, is
+as skilled an agriculturist as is the Ghilzai engineer, but he cannot
+effect more than the limits of his water-supply will permit. He adopts
+the karez (or, Persian, _kanát_) system of underground irrigation, as
+does the Ghilzai, and brings every drop of water that he can find to the
+surface; but it cannot be said that he is more successful than the
+Ghilzai. It is the startling contrast of the Herati oasis with the vast
+expanse of comparative sterility that encloses it which has given such a
+fictitious value to the estimates of the material wealth of the valley
+of the Hari Rud.
+
+The valley about Herat includes a flat alluvial plain which might, for
+some miles on any side except the north, be speedily reduced to an
+impassable swamp by means of flood-water from the surrounding canals.
+Three miles to the south of the city the river flows from east to west,
+spanned by the Pal-i-Malun, a bridge possessing grand proportions, but
+which was in 1885 in a state of grievous disrepair and practically
+useless. East and west stretches the long vista of the Hari Rud. Due
+north the hills called the Koh-i-Mulla Khwaja appear to be close and
+dominating, but the foot of these hills is really about 3 m. distant
+from the city. This northern line of barren, broken sandstone hills is
+geographically no part of the Paropamisus range, from which it is
+separated by a stretch of sandy upland about 20 m. in width, called the
+Dasht-i-Hamdamao, or Dasht-i-Ardewán, formed by the talus or drift of
+the higher mountains, which, washed down through centuries of
+denudation, now forms long sweeping spurs of gravel and sand, scantily
+clothed with wormwood scrub and almost destitute of water. Through this
+stretch of _dasht_ the drainage from the main water-divide breaks
+downwards to the plains of Herat, where it is arrested and utilized for
+irrigation purposes. To the north-east of the city a very considerable
+valley has been formed between the Paropamisus and the subsidiary
+Koh-i-Mulla Khwaja range, called Korokh. Here there are one or two
+important villages and a well-known shrine marked by a group of pine
+trees which is unique in this part of Afghanistan. The valley leads to a
+group of passes across the Paropamisus into Turkestan, of which the
+Zirmast is perhaps the best known. The main water-divide between Herat
+and the Turkestan Chol (the loess district) has been called Paropamisus
+for want of any well-recognized general name. To the north of the Korokh
+valley it exhibits something of the formation of the Hindu Kush (of
+which it is apparently a geological extension), but as it passes
+westwards it becomes broken into fragments by processes of denudation,
+until it is hardly recognizable as a distinct range at all. The direct
+passes across it from Herat (the Baba and the Ardewán) wind amongst
+masses of disintegrating sandstone for some miles on each side of the
+dividing watershed, but farther west the rounded knolls of the
+rain-washed downs may be crossed almost at any point without difficulty.
+The names applied to this débris of a once formidable mountain system
+are essentially local and hardly distinctive. Beyond this range the sand
+and clay loess formation spreads downwards like a tumbled sea, hiding
+within the folds of its many-crested hills the twisting course of the
+Kushk and its tributaries.
+
+_History._--The origin of Herat is lost in antiquity. The name first
+appears in the list of primitive Zoroastrian settlements contained in
+the _Vendidad Sade_, where, however, like most of the names in the same
+list,--such as _Sughudu_ (Sogdiana), _Mouru_ (Merv or Margus),
+_Haraquiti_ (Arachotus or Arghand-ab), _Haetumant_ (Etymander or
+Helmund), and _Ragha_ (or Argha-stan),--it seems to apply to the river
+or river-basin, which was the special centre of population. This name of
+_Haroyu_, as it is written in the _Vendidad_, or _Hariwa_, as it appears
+in the inscriptions of Darius, is a cognate form with the Sanskrit
+_Sarayu_, which signifies "a river," and its resemblance to the ethnic
+title of Aryan (Sans. _Arya_) is purely fortuitous; though from the
+circumstance of the city being named "Aria Metropolis" by the Greeks,
+and being also recognized as the capital of Ariana, "the country of the
+Arians," the two forms have been frequently confounded. Of the
+foundation of Herat (or Heri, as it is still often called) nothing is
+known. We can only infer from the colossal character of the earth-works
+which surround the modern town, that, like the similar remains at Bost
+on the Helmund and at Ulan Robat of Arachosia, they belong to that
+period of Central-Asian history which preceded the rise of Achaemenian
+power, and which in Grecian romance is illustrated by the names of
+Bacchus, of Hercules and of Semiramis. To trace in any detail the
+fortunes of Herat would be to write the modern history of the East, for
+there has hardly been a dynastic revolution, or a foreign invasion, or a
+great civil war in Central Asia since the time of the prophet, in which
+Herat has not played a conspicuous part and suffered accordingly. Under
+the Tahirids of Khorasan, the Saffarids of Seistan and the Samanids of
+Bokhara, it flourished for some centuries in peace and progressive
+prosperity; but during the succeeding rule of the Ghaznevid kings its
+metropolitan character was for a time obscured by the celebrity of the
+neighbouring capital of Ghazni, until finally in the reign of Sultan
+Sanjar of Merv about 1157 the city was entirely destroyed by an
+irruption of the Ghuzz, the predecessors, in race as well as in habitat,
+of the modern Turkomans. Herat gradually recovered under the enlightened
+Ghorid kings, who were indeed natives of the province, though they
+preferred to hold their court amid their ancestral fortresses in the
+mountains of Ghor, so that at the time of Jenghiz Khan's invasion it
+equalled or even exceeded in populousness and wealth its sister capitals
+Of Balkh, Merv and Nishapur, the united strength of the four cities
+being estimated at three millions of inhabitants. But this Mogul
+visitation was most calamitous; forty persons, indeed, are stated to
+have alone survived the general massacre of 1232, and as a similar
+catastrophe overtook the city at the hands of Timur in 1398, when the
+local dynasty of Kurt, which had succeeded the Ghorides in eastern
+Khorasan, was put an end to, it is astonishing to find that early in the
+15th century Herat was again flourishing and populous, and the favoured
+seat of the art and literature of the East. It was indeed under the
+princes of the house of Timur that most of the noble buildings were
+erected, of which the remains still excite our admiration at Herat,
+while all the great historical works relative to Asia, such as the
+_Rozetes-Sefa_, the _Habib-es-seir_, _Hafiz Abru's Tarikh_, the _Matla'
+a-es-Sa'adin_, &c., date from the same place and the same age. Four
+times was Herat sacked by Turkomans and Usbegs during the centuries
+which intervened between the Timuride princes and the rise of the Afghan
+power, and it has never in modern times attained to anything like its
+old importance. Afghan tribes, who had originally dwelt far to the
+east, were first settled at Herat by Nadir Shah, and from that time they
+have monopolized the government and formed the dominant element in the
+population. It will be needless to trace the revolutions and
+counter-revolutions which have followed each other in quick succession
+at Herat since Ahmad Shah Durani founded the Afghan monarchy about the
+middle of the 18th century. Let it suffice to say that Herat has been
+throughout the seat of an Afghan government, sometimes in subordination
+to Kabul and sometimes independent. Persia indeed for many years showed
+a strong disposition to reassert the supremacy over Herat which was
+exercised by the Safawid kings, but great Britain, disapproving of the
+advance of Persia towards the Indian frontier, steadily resisted the
+encroachment; and, indeed, after helping the Heratis to beat off the
+attack of the Persian army in 1838, the British at length compelled the
+shah in 1857 at the close of his war with them to sign a treaty
+recognizing the further independence of the place, and pledging Persia
+against any further interference with the Afghans. In 1863 Herat, which
+for fifty years previously had been independent of Kabul, was
+incorporated by Dost Mahomed Khan in the Afghan monarchy, and the Amir,
+Habibullah of Afghanistan, like his father Abdur Rahman before him,
+remained Amir of Herat and Kandahar, as well as Kabul.
+
+  See Holdich, _Indian Borderland_ (1901); C. E. Yate, _Northern
+  Afghanistan_ (1888).     (T. H. H.*)
+
+
+
+
+HÉRAULT, a department in the south of France, formed from Lower
+Languedoc. Pop. (1906) 482,779. Area, 2403 sq. m. It is bounded N.E. by
+Gard, N.W. by Aveyron and Tarn, and S. by Aude and the Golfe du Lion.
+The southern prolongation of the Cévennes mountains occupies the
+north-western zone of the department, the highest point being about 4250
+ft. above the sea-level. South-east of this range comes a region of
+hills and plateaus decreasing in height as they approach the sea, from
+which they are separated by the rich plains at the mouth of the Orb and
+the Hérault and, farther to the north-east, by the line of
+intercommunicating salt lagoons (Etang de Thau, &c.) which fringes the
+coast. The region to the north-west of Montpellier comprises an
+extensive tract of country known as the Garrigues, a district of dry
+limestone plateaus and hills, which stretches into the neighbouring
+department of Gard. The mountains of the north-west form the watershed
+between the Atlantic and Mediterranean basins. From them flow the
+Hérault, its tributary the Lergue, and more to the south-west the Livron
+and the Orb, which are the main rivers of the department. Dry summers,
+varied by occasional violent storms, are characteristic of Hérault. The
+climate is naturally colder and more rainy in the mountains.
+
+A third of the surface of Hérault is planted with vines, which are the
+chief source of agricultural wealth, the department ranking first in
+France with respect to the area of its vineyards; the red wines of St
+Georges, Cazouls-lès-Béziers, Picpoul and Maranssan, and the white wines
+of Frontignan and Lunel (pop. in 1906, 6769) are held in high
+estimation. The area given over to arable land and pasture is small in
+extent. Fruit trees of various kinds, but especially mulberries, olives
+and chestnuts flourish. The rearing of silk-worms is largely carried on.
+Considerable numbers of sheep are raised, their milk being utilized for
+the preparation of Roquefort cheeses. The mineral wealth of the
+department is considerable. There are mines of lignite, coal in the
+vicinity of Graissessac, iron, calamine and copper, and quarries of
+building-stone, limestone, gypsum, &c.; the marshes supply salt. Mineral
+springs are numerous, the most important being those of
+Lamalon-les-Bains and Balaruc-les-Bains. The chief manufactures are
+woollen and cotton cloth, especially for military use, silk (Ganges),
+casks, soap and fertilizing stuffs. There are also oil-works,
+distilleries (Béziers) and tanneries (Bédarieux). Fishing is an
+important industry. Cette and Mèze (pop. in 1906, 5574) are the chief
+ports. Hérault exports salt fish, wine, liqueurs, timber, salt,
+building-material, &c. It imports cattle, skins, wool, cereals,
+vegetables, coal and other commodities. The railway lines belong chiefly
+to the Southern and Paris-Lyon-Méditerranée companies. The Canal du
+Midi traverses the south of the department for 44 m. and terminates at
+Cette. The Canal des Étangs traverses the department for about 20 m.,
+forming part of a line of communication between Cette and Aigues-Mortes.
+Montpellier, the capital, is the seat of a bishopric of the province of
+Avignon, and of a court of appeal and centre of an academic (educational
+division). The department belongs to the 16th military region, which has
+its headquarters at Montpellier. It is divided into the arrondissements
+of Montpellier, Béziers, Lodève and St Pons, with 36 cantons and 340
+communes.
+
+Montpellier, Béziers, Lodève, Bédarieux, Cette, Agde, Pézenas,
+Lamalou-les-Bains and Clermont-l'Hérault are the more noteworthy towns
+and receive separate treatment. Among the other interesting places in
+the department are St Pons, with a church of the 12th century, once a
+cathedral, Villemagne, which has several old houses and two ruined
+churches, one of the 13th, the other of the 14th century; Pignan, a
+medieval town, near which is the interesting abbey-church of Vignogoul
+in the early Gothic style; and St Guilhem-le-Désert, which has a church
+of the 11th and 12th centuries. Maguelonne, which in the 6th century
+became the seat of a bishopric transferred to Montpellier in 1536, has a
+cathedral of the 12th century.
+
+
+
+
+HÉRAULT DE SÉCHELLES, MARIE JEAN (1759-1794), French politician, was
+born at Paris on the 20th of September 1759, of a noble family connected
+with those of Contades and Polignac. He made his début as a lawyer at
+the Châtelet, and delivered some very successful speeches; later he was
+_avocat général_ to the parlement of Paris. His legal occupations did
+not prevent him from devoting himself also to literature, and after 1789
+he published an account of a visit he had made to the comte de Buffon at
+Montbard. Hérault's account is marked by a delicate irony, and it has
+with some justice been called a masterpiece of interviewing, before the
+day of journalists. Hérault, who was an ardent champion of the
+Revolution, took part in the taking of the Bastille, and on the 8th of
+December 1789 was appointed judge of the court of the first
+arrondissement in the department of Paris. From the end of January to
+April 1791 Hérault was absent on a mission in Alsace, where he had been
+sent to restore order. On his return he was appointed _commissaire du
+roi_ in the court of cassation. He was elected as a deputy for Paris to
+the Legislative Assembly, where he gravitated more and more towards the
+extreme left; he was a member of several committees, and, when a member
+of the diplomatic committee, presented a famous report demanding that
+the nation should be declared to be in danger (11th June 1793). After
+the revolution of the 10th of August 1792 (see FRENCH REVOLUTION), he
+co-operated with Danton, one of the organizers of this rising, and on
+the 2nd of September was appointed president of the Legislative
+Assembly. He was a deputy to the National Convention for the department
+of Seine-et-Oise, and was sent on a mission to organize the new
+department of Mont Blanc. He was thus absent during the trial of Louis
+XVI., but he made it known that he approved of the condemnation of the
+king, and would probably have voted for the death penalty. On his return
+to Paris, Hérault was several times president of the Convention, notably
+on the 2nd of June 1793, the occasion of the attack on the Girondins,
+and on the 10th of August 1793, on which the passing of the new
+constitution was celebrated. On this occasion Hérault, as president of
+the Convention, had to make several speeches. It was he, moreover, who,
+on the rejection of the projected constitution drawn up by Condorcet,
+was entrusted with the task of preparing a fresh one; this work he
+performed within a few days, and his plan, which, however, differed very
+little from that of Condorcet, became the Constitution of 1793, which
+was passed, but never applied. As a member of the Committee of Public
+Safety, it was with diplomacy that Hérault was chiefly concerned, and
+from October to December 1793 he was employed on a diplomatic and
+military mission in Alsace. But this mission helped to make him an
+object of suspicion to the other members of the Committee of Public
+Safety, and especially to Robespierre, who as a deist and a fanatical
+follower of the ideas of Rousseau, hated Hérault, the follower of the
+naturalism of Diderot. He was accused of treason, and after being tried
+before the revolutionary tribunal, was condemned at the same time as
+Danton, and executed on the 16th Germinal in the year II. (5th April
+1794). He was handsome, elegant and a lover of pleasure, and was one of
+the most individual figures of the Revolution.
+
+  See the _Voyage à Montbard_, published by A. Aulard (Paris, 1890); A.
+  Aulard, _Les Orateurs de la Législative et de la Convention_, 2nd ed.
+  (Paris, 1906); J. Claretie, _Camille Desmoulins ... étude sur les
+  Dantonistes_ (Paris, 1875); Dr Robinet, _Le Procès des Dantonistes_
+  (Paris, 1879); "Hérault de Séchelles, sa première mission en Alsace"
+  in the review _La Révolution Française_, tome 22; E. Daudet, _Le Roman
+  d'un conventionnel. Hérault de Séchelles et les dames de Bellegarde_
+  (1904). His _Oeuvres littéraires_ were edited (Paris, 1907) by E.
+  Dard.     (R. A.*)
+
+
+
+
+HERB (Lat. _herba_, grass, food for cattle, generally taken to represent
+the Old Lat. _forbea_, Gr. [Greek: phorbê], pasture, [Greek: pherbein],
+to feed, Sans. _bharb_, to eat), in botany, the name given to those
+plants whose stem or stalk dies entirely or down to the root each year,
+and does not become, as in shrubs or trees, woody or permanent, such
+plants are also called "herbaceous." The term "herb" is also used of
+those herbaceous plants, which possess certain properties, and are used
+for medicinal purposes, for flavouring or garnishing in cooking, and
+also for perfumes (see HORTICULTURE and PHARMACOLOGY).
+
+
+
+
+HERBARIUM, or HORTUS SICCUS, a collection of plants so dried and
+preserved as to illustrate as far as possible their characters. Since
+the same plant, owing to peculiarities of climate, soil and situation,
+degree of exposure to light and other influences may vary greatly
+according to the locality in which it occurs, it is only by gathering
+together for comparison and study a large series of examples of each
+species that the flora of different regions can be satisfactorily
+represented. Even in the best equipped botanical garden it is impossible
+to have, at one and the same time, more than a very small percentage of
+the representatives of the flora of any given region or of any large
+group of plants. Hence a good herbarium forms an indispensable part of a
+botanical museum or institution. There are large herbaria at the British
+Museum and at the Royal Gardens, Kew, and smaller collections at the
+botanical institutions at the principal British universities. The
+original herbarium of Linnaeus is in the possession of the Linnaean
+Society of London. It was purchased from the widow of Linnaeus by Dr
+(afterwards Sir) J. E. Smith, one of the founders of the Linnaean
+Society, and after his death was purchased by the society. Herbaria are
+also associated with the more important botanic gardens and museums in
+other countries. The value of a herbarium is much enhanced by the
+possession of "types," that is, the original specimens on the study of
+which a species was founded. Thus the herbarium at the British Museum,
+which is especially rich in the earlier collections made in the 18th and
+early 19th centuries, contains the types of many species founded by the
+earlier workers in botany. It is also rich in the types of Australian
+plants in the collections of Sir Joseph Banks and Robert Brown, and
+contains in addition many valuable modern collections. The Kew
+herbarium, founded by Sir William Hooker and greatly increased by his
+son Sir Joseph Hooker, is also very rich in types, especially those of
+plants described in the _Flora of British India_ and various colonial
+floras. The collection of Dillenius is deposited at Oxford, and that of
+Professor W. H. Harvey at Trinity College, Dublin. The collections of
+Antoine Laurent de Jussieu, his son Adrien, and of Auguste de St
+Hilaire, are included in the large herbarium of the Jardin des Plantes
+at Paris, and in the same city is the extensive private collection of Dr
+Ernest Cosson. At Geneva are three large collections--Augustin Pyrame de
+Candolle's, containing the typical specimens of the _Prodromus_, a large
+series of monographs of the families of flowering plants, Benjamin
+Delessert's fine series at the Botanic Garden, and the Boissier
+Herbarium, which is rich in Mediterranean and Oriental plants. The
+university of Göttingen has had bequeathed to it the largest collection
+(exceeding 40,000 specimens) ever made by a single individual--that of
+Professor Grisebach. At the herbarium in Brussels are the specimens
+obtained by the traveller Karl Friedrich Philipp von Martius, the
+majority of which formed the groundwork of his _Flora Brasiliensis_. The
+Berlin herbarium is especially rich in more recent collections, and
+other national herbaria sufficiently extensive to subserve the
+requirements of the systematic botanist exist at St Petersburg, Vienna,
+Leiden, Stockholm, Upsala, Copenhagen and Florence. Of those in the
+United States of America, the chief, formed by Asa Gray, is the property
+of Harvard university; there is also a large one at the New York
+Botanical Garden. The herbarium at Melbourne, Australia, under Baron
+Müller, attained large proportions; and that of the Botanical Garden of
+Calcutta is noteworthy as the repository of numerous specimens described
+by writers on Indian botany.
+
+Specimens of flowering plants and vascular cryptograms are generally
+mounted on sheets of stout smooth paper, of uniform quality; the size
+adopted at Kew is 17 in. long by 11 in. broad, that at the British
+Museum is slightly larger; the palms and their allies, however, and some
+ferns, require a larger size. The tough but flexible coarse grey paper
+(German _Fliesspapier_), upon which on the Continent specimens are
+commonly fixed by gummed strips of the same, is less hygroscopic than
+ordinary cartridge paper, but has the disadvantage of affording
+harbourage in the inequalities of its surface to a minute insect,
+_Atropos pulsatoria_, which commits great havoc in damp specimens, and
+which, even if noticed, cannot be dislodged without difficulty. The
+majority of plant specimens are most suitably fastened on paper by a
+mixture of equal parts of gum tragacanth and gum arabic made into a
+thick paste with water. Rigid leathery leaves are fixed by means of
+glue, or, if they present too smooth a surface, by stitching at their
+edges. Where, as in private herbaria, the specimens are not liable to be
+handled with great frequency, a stitch here and there round the stem,
+tied at the back of the sheet, or slips of paper passed over the stem
+through two slits in the sheet and attached with gum to its back, or
+simply strips of gummed paper laid across the stem, may be resorted to.
+
+To preserve from insects, the plants, after mounting, are often brushed
+over with a liquid formed by the solution of ¼ lb. each of corrosive
+sublimate and carbolic acid in 1 gallon of methylated spirits. They are
+then laid out to dry on shelves made of a network of stout galvanized
+iron wire. The use of corrosive sublimate is not, however, recommended,
+as it forms on drying a fine powder which when the plants are handled
+will rub off and, being carried into the air, may prove injurious to
+workers. If the plants are subjected to some process, before mounting,
+by which injurious organisms are destroyed, such as exposure in a closed
+chamber to vapour of carbon bisulphide for some hours, the presence of
+pieces of camphor or naphthalene in the cabinet will be found a
+sufficient preservative. After mounting are written--usually in the
+right-hand corner of the sheet, or on a label there affixed--the
+designation of each species, the date and place of gathering, and the
+name of the collector. Other particulars as to habit, local abundance,
+soil and claim to be indigenous may be written on the back of the sheet
+or on a slip of writing paper attached to its edge. It is convenient to
+place in a small envelope gummed to an upper corner of the sheet any
+flowers, seeds or leaves needed for dissection or microscopical
+examination, especially where from the fixation of the specimen it is
+impossible to examine the leaves for oil-receptacles and where seed is
+apt to escape from ripe capsules and be lost. The addition of a careful
+dissection of a flower greatly increases the value of the specimen. To
+ensure that all shall lie evenly in the herbarium the plants should be
+made to occupy as far as possible alternately the right and left sides
+of their respective sheets. The species of each genus are then arranged
+either systematically or alphabetically in separate covers of stout,
+usually light brown paper, or, if the genus be large, in several covers
+with the name of the genus clearly indicated in the lower left-hand
+corner of each, and opposite it the names or reference numbers of the
+species. Undetermined species are relegated to the end of the genus.
+Thus prepared, the specimens are placed on shelves or movable trays, at
+intervals of about 6 in., in an air-tight cupboard, on the inner side of
+the door of which, as a special protection against insects, is suspended
+a muslin bag containing a piece of camphor.
+
+The systematic arrangement varies in different herbaria. In the great
+British herbaria the orders and genera of flowering plants are usually
+arranged according to Bentham and Hooker's _Genera plantarum_; the
+species generally follow the arrangement of the most recent complete
+monograph of the family. In non-flowering plants the works usually
+followed are for ferns, Hooker and Baker's _Synopsis filicum_; for
+mosses, Müller's _Synopsis muscorum frondosorum_, Jaeger & Sauerbeck's
+_Genera et species muscorum_, and Engler & Prantl's _Pflanzenfamilien_;
+for algae, de Toni's _Sylloge algarum_; for hepaticae, Gottsche,
+Lindenberg and Nees ab Esenbeck's _Synopsis hepaticarum_, supplemented
+by Stephani's _Species hepaticarum_; for fungi, Saccardo's _Sylloge
+fungorum_, and for mycetozoa Lister's monograph of the group. For the
+members of large genera, e.g. _Piper_ and _Ficus_, since the number of
+cosmopolitan or very widely distributed species is comparatively few, a
+geographical grouping is found specially convenient by those who are
+constantly receiving parcels of plants from known foreign sources. The
+ordinary systematic arrangement possesses the great advantage, in the
+case of large genera, of readily indicating the affinities of any
+particular specimen with the forms most nearly allied to it. Instead of
+keeping a catalogue of the species contained in the herbarium, which,
+owing to the constant additions, would be almost impossible, such
+species are usually ticked off with a pencil in the systematic work
+which is followed in arranging them, so that by reference to this work
+it is possible to see at a glance whether the specimen sought is in the
+herbarium and what species are still wanted.
+
+  Specimens intended for the herbarium should be collected when possible
+  in dry weather, care being taken to select plants or portions of
+  plants in sufficient number and of a size adequate to illustrate all
+  the characteristic features of the species. When the root-leaves and
+  roots present any peculiarities, they should invariably be collected,
+  but the roots should be dried separately in an oven at a moderate
+  heat. Roots and fruits too bulky to be placed on the sheet of the
+  herbarium may be conveniently arranged in glass-covered boxes
+  contained in drawers. The best and most effective mode of drying
+  specimens is learned only by experience, different species requiring
+  special treatment according to their several peculiarities. The chief
+  points to be attended to are to have a plentiful supply of botanical
+  drying paper, so as to be able to use about six sheets for each
+  specimen; to change the paper at intervals of six to twelve hours; to
+  avoid contact of one leaf or flower with another; and to increase the
+  pressure applied only in proportion to the dryness of the specimen. To
+  preserve the colour of flowers pledgets of cotton wool, which prevent
+  bruising, should be introduced between them, as also, if the stamens
+  are thick and succulent, as in _Digitalis_, between these and the
+  corolla. A flower dissected and gummed on the sheets will often retain
+  the colour which it is impossible to preserve in a crowded
+  inflorescence. A flat sheet of lead or some other suitable weight
+  should be laid upon the top of the pile of specimens, so as to keep up
+  a continuous pressure. Succulent specimens, as many of the
+  _Orchidaceae_ and sedums and various other Crassulaceous plants,
+  require to be killed by immersion in boiling water before being placed
+  in drying paper, or, instead of becoming dry, they will grow between
+  the sheets. When, as with some plants like _Verbascum_, the thick hard
+  stems are liable to cause the leaves to wrinkle in drying by removing
+  the pressure from them, small pieces of bibulous paper or cotton wool
+  may be placed upon the leaves near their point of attachment to the
+  stem. When a number of specimens have to be submitted to pressure,
+  ventilation is secured by means of frames corresponding in size to the
+  drying paper, and composed of strips of wood or wires laid across each
+  other so as to form a kind of network. Another mode of drying is to
+  keep the specimens in a box of dry sand in a warm place for ten or
+  twelve hours, and then press them in drying paper. A third method
+  consists in placing the specimen within bibulous paper, and enclosing
+  the whole between two plates of coarsely perforated zinc supported in
+  a wooden frame. The zinc plates are then drawn close together by means
+  of straps, and suspended before a fire until the drying is effected.
+  By the last two methods the colour of the flowers may be well
+  preserved. When the leaves are finely divided, as in _Conium_, much
+  trouble will be experienced in lifting a half-dried specimen from one
+  paper to another; but the plant may be placed in a sheet of thin
+  blotting paper, and the sheet containing the plant, instead of the
+  plant itself, can then be moved. Thin straw-coloured paper, such as is
+  used for biscuit bags, may be conveniently employed by travellers
+  unable to carry a quantity of bibulous paper. It offers the advantage
+  of fitting closely to thick-stemmed specimens and of rapidly drying. A
+  light but strong portfolio, to which pressure by means of straps can
+  be applied, and a few quires of this paper, if the paper be changed
+  night and morning, will be usually sufficient to dry all except very
+  succulent plants. When a specimen is too large for one sheet, and it
+  is necessary, in order to show its habit, &c., to dry the whole of it,
+  it may be divided into two or three portions, and each placed on a
+  separate sheet for drying. Specimens may be judged to be dry when they
+  no longer cause a cold sensation when applied to the cheek, or assume
+  a rigidity not evident in the earlier stages of preparation.
+
+  Each class of flowerless or cryptogamic plants requires special
+  treatment for the herbarium.
+
+  Marine algae are usually mounted on tough smooth white cartridge paper
+  in the following manner. Growing specimens of good colour and in fruit
+  are if possible selected, and cleansed as much as practicable from
+  adhering foreign particles, either in the sea or a rocky pool. Some
+  species rapidly change colour, and cause the decay of any others with
+  which they come in contact. This is especially the case with the
+  _Ectocarpi_, _Desmarestiae_, and a few others, which should therefore
+  be brought home in a separate vessel. In mounting, the specimen is
+  floated out in a flat white dish containing sea-water, so that foreign
+  matter may be detected, and a piece of paper of suitable size is
+  placed under it, supported either by the fingers of the left hand or
+  by a palette. It is then pruned, in order clearly to show the mode of
+  branching, and is spread out as naturally as possible with the right
+  hand. For this purpose a bone knitting-needle answers well for the
+  coarse species, and a camel's-hair pencil for the more delicate ones.
+  The paper with the specimen is then carefully removed from the water
+  by sliding it over the edge of the dish so as to drain it as much as
+  possible. If during this process part of the fronds run together, the
+  beauty of the specimen may be restored by dipping the edge into water,
+  so as to float out the part and allow it to subside naturally on the
+  paper. The paper, with the specimen upwards, is then laid on bibulous
+  paper for a few minutes to absorb as much as possible of the
+  superfluous moisture. When freed from excess of water it is laid on a
+  sheet of thick white blotting-paper, and a piece of smooth washed
+  calico is placed upon it (unwashed calico, on account of its "facing,"
+  adheres to the sea-weed). Another sheet of blotting-paper is then laid
+  over it; and, a number of similar specimens being formed into a pile,
+  the whole is submitted to pressure, the paper being changed every hour
+  or two at first. The pressure is increased, and the papers are changed
+  less frequently as the specimens become dry, which usually takes place
+  in thirty-six hours. Some species, especially those of a thick or
+  leathery texture, contract so much in drying that without strong
+  pressure the edges of the paper become puckered. Other species of a
+  gelatinous nature, like _Nemalion_ and _Dudresnaya_, may be allowed to
+  dry on the paper, and need not be submitted to pressure until they no
+  longer present a gelatinous appearance. Large coarse algae, such, for
+  instance, as the _Fucaceae_ and _Laminariae_, do not readily adhere to
+  paper, and require soaking for some time in fresh water before being
+  pressed. The less robust species, such as _Sphacelaria scoparia_,
+  which do not adhere well to paper, may be made to do so by brushing
+  them over either with milk carefully skimmed, or with a liquid formed
+  by placing isinglass (¼ oz.) and water (1½ oz.) in a wide-mouthed
+  bottle, and the bottle in a small glue-pot or saucepan containing cold
+  water, heating until solution is effected, and then adding 1 oz. of
+  rectified spirits of wine; the whole is next stirred together, and
+  when cold is kept in a stoppered bottle. For use, the mixture is
+  warmed to render it fluid, and applied by means of a camel's hair
+  brush to the under side of the specimen, which is then laid neatly on
+  paper. For the more delicate species, such as the _Callithamnia_ and
+  _Ectocarpi_, it is an excellent plan to place a small fruiting
+  fragment, carefully floated out in water, on a slip of mica of the
+  size of an ordinary microscopical slide, and allow it to dry. The
+  plant can then be at any time examined under the microscope without
+  injuring the mounted specimen. Many of the fresh-water algae which
+  form a mere crust, such as _Palmella cruenta_, may be placed in a
+  vessel of water, where after a time they float like a scum, the earthy
+  matter settling down to the bottom, and may then be mounted by
+  slipping a piece of mica under them and allowing it to dry.
+  _Oscillatoriae_ may be mounted by laying a portion on a silver coin
+  placed on a piece of paper in a plate, and pouring in water until the
+  edge of the coin is just covered. The alga by its own peculiar
+  movement will soon form a radiating circle, perfectly free from dirt,
+  around the coin, which may then be removed. There is considerable
+  difficulty in removing mounted specimens of algae from paper, and
+  therefore a small portion preserved on mica should accompany each
+  specimen, enclosed for safety in a small envelope fastened at one
+  corner of the sheet of paper. Filamentous diatoms may be mounted like
+  ordinary sea-weeds, and, as well as all parasitic algae, should
+  whenever possible be allowed to remain attached to a portion of the
+  alga on which they grow, some species being almost always found
+  parasitical on particular plants. Ordinary diatoms and desmids may be
+  mounted on mica, as above described, by putting a portion in a vessel
+  of water and exposing it to sunlight, when they rise to the surface,
+  and may be thus removed comparatively free from dirt or impurity.
+  Owing to their want of adhesiveness, they are, however, usually
+  mounted on glass as microscopic slides, either in glycerin jelly,
+  Canada balsam or some other suitable medium.
+
+  Lichens are generally mounted on sheets of paper of the ordinary size,
+  several specimens from different localities being laid upon one sheet,
+  each specimen having been first placed on a small square of paper
+  which is gummed on the sheet, and which has the locality, date, name
+  of collector, &c., written upon it. This mode has some disadvantages
+  attending it; such sheets are difficult to handle; the crustaceous
+  species are liable to have their surfaces rubbed; the foliaceous
+  species become so compressed as to lose their characteristic
+  appearance; and the spaces between the sheets caused by the thickness
+  of the specimen permit the entrance of dust. A plan which has been
+  found to answer well is to arrange them in cardboard boxes, either
+  with glass tops or in sliding covers, in drawers--the name being
+  placed outside each box and the specimens gummed into the boxes.
+  Lichens for the herbarium should, whenever possible, be sought for on
+  a slaty or laminated rock, so as to procure them on flat thin pieces
+  of the same, suitable for mounting. Specimens on the bark of trees
+  require pressure until the bark is dry, lest they become curled; and
+  those growing on sand or friable soil, such as _Coniocybe furfuracea_,
+  should be laid carefully on a layer of gum in the box in which they
+  are intended to be kept. Many lichens, such as the _Verrucariae_ and
+  _Collemaceae_, are found in the best condition during the winter
+  months. In mounting collemas it is advisable to let the specimen
+  become dry and hard, and then to separate a portion from adherent
+  mosses, earth, &c., and mount it separately so as to show the
+  branching of the thallus. _Pertusariae_ should be represented by both
+  fruiting and sorediate specimens.
+
+  The larger species of fungi, such as the _Agaricini_ and _Polyporei_,
+  &c., are prepared for the herbarium by cutting a slice out of the
+  centre of the plant so as to show the outline of the cap or pileus,
+  the attachment of the gills, and the character of the interior of the
+  stem. The remaining portions of the pileus are then lightly pressed,
+  as well as the central slices, between bibulous paper until dry, and
+  the whole is then "poisoned," and gummed on a sheet of paper in such a
+  manner as to show the under surface of the one and the upper surface
+  of the other half of the pileus on the same sheet. A "map" of the
+  spores should be taken by separating a pileus and placing it flat on a
+  piece of thin paper for a few hours when the spores will fall and
+  leave a nature print of the arrangement of the gills which may be
+  fixed by gumming the other side of the paper. As it is impossible to
+  preserve the natural colours of fungi, the specimens should, whenever
+  possible, be accompanied by a coloured drawing of the plant.
+  Microscopic fungi are usually preserved in envelopes, or simply
+  attached to sheets of paper or mounted as microscopic slides. Those
+  fungi which are of a dusty nature, and the _Myxomycetes_ or
+  _Mycetozoa_ may, like the lichens, be preserved in small boxes and
+  arranged in drawers. Fungi under any circumstances form the least
+  satisfactory portion of an herbarium.
+
+  Mosses when growing in tufts should be gathered just before the
+  capsules have become brown, divided into small flat portions, and
+  pressed lightly in drying paper. During this process the capsules
+  ripen, and are thus obtained in a perfect state. They are then
+  preserved in envelopes attached to a sheet of paper of the ordinary
+  size, a single perfect specimen being washed, and spread out under the
+  envelope so as to show the habit of the plant. For attaching it to the
+  paper a strong mucilage of gum tragacanth, containing an eighth of its
+  weight of spirit of wine, answers best. If not preserved in an
+  envelope the calyptra and operculum are very apt to fall off and
+  become lost. Scale-mosses are mounted in the same way, or may be
+  floated out in water like sea-weeds, and dried in white blotting paper
+  under strong pressure before gumming on paper, but are best mounted as
+  microscopic slides, care being taken to show the stipules. The
+  specimens should be collected when the capsules are just appearing
+  above or in the colesule or calyx; if kept in a damp saucer they soon
+  arrive at maturity, and can then be mounted in better condition, the
+  fruit-stalks being too fragile to bear carriage in a botanical tin
+  case without injury.
+
+  Of the _Characeae_ many are so exceedingly brittle that it is best to
+  float them out like sea-weeds, except the prickly species, which may
+  be carefully laid out on bibulous paper, and when dry fastened on
+  sheets of white paper by means of gummed strips. Care should be taken
+  in collecting charae to secure, in the case of dioecious species,
+  specimens of both forms, and also to get when possible the roots of
+  those species on which the small granular starchy bodies or gemmae are
+  found, as in _C. fragifera_. Portions of the fructification may be
+  preserved in small envelopes attached to the sheets.
+
+
+
+
+HERBART, JOHANN FRIEDRICH (1776-1841), German philosopher and
+educationist, was born at Oldenburg on the 4th of May 1776. After
+studying under Fichte at Jena he gave his first philosophical lectures
+at Göttingen in 1805, whence he removed in 1809 to occupy the chair
+formerly held by Kant at Königsberg. Here he also established and
+conducted a seminary of pedagogy till 1833, when he returned once more
+to Göttingen, and remained there as professor of philosophy till his
+death on the 14th of August 1841.
+
+  Philosophy, according to Herbart, begins with reflection upon our
+  empirical conceptions, and consists in the reformation and elaboration
+  of these--its three primary divisions being determined by as many
+  distinct forms of elaboration. Logic, which stands first, has to
+  render our conceptions and the judgments and reasonings arising from
+  them clear and distinct. But some conceptions are such that the more
+  distinct they are made the more contradictory their elements become;
+  so to change and supplement these as to make them at length thinkable
+  is the problem of the second part of philosophy, or metaphysics. There
+  is still a class of conceptions requiring more than a logical
+  treatment, but differing from the last in not involving latent
+  contradictions, and in being independent of the reality of their
+  objects, the conceptions, viz. that embody our judgments of approval
+  and disapproval; the philosophic treatment of these conceptions falls
+  to Aesthetic.
+
+  In Herbart's writings logic receives comparatively meagre notice; he
+  insisted strongly on its purely formal character, and expressed
+  himself in the main at one with Kantians such as Fries and Krug.
+
+  As a metaphysician he starts from what he terms "the higher
+  scepticism" of the Hume-Kantian sphere of thought, the beginnings of
+  which he discerns in Locke's perplexity about the idea of substance.
+  By this scepticism the real validity of even the _forms_ of experience
+  is called in question on account of the contradictions they are found
+  to involve. And yet that these forms are "given" to us, as truly as
+  sensations are, follows beyond doubt when we consider that we are as
+  little able to control the one as the other. To attempt at this stage
+  a psychological inquiry into the origin of these conceptions would be
+  doubly a mistake; for we should have to use these unlegitimated
+  conceptions in the course of it, and the task of clearing up their
+  contradictions would still remain, whether we succeeded in our enquiry
+  or not. But how are we to set about this task? We have given to us a
+  conception A uniting among its constituent marks two that prove to be
+  contradictory, say M and N; and we can neither deny the unity nor
+  reject one of the contradictory members. For to do either is forbidden
+  by experience; and yet to do nothing is forbidden by logic. We are
+  thus driven to the assumption that the conception is contradictory
+  because incomplete; but how are we to supplement it? What we have must
+  point the way to what we want, or our procedure will be arbitrary.
+  Experience asserts that M is the same (i.e. a mark of the same
+  concept) as N, while logic denies it; and so--it being impossible for
+  one and the same M to sustain these contradictory positions--there is
+  but one way open to us; we must posit _several_ Ms. But even now we
+  cannot say one of these Ms is the same as N, another is not; for every
+  M must be both thinkable and valid. We may, however, take the Ms not
+  singly but together; and again, no other course being open to us, this
+  is what we must do; we must assume that N results from a combination
+  of Ms. This is Herbart's method of relations, the counterpart in his
+  system of the Hegelian dialectic.
+
+  In the _Ontology_ this method is employed to determine what in reality
+  corresponds to the empirical conceptions of substance and cause, or
+  rather of inherence and change. But first we must analyse this notion
+  of reality itself, to which our scepticism had already led us, for,
+  though we could doubt whether "the given" is what it appears, we
+  cannot doubt that it is something; the conception of the real thus
+  consists of the two conceptions of being and quality. That which we
+  are compelled to "posit," which cannot be sublated, is that which
+  _is_, and in the recognition of this lies the simple conception of
+  being. But when is a thing thus posited? When it is posited as we are
+  wont to posit the things we see and taste and handle. If we were
+  without sensations, i.e. were never bound against our will to endure
+  the persistence of a presentation, we should never know what being is.
+  Keeping fast hold of this idea of absolute position, Herbart leads us
+  next to the quality of the real. (1) This must exclude everything
+  negative; for non-A sublates instead of positing, and is not absolute,
+  but relative to A. (2) The real must be absolutely simple; for if it
+  contain two determinations, A and B, then either these are reducible
+  to one, which is the true quality, or they are not, when each is
+  conditioned by the other and their position is no longer absolute. (3)
+  All quantitative conceptions are excluded, for quantity implies parts,
+  and these are incompatible with simplicity. (4) But there may be a
+  plurality of "reals," albeit the mere conception of being can tell us
+  nothing as to this. The doctrine here developed is the first cardinal
+  point of Herbart's system, and has obtained for it the name of
+  "pluralistic realism."
+
+  The contradictions he finds in the common-sense conception of
+  inherence, or of "a thing with several attributes," will now become
+  obvious. Let us take some thing, say A, having n attributes, a, b,
+  c...: we are forced to posit each of these because each is presented
+  in intuition. But in conceiving A we make, not n positions, still less
+  n + 1 positions, but one position simply; for common sense removes the
+  absolute position from its original source, sensation. So when we ask,
+  What is the one posited? we are told--the possessor of a, b, c..., or
+  in other words, their seat or substance. But if so, then A, as a real,
+  being simple, must = a; similarly it must = b; and so on. Now this
+  would be possible if a, b, c ... were but "contingent aspects" of A,
+  as e.g. 2³, [root]64, 4 + 3 + 1 are contingent aspects of 8. Such, of
+  course, is not the case, and so we have as many contradictions as
+  there are attributes; for we must say A is a, is not a, is b, is not
+  b, &c. There must then, according to the method of relations, be
+  several As. For a let us assume A1 + A1 + A1...; for b, A2 + A2 +
+  A2...; and so on for the rest. But now what relation can there be
+  among these several As, which will restore to us the unity of our
+  original A or substance? There is but one; we must assume that the
+  first A of every series is identical, just as the centre is the same
+  point in every radius. By way of concrete illustration Herbart
+  instances "the common observation that the properties of things exist
+  only under external conditions. Bodies, we say, are coloured, but
+  colour is nothing without light, and nothing without eyes. They sound,
+  but only in a vibrating medium, and for healthy ears. Colour and tone
+  present the appearance of inherence, but on looking closer we find
+  they are not really immanent in things but rather presuppose a
+  communion among several." The result then is briefly thus: In place of
+  the one absolute position, which in some unthinkable way the common
+  understanding substitutes for the absolute positions of the n
+  attributes, we have really a series of two or more positions for each
+  attribute, every series, however, beginning with the same (as it were,
+  central) real (hence the unity of substance in a group of attributes),
+  but each being continued by different reals (hence the plurality and
+  difference of attributes in unity of substance). Where there is the
+  appearance of inherence, therefore, there is always a plurality of
+  reals; no such correlative to substance as attribute or accident can
+  be admitted at all. Substantiality is impossible without causality,
+  and to this as its true correlative we now turn.
+
+  The common-sense conception of change involves at bottom the same
+  contradiction of opposing qualities in one real. The same A that was
+  a, b, c ... becomes a, b, d...; and this, which experience thrusts
+  upon us, proves on reflection unthinkable. The metaphysical
+  supplementing is also fundamentally as before. Since c depended on a
+  series of reals A3 + A3 + A3 ... in connexion with A, and d may be
+  said similarly to depend on a series A4 + A4 + A4..., then the change
+  from c to d means, not that the central real A or any real has
+  changed, but that A is now in connexion with A4, &c., and no longer in
+  connexion with A3, &c.
+
+  But to think a number of reals "in connexion" (_Zusammensein_) will
+  not suffice as an explanation of phenomena; something or other must
+  happen when they are in connexion; what is it? The answer to this
+  question is the second hinge-point of Herbart's theoretical
+  philosophy. What "actually happens" as distinct from all that seems to
+  happen, when two reals A and B are together is that, assuming them to
+  differ in quality, they tend to disturb each other to the extent of
+  that difference, at the same time that each preserves itself intact by
+  resisting, as it were, the other's disturbance. And so by coming into
+  connexion with different reals the "self-preservations" of A will vary
+  accordingly, A remaining the same through all; just as, by way of
+  illustration, hydrogen remains the same in water and in ammonia, or as
+  the same line may be now a normal and now a tangent. But to indicate
+  this opposition in the qualities of the reals A + B, we must
+  substitute for these symbols others, which, though only "contingent
+  aspects" of A and B, i.e. representing their relations, not
+  themselves, yet like similar devices in mathematics enable thought to
+  advance. Thus we may put A = [alpha] + [beta] - [gamma], B = m + n +
+  [gamma]; [gamma] then represents the character of the
+  self-preservations in this case, and [alpha] + [beta] + m + n
+  represents all that could be observed by a spectator who did not know
+  the simple qualities, but was himself involved in the relations of A
+  to B; and such is exactly our position.
+
+  Having thus determined what really is and what actually happens, our
+  philosopher proceeds next to explain synthetically the objective
+  semblance (_der objective Schein_) that results from these. But if
+  this construction is to be truly objective, i.e. valid for all
+  intelligences, ontology must furnish us with a clue. This we have in
+  the forms of Space, Time and Motion which are involved whenever we
+  think the reals as being in, or coming into, connexion and the
+  opposite. These forms then cannot be merely the products of our
+  psychological mechanism, though they may turn out to coincide with
+  these. Meanwhile let us call them "intelligible," as being valid for
+  all who comprehend the real and actual by thought, although no such
+  forms are predicable of the real and actual themselves. The elementary
+  spatial relation Herbart conceives to be "the contiguity
+  (_Aneinander_) of two points," so that every "pure and independent
+  line" is discrete. But an investigation of dependent lines which are
+  often incommensurable forces us to adopt the contradictory fiction of
+  partially overlapping, i.e. divisible points, or in other words, the
+  conception of Continuity.[1] But the contradiction here is one we
+  cannot eliminate by the method of relations, because it does not
+  involve anything real; and in fact as a necessary outcome of an
+  "intelligible" form, the fiction of continuity is valid for the
+  "objective semblance," and no more to be discarded than say
+  [root](-1). By its help we are enabled to comprehend what actually
+  happens among reals to produce the appearance of matter. When three or
+  more reals are together, each disturbance and self-preservation will
+  (in general) be imperfect, i.e. of less intensity than when only two
+  reals are together. But "objective semblance" corresponds with
+  reality; the spatial or external relations of the reals in this case
+  must, therefore, tally with their inner or actual states. Had the
+  self-preservations been perfect, the coincidence in space would have
+  been complete, and the group of reals would have been inextended; or
+  had the several reals been simply contiguous, i.e. without connexion,
+  then, as nothing would actually have happened, nothing would appear.
+  As it is we shall find a continuous molecule manifesting attractive
+  and repulsive forces; attraction corresponding to the tendency of the
+  self-preservations to become perfect, repulsion to the frustration of
+  this. Motion, even more evidently than space, implicates the
+  contradictory conception of continuity, and cannot, therefore, be a
+  real predicate, though valid as an intelligible form and necessary to
+  the comprehension of the objective semblance. For we have to think of
+  the reals as absolutely independent and yet as entering into
+  connexions. This we can only do by conceiving them as originally
+  moving through intelligible space in rectilinear paths and with
+  uniform velocities. For such motion no cause need be supposed; motion,
+  in fact, is no more a state of the moving real than rest is, both
+  alike being but relations, with which, therefore, the real has no
+  concern. The changes in this motion, however, for which we _should_
+  require a cause, would be the objective semblance of the
+  self-preservations that actually occur when reals meet. Further, by
+  means of such motion these actual occurrences, which are in themselves
+  timeless, fall for an observer in a definite time--a time which
+  becomes continuous through the partial coincidence of events.
+
+  But in all this it has been assumed that we are spectators of the
+  objective semblance; it remains to make good this assumption, or, in
+  other words, to show the possibility of knowledge; this is the problem
+  of what Herbart terms Eidolology, and forms the transition from
+  metaphysic to psychology. Here, again, a contradictory conception
+  blocks the way, that, viz. of the Ego as the identity of knowing and
+  being, and as such the stronghold of idealism. The contradiction
+  becomes more evident when the ego is defined to be a subject (and so a
+  real) that is its own object. As real and not merely formal, this
+  conception of the ego is amenable to the method of relations. The
+  solution this method furnishes is summarily that there are several
+  objects which mutually modify each other, and so constitute that ego
+  we take for the presented real. But to explain this modification is
+  the business of psychology; it is enough now to see that the subject
+  like all reals is necessarily unknown, and that, therefore, the
+  idealist's theory of knowledge is unsound. But though the simple
+  quality of the subject or soul is beyond knowledge, we know what
+  actually happens when it is in connexion with other's reals, for its
+  self-preservations then are what we call sensations. And these
+  sensations are the sole material of our knowledge; but they are not
+  given to us as a chaos but in definite groups and series, whence we
+  come to know the relations of those reals, which, though themselves
+  unknown, our sensations compel us to posit absolutely.
+
+  In his _Psychology_ Herbart rejects altogether the doctrine of mental
+  faculties as one refuted by his metaphysics, and tries to show that
+  all psychical phenomena whatever result from the action and
+  interaction of elementary ideas or presentations (_Vorstellungen_).
+  The soul being one and simple, its separate acts of self-preservation
+  or primary presentations must be simple too, and its several
+  presentations must become united together. And this they can do at
+  once and completely when, as is the case, for example, with the
+  several attributes of an object, they are not of opposite quality. But
+  otherwise there ensues a conflict in which the opposed presentations
+  comport themselves like forces and mutually suppress or obscure each
+  other. The act of presentation (_Vorstellen_) then becomes partly
+  transformed into an effort, and its product, the idea, becomes in the
+  same proportion less and less intense till a position of equilibrium
+  is reached; and then at length the remainders coalesce. We have thus a
+  statics and a mechanics of mind which investigate respectively the
+  conditions of equilibrium and of movement among presentations. In the
+  statics two magnitudes have to be determined: (1) the amount of the
+  suppression or inhibition (_Hemmungssumme_), and (2) the ratio in
+  which this is shared among the opposing presentations. The first must
+  obviously be as small as possible; thus for two totally-opposed
+  presentations a and b, of which a is the greater, the _inhibendum_ =
+  b. For a given degree of opposition this burden will be shared between
+  the conflicting presentations in the inverse ratio of their strength.
+  When its remainder after inhibition = 0, a presentation is said to be
+  on the threshold of consciousness, for on a small diminution of the
+  inhibition the "effort" will become actual presentation in the same
+  proportion. Such total exclusion from consciousness is, however,
+  manifestly impossible with only two presentations,[2] though with
+  three or a greater number the residual value of one may even be
+  negative. The first and simplest law in psychological mechanics
+  relates to the "sinking" of inhibited presentations. As the
+  presentations yield to the pressure, the pressure itself diminishes,
+  so that the velocity of sinking decreases, i.e. we have the equation
+  (S - [sigma]) dt = d[sigma], where S is the total _inhibendum_, and
+  [sigma] the intensity actually inhibited after the time t. Hence t =
+  log (S/S - [sigma]), and [sigma] = S[1 - e^(-t)]. From this law it
+  follows, for example, that equilibrium is never quite obtained for
+  those presentations which continue above the threshold of
+  consciousness, while the rest which cannot so continue are very
+  speedily driven beyond the threshold. More important is the law
+  according to which a presentation freed from inhibition and rising
+  anew into consciousness tends to raise the other presentations with
+  which it is combined. Suppose two presentations p and [pi] united by
+  the residua r and [rho]; then the amount of p's "help" to [pi] is r,
+  the portion of which appropriated by [pi] is given by the ratio [rho]:
+  [pi]; and thus the initial help is r[rho]/[pi].
+
+  But after a time t, when a portion of [rho] represented by [omega] has
+  been actually brought into consciousness, the help afforded in the
+  next instant will be found by the equation
+
+    r[rho]   [rho] - [omega]
+    ------ · --------------- dt = d[omega],
+     [pi]        [rho]
+
+  from which by integration we have the value of [omega].
+
+    [omega] = [rho] {1 - [epsilon]^(-rt/[pi])}.
+
+  So that if there are several [pi]s connected with p by smaller and
+  smaller parts, there will be a definite "serial" order in which they
+  will be revived by p; and on this fact Herbart rests all the phenomena
+  of the so-called faculty of memory, the development of spatial and
+  temporal forms and much besides. Emotions and volitions, he holds, are
+  not directly self-preservations of the soul, as our presentations are,
+  but variable states of such presentations resulting from their
+  interaction when above the threshold of consciousness. Thus when some
+  presentations tend to force a presentation into consciousness, and
+  others at the same time tend to drive it out, that presentation is the
+  seat of painful feeling; when, on the other hand, its entrance is
+  favoured by all, pleasure results. Desires are presentations
+  struggling into consciousness against hindrances, and when accompanied
+  by the supposition of success become volitions. Transcendental freedom
+  of will in Kant's sense is an impossibility. Self-consciousness is the
+  result of an interaction essentially the same in kind as that which
+  takes place when a comparatively simple presentation finds the field
+  of consciousness occupied by a long-formed and well-consolidated
+  "mass" of presentations--as, e.g. one's business or garden, the
+  theatre, &c., which promptly inhibit the isolated presentation if
+  incongruent, and unite it to themselves if not. What we call Self is,
+  above all, such a central mass, and Herbart seeks to show with great
+  ingenuity and detail how this position is occupied at first chiefly by
+  the body, then by the seat of ideas and desires, and finally by that
+  first-personal Self which recollects the past and resolves concerning
+  the future. But at any stage the actual constituents of this
+  "complexion" are variable; the concrete presentation of Self is never
+  twice the same. And, therefore, finding on reflection any particular
+  concrete factor contingent, we abstract the position from that which
+  occupies it, and so reach the speculative notion of the pure Ego.
+
+  _Aesthetics_ elaborates the "ideas" involved in the expression of
+  taste called forth by those relations of object which acquire for them
+  the attribution of beauty or the reverse. The beautiful ([Greek:
+  kalon]) is to be carefully distinguished from the allied conceptions
+  of the useful and the pleasant, which vary with time, place and
+  person; whereas beauty is predicated absolutely and involuntarily by
+  all who have attained the right standpoint. Ethics, which is but one
+  branch of aesthetics, although the chief, deals with such relations
+  among volitions (_Willensverhältnisse_) as thus unconditionally please
+  or displease. These relations Herbart finds to be reducible to five,
+  which do not admit of further simplification; and corresponding to
+  them are as many moral ideas (_Musterbegriffe_), viz.: (1) _Internal
+  Freedom_, the underlying relation being that of the individual's will
+  to his judgment of it; (2) _Perfection_, the relation being that of
+  his several volitions to each other in respect of intensity, variety
+  and concentration; (3) _Benevolence_, the relation being that between
+  his own will and the thought of another's; (4) _Right_, in case of
+  actual conflict with another; and (5) _Retribution_ or _Equity_, for
+  intended good or evil done. The ideas of a final society, a system of
+  rewards and punishments, a system of administration, a system of
+  culture and a "unanimated society," corresponding to the ideas of law,
+  equity, benevolence, perfection and internal freedom respectively,
+  result when we take account of a number of individuals. Virtue is the
+  perfect conformity of the will with the moral ideas; of this the
+  single virtues are but special expressions. The conception of duty
+  arises from the existence of hindrances to the attainment of virtue. A
+  general scheme of principles of conduct is possible, but the
+  subsumption of special cases under these must remain matter of tact.
+  The application of ethics to things as they are with a view to the
+  realization of the moral ideas is moral technology (_Tugendlehre_), of
+  which the chief divisions are Paedagogy and Politics.
+
+  In _Theology_ Herbart held the argument from design to be as valid for
+  divine activity as for human, and to justify the belief in a
+  super-sensible real, concerning which, however, exact knowledge is
+  neither attainable nor on practical grounds desirable.
+
+  Among the post-Kantian philosophers Herbart doubtless ranks next to
+  Hegel in importance, and this without taking into account his very
+  great contributions to the science of education. His disciples speak
+  of theirs as the "exact philosophy," and the term well expresses their
+  master's chief excellence and the character of the chief influence he
+  has exerted upon succeeding thinkers of his own and other schools. His
+  criticisms are worth more than his constructions; indeed for exactness
+  and penetration of thought he is quite on a level with Hume and Kant.
+  His merits in this respect, however, can only be appraised by the
+  study of his works at first hand. But we are most of all indebted to
+  Herbart for the enormous advance psychology has been enabled to make,
+  thanks to his fruitful treatment of it, albeit as yet but few among
+  the many who have appropriated and improved his materials have
+  ventured to adopt his metaphysical and mathematical foundations.
+       (J. W.*)
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Herbart's works were collected and published by his
+  disciple G. Hartenstein (Leipzig, 1850-1852; reprinted at Hamburg,
+  with supplementary volume, 1883-1893); another edition by K. Kehrbach
+  (Leipzig, 1882, and Langensalza, 1887). The following are the most
+  important: _Allgemeine Pädagogik_ (1806; new ed., 1894); _Hauptpunkte
+  der Metaphysik_ (1808); _Allgemeine praktische Philosophie_ (1808);
+  _Lehrbuch zur Einleitung in die Philosophie_ (1813; new ed. by
+  Hartenstein, 1883); _Lehrbuch der Psychologie_ (1816; new ed. by
+  Hartenstein, 1887); _Psychologie als Wissenschaft_ (1824-1825);
+  _Allgemeine Metaphysik_ (1828-1829); _Encyklopädie der Philosophie_
+  (2nd ed., 1841); _Umriss pädagogischer Vorlesungen_ (2nd ed., 1841);
+  _Psychologische Untersuchungen_ (1839-1840).
+
+  Some of his works have been translated into English under the
+  following titles: _Textbook in Psychology_, by M. K. Smith (1891);
+  _The Science of Education and the Aesthetic Revelation of the World_
+  (1892), and _Letters and Lectures on Education_ (1898), by H. M. and
+  E. Felkin; _A B C of Sense Perception and minor pedagogical works_
+  (New York, 1896), by W. J. Eckhoff and others; _Application of
+  Psychology to the Science of Education_ (1898), by B. C. Mulliner;
+  _Outlines of Educational Doctrine_, by A. F. Lange (1901).
+
+  There is a life of Herbart in Hartenstein's introduction to his
+  _Kleinere philosophische Schriften und Abhandlungen_ (1842-1843) and
+  by F. H. T. Allihn in _Zeitschrift für exacte Philosophie_ (Leipzig,
+  1861), the organ of Herbart and his school, which ceased to appear in
+  1873. In America the National Society for the Scientific Study of
+  Education was originally founded as the National Herbart Society.
+
+  Of the large number of writings dealing with Herbart's works and
+  theories, the following may be mentioned: H. A. Fechner, _Zur Kritik
+  der Grundlagen von Herbart's Metaphysik_ (Leipzig, 1853); J. Kaftan,
+  _Sollen und Sein in ihrem Verhältniss zu einander: eine Studie zur
+  Kritik Herbarts_ (Leipzig, 1872); M. W. Drobisch, _Über die
+  Fortbildung der Philosophie durch Herbart_ (Leipzig, 1876); K. S.
+  Just, _Die Fortbildung der Kant'schen Ethik durch Herbart_ (Eisenach,
+  1876); C. Ufer, _Vorschule der Pädagogik Herbarts_ (1883; Eng. tr. by
+  J. C. Zinser, 1895); G. Közle, _Die pädagogische Schule Herbarts und
+  ihre Lehre_ (Gutersloh, 1889); L. Strümpell, _Das System der Pädagogik
+  Herbarts_ (Leipzig, 1894); J. Christinger, _Herbarts Erziehungslehre
+  und ihre Fortbildner_ (Zürich, 1895); O. H. Lang, _Outline of
+  Herbart's Pedagogics_ (1894); H. M. and E. Felkin, _Introduction to
+  Herbart's Science and Practice of Education_ (1895); C. de Garmo,
+  _Herbart and the Herbartians_ (New York, 1895); E. Wagner, _Die Praxis
+  der Herbartianer_ (Langensalza, 1897) and _Vollständige Darstellung
+  der Lehre Herbarts_ (ib., 1899); J. Adams, _The Herbartian Psychology
+  applied to Education_ (1897); F. H. Hayward, _The Student's Herbart_
+  (1902), _The Critics of Herbartianism_ (1903), _Three Historical
+  Educators: Pestalozzi, Fröbel, Herbart_ (1905), _The Secret of
+  Herbart_ (1907), _The Meaning of Education as interpreted by Herbart_
+  (1907); W. Kinkel, _J. F. Herbart: sein Leben und seine Philosophie_
+  (1903); A. Darroch, _Herbart and the Herbartian Theory of Education_
+  (1903); C. J. Dodd, _Introduction to the Herbartian Principles of
+  Teaching_ (1904); J. Davidson, _A new Interpretation of Herbart's
+  Psychology and Educational Theory through the Philosophy of Leibnitz_
+  (1906); see also J. M. Baldwin, _Dictionary of Psychology and
+  Philosophy_ (1901-1905).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Hence Herbart gave the name Synechology to this branch of
+    metaphysics, instead of the usual one, Cosmology.
+
+  [2] Thus, taking the case above supposed, the share of the inhibendum
+    falling to the smaller presentation b is the fourth term of the
+    proportion a + b : a :: b : ab/(a + b); and so b's remainder is b
+    - ab/(a + b) = b^2/(a + b), which only = 0 when a = [infinity].
+
+
+
+
+HERBELOT DE MOLAINVILLE, BARTHÉLEMY D' (1625-1695), French orientalist,
+was born on the 14th of December 1625 at Paris. He was educated at the
+university of Paris, and devoted himself to the study of oriental
+languages, going to Italy to perfect himself in them by converse with
+the orientals who frequented its sea-ports. There he also made the
+acquaintance of Holstenius, the Dutch humanist (1596-1661), and Leo
+Allatius, the Greek scholar (1586-1669). On his return to France after a
+year and a half, he was received into the house of Fouquet,
+superintendent of finance, who gave him a pension of 1500 livres. Losing
+this on the disgrace of Fouquet in 1661, he was appointed secretary and
+interpreter of Eastern languages to the king. A few years later he again
+visited Italy, when the grand-duke Ferdinand II. of Tuscany presented
+him with a large number of valuable Oriental MSS., and tried to attach
+him to his court. Herbelot, however, was recalled to France by Colbert,
+and received from the king a pension equal to the one he had lost. In
+1692 he succeeded D'Auvergne in the chair of Syriac, in the Collège de
+France. He died in Paris on the 8th of December 1695. His great work is
+the _Bibliothèque orientale, ou dictionnaire universel contenant tout
+ce qui regarde la connaissance des peuples de l'Orient_, which occupied
+him nearly all his life, and was completed in 1697 by A. Galland. It is
+based on the immense Arabic dictionary of Hadji Khalfa, of which indeed
+it is largely an abridged translation, but it also contains the
+substance of a vast number of other Arabic and Turkish compilations and
+manuscripts.
+
+  The _Bibliothèque_ was reprinted at Maestricht (fol. 1776), and at the
+  Hague (4 vols. 4to, 1777-1799). The latter edition is enriched with
+  the contributions of the Dutch orientalist Schultens, Johann Jakob
+  Reiske (1716-1774), and by a supplement provided by Visdelow and
+  Galland. Herbelot's other works, none of which have been published,
+  comprise an _Oriental Anthology_, and an _Arabic, Persian, Turkish and
+  Latin Dictionary_.
+
+
+
+
+HERBERAY DES ESSARTS, NICOLAS DE (d. about 1557), French translator, was
+born in Picardy. He served in the artillery, and at the expressed desire
+of Francis I. he translated into French the first eight books of _Amadis
+de Gaul_ (1540-1548). The remaining books were translated by other
+authors. His other translations from the Spanish include _L'Amant
+maltraité de sa mye_ (1539); _Le Premier Livre de la chronique de dom
+Florès de Grèce_ (1552); and _L'Horloge des princes_ (1555) from
+Guevara. He also translated the works of Josephus (1557). He died about
+1557. The _Amadis de Gaul_ was translated into English by Anthony Munday
+in 1619.
+
+
+
+
+HERBERT (FAMILY). The sudden rising of this English family to great
+wealth and high place is the more remarkable in that its elevation
+belongs to the 15th century and not to that age of the Tudors when many
+new men made their way upwards into the ranks of the nobility. Earlier
+generations of a pedigree which carries the origin of the Herberts to
+Herbert the Chamberlain, a Domesday tenant, being disregarded, their
+patriarch may be taken to be one Jenkin ap Adam (temp. Edward III.), who
+had a small Monmouthshire estate at Llanvapley and the office of master
+sergeant of the lordship of Abergavenny, a place which gave him
+precedence after the steward of that lordship. Jenkin's son, Gwilim ap
+Jenkin, who followed his father as master sergeant, is given six sons by
+the border genealogists, no less than six score pedigrees finding their
+origin in these six brothers. Their order is uncertain, although the
+Progers of Werndee, the last of whom sold his ancestral estate in 1780,
+are reckoned as the senior line of Gwilim's descendants. But Thomas ap
+Gwilim Jenkin, called the fourth son, is ancestor of all those who bore
+the surname of Herbert.
+
+Thomas's fifth son, William or Gwilim ap Thomas, who died in 1446, was
+the first man of the family to make any figure in history. This Gwilim
+ap Thomas was steward of the lordships of Usk and Caerleon under
+Richard, duke of York. Legend makes him a knight on the field of
+Agincourt, but his knighthood belongs to the year 1426. He appears to
+have married twice, his first wife being Elizabeth Bluet of Raglan,
+widow of Sir James Berkeley, and his second a daughter of David Gam, a
+valiant Welsh squire slain at Agincourt. Royal favour enriched Sir
+William, and he was able to buy Raglan Castle from the Lord Berkeley,
+his first wife's son, the deed, which remains among the Beaufort
+muniments, refuting the pedigree-maker's statement that he inherited the
+castle as heir of his mother "Maude, daughter of Sir John Morley." His
+sons William and Richard, both partisans of the White Rose, took the
+surname of Herbert in or before 1461. Playing a part in English affairs
+remote from the Welsh Marches, their lack of a surname may well have
+inconvenienced them, and their choice of the name Herbert can only be
+explained by the suggestion that their long pedigree from Herbert the
+Chamberlain, absurdly represented as a bastard son of Henry I., must
+already have been discovered for them. Copies exist of an alleged
+commission issued by Edward IV. to a committee of Welsh bards for the
+ascertaining of the true ancestry of William Herbert, earl of Pembroke,
+whom "the chiefest men of skill" in the province of South Wales declare
+to be the descendant of "Herbert, a noble lord, natural son to King
+Henry the first," and it is recited that King Edward, after the creation
+of the earldom, commanded the earl and Sir Richard his brother to "take
+their surnames after their first progenitor Herbert fitz Roy and to
+forego the British order and manner." But this commission, whose date
+anticipates by some years the true date of the creation of the earldom,
+is the work of one of the many genealogical forgers who flourished under
+the Tudors.
+
+Sir William Herbert, called by the Welsh Gwilim Ddu or Black William,
+was a baron in 1461 and a Knight of the Garter in the following year.
+With many manors and castles on the Marches he had the castle, town and
+lordship of Pembroke, and after the attainder of Jasper Tudor in 1468
+was created earl of Pembroke. When in July 1469 he was taken by Sir John
+Conyers and the northern Lancastrians on Hedgecote, he was beheaded with
+his brother Sir Richard Herbert of Coldbrook. The second earl while
+still a minor exchanged at the king's desire in 1479 his earldom of
+Pembroke for that of Huntingdon. In 1484 this son of one whom Hall not
+unjustly describes as born "a mean gentleman" contracted to marry
+Katharine the daughter of King Richard III., but her death annulled the
+contract and the earl married Mary, daughter of the Earl Rivers, by whom
+he had a daughter Elizabeth, whose descendants, the Somersets, lived in
+the Herbert's castle of Raglan until the cannon of the parliament broke
+it in ruins. With the second earl's death in 1491 the first Herbert
+earldom became extinct. No claim being set up among the other
+descendants of the first earl, it may be taken that their lines were
+illegitimate. One of the chief difficulties which beset the genealogist
+of the Herberts lies in their Cambrian disregard of the marriage tie,
+bastards and legitimate issue growing up, it would seem, side by side in
+their patriarchal households. Thus the ancestor of the present earls of
+Pembroke and Carnarvon and of the Herbert who was created marquess of
+Powis was a natural son of the first earl, one Richard Herbert, whom the
+restored inscription on his tomb at Abergavenny incorrectly describes as
+a knight. He was constable and porter of Abergavenny Castle, and his son
+William, "a mad fighting fellow" in his youth, married a sister of
+Catherine Parr and thus in 1543 became nearly allied to the king, who
+made him one of the executors of his will. The earldom of Pembroke was
+revived for him in 1551. It is worthy of note that all traces of
+illegitimacy have long since been removed from the arms of the noble
+descendants of Richard Herbert.
+
+The honours and titles of this clan of marchmen make a long list. They
+include the marquessate of Powis, two earldoms with the title of
+Pembroke, two with that of Powis, and the earldoms of Huntingdon and
+Montgomery, Torrington and Carnarvon, the viscountcies of Montgomery and
+Ludlow, fourteen baronies and seven baronetcies. Seven Herberts have
+worn the Garter. The knights and rich squires of the stock can hardly be
+reckoned, more especially as they must be sought among Raglans, Morgans,
+Parrys, Vaughans, Progers, Hugheses, Thomases, Philips, Powels, Gwyns,
+Evanses and Joneses, as well as among those who have borne the surname
+of Herbert, a surname which in the 19th century was adopted by the
+Joneses of Llanarth and Clytha, although they claim no descent from
+those sons of Sir William ap Thomas for whom it was devised.     (O. Ba.)
+
+
+
+
+HERBERT, GEORGE (1593-1633), English poet, was born at Montgomery Castle
+on the 3rd of April 1593. He was the fifth son of Sir Richard Herbert
+and a brother of Lord Herbert of Cherbury. His mother, Lady Magdalen
+Herbert, a woman of great good sense and sweetness of character, and a
+friend of John Donne, exercised great influence over her son. Educated
+privately until 1605, he was then sent to Westminster School, and in
+1609 he became a scholar of Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was
+made B.A. in 1613, M.A. and major fellow of the college in 1616. In 1618
+he became Reader in Rhetoric, and in 1619 orator for the university. In
+this capacity he was several times brought into contact with King James.
+From Cambridge he wrote some Latin satiric verses[1] in defence of the
+universities and the English Church against Andrew Melville, a Scottish
+Presbyterian minister. He numbered among his friends Dr Donne, Sir
+Henry Wotton, Izaak Walton, Bishop Andrewes and Francis Bacon, who
+dedicated to him his translation of the Psalms. Walton tells us that
+"the love of a court conversation, mixed with a laudable ambition to be
+something more than he was, drew him often from Cambridge to attend the
+king wheresoever the court was," and James I. gave him in 1623 the
+sinecure lay rectory of Whitford, Flintshire, worth £120 a year. The
+death of his patrons, the duke of Richmond and the marquess of Hamilton,
+and of King James put an end to his hopes of political preferment;
+moreover he probably distrusted the conduct of affairs under the new
+reign. Largely influenced by his mother, he decided to take holy orders,
+and in July 1626 he was appointed prebendary of Layton Ecclesia
+(Leighton Bromswold), Huntingdon. Here he was within two miles of Little
+Gidding, and came under the influence of Nicholas Ferrar. It was at
+Ferrar's suggestion that he undertook to rebuild the church at Layton,
+an undertaking carried through by his own gifts and the generosity of
+his friends. There is little doubt that the close friendship with Ferrar
+had a large share in Herbert's adoption of the religious life. In 1630
+Charles I., at the instance of the earl of Pembroke, whose kinsman
+Herbert was, presented him to the living of Fugglestone with Bemerton,
+near Salisbury, and he was ordained priest in September. A year before,
+after three days' acquaintance, he had married Jane Danvers, whose
+father had been set on the marriage for a long time. He had often spoken
+of his daughter Jane to Herbert, and "so much commended Mr Herbert to
+her, that Jane became so much a Platonic as to fall in love with Mr
+Herbert unseen." The story of the poet's life at Bemerton, as told by
+Walton, is one of the most exquisite pictures in literary biography. He
+devoted much time to explaining the meaning of the various parts of the
+Prayer-Book, and held services twice every day, at which many of the
+parishioners attended, and some "let their plough rest when Mr Herbert's
+saints-bell rung to prayers, that they might also offer their devotions
+to God with him." Next to Christianity itself he loved the English
+Church. He was passionately fond of music, and his own hymns were
+written to the accompaniment of his lute or viol. He usually walked
+twice a week to attend the cathedral at Salisbury, and before returning
+home, would "sing and play his part" at a meeting of music lovers.
+Walton illustrates Herbert's kindness to the poor by many touching
+anecdotes, but he had not been three years in Bemerton when he succumbed
+to consumption. He was buried beneath the altar of his church on the 3rd
+of March 1633.
+
+None of Herbert's English poems was published during his lifetime. On
+his death-bed he gave to Nicholas Ferrar a manuscript with the title
+_The Temple: Sacred Poems and Private Ejaculations_. This was published
+at Cambridge, apparently for private circulation, almost immediately
+after Herbert's death, and a second imprint followed in the same year.
+On the title-page of both is the quotation "In his Temple doth every man
+speak of his honour." _The Temple_ is a collection of religious poems
+connected by unity of sentiment and inspiration. Herbert tried to
+interpret his own devout meditations by applying images of all kinds to
+the ritual and beliefs of the Church. Nothing in his own church at
+Bemerton was too commonplace to serve as a starting-point for the
+epigrammatic expression of his piety. The church key reminds him that
+"it is my sin that locks his handes," and the stones of the floor are
+patience and humility, while the cement that binds them together is love
+and charity. The chief faults of the book are obscurity, verbal conceits
+and a forced ingenuity which shows itself in grotesque puns, odd metres
+and occasional want of taste. But the quaint beauty of Herbert's style
+and its musical quality give _The Temple_ a high place. "The Church
+Porch," "The Agony," "Sin," "Sunday," "Virtue," "Man," "The British
+Church," "The Quip," "The Collar," "The Pulley," "The Flower," "Aaron"
+and "The Elixir" are among the best known of these poems. Herbert and
+Keble are the poets of Anglican theology. No book is fuller of devotion
+to the Church of England than _The Temple_, and no poems in our language
+exhibit more of the spirit of true Christianity. Every page is marked by
+transparent sincerity, and reflects the beautiful character of "holy
+George Herbert."
+
+  Nicholas Ferrar's translation (Oxford, 1638) of the _Hundred and Ten
+  Considerations ..._ of Juan de Valdes contained a letter and notes by
+  Herbert. In 1652 appeared _Herbert's Remains; or, Sundry Pieces of
+  that Sweet Singer of the Temple, Mr George Herbert_. This included _A
+  Priest to the Temple; or, The Country Parson, his Character, and Rule
+  of Holy Life_, in prose; _Jacula prudentum_, a collection of proverbs
+  with a separate title-page dated 1651, which had appeared in a shorter
+  form as _Outlandish Proverbs_ in 1640; and some miscellaneous matter.
+  The completest edition of his works is that by Dr A. B. Grosart in
+  1874, this edition of the Poetical works being reproduced in the
+  "Aldine edition" in 1876. _The English Works of George Herbert ..._ (3
+  vols., 1905) were edited in much detail by G. H. Palmer. A
+  contemporary account of Herbert's life by Barnabas Oley was prefixed
+  to the _Remains_ of 1652, but the classic authority is Izaak Walton's
+  _Life of Mr George Herbert_, published in 1670, with some letters from
+  Herbert to his mother. See also A. G. Hyde, _George Herbert and his
+  Times_ (1907), and the "Oxford" edition of his poems by A. Waugh
+  (1908).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Printed in 1662 as an appendix to J. Vivian's _Ecclesiastes
+    Solomonis_.
+
+
+
+
+HERBERT, HENRY WILLIAM ["Frank Forester"] (1807-1858), English novelist
+and writer on sport, son of the Hon. and Rev. William Herbert, dean of
+Manchester, a son of the first earl of Carnarvon, was born in London on
+the 3rd of April 1807. He was educated at Eton and at Caius College,
+Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. in 1830. Having become involved in
+debt, he emigrated to America, and from 1831 to 1839 was teacher of
+Greek in a private school in New York. In 1833 he started the _American
+Monthly Magazine_, which he edited, in conjunction with A. D. Patterson,
+till 1835. In 1834 he published his first novel, _The Brothers: a Tale
+of the Fronde_, which was followed by a number of others which obtained
+a certain degree of popularity. He also wrote a series of historical
+studies, including _The Cavaliers of England_ (1852), _The Knights of
+England, France and Scotland_ (1852), _The Chevaliers of France_ (1853),
+and _The Captains of the Old World_ (1851); but he is best known for his
+works on sport, published under the pseudonym of "Frank Forester." These
+include _The Field Sports of the United States and British Provinces_
+(1849), _Frank Forester and his Friends_ (1849), _The Fish and Fishing
+of the United States_ (1850), _The Young Sportsman's Complete Manual_
+(1852), and _The Horse and Horsemanship in the United States and British
+Provinces of North America_ (1858). He also translated many of the
+novels of Eugene Sue and Alexandre Dumas. Herbert was a man of varied
+accomplishments, but of somewhat dissipated habits. He died by his own
+hand in New York on the 17th of May 1858.
+
+
+
+
+HERBERT, SIR THOMAS (1606-1682), English traveller and author, was born
+at York in 1606. Several of his ancestors were aldermen and merchants in
+that city--e.g. his grandfather and benefactor, Alderman Herbert (d.
+1614)--and they traced a connexion with the earls of Pembroke. Thomas
+became a commoner of Jesus College, Oxford, in 1621, but afterwards
+removed to Cambridge, through the influence of his uncle Dr Ambrose
+Akroyd. In 1627 the earl of Pembroke procured his appointment in the
+suite of Sir Dodmore Cotton, then starting as ambassador for Persia with
+Sir Robert Shirley. Sailing in March they visited the Cape, Madagascar,
+Goa and Surat; landing at Gambrun (10th of January 1627-1628), they
+travelled inland to Ashraf and thence to Kazvin, where both Cotton and
+Shirley died, and whence Herbert made extensive travels in the Persian
+_Hinterland_, visiting Kashan, Bagdad, &c. On his return voyage he
+touched at Ceylon, the Coromandel coast, Mauritius and St Helena. He
+reached England in 1629, travelled in Europe in 1630-1631, married in
+1632 and retired from court in 1634 (his prospects perhaps blighted by
+Pembroke's death in 1630); after this he resided on his Tintern estate
+and elsewhere till the Civil War, siding with the parliament till his
+appointment to attend on the king in 1646. Becoming a devoted royalist,
+he was rewarded with a baronetcy at the Restoration (1660). He resided
+mainly in York Street, Westminster, till the Great Plague (1666), when
+he retired to York, where he died (at Petergate House) on the 1st of
+March 1682.
+
+  Herbert's chief work is the _Description of the Persian Monarchy now
+  beinge: the Orientall Indyes, Iles and other parts of the Greater Asia
+  and Africk_ (1634), reissued with additions, &c., in 1638 as _Some
+  Yeares Travels into Africa and Asia the Great_ (al. _into divers parts
+  of Asia and Afrique_); a third edition followed in 1664, and a fourth
+  in 1677. This is one of the best records of 17th-century travel. Among
+  its illustrations are remarkable sketches of the dodo, cuneiform
+  inscriptions and Persepolis. Herbert's _Threnodia Carolina; or,
+  Memoirs of the two last years of the reign of that unparallell'd
+  prince of ever blessed memory King Charles I._, was in great part
+  printed at the author's request in Wood's _Athenae Oxonienses_; in
+  full by Dr C. Goodall in his _Collection of Tracts_ (1702, repr. G. &
+  W. Nicol, 1813). Sir William Dugdale is understood to have received
+  assistance from Herbert in the _Monasticon Anglicanum_, vol. iv.; see
+  two of Herbert's papers on St John's, Beverley and Ripon collegiate
+  church, now cathedral, in Drake's _Eboracum_ (appendix). Cf. also
+  Robert Davies' account of Herbert in _The Yorkshire Archaeological and
+  Topographical Journal_, part iii., pp. 182-214 (1870), containing a
+  facsimile of the inscription on Herbert's tomb; Wood's _Athenae_, iv.
+  15-41; and _Fasti_, ii. 26, 131, 138, 143-144, 150.
+
+
+
+
+HERBERT OF CHERBURY, EDWARD HERBERT, BARON (1583-1648), English soldier,
+diplomatist, historian and religious philosopher, eldest son of Richard
+Herbert of Montgomery Castle (a member of a collateral branch of the
+family of the earls of Pembroke) and of Magdalen, daughter of Sir
+Richard Newport, was born at Eyton-on-Severn near Wroxeter on the 3rd of
+March 1583. After careful private tuition he matriculated at University
+College, Oxford, as a gentleman commoner, in May 1596. On the 28th of
+February 1599 he married his cousin Mary, daughter and heiress of Sir
+William Herbert (d. 1593). He returned to Oxford with his wife and
+mother, continued his studies, and obtained proficiency in modern
+languages as well as in music, riding and fencing. On the accession of
+James I. he presented himself at court and was created a knight of the
+Bath on the 24th of July 1603. In 1608 he went to Paris, enjoying the
+friendship and hospitality of the old constable de Montmorency, and
+being entertained by Henry IV. On his return, as he says himself with
+naïve vanity, he was "in great esteem both in court and city, many of
+the greatest desiring my company." In 1610 he served as a volunteer in
+the Low Countries under the prince of Orange, whose intimate friend he
+became, and distinguished himself at the capture of Juliers from the
+emperor. He offered to decide the war by engaging in single combat with
+a champion chosen from among the enemy, but his challenge was declined.
+During an interval in the fighting he paid a visit to Spinola, in the
+Spanish camp near Wezel, and afterwards to the elector palatine at
+Heidelberg, subsequently travelling in Italy. At the instance of the
+duke of Savoy he led an expedition of 4000 Huguenots from Languedoc into
+Piedmont to help the Savoyards against Spain, but after nearly losing
+his life in the journey to Lyons he was imprisoned on his arrival there,
+and the enterprise came to nothing. Thence he returned to the
+Netherlands and the prince of Orange, arriving in England in 1617. In
+1619 he was made by Buckingham ambassador at Paris, but a quarrel with
+de Luynes and a challenge sent by him to the latter occasioned his
+recall in 1621. After the death of de Luynes Herbert resumed his post in
+February 1622. He was very popular at the French court and showed
+considerable diplomatic ability, his chief objects being to accomplish
+the union between Charles and Henrietta Maria and secure the assistance
+of Louis XIII. for the unfortunate elector palatine. This latter
+advantage he could not obtain, and he was dismissed in April 1624. He
+returned home greatly in debt and received little reward for his
+services beyond the Irish peerage of Castle island in 1624 and the
+English barony of Cherbury, or Chirbury, on the 7th of May 1629. In 1632
+he was appointed a member of the council of war. He attended the king at
+York in 1639, and in May 1642 was imprisoned by the parliament for
+urging the addition of the words "without cause" to the resolution that
+the king violated his oath by making war on parliament. He determined
+after this to take no further part in the struggle, retired to
+Montgomery Castle, and declined the king's summons. On the 5th of
+September 1644 he surrendered the castle to the parliamentary forces,
+returned to London, submitted, and was granted a pension of £20 a week.
+In 1647 he paid a visit to Gassendi at Paris, and died in London on the
+20th of August, 1648, being buried in the church of St Giles's in the
+Fields.
+
+Lord Herbert left two sons, Richard (c. 1600-1655), who succeeded him as
+2nd Lord Herbert of Cherbury, and Edward, the title becoming extinct in
+the person of Henry Herbert, the 4th baron, grandson of the 1st Lord
+Herbert in 1691. In 1694, however, it was revived in favour of Henry
+Herbert (1654-1709), son of Sir Henry Herbert (1595-1673), brother of
+the 1st Lord Herbert of Cherbury. Sir Henry was master of the revels to
+Charles I. and Charles II., being busily employed in reading and
+licensing plays and in supervising all kinds of public entertainments.
+He died in April 1673; his son Henry died in January 1709, when the
+latter's son Henry became 2nd Lord Herbert of Cherbury of the second
+creation. He died without issue in April 1738, and again the barony
+became extinct. In 1743 it was revived for Henry Arthur Herbert (c.
+1703-1772), who five years later was created earl of Powis. This
+nobleman was a great-grandson of the 2nd Lord Herbert of Cherbury of the
+first creation, and since his time the barony has been held by the earls
+of Powis.
+
+Lord Herbert's cousin, Sir Edward Herbert (c. 1591-1657), was a member
+of parliament under James I. and Charles I. Having become
+attorney-general he was instructed by Charles to take proceedings
+against some members of parliament who had been concerned in the passing
+of the Grand Remonstrance; the only result, however, was Herbert's own
+impeachment by the House of Commons and his imprisonment. Later in life
+he was with the exiled royal family in Holland and in France, becoming
+lord keeper of the great seal to Charles II., an office which he had
+refused in 1645. He died in Paris in December 1657. One of Herbert's son
+was Arthur Herbert, earl of Torrington, and another was Sir Edward
+Herbert (c. 1648-1698), titular earl of Portland, who was made chief
+justice of the king's bench in 1685 in succession to Lord Jeffreys. It
+was Sir Edward who declared for the royal prerogative in the case of
+_Godden_ v. _Hales_, asserting that the kings of England, being
+sovereign princes, could dispense with particular laws in particular
+cases. After the escape of James II. to France this king made Herbert
+his lord chancellor and created him earl of Portland, although he was a
+Protestant and had exhibited a certain amount of independence during
+1687.
+
+  The first Lord Herbert's real claim to fame and remembrance is derived
+  from his writings. Herbert's first and most important work is the _De
+  veritate prout distinguitur a revelatione, a verisimili, a possibili,
+  et a falso_ (Paris, 1624; London, 1633; translated into French 1639,
+  but never into English; a MS. in add. MSS. 7081. Another, Sloane MSS.
+  3957, has the author's dedication to his brother George in his own
+  hand, dated 1622). It combines a theory of knowledge with a partial
+  psychology, a methodology for the investigation of truth, and a scheme
+  of natural religion. The author's method is prolix and often far from
+  clear; the book is no compact system, but it contains the skeleton and
+  much of the soul of a complete philosophy. Giving up all past theories
+  as useless, Herbert professedly endeavours to constitute a new and
+  true system. Truth, which he defines as a just conformation of the
+  faculties with one another and with their objects, he distributed into
+  four classes or stages: (1) truth in the thing or the truth of the
+  object; (2) truth of the appearance; (3) truth of the apprehension
+  (_conceptus_); (4) truth of the intellect. The faculties of the mind
+  are as numerous as the differences of their objects, and are
+  accordingly innumerable; but they may be arranged in four groups. The
+  first and fundamental and most certain group is the _Natural
+  Instinct_, to which belong the [Greek: koinai ennoiai], the _notitiae
+  communes_, which are innate, of divine origin and indisputable. The
+  second group, the next in certainty, is the _sensus internus_ (under
+  which head Herbert discusses amongst others love, hate, fear,
+  conscience with its _communis notitia_, and free will); the third is
+  the _sensus externus_; and the fourth is _discursus_, reasoning, to
+  which, as being the least certain, we have recourse when the other
+  faculties fail. The ratiocinative faculties proceed by division and
+  analysis, by questioning, and are slow and gradual in their movement;
+  they take aid from the other faculties, those of the _instinctus
+  naturalis_ being always the final test. Herbert's categories or
+  questions to be used in investigation are ten in number whether (a
+  thing is), what, of what sort, how much, in what relation, how, when,
+  where, whence, wherefore. No faculty, rightly used, can err "even in
+  dreams"; badly exercised, reasoning becomes the source of almost all
+  our errors. The discussion of the _notitiae communes_ is the most
+  characteristic part of the book. The exposition of them, though highly
+  dogmatic, is at times strikingly Kantian in substance. "So far are
+  these elements or sacred principles from being derived from experience
+  or observation that without some of them, or at least some one of
+  them, we can neither experience nor even observe." Unless we felt
+  driven by them to explore the nature of things, "it would never occur
+  to us to distinguish one thing from another." It cannot be said that
+  Herbert proves the existence of the common notions; he does not deduce
+  them or even give any list of them. But each faculty has its common
+  notion; and they may be distinguished by six marks, their _priority_,
+  _independence_, _universality_, _certainty_, _necessity_ (for the
+  well-being of man), and _immediacy_. Law is based on certain _common
+  notions_; so is religion. Though Herbert expressly defines the scope
+  of his book as dealing with the intellect, not faith, it is the common
+  notions of religion he has illustrated most fully; and it is plain
+  that it is in this part of his system that he is chiefly interested.
+  The common notions of religion are the famous five articles, which
+  became the charter of the English deists (see DEISM). There is little
+  polemic against the received form of Christianity, but Herbert's
+  attitude towards the Church's doctrine is distinctly negative, and he
+  denies revelation except to the individual soul. In the _De religione
+  gentilium_ (completed 1645, published Amsterdam, 1663, translated into
+  English by W. Lewis, London, 1705) he gives what may be called, in
+  Hume's words, "a natural history of religion." By examining the
+  heathen religions Herbert finds, to his great delight, the
+  universality of his five great articles, and that these are clearly
+  recognizable under their absurdities as they are under the rites,
+  ceremonies and polytheism invented by sacerdotal superstition. The
+  same vein is maintained in the tracts _De causis errorum_, an
+  unfinished work on logical fallacies, _Religio laici_, and _Ad
+  sacerdotes de religione laici_ (1645). In the _De veritate_ Herbert
+  produced the first purely metaphysical treatise written by an
+  Englishman, and in the _De religione gentilium_ one of the earliest
+  studies extant in comparative theology; while both his metaphysical
+  speculations and his religious views are throughout distinguished by
+  the highest originality and provoked considerable controversy. His
+  achievements in historical writing are vastly inferior, and vitiated
+  by personal aims and his preoccupation to gain the royal favour.
+  Herbert's first historical work is the _Expeditio Buckinghami ducis_
+  (published in a Latin translation in 1656 and in the original English
+  by the earl of Powis for the Philobiblon Society in 1860), a defence
+  of Buckingham's conduct of the ill-fated expedition of 1627. _The Life
+  and Raigne of King Henry VIII._ (1649) derives its chief value from
+  its composition from original documents, but is ill-proportioned, and
+  the author judges the character and statesmanship of Henry with too
+  obvious a partiality.
+
+  His poems, published in 1665 (reprinted and edited by J. Churton
+  Collins in 1881), show him in general a faithful disciple of Donne,
+  obscure and uncouth. His satires are miserable compositions, but a few
+  of his lyrical verses show power of reflection and true inspiration,
+  while his use of the metre afterwards employed by Tennyson in his "In
+  Memoriam" is particularly happy and effective. His Latin poems are
+  evidence of his scholarship. Three of these had appeared together with
+  the _De causis errorum_ in 1645. To these works must be added _A
+  Dialogue between a Tutor and a Pupil_ (1768; a treatise on education,
+  MS. in the Bodleian Library); a treatise on the king's supremacy in
+  the Church (MS. in the Record Office and at Queen's College, Oxford),
+  and his well-known autobiography, first published by Horace Walpole in
+  1764, a naïve and amusing narrative, too much occupied, however, with
+  his duels and amorous adventures, to the exclusion of more creditable
+  incidents in his career, such as his contributions to philosophy and
+  history, his intimacy with Donne, Ben Jonson, Selden and Carew,
+  Casaubon, Gassendi and Grotius, or his embassy in France, in relation
+  to which he only described the splendour of his retinue and his social
+  triumphs.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The autobiography edited by Sidney Lee with
+  correspondence from add. MSS. 7082 (1886); article in the _Dict. of
+  Nat. Biog._ by the same writer and the list of authorities there
+  collated; _Hist. MSS. Comm. Rep._ x. app. iv., 378; _Lord Herbert de
+  Cherbury_, by Charles de Rémusat (1874); _Eduard, Lord Herbert von
+  Cherbury_, by C. Güttler (a criticism of his philosophy; 1897);
+  _Collections Historical and Archaeological_ relating to
+  Montgomeryshire, vols. vii., xi., xx.; R. Warner's _Epistolary
+  Curiosities_, i. ser.; Reid's works, edited by Sir William Hamilton;
+  _National Review_, xxxv. 661 (Leslie Stephen); Locke's _Essay on Human
+  Understanding_; Wood, _Ath. Oxon._ (Bliss), iii. 239; _Gentleman's
+  Magazine_ (1816), i. 201 (print of remains of his birthplace); _Lord
+  Herbert's Poems_, ed. by J. Churton Collins (1881); Aubrey's _Lives of
+  Eminent Men_; also works quoted under DEISM.
+
+
+
+
+HERBERT OF LEA, SIDNEY HERBERT, 1ST BARON (1810-1861), English
+statesman, was the younger son of the 11th earl of Pembroke. Educated at
+Harrow and Oriel, Oxford, he made a reputation at the Oxford Union as a
+speaker, and entered the House of Commons as Conservative member for a
+division of Wiltshire in 1832. Under Peel he held minor offices, and in
+1845 was included in the cabinet as secretary at war, and again held
+this office in 1852-1855, being responsible for the War Office during
+the Crimean difficulties, and in 1859. It was Sidney Herbert who sent
+Florence Nightingale out to the Crimea, and he led the movement for War
+Office reform after the war, the hard work entailed causing his
+breakdown in health, so that in July 1861, having been created a baron,
+he had to resign office, and died on the 2nd of August 1861. His statue
+was placed in front of the War Office in Pall Mall. He was succeeded in
+the title by his eldest son, who later became 13th earl of Pembroke, and
+the barony is now merged in that earldom; his second son became 14th
+earl. Another son, the Hon. Michael Herbert (1857-1904), was British
+Ambassador at Washington in succession to Lord Pauncefote.
+
+  A life of Lord Herbert by Lord Stanmore was published in 1906.
+
+
+
+
+HERBERTON, a mining town of Cardwell county, Queensland, Australia, 55
+m. S.W. of Cairns. Pop. (1901) 2806. Tin was discovered in the locality
+in 1879, and to this mineral the town chiefly owes its prosperity,
+though copper, bismuth and some silver and gold are also found.
+Atherton, 12 m. from the town, is served by rail from Cairns, which is
+the port for the Herberton district.
+
+
+
+
+HERCULANEUM, an ancient city of Italy, situated about two-thirds of a
+mile from the Portici station of the railway from Naples to Pompeii. The
+ruins are less frequently visited than those of Pompeii, not only
+because they are smaller in extent and of less obvious interest, but
+also because they are more difficult of access. The history of their
+discovery and exploration, and the artistic and literary relics which
+they have yielded, are worthy, however, of particular notice. The small
+part of the city, which was investigated at the spot called _Gli scavi
+nuovi_ (the new excavations) was discovered in the 19th century. But the
+more important works were executed in the 18th century; and of the
+buildings then explored at a great depth, by means of tunnels, none is
+visible except the theatre, the orchestra of which lies 85 ft. below the
+surface.
+
+The brief notices of the classical writers inform us that Herculaneum[1]
+was a small city of Campania between Neapolis and Pompeii, that it was
+situated between two streams at the foot of Vesuvius on a hill
+overlooking the sea, and that its harbour was at all seasons safe. With
+regard to its earlier history nothing is known. The account given by
+Dionysius repeats a tradition which was most natural for a city bearing
+the name of Hercules. Strabo follows up the topographical data with a
+few brief historical statements--[Greek: Oskoi eichon kai tautên kai tên
+ephexês Pompêian ... eita Turrhênoi kai Pelasgoi, meta tauta Saunitai].
+But leaving the questions suggested by these names (see ETRURIA,
+&c.),[2] as well as those which relate to the origin of Pompeii (q.v.),
+it is sufficient here to say that the first historical record about
+Herculaneum has been handed down by Livy (viii. 25), where he relates
+how the city fell under the power of Rome during the Samnite wars. It
+remained faithful to Rome for a long time, but it joined the Italian
+allies in the Social War. Having submitted anew in June of the year 665
+(88 B.C.), it appears to have been less severely treated than Pompeii,
+and to have escaped the imposition of a colony of Sulla's veterans,
+although Zumpt has suspected the contrary (_Comm. epigr._ i. 259). It
+afterwards became a municipium, and enjoyed great prosperity towards the
+close of the republic and in the earlier times of the empire, since many
+noble families of Rome selected this pleasant spot for the construction
+of splendid villas, one of which indeed belonged to the imperial house
+(Seneca, _De ira_, iii.), and another to the family of Calpurnius Piso.
+By means of the Via Campana it had easy communication north-westward
+with Neapolis, Puteoli and Capua, and thence by the Via Appia with Rome;
+and southwards with Pompeii and Nuceria, and thence with Lucania and the
+Bruttii. In the year A.D. 63 it suffered terribly from the earthquake
+which, according to Seneca, "Campaniam nunquam securam huius mali,
+indemnem tamen, et toties defunctam metu magna strage vastavit. Nam et
+Herculanensis oppidi pars ruit dubieque stant etiam quae relicta sunt"
+(_Nat. quaest._ vi. 1). Hardly had Herculaneum completed the restoration
+of some of its principal buildings (cf. Mommsen, I.N. n. 2384; _Catalogo
+del Museo Nazionale di Napoli_, n. 1151) when it fell beneath the great
+eruption of the year 79, described by Pliny the younger (_Ep._ vi. 16,
+20), in which Pompeii also was destroyed, with other flourishing cities
+of Campania. According to the commonest account, on the 23rd of August
+of that year Pliny the elder, who had command of the Roman fleet at
+Misenum, set out to render assistance to a young lady of noble family
+named Rectina and others dwelling on that coast, but, as there was no
+escape by sea, the little harbour having been on a sudden filled up so
+as to be inaccessible, he was obliged to abandon to their fate those
+people of Herculaneum who had managed to flee from their houses,
+overwhelmed in a moment by the material poured forth by Vesuvius. But
+the text of Pliny the younger, where this account is given, has been
+subjected to various interpretations; and from the comparison of other
+classical testimonies and the study of the excavations it has been
+concluded that it is impossible to determine the date of the
+catastrophe, though there are satisfactory arguments to justify the
+statement that the event took place in the autumn. The opinion that
+immediately after the first outbreak of Vesuvius a torrent of lava was
+ejected over Herculaneum was refuted by the scholars of the 18th
+century, and their refutation is confirmed by Beulé (_Le Drame du
+Vésuve_, p. 240 seq.). And the last recensions of the passage quoted
+from Pliny, aided by an inscription,[3] prove that Rectina cannot have
+been the name of the harbour described by Beulé (ib. pp. 122, 247), but
+the name of a lady who had implored succour, the wife of Caesius Bassus,
+or rather Tascius (cf. Pliny, ed. Keil, Leipzig, 1870; Aulus Persius,
+ed. Jahn, _Sat._ vi.). The shore, moreover, according to the accurate
+studies of the engineer Michele Ruggiero, director of the excavations,
+was not altered by the causes adduced by Beulé (p. 125), but by a
+simpler event. "It is certain," he says (_Pompei e la regione sotterrata
+dal Vesuvio l'anno 79_, Naples, 1879, p. 21 seq.), "that the districts
+between the south and west, and those between the south and east, were
+overwhelmed in two quite different ways. From Torre Annunziata (which is
+believed to be the site of the ancient Oplontii) to San Giovanni a
+Teduccio, for a distance of about 9 m., there flowed a muddy eruption
+which in Herculaneum and the neighbouring places, where it was most
+abundant, raised the level of the country more than 65 ft. The matter
+transported consisted of soil of various kinds--sand, ashes, fragments
+of lava, pozzolana and whitish pumice, enclosing grains of uncalcined
+lime, similar in every respect to those of Pompeii. In the part of
+Herculaneum already excavated the corridors in the upper portions of the
+theatre are compactly filled, up to the head of the arches, with
+pozzolana and pumice transformed into tufa (which proves that the
+formation of this stone may take place in a comparatively short time).
+Tufa is also found in the lowest part of the city towards the sea in
+front of the few houses that have been discovered; and in the very high
+banks that surround them, as also in the lowest part of the theatre,
+there are plainly to be seen earth, sand, ashes, fragments of lava and
+pumice, with little distinction of strata, almost always confused and
+mingled together, and varying from spot to spot in degree of
+compactness. It is clear that this immense congeries of earth and stones
+could not flow in a dry state over those 5 m. of country (in the
+beginning very steep, and at intervals almost level), where certainly it
+would have been arrested and all accumulated in a mound; but it must
+have been borne along by a great quantity of water, the effects of which
+may be distinctly recognized, not only in the filling and choking up
+even of the most narrow, intricate and remote parts of the buildings,
+but also in the formation of the tufa, in which water has so great a
+share; for it cannot be supposed that enough of it has filtered through
+so great a depth of earth. The torrent ran in a few hours to the sea,
+and formed that shallow or lagoon called by Pliny _Subitum Vadum_, which
+prevented the ships approaching the shores." Hence it is that, while
+many made their escape from Pompeii (which was overwhelmed by the fall
+of the small stones and afterwards by the rain of ashes), comparatively
+few can have managed to escape from Herculaneum, and these, according to
+the interpretation given to the inscription preserved in the National
+Museum (Mommsen, _I.N._ n. 2455), found shelter in the neighbouring city
+of Neapolis, where they inhabited a quarter called that of the buried
+city (Suetonius, _Titus_, 8; _C.I.L._ x. No. 1492, in Naples: "Regio
+primaria splendidissima Herculanensium"). The name of Herculaneum, which
+for some time remained attached to the site of the disaster, is
+mentioned in the later itineraries; but in the course of the middle ages
+all recollection of it perished.
+
+  In 1719, while Prince Elbeuf of the house of Lorraine, in command of
+  the armies of Charles VI., was seeking crushed marble to make plaster
+  for his new villa near Portici, he learned from the peasants that
+  there were in the vicinity some pits from which they not only quarried
+  excellent marble, but had extracted many statues in the course of
+  years (see Jorio, _Notizia degli scavi d' Ercolano_, Naples, 1827). In
+  1738, while Colonel D. Rocco de Alcubierre was directing the works for
+  the construction of the "Reali Delizie" at Portici, he received orders
+  from Charles IV. (later, Charles III. of Spain) to begin excavations
+  on the spot where it had been reported to the king that the Elbeuf
+  statues had been found. At first it was believed that a temple was
+  being explored, but afterwards the inscriptions proved that the
+  building was a theatre. This discovery excited the greatest commotion
+  among the scholars of all nations; and many of them hastened to Naples
+  to see the marvellous statues of the Balbi and the paintings on the
+  walls. But everything was kept private, as the government wished to
+  reserve to itself the right of illustrating the monuments. First of
+  all Monsignor Bayardi was brought from Rome and commissioned to write
+  about the antiquities which were being collected in the museum at
+  Portici under the care of Camillo Paderni, and when it was recognized
+  that the prelate had not sufficient learning, and by the progress of
+  the excavations other most abundant material was accumulated, about
+  which at once scholars and courtiers were anxious to be informed,
+  Bernardo Tanucci, having become secretary of state in 1755, founded
+  the Accademia Ercolanese, which published the principal works on
+  Herculaneum (_Le Pitture ed i bronzi d' Ercolano_, 8 vols., 1757,
+  1792; _Dissertations isagogicae ad Herculanensium voluminum
+  explanationem pars prima_, 1797). The criterion which guided the
+  studies of the academicians was far from being worthy of unqualified
+  praise, and consequently their work did not always meet the approval
+  of the best scholars who had the opportunity of seeing the monuments.
+  Among these was Winckelmann, who in his letters gave ample notices of
+  the excavations and the antiquities which he was able to visit on
+  several occasions. Other notices were furnished by Gori, _Symbolae
+  litterariae Florentinae_ (1748, 1751), by Marcello Venuti,
+  _Descrizione delle prime scoperte d' Ercolano_ (Rome, 1748), and
+  Scipione Maffei, _Tre lettere intorno alle scoperte d' Ercolano_
+  (Verona, 1748). The excavations, which continued for more than forty
+  years (1738-1780), were executed at first under the immediate
+  direction of Alcubierre (1738-1741), and then with the assistance of
+  the engineers Rorro and Bardet (1741-1745), Carl Weber (1750-1764),
+  and Francesco La Vega. After the death of Alcubierre (1780) the
+  last-named was appointed director-in-chief of the excavations; but
+  from that time the investigations at Herculaneum were intermitted, and
+  the researches at Pompeii were vigorously carried on. Resumed in 1827,
+  the excavations at Herculaneum were shortly after suspended, nor were
+  the new attempts made in 1866 with the money bestowed by King Victor
+  Emmanuel attended with success, being impeded by the many dangers
+  arising from the houses built overhead. The meagreness of the results
+  obtained by the occasional works executed in the last century, and the
+  fact that the investigators were unfortunate enough to strike upon
+  places already explored, gave rise to the opinion that the whole area
+  of the city had been crossed by tunnels in the time of Charles III.
+  and in the beginning of the reign of Ferdinand IV. And although it is
+  recognized that the works had not been prosecuted with the caution
+  that they required, yet in view of the serious difficulties that would
+  attend the collection of the little that had been left by the first
+  excavators, every proposal for new investigations has been abandoned.
+  But in a memoir which Professor Barnabei read in the Reale Accademia
+  dei Lincei (_Atti della R. Ac._ series iii. vol. ii. p. 751) he
+  undertook to prove that the researches made by the government in the
+  18th century did not cover any great area. The antiquities excavated
+  at Herculaneum in that century (i.e. the 18th) form a collection of
+  the highest scientific and artistic value. They come partly from the
+  buildings of the ancient city (theatre, basilica, houses and forum),
+  and partly from the private villa of a great Roman family (cf.
+  Comparetti and de Petra, _La Villa Ercolanese dei Pisoni_, Turin,
+  1883). From the city come, among many other marble statues, the two
+  equestrian statues of the Balbi (_Museo Borbonico_, vol. ii. pl.
+  xxxviii.-xxxix.), and the great imperial and municipal bronze statues.
+  Mural paintings of extraordinary beauty were also discovered here,
+  such as those that represent Theseus after the slaughter of the
+  Minotaur (Helbig, _Wandgemälde_, Leipzig, 1878, No. 1214), Chiron
+  teaching Achilles the art of playing on the lyre (ibid. No. 1291), and
+  Hercules finding Telephus who is being suckled by the hind (ibid. No.
+  1143).
+
+  Notwithstanding subsequent discoveries of stupendous paintings in the
+  gardens of the Villa Farnesina on the banks of the Tiber, the
+  monochromes of Herculaneum remain among the finest specimens of the
+  exquisite taste and consummate skill displayed by the ancient artists.
+  Among the best preserved is Leto and Niobe, which has been the subject
+  of so many studies and so many publications (ibid. No. 1706). There is
+  also a considerable number of lapidary inscriptions edited in vol. ii.
+  of the epigraphic collection of the _Cat. del Mus. Naz. di Napoli_.
+  The Villa Suburbana has given us a good number of marble busts, and
+  the so-called statue of Aristides, but above all that splendid
+  collection of bronze statues and busts mostly reproductions of famous
+  Greek works now to be found in the Naples Museum. It is thence that we
+  have obtained the reposing Hermes, the drunken Silenus, the sleeping
+  Faunus, the dancing girls, the bust called Plato's, that believed to
+  be Seneca's, the two quoit-throwers or discoboli, and so many
+  masterpieces more, figured by the academicians in their volume on the
+  bronzes. But a still further discovery made in the Villa Suburbana
+  contributed to magnify the greatness of Herculaneum; within its walls
+  was found the famous library, of which, counting both entire and
+  fragmentary volumes, 1803 papyri are preserved. Among the nations
+  which took the greatest interest in the discovery of the Herculaneum
+  library, the most honourable rank belongs to England, which sent
+  Hayter and other scholars to Naples to solicit the publication of the
+  volumes. Of the 341 papyri which have been unrolled, 195 have been
+  published (_Herculanensium voluminum quae supersunt_ (Naples,
+  1793-1809); _Collectio altera_, 1862-1876). They contain works by
+  Epicurus, Demetrius, Polystratus, Colotes, Chrysippus, Carniscus and
+  Philodemus. The names of the authors are in themselves sufficient to
+  show that the library belonged to a person whose principal study was
+  the Epicurean philosophy. But of the great master of this school only
+  a few works have been found. Of his treatise [Greek: Peri physeôs],
+  divided into 37 books, it is known that there were three copies in the
+  library (_Coll. alt._ vi.). Professor Comparetti, studying the first
+  fasciculus of volume xi. of the same new collection, recognized most
+  important fragments of the _Ethics_ of Epicurus, and these he
+  published in 1879 in Nos. ix. and xi. of the _Rivista di filologia e
+  d' istruzione classica_ (Turin). Even the other authors above
+  mentioned are but poorly represented, with the exception of
+  Philodemus, of whom 26 different treatises have been recognized. But
+  all these philosophic discussions, belonging for the most part to an
+  author less than secondary among the Epicureans, fall short of the
+  high expectations excited by the first discovery of the library. Among
+  the many volumes unrolled only a few are of historical
+  importance--that edited by Bücheler, which treats of the philosophers
+  of the academy (_Acad. phil. index Hercul._, Greifswald, 1859), and
+  that edited by Comparetti, which deals with the Stoics ("Papiro
+  ercolanese inedito," in _Rivista di fil. e d' ist. class._ anno iii.
+  fasc. x.-xii.). To appreciate the value of the volumes unrolled but
+  not yet published (for 146 vols. were only copied and not printed) the
+  student must read Comparetti's paper, "Relazione sui papiri
+  ercolanesi." Contributions of some value have been made to the study
+  of Herculaneum fragments by Spengel ("Die hercul. Rollen," in
+  _Philologus_, 1863, suppl. vol.), and Gomperz (_Hercul. Studien_,
+  Leipzig, 1865-1866, cf. _Zeitschr. f. österr. Gymn._, 1867-1872).
+  There are in the library some volumes written in Latin, which,
+  according to Boot (_Notice sur les manuscrits trouvés à Herculaneum_,
+  Amsterdam, 1845), were found tied up in a bundle apart. Of these we
+  know 18, but they are all so damaged that hardly any of them can be
+  deciphered. One with verses relating to the battle of Actium is
+  believed to belong to a poem of Rabirius. The numerical preponderance
+  of the works of Philodemus led some people to believe that this had
+  been the library of that philosopher. Professor Comparetti has thrown
+  out a conjecture (cf. Comparetti and de Petra, op. cit.) that the
+  library was collected by Lucius Piso Caesoninus (see _Regione
+  sotterrata dal Vesuvio_, Naples, 1879, p. 159 sq.), but this
+  conjecture has not found many supporters. Professor de Petra (in the
+  same work) has also published the official notices upon the
+  antiquities unearthed in the sumptuous villa, giving the plan
+  executed by Weber and recovered by chance by the director of
+  excavations, Michele Ruggiero. This plan, which is here reproduced
+  from de Petra[4] is the only satisfactory document for the topography
+  of Herculaneum; for the plan of the theatre published in the
+  _Bullettino archeologico italiano_ (Naples, 1861, i. 53, tab. iii.)
+  was executed in 1747, when the excavations were not completed. And
+  even for the history of the "finds" made in the Villa Suburbana the
+  necessity for further studies makes itself felt, since there is a lack
+  of agreement between the accounts given by Alcubierre and Weber and
+  those communicated to the _Philosophical Transactions_ (London, vol.
+  x.) by Camillo Paderni, conservator of the Portici Museum.
+
+  [Illustration: Plan of Villa Erolanese, Herculaneum.]
+
+  Among the older works relating to Herculaneum, in addition to those
+  already quoted, may be mentioned de Brosses, _Lettre sur l'état actuel
+  de la ville souterraine d'Héracléa_ (Paris, 1750); Seigneux de
+  Correvon, _Lettre sur la découverte de l'ancienne ville d'Herculane_
+  (Yverdon, 1770); David, _Les Antiquités d'Herculaneum_ (Paris, 1780);
+  D' Ancora Gaetano, _Prospetto storico-fisico degli scavi d' Ercolano e
+  di Pompei_ (Naples, 1803); Venuti, _Prime Scoverte di Ercolano_ (Rome,
+  1748); and Romanelli, _Viaggio ad Ercolano_ (Naples, 1811). A full
+  list will be found in vol. i. of _Museo Borbonico_ (Naples, 1824), pp.
+  1-11.
+
+  The most important reference work is C. Waldstein and L. Shoobridge,
+  _Herculaneum, Past, Present and Future_ (London, 1908); it contains
+  full references to the history and the explorations, and to the
+  buildings and objects found (with illustrations). Miss E. R. Barker's
+  _Buried Herculaneum_ (1908) is exceedingly useful.
+
+  In 1904 Professor Waldstein expounded both in Europe and in America an
+  international scheme for thorough investigation of the site.
+  Negotiations of a highly complex character ensued with the Italian
+  government, which ultimately in 1908 decided that the work should be
+  undertaken by Italian scholars with Italian funds. The work was begun
+  in the autumn of 1908, but financial difficulties with property owners
+  in Resina immediately arose with the result that progress was
+  practically stopped.     (F. B.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] A fragment of L. Sisenna calls it "Oppidum tumulo in excelso loco
+    propter mare, parvis moenibus, inter duas fluvias, infra Vesuvium
+    collocatum" (lib. iv., fragm. 53, Peters). Of one of these rivers
+    this historian again makes mention in the passage where probably he
+    related the capture of Herculaneum by Minatius Magius and T. Didius
+    (Velleius Paterculus ii. 16). Further topographical details are
+    supplied by Strabo, who, after speaking about Naples,
+    continues--[Greek: hechomenon de phrourion estin Hrakleion ekkeimenên
+    eis tên thalattan akran echon, katapneomenon Libi thaumastôs hoshth
+    hugieinên poiein tên katoikian]. Dionysius of Halicarnassus relates
+    that Heracles, in the place where he stopped with his fleet on the
+    return voyage from Iberia, founded a little city ([Greek:
+    polichnên]), to which he gave his own name; and he adds that this
+    city was in his time inhabited by the Romans, and that, situated
+    between Neapolis and Pompeii, it had [Greek: limenas en panti kairô
+    bebaious] (i. 44).
+
+  [2] See also Niebuhr, _Hist. of Rome_, i. 76, and Mommsen, _Die
+    unteritalischen Dialekte_ (1850), p. 314; for later discussions see
+    OSCA LINGUA, PELASGIANS.
+
+  [3] _C.I.L._ ii. No. 3866. This Spanish inscription refers to a
+    Rectina who died at the age of 18 and was the wife of Voconius
+    Romanus. It is quite possible that she was the Rectina whom Pliny the
+    elder wished to assist during the disaster of Vesuvius, for her
+    husband, Voconius Romanus, was an intimate friend of Pliny the
+    younger. The latter addressed four letters to Voconius (i. 5, ii. 1,
+    iii. 13, ix. 28), in another letter commended him to the emperor
+    Trajan (x. 3), and in another (ii. 13) says of him: "Hunc ego cum
+    simul studere, mus arte familiariterque dilexi; ille meus in urbe,
+    ille in secessu contubernalis; cum hoc seria et jocos miscui."
+
+  [4] The diagram shows the arrangement and proportions of the Villa
+    Ercolanese. The dotted lines show the course taken by the
+    excavations, which began at the lower part of the plan.
+
+
+
+
+HERCULANO DE CARVALHO E ARAUJO, ALEXANDRE (1810-1877), Portuguese
+historian, was born in Lisbon of humble stock, his grandfather having
+been a foreman stonemason in the royal employ. He received his early
+education, comprising Latin, logic and rhetoric, at the Necessidades
+Monastery, and spent a year at the Royal Marine Academy studying
+mathematics with the intention of entering on a commercial career. In
+1828 Portugal fell under the absolute rule of D. Miguel, and Herculano,
+becoming involved in the unsuccessful military _pronunciamento_ of
+August 1831, had to leave Portugal clandestinely and take refuge in
+England and France. In 1832 he accompanied the Liberal expedition to
+Terceira as a volunteer, and was one of D. Pedro's famous army of 7500
+men who landed at the Mindello and occupied Oporto. He took part in all
+the actions of the great siege, and at the same time served as a
+librarian in the city archives. He published his first volume of verses,
+_A Voz de Propheta_, in 1832, and two years later another entitled _A
+Harpa do Crente_. Privation had made a man of him, and in these little
+books he proves himself a poet of deep feeling and considerable power of
+expression. The stirring incidents in the political emancipation of
+Portugal inspired his muse, and he describes the bitterness of exile,
+the adventurous expedition to Terceira, the heroic defence of Oporto,
+and the final combats of liberty. In 1837 he founded the _Panorama_ in
+imitation of the _English Penny Magazine_, and there and in
+_Illustração_ he published the historical tales which were afterwards
+collected into _Lendas e Narratives_; in the same year he became royal
+librarian at the Ajuda Palace, which enabled him to continue his studies
+of the past. The _Panorama_ had a large circulation and influence, and
+Herculano's biographical sketches of great men and his articles of
+literary and historical criticism did much to educate the middle class
+by acquainting them with the story of their nation, and with the
+progress of knowledge and the state of letters in foreign countries. On
+entering parliament in 1840 he resigned the editorship to devote himself
+to history, but he still remained its most important contributor.
+
+Up to the age of twenty-five Herculano had been a poet, but he then
+abandoned poetry to Garrett, and after several essays in that direction
+he definitely introduced the historical novel into Portugal in 1844 by a
+book written in imitation of Walter Scott. _Eurico_ treats of the fall
+of the Visigothic monarchy and the beginnings of resistance in the
+Asturias which gave birth to the Christian kingdoms of the Peninsula,
+while the _Monge de Cister_, published in 1848, describes the time of
+King John I., when the middle class and the municipalities first
+asserted their power and elected a king in opposition to the nobility.
+From an artistic standpoint, these stories are rather laboured
+productions, besides being ultra-romantic in tone; but it must be
+remembered that they were written mainly with an educational object,
+and, moreover, they deserve high praise for their style. Herculano had
+greater book learning than Scott, but lacked descriptive talent and
+skill in dialogue. His touch is heavy, and these novels show no dramatic
+power, which accounts for his failure as a playwright, but their
+influence was as great as their followers were many, and they still find
+readers. These and editions of two old chronicles, the _Chronica de D.
+Sebastião_ (1839) and the _Annaes del rei D. João III_ (1844), prepared
+Herculano for his life's work, and the year 1846 saw the first volume of
+his _History of Portugal from the Beginning of the Monarchy to the end
+of the Reign of Affonso III._, a book written on critical lines and
+based on documents. The difficulties he encountered in producing it were
+very great, for the foundations had been ill-prepared by his
+predecessors, and he was obliged to be artisan and architect at the same
+time. He had to collect MSS. from all parts of Portugal, decipher,
+classify and weigh them before he could begin work, and then he found it
+necessary to break with precedents and destroy traditions. Serious
+students in Portugal and abroad welcomed the book as an historical work
+of the first rank, for its evidence of careful research, its able
+marshalling of facts, its learning and its painful accuracy, while the
+sculptural simplicity of the style and the correctness of the diction
+have made it a Portuguese classic. The first volume, however, gave rise
+to a celebrated controversy, because Herculano had reduced the famous
+battle of Ourique, which was supposed to have seen the birth of the
+Portuguese monarchy, to the dimensions of a mere skirmish, and denied
+the apparition of Christ to King Affonso, a fable first circulated in
+the 15th century. Herculano was denounced from the pulpit and the press
+for his lack of patriotism and piety, and after bearing the attack for
+some time his pride drove him to reply. In a letter to the cardinal
+patriarch of Lisbon entitled _Eu e o Clero_ (1850), he denounced the
+fanaticism and ignorance of the clergy in plain terms, and this provoked
+a fierce pamphlet war marked by much personal abuse. The professor of
+Arabic in Lisbon intervened to sustain the accepted view of the battle,
+and charged Herculano and his supporter Gayangos with ignorance of the
+Arab historians and of their language. The conduct of the controversy,
+which lasted some years, did credit to none of the contending parties,
+but Herculano's statement of the facts is now universally accepted as
+correct. The second volume of his history appeared in 1847, the third in
+1849 and the fourth in 1853. In his youth, the excesses of absolutism
+had made Herculano a Liberal, and the attacks on his history turned this
+man, full of sentiment and deep religious conviction, into an
+anti-clerical who began to distinguish between political Catholicism and
+Christianity. His _History of the Origin and Establishment of the
+Inquisition_ (1854-1855), relating the thirty years' struggle between
+King John III. and the Jews--he to establish the tribunal and they to
+prevent him--was compiled, as the preface showed, to stem the
+Ultramontane reaction, but none the less carried weight because it was a
+recital of events with little or no comment or evidence of passion in
+its author. Next to these two books his study, _Do Estado das classes
+servas na Peninsula desde o VII. até o XII. seculo_, is Herculano's most
+valuable contribution to history. In 1856 he began editing a series of
+_Portugalliae monumenta historica_, but personal differences between him
+and the keeper of the Archive office, which he was forced to frequent,
+caused him to interrupt his historical studies, and on the death of his
+friend King Pedro V. he left the Ajuda and retired to a country house
+near Santarem.
+
+Disillusioned with men and despairing of the future of his country, he
+spent the rest of his life devoted to agricultural pursuits, and rarely
+emerged from his retirement; when he did so, it was to fight political
+and religious reaction. Once he had defended the monastic orders,
+advocating their reform and not their suppression, supported the rural
+clergy and idealized the village priest in his _Parocho da Aldeia_,
+after the manner of Goldsmith in the _Vicar of Wakefield_.
+Unfortunately, however, the brilliant epoch of the alliance of
+Liberalism and Catholicism, represented on its literary side by
+Chateaubriand and by Lamartine, to whose poetic school Herculano had
+belonged, was past, and fanatical attacks and the progress of events
+drove this former champion of the Church into conflict with the
+ecclesiastical authorities. His protest against the Concordat of the
+21st of February 1857 between Portugal and the Holy See, regulating the
+Portuguese Padroado in the East, his successful opposition to the entry
+of foreign religious orders, and his advocacy of civil marriage, were
+the chief landmarks in his battle with Ultra-montanism, and his _Estudos
+sobre o Casamento Civil_ were put on the Index. Finally in 1871 he
+attacked the dogmas of the Immaculate Conception and papal
+infallibility, and fell into line with the Old Catholics. In the domain
+of letters he remained until his death a veritable pontiff, and an
+article or book of his was an event celebrated from one end of Portugal
+to the other. The nation continued to look up to him for mental
+leadership, but, in his later years, lacking hope himself, he could not
+stimulate others or use to advantage the powers conferred upon him. In
+politics he remained a constitutional Liberal of the old type, and for
+him the people were the middle classes in opposition to the lower, which
+he saw to have been the supporters of tyranny in all ages, while he
+considered Radicalism to mean a return via anarchy to absolutism.
+However, though he conducted a political propaganda in the newspaper
+press in his early days, Herculano never exercised much influence in
+politics. Grave as most of his writings are, they include a short
+description of a crossing from Jersey to Granville, in which he
+satirizes English character and customs, and reveals an unexpected sense
+of humour. A rare capacity for tedious work, a dour Catonian rectitude,
+a passion for truth, pride, irritability at criticism and independence
+of character, are the marks of Herculano as a man. He could be broken
+but never bent, and his rude frankness accorded with his hard, sombre
+face, and alienated men's sympathies though it did not lose him their
+respect. His lyrism is vigorous, feeling, austere and almost entirely
+subjective and personal, while his pamphlets are distinguished by energy
+of conviction, strength of affirmation, and contempt for weaker and more
+ignorant opponents. His _History of Portugal_ is a great but incomplete
+monument. A lack of imagination and of the philosophic spirit prevented
+him from penetrating or drawing characters, but his analytical gift,
+joined to persevering toil and honesty of purpose enabled him to present
+a faithful account of ascertained facts and a satisfactory and lucid
+explanation of political and economic events. His remains lie in a
+majestic tomb in the Jeronymos at Belem, near Lisbon, which was raised
+by public subscription to the greatest modern historian of Portugal and
+of the Peninsula. His more important works have gone through many
+editions and his name is still one to conjure with.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Antonio de Serpa Pimentel, _Alexandre Herculano e o seu
+  tempo_ (Lisbon, 1881); A. Romero Ortiz, _La Litteratura Portuguesa en
+  el siglo XIX._ (Madrid, 1869); Moniz Barreto, _Revista de Portugal_
+  (July 1889).     (E. Pr.)
+
+
+
+
+HERCULES (O. Lat. _Hercoles_, _Hercles_), the latinized form of the
+mythical Heracles, the chief national hero of Hellas. The name [Greek:
+Heraklês] ([Greek: Hera], and [Greek: kleos] = glory) is explained as
+"renowned through Hera" (i.e. in consequence of her persecution) or "the
+glory of Hera" i.e. of Argos. The thoroughly national character of
+Heracles is shown by his being the mythical ancestor of the Dorian
+dynastic tribe, while revered by Ionian Athens, Lelegian Opus and
+Aeolo-Phoenician Thebes, and closely associated with the Achaean heroes
+Peleus and Telamon. The Perseid Alcmena, wife of Amphitryon of Tiryns,
+was Hercules' mother, Zeus his father. After his father he is often
+called Amphitryoniades, and also Alcides, after the Perseid Alcaeus,
+father of Amphitryon. His mother and her husband lived at Thebes in
+exile as guests of King Creon. By the craft of Hera, his foe through
+life, his birth was delayed, and that of Eurystheus, son of Sthenelus of
+Argos, hastened, Zeus having in effect sworn that the elder of the two
+should rule the realm of Perseus. Hera sent two serpents to destroy the
+new-born Hercules, but he strangled them. He was trained in all manly
+accomplishments by heroes of the highest renown in each, until in a
+transport of anger at a reprimand he slew Linus, his instructor in
+music, with the lyre. Thereupon he was sent to tend Amphitryon's oxen,
+and at this period slew the lion of Mount Cithaeron. By freeing Thebes
+from paying tribute to the Minyans of Orchomenus he won Creon's
+daughter, Megara, to wife. Her children by him he killed in a frenzy
+induced by Hera. After purification he was sent by the Pythia to serve
+Eurystheus. Thus began the cycle of the twelve labours.
+
+  1. Wrestling with the Nemean lion.
+
+  2. Destruction of the Lernean hydra.
+
+  3. Capture of the Arcadian hind (a _stag_ in art).
+
+  4. Capture of the boar of Erymanthus, while chasing which he fought
+  the Centaurs and killed his friends Chiron and Pholus, this homicide
+  leading to Demeter's institution of _mysteries_.
+
+  5. Cleansing of the stables of Augeas.
+
+  6. Shooting the Stymphalian birds.
+
+  7. Capture of the Cretan bull subsequently slain by Theseus at
+  Marathon.
+
+  8. Capture of the man-eating mares of the Thracian Diomedes.
+
+  9. Seizure of the girdle of Hippolyte, queen of the Amazons.
+
+  10. Bringing the oxen of Geryones from Erythia in the far west, which
+  errand involved many adventures in the coast lands of the
+  Mediterranean, and the setting up of the "Pillars of Hercules" at the
+  Straits of Gibraltar.
+
+  11. Bringing the golden apples from the garden of the Hesperides.
+
+  12. Carrying Cerberus from Hades to the upper world.
+
+Most of the labours lead to various adventures called [Greek: parerga].
+On Hercules' return to Thebes he gave his wife Megara to his friend and
+charioteer Iolaus, son of Iphicles, and by beating Eurytus of Oechalia
+and his sons in a shooting match won a claim to the hand of his daughter
+Iole, whose family, however, except her brother Iphitus, withheld their
+consent to the union. Iphitus persuaded Hercules to search for Eurytus'
+lost oxen, but was killed by him at Tiryns in a frenzy. He consulted the
+Pythia about a cure for the consequent madness, but she declined to
+answer him. Whereupon he seized the oracular tripod, and so entered upon
+a contest with Apollo, which Zeus stopped by sending a flash of
+lightning between the combatants. The Pythia then sent him to serve the
+Lydian queen Omphale. He then, with Telamon, Peleus and Theseus, took
+Troy. He next helped the gods in the great battle against the giants. He
+destroyed sundry sea-monsters, set free the bound Prometheus, took part
+in the Argonautic voyage and the Calydonian boar hunt, made war against
+Augeas, and against Nestor and the Pylians, and restored Tyndareus to
+the sovereignty of Lacedaemon. He sustained many single combats, one
+very famous struggle being the wrestling with the Libyan Antaeus, son of
+Poseidon and Ge (Earth), who had to be held in the air, as he grew
+stronger every time he touched his mother, Earth. Hercules withstood
+Ares, Poseidon and Hera, as well as Apollo. The close of his career is
+assigned to Aetolia and Trachis. He wrestles with Achelous for Deianeira
+("destructive to husband"), daughter of Oeneus, king of Calydon,
+vanquishes the river god, and breaks off one of his horns, which as a
+horn of plenty is found as an attribute of Hercules in art. Driven from
+Calydon for homicide, he goes with Deianeira to Trachis. On the way he
+slays the centaur Nessus, who persuades Deianeira that his blood is a
+love-charm. From Trachis he wages successful war against the Dryopes and
+Lapithae as ally of Aegimius, king of the Dorians, who promised him a
+third of his realm, and after his death adopted Hyllus, his son by
+Deianeira. Finally Hercules attacks Eurytus, takes Oechalia and carries
+off Iola. Thereupon Deianeira, prompted by love and jealousy, sends him
+a tunic dipped in the blood of Nessus, and the unsuspecting hero puts it
+on just before sacrificing at the headland of Cenaeum in Euboea. (So far
+the dithyramb of Bacchylides xv. [xvi.], agrees with Sophocles'
+_Trachiniae_ as to the hero's end.) Mad with pain, he seizes Lichas, the
+messenger who had brought the fatal garment, and hurls him on the rocks;
+and then he wanders in agony to Mount Oeta, where he mounts a pyre,
+which, however, no one will kindle. At last Poeas, father of
+Philoctetes, takes pity on him, and is rewarded with the gift of his bow
+and arrows. The immortal part of Hercules passes to Olympus, where he is
+reconciled to Hera and weds her daughter Hebe. This account of the
+hero's principal labours, exploits and crimes is derived from the
+mythologists Apollodorus and Diodorus, who probably followed the
+_Heracleia_ by Peisander of Rhodes as to the twelve labours or that of
+Panyasis of Halicarnassus, but sundry variations of order and incident
+are found in classical literature.
+
+In one aspect Hercules is clearly a sun-god, being identified,
+especially in Cyprus and in Thasos (as Makar), with the Tyrian Melkarth.
+The third and twelfth labours may be solar, the horned hind representing
+the moon, and the carrying of Cerberus to the upper world an eclipse,
+while the last episode of the hero's tragedy is possibly a complete
+solar myth developed at Trachis. The winter sun is seen rising over the
+Cenaean promontory to toil across to Mount Oeta and disappear over it in
+a bank of fiery cloud. But more important and less speculative is the
+hero's aspect as a national type or an amalgamation of tribal types of
+physical force, of dauntless effort and endurance, of militant
+civilization, and of Hellenic enterprise, "stronger than everything
+except his own passions," and "at once above and below the noblest type
+of man" (Jebb). The fifth labour seems to symbolize some great
+improvement in the drainage of Elis. Strenuous devotion to the
+deliverance of mankind from dangers and pests is the "virtue" which, in
+Prodicus' famous apologue on the _Choice of Hercules_, the hero
+preferred to an easy and happy life. Ethically, Hercules symbolizes the
+attainment of glory and immortality by toil and suffering.
+
+The Old-Dorian Hercules is represented in three cycles of myth, the
+Argive, the Boeotian and the Thessalian; the legends of Arcadia,
+Aetolia, Lydia, &c., and Italy are either local or symbolical and
+comparatively late. The fatality by which Hercules kills so many friends
+as well as foes recalls the destroying Apollo; while his career
+frequently illustrates the Delphic views on blood-guiltiness and
+expiation. As Apollo's champion Hercules is Daphnephoros, and fights
+Cycnus and Amyntor to keep open the sacred way from Tempe to Delphi. As
+the Dorian tutelar he aids Tyndareus and Aegimius. As patron of maritime
+adventure ([Greek: hêgemonios]) he struggles with Nereus and Triton,
+slays Eryx and Busiris, and perhaps captures the wild horses and oxen,
+which may stand for pirates. As a god of athletes he is often a wrestler
+([Greek: palaimôn]), and founds the Olympian games. In comedy and
+occasionally in myths he is depicted as voracious ([Greek: bouphagos]).
+He is also represented as the companion of Dionysus, especially in Asia
+Minor. The "Resting" ([Greek: anapauomenos]) Hercules is, as at
+Thermopylae and near Himera, the natural tutelar of hot springs in
+conjunction with his protectress Athena, who is usually depicted
+attending him on ancient vases. The glorified Hercules was worshipped
+both as a god and a hero. In the Attic deme Melita he was invoked as
+[Greek: alexikakos] ("Helper in ills"), at Olympia as [Greek:
+kallinikos] ("Nobly-victorious"), in the rustic worship of the Oetaeans
+as [Greek: kornopiôn] ([Greek: kornopes], "locusts"), by the Erythraeans
+of Ionia as [Greek: ipoktonos] ("Canker-worm-slayer"). He was [Greek:
+sôtêr] ("Saviour"), i.e. a protector of voyagers, at Thasos and Smyrna.
+Games in his honour were held at Thebes and Marathon and annual
+festivals in every deme of Attica, in Sicyon and Agyrium (Sicily). His
+guardian goddess was Athena (Homer, _Il._ viii. 638; Bacchylides v. 91
+f.). In early poetry, as often in art, he is an archer, afterwards a
+club-wielder and fully-armed warrior. In early art the adult Hercules is
+bearded, but not long-haired. Later he is sometimes youthful and
+beardless, always with short curly hair and thick neck, the lower part
+of the brow prominent. A lion's skin is generally worn or carried.
+Lysippus worked out the finest type of sculptured Hercules, of which the
+Farnese by Glycon is a grand specimen. The infantine struggle with
+serpents was a favourite subject.
+
+Quite distinct was the Idaean Hercules, a Cretan Dactyl connected with
+the cult of Rhea or Cybele. The Greeks recognized Hercules in an
+Egyptian deity _Chons_ and an Indian _Dorsanes_, not to mention
+personages of other mythologies.
+
+Hercules is supposed to have visited Italy on his return from Erythia,
+when he slew Cacus, son of Vulcan, the giant of the Aventine mount of
+Rome, who had stolen his oxen. To this victory was assigned the founding
+of the _Ara maxima_ by Evander. His worship, introduced from the Greek
+colonies in Etruria and in the south of Italy, seems to have been
+established in Rome from the earliest times, as two old Patrician
+_gentes_ were associated with his cult and the Fabii claimed him as
+their ancestor. The tithes vowed to him by Romans and men of Sora and
+Reate, for safety on journeys and voyages, furnished sacrifices and (in
+Rome) public entertainment (_polluctum_). Tibur was a special seat of
+his cult. In Rome he was patron of gladiators, as of athletes in Greece.
+With respect to the Roman relations of the hero, it is manifest that the
+native myths of Recaranus, or Sancus, or Dius Fidius, were transferred
+to the Hellenic Hercules.     (C. A. M. F.)
+
+  See L. Preller, _Griechische Mythologie_ (4th ed., Berlin, 1900); W.
+  H. Roscher, _Ausführliches Lexikon der griechischen und römischen
+  Mythologie_ (1884); Sir R. C. Jebb, _Trachiniae_ of Sophocles
+  (Introd.), (1892); Ch. Daremberg and E. Saglio, _Dictionnaire des
+  antiquités grecques et romaines_; Bréal, _Hercule et Cacus_, 1863; J.
+  G. Winter, _Myth of Hercules at Rome_ (New York, 1910).
+
+  In the article GREEK ART, fig. 16 represents Heracles wrestling with
+  the river-god Achelous; fig. 20 (from a small pediment, possibly of a
+  shrine of the hero) the slaying of the Hydra; fig. 35 Heracles holding
+  up the sky on a cushion.
+
+  Hercules was a favourite figure in French medieval literature. In the
+  romance of Alexander the tent of the hero is decorated with incidents
+  from his adventures. In the prose romance _Les Prouesses et vaillances
+  du preux Hercule_ (Paris, 1500), the hero's labours are represented as
+  having been performed in honour of a Boeotian princess; Pluto is a
+  king dwelling in a dismal castle; the Fates are duennas watching
+  Proserpine; the entrance to Pluto's castle is watched by the giant
+  Cerberus. Hercules conquers Spain and takes Merida from Geryon. The
+  book is translated into English as _Hercules of Greece_ (n. d.).
+  Fragments of a French poem on the subject will be found in the
+  _Bulletin de la soc. des anciens textes français_ (1877). Don Enrique
+  de Villena took from _Les Prouesses_ his prose _Los Doze Trabajos de
+  Hercules_ (Zamora, 1483 and 1499), and Fernandez de Heredia wrote
+  _Trabajos y afanes de Hercules_ (Madrid, 1682), which belies its
+  title, being a collection of adages and allegories. _Le Fatiche
+  d'Ercole_ (1475) is a romance in poetic prose by Pietro Bassi, and the
+  _Dodeci Travagli di Ercole_ (1544) a poem by J. Perillos.
+
+
+
+
+HERCULES, in astronomy, a constellation of the northern hemisphere,
+mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century B.C.) and Aratus (3rd century B.C.)
+and catalogued by Ptolemy (29 stars) and Tycho Brahe (28 stars).
+Represented by a man kneeling, this constellation was first known as
+"the man on his knees," and was afterwards called Cetheus, Theseus and
+Hercules by the ancient Greeks. Interesting objects in this
+constellation are: [alpha] _Herculis_, a fine coloured double star,
+composed of an orange star of magnitude 2½, and a blue star of magnitude
+6; [zeta] _Herculis_, a binary star, discovered by Sir William Herschel
+in 1782; one component is a yellow star of the third magnitude, the
+other a bluish, which appears to vary from red to blue, of magnitude 6;
+g and u _Herculis_, irregularly variable stars; and the cluster _M. 13
+Herculis_, the finest globular cluster in the northern hemisphere,
+containing at least 5000 stars and of the 1000 determined only 2 are
+variable.
+
+
+
+
+HERD (a word common to Teutonic languages; the O. Eng. form was _heord_;
+cf. Ger. _Herde_, Swed. and Dan. _hjord_; the Sans. _ca'rdhas_, which
+shows the pre-Teutonic form, means a troop), a number of animals of one
+kind driven or fed together, usually applied to cattle as "flock" is to
+sheep, but used also of whales, porpoises, &c., and of birds, as swans,
+cranes and curlews. A "herd-book" is a book containing the pedigree and
+other information of any breed of cattle or pigs, like the "flock-book"
+for sheep or "stud-book" for horses. Formerly the word "herdwick" was
+applied to the pasture ground under the care of a shepherd, and it is
+now used of a special hardy breed of sheep in Cumberland and
+Westmorland. The word "herd" is also applied in a disparaging sense to a
+company of people, a mob or rabble, as "the vulgar herd." As the name
+for a keeper of a herd or flock of domestic animals, the herdsman, it is
+usually qualified to denote the kind of animal under his protection, as
+swine-herd, shepherd, &c., but in Ireland, Scotland and the north of
+England, "herd" alone is commonly used.
+
+
+
+
+HERDER, JOHANN GOTTFRIED VON (1744-1803), one of the most prolific and
+influential writers that Germany has produced, was born in Mohrungen, a
+small town in East Prussia, on the 25th of August 1744. Like his
+contemporary Lessing, Herder had throughout his life to struggle against
+adverse circumstances. His father was poor, having to put together a
+subsistence by uniting the humble offices of sexton, choir-singer and
+petty schoolmaster. After receiving some rudimentary instruction from
+his father, the boy was sent to the grammar school of his native town.
+The mode of discipline practised by the pedantic and irritable old man
+who stood at the head of this institution was not at all to the young
+student's liking, and the impression made upon him stimulated him later
+on to work out his projects of school reform. The hardships of his early
+years drove him to introspection and to solitary communion with nature,
+and thus favoured a more than proportionate development of the
+sentimental and poetic side of his mind. When quite young he expressed a
+wish to become a minister of the gospel, but his aspirations were
+discouraged by the local clergyman. In 1762, at the age of eighteen, he
+went up to Königsberg with the intention of studying medicine, but
+finding himself unequal to the operations of the dissecting-room, he
+abandoned this object, and, by the help of one or two friends and his
+own self-supporting labours, followed out his earlier idea of the
+clerical profession by joining the university. There he came under the
+influence of Kant, who was just then passing from physical to
+metaphysical problems. Without becoming a disciple of Kant, young Herder
+was deeply stimulated to fresh critical inquiry by that thinker's
+revolutionary ideas in philosophy. To Kant's lectures and conversations
+he further owed something of his large interest in cosmological and
+anthropological problems. Among the writers whom he most carefully read
+were Plato, Hume, Shaftesbury, Leibnitz, Diderot and Rousseau. Another
+personal influence under which he fell at Königsberg, and which was
+destined to be far more permanent, was that of J. G. Hamann, "the
+northern Mage." This writer had already won a name, and in young Herder
+he found a mind well fitted to be the receptacle and vehicle of his new
+ideas on literature. From this vague, incoherent, yet gifted writer our
+author acquired some of his strong feeling for the naïve element in
+poetry, and for the earliest developments of national literature. Even
+before he went to Königsberg he had begun to compose verses, and at the
+age of twenty he took up the pen as a chief occupation. His first
+published writings were occasional poems and reviews contributed to the
+_Königsbergische Zeitung_. Soon after this he got an appointment at
+Riga, as assistant master at the cathedral school, and a few years
+later, became assistant pastor. In this busy commercial town, in
+somewhat improved pecuniary and social circumstances, he developed the
+main ideas of his writings. In the year 1767 he published his first
+considerable work _Fragmente über die neuere deutsche Literatur_, which
+at once made him widely known and secured for him the favourable
+interest of Lessing. From this time he continued to pour forth a number
+of critical writings on literature, art, &c. His bold ideas on these
+subjects, which were a great advance even on Lessing's doctrines,
+naturally excited hostile criticism, and in consequence of this
+opposition, which took the form of aspersions on his religious
+orthodoxy, he resolved to leave Riga. He was much carried away at this
+time by the idea of a radical reform of social life in Livonia, which
+(after the example of Rousseau) he thought to effect by means of a
+better method of school-training. With this plan in view he began (1769)
+a tour through France, England, Holland, &c., for the purpose of
+collecting information respecting their systems of education. It was
+during the solitude of his voyage to France, when on deck at night, that
+he first shaped his idea of the genesis of primitive poetry, and of the
+gradual evolution of humanity. Having received an offer of an
+appointment as travelling tutor and chaplain to the young prince of
+Eutin-Holstein, he abandoned his somewhat visionary scheme of a social
+reconstruction of a Russian province. He has, however, left a curious
+sketch of his projected school reforms. His new duties led him to
+Strassburg, where he met the young Goethe, on whose poetical development
+he exercised so potent an influence. At Darmstadt he made the
+acquaintance of Caroline Flachsland, to whom he soon became betrothed,
+and who for the rest of his life supplied him with that abundance of
+consolatory sympathy which his sensitive and rather querulous nature
+appeared to require. The engagement as tutor did not prove an agreeable
+one, and he soon threw it up (1771) in favour of an appointment as court
+preacher and member of the consistory at Bückeburg. Here he had to
+encounter bitter opposition from the orthodox clergy and their
+followers, among whom he was regarded as a freethinker. His health
+continued poor, and a fistula in the eye, from which he had suffered
+from early childhood, and to cure which he had undergone a number of
+painful operations, continued to trouble him. Further, pecuniary
+difficulties, from which he never long managed to keep himself free, by
+delaying his marriage, added to his depression. Notwithstanding these
+trying circumstances he resumed literary work, which his travels had
+interrupted. For some time he had been greatly interested by the poetry
+of the north, more particularly Percy's _Reliques_, the poems of
+"Ossian" (in the genuineness of which he like many others believed) and
+the works of Shakespeare. Under the influence of this reading he now
+finally broke with classicism and became one of the leaders of the new
+_Sturm und Drang_ movement. He co-operated with a band of young writers
+at Darmstadt and Frankfort, including Goethe, who in a journal of their
+own sought to diffuse the new ideas. His marriage took place in 1773. In
+1776 he obtained through Goethe's influence the post of general
+superintendent and court preacher at Weimar, where he passed the rest of
+his life. There he enjoyed the society of Goethe, Wieland, Jean Paul
+(who came to Weimar in order to be near Herder), and others, the
+patronage of the court, with whom as a preacher he was very popular, and
+an opportunity of carrying out some of his ideas of school reform. Yet
+the social atmosphere of the place did not suit him. His personal
+relations with Goethe again and again became embittered. This, added to
+ill-health, served to intensify a natural irritability of temperament,
+and the history of his later Weimar days is a rather dreary page in the
+chronicles of literary life. He had valued more than anything else a
+teacher's influence over other minds, and as he began to feel that he
+was losing it he grew jealous of the success of those who had outgrown
+this influence. Yet while presenting these unlovely traits, Herder's
+character was on the whole a worthy and attractive one. This seems to be
+sufficiently attested by the fact that he was greatly liked and
+esteemed, not only in the pulpit but in private intercourse, by
+cultivated women like the countess of Bückeburg, the duchess of Weimar
+and Frau von Stein, and, what perhaps is more, was exceedingly popular
+among the gymnasium pupils, in whose education he took so lively an
+interest. While much that Herder produced after settling in Weimar has
+little value, he wrote also some of his best works, among others his
+collection of popular poetry on which he had been engaged for many
+years, _Stimmen der Völker in Liedern_ (1778-1779); his translation of
+the Spanish romances of the _Cid_ (1805); his celebrated work on Hebrew
+poetry, _Vom Geist der hebräischen Poesie_ (1782-1783); and his _opus
+magnum_, the _Ideen zur Philosophie der Geschichte der Menschheit_
+(1784-1791). Towards the close of his life he occupied himself, like
+Lessing, with speculative questions in philosophy and theology. The
+boldness of some of his ideas cost him some valuable friendships, as
+that of Jacobi, Lavater and even of his early teacher Hamann. He died on
+the 18th of December 1803, full of new literary plans up to the very
+last.
+
+Herder's writings were for a long time regarded as of temporary value
+only, and fell into neglect. Recent criticism, however, has tended very
+much to raise their value by tracing out their wide and far-reaching
+influence. His works are very voluminous, and to a large extent
+fragmentary and devoid of artistic finish; nevertheless they are nearly
+always worth investigating for the brilliant suggestions in which they
+abound. His place in German literature has already been indicated in
+tracing his mental development. Like Lessing, whose work he immediately
+continued, he was a pioneer of the golden age of this literature.
+Lessing had given the first impetus to the formation of a national
+literature by exposing the folly of the current imitation of French
+writers. But in doing this he did not so much call his fellow-countrymen
+to develop freely their own national sentiments and ideas as send them
+back to classical example and principle. Lessing was the exponent of
+German classicism; Herder, on the contrary, was a pioneer of the
+romantic movement. He fought against all imitation as such, and bade
+German writers be true to themselves and their national antecedents. As
+a sort of theoretic basis for this adhesion to national type in
+literature, he conceived the idea that literature and art, together with
+language and national culture as a whole, are evolved by a natural
+process, and that the intellectual and emotional life of each people is
+correlated with peculiarities of physical temperament and of material
+environment. In this way he became the originator of that genetic or
+historical method which has since been applied to all human ideas and
+institutions. Herder was thus an evolutionist, but an evolutionist still
+under the influence of Rousseau. That is to say, in tracing back the
+later acquisitions of civilization to impulses which are as old as the
+dawn of primitive culture, he did not, as the modern evolutionist does,
+lay stress on the superiority of the later to the earlier stages of
+human development, but rather became enamoured of the simplicity and
+spontaneity of those early impulses which, since they are the oldest,
+easily come to look like the most real and precious. Yet even in this
+way he helped to found the historical school in literature and science,
+for it was only after an excessive and sentimental interest in primitive
+human culture had been awakened that this subject would receive the
+amount of attention which was requisite for the genetic explanation of
+later developments. This historical idea was carried by Herder into the
+regions of poetry, art, religion, language, and finally into human
+culture as a whole. It colours all his writings, and is intimately
+connected with some of the most characteristic attributes of his mind, a
+quick sympathetic imagination, a fine feeling for local differences, and
+a scientific instinct for seizing the sequences of cause and effect.
+
+  Herder's works may be arranged in an ascending series, corresponding
+  to the way in which the genetic or historical idea was developed and
+  extended. First come the works on poetic literature, art, language and
+  religion as special regions of development. Secondly, we have in the
+  _Ideen_ a general account of the process of human evolution. Thirdly,
+  there are a number of writings which, though inferior in interest to
+  the others, may be said to supply the philosophic basis of his leading
+  ideas.
+
+  1. In the region of poetry Herder sought to persuade his countrymen,
+  both by example and precept, to return to a natural and spontaneous
+  form of utterance. His own poetry has but little value; Herder was a
+  skilful verse-maker but hardly a creative poet. He was most successful
+  in his translation of popular song, in which he shows a rare
+  sympathetic insight into the various feelings and ideas of peoples as
+  unlike as Greenlanders and Spaniards, Indians and Scots. In the
+  _Fragmente_ he aims at nationalizing German poetry and freeing it from
+  all extraneous influence. He ridicules the ambition of German writers
+  to be classic, as Lessing had ridiculed their eagerness to be French.
+  He looked at poetry as a kind of "proteus among the people, which
+  changes its form according to language, manners, habits, according to
+  temperament and climate, nay, even according to the accent of
+  different nations." This fact of the idiosyncrasy of national poetry
+  he illustrated with great fulness and richness in the case of Homer,
+  the nature of whose works he was one of the first to elucidate, the
+  Hebrew poets, and the poetry of the north as typified in "Ossian."
+  This same idea of necessary relation to national character and
+  circumstance is also applied to dramatic poetry, and more especially
+  to Shakespeare. Lessing had done much to make Shakespeare known to
+  Germany, but he had regarded him in contrast to the French dramatists
+  with whom he also contrasted the Greek dramatic poets, and accordingly
+  did not bring out his essentially modern and Teutonic character.
+  Herder does this, and in doing so shows a far deeper understanding of
+  Shakespeare's genius than his predecessor had shown.
+
+  2. The views on art contained in Herder's _Kritische Wälder_ (1769),
+  _Plastik_ (1778), &c., are chiefly valuable as a correction of the
+  excesses into which reverence for Greek art had betrayed Winckelmann
+  and Lessing, by help of his fundamental idea of national idiosyncrasy.
+  He argues against the setting up of classic art as an unchanging type,
+  valid for all peoples and all times. He was one of the first to bring
+  to light the characteristic excellences of Gothic art. Beyond this, he
+  eloquently pleaded the cause of painting as a distinct art, which
+  Lessing in his desire to mark off the formative arts from poetry and
+  music had confounded with sculpture. He regarded this as the art of
+  the eye, while sculpture was rather the art of the organ of touch.
+  Painting being less real than sculpture, because lacking the third
+  dimension of space, and a kind of dream, admitted of much greater
+  freedom of treatment than this last. Herder had a genuine appreciation
+  for early German painters, and helped to awaken the modern interest in
+  Albrecht Dürer.
+
+  3. By his work on language _Über den Ursprung der Sprache_ (1772),
+  Herder may be said to have laid the first rude foundations of the
+  science of comparative philology and that deeper science of the
+  ultimate nature and origin of language. It was specially directed
+  against the supposition of a divine communication of language to man.
+  Its main argument is that speech is a necessary outcome of that
+  special arrangement of mental forces which distinguishes man, and more
+  particularly from his habits of reflection. "If," Herder says, "it is
+  incomprehensible to others how a human mind could invent language, it
+  is as incomprehensible to me how a human mind could be what it is
+  without discovering language for itself." The writer does not make
+  that use of the fact of man's superior organic endowments which one
+  might expect from his general conception of the relation of the
+  physical and the mental in human development.
+
+  4. Herder's services in laying the foundations of a comparative
+  science of religion and mythology are even of greater value than his
+  somewhat crude philological speculations. In opposition to the general
+  spirit of the 18th century he saw, by means of his historic sense, the
+  naturalness of religion, its relation to man's wants and impulses.
+  Thus with respect to early religious beliefs he rejected Hume's notion
+  that religion sprang out of the fears of primitive men, in favour of
+  the theory that it represents the first attempts of our species to
+  explain phenomena. He thus intimately associated religion with
+  mythology and primitive poetry. As to later forms of religion, he
+  appears to have held that they owe their vitality to their embodiment
+  of the deep-seated moral feelings of our common humanity. His high
+  appreciation of Christianity, which contrasts with the contemptuous
+  estimate of the contemporary rationalists, rested on a firm belief in
+  its essential humanity, to which fact, and not to conscious deception,
+  he attributes its success. His exposition of this religion in his
+  sermons and writings was simply an unfolding of its moral side. In his
+  later life, as we shall presently see, he found his way to a
+  speculative basis for his religious beliefs.
+
+  5. Herder's masterpiece, the _Ideen zur Philosophie der Geschichte_,
+  has the ambitious aim of explaining the whole of human development in
+  close connexion with the nature of man's physical environment. Man is
+  viewed as a part of nature, and all his widely differing forms of
+  development as strictly natural processes. It thus stands in sharp
+  contrast to the anthropology of Kant, which opposes human development
+  conceived as the gradual manifestation of a growing faculty of
+  rational free will to the operations of physical nature. Herder
+  defines human history as "a pure natural history of human powers,
+  actions and propensities, modified by time and place." The _Ideen_
+  shows us that Herder is an evolutionist after the manner of Leibnitz,
+  and not after that of more modern evolutionists. The lower forms of
+  life prefigure man in unequal degrees of imperfection; they exist for
+  his sake, but they are not regarded as representing necessary
+  antecedent conditions of human existence. The genetic method is
+  applied to varieties of man, not to man as a whole. It is worth
+  noting, however, that Herder in his provokingly tentative way of
+  thinking comes now and again very near ideas made familiar to us by
+  Spencer and Darwin. Thus in a passage in book xv. chap, ii., which
+  unmistakably foreshadows Darwin's idea of a struggle for existence, we
+  read: "Among millions of creatures whatever could preserve itself
+  abides, and still after the lapse of thousands of years remains in the
+  great harmonious order. Wild animals and tame, carnivorous and
+  graminivorous, insects, birds, fishes and man are adapted to each
+  other." With this may be compared a passage in the _Ursprung der
+  Sprache_, where there is a curious adumbration of Spencer's idea that
+  intelligence, as distinguished from instinct, arises from a growing
+  complexity of action, or, to use Herder's words, from the substitution
+  of a more for a less contracted sphere. Herder is more successful in
+  tracing the early developments of particular peoples than in
+  constructing a scientific theory of evolution. Here he may be said to
+  have laid the foundations of the science of primitive culture as a
+  whole. His account of the first dawnings of culture, and of the ruder
+  Oriental civilizations, is marked by genuine insight. On the other
+  hand the development of classic culture is traced with a less skilful
+  hand. Altogether this work is rich in suggestion to the philosophic
+  historian and the anthropologist, though marked by much vagueness of
+  conception and hastiness of generalization.
+
+  6. Of Herder's properly metaphysical speculations little needs to be
+  said. He was too much under the sway of feeling and concrete
+  imagination to be capable of great things in abstract thought. It is
+  generally admitted that he had no accurate knowledge either of
+  Spinoza, whose monism he advocated, or of Kant, whose critical
+  philosophy he so fiercely attacked. Herder's Spinozism, which is set
+  forth in his little work, _Vom Erkennen und Empfinden der menschlichen
+  Seele_ (1778), is much less logically conceived than Lessing's. It is
+  the religious aspect of it which attracts him, the presentation in God
+  of an object which at once satisfies the feelings and the intellect.
+  With respect to his attacks on the critical philosophy in the
+  _Metakritik_ (1799), it is easy to understand how his concrete mind,
+  ever alive to the unity of things, instinctively rebelled against that
+  analytic separation of the mental processes which Kant attempted.
+  However crude and hasty this critical investigation, it helped to
+  direct philosophic reflection to the unity of mind, and so to develop
+  the post-Kantian line of speculation. Herder was much attracted by
+  Schelling's early writings, but appears to have disliked Hegelianism
+  because of the atheism it seemed to him to involve. In the _Kalligone_
+  (1800), work directed against Kant's _Kritik der Urteilskraft_, Herder
+  argues for the close connexion of the beautiful and the good. To his
+  mind the content of art, which he conceived as human feeling and human
+  life in its completeness, was much more valuable than the form, and so
+  he was naturally led to emphasize the moral element in art. Thus his
+  theoretic opposition to the Kantian aesthetics is but the reflection
+  of his practical opposition to the form-idolatry of the Weimar poets.
+       (J. S.)
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--An edition of Herder's _Sämtliche Werke_ in 45 vols.
+  was published after his death by his widow (1805-1820); a second in 60
+  vols. followed in 1827-1830; a third in 40 vols. in 1852-1854. There
+  is also an edition by H. Düntzer (24 vols., 1869-1879). But these have
+  all been superseded by the monumental critical edition by B. Suphan
+  (32 vols., 1877 _sqq._). Of the many "selected works," mention may be
+  made of those by B. Suphan (4 vols., 1884-1887); by H. Lambel, H.
+  Meyer and E. Kühnemann in Kürschner's _Deutsche Nationalliteratur_ (10
+  vols., 1885-1894). For Herder's correspondence, see _Aus Herders
+  Nachlass_ (3 vols., 1856-1857), _Herders Reise nach Italien_ (1859),
+  _Von und an Herder: Ungedruckte Briefe_ (3 vols., 1861-1862)--all
+  three works edited by H. Düntzer and F. G. von Herder. Herder's
+  _Briefwechsel mit Nicolai_ and his _Briefe an Hamann_ have been edited
+  by O. Hoffmann (1887 and 1889). For biography and criticism, see
+  _Erinnerungen aus dem Leben Herders_, by his wife, edited by J. G.
+  Müller (2 vols., 1820); _J. G. von Herders Lebensbild_ (with his
+  correspondence), by his son, E. G. von Herder (6 vols., 1846); C.
+  Joret, _Herder et la renaissance littéraire en Allemagne au XVIII^e
+  siècle_ (1875); F. von Bärenbach, _Herder als Vorgänger Darwins_
+  (1877); R. Haym, _Herder nach seinem Leben und seinen Werken_ (2
+  vols., 1880-1885); H. Nevinson, _A Sketch of Herder and his Times_
+  (1884); M. Kronenberg, _Herders Philosophie nach ihrem
+  Entwicklungsgang_ (1889); E. Kühnemann, _Herders Leben_ (1895); R.
+  Bürkner, _Herder, sein Leben und Wirken_ (1904).
+
+
+
+
+HEREDIA, JOSÉ MARIA DE (1842-1905), French poet, the modern master of
+the French sonnet, was born at Fortuna Cafeyere, near Santiago de Cuba,
+on the 22nd of November 1842, being in blood part Spanish Creole and
+part French. At the age of eight he came from the West Indies to France,
+returning thence to Havana at seventeen, and finally making France his
+home not long afterwards. He received his classical education with the
+priests of Saint Vincent at Senlis, and after a visit to Havana he
+studied at the École des Chartes at Paris. In the later 'sixties, with
+François Coppée, Sully-Prudhomme, Paul Verlaine and others less
+distinguished, he made one of the band of poets who gathered round
+Leconte de Lisle, and received the name of Parnassiens. To this new
+school, form--the technical side of their art--was of supreme
+importance, and, in reaction against the influence of Musset, they
+rigorously repressed in their work the expression of personal feeling
+and emotion. "True poetry," said M. de Heredia in his discourse on
+entering the Academy--"true poetry dwells in nature and in humanity,
+which are eternal, and not in the heart of the creature of a day,
+however great." M. de Heredia's place in the movement was soon assured.
+He wrote very little, and published even less, but his sonnets
+circulated in MS., and gave him a reputation before they appeared in
+1893, together with a few longer poems, as a volume, under the title of
+_Les Trophées_. He was elected to the Academy on the 22nd of February
+1894, in the place of Louis de Mazade-Percin the publicist. Few purely
+literary men can have entered the Academy with credentials so small in
+quantity. A small volume of verse--a translation, with introduction, of
+Diaz del Castillo's _History of the Conquest of New Spain_
+(1878-1881)--a translation of the life of the nun Alferez (1894), de
+Quincey's "Spanish Military Nun"--and one or two short pieces of
+occasional verse, and an introduction or so--this is but small literary
+baggage, to use the French expression. But the sonnets are of their kind
+among the most superb in modern literature. "A _Légende des siècles_ in
+sonnets" M. François Coppée called them. Each presents a picture,
+striking, brilliant, drawn with unfaltering hand--the picture of some
+characteristic scene in man's long history. The verse is flawless,
+polished like a gem; and its sound has distinction and fine harmony. If
+one may suggest a fault, it is that each picture is sometimes too much
+of a picture only, and that the poetical line, like that of M. de
+Heredia's master, Leconte de Lisle himself, is occasionally overcrowded.
+M. de Heredia was none the less one of the most skilful craftsmen who
+ever practised the art of verse. In 1901 he became librarian of the
+Bibliothèque de l'Arsénal at Paris. He died at the Château de Bourdonné
+(Seine-et-Oise) on the 3rd of October 1905, having completed his
+critical edition of André Chénier's works.
+
+
+
+
+HEREDIA Y CAMPUZANO, JOSÉ MARIA (1803-1839), Cuban poet, was born at
+Santiago de Cuba on the 31st of December 1803, studied at the university
+of Havana, and was called to the bar in 1823. In the autumn of 1823 he
+was arrested on a charge of conspiracy against the Spanish government,
+and was sentenced to banishment for life. He took refuge in the United
+States, published a volume of verses at New York in 1825, and then went
+to Mexico, where, becoming naturalized, he obtained a post as
+magistrate. In 1832 a collection of his poems was issued at Toluca, and
+in 1836 he obtained permission to visit Cuba for two months.
+Disappointed in his political ambitions, and broken in health, Heredia
+returned to Mexico in January 1837, and died at Toluca on the 21st of
+May 1839. Many of his earlier pieces are merely clever translations from
+French, English and Italian; but his originality is placed beyond doubt
+by such poems as the _Himno del desterrado_, the epistle to Emilia,
+_Desengaños_, and the celebrated ode to Niagara. Bello may be thought to
+excel Heredia in execution, and a few lines of Olmedo's _Canto á Junín_
+vibrate with a virile passion to which the Cuban poet rarely attained;
+but the sincerity of his patriotism and the sublimity of his imagination
+have secured for Heredia a real supremacy among Spanish-American poets.
+
+  The best edition of his works is that published at Paris in 1893 with
+  a preface by Elias Zerolo.
+
+
+
+
+HEREDITAMENT (from Lat. _hereditare_, to inherit, _heres_, heir), in
+law, every kind of property that can be _inherited_. Hereditaments are
+divided into corporeal and incorporeal; corporeal hereditaments are
+"such as affect the senses, and may be seen and handled by the body;
+incorporeal are not the subject of sensation, can neither be seen nor
+handled, are creatures of the mind, and exist only in contemplation"
+(Blackstone, _Commentaries_). An example of a corporeal hereditament is
+land held in freehold, of incorporeal hereditaments, tithes, advowsons,
+pensions, annuities, rents, franchises, &c. It is still used in the
+phrase "lands, tenements and hereditaments" to describe property in
+land, as distinguished from goods and chattels or movable property.
+
+
+
+
+HEREDITY, in biological science, the name given to the generalization,
+drawn from the observed facts, that animals and plants closely resemble
+their progenitors. (That the resemblance is not complete involves in the
+first place the subject of variation (see VARIATION AND SELECTION); but
+it must be clearly stated that there is no adequate ground for the
+current loose statements as to the existence of opposing "laws" or
+"forces" of heredity and variation.) In the simplest cases there seems
+to be no separate problem of heredity. When a creeping plant propagates
+itself by runners, when a _Nais_ or _Myrianida_ breaks up into a series
+of similar segments, each of which becomes a worm like the parent, we
+have to do with the general fact that growing organisms tend to display
+a symmetrical repetition of equivalent parts, and that reproduction by
+fission is simply a special case of metamerism. When we try to answer
+the question why the segments of an organism resemble one another,
+whether they remain in association to form a segmented animal, or break
+into different animals, we come to the conclusion, which at least is on
+the way to an answer, that it is because they are formed from pieces of
+the same protoplasm, growing under similar conditions. It is apparently
+a fundamental property of protoplasm to be able to multiply by division
+into parts, the properties of which are similar to each other and to
+those of the parent.
+
+This leads us directly to the cases of reproduction where there is an
+obvious problem of heredity. In the majority of cases among animals and
+plants the new organisms arise from portions of living matter, separated
+from the parents, but different from the parents in size and structure.
+These germs of the new organisms may be spores, reproductive cells,
+fused reproductive cells or multicellular masses (see REPRODUCTION). For
+the present purpose it is enough to state that they consist of portions
+of the parental protoplasm. These pass through an embryological history,
+in which by growth, multiplication and specialization they form
+structures closely resembling the parents. Now, if it could be shown
+that these reproductive masses arose directly from the reproductive
+masses which formed the parent body, the problems of heredity would be
+extremely simplified. If the first division of a reproductive cell set
+apart one mass to lie dormant for a time and ultimately to form the
+reproductive cells of the new generation, while the other mass, exactly
+of the same kind, developed directly into the new organism, then
+heredity would simply be a delayed case of what is called organic
+symmetry, the tendency of similar living material to develop in similar
+ways under the stimulus of similar external conditions. The cases in
+which this happens are very rare. In the Diptera the first division of
+the egg-cell separates the nuclear material of the subsequent
+reproductive cells from the material that is elaborated into the new
+organism to contain these cells. In the _Daphnidae_ and in _Sagitta_ a
+similar separation occurs at slightly later stages; in vertebrates it
+occurs much later; while in some hydroids the germ-cells do not arise in
+the individual which is developed from the egg-cell at all, but in a
+much later generation, which is produced from the first by budding.
+However, it is not necessary to dismiss the fertile idea of what Moritz
+Nussbaum and August Weismann, who drew attention to it, called
+"continuity of the germ-plasm." Weismann has shown that an actual series
+of organic forms might be drawn up in which the formation of germ-cells
+begins at stages successively more remote from the first division of the
+egg-cell. He has also shown evidence, singularly complete in the case of
+the hydroids, for the existence of an actual migration of the place of
+formation of the germ-cells, the migration reaching farther and farther
+from the egg-cell. He has elaborated the conception of the germ-track, a
+chain of cell generations in the development of any creature along which
+the reproductive material saved over from the development of one
+generation for the germ-cells of the next generation is handed on in a
+latent condition to its ultimate position. And thus he supposes a real
+continuity of the germ-plasm, extending from generation to generation in
+spite of the apparent discontinuity in the observed cases. The
+conception certainly ranks among the most luminous and most fertile
+contributions of the 19th century to biological thought, and it is
+necessary to examine at greater length the superstructure which Weismann
+has raised upon it.
+
+_Weismann's Theory of the Germ-plasm._--A living being takes its
+individual origin only where there is separated from the stock of the
+parent a little piece of the peculiar reproductive plasm, the so-called
+germ-plasm. In sexless reproduction one parent is enough; in sexual
+reproduction equivalent masses of germ-plasm from each parent combine to
+form the new individual. The germ-plasm resides in the nucleus of cells,
+and Weismann identifies it with the nuclear material named chromatin.
+Like ordinary protoplasm, of which the bulk of cell bodies is composed,
+germ-plasm is a living material, capable of growing in bulk without
+alteration of structure when it is supplied with appropriate food. But
+it is a living material much more complex than protoplasm. In the first
+place, the mass of germ-plasm which is the starting-point of a new
+individual consists of several, sometimes of many, pieces named
+"idants," which are either the chromosomes into a definite number of
+which the nuclear material of a dividing cell breaks up, or possibly
+smaller units named chromomeres. These idants are a collection of "ids,"
+which Weismann tentatively identifies with the microsomata contained in
+the chromosomes, which are visible after treatment with certain
+reagents. Each id contains all the possibilities--generic, specific,
+individual--of a new organism, or rather the directing substance which
+in appropriate surroundings of food, &c., forms a new organism. Each id
+is a veritable microcosm, possessed of an historic architecture that has
+been elaborated slowly through the multitudinous series of generations
+that stretch backwards in time from every living individual. This
+microcosm, again, consists of a number of minor vital units called
+"determinants," which cohere according to the architecture of the whole
+id. The determinants are hypothetical units corresponding to the number
+of parts of the organism independently variable. Lastly, each
+determinant consists of a number of small hypothetical units, the
+"biophores." These are adaptations of a conception of H. de Vries, and
+are supposed to become active by leaving the nucleus of the cell in
+which they lie, passing out into the general protoplasm of the cell and
+ruling its activities. Each new individual begins life as a nucleated
+cell, the nucleus of which contains germ-plasm of this complex structure
+derived from the parent. The reproductive cell gives rise to the new
+individual by continued absorption of food, by growth, cell-divisions
+and cell-specializations. The theory supposes that the first divisions
+of the nucleus are "doubling," or homogeneous divisions. The germ-plasm
+has grown in bulk without altering its character in any respect, and,
+when it divides, each resulting mass is precisely alike. From these
+first divisions a chain of similar doubling divisions stretches along
+the "germ-tracks," so marshalling unaltered germ-plasm to the generative
+organs of the new individual, to be ready to form the germ-cells of the
+next generation. In this mode the continuity of the germ-plasm from
+individual to individual is maintained. This also is the immortality of
+the germ-cells, or rather of the germ-plasm, the part of the theory
+which has laid so large a hold on the popular imagination, although it
+is really no more than a reassertion in new terms of biogenesis. With
+this also is connected the celebrated denial of the inheritance of
+acquired characters. It seemed a clear inference that, if the hereditary
+mass for the daughters were separated off from the hereditary mass that
+was to form the mother, at the very first, before the body of the mother
+was formed, the daughters were in all essentials the sisters of their
+mother, and could take from her nothing of any characters that might be
+impressed on her body in subsequent development. In the later
+elaboration of his theory Weismann has admitted the possibility of some
+direct modification of the germ-plasm within the body of the individual
+acting as its host.
+
+The mass of germ-plasm which is not retained in unaltered form to
+provide for the generative cells is supposed to be employed for the
+elaboration of the individual body. It grows, dividing and multiplying,
+and forms the nuclear matter of the tissues of the individual, but the
+theory supposes this process to occur in a peculiar fashion. The nuclear
+divisions are what Weismann calls "differentiating" or heterogeneous
+divisions. In them the microcosms of the germ-plasm are not doubled, but
+slowly disintegrated in accordance with the historical architecture of
+the plasm, each division differentiating among the determinants and
+marshalling one set into one portion, another into another portion.
+There are differences in the observed facts of nuclear division which
+tend to support the theoretical possibility of two sorts of division,
+but as yet these have not been correlated definitely with the divisions
+along the germ-tracks and the ordinary divisions of embryological
+organogeny. The theoretical conception is, that when the whole body is
+formed, the cells contain only their own kind of determinants, and it
+would follow from this that the cells of the tissues cannot give rise to
+structures containing germ-plasm less disintegrated than their own
+nuclear material, and least of all to reproductive cells which must
+contain the undisintegrated microcosms of the germ-plasm. Cases of
+bud-formation and of reconstructions of lost parts (see REGENERATION OF
+LOST PARTS) are regarded as special adaptations made possible by the
+provision of latent groups of accessory determinants, to become active
+only on emergency.
+
+It is to be noticed that Weismann's conception of the processes of
+ontogeny is strictly evolutionary, and in so far is a reversion to the
+general opinion of biologists of the 17th and 18th centuries. These
+supposed that the germ-cell contained an image-in-little of the adult,
+and that the process of development was a mere unfolding or evolution of
+this, under the influence of favouring and nutrient forces. Hartsoeker,
+indeed, went so far as to figure the human spermatozoon with a mannikin
+seated within the "head," and similar extremes of imagination were
+indulged in by other writers for the spermatozoon or ovum, according to
+the view they took of the relative importance of these two bodies. C. F.
+Wolff, in his _Theoria generationis_ (1759), was the first distinguished
+anatomist to make assault on these evolutionary views, but his direct
+observations on the process of development were not sufficient in bulk
+nor in clarity of interpretation to convince his contemporaries.
+Naturally the improved methods and vastly greater knowledge of modern
+days have made evolution in the old sense an impossible conception; we
+know that the egg is morphologically unlike the adult, that various
+external conditions are necessary for its subsequent progress through a
+slow series of stages, each of which is unlike the adult, but gradually
+approaching it until the final condition is reached. None the less,
+Weismann's theory supposes that the important determining factor in
+these gradual changes lies in the historical architecture of the
+germ-plasm, and from the theoretical point of view his theory remains
+strictly an unfolding, a becoming manifest of hidden complexity.
+
+_Hertwig's View._--The chief modern holder of the rival view, and the
+writer who has put together in most cogent form the objections to
+Weismann's theory, is Oscar Hertwig. He points out that there is no
+direct evidence for the existence of differentiating as opposed to
+doubling divisions of the nuclear matter, and, moreover, he thinks that
+there is very generally diffused evidence as to the universality of
+doubling division. In the first place, there is the fundamental fact
+that single-celled organisms exhibit only doubling division, as by that
+the persistence of species which actually occurs alone is possible. In
+the case of higher plants, the widespread occurrence of tissues with
+power of reproduction, the occurrence of budding in almost any part of
+the body in lower animals and in plants, and the widespread powers of
+regeneration of lost parts, are easily intelligible if every cell like
+the egg-cell has been formed by doubling division, and so contains the
+germinal material for every part of the organism, and thus, on the call
+of special conditions, can become a germ-cell again. He lays special
+stress on those experiments in which the process of development has been
+interfered with in various ways at various stages, as showing that the
+cells which arise from the division of the egg-cell were not predestined
+unalterably for a particular rôle, according to a predetermined plan. He
+dismisses Weismann's suggestion of the presence of accessory
+determinants which remain latent unless they happen to be required, as
+being too complicated a supposition to be supported without exact
+evidence, a view in which he has received strong support from those who
+have worked most at the experimental side of the question. From
+consideration of a large number of physiological facts, such as the
+results of grafting, transplantations of tissues and transfusions of
+blood, he concludes that the cells of an organism possess, in addition
+to their patent microscopical characters, latent characters peculiar to
+the species, and pointing towards a fundamental identity of the germinal
+substance in every cell.
+
+_The Nuclear Matter._--Apart from these two characteristic protagonists
+of extreme and opposing views, the general consensus of biological
+opinion does not take us very far beyond the plainest facts of
+observation. The resemblances of heredity are due to the fact that the
+new organism takes its origin from a definite piece of the substance of
+its parent or parents. This piece always contains protoplasm, and as the
+protoplasm of every animal and plant appears to have its own specific
+reactions, we cannot exclude this factor; indeed many, following the
+views of M. Verworn, and seeing in the specific metabolisms of
+protoplasm a large part of the meaning of life, attach an increasing
+importance to the protoplasm in the hereditary mass. Next, it always
+contains nuclear matter, and, in view of the extreme specialization of
+the nuclear changes in the process of maturation and fertilization of
+the generative cells, there is more than sufficient reason for believing
+that the nuclear substance, if not actually the specific germ-plasm, is
+of vast importance in heredity. The theory of its absolute dominance
+depends on a number of experiments, the interpretation of which is
+doubtful. Moritz Nussbaum showed that in Infusoria non-nucleated
+fragments of a cell always died, while nucleated fragments were able to
+complete themselves; but it may be said with almost equal confidence
+that nuclei separated from protoplasm also invariably die--at least, all
+attempts to preserve them have failed. Hertwig and others, in their
+brilliant work on the nature of fertilization, showed that the process
+always involved the entrance into the female cell of the nucleus of the
+male cell, but we now know that part of the protoplasm of the
+spermatozoon also enters. T. Boveri made experiments on the
+cross-fertilization of non-nucleated fragments of the eggs of
+_Sphaerechinus granularis_ with spermatozoa of _Echinus
+microtuberculatus_, and obtained dwarf larvae with only the paternal
+characters; but the nature of his experiments was not such as absolutely
+to exclude doubt. Finally, in addition to the nucleus and the
+protoplasm, another organism of the cell, the centrosome, is part of the
+hereditary mass. In sum, while most of the evidence points to a
+preponderating importance of the nuclear matter, it cannot be said to be
+an established proposition that the nuclear matter is the germ-plasm.
+Nor are we yet definitely in a position to say that the germinal mass
+(nuclear matter, protoplasm, &c., of the reproductive cells) differs
+essentially from the general substance of the organism--whether, in
+fact, there is continuity of _germ-plasm_ as opposed to continuity of
+living material from individual to individual. The origin of sexual
+cells from only definite places, in the vast majority of cases, and such
+phenomena as the phylo-genetic migration of their place of origin among
+the Hydro-medusae, tell strongly in favour of Weismann's conception.
+Early experiments on dividing eggs, in which, by separation or
+transposition, cells were made to give rise to tissues and parts of the
+organism which in the natural order they would not have produced, tell
+strongly against any profound separation between germ-plasm and
+body-plasm. It is also to be noticed that the failure of germ-cells to
+arise except in specific places may be only part of the specialized
+ordering of the whole body, and does not necessarily involve the
+interpretation that reproductive material is absolutely different in
+kind.
+
+_Amphimixis._--Hitherto we have considered the material bearer of
+heredity apart from the question of sexual union, and we find that the
+new organism takes origin from a portion of living matter, forming a
+material which may be called germ-plasm, in which resides the capacity
+to correspond to the same kind of surrounding forces as stimulated the
+parent germ-plasm by growth of the same fashion. In many cases (e.g.
+asexual spores) the piece of germ-plasm comes from one parent, and from
+an organ or tissue not associated with sexual reproduction; in other
+cases (parthenogenetic eggs) it comes from the ovary of a female, and
+may have the apparent characters of a sexual egg, except that it
+develops without fertilization; here also are to be included the cases
+where normal female ova have been induced to develop, not by the
+entrance of a spermatozoon, but by artificial chemical stimulation. In
+such cases the problem of heredity does not differ fundamentally from
+the symmetrical repetition of parts. In most of the higher plants and
+animals, however, sexual reproduction is the normal process, and from
+our present point of view the essential feature of this is that the
+germ-plasm which starts the new individual (the fertilized egg) is
+derived from the male (the spermatozoon) and from the female parent (the
+ovum). Although it cannot yet be set down sharply as a general
+proposition, there is considerable evidence to show that in the
+preparation of the ovum and spermatozoon for fertilization the nuclear
+matter of each is reduced by half (reducing division of the
+chromosomes), and that fertilization means the restoration of the normal
+bulk in the fertilized cell by equal contributions from male and female.
+So far as the known facts of this process of union of germ-plasms go,
+they take us no farther than to establish such a relation between the
+offspring and two parents as exists between the offspring and one parent
+in the other cases. Amphimixis has a vast importance in the theory of
+evolution (Weismann, for instance, regards it as the chief factor in the
+production of variations); for its relation to heredity we are as yet
+dependent on empirical observations.
+
+_Heredity and Development._--The actual process by which the germinal
+mass slowly assumes the characters of the adult--that is, becomes like
+the parent--depends on the interaction of two sets of factors: the
+properties of the germinal material itself, and the influences of
+substances and conditions external to the germinal material. Naturally,
+as K. W. von Nägeli and Hertwig in particular have pointed out, there is
+no perpetual sharp contrast between the two sets of factors, for, as
+growth proceeds, the external is constantly becoming the internal; the
+results of influences, which were in one stage part of the environment,
+are in the next and subsequent stages part of the embryo. The
+differences between the exponents of evolution and epigenesis offer
+practical problems to be decided by experiment. Every phenomenon in
+development that is proved the direct result of epigenetic factors can
+be discounted from the complexity of the germinal mass. If, for
+instance, as H. Driesch and Hertwig have argued, much of the
+differentiation of cells and tissues is a function of locality and is
+due to the action of different external forces on similar material, then
+just so much burden is removed from what evolutionists have to explain.
+That much remains cannot be doubted. Two eggs similar in appearance
+develop side by side in the same sea-water, one becoming a mollusc, the
+other an _Amphioxus_. Hertwig would say that the slight differences in
+the original eggs would determine slight differences in metabolism and
+so forth, with the result that the segmentation of the two is slightly
+different; in the next stage the differences in metabolisms and other
+relations will be increased, and so on indefinitely. But in such cases
+_c'est le premier pas qui coûte_, and the absolute cost in theoretical
+complexity of the germinal material can be estimated only after a
+prolonged course of experimental work in a field which is as yet hardly
+touched.
+
+_Empirical Study of Heredity._--The fundamental basis of heredity is the
+separation of a mass from the parent (germ-plasm) which under certain
+conditions grows into an individual resembling the parent. The goal of
+the study of heredity will be reached only when all the phenomena can be
+referred to the nature of the germ-plasm and of its relations to the
+conditions under which it grows, but we have seen how far our knowledge
+is from any attempt at such references. In the meantime, the empirical
+facts, the actual relations of the characters in the offspring to the
+characters of the parents and ancestors, are being collected and
+grouped. In this inquiry it at once becomes obvious that every character
+found in a parent may or may not be present in the offspring. When any
+character occurs in both, it is generally spoken of as transmissible and
+of having been transmitted. In this broad sense there is no character
+that is not transmissible. In all kinds of reproduction, the characters
+of the class, family, genus, species, variety or race, and of the actual
+individual, are transmissible, the certainty with which any character
+appears being almost in direct proportion to its rank in the descending
+scale from order to individual. The transmitted characters are
+anatomical, down to the most minute detail; physiological, including
+such phenomena as diatheses, timbre of voice and even compound
+phenomena, such as _gaucherie_ and peculiarity of handwriting;
+psychological; pathological; teratological, such as syndactylism and all
+kinds of individual variations. Either sex may transmit characters which
+in themselves are necessarily latent, as, for instance, a bull may
+transmit a good milking strain. In forms of asexual reproduction, such
+as division, budding, propagation by slips and so forth, every character
+of the parent may appear in the descendant, and apparently even in the
+descendants produced from that descendant by the ordinary sexual
+processes. In reproduction by spore formation, in parthenogenesis and in
+ordinary sexual modes, where there is an embryological history between
+the separated mass and the new adult, it is necessary to attempt a
+difficult discrimination between acquired and innate characters.
+
+_Acquired Characters._--Every character is the result of two sets of
+factors, those resident in the germinal material and those imposed from
+without. Our knowledge has taken us far beyond any such idea as the
+formation of a germinal material by the collection of particles from the
+adult organs and tissues (gemmules of C. Darwin). The inheritance of any
+character means the transmission in the germinal material of matter
+which, brought under the necessary external conditions, develops into
+the character of the parent. There is necessarily an acquired or
+epigenetic side to every character; but there is nothing in our
+knowledge of the actual processes to make necessary or even probable the
+supposition that the result of that factor in one generation appears in
+the germ-plasm of the subsequent generations, in those cases where an
+embryological development separates parent and offspring. The
+development of any normal, so-called "innate," character, such as, say,
+the assumption of the normal human shape and relations of the frontal
+bone, requires the co-operation of many factors external to the
+developing embryo, and the absence of abnormal distorting factors. When
+we say that such an innate character is transmitted, we mean only that
+the germ-plasm has such a constitution that, in the presence of the
+epigenetic factors and the absence of abnormal epigenetic factors, the
+bone will appear in due course and in due form. If an abnormal
+epigenetic factor be applied during development, whether to the embryo
+_in utero_, to the developing child, or in after life, abnormality of
+some kind will appear in the bone, and such an abnormality is a good
+type of what is spoken of as an "acquired" character. Naturally such a
+character varies with the external stimulus and the nature of the
+material to which the stimulus is applied, and probability and
+observation lead us to suppose that as the germ-plasm of the offspring
+is similar to that of the parent, being a mass separated from the
+parent, abnormal epigenetic influences would produce results on the
+offspring similar to those which they produced on the parent. Scrutiny
+of very many cases of the supposed inheritance of acquired characters
+shows that they may be explained in this fashion--that is to say, that
+they do not necessarily involve any feature different in kind from what
+we understand to occur in normal development. The effects of increased
+use or of disuse on organs or tissues, the reactions of living tissues
+to various external influences, to bacteria, to bacterial or other
+toxins, or to different conditions of respiration, nutrition and so
+forth, we know empirically to be different in the case of different
+individuals, and we may expect that when the living matter of a parent
+responds in a certain way to a certain external stimulus, the living
+matter of the descendant will respond to similar circumstances in a
+similar fashion. The operation of similar influences on similar material
+accounts for a large proportion of the facts. In the important case of
+the transmission of disease from parent to offspring it is plain that
+three sets of normal factors may operate, and other cases of
+transmission must be subjected to similar scrutiny: (1) a child may
+inherit the anatomical and physiological constitution of either parent,
+and with that a special liability of failure to resist the attacks of a
+widespread disease; (2) the actual bacteria may be contained in the ovum
+or possibly in the spermatozoon; (3) the toxins of the disease may have
+affected the ovum, or the spermatozoon, or through the placenta the
+growing embryo. Obviously in the first two cases the offspring cannot be
+said in any strict sense to have inherited the disease; in the last
+case, the theoretical nomenclature is more doubtful, but it is at least
+plain that no inexplicable factor is involved.
+
+It is to be noticed, however, that "Lamarckians" and "Neo-Lamarckians"
+in their advocacy of an inheritance of "acquired characters" make a
+theoretical assumption of a different kind, which applies equally to
+"acquired" and to "innate" characters. They suppose that the result of
+the epigenetic factors is reflected on the germ-plasm in such a mode
+that in development the products would display the same or a similar
+character without the co-operation of the epigenetic factors on the new
+individual, or would display the result in an accentuated form if with
+the renewed co-operation of the external factors. Such an assumption
+presents its greatest theoretical difficulty if, with Weismann, we
+suppose the germ-plasm to be different in kind from the general
+soma-plasm, and its least theoretical difficulty if, with Hertwig, we
+suppose the essential matter of the reproductive cells to be similar in
+kind to the essential substance of the general body cells. But, apart
+from the differences between such theories, it supposes, in all cases
+where an embryological development lies between parent and descendant,
+the existence of a factor towards which our present knowledge of the
+actual processes gives us no assistance. The separated hereditary mass
+does not contain the organs of the adult; the Lamarckian factor would
+involve the translation of the characters of the adult back into the
+characters of the germ-cell in such a fashion that when the germ-cell
+developed these characters would be re-translated again into those which
+originally had been produced by co-operation between germ-plasm
+characters and epigenetic factors. In the present state of our knowledge
+the theoretical difficulty is not fatal to the Lamarckian supposition;
+it does no more than demand a much more careful scrutiny of the supposed
+cases. Such a scrutiny has been going on since Weismann first raised the
+difficulty, and the present result is that no known case has appeared
+which cannot be explained without the Lamarckian factor, and the vast
+majority of cases have been resolved without any difficulty into the
+ordinary events of which we have full experience. Taking the empirical
+data in detail, it would appear first that the effects of single
+mutilations are not inherited. The effects of long-continued mutilations
+are not inherited, but Darwin cites as a possible case the Mahommedans
+of Celebes, in whom the prepuce is very small. C. E. Brown-Séquard
+thought that he had shown in the case of guinea-pigs the inheritance of
+the results of nervous lesions, but analyses of his results leave the
+question extremely doubtful. The inheritance of the effects of use and
+disuse is not proved. The inheritance of the effects of changed
+conditions of life is quite uncertain. Nägeli grew Alpine plants at
+Munich, but found that the change was produced at once and was not
+increased in a period of thirteen years. Alphonse de Candolle starved
+plants, with the result of producing better blooms, and found that
+seedlings from these were also above the average in luxuriance of
+blossom, but in these experiments the effects of selection during the
+starvation, and of direct effect on the nutrition of the seeds, were not
+eliminated. Such results are typical of the vast number of experiments
+and observations recorded. The empirical issue is doubtful, with a
+considerable balance against the supposed inheritance of acquired
+characters.
+
+_Empirical Study of Effects of Amphimixis._--Inheritance is
+theoretically possible from each parent and from the ancestry of each.
+In considering the total effect it is becoming customary to distinguish
+between "blended" inheritance, where the offspring appears in respect of
+any character to be intermediate between the conditions in the parents;
+"prepotent" inheritance, where one parent is supposed to be more
+effective than the other in stamping the offspring (thus, for instance,
+Negroes, Jews and Chinese are stated to be prepotent in crosses);
+"exclusive" inheritance, where the character of the offspring is
+definitely that of one of the parents. Such a classification depends on
+the interpretation of the word character, and rests on no certain
+grounds. An apparently blended character or a prepotent character may on
+analysis turn out to be due to the inheritance of a certain proportion
+of minuter characters derived exclusively from either parent. H. de
+Vries and later on a number of other biologists have advanced the
+knowledge of heredity in crosses by carrying out further the
+experimental and theoretical work of Gregor Mendel (see MENDELISM and
+HYBRIDISM), and results of great practical importance to breeders have
+already been obtained. These experiments and results, however, appear to
+relate exclusively to sexual reproduction and almost entirely to the
+crossing of artificial varieties of animals and plants. So far as they
+go, they point strongly to the occurrence of alternate inheritance
+instead of blended inheritance in the case of artificial varieties. On
+the other hand, in the case of natural varieties it appears that blended
+inheritance predominates. The difficulty of the interpretation of the
+word "character" still remains and the Mendelian interpretation cannot
+be dismissed with regard to the behaviour of any "character" in
+inheritance until it is certain that it is a unit and not a composite.
+There is another fundamental difficulty in making empirical comparisons
+between the characters of parents and offspring. At first sight it seems
+as if this mode of work were sufficiently direct and simple, and
+involved no more than a mere collection of sufficient data. The cranial
+index, or the height of a human being and of so many of his ancestors
+being given, it would seem easy to draw an inference as to whether or no
+in these cases brachycephaly or stature were inherited. But our modern
+conceptions of the individual and the race make it plain that the
+problems are not so simple. With regard to any character, the race type
+is not a particular measurement, but a curve of variations derived from
+statistics, and any individual with regard to the particular character
+may be referable to any point of the curve. A tall race like the modern
+Scots may contain individuals of any height within the human limits; a
+dolichocephalic race like the modern Spaniards may contain extremely
+round-headed individuals. What is meant by saying that one race is tall
+or the other dolichocephalic, is merely that if a sufficiently large
+number be chosen at random, the average height of the one race will be
+great, the cranial index of the other low. It follows that the study of
+variation must be associated with, or rather must precede, the empirical
+study of heredity, and we are beginning to know enough now to be certain
+that in both cases the results to be obtained are practically useless
+for the individual case, and of value only when large masses of
+statistics are collected. No doubt, when general conclusions have been
+established, they must be acted on for individual cases, but the results
+can be predicted not for the individual case, but only for the average
+of a mass of individual cases. It is impossible within the limits of
+this article to discuss the mathematical conceptions involved in the
+formation and applications of the method, but it is necessary to insist
+on the fact that these form an indispensable part of any valuable study
+of empirical data. One interesting conclusion, which may be called the
+"ancestral law" of heredity, with regard to any character, such as
+height, which appears to be a blend of the male and female characters,
+whether or no the apparent blend is really due to an exclusive
+inheritance of separate components, may be given from the work of F.
+Galton and K. Pearson. Each parent, on the average, contributes ¼ or
+(0.5)², each grandparent 1/16 or (0.5)^4, and each ancestor of n^th
+place (0.5)^(2n). But this, like all other deductions, is applicable
+only to the mass of cases and not to any individual case.
+
+_Regression._--An important result of quantitative work brings into
+prominence the steady tendency to maintain the type which appears to be
+one of the most important results of amphimixis. In the tenth generation
+a man has 1024 tenth grandparents, and is thus the product of an
+enormous population, the mean of which can hardly differ from that of
+the general population. Hence this heavy weight of mediocrity produces
+regression or progression to type. Thus in the case of height, a large
+number of cases being examined, it was found that fathers of a stature
+of 72 in. had sons with a mean stature of 70.8 in., a regression towards
+the normal stature of the race. Fathers with a stature of 66 in. had
+sons with a mean of 68.3 in., a progression towards the normal. It
+follows from this that where there is much in-and-in breeding the weight
+of mediocrity will be less, and the peculiarities of the breed will be
+accentuated.
+
+_Atavism._--Under this name a large number of ordinary cases of
+variation are included. A tall man with very short parents would
+probably be set down as a case of atavism if the existence of a very
+tall ancestor were known. He would, however, simply be a case of normal
+variation, the probability of which may be calculated from a table of
+stature variations in his race. Less marked cases set down to atavism
+may be instances merely of normal regression. Many cases of more
+abnormal structure, which are really due to abnormal embryonic or
+post-embryonic development, are set down to atavism, as, for instance,
+the cervical fistulae, which have been regarded as atavistic
+persistences of the gill clefts. It is also used to imply the reversion
+that takes place when domestic varieties are set free and when species
+or varieties are crossed (see HYBRIDISM). Atavism is, in fact, a
+misleading name covering a number of very different phenomena.
+
+_Telegony_ is the name given to the supposed fact that offspring of a
+mother to one sire may inherit characters from a sire with which the
+mother had previously bred. Although breeders of stock have a strong
+belief in the existence of this, there are no certain facts to support
+it, the supposed cases being more readily explained as individual
+variations of the kind generally referred to as "atavism." None the
+less, two theoretical explanations have been suggested: (1) that
+spermatozoa, or portions of spermatozoa, from the first sire may
+occasionally survive within the mother for an abnormally long period;
+(2) that the body, or the reproductive cells of the mother, may be
+influenced by the growth of the embryo within her, so that she acquires
+something of the character of the sire. The first supposition has no
+direct evidence to support it, and is made highly improbable from the
+fact that a second impregnation is always necessary. Against the second
+supposition Pearson brings the cogent empirical evidence that the
+younger children of the same sire show no increased tendency to resemble
+him. (See TELEGONY.)
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The following books contain a fair proportion of the new
+  and old knowledge on this subject:--W. Bateson, _Materials for the
+  Study of Variation_ (1894); Y. Delage, _La Structure du protoplasma et
+  les théories sur l'hérédité_ (a very full discussion and list of
+  literature); G. H. T. Eimer, _Organic Evolution_, Eng. trans. by
+  Cunningham (1890); J. C. Ewart, _The Penycuik Experiments_ (1899); F.
+  Galton, _Natural Inheritance_ (1887); O. Hertwig, _Evolution or
+  Epigenesis?_ Eng. trans. by P. C. Mitchell (1896); K. Pearson, _The
+  Grammar of Science_ (1900); Verworn, _General Physiology_, Eng. trans.
+  (1899); A. Weismann, _The Germ Plasm_, Eng. trans. by Parker (1893).
+  Lists of separate papers are given in the annual volumes of the
+  _Zoological Record_ under heading "General Subject."     (P. C. M.)
+
+
+
+
+HEREFORD, a city and municipal and parliamentary borough, and the county
+town of Herefordshire, England, on the river Wye, 144 m. W.N.W. of
+London, on the Worcester-Cardiff line of the Great Western railway and
+on the west-and-north joint line of that company and the North-Western.
+It is connected with Ross and Gloucester by a branch of the Great
+Western, and is the terminus of a line from the west worked by the
+Midland and Neath & Brecon companies. Pop. (1901) 21,382. It is mainly
+on the left bank of the river, which here traverses a broad valley, well
+wooded and pleasant. The cathedral of St Ethelbert exemplifies all
+styles from Norman to Perpendicular. The see was detached from Lichfield
+in 676, Putta being its first bishop; and the modern diocese covers most
+of Herefordshire, a considerable part of Shropshire, and small portions
+of Worcestershire, Staffordshire and Monmouthshire; extending also a
+short distance across the Welsh border. The removal of murdered
+Aethelbert's body from Marden to Hereford led to the foundation of a
+superior church, reconstructed by Bishop Athelstane, and burnt by the
+Welsh in 1055. Begun again in 1079 by Bishop Robert Losinga, it was
+carried on by Bishop Reynelm and completed in 1148 by Bishop R. de
+Betun. In 1786 the great western tower fell and carried with it the west
+front and the first bay of the nave, when the church suffered much from
+unhappy restoration by James Wyatt, but his errors were partly corrected
+by the further work of Lewis Cottingham and Sir Gilbert Scott in 1841
+and 1863 respectively, while the present west front is a reconstruction
+completed in 1905. The total length of the cathedral outside is 342 ft.,
+inside 327 ft. 5 in., the nave being 158 ft. 6 in., the choir from
+screen to reredos 75 ft. 6 in. and the lady chapel 93 ft. 5 in. Without,
+the principal features are the central tower, of Decorated work with
+ball-flower ornament, formerly surmounted by a timber spire; and the
+north porch, rich Perpendicular with parvise. The lady chapel has a bold
+east end with five narrow lancet windows. The bishop's cloisters, of
+which only two walks remain, are Perpendicular of curious design, with
+heavy tracery in the bays. A picturesque tower at the south-east corner,
+in the same style, is called the "Lady Arbour," but the origin of the
+name is unknown. Of the former fine decagonal Decorated chapter-house,
+only the doorway and slight traces remain. Within, the nave has Norman
+arcades, showing the wealth of ornament common to the work of this
+period in the church. Wyatt shortened it by one bay, and the clerestory
+is his work. There is a fine late Norman font, springing from a base
+with the rare design of four lions at the corners. The south transept is
+also Norman, but largely altered by the introduction of Perpendicular
+work. The north transept was wholly rebuilt in 1287 to contain the
+shrine of St Thomas de Cantilupe, bishop of Hereford, of which there
+remains the magnificent marble pedestal surmounted by an ornate arcade.
+The fine lantern, with its many shafts and vaulting, was thrown open to
+the floor of the bell-chamber by Cottingham. The choir screen is a
+florid design by Sir Gilbert Scott, in light wrought iron, with a wealth
+of ornament in copper, brass, mosaic and polished stones. The dark choir
+is Norman in the arcades and the stage above, with Early English
+clerestory and vaulting. At the east end is a fine Norman arch, blocked
+until 1841 by a Grecian screen erected in 1717. The choir stalls are
+largely Decorated. The organ contains original work by the famous
+builder Renatus Harris, and was the gift of Charles II. to the
+cathedral. The small north-east and south-east transepts are Decorated
+but retain traces of the Norman apsidal terminations eastward. The
+eastern lady chapel, dated about 1220, shows elaborate Early English
+work. On the south side opens the little Perpendicular chantry of Bishop
+Audley (1492-1502). In the north choir aisle is the beautiful
+fan-vaulted chantry of Bishop Stanbury (1470). The crypt is remarkable
+as being, like the lady chapel, Early English, and is thus the only
+cathedral crypt in England of a later date than the 11th century. The
+ancient monastic library remains in the archive room, with its heavy oak
+cupboards. Deeds, documents and several rare manuscripts and relics are
+preserved, and several of the precious books are still secured by
+chains. But the most celebrated relic is in the south choir aisle. This
+is the Map of the World, dating from about 1314, the work of a
+Lincolnshire monk, Richard of Haldingham. It represents the world as
+surrounded by ocean, and embodies many ideas taken from Herodotus, Pliny
+and other writers, being filled with grotesque figures of men, beasts,
+birds and fishes, together with representations of famous cities and
+scenes of scriptural classical story, such as the Labyrinth of Crete,
+the Egyptian pyramids, Mount Sinai and the journeyings of the
+Israelites. The map is surmounted by representations of Paradise and the
+Day of Judgment.
+
+From the south-east transept of the cathedral a cloister leads to the
+quadrangular college of the Vicars-Choral, a beautiful Perpendicular
+building. On this side of the cathedral, too, the bishop's palace,
+originally a Norman hall, overlooks the Wye, and near it lies the castle
+green, the site of the historic castle, which is utterly effaced. There
+is here a column (1809) commemorating the victories of Nelson. The
+church of All Saints is Early English and Decorated, and has a lofty
+spire. Both this and St Peter's (originally Norman) have good carved
+stalls, but the fabric of both churches is greatly restored. One only of
+the six gates and a few fragments of the old walls are still to be seen,
+but there are ruins of the Black Friars' Monastery in Widemarsh, and a
+mile out of Hereford on the Brecon Road, the White Cross, erected in
+1347 by Bishop Louis Charlton, and restored by Archdeacon Lord Saye and
+Sele, commemorates the departure of the Black Plague. Of domestic
+buildings the "Old House" is a good example of the picturesque
+half-timbered style, dating from 1621, and the Coningsby Hospital
+(almshouses) date from 1614. The inmates wear a remarkable uniform of
+red, designed by the founder, Sir T. Coningsby. St Ethelbert's hospital
+is an Early English foundation. Old-established schools are the
+Cathedral school (1384) and the Blue Coat school (1710); there is also
+the County College (1880). The public buildings are the shire hall in St
+Peter's Street, in the Grecian Doric style, with a statue in front of it
+of Sir George Cornewall Lewis, who represented the county in parliament
+from 1847 to 1852, the town hall (1904), the corn-exchange (1858), the
+free library and museum in Broad Street; the guildhall and mansion
+house. A musical festival of the choirs of Hereford, Gloucester and
+Worcester cathedrals is held annually in rotation at these cities.
+
+The government is in the hands of a municipal council consisting of a
+mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 5031 acres.
+
+Hereford (_Herefortuna_), founded after the crossing of the Severn by
+the West Saxons early in the 7th century, had a strategic importance due
+to its proximity to the Welsh March. The foundation of the castle is
+ascribed to Earl Harold, afterwards Harold II. The castle was
+successfully besieged by Stephen, and was the prison of Prince Edward
+during the Barons' Wars. The pacification of Wales deprived Hereford of
+military significance until it became a Royalist stronghold during the
+Civil Wars. It surrendered easily to Waller in 1643; but was reoccupied
+by the king's troops and received Rupert on his march to Wales after
+Naseby. It was besieged by the Scots during August 1645 and relieved by
+the king. It fell to the Parliamentarians in this year. In 1086 the town
+included fees of the bishop, the dean and chapter, and the Knights
+Hospitallers, but was otherwise royal demesne. Richard I. in 1189 sold
+their town to the citizens at a fee farm rent, which grant was confirmed
+by John, Henry III., Edward II., Edward III., Richard II., Henry IV. and
+Edward IV. Incorporation was granted to the mayor, aldermen and citizens
+in 1597, and confirmed in 1620 and 1697-1698. Hereford returned two
+members to parliament from 1295 until 1885, when the Redistribution Act
+deprived it of one representative. In 1116-1117 a fair beginning on St
+Ethelberta's day was conferred on the bishop, the antecedent of the
+modern fair in the beginning of May. A fair beginning on St Denis' day,
+granted to the citizens in 1226-1227, is represented by that held in
+October. The fair of Easter Wednesday was granted in 1682. In 1792 the
+existing fairs of Candlemas week and the beginning of July were held.
+Market days were, under Henry VIII. and in 1792, Wednesday, Friday and
+Saturday; the Friday market was discontinued before 1835. Hereford was
+the site of a provincial mint in 1086 and later. A grant of an exclusive
+merchant gild, in 1215-1216, was several times confirmed. The trade in
+wool was important in 1202, and eventually responsible for gilds of
+tailors, drapers, mercers, dyers, fullers, cloth workers, weavers and
+haberdashers; it brought into the market Welsh friezes and white cloth;
+but declined in the 16th century, although it existed in 1835. The
+leather trade was considerable in the 13th century. In 1835 the glove
+trade had declined. The city anciently had an extensive trade in bread
+with Wales. It was the birthplace of David Garrick, the actor, in 1716,
+and probably of Nell Gwyn, mistress of Charles II., to whose memory a
+tablet was erected in 1883, marking the supposed site of her house.
+
+  See R. Johnson, _Ancient Customs of Hereford_ (London, 1882); J.
+  Duncumbe, _History of Hereford_ (Hereford, 1882); _Journal_ of Brit.
+  Arch. Assoc. xxvi.
+
+
+
+
+HEREFORDSHIRE, an inland county of England on the south Welsh border,
+bounded N. by Shropshire, E. by Worcestershire, S. by Monmouthshire and
+Gloucestershire, and W. by Radnorshire and Brecknockshire. The area is
+839.6 sq. m. The county is almost wholly drained by the Wye and its
+tributaries, but on the north and east includes a small portion of the
+Severn basin. The Wye enters Herefordshire from Wales at Hay, and with a
+sinuous and very beautiful course crosses the south-western part of the
+county, leaving it close above the town of Monmouth. Of its tributaries,
+the Lugg enters in the north-west near Presteign, and has a course
+generally easterly to Leominster, where it turns south, receives the
+Arrow from the west, and joins the Wye 6 m. below Hereford, the Frome
+flowing in from the east immediately above the junction. The Monnow
+rising in the mountains of Brecknockshire forms the boundary between
+Herefordshire and Monmouthshire over one-half of its course (about 20
+m.), but it joins the main river at Monmouth. Its principal tributary in
+Herefordshire is the Dore, which traverses the picturesque Golden
+Valley. The Wye is celebrated for its salmon fishing, which is carefully
+preserved, while the Lugg, Arrow and Frome abound in trout and grayling,
+as does the Teme. This last is a tributary of the Severn, and only two
+short reaches lie within this county in the north, while it also forms
+parts of the northern and eastern boundary. The Leddon, also flowing to
+the Severn, rises in the east of the county and leaves it in the
+south-east, passing the town of Ledbury. High ground, of an elevation
+from 500 to 800 ft., separates the various valleys, while on the eastern
+boundary rise the Malvern Hills, reaching 1194 ft. in the Herefordshire
+Beacon, and 1395 ft. in the Worcestershire Beacon, and on the boundary
+with Brecknockshire the Black Mountains exceed 2000 ft. The scenery of
+the Wye, with its wooded and often precipitous banks, is famous, the
+most noteworthy point in this county being about Symond's Yat, on the
+Gloucestershire border below Ross.
+
+  _Geology._--The Archean or Pre-Cambrian rocks, the most ancient in the
+  county, emerge from beneath the newer deposits in three small isolated
+  areas. On the western border, Stanner Rock, a picturesque craggy hill
+  near Kington, consists of igneous materials (granitoid rock, felstone,
+  dolerite and gabbro), apparently of intrusive origin and possibly of
+  Uriconian age. In Brampton Bryan Park, a few miles to the north-east,
+  some ancient conglomerates emerge and may be of Longmyndian age. On
+  the east of the county the Herefordshire Beacon in the Malvern chain
+  consists of gneisses and schists and Uriconian volcanic rocks; these
+  have been thrust over various members of the Cambrian and Silurian
+  systems, and owing to their hard and durable nature they form the
+  highest ground in the county. The Cambrian rocks (Tremadoc Beds) come
+  next in order of age and consist of quartzites, sandstones and shales,
+  well exposed at the southern end of the Malvern chain and also at
+  Pedwardine near Brampton Bryan. The Silurian rocks are well developed
+  in the north-west part of the county, between Presteign and Ludlow;
+  also along the western flanks of the Malvern Hills and in the eroded
+  dome of Woolhope. Smaller patches come to light at Westhide east of
+  Hereford and at May Hill near Newent. They consist of highly
+  fossiliferous sandstones, mudstones, shales and limestones, known as
+  the Llandovery, Wenlock and Ludlow Series; the Woolhope, Wenlock and
+  Aymestry Limestones are famed for their rich fossil contents. The
+  remainder and by far the greater part of the county is occupied by the
+  Old Red Sandstone, through which the rocks above described project in
+  detached areas. The Old Red Sandstone consists of a great thickness of
+  red sandstones and marls, with impersistent bands of impure
+  concretionary limestone known as cornstones, which by their superior
+  hardness give rise to scarps and rounded ridges; they have yielded
+  remains of fishes and crustaceans. Some of the upper beds are
+  conglomeratic. On its south-eastern margin the county just reaches the
+  Carboniferous Limestone cliffs of the Wye Valley near Ross. Glacial
+  deposits, chiefly sand and gravel, are found in the lower ground along
+  the river-courses, while caves in the Carboniferous Limestone have
+  yielded remains of the hyena, cave-lion, rhinoceros, mammoth and
+  reindeer.
+
+_Agriculture and Industries._--The soil is generally marl and clay, but
+in various parts contains calcareous earth in mixed proportions.
+Westward the soil is tenacious and retentive of water; on the east it is
+a stiff and often reddish clay. In the south is found a light sandy
+loam. More than four-fifths of the total area of the county is under
+cultivation and about two-thirds of this is in permanent pasture. Ash
+and oak coppices and larch plantations clothe its hillsides and crests.
+The rich red soil of the Old Red Sandstone formation is famous for its
+pear and apple orchards, the county, notwithstanding its much smaller
+area, ranking in this respect next to Devonshire. The apple crop,
+generally large, is enormous one year out of four. Twenty hogsheads of
+cider have been made from an acre of orchard, twelve being the ordinary
+yield. Cider is the staple beverage of the county, and the trade in
+cider and perry is large. Hops are another staple of the county, the
+vines of which are planted in rows on ploughed land. As early as
+Camden's day a Herefordshire adage coupled Weobley ale with Leominster
+bread, indicating the county's capacity to produce fine wheat and
+barley, as well as hops.
+
+Herefordshire is also famous as a breeding county for its cattle of
+bright red hue, with mottled or white faces and sleek silky coats. The
+Herefords are stalwart and healthy, and, though not good milkers, put on
+more meat and fat at an early age, in proportion to food consumed, than
+almost any other variety. They produce the finest beef, and are more
+cheaply fed than Devons or Durhams, with which they are advantageously
+crossed. As a dairy county Herefordshire does not rank high. Its small,
+white-faced, hornless, symmetrical breed of sheep known as "the
+Ryelands," from the district near Ross, where it was bred in most
+perfection, made the county long famous both for the flavour of its meat
+and the merino-like texture of its wool. Fuller says of this that it was
+best known as "Lempster ore," and the finest in all England. In its
+original form the breed is extinct, crossing with the Leicester having
+improved size and stamina at the cost of the fleece, and the chief
+breeds of sheep on Herefordshire farms at present are Shropshire Downs,
+Cotswolds and Radnors, with their crosses. Agricultural horses of good
+quality are bred in the north, and saddle and coach horses may be met
+with at the fairs. Breeders' names from the county are famous at the
+national cattle shows, and the number, size and quality of the stock are
+seen in their supply of the metropolitan and other markets. Prize
+Herefords are constantly exported to the colonies.
+
+Manufacturing enterprise is small. There are some iron foundries and
+factories for agricultural implements, and some paper is made. There are
+considerable limestone quarries, as near Ledbury.
+
+_Communications._--Hereford is an important railway centre. The
+Worcester and Cardiff line of the Great Western railway, entering on the
+east, runs to Hereford by Ledbury and then southward. The joint line of
+the Great Western and North-Western companies runs north from Hereford
+by Leominster, proceeding to Shrewsbury and Crewe. At Leominster a Great
+Western branch crosses, connecting Worcester, Bromyard and New Radnor.
+From Hereford a Great Western branch follows the Wye south to Ross, and
+thence to the Forest of Dean and to Gloucester; a branch connects
+Ledbury with Gloucester, and the Golden Valley is traversed by a branch
+from Pontrilas on the Worcester-Cardiff line. From Hereford the Midland
+and Neath and Brecon line follows the Wye valley westward. None of the
+rivers is commercially navigable and the canals are out of use.
+
+_Population and Administration._--The area of the ancient county is
+537,363 acres, with a population in 1891 of 115,949 and in 1901 of
+114,380. The area of the administrative county is 538,921 acres. The
+county contains 12 hundreds. It is divided into two parliamentary
+divisions, Leominster (N.) and Ross (S.), and it also includes the
+parliamentary borough of Hereford, each returning one member. There are
+two municipal boroughs--Hereford (pop. 21,382) and Leominster (5826).
+The other urban districts are Bromyard (1663), Kington (1944), Ledbury
+(3259) and Ross (3303). The county is in the Oxford circuit, and assizes
+are held at Hereford. It has one court of quarter sessions and is
+divided into 11 petty sessional divisions. The boroughs of Hereford and
+Leominster have separate commissions of the peace, and the borough of
+Hereford has in addition a separate court of quarter sessions. There are
+260 civil parishes. The ancient county, which is almost entirely in the
+diocese of Hereford, with small parts in those of Gloucester, Worcester
+and Llandaff, contains 222 ecclesiastical parishes or districts, wholly
+or in part.
+
+_History._--At some time in the 7th century the West Saxons pushed their
+way across the Severn and established themselves in the territory
+between Wales and Mercia, with which kingdom they soon became
+incorporated. The district which is now Herefordshire was occupied by a
+tribe the Hecanas, who congregated chiefly in the fertile area about
+Hereford and in the mining districts round Ross. In the 8th century Offa
+extended the Mercian frontier to the Wye, securing it by the earthwork
+known as Offa's dike, portions of which are visible at Knighton and
+Moorhampton in this county. In 915 the Danes made their way up the
+Severn to the district of Archenfield, where they took prisoner
+Cyfeiliawg bishop of Llandaff, and in 921 they besieged Wigmore, which
+had been rebuilt in that year by Edward. From the time of its first
+settlement the district was the scene of constant border warfare with
+the Welsh, and Harold, whose earldom included this county, ordered that
+any Welshman caught trespassing over the border should lose his right
+hand. In the period preceding the Conquest much disturbance was caused
+by the outrages of the Norman colony planted in this county by Edward
+the Confessor. Richard's castle in the north of the county was the first
+Norman fortress erected on English soil, and Wigmore, Ewyas Harold,
+Clifford, Weobley, Hereford, Donnington and Caldecot were all the sites
+of Norman strongholds. The conqueror entrusted the subjugation of
+Herefordshire to William FitzOsbern, but Edric the Wild in conjunction
+with the Welsh prolonged resistance against him for two years.
+
+In the wars of Stephen's reign Hereford and Weobley castles were held
+against the king, but were captured in 1138. Edward, afterwards Edward
+I., was imprisoned in Hereford Castle, and made his famous escape thence
+in 1265. In 1326 the parliament assembled at Hereford which deposed
+Edward II. In the 14th and 15th centuries the forest of Deerfold gave
+refuge to some of the most noted followers of Wycliffe. During the Wars
+of the Roses the influence of the Mortimers led the county to support
+the Yorkist cause, and Edward, afterwards Edward IV., raised 23,000 men
+in this neighbourhood. The battle of Mortimer's Cross was fought in 1461
+near Wigmore. Before the outbreak of the civil war of the 17th century,
+complaints of illegal taxation were rife in Herefordshire, but a strong
+anti-puritan feeling induced the county to favour the royalist cause.
+Hereford, Goodrich and Ledbury all endured sieges.
+
+The earldom of Hereford was granted by William I. to William FitzOsbern,
+about 1067, but on the outlawry of his son Roger in 1074 the title
+lapsed until conferred on Henry de Bohun about 1199. It remained in the
+possession of the Bohuns until the death of Humphrey de Bohun in 1373;
+in 1397 Henry, earl of Derby, afterwards King Henry IV., who had married
+Mary Bohun, was created duke of Hereford. Edward VI. created Walter
+Devereux, a descendant of the Bohun family, Viscount Hereford, in 1550,
+and his grandson, the famous earl of Essex, was born in this county.
+Since this date the viscounty has been held by the Devereux family, and
+the holder ranks as the premier viscount of England. The families of
+Clifford, Giffard and Mortimer figured prominently in the warfare on the
+Welsh border, and the Talbots, Lacys, Crofts and Scudamores also had
+important seats in the county, Sir James Scudamore of Holme Lacy being
+the original of the Sir Scudamore of Spenser's _Faery Queen_. Sir John
+Oldcastle, the leader of the Lollards, was sheriff of Herefordshire in
+1406.
+
+Herefordshire probably originated as a shire in the time of Æthelstan,
+and is mentioned in the Saxon Chronicle in 1051. In the Domesday Survey
+parts of Monmouthshire and Radnorshire are assessed under Herefordshire,
+and the western and southern borders remained debatable ground until
+with the incorporation of the Welsh marches in 1535 considerable
+territory was restored to Herefordshire and formed into the hundreds of
+Wigmore, Ewyas Lacy and Huntingdon, while Ewyas Harold was united to
+Webtree. At the time of the Domesday Survey the divisions of the county
+were very unsettled. As many as nineteen hundreds are mentioned, but
+these were of varying extent, some containing only one manor, some from
+twenty to thirty. Of the twelve modern hundreds, only Greytree, Radlow,
+Stretford, Wolphy and Wormelow retain Domesday names. Herefordshire has
+been included in the diocese of Hereford since its foundation in 676. In
+1291 it comprised the deaneries of Hereford, Weston, Leominster,
+Weobley, Frome, Archenfield and Ross in the archdeaconry of Hereford,
+and the deaneries of Burford, Stottesdon, Ludlow, Pontesbury, Clun and
+Wenlock, in the archdeaconry of Shropshire. In 1877 the name of the
+archdeaconry of Shropshire was changed to Ludlow, and in 1899 the
+deaneries of Abbey Dore, Bromyard, Kingsland, Kington and Ledbury were
+created in the archdeaconry of Hereford.
+
+Herefordshire was governed by a sheriff as early as the reign of Edward
+the Confessor, the shire-court meeting at Hereford where later the
+assizes and quarter sessions were also held. In 1606 an act was passed
+declaring Hereford free from the jurisdiction of the council of Wales,
+but the county was not finally relieved from the interference of the
+Lords Marchers until the reign of William and Mary.
+
+Herefordshire has always been esteemed an exceptionally rich
+agricultural area, the manufactures being unimportant, with the sole
+exception of the woollen and the cloth trade which flourished soon after
+the Conquest. Iron was worked in Wormelow hundred in Roman times, and
+the Domesday Survey mentions iron workers in Marcle. At the time of
+Henry VIII. the towns had become much impoverished, and Elizabeth in
+order to encourage local industries, insisted on her subjects wearing
+English-made caps from the factory of Hereford. Hops were grown in the
+county soon after their introduction into England in 1524. In 1580 and
+again in 1637 the county was severely visited by the plague, but in the
+17th century it had a flourishing timber trade and was noted for its
+orchards and cider.
+
+Herefordshire was first represented in parliament in 1295, when it
+returned two members, the boroughs of Ledbury, Hereford, Leominster and
+Weobley being also represented. Hereford was again represented in 1299,
+and Bromyard and Ross in 1304, but the boroughs made very irregular
+returns, and from 1306 until Weobley regained representation in 1627,
+only Hereford and Leominster were represented. Under the act of 1832 the
+county returned three members and Weobley was disfranchised. The act of
+1868 deprived Leominster of one member, and under the act of 1885
+Leominster was disfranchised, and Hereford lost one member.
+
+_Antiquities._--There are remains of several of the strongholds which
+Herefordshire possessed as a march county, some of which were maintained
+and enlarged, after the settlement of the border, to serve in later
+wars. To the south of Ross are those of Wilton and Goodrich, commanding
+the Wye on the right bank, the latter a ruin of peculiar magnificence,
+and both gaining picturesqueness from their beautiful situations. Of the
+several castles in the valleys of the boundary-river Monnow and its
+tributaries, those in this county include Pembridge, Kilpeck and
+Longtown; of which the last shows extensive remains of the strong keep
+and thick walls. In the north the finest example is Wigmore, consisting
+of a keep on an artificial mound within outer walls, the seat of the
+powerful family of Mortimer.
+
+Beside the cathedral of Hereford, and the fine churches of Ledbury,
+Leominster and Ross, described under separate headings, the county
+contains some churches of almost unique interest. In that of Kilpeck
+remarkable and unusual Norman work is seen. It consists of the three
+divisions of nave, choir and chancel, divided by ornate arches, the
+chancel ending in an apse, with a beautiful and elaborate west end and
+south doorway. The columns of the choir arch are composed of figures. A
+similar plan is seen in Peterchurch in the Golden Valley, and in Moccas
+church, on the Wye above Hereford. Among the large number of churches
+exhibiting Norman details that at Bromyard is noteworthy. At Abbey Dore,
+the Cistercian abbey church, still in use, is a large and beautiful
+specimen of Early English work, and there are slight remains of the
+monastic buildings. At Madley, south of the Wye 5 m. W. of Hereford, is
+a fine Decorated church (with earlier portions), with the rare feature
+of a Decorated apsidal chancel over an octagonal crypt. Of the churches
+in mixed styles those in the larger towns are the most noteworthy,
+together with that of Weobley.
+
+The half-timbered style of domestic architecture, common in the west and
+midlands of England in the 16th and 17th centuries, beautifies many of
+the towns and villages. Among country houses, that of Treago, 9 m. W. of
+Ross, is a remarkable example of a fortified mansion of the 13th
+century, in a condition little altered. Rudhall and Sufton Court,
+between Ross and Hereford, are good specimens of 15th-century work, and
+portions of Hampton Court, 8 m. N. of Hereford, are of the same period,
+built by Sir Rowland Lenthall, a favourite of Henry IV. Holme Lacy, 5 m.
+S.E. of Hereford, is a fine mansion of the latter part of the 17th
+century, with picturesque Dutch gardens, and much wood-carving by
+Grinling Gibbons within. This was formerly the seat of the Scudamores,
+from whom it was inherited by the Stanhopes, earls of Chesterfield, the
+9th earl of Chesterfield taking the name of Scudamore-Stanhope. His son,
+the 10th earl, has recently (1909) sold Holme Lacy to Sir Robert
+Lucas-Tooth, Bart. Downton Castle possesses historical interest in
+having been designed in 1774, in a strange mixture of Gothic and Greek
+styles, by Richard Payne Knight (1750-1824), a famous scholar,
+numismatist and member of parliament for Leominster and Ludlow; while
+Eaton Hall, now a farm, was the seat of the family of the famous
+geographer Richard Hakluyt.
+
+  See _Victoria County History, Herefordshire_; J. Duncomb, _Collections
+  towards the History and Antiquities of the County of Hereford_
+  (Hereford, 1804-1812); John Allen, _Bibliotheca Herefordiensis_
+  (Hereford, 1821); John Webb, _Memorials of the Civil War between
+  Charles I. and the Parliament of England as it affected Herefordshire
+  and the adjacent Counties_ (London, 1879); R. Cooke, _Visitation of
+  Herefordshire, 1569_ (Exeter, 1886); F. T. Havergal, _Herefordshire
+  Words and Phrases_ (Walsall, 1887); J. Hutchinson, _Herefordshire
+  Biographies_ (Hereford, 1890).
+
+
+
+
+HERERO, or OVAHERERO ("merry people"), a Bantu people of German
+South-West Africa, living in the region known as Damaraland or
+Hereroland. They call themselves Ovaherero and their language
+Otshi-herero. Sometimes they are described as Cattle Damara or "Damara
+of the Plains" in distinction from the Hill Damara who are of mixed
+blood and Hottentots in language. The Herero, whose main occupation is
+that of cattle-rearing, are a warlike race, possessed of considerable
+military skill, as was shown in their campaigns of 1904-5 against the
+Germans. (See further GERMAN SOUTH-WEST AFRICA.)
+
+
+
+
+HERESY, the English equivalent of the Greek word [Greek: hairesis] which
+is used in the Septuagint for "free choice," in later classical
+literature for a philosophical school or sect as "chosen" by those who
+belong to it, in Philo for religion, in Josephus for a religious party
+(the Sadducees, the Pharisees and the Essenes).
+
+
+  New Testament.
+
+It is in this last sense that the term is used in the New Testament,
+usually with an implicit censure of the factious spirit to which such
+divisions are due. The term is applied to the Sadducees (Acts v. 17) and
+Pharisees (Acts xv. 5, xxvi. 5). From the standpoint of opponents,
+Christianity is itself so described (Acts xxiv. 14, xxviii. 22). In the
+Pauline Epistles it is used with severe condemnation of the divisions
+within the Christian Church itself. Heresies with "enmities, strife,
+jealousies, wraths, factions, divisions, envyings" are reckoned among
+"the works of the flesh" (Gal. v. 20). Such divisions, proofs of a
+carnal mind, are censured in the church of Corinth (1 Cor. iii. 3, 4);
+and the church of Rome is warned against those who cause them (Rom. xvi.
+17). The term "schism," afterwards distinguished from "heresy," is also
+used of these divisions (1 Cor. i. 10). The estrangements of the rich
+and the poor in the church at Corinth, leading to a lack of Christian
+fellowship even at the Lord's Supper, is described as "heresy" (1 Cor.
+xi. 19). Breaches of the law of love, not errors about the truth of the
+Gospel, are referred to in these passages. But the first step towards
+the ecclesiastical use of the term is found already in 2 Peter ii. 1,
+"Among you also there shall be false teachers who shall privily bring in
+destructive heresies (R.V. margin "sects of perdition"), denying even
+the Master that bought them, bringing upon themselves swift
+destruction." The meaning here suggested is "falsely chosen or erroneous
+tenets. Already the emphasis is moving from persons and their temper to
+mental products--from the sphere of sympathetic love to that of
+objective truth" (Bartlet, art. "Heresy," Hastings's _Bible
+Dictionary_). As the parallel passage in Jude, verse 4, shows, however,
+that these errors had immoral consequences, the moral reference is not
+absent even from this passage. The first employment of the term outside
+the New Testament is also its first use for theological error. Ignatius
+applies it to Docetism (_Ad Trall._ 6). As doctrine came to be made more
+important, heresy was restricted to any departure from the recognized
+creed. Even Constantine the Great describes the Christian Church as "the
+Catholic heresy," "the most sacred heresy" (Eusebius, _Ecclesiastical
+History_, x. c. 5, the letter to Chrestus, bishop of Syracuse); but this
+use was very soon abandoned, and the Catholic Church distinguished
+itself from the dissenting minorities, which it condemned as "heresies."
+The use of the term heresy in the New Testament cannot be regarded as
+defining the attitude of the Christian Church, even in the Apostolic
+age, towards errors in belief. The Apostolic writings show a vehement
+antagonism towards all teaching opposed to the Gospel. Paul declares
+_anathema_ the Judaizer, who required the circumcision of the Gentiles
+(Gal. i. 8), and even calls them the "dogs of the concision" and "evil
+workers" (Phil. iii. 2). The elders of Ephesus are warned against the
+false teachers who would appear in the church after the apostle's death
+as "grievous wolves not sparing the flock" (Acts xx. 29); and the
+speculations of the Gnostics are denounced as "seducing spirits and
+doctrines of devils" (1 Tim. iv. 1), as "profane babblings and
+oppositions of the knowledge which is falsely so called" (vi. 20).
+John's warnings are as earnest and severe. Those who deny the fact of
+the Incarnation are described as "antichrist," and as "deceivers" (1
+John iv. 3; 2 John 7). The references to heretics in 2 Peter and Jude
+have already been dealt with. This antagonism is explicable by the
+character of the heresies that threatened the Christian Church in the
+Apostolic age. Each of these heresies involved such a blending of the
+Gospel with either Jewish or pagan elements, as would not only pollute
+its purity, but destroy its power. In each of these the Gospel was in
+danger of being made of none effect by the environment, which it must
+resist in order that it might transform (see Burton's Bampton Lectures
+on _The Heresies of the Apostolic Age_).
+
+
+  Gnosticism.
+
+These Gnostic heresies, which threatened to paganize the Christian
+Church, were condemned in no measured terms by the fathers. These false
+teachers are denounced as "servants of Satan, beasts in human shape,
+dealers in deadly poison, robbers and pirates." Polycarp, Ignatius,
+Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Hippolytus, Tertullian and even Clement of
+Alexandria and Origen are as severe in condemnation as the later fathers
+(cf. Matt. xiii. 35-43; Tertullian, _Praescr._ 31). While the necessity
+of the heresies is admitted in accordance with 1 Cor. xi. 19, yet woe is
+pronounced on those who have introduced them, according to Matt. xviii.
+7. (This application of these passages, however, is of altogether
+doubtful validity.) "It was necessary," says Tertullian (ibid. 30),
+"that the Lord should be betrayed; but woe to the traitor." The very
+worst motives, "pride, disappointed ambition, sensual lust, and
+avarice," are recklessly imputed to the heretics; and no possibility of
+morally innocent doubt, difficulty or difference in thought is admitted.
+Origen and Augustine do, however, recognize that even false teachers may
+have good motives. While we must admit that there was a very serious
+peril to the thought and life of the Christian Church in the teaching
+thus denounced, yet we must not forget that for the most part these
+teachers are known to us only in the _ex parte_ representation that
+their opponents have given of them; and we must not assume that even
+their doctrines, still less their characters, were so bad as they are
+described.
+
+The attitude of the church in the post-Nicene period differs from that
+in the ante-Nicene in two important respects. (1) As has already been
+indicated, the earlier heresies threatened to introduce Jewish or pagan
+elements into the faith of the church, and it was necessary that they
+should be vigorously resisted if the church was to retain its
+distinctive character. Many of the later heresies were differences in
+the interpretation of Christian truth, which did not in the same way
+threaten the very life of the church. No vital interest of Christian
+faith justified the extravagant denunciations in which theological
+partisanship so recklessly and ruthlessly indulged. (2) In the
+ante-Nicene period only ecclesiastical penalties, such as reproof,
+deposition or excommunication, could be imposed. In the post-Nicene the
+union of church and state transformed theological error into legal
+offence (see below).
+
+
+  Christian definition.
+
+We must now consider the definition of heresy which was gradually
+reached in the Christian Church. It is "a religious error held in wilful
+and persistent opposition to the truth after it has been defined and
+declared by the church in an authoritative manner," or "pertinax
+defensio dogmatis ecclesiae universalis judicio condemnati" (Schaff's
+_Ante-Nicene_ Christianity, ii. 512-516). (i.) It "denotes an opinion
+antagonistic to a fundamental article of the Christian faith," due to
+the introduction of "foreign elements" and resulting in a perversion of
+Christianity, and an amalgamation with it of ideas discordant with its
+nature (Fisher's _History of Christian Doctrine_, p. 9). It has been
+generally assumed that the ecclesiastical authority was always competent
+to determine what are the fundamental articles of the Christian faith,
+and to detect any departures from them; but it is necessary to admit the
+possibility that the error was in the church, and the truth was with the
+heresy. (ii.) There cannot be any heresy where there is no orthodoxy,
+and, therefore, in the definition it is assumed that the church has
+declared what is the truth or the error in any matter. Accordingly
+"heresy is to be distinguished from defective stages of Christian
+knowledge. For example, the Jewish believers, including the Apostles
+themselves, at the outset required the Gentile believers to be
+circumcised. They were not on this account chargeable with heresy.
+Additional light must first come in, and be rejected, before that
+earlier opinion could be thus stigmatized. Moreover, heresies are not to
+be confounded with tentative and faulty hypotheses broached in a period
+prior to the scrutiny of a topic of Christian doctrine, and before that
+scrutiny has led the general mind to an assured conclusion. Such
+hypotheses--for example, the idea that in the person of Christ the Logos
+is substituted for a rational human spirit--are to be met with in
+certain early fathers" (ibid. p. 10). Origen indulged in many
+speculations which were afterwards condemned, but, as these matters were
+still open questions in his day, he was not reckoned a heretic. (iii.)
+In accordance with the New Testament use of the term heresy, it is
+assumed that moral defect accompanies the intellectual error, that the
+false view is held pertinaciously, in spite of warning, remonstrance and
+rebuke; aggressively to win over others, and so factiously, to cause
+division in the church, a breach in its unity.
+
+
+  Schism.
+
+A distinction is made between "heresy" and "schism" (from Gr. [Greek:
+schizein], rend asunder, divide). "The fathers commonly use 'heresy' of
+false teaching in opposition to Catholic doctrine, and 'schism' of a
+breach of discipline, in opposition to Catholic government" (Schaff).
+But as the claims of the church to be the guardian through its
+episcopate of the apostolic tradition, of the Christian faith itself,
+were magnified, and unity in practice as well as in doctrine came to be
+regarded as essential, this distinction became a theoretical rather than
+a practical one. While severely condemning, both Irenaeus and Tertullian
+distinguished schismatics from heretics. "Though we are by no means
+entitled to say that they acknowledged orthodox schismatics they did not
+yet venture to reckon them simply as heretics. If it was desired to get
+rid of these, an effort was made to impute to them some deviation from
+the rule of faith; and under this pretext the church freed herself from
+the Montanists and the Monarchians. Cyprian was the first to proclaim
+the identity of heretics and schismatics by making a man's Christianity
+depend on his belonging to the great episcopal church confederation. But
+in both East and West, this theory of his became established only by
+very imperceptible degrees, and indeed, strictly speaking, the process
+was never completed. The distinction between heretics and schismatics
+was preserved because it prevented a public denial of the old
+principles, because it was advisable on political grounds to treat
+certain schismatic communities with indulgence, and because it was
+always possible in case of need to prove heresy against the
+schismatics." (Harnack's _History of Dogma_, ii. 92-93).
+
+
+  Heretical baptism.
+
+There was considerable controversy in the early church as to the
+validity of heretical baptism. As even "the Christian virtues of the
+heretics were described as hypocrisy and love of ostentation," so no
+value whatever was attached by the orthodox party to the sacraments
+performed by heretics. Tertullian declares that the church can have no
+communion with the heretics, for there is nothing common; as they have
+not the same God, and the same Christ, so they have not the same baptism
+(_De bapt._ 15). Cyprian agreed with him. The validity of heretical
+baptism was denied by the church of Asia Minor as well as of Africa; but
+the practice of the Roman Church was to admit without second baptism
+heretics who had been baptized with the name of Christ, or of the Holy
+Trinity. Stephen of Rome attempted to force the Roman practice on the
+whole church in 253. The controversy his intolerance provoked was closed
+by Augustine's controversial treatise _De Baptismo_, in which the
+validity of baptism administered by heretics is based on the objectivity
+of the sacrament. Whenever the name of the three-one God is used, the
+sacrament is declared valid by whomsoever it may be performed. This was
+a triumph of sacramentarianism, not of charity.
+
+
+  Types of heresy.
+
+Three types of heresy have appeared in the history of the Christian
+Church.[1] The earliest may be called the _syncretic_; it is the fusion
+of Jewish or pagan with Christian elements. _Ebionitism_ asserted "the
+continual obligation to observe the whole of the Mosaic law," and
+"outran the Old Testament monotheism by a barren monarchianism that
+denied the divinity of Christ" (Kurtz, _Church History_, i. 120).
+"_Gnosticism_ was the result of the attempt to blend with Christianity
+the religious notions of pagan mythology, mysterology, theosophy and
+philosophy" (p. 98). The Judaizing and the paganizing tendency were
+combined in _Gnostic Ebionitism_ which was prepared for in _Jewish
+Essenism_. In the later heresy of _Manichaeism_ there were affinities to
+Gnosticism, but it was a mixture of many elements, Babylonian-Chaldaic
+theosophy, Persian dualism and even Buddhist ethics (p. 126).
+
+The next type of heresy may be called _evolutionary_ or _formatory_.
+When the Christian faith is being formulated, undue emphasis may be put
+on one aspect, and thus so partial a statement of truth may result in
+error. Thus when in the ante-Nicene age the doctrine of the Trinity was
+under discussion, dynamic _Monarchianism_ "regarded Christ as a mere
+man, who, like the prophets, though in a much higher measure, had been
+endued with divine wisdom and power"; modal _Monarchianism_ saw in the
+Logos dwelling in Christ "only a mode of the activity of the Father";
+_Patripassianism_ identified the Logos with the Father; and
+_Sabellianism_ regarded Father, Son and Spirit as "the _rôles_ which the
+God who manifests Himself in the world assumes in succession" (Kurtz,
+_Church History_, i. 175-181). When Arius asserted the subordination of
+the Son to the Father, and denied the eternal generation, Athanasius and
+his party asserted the _Homoousia_, the cosubstantiality of the Father
+and the Son. This assertion of the divinity of Christ triumphed, but
+other problems at once emerged. How was the relation of the humanity to
+the divinity in Christ to be conceived? Apollinaris denied the
+completeness of the human nature, and substituted the divine Logos for
+the reasonable soul of man. Nestorius held the two natures so far apart
+as to appear to sacrifice the unity of the person of Christ. Eutyches on
+the contrary "taught not only that after His incarnation Christ had only
+one nature, but also that the body of Christ as the body of God is not
+of like substance with our own" (Kurtz, _Church History_, i, 330-334).
+The Church in the Creed of Chalcedon in A.D. 451 affirmed "that Christ
+is true God and true man, according to His Godhead begotten from
+eternity and like the Father in everything, only without sin; and that
+after His incarnation the unity of the person consists in two natures
+which are conjoined without confusion, and without change, but also
+without rending and without separation." The problem was not solved, but
+the inadequate solutions were excluded, and the data to be considered in
+any adequate solution were affirmed. After this decision the
+controversies about the Person of Christ degenerated into mere
+hair-splitting; and the interference of the imperial authority from time
+to time in the dispute was not conducive to the settlement of the
+questions in the interests of truth alone. This problem interested the
+East for the most part; in the West there was waged a theological
+warfare around the nature of man and the work of Christ. To Augustine's
+doctrine of man's total depravity, his incapacity for any good, and the
+absolute sovereignty of the divine grace in salvation according to the
+divine election, Pelagius opposed the view that "God's grace is destined
+for all men, but man must make himself worthy of it by honest striving
+after virtue" (Kurtz, _Church History_, i. 348). While Pelagius was
+condemned, it was only a modified Augustinianism which became the
+doctrine of the church. It is not necessary in illustration of the
+second type of heresy--that which arises when the contents of the
+Christian faith are being defined--to refer to the doctrinal
+controversies of the middle ages. It may be added that after the
+Reformation Arianism was revived in Socinianism, and Pelagianism in
+Arminianism; but the conception of heresy in Protestantism demands
+subsequent notice.
+
+The third type of heresy is the _revolutionary_ or _reformatory_. This
+is not directed against doctrine as such, but against the church, its
+theory and its practice. Such movements of antagonism to the errors or
+abuses of ecclesiastical authority may be so permeated by defective
+conceptions and injurious influences as by their own character to
+deserve condemnation. But on the other hand the church in maintaining
+its place and power may condemn as heretical genuine efforts at reform
+by a return, though partial, to the standard set by the Holy Scriptures
+or the Apostolic Church. On the one hand there were during the middle
+ages sects, like the Catharists and Albigenses, whose "opposition as a
+rule developed itself from dualistic or pantheistic premises (surviving
+effects of old Gnostic or Manichaean views)" and who "stood outside of
+ordinary Christendom, and while no doubt affecting many individual
+members within it, had no influence on church doctrine." On the other
+hand there were movements, such as the Waldensian, the Wycliffite and
+Hussite, which are often described as "reformations anticipating the
+Reformation" which "set out from the Augustinian conception of the
+Church, but took exception to the development of the conception," and
+were pronounced by the medieval church as heretical for (1) "contesting
+the hierarchical gradation of the priestly order; or (2) giving to the
+religious idea of the Church implied in the thought of predestination a
+place superior to the conception of the empirical Church; or (3)
+applying to the priests, and thereby to the authorities of the Church,
+the test of the law of God, before admitting their right to exercise, as
+holding the keys, the power of binding and loosing" (Harnack's _History
+of Dogma_, vi. 136-137). The Reformation itself was from the standpoint
+of the Roman Catholic Church heresy and schism.
+
+
+  Modern use of the term.
+
+"In the present divided state of Christendom," says Schaff (_Ante-Nicene
+Christianity_, ii. 513-514), "there are different kinds of orthodoxy and
+heresy. Orthodoxy is conformity to the recognized creed or standard of
+public doctrine; heresy is a wilful departure from it. The Greek Church
+rejects as heretical, because contrary to the teaching of the first
+seven ecumenical councils, the Roman dogmas of the papacy, of the double
+procession of the Holy Ghost, the immaculate conception of the Virgin
+Mary, and the infallibility of the Pope. The Roman Church anathematized,
+in the council of Trent, all the distinctive doctrines of the Protestant
+Reformation. Among Protestant churches again there are minor doctrinal
+differences, which are held with various degrees of exclusiveness or
+liberality according to the degree of departure from the Roman Catholic
+Church. Luther, for instance, would not tolerate Zwingli's view on the
+Lord's Supper, while Zwingli was willing to fraternize with him
+notwithstanding this difference." At the colloquy of Marburg "Zwingli
+offered his hand to Luther with the entreaty that they be at least
+Christian brethren, but Luther refused it and declared that the Swiss
+were of another spirit. He expressed surprise that a man of such views
+as Zwingli should wish brotherly relations with the Wittenberg
+reformers" (Walker, _The Reformation_, p. 174). A difference of opinion
+on the question of the presence of Christ in the elements at the Lord's
+Supper was thus allowed to divide and to weaken the forces of the
+Reformation. On the problem of divine election Lutheranism and Calvinism
+remained divided. The Formula of Concord (1577), which gave to the whole
+Lutheran Church of Germany a common doctrinal system, declined to accept
+the Calvinistic position that man's condemnation as well as his
+salvation is an object of divine predestination. Within Calvinism itself
+Pelagianism was revived in Arminianism, which denied the
+irresistibility, and affirmed the universality of grace. This heresy was
+condemned by the synod of Dort (1619). The standpoint of the Reformed
+churches was the substitution of the authority of the Scriptures for the
+authority of the church. Whatever was conceived as contrary to the
+teaching of the Bible was regarded as heresy. The position is well
+expressed in the _Scotch Confession_ (1559). "Protesting, that if any
+man will note in this our Confession any article or sentence repugning
+to God's Holy Word, that it would please him, of his gentleness, and for
+Christian charity's sake, to admonish us of the same in writ, and we of
+our honour and fidelity do promise unto him satisfaction from the mouth
+of God; that is, from His Holy Scripture, or else reformation of that
+which he shall prove to be amiss. In God we take to record in our
+consciences that from our hearts we abhor all sects of heresy, and all
+teachers of erroneous doctrines; and that with all humility we embrace
+purity of Christ's evangel, which is the only food of our souls"
+(Preface).
+
+Although subsequently to the Reformation period the Protestant churches
+for the most part relapsed into the dogmatism of the Roman Catholic
+Church, and were ever ready with censure for every departure from
+orthodoxy--yet to-day a spirit of diffidence in regard to one's own
+beliefs, and of tolerance towards the beliefs of others, is abroad. The
+enlargement of the horizon of knowledge by the advance of science, the
+recognition of the only relative validity of human opinions and beliefs
+as determined by and adapted to each stage of human development, which
+is due to the growing historical sense, the alteration of view regarding
+the nature of inspiration, and the purpose of the Holy Scriptures, the
+revolt against all ecclesiastical authority, and the acceptance of
+reason and conscience as alone authoritative, the growth of the spirit
+of Christian charity, the clamorous demand of the social problem for
+immediate attention, all combine in making the Christian churches less
+anxious about the danger, and less zealous in the discovery and
+condemnation of heresy.
+
+
+  Persecution of heretics.
+
+Having traced the history of opinion in the Christian churches on the
+subject of heresy, we must now return to resume a subject already
+mentioned, the persecution of heretics. According to the Canon Law,
+which "was the ecclesiastical law of medieval Europe, and is still the
+law of the Roman Catholic Church," heresy was defined as "error which is
+voluntarily held in contradiction to a doctrine which has been clearly
+stated in the creed, and has become part of the defined faith of the
+church," and which is "persisted in by a member of the church." It was
+regarded not only as an error, but also as a crime to be detected and
+punished. As it belongs, however, to a man's thoughts and not his deeds,
+it often can be proved only from suspicions. The canonists define the
+degrees of suspicion as "light" calling for vigilance, "vehement"
+demanding denunciation, and "violent" requiring punishment. The grounds
+of suspicion have been formulated "Pope Innocent III. declared that to
+lead a solitary life, to refuse to accommodate oneself to the prevailing
+manners of society and to frequent unauthorized religious meetings were
+abundant grounds of suspicion; while later canonists were accustomed to
+give lists of deeds which made the doers suspect: a priest who did not
+celebrate mass, a layman who was seen in clerical robes, those who
+favoured heretics, received them as guests, gave them safe conduct,
+tolerated them, trusted them, defended them, fought under them or read
+their books were all to be suspect" (T. M. Lindsay in article "Heresy,"
+_Ency. Brit._ 9th edition). That the dangers of heresy might be avoided,
+laymen were forbidden to argue about matters of faith by Pope Alexander
+IV., an oath "to abjure every heresy and to maintain in its completeness
+the Catholic faith" was required by the council of Toledo (1129), the
+reading of the Scriptures in the vulgar tongue was not allowed to the
+laity by Pope Pius IV. The reading of books was restricted and certain
+books were prohibited. Regarding heresy as a crime, the church was not
+content with inflicting its spiritual penalties, such as excommunication
+and such civil disabilities as its own organization allowed it to impose
+(e.g. the heretics were forbidden to give evidence in ecclesiastical
+courts, fathers were forbidden to allow a son or a daughter to marry a
+heretic, and to hold social intercourse with a heretic was an offence).
+It regarded itself as justified in invoking the power of the state to
+suppress heresy by civil pains and penalties, including even torture and
+death.
+
+The story of the persecution of heretics by the state must be briefly
+sketched.
+
+As long as the Christian Church was itself persecuted by the pagan
+empire, it advocated freedom of conscience, and insisted that religion
+could be promoted only by instruction and persuasion (Justin Martyr,
+Tertullian, Lactantius); but almost immediately after Christianity was
+adopted as the religion of the Roman empire the persecution of men for
+religious opinions began. While Constantine at the beginning of his
+reign (313) declared complete religious liberty, and kept on the whole
+to this declaration, yet he confined his favours to the orthodox
+hierarchical church, and even by an edict of the year 326 formally
+asserted the exclusion from these of heretics and schismatics. Arianism,
+when favoured by the reigning emperor, showed itself even more
+intolerant than Catholic Orthodoxy. Theodosius the Great, in 380, soon
+after his baptism, issued, with his co-emperors, the following edict:
+"We, the three emperors, will that all our subjects steadfastly adhere
+to the religion which was taught by St Peter to the Romans, which has
+been faithfully preserved by tradition, and which is now professed by
+the pontiff Damasus of Rome, and Peter, bishop of Alexandria, a man of
+apostolic holiness. According to the institution of the Apostles, and
+the doctrine of the Gospel, let us believe in the one Godhead of the
+Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost, of equal majesty in the Holy
+Trinity. We order that the adherents of this faith be called _Catholic
+Christians_; we brand all the senseless followers of the other religions
+with the infamous name of _heretics_, and forbid their conventicles
+assuming the name of churches. Besides the condemnation of divine
+justice, they must expect the heavy penalties which our authority,
+guided by heavenly wisdom, shall think proper to inflict" (Schaff's
+_Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity_, i. 142). The fifteen penal laws
+which this emperor issued in as many years deprived them of all right to
+the exercise of their religion, "excluded them from all civil offices,
+and threatened them with fines, confiscation, banishment and even in
+some cases with death." In 385 Maximus, his rival and colleague, caused
+seven heretics to be put to death at Treves (Trier). Many bishops
+approved the act, but Ambrose of Milan and Martin of Tours condemned it.
+While Chrysostom disapproved of the execution of heretics, he approved
+"the prohibition of their assemblies and the confiscation of their
+churches." Jerome by an appeal to Deut. xiii. 6-10 appears to defend
+even the execution of heretics. Augustine found a justification for
+these penal measures in the "compel them to come in" of Luke xiv. 23,
+although his personal leanings were towards clemency. Only the
+persecuted themselves insisted on toleration as a Christian duty. In the
+middle ages the church showed no hesitation about persecuting unto death
+all who dared to contradict her doctrine, or challenge her practice, or
+question her authority. The instruction and persuasion which St Bernard
+favoured found little imitation. Even the Dominicans, who began as a
+preaching order to convert heretics, soon became persecutors. In the
+Albigensian Crusade (A.D. 1209-1229) thousands were slaughtered. As the
+bishops were not zealous enough in enforcing penal laws against
+heretics, the Tribunal of the Inquisition was founded in 1232 by Gregory
+IX., and was entrusted to the Dominicans who "as _Domini canes_
+subjected to the most cruel tortures all on whom the suspicion of heresy
+fell, and all the resolute were handed over to the civil authorities,
+who readily undertook their execution" (Kurtz, _Church History_, ii.
+137-138).
+
+At the Reformation Luther laid down the principle that the civil
+government is concerned with the province of the external and temporal
+life, and has nothing to do with faith and conscience. "How could the
+emperor gain the right," he asks, "to rule my faith?" With that only the
+Word of God is concerned. "Heresy is a spiritual thing," he says, "which
+one cannot hew with any iron, burn with any fire, drown with any water.
+The Word of God alone is there to do it." Nevertheless Luther assigned
+to the state, which he assumes to be Christian, the function of
+maintaining the Gospel and the Word of God in public life. He was not
+quite consistent in carrying out his principle (see Luthard's
+_Geschichte der christlichen Ethik_, ii. 33). In the Religious Peace of
+Augsburg the principle "cujus regio ejus religio" was accepted; by it a
+ruler's choice between Catholicism and Lutheranism bound his subjects,
+but any subject unwilling to accept the decision might emigrate without
+hindrance.
+
+In Geneva under Calvin, while the _Consistoire_, or ecclesiastical
+court, could inflict only spiritual penalties, yet the medieval idea of
+the duty of the state to co-operate with the church to maintain the
+religious purity of the community in matters of belief as well as of
+conduct so far survived that the civil authority was sure to punish
+those whom the ecclesiastical had censured. Calvin consented to the
+death of Servetus, whose views on the Trinity he regarded as most
+dangerous heresy, and whose denial of the full authority of the
+Scriptures he dreaded as overthrowing the foundations of all religious
+authority. Protestantism generally, it is to be observed, quite approved
+the execution of the heretic. The Synod of Dort (1619) not only
+condemned Arminianism, but its defenders were expelled from the
+Netherlands; only in 1625 did they venture to return, and not till 1630
+were they allowed to erect schools and churches. In modern Protestantism
+there is a growing disinclination to deal even with errors of belief by
+ecclesiastical censure; the appeal to the civil authority to inflict any
+penalty is abandoned. During the course of the 19th century in Scottish
+Presbyterianism the affirmation of Christ's atoning death for _all_ men,
+the denial of eternal punishment, the modification of the doctrine of
+the inspiration of the Scriptures by acceptance of the results of the
+Higher Criticism, were all censured as perilous errors.
+
+The subject cannot be left without a brief reference to the persecution
+of witches. To the beginning of the 13th century the popular
+superstitions regarding sorcery, witchcraft and compacts with the devil
+were condemned by the ecclesiastical authorities as heathenish, sinful
+and heretical. But after the establishment of the Inquisition "heresy
+and sorcery were regarded as correlates, like two agencies resting on
+and serviceable to the demoniacal powers, and were therefore treated in
+the same way as offences to be punished with torture and the stake"
+(Kurtz, _Church History_, ii. 195). While the Franciscans rejected the
+belief in witchcraft, the Dominicans were most zealous in persecuting
+witches. In the 15th century this delusion, fostered by the
+ecclesiastical authorities, took possession of the mind of the people,
+and thousands, mostly old women, but also a number of girls, were
+tortured and burned as witches. Protestantism took over the superstition
+from Catholicism. It was defended by James I. of England. As late as the
+18th century death was inflicted in Germany and Switzerland on men,
+women and even children accused of this crime. This superstition
+dominated Scotland. Not till 1736 were the statutes against witchcraft
+repealed; an act which the Associate Presbytery at Edinburgh in 1743
+declared to be "contrary to the express law of God, for which a holy God
+may be provoked in a way of righteous judgment."
+
+
+  Non-Christian religions.
+
+The recognition and condemnation of errors in religious belief is by no
+means confined to the Christian Church. Only a few instances of heresy
+in other religions can be given. In regard to the fetishism of the Gold
+Coast of Africa, Jevons (_Introduction to the History of Religion_, pp.
+165-166) maintains that "public opinion does not approve of the worship
+by an individual of a _suhman_, or private tutelary deity, and that his
+dealings with it are regarded in the nature of 'black art' as it is not
+a god of the community." In China there is a "classical or canonical,
+primitive and therefore alone orthodox (_tsching_) and true religion,"
+Confucianism and Taoism, while the "heterodox (_sic_)," Buddhism
+especially, is "partly tolerated, but generally forbidden, and even
+cruelly persecuted" (Chantepie de la Saussaye, _Religionsgeschichte_, i.
+57). In Islam "according to an unconfirmed tradition Mahomet is said to
+have foretold that his community would split into seventy-three sects
+(see MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION, § _Sects_), of which only one would escape the
+flames of hell." The first split was due to uncertainty regarding the
+principle which should rule the succession to the Caliphate. The Arabic
+and orthodox party (i.e. the Sunnites, who held by the Koran and
+tradition) maintained that this should be determined by the choice of
+the community. The Persian and heterodox party (the Shiites) insisted on
+heredity. But this political difference was connected with theological
+differences. The sect of the Mu'tazilites which affirmed that the Koran
+had been created, and denied predestination, began to be persecuted by
+the government in the 9th century, and discussion of religious questions
+was forbidden (see CALIPHATE, sections B and C). The mystical tendency
+in Islam, Sufism, is also regarded as heretical (see Kuenen's Hibbert
+Lecture, pp. 45-50). Buddhism is a wide departure in doctrine and
+practice from Brahmanism, and hence after a swift unfolding and quick
+spread it was driven out of India and had to find a home in other lands.
+Essenism from the standpoint of Judaism was heterodox in two respects,
+the abandonment of animal sacrifices and the adoration of the sun.
+
+Although in Greece there was generally wide tolerance, yet in 399 B.C.
+Socrates "was indicted as an irreligious man, a corrupter of youth, and
+an innovator in worship."
+
+  Besides the works quoted above, see Gottfried Arnold's _Unparteiische
+  Kirchen- und Ketzer-Historie_ (1699-1700; ed. Schaffhausen, 1740). A
+  very good list of writers on heresy, ancient and medieval, is given in
+  Burton's _Bampton Lectures on Heresies of the Apostolic Age_ (1829).
+  The various Trinitarian and Christological heresies may be studied in
+  Dorner's _History of the Doctrine of the Person of Christ_ (1845-1856;
+  Eng. trans., 1861-1862); the Gnostic and Manichaean heresies in the
+  works of Mansel, Matter and Beausobre; the medieval heresies in Hahn's
+  _Geschichte der Ketzer im Mittelalter_ (1846-1850), and Preger's
+  _Geschichte der deutschen Mystik_ (1875); Quietism in Heppe's
+  _Geschichte der quietistischen Mystik_ (1875); the Pietist sects in
+  Palmer's _Gemeinschaften und Secten Württembergs_ (1875); the
+  Reformation and 17th-century heresies and sects in the _Anabaptisticum
+  et enthusiasticum Pantheon und geistliches Rüst-Haus_ (1702). Böhmer's
+  _Jus ecclesiasticum Protestantium_ (1714-1723), and van Espen's _Jus
+  ecclesiasticum_ (1702) detail at great length the relations of heresy
+  to canon and civil law. On the question of the baptism of heretics see
+  Smith and Cheetham's _Dict. of Eccl. Antiquities_, "Baptism, Iteration
+  of"; and on that of the readmission of heretics into the church,
+  compare Martene, _De ritibus_, and Morinus, _De poenitentia_.
+       (A. E. G.*)
+
+  _Heresy according to the Law of England._--The highest point reached
+  by the ecclesiastical power in England was in the Act _De Haeretico
+  comburendo_ (2 Henry IV. c. 15). Some have supposed that a writ of
+  that name is as old as the common law, but its execution might be
+  arrested by a pardon from the crown. The Act of Henry IV. enabled the
+  diocesan alone, without the co-operation of a synod, to pronounce
+  sentence of heresy, and required the sheriff to execute it by burning
+  the offender, without waiting for the consent of the crown.[2] A large
+  number of penal statutes were enacted in the following reigns, and the
+  statute 1 Eliz. c. 1 is regarded by lawyers as limiting for the first
+  time the description of heresy to tenets declared heretical either by
+  the canonical Scripture or by the first four general councils, or such
+  as should thereafter be so declared by parliament with the assent of
+  Convocation. The writ was abolished by 29 Car. II. c. 9, which
+  reserved to the ecclesiastical courts their jurisdiction over heresy
+  and similar offences, and their power of awarding punishments not
+  extending to death. Heresy became henceforward a purely ecclesiastical
+  offence, although disabling laws of various kinds continued to be
+  enforced against Jews, Catholics and other dissenters. The temporal
+  courts have no knowledge of any offence known as heresy, although
+  incidentally (e.g. in questions of copyright) they have refused
+  protection to persons promulgating irreligious or blasphemous
+  opinions. As an ecclesiastical offence it would at this moment be
+  almost impossible to say what opinion, in the case of a layman at
+  least, would be deemed heretical. Apparently, if a proper case could
+  be made out, an ecclesiastical court might still sentence a layman to
+  excommunication for heresy, but by no other means could his opinions
+  be brought under censure. The last case on the subject (Jenkins _v._
+  Cook, _L.R._ 1 P.D. 80) leaves the matter in the same uncertainty. In
+  that case a clergyman refused the communion to a parishioner who
+  denied the personality of the devil. The judicial committee held that
+  the rights of the parishioners are expressly defined in the statute of
+  I Edw. VI. c. i, and, without admitting that the canons of the church,
+  which are not binding on the laity, could specify a lawful cause for
+  rejection, held that no lawful cause within the meaning of either the
+  canons or the rubric had been shown. It was maintained at the bar that
+  the denial of the most fundamental doctrines of Christianity would not
+  be a lawful cause for such rejection, but the judgment only queries
+  whether a denial of the personality of the devil or eternal punishment
+  is consistent with membership of the church. The right of every layman
+  to the offices of the church is established by statute without
+  reference to opinions, and it is not possible to say what opinions, if
+  any, would operate to disqualify him.
+
+  The case of clergymen is entirely different. The statute 13 Eliz. c.
+  12, § 2, enacts that "if any person ecclesiastical, or which shall
+  have an ecclesiastical living, shall advisedly maintain or affirm any
+  doctrine directly contrary or repugnant to any of the said articles,
+  and by conventicle before the bishop of the diocese, or the ordinary,
+  or before the queen's highness's commissioners in matters
+  ecclesiastical, shall persist therein or not revoke his error, or
+  after such revocation eftsoons affirm such untrue doctrine," he shall
+  be deprived of his ecclesiastical promotions. The act it will be
+  observed applies only to clergymen, and the punishment is strictly
+  limited to deprivation of benefice. The judicial committee of the
+  privy council, as the last court of appeal, has on several occasions
+  pronounced judgments by which the scope of the act has been confined
+  to its narrowest legal effect. The court will construe the Articles of
+  Religion and formularies according to the _legal rules for the
+  interpretation of statutes and written instruments_. No rule of
+  doctrine is to be ascribed to the church which is not distinctly and
+  expressly stated or plainly involved in the _written law of the
+  Church_, and where there is no rule, a clergyman may express his
+  opinion without fear of penal consequences. In the _Essays and
+  Reviews_ cases (Williams _v._ the Bishop of Salisbury, and Wilson _v._
+  Fendall, 2 _Moo._ P.C.C., N.S. 375) it was held to be not penal for a
+  clergyman to speak of merit by transfer as a "fiction," or to express
+  a hope of the ultimate pardon of the wicked, or to affirm that any
+  part of the Old or New Testament, however unconnected with religious
+  faith or moral duty, was not written under the inspiration of the Holy
+  Spirit. In the case of Noble _v._ Voysey (_L.R._ 3 P.C. 357) in 1871
+  the committee held that it was not bound to affix a meaning to
+  articles of really dubious import, as it would have been in cases
+  affecting property. At the same time any manifest contradiction of the
+  Articles, or any obvious evasion of them, would subject the offender
+  to the penalties of deprivation. In some of the cases the question has
+  been raised how far the doctrine of the church could be ascertained by
+  reference to the opinions generally expressed by divines belonging to
+  its communion. Such opinions, it would seem, might be taken into
+  account as showing the extent of liberty which had been in practice,
+  claimed and exercised on the interpretation of the articles, but would
+  certainly not be allowed to increase their stringency. It is not the
+  business of the court to pronounce upon the absolute truth or
+  falsehood of any given opinion, but simply to say whether it is
+  formally consistent with the legal doctrines of the Church of England.
+  Whether Convocation has any jurisdiction in cases of heresy is a
+  question which has occasioned some difference of opinion among
+  lawyers. Hale, as quoted by Phillimore (_Ecc. Law_), says that before
+  the time of Richard II., that is, before any acts of Parliament were
+  made about heretics, it is without question that in a convocation of
+  the clergy or provincial synod "they might and frequently did here in
+  England proceed to the sentencing of heretics." But later writers,
+  while adhering to the statement that Convocation might declare
+  opinions to be heretical, doubted whether it could proceed to punish
+  the offender, even when he was a clerk in orders. Phillimore states
+  that there is no longer any doubt, even apart from the effect of the
+  Church Discipline Act 1840, that Convocation has no power to condemn
+  clergymen for heresy. The supposed right of Convocation to stamp
+  heretical opinions with its disapproval was exercised on a somewhat
+  memorable occasion. In 1864 the Convocation of the province of
+  Canterbury, having taken the opinion of two of the most eminent
+  lawyers of the day (Sir Hugh Cairns and Sir John Rolt), passed
+  judgment upon the volume entitled _Essays and Reviews_. The judgment
+  purported to "synodically condemn the said volume as containing
+  teaching contrary to the doctrine received by the United Church of
+  England and Ireland, in common with the whole Catholic Church of
+  Christ." These proceedings were challenged in the House of Lords by
+  Lord Houghton, and the lord chancellor (Westbury), speaking on behalf
+  of the government, stated that if there was any "synodical judgment"
+  it would be a violation of the law, subjecting those concerned in it
+  to the penalties of a _praemunire_, but that the sentence in question,
+  was "simply nothing, literally no sentence at all." It is thus at
+  least doubtful whether Convocation has a right even to express an
+  opinion unless specially authorized to do so by the crown, and it is
+  certain that it cannot do anything more. Heresy or no heresy, in the
+  last resort, like all other ecclesiastical questions, is decided by
+  the judicial committee of the council.
+
+  The English lawyers, following the Roman law, distinguish between
+  heresy and apostasy. The latter offence is dealt with by an act which
+  still stands on the statute book, although it has long been virtually
+  obsolete--the 9 & 10 Will. III. c. 35. If any person _who has been
+  educated in or has professed the Christian religion_ shall, by
+  writing, printing, teaching, or advised speaking, assert or maintain
+  that there are more Gods than one, or shall deny any of the persons of
+  the Holy Trinity to be God, or shall deny the Christian religion to be
+  true or the Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testament to be of
+  divine authority, he shall for the first offence be declared incapable
+  of holding any ecclesiastical, civil, or military office or
+  employment, and for the second incapable of bringing any action, or of
+  being guardian, executor, legatee, or grantee, and shall suffer three
+  years' imprisonment without bail. Unitarians were saved from these
+  atrocious penalties by a later act (53 Geo. III. c. 160), which
+  permits Christians to deny any of the persons in the Trinity without
+  penal consequences.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] For fuller details see separate articles.
+
+  [2] Stephen's _Commentaries_, bk. iv. ch. 7.
+
+
+
+
+HEREWARD, usually but erroneously styled "the Wake" (an addition of
+later days), an Englishman famous for his resistance to William the
+Conqueror. It is now established that he was a tenant of Peterborough
+Abbey, from which he held lands at Witham-on-the-Hill and Barholme with
+Stow in the south-western corner of Lincolnshire, and of Crowland Abbey
+at Rippingale in the neighbouring fenland. His first authentic act is
+the storm and sacking of Peterborough in 1070, in company with outlaws
+and Danish invaders. The next year he took part in the desperate stand
+against the Conqueror's rule made in the isle of Ely, and, on its
+capture by the Normans, escaped with his followers through the fens.
+That his exploits made an exceptional impression on the popular mind is
+certain from the mass of legendary history that clustered round his
+name; he became, says Mr Davis, "in popular eyes the champion of the
+English national cause." The Hereward legend has been fully dealt with
+by him and by Professor Freeman, who observed that "with no name has
+fiction been more busy."
+
+  See E. A. Freeman, _History of the Norman Conquest_, vol. iv.; J. H.
+  Round, _Feudal England_; H. W. C. Davis, _England under the Normans
+  and Angevins_.     (J. H. R.)
+
+
+
+
+HERFORD, a town in the Prussian province of Westphalia, situated at the
+confluence of the Werre and Aa, on the Minden & Cologne railway, 9 m.
+N.E. of Bielefeld, and at the junction of the railway to Detmold and
+Altenbeken. Pop. (1885) 15,902; (1905) 24,821. It possesses six
+Evangelical churches, notably the Münsterkirche, a Romanesque building
+with a Gothic apse of the 15th century; the Marienkirche, in the Gothic
+style; and the Johanniskirche, with a steeple 280 ft. high. The other
+principal buildings are the Roman Catholic church, the synagogue, the
+gymnasium founded in 1540, the agricultural school and the theatre.
+There is a statue of Frederick William of Brandenburg. The industries
+include cotton and flax-spinning, and the manufacture of linen cloth,
+carpets, furniture, machinery, sugar, tobacco and leather.
+
+Herford owes its origin to a Benedictine nunnery which is said to have
+been founded in 832, and was confirmed by the emperor Louis the Pious in
+839. From the emperor Frederick I. the abbess obtained princely rank and
+a seat in the imperial diet. Among the abbesses was the celebrated
+Elizabeth (1618-1680), eldest daughter of the elector palatine Frederick
+V., who was a philosophical princess, and a pupil of Descartes. Under
+her rule the sect of the Labadists settled for some time in Herford. The
+foundation was secularized in 1803. Herford was a member of the
+Hanseatic League, and its suzerainty passed in 1547 from the abbesses to
+the dukes of Juliers. In 1631 it became a free imperial town, but in
+1647 it was subjugated by the elector of Brandenburg. It came into the
+possession of Westphalia in 1807, and in 1813 into that of Prussia.
+
+  See L. Hölscher, _Reformationsgeschichte der Stadt Herford_
+  (Gütersloh, 1888).
+
+
+
+
+HERGENRÖTHER, JOSEPH VON (1824-1890), German theologian, was born at
+Würzburg in Bavaria on the 15th of September 1824. He studied at
+Würzburg and at Rome. After spending a year as parish priest at
+Zellingen, near his native city, he went, in 1850, at his bishop's
+command, to the university of Munich, where he took his degree of doctor
+of theology the same year, becoming in 1851 _Privatdozent_, and in 1855
+professor of ecclesiastical law and history. At Munich he gained the
+reputation of being one of the most learned theologians on the
+Ultramontane side of the Infallibility question, which had begun to be
+discussed; and in 1868 he was sent to Rome to arrange the proceedings of
+the Vatican Council. He was a stanch supporter of the infallibility
+dogma; and in 1870 he wrote _Anti-Janus_, an answer to _The Pope and the
+Council_, by "Janus" (Döllinger and J. Friedrich), which made a great
+sensation at the time. In 1877 he was made prelate of the papal
+household; he became cardinal deacon in 1879, and was afterwards made
+curator of the Vatican archives. He died in Rome on the 3rd of October
+1890.
+
+  Hergenröther's first published work was a dissertation on the doctrine
+  of the Trinity according to Gregory Nazianzen (Regensburg, 1850), and
+  from this time onward his literary activity was immense. After several
+  articles and brochures on Hippolytus and the question of the
+  authorship of the _Philosophumena_, he turned to the study of Photius,
+  patriarch of Constantinople, and the history of the Greek schism. For
+  twelve years he was engaged upon this work, the result being his
+  monumental _Photius, Patriarch von Constantinopel. Sein Leben, seine
+  Schriften und das griechische Schisma_ (3 vols., Regensburg,
+  1867-1869); an additional volume (1869) gave, under the title
+  _Monumenta Graeca ad Photium ... pertinentia_, a collection of the
+  unpublished documents on which the work was largely based. Of
+  Hergenröther's other works, the most important are his history of the
+  Papal States since the Revolution (_Der Kirchenstaat seit der
+  französischen Revolution_, Freiburg i. B., 1860; Fr. trans., Leipzig,
+  1860), his great work on the relations of church and state
+  (_Katholische Kirche und christlicher Staat in ihrer geschichtlichen
+  Entwickelung und in Beziehung auf Fragen der Gegenwart_, 2 parts,
+  Freiburg i. B., 1872; 2nd ed. expanded, 1876; Eng. trans., London,
+  1876, Baltimore, 1889), and his universal church history (_Handbuch
+  der allgemeinen Kirchengeschichte_, 3 vols., Freiburg i. B.,
+  1876-1880; 2nd ed., 1879, &c.; 3rd ed., 1884-1886; 4th ed., by Peter
+  Kirsch, 1902, &c.; French trans., Paris, 1880, &c.). He also found
+  time for a while to edit the new edition of Wetzer and Welte's
+  _Kirchenlexikon_ (1877), to superintend the publication of part of the
+  _Regesta_ of Pope Leo X. (Freiburg i. B., 1884-1885), and to add two
+  volumes to Hefele's _Conciliengeschichte_ (ib., 1887 and 1890).
+
+
+
+
+HERINGSDORF, a seaside resort of Germany, in the Prussian province of
+Pomerania, on the north coast of the island of Usedom, 5 m. by rail N.W.
+of Swinemünde. It is surrounded by beech woods, and is perhaps the most
+popular seaside resort on the German shore of the Baltic, being
+frequented by some 12,000 visitors annually.
+
+
+
+
+HERIOT, GEORGE (1563-1623), the founder of Heriot's Hospital, Edinburgh,
+was descended from an old Haddington family; his father, a goldsmith in
+Edinburgh, represented the city in the Scottish parliament. George was
+born in 1563, and after receiving a good education was apprenticed to
+his father's trade. In 1586 he married the daughter of a deceased
+Edinburgh merchant, and with the assistance of her patrimony set up in
+business on his own account. At first he occupied a small "buith" at the
+north-east corner of St Giles's church, and afterwards a more
+pretentious shop at the west end of the building. To the business of a
+goldsmith he joined that of a money-lender, and in 1597 he had acquired
+such a reputation that he was appointed goldsmith to Queen Anne, consort
+of James VI. In 1601 he became jeweller to the king, and followed him to
+London, occupying a shop opposite the Exchange. Heriot was largely
+indebted for his fortune to the extravagance of the queen, and the
+imitation of this extravagance by the nobility. Latterly he had such an
+extensive business as a jeweller that on one occasion a government
+proclamation was issued calling upon all the magistrates of the kingdom
+to aid him in securing the workmen he required. He died in London on the
+10th of February 1623. In 1608, having some time previously lost his
+first wife, he married Alison Primrose, daughter of James Primrose,
+grandfather of the first earl of Rosebery, but she died in 1612; by
+neither marriage had he any issue. The surplus of his estate, after
+deducting legacies to his nearest relations and some of his more
+intimate friends, was bequeathed to found a hospital for the education
+of freemen's sons of the town of Edinburgh; and its value afterwards
+increased so greatly as to supply funds for the erection of several
+Heriot foundation schools in different parts of the city.
+
+  Heriot takes a leading part in Scott's novel, _The Fortunes of Nigel_
+  (see also the Introduction). A _History of Heriot's Hospital, with a
+  Memoir of the Founder_, by William Steven, D.D., appeared in 1827; 2nd
+  ed. 1859.
+
+
+
+
+HERIOT, by derivation the arms and equipment (_geatwa_) of a soldier or
+army (_here_); the O. Eng. word is thus here-geatwa. The lord of a fee
+provided his tenant with arms and a horse, either as a gift or loan,
+which he was to use in the military service paid by him. On the death of
+the tenant the lord claimed the return of the equipment. When by the
+10th century land was being given instead of arms, the heriot was still
+paid, but more in the nature of a "relief" (q.v.). There seems to have
+been some connexion between the payment of the heriot and the power of
+making a will (F. W. Maitland, _Domesday Book and Beyond_, p. 298). By
+the 13th century the payment was made either in money or in kind by the
+handing over of the best beast or of the best other chattel of the
+tenant (see Pollock and Maitland, _History of English Law_, i. 270 sq.).
+For the manorial law relating to heriots, see COPYHOLD.
+
+
+
+
+HERISAU, the largest town in the entire Swiss canton of Appenzell, built
+on the Glatt torrent, and by light railway 7 m. south-west of St Gall or
+13½ m. north of Appenzell. In 1900 it had 13,497 inhabitants, mainly
+Protestant and German-speaking. The lower portion of the massive tower
+of the parish church (Protestant) dates from the 11th century or even
+earlier. It is a prosperous little industrial town in the Ausser Rhoden
+half of the canton, especially busied with the manufacture of embroidery
+by machinery, and of muslins. Near it is the goats' whey cure
+establishment of Heinrichsbad, and the two castles of Rosenberg and
+Rosenburg, ruined in 1403 when the land rose against its lord, the abbot
+of St Gall. About 5 m. to the south-east is Hundwil, a village of 1523
+inhabitants, where the _Landsgemeinde_ of Ausser Rhoden meets In the odd
+years (in other years at Trogen) on the last Sunday in April.
+
+
+
+
+HERITABLE JURISDICTIONS, in the law of Scotland, grants of jurisdiction
+made to a man and his heirs. They were a usual accompaniment to feudal
+tenures, and the power which they conferred on great families, being
+recognized as a source of danger to the state, led to frequent attempts
+being made by statute to restrict them, both before and after the Union.
+They were all abolished in 1746.
+
+
+
+
+HERKIMER, a village and the county-seat of Herkimer county, New York,
+U.S.A., in the township of the same name, on the Mohawk river, about 15
+m. S.E. of Utica. Pop. (1900) 5555 (724 being foreign-born); (1905,
+state census) 6596; (1910) 7520. It is served by the New York Central &
+Hudson River railway, a branch of which (the Mohawk & Malone railway)
+extends through the Adirondacks to Malone, N.Y.; by inter-urban electric
+railway to Little Falls, Syracuse, Richfield Springs, Cooperstown and
+Oneonta, and by the Erie canal. The village has a public library, and is
+the seat of the Folts Mission Institute (opened 1893), a training school
+for young women, controlled by the Women's Foreign Missionary Society of
+the Methodist Episcopal Church. Herkimer is situated in a rich dairying
+region, and has various manufactures. The municipality owns and operates
+its water-supply system and electric-lighting plant. Herkimer, named in
+honour of General Nicholas Herkimer (c. 1728-1777), who was mortally
+wounded in the Battle of Oriskany, and in whose memory there is a
+monument (unveiled on the 6th of August 1907) in the village, was
+settled about 1725 by Palatine Germans, who bought from the Mohawk
+Indians a large tract of land including the present site of the village
+and established thereon several settlements which became known
+collectively as the "German Flats." In 1756 a stone house, built in 1740
+by General Herkimer's father, John Jost Herkimer (d. 1775)--apparently
+one of the original group of settlers--a stone church, and other
+buildings, standing within what is now Herkimer village, were enclosed
+in a stockade and ditch fortifications by Sir William Johnson, and this
+post, at first known as Fort Kouari (the Indian name), was subsequently
+called Fort Herkimer. Another fort (Ft. Dayton) was built within the
+limits of the present village in 1776 by Colonel Elias Dayton
+(1737-1807), who later became a brigadier-general (1783) and served in
+the Confederation Congress in 1787-1788. During the French and Indian
+War the settlement was attacked (12th November 1757) and practically
+destroyed, many of the settlers being killed or taken prisoners; and it
+was again attacked on the 30th of April 1758. In the War of Independence
+General Herkimer assembled here the force which on the 6th of August
+1777 was ambushed near Oriskany on its march from Ft. Dayton to the
+relief of Ft. Schuyler (see ORISKANY); and the settlement was attacked
+by Indians and "Tories" in September 1778 and in June 1782. The township
+of Herkimer was organized in 1788, and in 1807 the village was
+incorporated.
+
+  See Nathaniel I. Benton, _History of Herkimer County_ (Albany, 1856);
+  and Phoebe S. Cowen, _The Herkimers and Schuylers_, (1903).
+
+
+
+
+HERKOMER, SIR HUBERT VON (1849-   ), British painter, was born at Waal,
+in Bavaria, and eight years later was brought to England by his father,
+a wood-carver of great ability. He lived for some time at Southampton
+and in the school of art there began his art training; but in 1866 he
+entered upon a more serious course of study at the South Kensington
+Schools, and in 1869 exhibited for the first time at the Royal Academy.
+By his picture, "The Last Muster," at the Academy in 1875, he definitely
+established his position as an artist of high distinction. He was
+elected an associate of the Academy in 1879, and academician in 1890; an
+associate of the Royal Society of Painters in Water Colours in 1893, and
+a full member in 1894; and in 1885 he was appointed Slade professor at
+Oxford. He exhibited a very large number of memorable portraits, figure
+subjects and landscapes, in oil and water colour; he achieved marked
+success as a worker in enamel, as an etcher, mezzotint engraver and
+illustrative draughtsman; and he exercised wide influence upon art
+education by means of the Herkomer School (Incorporated), at Bushey,
+which he founded in 1883 and directed gratuitously until 1904, when he
+retired. It was then voluntarily wound up, and is now conducted
+privately. Two of his pictures, "Found" (1885) and "The Chapel of the
+Charterhouse" (1889), are in the National Gallery of British Art. In the
+year 1907 he received the honorary degree of D.C.L. at Oxford, and a
+knighthood was conferred upon him by the king in addition to the
+commandership of the Royal Victorian Order with which he was already
+decorated.
+
+  See _Hubert von Herkomer, R.A., a Study and a Biography_, by A. L.
+  Baldry (London, 1901); _Professor Hubert Herkomer, Royal Academician,
+  His Life and Work_, by W. L. Courtney (London, 1892).
+
+
+
+
+HERLEN (or HERLIN), FRITZ, of Nördlingen, German artist of the early
+Swabian school, in the 15th century. The date and place of his birth are
+unknown, but his name is on the roll of the tax-gatherers of Ulm in
+1449; and in 1467 he was made citizen and town painter at Nördlingen,
+"because of his acquaintance with Flemish methods of painting." One of
+the first of his acknowledged productions is a shrine on one of the
+altars of the church of Rothenburg on the Tauber, the wings of which
+were finished in 1466, with seven scenes from the lives of Christ and
+the Virgin Mary. In the town-hall of Rothenburg is a Madonna and St
+Catherine of 1467; and in the choir of Nördlingen cathedral a triptych
+of 1488, representing the "Nativity" and "Christ amidst the Doctors," at
+the side of a votive Madonna attended by St Joseph and St Margaret as
+patrons of a family. In each of these works the painter's name certifies
+the picture, and the manner is truly that of an artist "acquainted with
+Flemish methods." We are not told under whom Herlen laboured in the
+Netherlands, but he probably took the same course as Schongauer and Hans
+Holbein the elder, who studied in the school of van der Weyden. His
+altarpiece at Rothenburg contains groups and figures, as well as forms
+of action and drapery, which seem copied from those of van der Weyden's
+or Memlinc's disciples, and the votive Madonna of 1488, whilst
+characterized by similar features, only displays such further changes as
+may be accounted for by the master's constant later contact with
+contemporaries in Swabia. Herlen had none of the genius of Schongauer.
+He failed to acquire the delicacy even of the second-rate men who handed
+down to Matsys the traditions of the 15th century; but his example was
+certainly favourable to the development of art in Swabia. By general
+consent critics have assigned to him a large altar-piece, with scenes
+from the gospels and figures of St Florian and St Floriana, and a
+Crucifixion, the principal figure of which is carved in high relief on
+the surface of a large panel in the church of Dinkelsbühl. A
+Crucifixion, with eight scenes from the New Testament, is shown as his
+in the cathedral, a "Christ in Judgment, with Mary and John," and the
+"Resurrection of Souls" in the town-hall of Nördlingen. A small
+Epiphany, once in the convent of the Minorites of Ulm, is in the
+Holzschuher collection at Augsburg, a Madonna and Circumcision in the
+National Museum at Munich. Herlen's epitaph, preserved by Rathgeber,
+states that he died on the 12th of October 1491, and was buried at
+Nördlingen.
+
+
+
+
+HERMAE, in Greek antiquities, quadrangular pillars, broader above than
+at the base, surmounted by a head or bust, so called either because the
+head of Hermes was most common or from their etymological connexion with
+the Greek word [Greek: hermata] (blocks of stone), which originally had
+no reference to Hermes at all. In the oldest times Hermes, like other
+divinities, was worshipped in the form of a heap of stones or of an
+amorphous block of wood or stone, which afterwards took the shape of a
+phallus, the symbol of productivity. The next step was the addition of a
+head to this phallic column which became quadrangular (the number 4 was
+sacred to Hermes, who was born on the fourth day of the month), with the
+significant indication of sex still prominent. In this shape the number
+of herms rapidly increased, especially those of Hermes, for which the
+distinctive name of Hermhermae has been suggested. In Athens they were
+found at the corners of streets; before the gates and in the courtyards
+of houses, where they were worshipped by women as having the power to
+make them prolific; before the temples; in the gymnasia and palaestrae.
+On each side of the road leading from the Stoa Poikile to the Stoa
+Basileios, rows of Hermae were set up in such numbers by the piety of
+private individuals or public corporations, that the Stoa Basileios was
+called the Stoa of the Hermae. The function of Hermes as protector of
+the roads, of merchants and of commerce, explains the number of Hermae
+that served the purpose of signposts on the roads outside the city. It
+is stated in the pseudo-Platonic _Hipparchus_ that the son of
+Peisistratus had set up marble pillars at suitable places on the roads
+leading from the different country districts to Athens, having the
+places connected with the roads inscribed on the one side in a hexameter
+verse, and on the other a pentameter containing a short proverb or moral
+precept for the edification of travellers. Sometimes they bore
+inscriptions celebrating the valour of those who had fought for their
+country. Just as it was customary for the passer-by to show respect to
+the rudest form of the god (the heap of stones) by contributing a stone
+to the heap or anointing it with oil, in like manner small offerings,
+generally of dried figs, were deposited near the Hermae, to appease the
+hunger of the necessitous wayfarer. Garlands of flowers were also
+suspended on the two arm-like tenons projecting from either side of the
+column at the top (for the oracle at Pharae see HERMES). These pillars
+were also used to mark the frontier boundaries or the limits of
+different estates. The great respect attaching to them is shown by the
+excitement caused in Athens by the "Mutilation of the Hermae" just
+before the departure of the Sicilian expedition (May 415 B.C.). They
+formed the object of a special industry, the makers of them being called
+Hermoglyphi. The surmounting heads were not, however, confined to those
+of Hermes; those of other gods and heroes, and even of distinguished
+mortals, were of frequent occurrence. In this case a compound was
+formed: Hermathena (a herm of Athena), Hermares, Hermaphroditus,
+Hermanubis, Hermalcibiades, and so on. In the case of these compounds it
+is disputed whether they indicated a herm with the head of Athena, or
+with a Janus-like head of both Hermes and Athena, or a figure compounded
+of both deities. The Romans not only borrowed the Hermes pillars for
+their deities which at an early period they assimilated to those of the
+Greeks (as Heracles--Hercules) but also for the indigenous gods who
+preserved their individuality. Thus herms of Jupiter Terminalis (the
+hermae being identified with the Roman termini) and of Silvanus occur.
+Under the empire, the function of the hermae was rather architectural
+than religious. They were used to keep up the draperies in the interior
+of a house, and in the Circus Maximus they were used to support the
+barriers.
+
+  See the article with bibliography by Pierre Paris in Daremberg and
+  Saglio's _Dictionnaire des antiquités_; for the mutilation of the
+  Hermae, Thucydides vi. 27; Andocides, _De mysteriis_; Grote, _Hist. of
+  Greece_, ch. 58; H. Weil, _Études sur l'antiquité grecque_ (1900);
+  Burolt, _Griech. Gesch._ (ed. 1904), III. ii. p. 1287.
+
+
+
+
+HERMAGORAS, of Temnos, Greek rhetorician of the Rhodian school and
+teacher of oratory in Rome, flourished during the first half of the 1st
+century B.C. He obtained a great reputation among a certain section and
+founded a special school, the members of which called themselves
+Hermagorei. His chief opponent was Posidonius of Rhodes, who is said to
+have contended with him in argument in the presence of Pompey (Plutarch,
+_Pompey_, 42). Hermagoras devoted himself particularly to the branch of
+rhetoric known as [Greek: oikonomia] (_inventio_), and is said to have
+invented the doctrine of the four [Greek: staseis] (_status_) and to
+have arranged the parts of an oration differently from his predecessors.
+Cicero held an unfavourable opinion of his methods, which were approved
+by Quintilian, although he considers that Hermagoras neglected the
+practical side of rhetoric for the theoretical. According to Suidas and
+Strabo, he was the author of [Greek: technai rhêtorikai] (rhetorical
+manuals) and of other works, which should perhaps be attributed to his
+younger namesake, surnamed Carion, the pupil of Theodorus of Gadara.
+
+  See Strabo xiii. p. 621; Cicero, _De inventione_, i. 6. 8, _Brutus_,
+  76, 263. 78, 271; Quintilian, _Instit._ iii. 1. 16, 3. 9, 11. 22; C.
+  W. Piderit, _De Hermagora rhetore_ (1839); G. Thiele, _Hermagoras Ein
+  Beitrag zur Geschichte der Rhetorik_ (1893).
+
+
+
+
+HERMANDAD (from _hermano_, Lat. _germanus_, a brother), a Castilian word
+meaning, strictly speaking, a brotherhood. In the Romance language
+spoken on the east coast of Spain in Catalonia it is written _germandat_
+or _germania_. In the form _germania_ it has acquired the significance
+of "thieves' Latin" or "thieves' cant," and is applied to any jargon
+supposed to be understood only by the Initiated. But the typical
+"germania" is a mixture of slang and of the gipsy language. The
+hermandades have played a conspicuous part in the history of Spain. The
+first recorded case of the formation of an hermandad occurred in the
+12th century when the towns and the peasantry of the north united to
+police the pilgrim road to Santiago in Galicia, and protect the pilgrims
+against robber knights. Throughout the middle ages such alliances were
+frequently formed by combinations of towns to protect the roads
+connecting them, and were occasionally extended to political purposes.
+They acted to some extent like the Fehmic courts of Germany. The
+Catholic sovereigns, Ferdinand and Isabella, adapted an existing
+hermandad to the purpose of a general police acting under officials
+appointed by themselves, and endowed with large powers of summary
+jurisdiction even in capital cases. The hermandad became, in fact, a
+constabulary, which, however, fell gradually into neglect. In Catalonia
+and Valencia the "germanias" were combinations of the peasantry to
+resist the exactions of the feudal lords.
+
+
+
+
+HERMAN DE VALENCIENNES, 12th-century French poet, was born at
+Valenciennes, of good parentage. His father and mother, Robert and
+Hérembourg, belonged to Hainault, and gave him for god-parents Count
+Baldwin and Countess Yoland--doubtless Baldwin IV. of Hainault and his
+mother Yoland. Herman was a priest and the author of a verse _Histoire
+de la Bible_, which includes a separate poem on the Assumption of the
+Virgin. The work is generally known as _Le Roman de sapience_, the name
+arising from a copyist's error in the first line of the poem:
+
+  "Comens de sapiense, ce est la cremors de Deu"
+
+the first word being miswritten in one MS. _Romens_, and In another
+_Romanz_. His work has, indeed, the form of an ordinary romance, and
+cannot be regarded as a translation. He selects such stories from the
+Bible as suit his purpose, and adds freely from legendary sources,
+displaying considerable art in the selection and use of his materials.
+This scriptural poem, very popular in its day, mentions Henry II. of
+England as already dead, and must therefore be assigned to a date
+posterior to 1189.
+
+  See _Notices et extraits des manuscrits_ (Paris, vol. 34), and Jean
+  Bonnard, _Les Traductions de la Bible en vers français au moyen âge_
+  (1884).
+
+
+
+
+HERMANN I. (d. 1217), landgrave of Thuringia and count palatine of
+Saxony, was the second son of Louis II. the Hard, landgrave of
+Thuringia, and Judith of Hohenstaufen, sister of the emperor Frederick
+I. Little is known of his early years, but in 1180 he joined a coalition
+against Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony, and with his brother, the
+landgrave Louis III., suffered a short imprisonment after his defeat at
+Weissensee by Henry. About this time he received from his brother Louis
+the Saxon palatinate, over which he strengthened his authority by
+marrying Sophia, sister of Adalbert, count of Sommerschenburg, a former
+count palatine. In 1190 Louis died and Hermann by his energetic measures
+frustrated the attempt of the emperor Henry VI. to seize Thuringia as a
+vacant fief of the Empire, and established himself as landgrave. Having
+joined a league against the emperor he was accused, probably wrongly, of
+an attempt to murder him. Henry was not only successful in detaching
+Hermann from the hostile combination, but gained his support for the
+scheme to unite Sicily with the Empire. In 1197 Hermann went on crusade.
+When Henry VI. died in 1198 Hermann's support was purchased by the late
+emperor's brother Philip, duke of Swabia, but as soon as Philip's cause
+appeared to be weakening he transferred his allegiance to Otto of
+Brunswick, afterwards the emperor Otto IV. Philip accordingly invaded
+Thuringia in 1204 and compelled Hermann to come to terms by which he
+surrendered the lands he had obtained in 1198. After the death of Philip
+and the recognition of Otto he was among the princes who invited
+Frederick of Hohenstaufen, afterwards the emperor Frederick II., to come
+to Germany and assume the crown. In consequence of this step the Saxons
+attacked Thuringia, but the landgrave was saved by Frederick's arrival
+in Germany in 1212. After the death of his first wife in 1195 Hermann
+married Sophia, daughter of Otto I., duke of Bavaria. By her he had four
+sons, two of whom, Louis and Henry Raspe, succeeded their father in turn
+as landgrave. Hermann died at Gotha on the 25th of April 1217, and was
+buried at Reinhardsbrunn. He was fond of the society of men of letters,
+and Walther von der Vogelweide and other Minnesingers were welcomed to
+his castle of the Wartburg. In this connexion he figures in Wagner's
+_Tannhäuser_.
+
+  See E. Winkelmann, _Philipp von Schwaben und Otto IV. von
+  Braunschweig_ (Leipzig, 1873-1878); T. Knochenhauer, _Geschichte
+  Thüringens_ (Gotha, 1871); and F. Wachter, _Thüringische und
+  obersächsische Geschichte_ (Leipzig, 1826).
+
+
+
+
+HERMANN OF REICHENAU (HERIMANNUS AUGIENSIS), commonly distinguished as
+Hermannus Contractus, i.e. the Lame (1013-1054), German scholar and
+chronicler, was the son of Count Wolferad of Alshausen in Swabia.
+Hermann, who became a monk of the famous abbey of Reichenau, is at once
+one of the most attractive and one of the most pathetic figures of
+medieval monasticism. Crippled and distorted by gout from his childhood,
+he was deprived of the use of his legs; but, in spite of this, he became
+one of the most learned men of his time, and exercised a great personal
+and intellectual influence on the numerous band of scholars he gathered
+round him. He died on the 24th of September 1054, at the family castle
+of Alshausen near Biberach. Besides the ordinary studies of the monastic
+scholar, he devoted himself to mathematics, astronomy and music, and
+constructed watches and instruments of various kinds.
+
+  His chief work is a _Chronicon ad annum_ 1054, which furnishes
+  important and original material for the history of the emperor Henry
+  III. The first edition, from a MS. no longer extant, was printed by J.
+  Sichard at Basel in 1529, and reissued by Heinrich Peter in 1549;
+  another edition appeared at St Blaise in 1790 under the supervision of
+  Ussermann; and a third, as a result of the collation of numerous MSS.,
+  forms part of vol. v. of Pertz's _Monumenta Germaniae historica_. A
+  German translation of the last is contributed by K. F. A. Nobbe to
+  _Die Geschichtsschreiber der deutschen Vorzeit_ (1st ed., Berlin,
+  1851; 2nd ed., Leipzig, 1893). The separate lives of Conrad II. and
+  Henry III., often ascribed to Hermann, appear to have perished. His
+  treatises _De mensura astrolabii_ and _De utilitatibus astrolabii_ (to
+  be found, on the authority of Salzburg MSS., in Pez, _Thesaurus
+  anecdotorum novissimus_, iii.) being the first contributions of moment
+  furnished by a European to this subject, Hermann was for a time
+  considered the inventor of the astrolabe. A didactic poem from his
+  pen, _De octo vitiis principalibus_, is printed in Haupt's
+  _Zeitschrift für deutsches Alterthum_ (vol. xiii.); and he is
+  sometimes credited with the composition of the Latin hymns _Veni
+  Sancte Spiritus, Salve Regina_, and _Alma Redemptoris_. A
+  _martyrologium_ by Hermann was discovered by E. Dümmler in a MS. at
+  Stuttgart, and was published by him in "Das Martyrologium Notkers und
+  seine Verwandten" in _Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte_, xxv.
+  (Göttingen, 1885).
+
+  See H. Hansjakob, _Herimann der Lahme_ (Mainz, 1875); Potthast,
+  _Bibliotheca med. aev._ s. "Herimannus Augiensis."
+
+
+
+
+HERMANN OF WIED (1477-1552), elector and archbishop of Cologne, was the
+fourth son of Frederick, count of Wied (d. 1487), and was born on the
+14th of January 1477. Educated for the Church, he became elector and
+archbishop in 1515, and ruled his electorate with vigour and
+intelligence, taking up at first an attitude of hostility towards the
+reformers and their teaching. A quarrel with the papacy turned, or
+helped to turn, his thoughts in the direction of Church reform, but he
+hoped this would come from within rather than from without, and with the
+aid of his friend John Gropper (1503-1559), began, about 1536, to
+institute certain reforms in his own diocese. One step led to another,
+and as all efforts at union failed the elector invited Martin Bucer to
+Cologne in 1542. Supported by the estates of the electorate, and relying
+upon the recess of the diet of Regensburg in 1541, he encouraged Bucer
+to press on with the work of reform, and in 1543 invited Melanchthon to
+his assistance. His conversion was hailed with great joy by the
+Protestants, and the league of Schmalkalden declared they were resolved
+to defend him; but the Reformation in the electorate received checks
+from the victory of Charles V. over William, duke of Cleves, and the
+hostility of the citizens of Cologne. Summoned both before the emperor
+and the pope, the elector was deposed and excommunicated by Paul III. in
+1546. He resigned his office in February 1547, and retired to Wied.
+Hermann, who was also a bishop of Paderborn from 1532 to 1547, died on
+the 15th of August 1552.
+
+  See C. Varrentrapp, _Hermann von Wied_ (Leipzig, 1878).
+
+
+
+
+HERMANN, FRIEDRICH BENEDICT WILHELM VON (1795-1868), German economist,
+was born on the 5th of December 1795, at Dinkelsbühl in Bavaria. After
+finishing his primary education he was for some time employed in a
+draughtsman's office. He then resumed his studies, partly at the
+gymnasium in his native town, partly at the universities of Erlangen and
+Würzburg. In 1817 he took up a private school at Nuremberg, where he
+remained for four years. After filling an appointment as teacher of
+mathematics at the gymnasium of Erlangen, he became in 1823
+_Privatdozent_ at the university in that town. His inaugural
+dissertation was on the notions of political economy among the Romans
+(_Dissertatio exhibens sententias Romanorum ad oeconomiam politicam
+pertinentes_, Erlangen, 1823). He afterwards acted as professor of
+mathematics at the gymnasium and polytechnic school in Nuremberg, where
+he continued till 1827. During his stay there he published an elementary
+treatise on arithmetic and algebra (_Lehrbuch der Arith. u. Algeb._,
+1826), and made a journey to France to inspect the organization and
+conduct of technical schools in that country. The results of his
+investigation were published in 1826 and 1828 (_Über technische
+Unterrichts-Anstalten_). Soon after his return from France he was made
+_professor extraordinarius_ of political science of the university of
+Munich, and in 1833 he was advanced to the rank of ordinary professor.
+In 1832 appeared the first edition of his great work on political
+economy, _Staatswirthschaftliche Untersuchungen_. In 1835 he was made
+member of the Royal Bavarian Academy of Sciences. From the year 1836 he
+acted as inspector of technical instruction in Bavaria, and made
+frequent journeys to Berlin and Paris in order to study the methods
+there pursued. In the state service of Bavaria, to which he devoted
+himself, he rose rapidly. In 1837 he was placed on the council for
+superintendence of church and school work; in 1839 he was entrusted with
+the direction of the bureau of statistics; in 1845 he was one of the
+councillors for the interior; in 1848 he sat as member for Munich in the
+national assembly at Frankfort. In this assembly Hermann, with Johann
+Heckscher and others, was mainly instrumental in organizing the
+so-called "Great German" party, and was selected as one of the
+representatives of their views at Vienna. Warmly supporting the customs
+union (Zollverein), he acted in 1851 as one of its commissioners at the
+great industrial exhibition at London, and published an elaborate report
+on the woollen goods. Three years later he was president of the
+committee of judges at the similar exhibition at Munich, and the report
+of its proceedings was drawn up by him. In 1855 he became councillor of
+state, the highest honour in the service. From 1835 to 1847 he
+contributed a long series of reviews, mainly of works on economical
+subjects, to the _Münchener gelehrte Anzeigen_ and also wrote for Rau's
+_Archiv der politischen Ökonomie_ and the _Augsburger allgemeine
+Zeitung_. As head of the bureau of statistics he published a series of
+valuable annual reports (_Beiträge zur Statistik des Königreichs
+Bayern_, Hefte 1-17, 1850-1867). He was engaged at the time of his
+death, on the 23rd of November 1868, upon a second edition of his
+_Staatswirthschaftliche Untersuchungen_, which was published in 1870.
+
+Hermann's rare technological knowledge gave him a great advantage in
+dealing with some economic questions. He reviewed the principal
+fundamental ideas of the science with great thoroughness and acuteness.
+"His strength," says Roscher, "lies in his clear, sharp, exhaustive
+distinction between the several elements of a complex conception, or the
+several steps comprehended in a complex act." For keen analytical power
+his German brethren compare him with Ricardo. But he avoids several
+one-sided views of the English economist. Thus he places public spirit
+beside egoism as an economic motor, regards price as not measured by
+labour only but as a product of several factors, and habitually
+contemplates the consumption of the labourer, not as a part of the cost
+of production to the capitalist, but as the main practical end of
+economics.
+
+  See Kautz, _Gesch. Entwicklung d. National-Ökonomik_, pp. 633-638;
+  Roscher, _Gesch. d. Nat.-Ökon. in Deutschland_, pp. 860-879.
+
+
+
+
+HERMANN, JOHANN GOTTFRIED JAKOB (1772-1848), German classical scholar
+and philologist, was born at Leipzig on the 28th of November 1772.
+Entering the university of his native city at the age of fourteen,
+Hermann at first studied law, which he soon abandoned for the classics.
+After a session at Jena in 1793-1794, he became a lecturer on classical
+literature in Leipzig, in 1798 _professor extraordinarius_ of philosophy
+in the university, and in 1803 professor of eloquence (and poetry,
+1809). He died on the 31st of December 1848. Hermann maintained that an
+accurate knowledge of the Greek and Latin languages was the only road to
+a clear understanding of the intellectual life of the ancient world, and
+the chief, if not the only, aim of philology. As the leader of this
+grammatico-critical school, he came into collision with A. Böckh and
+Otfried Müller, the representatives of the historico-antiquarian school,
+which regarded Hermann's view of philology as inadequate and one-sided.
+
+Hermann devoted his early attention to the classical poetical metres,
+and published several works on that subject, the most important being
+_Elementa doctrinae metricae_ (1816), in which he set forth a scientific
+theory based on the Kantian categories. His writings on Greek grammar
+are also valuable, especially _De emendanda ratione Graecae grammaticae_
+(1801), and notes and excursus on Viger's treatise on Greek idioms. His
+editions of the classics include several of the plays of Euripides; the
+_Clouds_ of Aristophanes (1799); _Trinummus_ of Plautus (1800);
+_Poëtica_ of Aristotle (1802); _Orphica_ (1805); the Homeric _Hymns_
+(1806); and the _Lexicon_ of Photius (1808). In 1825 Hermann finished
+the edition of Sophocles begun by Erfurdt. His edition of Aeschylus was
+published after his death in 1852. The _Opuscula_, a collection of his
+smaller writings in Latin, appeared in seven volumes between 1827 and
+1839.
+
+  See monographs by O. Jahn (1849) and H. Köchly (1874); C. Bursian,
+  _Geschichte der klassischen Philologie in Deutschland_ (1883); art. in
+  _Allgem. deutsche Biog._; Sandys, _Hist. Class. Schol._ iii.
+
+
+
+
+HERMANN, KARL FRIEDRICH (1804-1855), German classical scholar and
+antiquary, was born on the 4th of August 1804, at Frankfort-on-Main.
+Having studied at the universities of Heidelberg and Leipzig, he went
+for a tour in Italy, on his return from which he lectured as
+_Privatdozent_ in Heidelberg. In 1832 he was called to Marburg as
+_professor ordinarius_ of classical literature; and in 1842 he was
+transferred to Göttingen to the chair of philology and archaeology,
+vacant by the death of Otfried Müller. He died at Göttingen on the 31st
+of December 1855. His knowledge of all branches of classical learning
+was profound, but he was chiefly distinguished for his works on Greek
+antiquities and ancient philosophy. Among these may be mentioned the
+_Lehrbuch der griechischen Antiquitäten_ (new ed., 1889) dealing with
+political, religious and domestic antiquities; the _Geschichte und
+System der Platonischen Philosophie_ (1839), unfinished; an edition of
+the Platonic Dialogues (6 vols., 1851-1853); and _Culturgeschickte der
+Griechen und Römer_ (1857-1858), published after his death by C. G.
+Schmidt. He also edited the text of Juvenal and Persius (1854) and
+Lucian's _De conscribenda historia_ (1828). A collection of
+_Abhandlungen und Beiträge_ appeared in 1849.
+
+  See M. Lechner, _Zur Erinnerung an K. F. Hermann_ (1864), and article
+  by C. Halm in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, xii. (1880).
+
+
+
+
+HERMAPHRODITUS, in Greek mythology, a being, partly male, partly female,
+originally worshipped as a divinity. The conception undoubtedly had its
+origin in the East, where deities of a similar dual nature frequently
+occur. The oldest traces of the cult in Greek countries are found in
+Cyprus. Here, according to Macrobius (_Saturnalia_, iii. 8) there was a
+bearded statue of a male aphrodite, called Aphroditos by Aristophanes
+(probably in his [Greek: Niobos], a similar variant). Philochorus in his
+_Atthis_ (_ap._ Macrobius _loc. cit._) further identified this divinity,
+at whose sacrifices men and women exchanged garments, with the moon.
+This double sex also attributed to Dionysus and Priapus--the union in
+one being of the two principles of generation and conception--denotes
+extensive fertilizing and productive powers. This Cyprian Aphrodite is
+the same as the later Hermaphroditos, which simply means Aphroditos in
+the form of a herm (see HERMAE), and first occurs in the _Characteres_
+(16) of Theophrastus. After its introduction at Athens (probably in the
+5th century B.C.), the importance of this being seems to have declined.
+It appears no longer as the object of a special cult, but limited to the
+homage of certain sects, expressed by superstitious rites of obscure
+significance. The still later form of the legend, a product of the
+Hellenistic period, is due to a mistaken etymology of the name. In
+accordance with this, Hermaphroditus is the son of Hermes and Aphrodite,
+of whom the nymph of the fountain of Salmacis in Caria became enamoured
+while he was bathing. When her overtures were rejected, she embraced him
+and entreated the gods that she might be for ever united with him. The
+result was the formation of a being, half man, half woman. This story is
+told by Ovid (_Metam._ iv. 285) to explain the peculiarly enervating
+qualities of the water of the fountain. Strabo (xiv. p. 656) attributes
+its bad reputation to the attempt of the inhabitants of the country to
+find some excuse for the demoralization caused by their own luxurious
+and effeminate habits of life. There was a famous statue of
+Hermaphroditus by Polycles of Athens, probably the younger of the two
+statuaries of that name. In later Greek art he was a favourite subject.
+
+  See articles in Daremberg and Saglio, _Dictionnaire des antiquités_,
+  and Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_; and for art, A. Baumeister,
+  _Denkmäler des klassischen Altertums_ (1884-1888).
+
+
+
+
+HERMAS, SHEPHERD OF, one of the works representing the Apostolic Fathers
+(q.v.), a hortatory writing which "holds the mirror up" to the Church in
+Rome during the 3rd Christian generation. This is the period indicated
+by the evidence of the Muratorian Canon, which assigns it to the brother
+of Pius, Roman bishop c. 139-154. Probably it was not the fruit of a
+single effort of its author. Rather its contents came to him piecemeal
+and at various stages in his ministry as a Christian "prophet,"
+extending over a period of years; and, like certain Old Testament
+prophets, he shows us how by his own experiences he became the medium of
+a divine message to his church and to God's "elect" people at large.
+
+In its present form it falls under three heads: _Visions_, _Mandates_,
+_Similitudes_. But these divisions are misleading. The personal and
+preliminary revelation embodied in _Vision_ i. brings the prophet a new
+sense of sin as essentially a matter of the heart, and an awakened
+conscience as before the "glory of God," the Creator and Upholder of all
+things. His responsibility also for the sad state of religion at home is
+emphasized, and he is given a mission of repentance to his erring
+children. How far in all this and in the next vision the author is
+describing facts, and how far transforming his personal history into a
+type (after the manner of Bunyan's _Pilgrim's Progress_), the better to
+impress his moral upon his readers, is uncertain. But the whole style of
+the work, with its use of conventional apocalyptic forms, favours the
+more symbolic view. _Vision_ ii. records his call proper, through
+revelation of his essential message, to be delivered both to his wife
+and children and to "all the saints who have sinned unto this day" (2.
+4). It contains the assurances of forgiveness even for the gravest sins
+after baptism (save blasphemy of the Name and betrayal of the brethren,
+_Sim._ ix. 19), "if they repent with their whole heart and remove doubts
+from their minds. For the Master hath sworn by His glory ('His Son,'
+below) touching His elect, that if there be more sinning after this day
+which He hath limited, they shall not obtain salvation. For the
+repentance of the righteous hath an end; the days of repentance for all
+saints are fulfilled.... Stand fast, then, ye that work righteousness
+and be not of doubtful mind.... Happy are all ye that endure the great
+tribulation which is to come.... _The Lord is nigh unto them that turn
+to Him_, as it is written in the book of Eldad and Modad, who prophesied
+to the people in the wilderness."
+
+Here, in the gist of the "booklet" received from the hand of a female
+figure representing the Church, we have in germ the message of _The
+Shepherd_. But before Hermas announces it to the Roman Church, and
+through "Clement"[1] to the churches abroad, there are added two
+_Visions_ (iii. iv.) tending to heighten its impressiveness. He is shown
+the "holy church" under the similitude of a tower in building, and the
+great and final tribulation (already alluded to as near at hand) under
+that of a devouring beast, which yet is innocuous to undoubting faith.
+
+Hermas begins to deliver the message of _Vis._ i.-iv., as bidden. But as
+he does so, it is added to, in the way of detail and illustration, by a
+fresh series of revelations through an angel in the guise of a Shepherd,
+who in a preliminary interview announces himself as the Angel of
+Repentance, sent to administer the special "repentance" which it was
+Hermas's mission to declare. This interview appears in our MSS. as
+_Vis._ v.,[2] but is really a prelude to the _Mandates_ and
+_Similitudes_ which form the bulk of the whole work, hence known as "The
+Shepherd." The relation of this second part to _Vis._ i.-iv. is set
+forth by the Shepherd himself. "I was sent, quoth he, to show thee
+_again_ all that thou sawest before, to wit the sum of the things
+profitable for thee. First of all write thou my mandates and
+similitudes; and _the rest_, as I will show thee, so shalt thou write."
+This programme is fulfilled in the xii. _Mandates_--perhaps suggested by
+the _Teaching of the Twelve Apostles_ (see DIDACHE), which Hermas
+knows--and _Similitudes_ i.-viii., while _Simil._ ix. is "the rest" and
+constitutes a distinct "book" (_Sim._ ix. 1. 1, x. 1. 1). In this latter
+the building of the Tower, already shown in outline in _Vis._ iii., is
+shown "more carefully" in an elaborate section dealing with the same
+themes. One may infer that _Sim._ ix. represents a distinctly later
+stage in Hermas's ministry--during the whole of which he seems to have
+committed to writing what he received on each occasion,[3] possibly for
+recital to the church (cf. _Vis._ ii. _fin._). Finally came _Sim._ x.,
+really an epilogue in which Hermas is "delivered" afresh to the
+Shepherd, for the rest of his days. He is "to continue in this ministry"
+of proclaiming the Shepherd's teaching, "so that they who have repented
+or are about to repent may have the same mind with thee," and so receive
+a good report before God (_Sim._ x. 2 2-4). Only they must "make haste
+to do aright," lest while they delay the tower be finished (4. 4), and
+the new aeon dawn (after the final tribulation: cf. _Vis._ iv. 3. 5).
+
+The relation here indicated between the Shepherd's instruction and the
+initial message of one definitive repentance, open to those believers
+who have already "broken" their "seal" of baptism by deadly sins, as
+announced in _Visions_ i.-iv. is made yet plainer by _Sim._ vi. 1. 3 f.
+"These mandates are profitable to such as are about to repent; for
+except they walk in them their repentance is in vain." Hermas sees that
+mere repentance is not enough to meet the backsliding condition in which
+so many Christians then were, owing to the recoil of inveterate habits
+of worldliness[4] entrenched in society around and within. It is, after
+all, too negative a thing to stand by itself or to satisfy God. "Cease,
+Hermas," says the Church, "to pray all about thy sins. Ask for
+righteousness also" (_Vis._ iii. 1. 6). The positive Christian ideal
+which "the saints" should attain, "the Lord enabling," it is the
+business of the Shepherd to set forth.
+
+Here lies a great merit of Hermas's book, his insight into experimental
+religion and the secret of failure in Christians about him, to many of
+whom Christianity had come by birth rather than personal conviction.
+They shared the worldly spirit in its various forms, particularly the
+desire for wealth and the luxuries it affords, and for a place in "good
+society"--which meant a pagan atmosphere. Thus they were divided in soul
+between spiritual goods and worldly pleasures, and were apt to doubt
+whether the rewards promised by God to the life of "simplicity" (all
+Christ meant by the childlike spirit, including generosity in giving and
+forgiving) and self-restraint, were real or not. For while the expected
+"end of the age" delayed, persecutions abounded. Such "doubled-souled"
+persons, like Mr Facing-both-ways, inclined to say, "The Christian ideal
+may be glorious, but is it practicable?" It is this most fatal doubt
+which evokes the Shepherd's sternest rebuke; and he meets it with the
+ultimate religious appeal, viz. to "the glory of God." He who made man
+"to rule over all things under heaven," could He have given behests
+beyond man's ability? If only a man "hath the Lord in his heart," he
+"shall know that there is nothing easier nor sweeter nor gentler than
+these mandates" (_Mand._ xii. 3-4). So in the forefront of the
+_Mandates_ stands the secret of all: "First of all believe that there is
+one God.... Believe therefore in Him, and fear Him, and fearing Him have
+self-mastery. For the fear of the Lord dwelleth in the good desire," and
+to "put on" this master-desire is to possess power to curb "evil desire"
+in all its shapes (_Mand._ xii. 1-2). Elsewhere "good desire" is
+analysed into the "spirits" of the several virtues, which yet are
+organically related, Faith being mother, and Self-mastery her daughter,
+and so on (_Vis._ iii. 8. 3 seq.; cf. _Sim._ ix. 15). These are the
+specific forms of the Holy Spirit power, without whose indwelling the
+mandates cannot be kept (_Sim._ x. 3; cf. ix. 13. 2, 24. 2).
+
+Thus the "moralism" sometimes traced in Hermas is apparent rather than
+real, for he has a deep sense of the enabling grace of God. His defect
+lies rather in not presenting the historic Christ as the Christian's
+chief inspiration, a fact which connects itself with the strange absence
+of the names "Jesus" and "Christ." He uses rather "the Son of God," in a
+peculiar Adoptianist sense, which, as taken for granted in a work by the
+bishop's own brother, must be held typical of the Roman Church of his
+day. But as it is implicit and not part of his distinctive message, it
+did not hinder his book from enjoying wide quasi-canonical honour during
+most of the Ante-Nicene period.
+
+  The absence of the historic names, "Jesus" and "Christ," may be due to
+  the form of the book as purporting to quote angelic communications.
+  This would also explain the absence of explicit scriptural citations
+  generally, though knowledge both of the Old Testament and of several
+  New Testament books--including the congenially symbolic Gospel of
+  John--is clear (cf. _The New Testament in the Apostolic Fathers_,
+  Oxford, 1905, 105 seq.). The one exception is a prophetic writing, the
+  apocryphal _Book of Eldad and Modad_, which is cited apparently as
+  being similar in the scope of its message. Among its non-scriptural
+  sources may be named the allegoric picture of human life known as
+  _Tabula Cebetis_ (cf. C. Taylor, as below), the _Didache_, and perhaps
+  certain "Sibylline Oracles."
+
+  Hermas regarded Christians as "justified by the most reverend Angel"
+  (i.e. the pre-existent Holy Spirit or Son, who dwelt in Christ's
+  "flesh"), in baptism, the "seal" which even Old Testament saints had
+  to receive in Hades (_Sim._ ix. 16. 3-7) and so attain to "life." Yet
+  the degree of "honour" (e.g. that of martyrs, _Vis._ iii. 2; _Sim._
+  ix. 28), the exact place in the kingdom or consummated church (the
+  Tower), is given as reward for zeal in doing God's will beyond the
+  minimum requisite in all. Here comes in Hermas's doctrine of works of
+  supererogation, in fulfilment of counsels of perfection, on lines
+  already seen in _Did._ vi. 2, cf. i. 4, and reappearing in the two
+  types of Christian recognized by Clement and Origen and in later
+  Catholicism. Again his doctrine of fasting is a spiritualizing of a
+  current _opus operatum_ conception on Jewish lines as though "keeping
+  a watch" (_statio_) in that way atoned for sins (_Sim._ v.). The
+  Shepherd enjoins instead, first, as "a perfect fast," a fast "from
+  every evil word and every evil desire, ... from all the vanities of
+  this world-age" (3. 6; cf. _Barn._ iii. and the Oxyrhynchus Saying,
+  "except ye fast from the world"); and next, as a counsel of
+  perfection, a fast to yield somewhat for the relief of the widow and
+  orphan, that this extra "service" may be to God for a "sacrifice."
+
+  Generally speaking, Hermas's piety, especially in its language,
+  adheres closely to Old Testament forms. But it is doubtful (_pace_
+  Spina and Völter, who assume a Jewish or a proselyte basis) whether
+  this means more than that the Old Testament was still _the_ Scriptures
+  of the Church. In this respect, too, Hermas faithfully reflects the
+  Roman Church of the early 2nd century (cf. the language of 1 Clem.,
+  esp. the liturgical parts, and even the Roman Mass). Indeed the prime
+  value of the _Shepherd_ is the light it casts on Christianity at Rome
+  in the otherwise obscure period c. 110-140, when it had as yet hardly
+  felt the influences converging on it from other centres of tradition
+  and thought. Thus Hermas's comparatively mild censures on Gnostic
+  teachers in _Sim._ ix. suggest that the greater systems, like the
+  Valentinian and Marcionite, had not yet made an impression there, as
+  Harnack argues that they must have done by c. 145. This date, then, is
+  a likely lower limit for Hermas's revision of his earlier prophetic
+  memoranda, and their publication in a single homogeneous work, such as
+  the _Shepherd_ appears to be. Its wider historic significance--it was
+  felt by its author to be adapted to the needs of the Church at large,
+  and was generally welcomed as such--is great but hard to determine in
+  detail.[5] What is certain is its influence on the development of the
+  Church's policy as to discipline in grave cases, like apostasy and
+  adultery--a burning question for some generations from the end of the
+  2nd century, particularly in Rome and North Africa. Indirectly, too,
+  Hermas tended to keep alive the idea of the Christian prophet, even
+  after Montanism had helped to discredit it.
+
+  LITERATURE.--The chief modern edition is by O. von Gebhardt and A.
+  Harnack, in Fasc. iii. of their _Patr. apost. opera_ (Leipzig, 1877);
+  it is edited less fully by F. X. Funk, _Patr. apost._ (Tübingen,
+  1901), and in an English trans., with Introduction and occasional
+  notes, by Dr C. Taylor (S.P.C.K., 2 vols., 1903-1906). For the wide
+  literature of the subject, see the two former editions, also Harnack's
+  _Chronologie der altchr. Lit._ i. 257 seq., and O. Bardenhewer,
+  _Gesch. der altkirchl. Lit._ i. 557 seq. For the authorship see
+  APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE, sect. III.     (J. V. B.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] More than one interpretation, typical or otherwise, of this
+    "Clement" is possible; but none justifies us in assigning even to
+    this _Vision_ a date consistent with that usually given to the
+    traditional bishop of this name (see CLEMENT I.). Yet we may have to
+    correct the dubious chronology of the first Roman bishops by this
+    datum, and prolong his life to about A.D. 110. This is Harnack's date
+    for the nucleus of _Vis._ ii., though he places our _Vis._ i.-iii.
+    later in Trajan's reign, and thinks _Vis._ iv. later still.
+
+  [2] That a prior vision in which Hermas was "delivered" to the
+    Shepherd's charge, has dropped out, seems implied by _Vis._ v. 3 f.,
+    _Sim._ x. 1. 1.
+
+  [3] Harnack places "The Shepherd" proper mostly under Hadrian
+    (117-138), and the completed work c. 140-145.
+
+  [4] A careful study of practical Christian ethics at Rome as implied
+    in the _Shepherd_, will be found in E. von Dobschütz, _Christian Life
+    in the Primitive Church_ (1904).
+
+  [5] Note the prestige of martyrs and confessors, the ways of true and
+    false prophets in _Mand._ xi., and the different types of evil and
+    good "walk" among Christians, e.g. in _Vis._ iii. 5-7; _Mand._ viii.;
+    _Sim._ viii.
+
+
+
+
+HERMENEUTICS (Gr. [Greek: hermêneutikê], sc. [Greek: technê], Lat. _ars
+hermeneutica_, from [Greek: hermêneuein], to interpret, from Hermes, the
+messenger of the gods), the science or art of interpretation or
+explanation, especially of the Holy Scriptures (see THEOLOGY).
+
+
+
+
+HERMES, a Greek god, identified by the Romans with Mercury. The
+derivation of his name and his primitive character are very uncertain.
+The earliest centres of his cult were Arcadia, where Mt. Cyllene was
+reputed to be his birthplace, the islands of Lemnos, Imbros and
+Samothrace, in which he was associated with the Cabeiri and Attica. In
+Arcadia he was specially worshipped as the god of fertility, and his
+images were ithyphallic, as also were the "Hermae" at Athens. Herodotus
+(ii. 51) states that the Athenians borrowed this type from the
+Pelasgians, thus testifying to the great antiquity of the phallic
+Hermes. At Cyllene in Elis a mere phallus served as his emblem, and was
+highly venerated in the time of Pausanias (vi. 26. 3). Both in
+literature and cult Hermes was constantly associated with the protection
+of cattle and sheep; at Tanagra and elsewhere his title was [Greek:
+kriophoros], the ram-bearer. As a pastoral god he was often closely
+connected with deities of vegetation, especially Pan and the nymphs. His
+pastoral character is recognized in the _Iliad_ (xiv. 490) and the later
+epic hymn to Hermes; and his Homeric titles [Greek: akakêta, eriounios,
+dôtôr eaôn], probably refer to him as the giver of fertility. In the
+_Odyssey_, however, he appears mainly as the messenger of the gods, and
+the conductor of the dead to Hades. Hence in later times he is often
+represented in art and mythology as a herald. The conductor of souls was
+naturally a chthonian god; at Athens there was a festival in honour of
+Hermes and the souls of the dead, and Aeschylus (_Persae_, 628) invokes
+Hermes, with Earth and Hades, in summoning a spirit from the underworld.
+The function of a messenger-god may have originated the conception of
+Hermes as a dream-god; he is called the "conductor of dreams" ([Greek:
+hêgêtôr oneirôn]), and the Greeks offered to him the last libation
+before sleep. As a messenger he may also have become the god of roads
+and doorways; he was the protector of travellers and his images were
+used for boundary-marks (see HERMAE). It was a custom to make a cairn of
+stones near the wayside statues of Hermes, each passer-by adding a
+stone; the significance of the practice, which is found in many
+countries, is discussed by Frazer (_Golden Bough_, 2nd ed., iii. 10 f.)
+and Hartland (_Legend of Perseus_, ii. 228). Treasure found in the road
+([Greek: hermaion]) was the gift of Hermes, and any stroke of good luck
+was attributed to him; but it may be doubted whether his patronage of
+luck in general was developed from his function as a god of roads. As
+the giver of luck he became a deity of gain and commerce ([Greek:
+kerdôos, agoraios]), an aspect which caused his identification with
+Mercury, the Roman god of trade. From this conception his thievish
+character may have been evolved. The trickery and cunning of Hermes is a
+prominent theme in literature from Homer downwards, although it is very
+rarely recognized in official cult.[1] In the hymn to Hermes the god
+figures as a precocious child (a type familiar in folk-lore), who when a
+new-born babe steals the cows of Apollo. In addition to these
+characteristics various other functions were assigned to Hermes, who
+developed, perhaps, into the most complete type of the versatile Greek.
+In many respects he was a counterpart of Apollo, less dignified and
+powerful, but more human than his greater brother. Hermes was a patron
+of music, like Apollo, and invented the cithara; he presided over the
+games, with Apollo and Heracles, and his statues were common in the
+stadia and gymnasia. He became, in fact, the ideal Greek youth, equally
+proficient in the "musical" and "gymnastic" branches of Greek education.
+On the "musical" side he was the special patron of eloquence ([Greek:
+logios]); in gymnastic, he was the giver of grace rather than of
+strength, which was the province of Heracles. Though athletic, he was
+one of the least militant of the gods; a title [Greek: promachos], the
+Defender, is found only in connexion with a victory of young men
+("ephebes") in a battle at Tanagra. A further point of contact between
+Hermes and Apollo may here be noted: both had prophetic powers, although
+Hermes held a place far inferior to that of the Pythian god, and
+possessed no famous oracle. Certain forms of popular divination were,
+however, under his patronage, notably the world-wide process of
+divination by pebbles ([Greek: thriai]). The "Homeric" Hymn to Hermes
+explains these minor gifts of prophecy as delegated by Apollo, who alone
+knew the mind of Zeus. Only a single oracle is recorded for Hermes, in
+the market-place of Pharae in Achaea, and here the procedure was akin to
+popular divination. An altar, furnished with lamps, was placed before
+the statue; the inquirer, after lighting the lamps and offering incense,
+placed a coin in the right hand of the god; he then whispered his
+question into the ear of the statue, and, stopping his own ears, left
+the market place. The first sound which he heard outside was an omen.
+
+From the foregoing account it will be seen that it is difficult to
+derive the many-sided character of Hermes from a single elemental
+conception. The various theories which identified him with the sun, the
+moon or the dawn, may be dismissed, as they do not rest on evidence to
+which value would now be attached. The Arcadian or "Pelasgic" Hermes may
+have been an earth-deity, as his connexion with fertility suggests; but
+his symbol at Cyllene rather points to a mere personification of
+reproductive powers. According to Plutarch the ancients "set Hermes by
+the side of Aphrodite," i.e. the male and female principles of
+generation; and the two deities were worshipped together in Argos and
+elsewhere. But this phallic character does not explain other aspects of
+Hermes, as the messenger-god, the master-thief or the ideal Greek
+ephebe. It is impossible to adopt the view that the Homeric poets turned
+the rude shepherd-god of Arcadia into a messenger, in order to provide
+him with a place in the Olympian circle. To their Achaean audience
+Hermes must have been more than a phallic god. It is more probable that
+the Olympian Hermes represents the fusion of several distinct deities.
+Some scholars hold that the various functions of Hermes may have
+originated from the idea of good luck which is so closely bound up with
+his character. As a pastoral god he would give luck to the flocks and
+herds; when worshipped by townspeople, he would give luck to the
+merchant, the orator, the traveller and the athlete. But though the
+notion of luck plays an important part in early thought, it seems
+improbable that the primitive Greeks would have personified a mere
+abstraction. Another theory, which has much to commend it, has been
+advanced by Roscher, who sees in Hermes a wind-god. His strongest
+arguments are that the wind would easily develop into the messenger of
+the gods ([Greek: Dios ouros]), and that it was often thought to promote
+fertility in crops and cattle. Thus the two aspects of Hermes which seem
+most discordant are referred to a single origin. The Homeric epithet
+[Greek: Argeiphontês], which the Greeks interpreted as "the slayer of
+Argus," inventing a myth to account for Argus, is explained as
+originally an epithet of the wind ([Greek: argestês]), which clears away
+the mists ([Greek: argos, phainô]). The uncertainty of the wind might
+well suggest the trickery of a thief, and its whistling might contain
+the germ from which a god of music should be developed. But many of
+Roscher's arguments are forced, and his method of interpretation is not
+altogether sound. For example, the last argument would equally apply to
+Apollo, and would lead to the improbable conclusion that Apollo was a
+wind-god. It must, in fact, be remembered that men make their gods after
+their own likeness; and, whatever his origin, Hermes in particular was
+endowed with many of the qualities and habits of the Greek race. If he
+was evolved from the wind, his character had become so anthropomorphic
+that the Greeks had practically lost the knowledge of his primitive
+significance; nor did Greek cult ever associate him with the wind.
+
+The oldest form under which Hermes was represented was that of the
+Hermae mentioned above. Alcamenes, the rival or pupil of Pheidias, was
+the sculptor of a herm at Athens, a copy of which, dating from Roman
+times, was discovered at Pergamum in 1903. But side by side with the
+Hermae there grew up a more anthropomorphic conception of the god. In
+archaic art he was portrayed as a full-grown and bearded man, clothed in
+a long chiton, and often wearing a cap ([Greek: kynê]) or a
+broad-brimmed hat ([Greek: petasos]), and winged boots. Sometimes he was
+represented in his pastoral character, as when he bears a sheep on his
+shoulders; at other times he appears as the messenger or herald of the
+gods with the [Greek: kêrykeion], or herald's staff, which is his most
+frequent attribute. From the latter part of the 5th century his art-type
+was changed in conformity with the general development of Greek
+sculpture. He now became a nude and beardless youth, the type of the
+young athlete. In the 4th century this type was probably fixed by
+Praxiteles in his statue of Hermes at Olympia.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--F. G. Welcker, _Griech. Götterl._ i. 342 f. (Göttingen,
+  1857-1863); L. Preller, ed. C. Robert, _Griech. Mythologie_, ii. 385
+  seq. (Berlin, 1894); W. H. Roscher, _Lex. der griech. u. röm.
+  Mythologie_, s.v. (Leipzig, 1884-1886); A. Lang, _Myth, Ritual and
+  Religion_, ii. 225 seq. (London, 1887); C. Daremberg and E. Saglio,
+  _Dict. des ant. grecques et rom._; Farnell, _Cults_ v. (1909); O.
+  Gruppe, _Griech. Mythologie u. Religionsgesch._ p. 1318 seq. (Munich,
+  1906). In the article GREEK ART, figs. 43 and 82 (Plate VI.) represent
+  the Hermes of Praxiteles; fig. 57 (Plate II.), a professed copy of the
+  Hermes of Alcamenes.     (E. E. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] We only hear of a Hermes [Greek: dolios] at Pellene (Paus. vii.
+    27. 1) and of the custom of allowing promiscuous thieving during the
+    festival of Hermes at Samos (Plut. _Quaest. Graec._ 55).
+
+
+
+
+HERMES, GEORG (1775-1831), German Roman Catholic theologian, was born on
+the 22nd of April 1775, at Dreyerwalde, in Westphalia, and was educated
+at the gymnasium and university of Münster, in both of which
+institutions he afterwards taught. In 1820 he was appointed professor of
+theology at Bonn, where he died on the 26th of May 1831. Hermes had a
+devoted band of adherents, of whom the most notable was Peter Josef
+Elvenich (1796-1886), who became professor at Breslau in 1829, and in
+1870 threw in his lot with the Old Catholic movement. His works were
+_Untersuchungen über die innere Wahrheit des Christenthums_ (Münster,
+1805), and _Einleitung in die christkatholische Theologie_, of which the
+first part, a philosophical introduction, was published in 1819, the
+second part, on positive theology, in 1829. The _Einleitung_ was never
+completed. His _Christkatholische Dogmatik_ was published, from his
+lectures, after his death by two of his students, Achterfeld and Braun
+(3 vols., 1831-1834).
+
+The _Einleitung_ is a remarkable work, both in itself and in its effect
+upon Catholic theology in Germany. Few works of modern times have
+excited a more keen and bitter controversy. Hermes himself was very
+largely under the influence of the Kantian and Fichtean ideas, and
+though in the philosophical portion of his _Einleitung_ he criticizes
+both these thinkers severely, rejects their doctrine of the moral law as
+the sole guarantee for the existence of God, and condemns their
+restricted view of the possibility and nature of revelation, enough
+remained of purely speculative material to render his system obnoxious
+to his church. After his death, the contests between his followers and
+their opponents grew so bitter that the dispute was referred to the
+papal see. The judgment was adverse, and on the 25th of September 1835 a
+papal bull condemned both parts of the _Einleitung_ and the first volume
+of the _Dogmatik_. Two months later the remaining volumes of the
+_Dogmatik_ were likewise condemned. The controversy did not cease, and
+in 1845 a systematic attempt was made anonymously by F. X. Werner to
+examine and refute the Hermesian doctrines, as contrasted with the
+orthodox Catholic faith (_Der Hermesianismus_, 1845). In 1847 the
+condemnation of 1835 was confirmed by Pius IX.
+
+  See K. Werner, _Geschichte der katholischen Theologie_ (1866), pp. 405
+  sqq.
+
+
+
+
+HERMES TRISMEGISTUS ("the thrice greatest Hermes"), an honorific
+designation of the Egyptian Hermes, i.e. Thoth (q.v.), the god of
+wisdom. In late hieroglyphic the name of Thoth often has the epithet
+"the twice very great," sometimes "the thrice very great"; in the
+popular language (demotic) the corresponding epithet is "the five times
+very great," found as early as the 3rd century B.C. Greek translations
+give [Greek: ho megas kai megas] and [Greek: megistos: trismegas] occurs
+in a late magical text. [Greek: ho trismegistos] has not yet been found
+earlier than the 2nd century A.D., but there can now be no doubt of its
+origin in the above Egyptian epithets.
+
+Thoth was "the scribe of the gods," "Lord of divine words," and to
+Hermes was attributed the authorship of all the strictly sacred books
+generally called by Greek authors Hermetic. These, according to Clemens
+Alexandrinus, our sole ancient authority (_Strom._ vi. p. 268 et seq.),
+were forty-two in number, and were subdivided into six divisions, of
+which the first, containing ten books, was in charge of the "prophet"
+and dealt with laws, deities and the education of priests; the second,
+consisting of the ten books of the _stolistes_, the official whose duty
+it was to dress and ornament the statues of the gods, treated of
+sacrifices and offerings, prayers, hymns, festive processions; the
+third, of the "hierogrammatist," also in ten books, was called
+"hieroglyphics," and was a repertory of cosmographical, geographical and
+topographical information; the four books of the "horoscopus" were
+devoted to astronomy and astrology; the two books of the "chanter"
+contained respectively a collection of songs in honour of the gods and a
+description of the royal life and its duties; while the sixth and last
+division, consisting of the six books of the "pastophorus," was medical.
+Clemens's statement cannot be contradicted. Works are extant in papyri
+and on temple walls, treating of geography, astronomy, ritual, myths,
+medicine, &c. It is probable that the native priests would have been
+ready to ascribe the authorship or inspiration, as well as the care and
+protection of all their books of sacred lore to Thoth, although there
+were a goddess of writing (Seshit), and the ancient deified scribes
+Imuthes and Amenophis, and later inspired doctors Petosiris, Nechepso,
+&c., to be reckoned with; there are indeed some definite traces of such
+an attribution extant in individual cases. Whether a canon of such books
+was ever established, even in the latest times, may be seriously
+doubted. We know, however, that the vizier of Upper Egypt (at Thebes) in
+the eighteenth dynasty, had 40 (not 42) parchment rolls laid before him
+as he sat in the hall of audience. Unfortunately we have no hint of
+their contents. Forty-two was the number of divine assessors at the
+judgment of the dead before Osiris, and was the standard number of the
+nomes or counties in Egypt.
+
+The name of Hermes seems during the 3rd and following centuries to have
+been regarded as a convenient pseudonym to place at the head of the
+numerous syncretistic writings in which it was sought to combine
+Neo-Platonic philosophy, Philonic Judaism and cabalistic theosophy, and
+so provide the world with some acceptable substitute for the
+Christianity which had even at that time begun to give indications of
+the ascendancy it was destined afterwards to attain. Of these
+pseudepigraphic Hermetic writings some have come down to us in the
+original Greek; others survive in Latin or Arabic translations; but the
+majority appear to have perished. That which is best known and has been
+most frequently edited is the [Greek: Poimandrês] _sive De potestate et
+sapientia divina_ ([Greek: Poimandrês] being the Divine Intelligence,
+[Greek: poimên andrôn]), which consists of fifteen chapters treating of
+such subjects as the nature of God, the origin of the world, the
+creation and fall of man, and the divine illumination which is the sole
+means of his deliverance. The _editio princeps_ appeared in Paris in
+1554; there is also an edition by G. Parthey (1854); the work has also
+been translated into German by D. Tiedemann (1781). Other Hermetic
+writings which have been preserved, and which have been for the most
+part collected by Patricius in the _Nova de universis philosophia_
+(1593), are (in Greek) [Greek: Iatromathêmatika pros Ammôna Aiguption,
+Peri katakliseôs nosountôn perignôstika, Ek tês mathêmatikês epistêmês
+pros Ammôna]: (in Latin) _Aphorismi sive Centiloquium, Cyranides_; (in
+Arabic, but doubtless from a Greek original) an address to the human
+soul, which has been translated by H. L. Fleischer (_An die menschliche
+Seele_, 1870).
+
+The connexion of the name of Hermes with alchemy will explain what is
+meant by hermetic sealing, and will account for the use of the phrase
+"hermetic medicine" by Paracelsus, as also for the so-called "hermetic
+freemasonry" of the middle ages.
+
+Besides Thoth, Anubis (q.v.) was constantly identified with Hermes; see
+also HORUS.
+
+  See Ursinus, _De Zoroastre, Hermete_, &c. (Nuremberg, 1661); Nicolas
+  Lenglet-Dufresnoy, _L'Histoire de la philosophie hermétique_ (Paris,
+  1742); Baumgarten-Crusius, _De librorum hermeticorum origine atque
+  indole_ (Jena, 1827); B. J. Hilgers, _De Hermetis Trismegisti
+  Poëmandro_ (1855); R. Ménard, _Hermès Trismégiste, traduction
+  complète, précédée d'une étude sur l'origine des livres hermétiques_
+  (1866); R. Pietschmann, _Hermes Trismegistus, nach ägyptischen,
+  griechischen, und orientalischen Überlieferungen_ (1875); R.
+  Reitzenstein, _Poimandres, Studien zur griechisch-ägyptischen und
+  frühchristlichen Literatur_ (Leipzig, 1904); G. R. S. Mead, _Thrice
+  Greatest Hermes_ (1907), introduction and translation.     (F. Ll. G.)
+
+
+
+
+HERMESIANAX, of Colophon, elegiac poet of the Alexandrian school,
+flourished about 330 B.C. His chief work was a poem in three books,
+dedicated to his mistress Leontion. Of this poem a fragment of about one
+hundred lines has been preserved by Athenaeus (xiii. 597). Plaintive in
+tone, it enumerates instances, mythological and historical, of the
+irresistible power of love. Hermesianax, whose style is characterized by
+alternate force and tenderness, was exceedingly popular in his own
+times, and was highly esteemed even in the Augustan period.
+
+  Many separate editions have been published of the fragment, the text
+  of which is in a very unsatisfactory condition: by F. W. Schneidewin
+  (1838), J. Bailey (1839, with notes, glossary, and Latin and English
+  versions), and others; R. Schulze's _Quaestiones Hermesianacteae_
+  (1858), contains an account of the life and writings of the poet and a
+  section on the identity of Leontion.
+
+
+
+
+HERMIAS. (1) A Greek philosopher of the Alexandrian school. A disciple
+of Proclus, he was known best for the lucidity of his method rather than
+for any original ideas. His chief works were a study of the _Isagoge_ of
+Porphyry and a commentary on Plato's _Phaedrus_. Unlike the majority of
+logicians of the time, he admitted the absolute validity of the second
+and third figures of the syllogism.
+
+(2) A Christian apologist and philosopher who flourished probably in the
+4th and 5th centuries. Nothing is known about his life, but there has
+been preserved of his writings a small thesis entitled [Greek: Diasyrmos
+tôn exôphilosophôn]. In this work he attacked pagan philosophy for its
+lack of logic in dealing with the root problems of life, the soul, the
+cosmos and the first cause or vital principle. There is an edition by
+von Otto published in the _Corpus apologetarum_ (Jena, 1872). It is
+interesting, but without any claim to profundity of reasoning.
+
+  Two minor philosophers of the same name are known. Of these, one was a
+  disciple of Plato and a friend of Aristotle; he became tyrant of
+  Atarneus and invited Aristotle to his court. Aristotle subsequently
+  married Pythias, who was either niece or sister of Hermias. Another
+  Hermias was a Phoenician philosopher of the Alexandrian school; when
+  Justinian closed the school of Athens, he was one of the five
+  representatives of the school who took refuge at the Persian court.
+
+
+
+
+HERMIPPUS, "the one-eyed," Athenian writer of the Old Comedy, flourished
+during the Peloponnesian War. He is said to have written 40 plays, of
+which the titles and fragments of nine are preserved. He was a bitter
+opponent of Pericles, whom he accused (probably in the [Greek: Moirai])
+of being a bully and a coward, and of carousing with his boon companions
+while the Lacedaemonians were invading Attica. He also accused Aspasia
+of impiety and offences against morality, and her acquittal was only
+secured by the tears of Pericles (Plutarch, _Pericles_, 32). In the
+[Greek: Artopôlides] ("Bakeresses") he attacked the demagogue
+Hyperbolus. The [Greek: Phormophoroi] (Mat-carriers) contains many
+parodies of Homer. Hermippus also appears to have written scurrilous
+iambic poems after the manner of Archilochus.
+
+  Fragments in T. Kock, _Comicorum Atticorum fragmenta_, i. (1880), and
+  A. Meineke, _Poëtarum Graecorum comicorum fragmenta_ (1855).
+
+
+
+
+HERMIT, a solitary, one who withdraws from all intercourse with other
+human beings in order to live a life of religious contemplation, and so
+marked off from a "coenobite" (Gr. [Greek: koinos], common, and [Greek:
+Bios], life), one who shares this life of withdrawal with others in a
+community (see ASCETICISM and MONASTICISM). The word "hermit" is an
+adaptation through the O. Fr. _ermite_ or _hermite_, from the Lat. form,
+_eremite_, of the Gr. [Greek: eremitês], a solitary, from [Greek:
+erêmia], a desert. The English form "eremite," which was used, according
+to the _New English Dictionary_, quite indiscriminately with "hermit"
+till the middle of the 17th century, is now chiefly used in poetry or
+rhetorically, except with reference to the early hermits of the Libyan
+desert, or sometimes to such particular orders as the eremites of St
+Augustine (see AUGUSTINIAN HERMITS). Another synonym is "anchoret" or
+"anchorite." This comes through the French and Latin forms from the Gr.
+[Greek: anachôrêtês], from [Greek: anachôrein], to withdraw. A form
+nearer to the Greek original, "anachoret," is sometimes used of the
+early Christian recluses in the East.
+
+
+
+
+HERMOGENES, of Tarsus, Greek rhetorician, surnamed [Greek: Xustêr] (the
+polisher), flourished in the reign of Marcus Aurelius (A.D. 161-180).
+His precocious ability secured him a public appointment as teacher of
+his art while as yet he was only a boy; but at the age of twenty-five
+his faculties gave way, and he spent the remainder of his long life in a
+state of intellectual impotence. During his early years, however, he had
+composed a series of rhetorical treatises, which became popular
+text-books, and the subject of subsequent commentaries. Of his [Greek:
+Technê rhêtorikê] we still possess the sections [Greek: Peri tôn
+staseôn] (on legal issues), [Greek: Peri heureseôs] (on the invention of
+arguments), [Greek: Peri ideôn] (on the various kinds of style), [Greek:
+Peri methodou deinotêtos] (on the method of speaking effectively), and
+[Greek: Progymnasmata] (rhetorical exercises).
+
+  Editions by C. Walz (1832), and by L. Spengel (1854), in their
+  _Rhetores Graeci_; bibliographical note on the commentaries in W.
+  Christ, _Geschichte der griechischen Literatur_ (1898).
+
+
+
+
+HERMON, the highest mountain in Syria (estimated at 9050 to 9200 ft.),
+an outlier of the Anti-Lebanon. As the Hebrew name ([Hebrew: Hermon],
+"belonging to a sanctuary," "separate") shows, it was always a sacred
+mountain. The Sidonians called it _Sirion_, and the Amorites _Shenir_
+(Deut. iii. 9). According to one theory it is the "high mountain" near
+Caesarea Philippi, which was the scene of the Transfiguration (Mark ix.
+2). A curious reference in Enoch vi. 6, says that in the days of Jared
+the wicked angels descended on the summit of the mountain and named it
+Hermon. The modern name is _Jebel es-Sheikh_, or "mountain of the chief
+or elder." It is also called _Jebel eth-Thelj_, "snowy mountain." The
+ridge of Hermon, rising into a dome-shaped summit, is 20 m. long,
+extending north-east and south-west. The formation of the lower part is
+Nubian sandstone, that of the upper part is a hard dark-grey crystalline
+limestone belonging to the Neocomian period, and full of fossils. The
+spurs consist in some cases of white chalk covering the limestone, and
+on the south there are several basaltic outbreaks. The view from Hermon
+is very extensive, embracing all Lebanon and the plains east of
+Damascus, with Palestine as far as Carmel and Tabor. On a clear day
+Jaffa also may be seen. The mountain in spring is covered with snow, but
+in autumn there is occasionally none left, even in the ravines. To the
+height of 500 ft. it is clothed with oaks, poplars and brush, while
+luxuriant vineyards abound. Foxes, wolves and Syrian bears are not
+infrequently met with, and there is a heavy dew or night mist. Above the
+snow-limit the mountain is bare and covered with fine limestone shingle.
+The summit is a plateau from which three rocky knolls rise up, that on
+the west being the lowest, that on the south-east the highest. On the
+south slope of the latter are remains of a small temple or _sacellum_
+described by St Jerome. A semicircular dwarf wall of good masonry runs
+round this peak, and a trench excavated in the rock may perhaps indicate
+the site of an altar. On the plateau is a cave about 25 ft. sq. with the
+entrance on the east. A rock column supports the roof, and a building
+(possibly a Mithraeum) once stood above. Other small temples are found
+on the sides of Hermon, of which twelve in all have been explored. They
+face the east and are dated by architects about A.D. 200. The most
+remarkable are those of Deir el 'Ashaiyir, Hibbariyeh, Hosn Niha and
+Tell Thatha. At the ruined town called Rukleh on the northern slopes are
+remains of a temple, the stones of which have been built into a church.
+A large medallion, 5 ft. in diameter, with a head supposed to represent
+the sun-god, is built into the wall. Several Greek inscriptions occur
+among these ruins. In the 12th century Psalm lxxxix. 12 was supposed to
+indicate the proximity of Hermon to Tabor. The conical hill immediately
+south of Tabor was thus named Little Hermon, and is still so called by
+some of the inhabitants of the district.
+
+
+
+
+HERMSDORF, a village of Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia.
+Pop. (1900) 10,975. There are coal and iron mines and lime quarries in
+the vicinity, and in the town there are large iron-works. Hermsdorf is
+known as Niederhermsdorf to distinguish it from other places of the same
+name. Perhaps the most noteworthy of these is a village in Silesia at
+the foot of the Riesengebirge, chiefly famous for the ruins of the
+castle of Kynast. This castle, formerly the seat of the Schaffgotsch
+family, was destroyed by lightning in 1675. A third Hermsdorf is a
+village in Saxe-Altenburg, where porcelain is made.
+
+
+
+
+HERNE, JAMES A. [originally AHERNE] (1840-1901), American actor and
+playwright, was born in Troy, New York, and after theatrical experiences
+in various companies produced his own first play, _Hearts of Oak_, in
+1878, and his great success _Shore Acres_ in 1882. It was in rural drama
+that his humour and pathos found their proper setting, and _Shore Acres_
+was seen throughout the United States almost continuously for six
+seasons, being followed by the less successful _Sag Harbor_, 1900.
+
+
+
+
+HERNE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Westphalia, 15 m.
+by rail N.W. of Dortmund. Pop. (1905) 33,258. It has coal mines,
+boiler-works, gunpowder mills, &c. Herne was made a town in 1897.
+
+
+
+
+HERNE BAY, a seaside resort in the St Augustine's parliamentary division
+of Kent, England, 8 m. N. by E. of Canterbury, on the South Eastern and
+Chatham railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 6726. It has grown up
+since 1830, above a sandy and pebbly shore, and has a pier ¾ m. long.
+The church of St Martin in the village of Herne, 1½ m. inland, is Early
+English and later; the living was held by Nicholas Ridley (1538),
+afterwards Bishop of London. At Reculver, 3 m. E. of Herne Bay on the
+coast, is the site of the Roman station of _Regulbium_. The fortress
+occupied about 8 acres, but only traces of the south and east walls
+remain. In Saxon times it was converted into a palace by King Ethelbert,
+and in 669 a monastery was founded here by Egbert. The Early English
+church was taken down early in the 19th century owing to the
+encroachment of the sea, and parts of its fabric were preserved in the
+modern church of St Mary. But its twin towers, known as the Sisters from
+the tradition that they were built by a Benedictine abbess of Faversham
+in memory of her sister, were preserved by Trinity House as a
+conspicuous landmark.
+
+
+
+
+HERNE THE HUNTER, a legendary huntsman who was alleged to haunt Windsor
+Great Park at night, especially around an aged tree, long known as
+Herne's oak, said to be nearly 700 years old. This was blown down in
+1863, and a young oak was planted by Queen Victoria on the spot. Herne
+has his French counterpart in the _Grand Veneur_ of Fontainebleau.
+Mention is made of Herne in _The Merry Wives of Windsor_ and in Harrison
+Ainsworth's _Windsor Castle_. Nothing definite is known of the Herne
+legend. It is suggested that it originated in the life-story of some
+keeper of the forest; but more probably it is only a variant of the
+"Wild Huntsman" myth common to folk-lore, which (E. B. Tylor, _Primitive
+Culture_, 4th ed. pp. 361-362) is almost certainly the modern form of a
+prehistoric storm-myth.
+
+
+
+
+HERNIA (Lat. _hernia_, perhaps from Gr. [Greek: ernos], a sprout), in
+surgery, the protrusion of a viscus, or part of a viscus, from its
+normal cavity; thus, _hernia cerebri_ is a protrusion of
+brain-substance, _hernia pulmonum_, a protrusion of a portion of lung,
+and _hernia iridis_, a protrusion of some of the iris through an
+aperture in the cornea. But, used by itself, hernia implies a protrusion
+from the abdominal cavity, or, in common language, a "rupture." A
+rupture may occur at any weak point in the abdominal wall. The common
+situations are the groin (_inguinal hernia_), the upper part of the
+thigh (_femoral hernia_), and the navel (_umbilical hernia_). The more
+movable the viscus the greater the liability to protrusion, and
+therefore one commonly finds some of the small intestine, or of the
+fatty apron (omentum), in the hernia. The tumour may contain intestine
+alone (enterocele), omentum alone (epiplocele), or both intestine and
+omentum (entero-epiplocele). The predisposing cause of rupture is
+abnormal length of the suspensory membrane of the bowel (the mesentery),
+or of the omentum, in conjunction with some weak spot in the abdominal
+wall, as in an inguinal hernia, which descends along the canal in which
+the spermatic cord lies in the male and the round ligament of the womb
+in the female. A femoral hernia comes through a weak spot in the abdomen
+to the inner side of the great femoral vessels; a ventral hernia takes
+place by the yielding of the scar tissue left after an operation for
+appendicitis or ovarian disease. The exciting cause of hernia is
+generally some over-exertion, as in lifting a heavy weight, jumping off
+a high wall, straining (as in difficult micturition), constipation or
+excessive coughing. The pressure of the diaphragm above and the
+abdominal wall in front acting on the abdominal viscera causes a
+protrusion at the weakest point.
+
+Rupture is either congenital or acquired. A child may be born with a
+hernia in the inguinal or umbilical region, the result of an arrest of
+development in these parts; or the rupture may be acquired, first
+appearing, perhaps, in adult life as the result of a strain or hurt. Men
+suffer more frequently than women, because of their physical labours,
+because they are more liable to accidents, and because of the passage
+for the spermatic cord out of the abdomen being more spacious than that
+for the round ligament of the womb.
+
+At first the rupture is small, and it gradually increases in bulk. It
+varies from the size of a marble to a child's head. The swelling
+consists of three parts--the coverings, sac and contents. The
+"coverings" are the structures which form the abdominal wall at the part
+where the rupture occurs. In femoral hernia the coverings are the
+structures at the upper part of the thigh which are stretched, thinned
+and matted together as the result of pressure; in other cases there is
+an increase in their thickness, the result of repeated attacks of
+inflammation. The "sac" is composed of the peritoneum or membrane lining
+the abdominal cavity; in some rare cases the sac is wanting. The neck of
+the sac is the narrowed portion where the peritoneum forming the sac
+becomes continuous with the general peritoneal cavity. The neck of the
+sac is often thickened, indurated and adherent to surrounding parts, the
+result of chronic inflammation. The "contents" are bowel, omental fat,
+or, in children, an ovary.
+
+The hernia may be reducible, irreducible or strangulated. A "reducible"
+hernia is one in which the contents can be pushed back into the abdomen.
+In some cases this reduction is effected with ease, in others it is a
+matter of great difficulty. At any moment a reducible hernia may become
+"irreducible," that is to say, it cannot be pushed back into the
+abdominal cavity, perhaps because of inflammatory adhesions in and
+around the fatty contents, or because of extra fullness of the bowel in
+the sac. A "strangulated" hernia is one in which the circulation of the
+blood through the hernial contents is interfered with, by the pinching
+at the narrowest part of the passage. The interference is at first
+slight, but it quickly becomes more pronounced; the pinched bowel in the
+hernial sac swells as a finger does when a string is tightly wound round
+its base. At first there is congestion, and this may go on to
+inflammation, to infection by micro-organisms and to mortification. The
+rapidity with which the change from simple congestion to mortification
+takes place depends on the tightness of the constriction, and on the
+virulence of the bacterial infection from the bowel. As a rule, the more
+rapidly a hernia forms the greater the rapidity of serious change in the
+conditions of the bowel or omentum, and the more urgent are the
+symptoms. The constricting band may be one of the structures which form
+the boundaries of the openings through which the hernia has travelled,
+or it may be the neck of the sac, which has become thickened in
+consequence of inflammation--especially is this the case in an inguinal
+hernia.
+
+_Reducible Hernia._--With a reducible hernia there is a soft
+compressible tumour (elastic when it contains intestine, doughy when it
+contains omentum), its size increasing in the erect, and diminishing in
+the horizontal posture. As a rule, it causes no trouble during the
+night. It gives an impulse on coughing, and when the intestinal contents
+are pushed back into the abdomen a gurgling sensation is perceptible by
+the fingers. Such a tumour may be met with in any part of the abdominal
+wall, but the chief situations are as follows. The inguinal region, in
+which the neck of the tumour lies immediately above Poupart's ligament
+(a cord-like ligamentous structure which can be felt stretching from the
+front of the hip-bone to a ridge of bone immediately above the genital
+organs); the femoral region, in the upper part of the thigh, in which
+the neck of the sac lies immediately below the inner end of Poupart's
+ligament; the umbilical region, in which the tumour appears at or near
+the navel. As the inguinal hernia increases in size it passes into the
+scrotum in the male, into the labium in the female; while the femoral
+hernia gradually pushes upwards to the abdomen.
+
+The palliative treatment of a reducible hernia consists in pushing back
+the contents of the tumour into the abdomen and applying a truss or
+elastic bandage to prevent their again escaping. The younger the patient
+the more chance there is of the truss acting as a curative agent. The
+truss may generally be left off at night, but it should be put on in the
+morning before the patient leaves his bed. If, after the hernia has been
+once returned, it is not allowed again to come down, there is a
+probability of an actual cure taking place; but if it is allowed to come
+down occasionally, as it may do, even during the night, in consequence
+of a cough, or from the patient turning suddenly in bed, the weak spot
+is again opened out, and the improvement which might have been going on
+for weeks is undone. It is sometimes found impossible to keep up a
+hernia by means of a truss, and an operation becomes necessary. The
+operation is spoken of as "the radical treatment of hernia," in
+contra-distinction to the so-called "palliative treatment" by means of a
+truss. It should not be spoken of as the radical cure, for skilfully as
+the operation may have been performed it is not always a cure. The
+principles involved in the operation are the emptying of the sac and its
+entire removal, and the closure of the opening into the abdomen by
+strong sutures; and, in this way, great advance has been made by modern
+surgery. Without tiresome delay, and the tedious and sometimes
+disappointing application of trusses, the weak spot in the abdominal
+wall is exposed, the sac of the hernia is tied and removed, and the
+canal by which the rupture descended is blockaded by buried sutures, and
+with no material risk to life. Thus the patient's worries become a thing
+of the past, and he is rendered a fit and normal member of society.
+Experience has shown that very few ruptures are unsuited for successful
+treatment by operation. No boy should now be sent to school compelled to
+wear a truss, and so hindered in his games and rendered an object of
+remark.
+
+_Irreducible Hernia._--The main symptom is a tumour in one of the
+situations already referred to, of long standing and perhaps of large
+size, in which the contents of the tumour, in whole or in part, cannot
+be pushed back into the abdomen. The irreducibility is due either to its
+large size or to changes which have taken place by indurations or
+adhesions. Such a tumour is a constant source of danger: its contents
+are liable, from their exposed situation, to injury from external
+violence; it has a constant risk of increase; it may at any time become
+strangulated, or the contents may inflame, and strangulation may occur
+secondarily to the inflammation. It gives rise to dragging sensations
+(referred to the abdomen), colic, dyspepsia and constipation, which may
+lead to obstruction, that is to say, a stoppage may occur of the passage
+of the contents of that portion of the intestinal canal which lies in
+the hernia. When an irreducible hernia becomes painful and tender, a
+local peritonitis has occurred, which resembles in many of its symptoms
+a case of strangulation, and must be regarded with suspicion and
+anxiety. Indeed, the only safe treatment is by operation.
+
+The treatment of irreducible hernia may be palliative; a "bag truss" may
+be worn in the hope of preventing the hernia getting larger; the bowels
+must be kept open, and all irregularities of diet avoided. A person with
+such a hernia is in constant danger, and if his general condition does
+not contra-indicate it he should be submitted to operative treatment.
+That is to say, the surgeon should cut down on the hernia, open the sac,
+divide any omental adhesions, tie and cut away indurated omentum, return
+the bowel, and complete the radical operation by closing the aperture by
+strong sutures.
+
+In _Strangulated Hernia_ the bowel or omentum is being nipped at the
+neck of the sac, and the flow of blood into and from the delicate
+tissues is stopped. The symptoms are--nausea, vomiting of bilious
+matter, and after a time of faecal-smelling matter; a twisting, burning
+pain generally referred to the region of the navel, intestinal
+obstruction; a quick, wiry pulse and pain on pressure over the tumour;
+the expression grows anxious, the abdomen becomes tense and drum-like,
+and there is no impulse in the tumour on coughing, because its contents
+are practically pinched off from the general abdominal cavity. Sometimes
+there is complete absence of pain and tenderness in the hernia itself,
+and in an aged person all the symptoms may be very slight. Sooner or
+later, from eight hours to eight days, if the strangulation is
+unrelieved, the tumour becomes livid, crackling with gas, mortification
+of the bowel at the neck of the sac takes place, followed by
+extravasation of the intestinal contents into the abdominal cavity; the
+patient has hiccough; he becomes collapsed; and dies comatose from
+blood-poisoning.
+
+The treatment of a strangulated hernia admits of no delay; if the hernia
+does not "go back" on the surgeon trying to reduce it, it must be
+operated on at once, the constriction being relieved, the bowel returned
+and the opening closed. There should be no treatment by hot-bath or
+ice-bag: operation is urgently needed. An anaesthetic should be
+administered, and perhaps one gentle attempt to return the contents by
+pressure (termed "taxis") may be made, but no prolonged attempts are
+justifiable, because the condition of the hernial contents may be such
+that they cannot bear the pressure of the fingers. "Think well of the
+hernia," says the aphorism, "which has been little handled."
+
+The taxis to be successful should be made in a direction opposite to the
+one in which the hernia has come down. The inguinal hernia should be
+pressed upwards, outwards and backwards, the femoral hernia downwards,
+backwards and upwards. The larger the hernia the greater is the chance
+of success by taxis, and the smaller the hernia the greater the risk of
+its being injured by manipulation and delay. In every case the handling
+must be absolutely gentle. If taxis does not succeed the surgeon must at
+once cut down on the tumour, carefully dividing the different coverings
+until he reaches the sac. The sac is then opened, the constriction
+divided, care being taken not to injure the bowel. The bowel must be
+examined before it is returned into the abdomen, and if its lustreless
+appearance, its dusky colour, or its smell, suggests that it is
+mortified, or is on the point of mortifying, it must not be put back or
+perforation would give rise to septic peritonitis which would probably
+have a fatal ending. In such a case the damaged piece of bowel must be
+resected and the healthy ends of the bowel joined together by fine
+suturing. Matted or diseased omentum must be tied off and removed.
+Should peritonitis supervene after the operation on account of bacillary
+infection, the bowels should be quickly made to act by repeated doses of
+Epsom salts in hot water.
+
+A person who is the subject of a reducible hernia should take great care
+to obtain an accurately fitting truss, and should remember that whenever
+symptoms resembling in any degree those of strangulation occur, delay in
+treatment may prove fatal. A surgeon should at once be communicated
+with, and he should come prepared to operate.     (E. O.*)
+
+
+
+
+HERNICI, an ancient people of Italy, whose territory was in Latium
+between the Fucine Lake and the Trerus, bounded by the Volscian on the
+S., and by the Aequian and the Marsian on the N. They long maintained
+their independence, and in 486 B.C. were still strong enough to conclude
+an equal treaty with the Latins (Dion. Hal. viii. 64 and 68). They broke
+away from Rome in 362 (Livy vii. 6 ff.) and in 306 (Livy ix. 42), when
+their chief town Anagnia (q.v.) was taken and reduced to a praefecture,
+but Ferentinum, Aletrium and Verulae were rewarded for their fidelity by
+being allowed to remain free _municipia_, a position which at that date
+they preferred to the _civitas_. The name of the Hernici, like that of
+the Volsci, is missing from the list of Italian peoples whom Polybius
+(ii. 24) describes as able to furnish troops in 225 B.C.; by that date,
+therefore, their territory cannot have been distinguished from Latium
+generally, and it seems probable (Beloch, _Ital. Bund_, p. 123) that
+they had then received the full Roman citizenship. The oldest Latin
+inscriptions of the district (from Ferentinum, _C.I.L._ x. 5837-5840)
+are earlier than the Social War, and present no local characteristic.
+
+  For further details of their history see _C.I.L._ x. 572.
+
+There is no evidence to show that the Hernici ever spoke a really
+different dialect from the Latins; but one or two glosses indicate that
+they had certain peculiarities of vocabulary, such as might be expected
+among folk who clung to their local customs. Their name, however, with
+its _Co_-termination, classes them along with the _Co_-tribes, like the
+Volsci, who would seem to have been earlier inhabitants of the west
+coast of Italy, rather than with the tribes whose names were formed with
+the _No_-suffix. On this question see VOLSCI and SABINI.
+
+  See Conway's _Italic Dialects_ (Camb. Univ. Press, 1897), p. 306 ff.,
+  where the glosses and the local and personal names of the district
+  will be found.     (R. S. C.)
+
+
+
+
+HERNÖSAND, a seaport of Sweden, chief town of the district (_län_) of
+Vesternorrland on the Gulf of Bothnia. Pop. (1900) 7890. It stands on
+the island of Hernö (which is connected with the mainland by bridges)
+near the mouth of the Ångerman river, 423 m. N. of Stockholm by rail. It
+is the seat of a bishop and possesses a fine cathedral. There are
+engine-works, timber-yards and saw-mills. The harbour is good, but
+generally ice-bound from December to May. Timber, iron and wood-pulp are
+exported. There are a school of navigation and an institute for
+pisciculture. Hernösand was founded in 1584, and received its first
+town-privileges from John III. in 1587. It was the first town in Europe
+to be lighted by electricity (1885). The poet Franzen (q.v.), Bishop of
+Hernösand, is buried here.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 13, Slice 3, by Various
+
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 13, Slice 3, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 13, Slice 3
+       "Helmont, Jean" to "Hernosand"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: April 12, 2012 [EBook #39435]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 13, SLICE 3 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note">
+<tr>
+<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top">
+Transcriber&rsquo;s note:
+</td>
+<td class="norm">
+A few typographical errors have been corrected. They
+appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the
+explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked
+passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration
+when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the
+Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will
+display an unaccented version. <br /><br />
+<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will
+be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<h2>THE ENCYCLOP&AElig;DIA BRITANNICA</h2>
+
+<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2>
+
+<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<h3>VOLUME XII SLICE III<br /><br />
+Helmont, Jean to Hernösand</h3>
+<hr class="full" />
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p>
+<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">HELMONT, JEAN BAPTISTE VAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">HENRY, ROBERT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">HELMSTEDT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99a">HENRY, VICTOR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">HELMUND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">HENRY, WILLIAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">HELM WIND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">HENRYSON, ROBERT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">HELOTS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">HENSCHEL, GEORGE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">HELPS, SIR ARTHUR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">HENSELT, ADOLF VON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">HELSINGBORG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">HENSLOW, JOHN STEVENS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">HELSINGFORS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">HENSLOWE, PHILIP</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">HELST, BARTHOLOMAEUS VAN DER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">HENTY, GEORGE ALFRED</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">HELSTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">HENWOOD, WILLIAM JORY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">HELVETIC CONFESSIONS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">HENZADA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">HELVETII</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">HEPBURN, SIR JOHN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">HELVÉTIUS, CLAUDE ADRIEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">HEPHAESTION</a> (Macedonian general)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">HELVIDIUS PRISCUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">HEPHAESTION</a> (grammarian of Alexandria)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">HELY-HUTCHINSON, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">HEPHAESTUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">HELYOT, PIERRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">HEPPENHEIM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">HEMANS, FELICIA DOROTHEA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">HEPPLEWHITE, GEORGE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">HEMEL HEMPSTEAD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">HEPTARCHY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">HEMEROBAPTISTS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">HERA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">HEMICHORDA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">HERACLEA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">HEMICYCLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">HERACLEON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">HEMIMERUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">HERACLEONAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">HEMIMORPHITE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">HERACLIDAE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">HEMINGBURGH, WALTER OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">HERACLIDES PONTICUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">HEMIPTERA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">HERACLITUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">HEMLOCK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">HERACLIUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">HEMP</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">HERALD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27a">HEMSTERHUIS, FRANÇOIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">HERALDRY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">HEMSTERHUIS, TIBERIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">HERAT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">HEMY, CHARLES NAPIER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">HÉRAULT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">HEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">HÉRAULT DE SÉCHELLES, MARIE JEAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">HÉNAULT, CHARLES JEAN FRANÇOIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">HERB</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">HENBANE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">HERBARIUM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">HENCHMAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">HERBART, JOHANN FRIEDRICH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">HENDERSON, ALEXANDER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">HERBELOT DE MOLAINVILLE, BARTHÉLEMY D&lsquo;</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">HENDERSON, EBENEZER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">HERBERAY DES ESSARTS, NICOLAS DE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">HENDERSON, GEORGE FRANCIS ROBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">HERBERT</a> (Family)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">HENDERSON, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">HERBERT, GEORGE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">HENDERSON</a> (Kentucky, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">HERBERT, HENRY WILLIAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">HENDIADYS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">HERBERT, SIR THOMAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">HENDON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">HERBERT OF CHERBURY, EDWARD HERBERT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">HENDRICKS, THOMAS ANDREWS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">HERBERT OF LEA, SIDNEY HERBERT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">HENGELO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">HERBERTON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">HENGEST and HORSA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">HERCULANEUM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">HENGSTENBERG, ERNST WILHELM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">HERCULANO DE CARVALHO E ARAUJO, ALEXANDRE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">HENKE, HEINRICH PHILIPP KONRAD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">HERCULES</a> (hero of Hellas)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">HENLE, FRIEDRICH GUSTAV JAKOB</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">HERCULES</a> (constellation)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">HENLEY, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">HERD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">HENLEY, WILLIAM ERNEST</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">HERDER, JOHANN GOTTFRIED VON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">HENLEY-ON-THAMES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">HEREDIA, JOSÉ MARIA DE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">HENNA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">HEREDIA Y CAMPUZANO, JOSÉ MARIA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">HENNEBONT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">HEREDITAMENT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">HENNEQUIN, PHILIPPE AUGUSTE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">HEREDITY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">HENNER, JEAN JACQUES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">HEREFORD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">HENRIETTA MARIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">HEREFORDSHIRE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">HENRY</a> (name origin)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">HERERO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">HENRY I.</a> (German king)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">HERESY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">HENRY II.</a> (Roman emperor)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">HEREWARD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">HENRY III.</a> (Roman emperor)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">HERFORD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">HENRY IV.</a> (Roman emperor)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">HERGENRÖTHER, JOSEPH VON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">HENRY V.</a> (Roman emperor)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">HERINGSDORF</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">HENRY VI.</a> (Roman emperor)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar159">HERIOT, GEORGE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">HENRY VII.</a> (Roman emperor)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar160">HERIOT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">HENRY VII.</a> (German king)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar161">HERISAU</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">HENRY RASPE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar162">HERITABLE JURISDICTIONS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">HENRY</a> (emperor of Romania)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar163">HERKIMER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">HENRY I.</a> (king of England)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar164">HERKOMER, SIR HUBERT VON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">HENRY II.</a> (king of England)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar165">HERLEN, FRITZ</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">HENRY III.</a> (king of England)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar166">HERMAE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">HENRY IV.</a> (king of England)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167">HERMAGORAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">HENRY V.</a> (king of England)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">HERMANDAD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">HENRY VI.</a> (king of England)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">HERMAN DE VALENCIENNES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">HENRY VII.</a> (king of England)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">HERMANN I.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">HENRY VIII.</a> (king of England)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171">HERMANN OF REICHENAU</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">HENRY I.</a> (king of Castile)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">HERMANN OF WIED</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">HENRY I.</a> (king of France)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">HERMANN, FRIEDRICH BENEDICT WILHELM VON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">HENRY II.</a> (king of France)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">HERMANN, JOHANN GOTTFRIED JAKOB</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">HENRY III.</a> (king of France)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar175">HERMANN, KARL FRIEDRICH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">HENRY IV.</a> (king of France)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar176">HERMAPHRODITUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">HENRY I.</a> (king of Navarre)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar177">HERMAS, SHEPHERD OF</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">HENRY II.</a> (king of Navarre)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar178">HERMENEUTICS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">HENRY I.</a> (king of Portugal)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar179">HERMES</a> (Greek god)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">HENRY II.</a> (duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar180">HERMES, GEORG</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">HENRY</a> (the Proud, duke of Saxony)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar181">HERMES TRISMEGISTUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">HENRY</a> (the Lion, duke of Saxony)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar182">HERMESIANAX</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">HENRY</a> (Prince of Battenberg)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar183">HERMIAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">HENRY FITZ HENRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar184">HERMIPPUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">HENRY</a> (Cardinal York)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar185">HERMIT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">HENRY OF PORTUGAL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar186">HERMOGENES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">HENRY OF ALMAIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar187">HERMON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">HENRY OF BLOIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar188">HERMSDORF</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">HENRY OF GHENT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar189">HERNE, JAMES A.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">HENRY OF HUNTINGDON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar190">HERNE</a> (town of Germany)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">HENRY OF LAUSANNE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar191">HERNE BAY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">HENRY, EDWARD LAMSON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar192">HERNE THE HUNTER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">HENRY, JAMES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar193">HERNIA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">HENRY, JOSEPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar194">HERNICI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">HENRY, MATTHEW</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar195">HERNÖSAND</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">HENRY, PATRICK</a></td> <td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page249" id="page249"></a>249</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">HELMONT, JEAN BAPTISTE VAN<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> (1577-1644), Belgian
+chemist, physiologist and physician, a member of a noble
+family, was born at Brussels in 1577.<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> He was educated at
+Louvain, and after ranging restlessly from one science to another
+and finding satisfaction in none, turned to medicine, in which
+he took his doctor&rsquo;s degree in 1599. The next few years he spent
+in travelling through Switzerland, Italy, France and England.
+Returning to his own country he was at Antwerp at the time of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page250" id="page250"></a>250</span>
+the great plague in 1605, and having contracted a rich marriage
+settled in 1609 at Vilvorde, near Brussels, where he occupied
+himself with chemical experiments and medical practice until
+his death on the 30th of December 1644. Van Helmont presents
+curious contradictions. On the one hand he was a disciple of
+Paracelsus (though he scornfully repudiates his errors was well as
+those of most other contemporary authorities), a mystic with
+strong leanings to the supernatural, an alchemist who believed
+that with a small piece of the philosopher&rsquo;s stone he had transmuted
+2000 times as much mercury into gold; on the other
+hand he was touched with the new learning that was producing
+men like Harvey, Galileo and Bacon, a careful observer of nature,
+and an exact experimenter who in some cases realized that
+matter can neither be created nor destroyed. As a chemist
+he deserves to be regarded as the founder of pneumatic chemistry,
+even though it made no substantial progress for a century after
+his time, and he was the first to understand that there are gases
+distinct in kind from atmospheric air. The very word &ldquo;gas&rdquo;
+he claims as his own invention, and he perceived that his &ldquo;gas
+sylvestre&rdquo; (our carbon dioxide) given off by burning charcoal
+is the same as that produced by fermenting must and that
+which sometimes renders the air of caves irrespirable. For
+him air and water are the two primitive elements of things.
+Fire he explicitly denies to be an element, and earth is not one
+because it can be reduced to water. That plants, for instance,
+are composed of water he sought to show by the ingenious
+quantitative experiment of planting a willow weighing 5 &#8468; in
+200 &#8468; of dry soil and allowing it to grow for five years; at the
+end of that time it had become a tree weighing 169 &#8468;, and since
+it had received nothing but water and the soil weighed practically
+the same as at the beginning, he argued that the increased weight
+of wood, bark and roots had been formed from water alone.
+It was an old idea that the processes of the living body are
+fermentative in character, but he applied it more elaborately
+than any of his predecessors. For him digestion, nutrition and
+even movement are due to ferments, which convert dead food
+into living flesh in six stages. But having got so far with the
+application of chemical principles to physiological problems,
+he introduces a complicated system of supernatural agencies
+like the <i>archei</i> of Paracelsus, which preside over and direct the
+affairs of the body. A central <i>archeus</i> controls a number of
+subsidiary <i>archei</i> which move through the ferments, and just
+as diseases are primarily caused by some affection (<i>exorbitatio</i>)
+of the <i>archeus</i>, so remedies act by bringing it back to the normal.
+At the same time chemical principles guided him in the choice
+of medicines&mdash;undue acidity of the digestive juices, for example,
+was to be corrected by alkalies and <i>vice versa</i>; he was thus a
+forerunner of the iatrochemical school, and did good service to
+the art of medicine by applying chemical methods to the preparation
+of drugs. Over and above the <i>archeus</i> he taught that there
+is the sensitive soul which is the husk or shell of the immortal
+mind. Before the Fall the <i>archeus</i> obeyed the immortal mind
+and was directly controlled by it, but at the Fall men received
+also the sensitive soul and with it lost immortality, for when it
+perishes the immortal mind can no longer remain in the body.
+In addition to the <i>archeus</i>, which he described as &ldquo;aura vitalis
+seminum, vitae directrix,&rdquo; Van Helmont had other governing
+agencies resembling the <i>archeus</i> and not always clearly distinguished
+from it. From these he invented the term <i>blas</i>, defined
+as the &ldquo;vis motus tam alterivi quam localis.&rdquo; Of <i>blas</i> there
+were several kinds, <i>e.g.</i> <i>blas humanum</i> and <i>blas meteoron</i>; the
+heavens he said &ldquo;constare gas materiâ et blas efficiente.&rdquo; He
+was a faithful Catholic, but incurred the suspicion of the Church
+by his tract <i>De magnetica vulnerum curatione</i> (1621), which was
+thought to derogate from some of the miracles. His works were
+collected and published at Amsterdam as <i>Ortus medicinae, vel
+opera et opuscula omnia</i> in 1668 by his son Franz Mercurius
+(b. 1618 at Vilvorde, d. 1699 at Berlin), in whose own writings,
+<i>e.g.</i> <i>Cabbalah Denudata</i> (1677) and <i>Opuscula philosophica</i> (1690),
+mystical theosophy and alchemy appear in still wilder confusion.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See M. Foster, <i>Lectures on the History of Physiology</i> (1901); also
+Chevreul in <i>Journ. des savants</i> (Feb. and March 1850), and Cap
+in <i>Journ. pharm. chim.</i> (1852). Other authorities are Poultier
+d&rsquo;Elmoth, <i>Mémoire sur J. B. van Helmont</i> (1817); Rixner and Sieber,
+<i>Beiträge zur Geschichte der Physiologie</i> (1819-1826), vol. ii.; Spiers,
+<i>Helmont&rsquo;s System der Medicin</i> (1840); Melsens, <i>Leçons sur van
+Helmont</i> (1848); Rommelaere, <i>Études sur J. B. van Helmont</i> (1860).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> An alternative date for his birth is 1579 and for his death 1635
+(see <i>Bull. Roy. Acad. Belg.</i>, 1907, 7, p. 732).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HELMSTEDT,<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> or more rarely Helmstädt, a town of Germany,
+in the duchy of Brunswick, 30 m. N.W. of Magdeburg on the
+main line of railway to Brunswick. Pop. (1905) 15,415. The
+principal buildings are the Juleum, the former university, built
+in the Renaissance style towards the close of the 16th century,
+and containing a library of 40,000 volumes; the fine Stephanskirche
+dating from the 12th century; the Walpurgiskirche
+restored in 1893-1894; the Marienberger Kirche, a beautiful
+church in the Roman style, and the Roman Catholic church.
+The Augustinian nunnery of Marienberg founded in 1176 is
+now a Lutheran school. The town contains the ruins of the
+Benedictine abbey of St Ludger, which was secularized in 1803.
+The educational institutions include several schools. The
+principal manufactures are furniture, yarn, soap, tobacco,
+sugar, vitriol and earthenware. Near the town is Bad Helmstedt,
+which has an iron mineral spring, and the Lübbensteine, two
+blocks of granite on which sacrifices to Woden are said to have
+been offered. Near Bad Helmstedt a monument has been erected
+to those who fell in the Franco-German War; in the town there
+is one to those killed at Waterloo. Helmstedt originated,
+according to legend, in connexion with the monastery founded
+by Ludger or Liudger (d. 809), the first bishop of Münster. There
+appears, however, little doubt that this tradition is mythical
+and that Helmstedt was not founded until about 900. It obtained
+civic rights in 1099 and, although destroyed by the archbishop
+of Magdeburg in 1199, it was soon rebuilt. In 1457 it joined the
+Hanseatic League, and in 1490 it came into the possession of
+Brunswick. In 1576 Julius, duke of Brunswick, founded a
+university here, and throughout the 17th century this was one
+of the chief seats of Protestant learning. It was closed by
+Jerome, king of Westphalia, in 1809.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Ludewig, <i>Geschichte und Beschreibung der Stadt Helmstedt</i>
+(Helmstedt, 1821).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HELMUND,<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> a river of Afghanistan, in length about 600 m.
+The Helmund, which is identical with the ancient Etymander,
+is the most important river in Afghanistan, next to the Kabul
+river, which it exceeds both in volume and length. It rises
+in the recesses of the Koh-i-Baba to the west of Kabul, its
+infant stream parting the Unai pass from the Irak, the two
+chief passes on the well-known road from Kabul to Bamian.
+For 50 m. from its source its course is ascertained, but beyond
+that point for the next 50 no European has followed it. About
+the parallel of 33° N. it enters the Zamindawar province which
+lies to the N.W. of Kandahar, and thenceforward it is a well-mapped
+river to its termination in the lake of Seistan. Till
+about 40 m. above Girishk the character of the Helmund is that
+of a mountain river, flowing through valleys which in summer are
+the resort of pastoral tribes. On leaving the hills it enters on a
+flat country, and extends over a gravelly bed. Here also it begins
+to be used in irrigation. At Girishk it is crossed by the principal
+route from Herat to Kandahar. Forty-five miles below Girishk
+the Helmund receives its greatest tributary, the Arghandab,
+from the high Ghilzai country beyond Kandahar, and becomes
+a very considerable river, with a width of 300 or 400 yds. and
+an occasional depth of 9 to 12 ft. Even in the dry season it is
+never without a plentiful supply of water. The course of the
+river is more or less south-west from its source till in Seistan
+it crosses meridian 62°, when it turns nearly north, and so flows
+for 70 or 80 m. till it falls into the Seistan hamuns, or swamps,
+by various mouths. In this latter part of its course it forms
+the boundary between Afghan and Persian Seistan, and owing
+to constant changes in its bed and the swampy nature of its
+borders it has been a fertile source of frontier squabbles. Persian
+Seistan was once highly cultivated by means of a great system
+of canal irrigation; but for centuries, since the country was
+devastated by Timur, it has been a barren, treeless waste of
+flat alluvial plain. In years of exceptional flood the Seistan
+lakes spread southwards into an overflow channel called the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page251" id="page251"></a>251</span>
+Shelag which, running parallel to the northern course of the
+Helmund in the opposite direction, finally loses its waters in
+the Gaod-i-Zirreh swamp, which thus becomes the final bourne
+of the river. Throughout its course from its confluence with the
+Arghandab to the ford of Chahar Burjak, where it bends northward,
+the Helmund valley is a narrow green belt of fertility
+sunk in the midst of a wide alluvial desert, with many thriving
+villages interspersed amongst the remains of ancient cities,
+relics of Kaiani rule. The recent political mission to Seistan
+under Sir Henry McMahon (1904-1905) added much information
+respecting the ancient and modern channels of the lower Helmund,
+proving that river to have been constantly shifting its bed over
+a vast area, changing the level of the country by silt deposits,
+and in conjunction with the terrific action of Seistan winds
+actually altering its configuration.</p>
+<div class="author">(T. H. H.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HELM WIND,<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> a wind that under certain conditions blows
+over the escarpment of the Pennines, near Cross Fell from the
+eastward, when a helm (helmet) cloud covers the summit. The
+helm bar is a roll of cloud that forms in front of it, to leeward.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See &ldquo;Report on the Helm Wind Inquiry,&rdquo; by W. Marriott,
+<i>Quart. Journ. Roy. Met. Soc.</i> xv. 103.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HELOTS<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="heilôtes">&#949;&#7988;&#955;&#969;&#964;&#949;&#962;</span> or <span class="grk" title="heilôtai">&#949;&#7985;&#955;&#8182;&#964;&#945;&#953;</span>), the serfs of the ancient
+Spartans. The word was derived in antiquity from the town
+of Helos in Laconia, but is more probably connected with <span class="grk" title="helos">&#7957;&#955;&#959;&#962;</span>,
+a fen, or with the root of <span class="grk" title="helein">&#7953;&#955;&#949;&#8150;&#957;</span>, to capture. Some scholars
+suppose them to have been of Achaean race, but they were
+more probably the aborigines of Laconia who had been enslaved
+by the Achaeans before the Dorian conquest. After the second
+Messenian war (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sparta</a></span>) the conquered Messenians were
+reduced to the status of helots, from which Epaminondas
+liberated them three centuries later after the battle of Leuctra
+(371 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). The helots were state slaves bound to the soil&mdash;<i>adscripti
+glebae</i>&mdash;and assigned to individual Spartiates to till
+their holdings (<span class="grk" title="klêroi">&#954;&#955;&#8134;&#961;&#959;&#953;</span>); their masters could neither emancipate
+them nor sell them off the land, and they were under an oath
+not to raise the rent payable yearly in kind by the helots. In
+time of war they served as light-armed troops or as rowers in
+the fleet; from the Peloponnesian War onwards they were
+occasionally employed as heavy infantry (<span class="grk" title="hoplitai">&#8001;&#960;&#955;&#8150;&#964;&#945;&#953;</span>), distinguished
+bravery being rewarded by emancipation. That the general
+attitude of the Spartans towards them was one of distrust and
+cruelty cannot be doubted. Aristotle says that the ephors of
+each year on entering office declared war on the helots so that
+they might be put to death at any time without violating religious
+scruple (Plutarch, <i>Lycurgus</i> 28), and we have a well-attested
+record of 2000 helots being freed for service in war and then
+secretly assassinated (Thuc. iv. 80). But when we remember
+the value of the helots from a military and agricultural point
+of view we shall not readily believe that the <i>crypteia</i> was really,
+as some authors represent it, an organized system of massacre;
+we shall see in it &ldquo;a good police training, inculcating hardihood
+and vigour in the young,&rdquo; while at the same time getting rid
+of any helots who were found to be plotting against the state
+(see further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crypteia</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>Intermediate between Helots and Spartiates were the two
+classes of <i>Neodamodes</i> and <i>Mothones</i>. The former were emancipated
+helots, or possibly their descendants, and were much
+used in war from the end of the 5th century; they served especially
+on foreign campaigns, as those of Thibron (400-399 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>)
+and Agesilaus (396-394 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) in Asia Minor. The <i>mothones</i> or
+<i>mothakes</i> were usually the sons of Spartiates and helot mothers;
+they were free men sharing the Spartan training, but were not
+full citizens, though they might become such in recognition of
+special merit.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See C. O. Müller, <i>History and Antiquities of the Doric Race</i> (Eng.
+trans.), bk. iii. ch. 3.; G. Gilbert, <i>Greek Constitutional Antiquities</i>
+(Eng. trans.), pp. 30-35; A. H. J. Greenidge, <i>Handbook of Greek
+Constitutional History</i>, pp. 83-85; G. Busolt, <i>Die griech. Staats- u.
+Rechtsaltertümer</i>, § 84; <i>Griechische Geschichte</i>, i.[2] 525-528; G. F.
+Schömann, <i>Antiquities of Greece: The State</i> (Eng. trans.) pp. 194 ff.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(M. N. T.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HELPS, SIR ARTHUR<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> (1813-1875), English writer and clerk
+of the Privy Council, youngest son of Thomas Helps, a London
+merchant, was born near London on the 10th of July 1813. He
+was educated at Eton and at Trinity College, Cambridge,
+coming out 31st wrangler in the mathematical tripos in 1835. He
+was recognized by the ablest of his contemporaries there as a
+man of superior gifts, and likely to make his mark in after life.
+As a member of the Conversazione Society, better known as the
+&ldquo;Apostles,&rdquo; a society established in 1820 for the purposes of
+discussion on social and literary questions by a few young men
+attracted to each other by a common taste for literature and
+speculation, he was associated with Charles Buller, Frederick
+Maurice, Richard Chenevix Trench, Monckton Milnes, Arthur
+Hallam and Alfred Tennyson. His first literary effort, <i>Thoughts
+in the Cloister and the Crowd</i> (1835), was a series of aphorisms
+upon life, character, politics and manners. Soon after leaving
+the university Arthur Helps became private secretary to Spring
+Rice (afterwards Lord Monteagle), then chancellor of the exchequer.
+This appointment he filled till 1839, when he went
+to Ireland as private secretary to Lord Morpeth (afterwards
+earl of Carlisle), chief secretary for Ireland. In the meanwhile
+(28th October 1836) Helps had married Bessy, daughter of
+Captain Edward Fuller. He was one of the commissioners
+for the settlement of certain Danish claims which dated so far
+back as the siege of Copenhagen; but with the fall of the
+Melbourne administration (1841) his official experience closed
+for a period of nearly twenty years. He was not, however,
+forgotten by his political friends. He possessed admirable
+tact and sagacity; his fitness for official life was unmistakable,
+and in 1860 he was appointed clerk of the Privy Council, on the
+recommendation of Lord Granville.</p>
+
+<p>His <i>Essays written in the Intervals of Business</i> had appeared
+in 1841, and his <i>Claims of Labour, an Essay on the Duties of the
+Employers to the Employed</i>, in 1844. Two plays, <i>King Henry
+the Second, an Historical Drama</i>, and <i>Catherine Douglas, a Tragedy</i>,
+published in 1843, have no particular merit. Neither in these,
+nor in his only other dramatic effort, <i>Oulita the Serf</i> (1858) did
+he show any real qualifications as a playwright.</p>
+
+<p>Helps possessed, however, enough dramatic power to give
+life and individuality to the dialogues with which he enlivened
+many of his other books. In his <i>Friends in Council, a Series
+of Readings and Discourse thereon</i> (1847-1859), Helps varied
+his presentment of social and moral problems by dialogues
+between imaginary personages, who, under the names of Milverton,
+Ellesmere and Dunsford, grew to be almost as real to
+Helps&rsquo;s readers as they certainly became to himself. The book
+was very popular, and the same expedient was resorted to in
+<i>Conversations on War and General Culture</i>, published in 1871.
+The familiar speakers, with others added, also appeared in his
+<i>Realmah</i> (1868) and in the best of its author&rsquo;s later works, <i>Talk
+about Animals and their Masters</i> (1873).</p>
+
+<p>A long essay on slavery in the first series of <i>Friends in Council</i>
+was subsequently elaborated into a work in two volumes published
+in 1848 and 1852, called <i>The Conquerors of the New World
+and their Bondsmen</i>. Helps went to Spain in 1847 to examine
+the numerous MSS. bearing upon his subject at Madrid. The
+fruits of these researches were embodied in an historical work
+based upon his <i>Conquerors of the New World</i>, and called <i>The
+Spanish Conquest in America, and its Relation to the History of
+Slavery and the Government of Colonies</i> (4 vols., 1855-1857-1861).
+But in spite of his scrupulous efforts after accuracy, the success
+of the book was marred by its obtrusively moral purpose and
+its discursive character.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Life of Las Casas, the Apostle of the Indians</i> (1868), <i>The
+Life of Columbus</i> (1869), <i>The Life of Pizarro</i> (1869), and <i>The
+Life of Hernando Cortes</i> (1871), when extracted from the work
+and published separately, proved successful. Besides the books
+which have been already mentioned he wrote: <i>Organization
+in Daily Life, an Essay</i> (1862), <i>Casimir Maremma</i> (1870), <i>Brevia</i>,
+<i>Short Essays and Aphorisms</i> (1871), <i>Thoughts upon Government</i>
+(1872), <i>Life and Labours of Mr Thomas Brassey</i> (1872), <i>Ivan
+de Biron</i> (1874), <i>Social Pressure</i> (1875).</p>
+
+<p>His appointment as clerk of the Council brought him into
+personal communication with Queen Victoria and the Prince
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page252" id="page252"></a>252</span>
+Consort, both of whom came to regard him with confidence
+and respect. After the Prince&rsquo;s death, the Queen early turned
+to Helps to prepare an appreciation of her husband&rsquo;s life and
+character. In his introduction to the collection (1862) of the
+Prince Consort&rsquo;s speeches and addresses Helps adequately
+fulfilled his task. Some years afterwards he edited and wrote
+a preface to the Queen&rsquo;s <i>Leaves from a Journal of our Life in
+the Highlands</i> (1868). In 1864 he received the honorary degree
+of D.C.L. from the university of Oxford. He was made a C.B.
+in 1871 and K.C.B. in the following year. His later years
+were troubled by financial embarrassments, and he died on the
+7th of March 1875.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HELSINGBORG,<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> a seaport of Sweden in the district (<i>län</i>)
+of Malmöhus, 35 m. N. by E. of Copenhagen by rail and water.
+Pop. (1900), 24,670. It is beautifully situated at the narrowest
+part of Öresund, or the Sound, here only 3 m. wide, opposite
+Helsingör (Elsinore) in Denmark. Above the town the brick
+tower of a former castle crowns a hill, commanding a fine view
+over the Sound. On the outskirts are the Öresund Park, gardens
+containing iodide and bromide springs, and frequented sea-baths.
+On the coast to the north is the royal <i>château</i> of Sofiero; to the
+south, the small spa of Ramlösa. A system of electric trams is
+maintained. North and east of Helsingborg lies the only coalfield
+in Sweden, extending into the lofty Kullen peninsula,
+which forms the northern part of the east shore of the Sound.
+Potter&rsquo;s clay is also found. Helsingborg ranks among the first
+manufacturing towns of Sweden, having copper works, using
+ore from Sulitelma in Norway, india-rubber works and breweries.
+The artificial harbour has a depth of 24 ft., and there are
+extensive docks. The chief exports are timber, butter and iron.
+The town is the headquarters of the first army division.</p>
+
+<p>The original site of the town is marked by the tower of the
+old fortress, which is first mentioned in 1135. In the 14th century
+it was several times besieged. From 1370 along with other
+towns in the province of Skåne, it was united for fifteen years
+with the Hanseatic League. The fortress was destroyed by fire
+in 1418, and about 1425 Eric XIII. built another near the sea,
+and caused the town to be transported thither, bestowing upon
+it important privileges. Until 1658 it belonged to Denmark,
+and it was again occupied by the Danes in 1676 and 1677. In
+1684 its fortifications were dismantled. It was taken by Frederick
+IV. of Denmark in November 1709, but on the 28th of February
+1710 the Danes were defeated in the neighbourhood, and the
+town came finally into the possession of Sweden, though in 1711
+it was again bombarded by the Danes. A tablet on the quay
+commemorates the landing of Bernadotte after his election
+as successor to the throne in 1810.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HELSINGFORS<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> (Finnish <i>Helsinki</i>), a seaport and the capital
+of Finland and of the province of Nyland, centre of the administrative,
+scientific, educational and industrial life of Finland.
+The fine harbour is divided into two parts by a promontory,
+and is protected at its entrance by a group of small islands, on
+one of which stands the fortress of Sveaborg. A third harbour
+is situated on the west side of the promontory, and all three
+have granite quays. The city, which in 1810 had only 4065
+inhabitants, Åbo the then capital having 10,224, has increased
+with great rapidity, having 22,228 inhabitants in 1860, 61,530
+in 1890 and 111,654 in 1904. It is the centre of an active shipping
+trade with the Baltic ports and with England, and of a railway
+system connecting it with all parts of the grand duchy and with
+St Petersburg. Helsingfors is handsome and well laid out with
+wide streets, parks, gardens and monuments. The principal
+square contains the cathedral of St Nicholas, the Senate House
+and the university, all striking buildings of considerable architectural
+distinction. In the centre is the statue of the Tsar
+Alexander II., who is looked upon as the protector of the liberties
+of Finland, the monument being annually decorated with wreaths
+and garlands. The university has a teaching staff of 141 with
+(1906) 1921 students, of whom 328 were women. The university
+is well provided with museums and laboratories and has a
+library of over 250,000 volumes. Other public institutions
+are the Athenaeum, with picture gallery, a Swedish theatre
+and opera house, a Finnish theatre, the Archives, the Senate
+House, the Nobles&rsquo; House (<i>Riddarhuset</i>) and the House of the
+Estates, the German (Lutheran) church and the Russian church.
+Some of the scientific societies of Helsingfors have a wide
+repute, such as the academy of sciences, the geographical,
+historical, Finno-Ugrian, biblical, medical, law, arts and forestry
+societies, as also societies for the spread of popular education
+and of arts and crafts. There are a polytechnic, ten high schools,
+navigation and trade schools, institutes for the blind and the
+mentally deficient, and numerous elementary schools. The
+general standard of education is high, the publication of books,
+reviews and newspapers being very active. The language of
+culture is Swedish, but owing to recent manufacturing developments
+the majority of the population is Finnish-speaking.
+Helsingfors displays great manufacturing and commercial
+activity, the imports being coal, machinery, sugar, grain and
+clothing. The manufactures of the city consist largely of
+tobacco, beer and spirits, carpets, machinery and sugar.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HELST, BARTHOLOMAEUS VAN DER,<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> Dutch painter, was
+born in Holland at the opening of the 17th century, and died
+at Amsterdam in 1670. The date and place of his birth are
+uncertain; and it is equally difficult to confirm or to deny the
+time-honoured statement that he was born in 1613 at Amsterdam.
+It has been urged indeed by competent authority that Van der
+Helst was not a native of Amsterdam, because a family of that
+name lived as early as 1607 at Haarlem, and pictures are shown
+as works of Van der Helst in the Haarlem Museum which might
+tend to prove that he was in practice there before he acquired
+repute at Amsterdam. Unhappily Bartholomew has not been
+traced amongst the children of Severijn van der Helst, who
+married at Haarlem in 1607, and there is no proof that the
+pictures at Haarlem are really his; though if they were so they
+would show that he learnt his art from Frans Hals and became
+a skilled master as early as 1631. Scheltema, a very competent
+judge in matters of Dutch art chronology, supposes that Van
+der Heist was a resident at Amsterdam in 1636. His first great
+picture, representing a gathering of civic guards at a brewery,
+is variously assigned to 1639 and 1643, and still adorns the
+town-hall of Amsterdam. His noble portraits of the burgomaster
+Bicker and Andreas Bicker the younger, in the gallery of
+Amsterdam, of the same date no doubt as Bicker&rsquo;s wife lately
+in the Ruhl collection at Cologne, were completed in 1642.
+From that time till his death there is no difficulty in tracing Van
+der Helst&rsquo;s career at Amsterdam. He acquired and kept the
+position of a distinguished portrait-painter, producing indeed
+little or nothing besides portraits at any time, but founding,
+in conjunction with Nicolaes de Helt Stokade, the painters&rsquo;
+guild at Amsterdam in 1654. At some unknown date he married
+Constance Reynst, of a good patrician family in the Netherlands,
+bought himself a house in the Doelenstrasse and ended by
+earning a competence. His likeness of Paul Potter at the Hague,
+executed in 1654, and his partnership with Backhuysen, who laid
+in the backgrounds of some of his pictures in 1668, indicate
+a constant companionship with the best artists of the time.
+Wagen has said that his portrait of Admiral Kortenaar, in
+the gallery of Amsterdam, betrays the teaching of Frans Hals,
+and the statement need not be gainsaid; yet on the whole
+Van der Helst&rsquo;s career as a painter was mainly a protest against
+the systems of Hals and Rembrandt. It is needless to dwell
+on the pictures which preceded that of 1648, called the Peace
+of Münster, in the gallery of Amsterdam. The Peace challenges
+comparison at once with the so-called Night Watch by Rembrandt
+and the less important but not less characteristic portraits of
+Hals and his wife in a neighbouring room. Sir Joshua Reynolds
+was disappointed by Rembrandt, whilst Van der Helst surpassed
+his expectation. But Bürger asked whether Reynolds had not
+already been struck with blindness when he ventured on this
+criticism. The question is still an open one. But certainly
+Van der Helst attracts by qualities entirely differing from those
+of Rembrandt and Frans Hals. Nothing can be more striking
+than the contrast between the strong concentrated light and the
+deep gloom of Rembrandt and the contempt of chiaroscuro
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page253" id="page253"></a>253</span>
+peculiar to his rival, except the contrast between the rapid
+sketchy touch of Hals and the careful finish and rounding of
+van der Helst. &ldquo;The Peace&rdquo; is a meeting of guards to celebrate
+the signature of the treaty of Münster. The members of the
+Doele of St George meet to feast and congratulate each other not
+at a formal banquet but in a spot laid out for good cheer, where
+de Wit, the captain of his company, can shake hands with his
+lieutenant Waveren, yet hold in solemn state the great drinking-horn
+of St George. The rest of the company sit, stand or busy
+themselves around&mdash;some eating, others drinking, others
+carving or serving&mdash;an animated scene on a long canvas, with
+figures large as life. Well has Bürger said, the heads are full
+of life and the hands admirable. The dresses and subordinate
+parts are finished to a nicety without sacrifice of detail or loss
+of breadth in touch or impast. But the eye glides from shape to
+shape, arrested here by expressive features, there by a bright
+stretch of colours, nowhere at perfect rest because of the lack
+of a central thought in light and shade, harmonies or composition.
+Great as the qualities of van der Helst undoubtedly are, he
+remains below the line of demarcation which separates the
+second from the first-rate masters of art.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His pictures are very numerous, and almost uniformly good; but
+in his later creations he wants power, and though still amazingly
+careful, he becomes grey and woolly in touch. At Amsterdam the
+four regents in the Werkhuys (1650), four syndics in the gallery
+(1656), and four syndics in the town-hall (1657) are masterpieces,
+to which may be added a number of fine single portraits. Rotterdam,
+notwithstanding the fire of 1864, still boasts of three of van der
+Helst&rsquo;s works. The Hague owns but one. St Petersburg, on the
+other hand, possesses ten or eleven, of various shades of excellence.
+The Louvre has three, Munich four. Other pieces are in the galleries
+of Berlin, Brunswick, Brussels, Carlsruhe, Cassel, Darmstadt,
+Dresden, Frankfort, Gotha, Stuttgart and Vienna.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HELSTON,<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> a market town and municipal borough in the
+Truro parliamentary division of Cornwall, England, 11 m. by
+road W.S.W. of Falmouth, on a branch of the Great Western
+railway. Pop. (1901) 3088. It is pleasantly situated on rising
+ground above the small river Cober, which, a little below the
+town, expands into a picturesque estuary called Looe Pool, the
+water being banked up by the formation of Looe Bar at the
+mouth. Formerly, when floods resulted from this obstruction,
+the townsfolk of Helston acquired the right of clearing a passage
+through it by presenting leathern purses containing three
+halfpence to the lord of the manor. The mining industry on
+which the town formerly depended is extinct, but the district
+is agricultural and dairy farming is carried on, while the town
+has flour mills, tanneries and iron foundries. As Helston has
+the nearest railway station to the Lizard, with its magnificent
+coast-scenery, there is a considerable tourist traffic in summer.
+Some trade passes through the small port of Porthleven, 3 m.
+S.W., where the harbour admits vessels of 500 tons. On the
+8th of May a holiday is still observed in Helston and known as
+Flora or Furry day. It has been regarded as a survival of the
+Roman <i>Floralia</i>, but its origin is believed by some to be Celtic.
+Flowers and branches were gathered, and dancing took place in
+the streets and through the houses, all being thrown open, while
+a pageant was also given and a special ancient folk-song chanted.
+This ceremony, after being almost forgotten, has been revived
+in modern times. The borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen
+and 12 councillors. Area, 309 acres.</p>
+
+<p>Helston (Henliston, Haliston, Helleston), the capital of the
+Meneage district of Cornwall, was held by Earl Harold in the
+time of the Confessor and by King William at the Domesday
+Survey. At the latter date besides seventy-three villeins, bordars
+and serfs there were forty <i>cervisarii</i>, a species of unfree tenants
+who rendered their custom in the form of beer. King John
+(1201) constituted Helleston a free borough, established a gild
+merchant, and granted the burgesses freedom from toll and other
+similar dues throughout the realm, and the cognizance of all
+pleas within the borough except crown pleas. Richard, king of
+the Romans (1260), extended the boundaries of the borough
+and granted permission for the erection of an additional mill.
+Edward I. (1304) granted the pesage of tin, and Edward III. a
+Saturday market and four fairs. Of these the Saturday market
+and a fair on the feast of SS. Simon and Jude are still held, also
+five other fairs of uncertain origin. In 1585 Elizabeth granted
+a charter of incorporation under the name of the mayor and
+commonalty of Helston. This was confirmed in 1641, when it
+was also provided that the mayor and recorder should be <i>ipso
+facto</i> justices of the peace. From 1294 to 1832 Helston returned
+two members to parliament. In 1774 the number of electors
+(which by usage had been restricted to the mayor, aldermen
+and freemen elected by them) had dwindled to six, and in 1790
+to one person only, whose return of two members, however,
+was rejected and that of the general body of the freemen accepted.
+In 1832 Helston lost one of its members, and in 1885 it lost the
+other and became merged in the county.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HELVETIC CONFESSIONS,<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> the name of two documents
+expressing the common belief of the reformed churches of
+Switzerland. The first, known also as the Second Confession of
+Basel, was drawn up at that city in 1536 by Bullinger and Leo
+Jud of Zürich, Megander of Bern, Oswald Myconius and Grynaeus
+of Basel, Bucer and Capito of Strassburg, with other representatives
+from Schaffhausen, St Gall, Mühlhausen and Biel. The
+first draft was in Latin and the Zürich delegates objected to its
+Lutheran phraseology.<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Leo Jud&rsquo;s German translation was,
+however, accepted by all, and after Myconius and Grynaeus
+had modified the Latin form, both versions were agreed to and
+adopted on the 26th of February 1536.</p>
+
+<p>The Second Helvetic Confession was written by Bullinger in
+1562 and revised in 1564 as a private exercise. It came to the
+notice of the elector palatine Friedrich III., who had it translated
+into German and published. It gained a favourable hold on the
+Swiss churches, who had found the First Confession too short
+and too Lutheran. It was adopted by the Reformed Church not
+only throughout Switzerland but in Scotland (1566), Hungary
+(1567), France (1571), Poland (1578), and next to the Heidelberg
+Catechism is the most generally recognized Confession of the
+Reformed Church.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See L. Thomas, <i>La Confession helvétique</i> (Geneva, 1853); P.
+Schaff, <i>Creeds of Christendom</i>, i. 390-420, iii. 234-306; Müller,
+<i>Die Bekenntnisschriften der reformierten Kirche</i> (Leipzig, 1903).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Some of the delegates, especially Bucer, were anxious to effect
+a union of the Reformed and Lutheran Churches. There was also
+a desire to lay the Confession before the council summoned at
+Mantua by Pope Paul III.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HELVETII<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> (<span class="grk" title="Helouêtioi">&#7961;&#955;&#959;&#965;&#8053;&#964;&#953;&#959;&#953;</span>, <span class="grk" title="Helbêttioi">&#7961;&#955;&#946;&#8053;&#964;&#964;&#953;&#959;&#953;</span>), a Celtic people, whose
+original home was the country between the Hercynian forest
+(probably the Rauhe Alp), the Rhine and the Main (Tacitus,
+<i>Germania</i>, 28). In Caesar&rsquo;s time they appear to have been
+driven farther west, since, according to him (<i>Bell. Gall.</i> i. 2. 3)
+their boundaries were on the W. the Jura, on the S. the Rhone
+and the Lake of Geneva, on the N. and E. the Rhine as far as
+Lake Constance. They thus inhabited the western part of
+modern Switzerland. They were divided into four cantons
+(<i>pagi</i>), common affairs being managed by the cantonal assemblies.
+They possessed the elements of a higher civilization (gold coinage,
+the Greek alphabet), and, according to Caesar, were the bravest
+people of Gaul. The reports of gold and plunder spread by the
+Cimbri and Teutones on their way to southern Gaul induced
+the Helvetii to follow their example. In 107, under Divico, two
+of their tribes, the Tougeni and Tigurini, crossed the Jura and
+made their way as far as Aginnum (Agen on the Garonne),
+where they utterly defeated the Romans under L. Cassius
+Longinus, and forced them to pass under the yoke (Livy, <i>Epit.</i>
+65; according to a different reading, the battle took place near
+the Lake of Geneva). In 102 the Helvetii joined the Cimbri in
+the invasion of Italy, but after the defeat of the latter by Marius
+they returned home. In 58, hard pressed by the Germans and
+incited by one of their princes, Orgetorix, they resolved to found
+a hew home west of the Jura. Orgetorix was thrown into prison,
+being suspected of a design to make himself king, but the Helvetii
+themselves persisted in their plan. Joined by the Rauraci,
+Tulingi, Latobrigi and some of the Boii&mdash;according to their own
+reckoning 368,000 in all&mdash;they agreed to meet on the 28th of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page254" id="page254"></a>254</span>
+March at Geneva and to advance through the territory of the
+Allobroges. They were overtaken, however, by Caesar at
+Bibracte, defeated and forced to submit. Those who survived
+were sent back home to defend the frontier of the Rhine against
+German invaders. During the civil wars and for some time
+after the death of Caesar little is heard of the Helvetii.</p>
+
+<p>Under Augustus Helvetia (not so called till later times, earlier
+<i>ager Helvetiorum</i>) proper was included under Gallia Belgica.
+Two Roman colonies had previously been founded at Noviodunum
+(Colonia Julia Equestris, mod. <i>Nyon</i>) and at Colonia Rauracorum
+(afterwards Augusta Rauracorum, <i>Augst</i> near Basel) to keep
+watch over the inhabitants, who were treated with generosity by
+their conquerors. Under the name of <i>foederati</i> they retained
+their original constitution and division into four cantons. They
+were under an obligation to furnish a contingent to the Roman
+army for foreign service, but were allowed to maintain garrisons
+of their own, and their magistrates had the right to call out a
+militia. Their religion was not interfered with; they managed
+their own local affairs and kept their own language, although
+Latin was used officially. Their chief towns were Aventicum
+(<i>Avenches</i>) and Vindonissa (<i>Windisch</i>). Under Tiberius the
+Helvetii were separated from Gallia Belgica and made part of
+Germania Superior. After the death of Galba (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 69), having
+refused submission to Vitellius, their land was devastated by
+Alienus Caecina, and only the eloquent appeal of one of their
+leaders named Claudius Cossus saved them from annihilation.
+Under Vespasian they attained the height of their prosperity.
+He greatly increased the importance of Aventicum, where his
+father had carried on business. Its inhabitants, with those of
+other towns, probably obtained the <i>ius Latinum</i>, had a senate,
+a council of <i>decuriones</i>, a prefect of public works and flamens of
+Augustus. After the extension of the eastern frontier, the troops
+were withdrawn from the garrisons and fortresses, and Helvetia,
+free from warlike disturbances, gradually became completely
+romanized. Aventicum had an amphitheatre, a public
+gymnasium and an academy with Roman professors. Roads
+were made wherever possible, and commerce rapidly developed.
+The old Celtic religion was also supplanted by the Roman.
+The west of the country, however, was more susceptible to Roman
+influence, and hence preserved its independence against barbarian
+invaders longer than its eastern portion. During the reign of
+Gallienus (260-268) the Alamanni overran the country; and
+although Probus, Constantius Chlorus, Julian, Valentinian I.
+and Gratian to some extent checked the inroads of the barbarians,
+it never regained its former prosperity. In the subdivision of
+Gaul in the 4th century, Helvetia, with the territory of the
+Sequani and Rauraci, formed the Provincia Maxima Sequanorum,
+the chief town of which was Vesontio (<i>Besançon</i>). Under
+Honorius (395-423) it was probably definitely occupied by the
+Alamanni, except in the west, where the small portion remaining
+to the Romans was ceded in 436 by Aëtius to the Burgundians.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See L. von Haller, <i>Helvetien unter den Römern</i> (Bern, 1811);
+T. Mommsen, <i>Die Schweiz in römischer Zeit</i> (Zürich, 1854); J. Brosi,
+<i>Die Kelten und Althelvetier</i> (Solothurn, 1851); L. Hug and R. Stead,
+&ldquo;Switzerland&rdquo; in <i>Story of the Nations</i>, xxvi.; C. Dändliker, <i>Geschichte
+der Schweiz</i> (1892-1895), and English translation (of a shorter
+history by the same) by E. Salisbury (1899); <i>Die Schweiz unter den
+Römern</i> (anonymous) published by the Historischer Verein of St
+Gall (Scheitlin and Zollikofer, St Gall, 1862); and G. Wyss, &ldquo;Über
+das römische Helvetien&rdquo; in <i>Archiv für schweizerische Geschichte</i>,
+vii. (1851). For Caesar&rsquo;s campaign against the Helvetii, see T. R.
+Holmes, <i>Caesar&rsquo;s Conquest of Gaul</i> (1899) and Mommsen, <i>Hist. of
+Rome</i> (Eng. trans.), bk. v. ch. 7; ancient authorities in A. Holder,
+<i>Altkeltischer Sprachschatz</i> (1896), <i>s.v.</i> Elvetii.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HELVÉTIUS, CLAUDE ADRIEN<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> (1715-1771), French philosopher
+and littérateur, was born in Paris in January 1715. He
+was descended from a family of physicians, whose original name
+was Schweitzer (latinized as Helvetius). His grandfather
+introduced the use of ipecacuanha; his father was first physician
+to Queen Marie Leczinska of France. Claude Adrien was
+trained for a financial career, but he occupied his spare time with
+writing verses. At the age of twenty-three, at the queen&rsquo;s
+request, he was appointed farmer-general, a post of great responsibility
+and dignity worth a 100,000 crowns a year. Thus
+provided for, he proceeded to enjoy life to the utmost, with
+the help of his wealth and liberality, his literary and artistic
+tastes. As he grew older, however, his social successes ceased,
+and he began to dream of more lasting distinctions, stimulated
+by the success of Maupertuis as a mathematician, of Voltaire
+as a poet, of Montesquieu as a philosopher. The mathematical
+dream seems to have produced nothing; his poetical ambitions
+resulted in the poem called <i>Le Bonheur</i> (published posthumously,
+with an account of Helvétius&rsquo;s life and works, by C. F. de Saint-Lambert,
+1773), in which he develops the idea that true happiness
+is only to be found in making the interest of one that of all;
+his philosophical studies ended in the production of his famous
+book <i>De l&rsquo;esprit</i>. It was characteristic of the man that, as soon
+as he thought his fortune sufficient, he gave up his post of farmer-general,
+and retired to an estate in the country, where he
+employed his large means in the relief of the poor, the encouragement
+of agriculture and the development of industries. <i>De
+l&rsquo;esprit</i> (Eng. trans. by W. Mudford, 1807), intended to be the
+rival of Montesquieu&rsquo;s <i>L&rsquo;Esprit des lois</i>, appeared in 1758. It
+attracted immediate attention and aroused the most formidable
+opposition, especially from the dauphin, son of Louis XV. The
+Sorbonne condemned the book, the priests persuaded the court
+that if was full of the most dangerous doctrines, and the author,
+terrified at the storm he had raised, wrote three separate retractations;
+yet, in spite of his protestations of orthodoxy,
+he had to give up his office at the court, and the book was
+publicly burned by the hangman. The virulence of the attacks
+upon the work, as much as its intrinsic merit, caused it to be
+widely read; it was translated into almost all the languages
+of Europe. Voltaire said that it was full of commonplaces, and
+that what was original was false or problematical; Rousseau
+declared that the very benevolence of the author gave the lie
+to his principles; Grimm thought that all the ideas in the book
+were borrowed from Diderot; according to Madame du Deffand,
+Helvétius had raised such a storm by saying openly what every
+one thought in secret; Madame de Graffigny averred that all
+the good things in the book had been picked up in her own <i>salon</i>.
+In 1764 Helvétius visited England, and the next year, on the
+invitation of Frederick II., he went to Berlin, where the king
+paid him marked attention. He then returned to his country
+estate and passed the remainder of his life in perfect tranquillity.
+He died on the 26th of December 1771.</p>
+
+<p>His philosophy belongs to the utilitarian school. The four
+discussions of which his book consists have been thus summed
+up: (1) All man&rsquo;s faculties may be reduced to physical sensation,
+even memory, comparison, judgment; our only difference
+from the lower animals lies in our external organization. (2)
+Self-interest, founded on the love of pleasure and the fear of pain,
+is the sole spring of judgment, action, affection; self-sacrifice
+is prompted by the fact that the sensation of pleasure outweighs
+the accompanying pain; it is thus the result of deliberate
+calculation; we have no liberty of choice between good and
+evil; there is no such thing as absolute right&mdash;ideas of justice
+and injustice change according to customs. (3) All intellects
+are equal; their apparent inequalities do not depend on a more
+or less perfect organization, but have their cause in the unequal
+desire for instruction, and this desire springs from passions, of
+which all men commonly well organized are susceptible to the
+same degree; and we can, therefore, all love glory with the same
+enthusiasm and we owe all to education. (4) In this discourse
+the author treats of the ideas which are attached to such words
+as <i>genius</i>, <i>imagination</i>, <i>talent</i>, <i>taste</i>, <i>good sense</i>, &amp;c. The only
+original ideas in his system are those of the natural equality of
+intelligences and the omnipotence of education, neither of which,
+however, is generally accepted, though both were prominent in
+the system of J. S. Mill. There is no doubt that his thinking
+was unsystematic; but many of his critics have entirely misrepresented
+him (<i>e.g.</i> Cairns in his <i>Unbelief in the Eighteenth
+Century</i>). As J. M. Robertson (<i>Short History of Free Thought</i>)
+points out, he had great influence upon Bentham, and C. Beccaria
+states that he himself was largely inspired by Helvétius in his
+attempt to modify penal laws. The keynote of his thought was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page255" id="page255"></a>255</span>
+that public ethics has a utilitarian basis, and he insisted strongly
+on the importance of culture in national development.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A sort of supplement to the <i>De l&rsquo;esprit</i>, called <i>De l&rsquo;homme, de ses
+facultés intellectuelles et de son éducation</i> (Eng. trans. by W. Hooper,
+1777), found among his manuscripts, was published after his death,
+but created little interest. There is a complete edition of the works of
+Helvétius, published at Paris, 1818. For an estimate of his work and
+his place among the philosophers of the 18th century see Victor
+Cousin&rsquo;s <i>Philosophie sensualiste</i> (1863); P. L. Lezaud, <i>Résumés
+philosophiques</i> (1853); F. D. Maurice, in his <i>Modern Philosophy</i>
+(1862), pp. 537 seq.; J. Morley, <i>Diderot and the Encyclopaedists</i>
+(London, 1878); D. G. Mostratos, <i>Die Pädagogik des Helvétius</i>
+(Berlin, 1891); A. Guillois, <i>Le Salon de Madame Helvétius</i> (1894);
+A. Piazzi, <i>Le Idee filosofiche specialmente pedagogiche de C. A. Helvétius</i>
+(Milan, 1889); G. Plekhanov, <i>Beiträge zur Geschichte des Materialismus</i>
+(Stuttgart, 1896); L. Limentani, <i>Le Teorie psicologiche di
+C. A. Helvétius</i> (Verona, 1902); A. Keim, <i>Helvétius, sa vie et son
+&oelig;uvre</i> (1907).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HELVIDIUS PRISCUS,<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> Stoic philosopher and statesman,
+lived during the reigns of Nero, Galba, Otho, Vitellius and
+Vespasian. Like his father-in-law, Thrasea Paetus, he was
+distinguished for his ardent and courageous republicanism.
+Although he repeatedly offended his rulers, he held several high
+offices. During Nero&rsquo;s reign he was quaestor of Achaea and
+tribune of the plebs (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 56); he restored peace and order in
+Armenia, and gained the respect and confidence of the provincials.
+His declared sympathy with Brutus and Cassius
+occasioned his banishment in 66. Having been recalled to Rome
+by Galba in 68, he at once impeached Eprius Marcellus, the
+accuser of Thrasea Paetus, but dropped the charge, as the
+condemnation of Marcellus would have involved a number of
+senators. As praetor elect he ventured to oppose Vitellius in the
+senate (Tacitus, <i>Hist.</i> ii. 91), and as praetor (70) he maintained,
+in opposition to Vespasian, that the management of the finances
+ought to be left to the discretion of the senate; he proposed
+that the capitol, which had been destroyed in the Neronian
+conflagration, should be restored at the public expense; he
+saluted Vespasian by his private name, and did not recognize
+him as emperor in his praetorian edicts. At length he was
+banished a second time, and shortly afterwards was executed
+by Vespasian&rsquo;s order. His life, in the form of a warm panegyric,
+written at his widow&rsquo;s request by Herennius Senecio, caused
+its author&rsquo;s death in the reign of Domitian.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Tacitus, <i>Hist.</i> iv. 5, <i>Dialogus</i>, 5; Dio Cassius lxvi. 12, lxvii. 13;
+Suetonius, <i>Vespasian</i>, 15; Pliny, <i>Epp.</i> vii. 19.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HELY-HUTCHINSON, JOHN<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> (1724-1794), Irish lawyer, statesman,
+and provost of Trinity College, Dublin, son of Francis Hely,
+a gentleman of County Cork, was educated at Trinity College,
+Dublin, and was called to the Irish bar in 1748. He took the
+additional name of Hutchinson on his marriage in 1751 with
+Christiana Nixon, heiress of her uncle, Richard Hutchinson. He
+was elected member of the Irish House of Commons for the
+borough of Lanesborough in 1759, but after 1761 he represented
+the city of Cork. He at first attached himself to the &ldquo;patriotic&rdquo;
+party in opposition to the government, and although he afterwards
+joined the administration he never abandoned his advocacy
+of popular measures. He was a man of brilliant and versatile
+ability, whom Lord Townshend, the lord lieutenant, described as
+&ldquo;by far the most powerful man in parliament.&rdquo; William
+Gerard Hamilton said of him that &ldquo;Ireland never bred a more
+able, nor any country a more honest man.&rdquo; Hely-Hutchinson
+was, however, an inveterate place-hunter, and there was point in
+Lord North&rsquo;s witticism that &ldquo;if you were to give him the whole
+of Great Britain and Ireland for an estate, he would ask the Isle
+of Man for a potato garden.&rdquo; After a session or two in parliament
+he was made a privy councillor and prime serjeant-at-law; and
+from this time he gave a general, though by no means invariable,
+support to the government. In 1767 the ministry contemplated
+an increase of the army establishment in Ireland from 12,000 to
+15,000 men, but the Augmentation Bill met with strenuous
+opposition, not only from Flood, Ponsonby and the habitual
+opponents of the government, but from the Undertakers, or proprietors
+of boroughs, on whom the government had hitherto
+relied to secure them a majority in the House of Commons. It
+therefore became necessary for Lord Townshend to turn to other
+methods for procuring support. Early In 1768 an English act
+was passed for the increase of the army, and a message from the
+king setting forth the necessity for the measure was laid before
+the House of Commons in Dublin. An address favourable to the
+government policy was, however, rejected; and Hely-Hutchinson,
+together with the speaker and the attorney-general, did their
+utmost both in public and private to obstruct the bill. Parliament
+was dissolved in May 1768, and the lord lieutenant set
+about the task of purchasing or otherwise securing a majority in
+the new parliament. Peerages, pensions and places were bestowed
+lavishly on those whose support could be thus secured; Hely-Hutchinson
+was won over by the concession that the Irish army
+should be established by the authority of an Irish act of parliament
+instead of an English one. The Augmentation Bill was
+carried in the session of 1769 by a large majority. Hely-Hutchinson&rsquo;s
+support had been so valuable that he received as
+reward an addition of £1000 a year to the salary of his sinecure
+of Alnagar, a major&rsquo;s commission in a cavalry regiment, and a
+promise of the secretaryship of state. He was at this time one of
+the most brilliant debaters in the Irish parliament, and he was
+enjoying an exceedingly lucrative practice at the bar. This income,
+however, together with his well-salaried sinecure, and his
+place as prime serjeant, he surrendered in 1774, to become provost
+of Trinity College, although the statute requiring the provost to
+be in holy orders had to be dispensed with in his favour.</p>
+
+<p>For this great academic position Hely-Hutchinson was in no
+way qualified, and his appointment to it for purely political
+service to the government was justly criticized with much
+asperity. His conduct in using his position as provost to secure
+the parliamentary representation of the university for his eldest
+son brought him into conflict with Duigenan, who attacked him
+in <i>Lacrymae academicae</i>, and involved him in a duel with a Mr
+Doyle; while a similar attempt on behalf of his second son in
+1790 led to his being accused before a select committee of the
+House of Commons of impropriety as returning officer. But
+although without scholarship Hely-Hutchinson was an efficient
+provost, during whose rule material benefits were conferred on
+Trinity College. He continued to occupy a prominent place in
+parliament, where he advocated free trade, the relief of the
+Catholics from penal legislation, and the reform of parliament.
+He was one of the very earliest politicians to recognize the
+soundness of Adam Smith&rsquo;s views on trade; and he quoted from
+the <i>Wealth of Nations</i>, adopting some of its principles, in his
+<i>Commercial Restraints of Ireland</i>, published in 1779, which Lecky
+pronounces &ldquo;one of the best specimens of political literature
+produced in Ireland in the latter half of the 18th century.&rdquo; In the
+same year, the economic condition of Ireland being the cause
+of great anxiety, the government solicited from several leading
+politicians their opinion on the state of the country with suggestions
+for a remedy. Hely-Hutchinson&rsquo;s response was a remarkably
+able state paper (MS. in the Record Office), which also showed
+clear traces of the influence of Adam Smith. The <i>Commercial
+Restraints</i>, condemned by the authorities as seditious, went far to
+restore Hely-Hutchinson&rsquo;s popularity which had been damaged by
+his greed of office. Not less enlightened were his views on the
+Catholic question. In a speech in parliament on Catholic education
+in 1782 the provost declared that Catholic students were in
+fact to be found at Trinity College, but that he desired their
+presence there to be legalized on the largest scale. &ldquo;My opinion,&rdquo;
+he said, &ldquo;is strongly against sending Roman Catholics abroad for
+education, nor would I establish Popish colleges at home. The
+advantage of being admitted into the university of Dublin will be
+very great to Catholics; they need not be obliged to attend the
+divinity professor, they may have one of their own; and I would
+have a part of the public money applied to their use, to the
+support of a number of poor lads as sizars, and to provide
+premiums for persons of merit, for I would have them go into
+examinations and make no distinction between them and the
+Protestants but such as merit might claim.&rdquo; And after sketching
+a scheme for increasing the number of diocesan schools where
+Roman Catholics might receive free education, he went on to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page256" id="page256"></a>256</span>
+urge that &ldquo;it is certainly a matter of importance that the education
+of their priests should be as perfect as possible, and that if they
+have any prejudices they should be prejudices in favour of their
+own country. The Roman Catholics should receive the best education
+in the established university at the public expense; but by
+no means should Popish colleges be allowed, for by them we
+should again have the press groaning with themes of controversy,
+and subjects of religious disputation that have long slept in
+oblivion would again awake, and awaken with them all the worst
+passions of the human mind.&rdquo;<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p>
+
+<p>In 1777 Hely-Hutchinson became secretary of state. When
+Grattan in 1782 moved an address to the king containing a
+declaration of Irish legislative independence, Hely-Hutchinson
+supported the attorney-general&rsquo;s motion postponing the question;
+but on the 16th of April, after the Easter recess, he read a
+message from the lord lieutenant, the duke of Portland, giving
+the king&rsquo;s permission for the House to take the matter into consideration,
+and he expressed his personal sympathy with the
+popular cause which Grattan on the same day brought to a
+triumphant issue (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Grattan, Henry</a></span>). Hely-Hutchinson
+supported the opposition on the regency question in 1788, and
+one of his last votes in the House was in favour of parliamentary
+reform. In 1790 he exchanged the constituency of Cork for that
+of Taghmon in County Wexford, for which borough he remained
+member till his death at Buxton on the 4th of September
+1794.</p>
+
+<p>In 1785 his wife had been created Baroness Donoughmore
+and on her death in 1788, his eldest son Richard (1756-1825)
+succeeded to the title. Lord Donoughmore was an ardent
+advocate of Catholic emancipation. In 1797 he was created
+Viscount Donoughmore,<a name="fa2c" id="fa2c" href="#ft2c"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and in 1800 (having voted for the
+Union, hoping to secure Catholic emancipation from the united
+parliament) he was further created earl of Donoughmore of
+Knocklofty, being succeeded first by his brother John Hely-Hutchinson
+(1757-1832) and then by his nephew John, 3rd
+earl (1787-1851), from whom the title descended.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See W. E. H. Lecky, <i>Hist. of Ireland in the Eighteenth Century</i>
+(5 vols., London, 1892); J. A. Froude, <i>The English in Ireland in the
+Eighteenth Century</i> (3 vols., London, 1872-1874); H. Grattan,
+<i>Memoirs of the Life and Times of Henry Grattan</i> (8 vols., London,
+1839-1846); <i>Baratariana</i>, by various writers (Dublin, 1773).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. J. M.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Irish Parl. Debates</i>, i. 309, 310.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2c" id="ft2c" href="#fa2c"><span class="fn">2</span></a> It is generally supposed that the title conferred by this patent
+was that of Viscount Suirdale, and such is the courtesy title by which
+the heir apparent of the earls of Donoughmore is usually styled.
+This, however, appears to be an error. In all the three creations
+(barony 1783, viscountcy 1797, earldom 1800) the title is
+&ldquo;Donoughmore of Knocklofty.&rdquo; In 1821 the 1st earl was further
+created Viscount Hutchinson of Knocklofty in the peerage of the
+United Kingdom. The courtesy title of the earl&rsquo;s eldest son should,
+therefore, apparently be either &ldquo;Viscount Hutchinson&rdquo; or &ldquo;Viscount
+Knocklofty.&rdquo; See G. E. C. <i>Complete Peerage</i> (London, 1890).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HELYOT, PIERRE<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> (1660-1716), Franciscan friar and historian,
+was born at Paris in January 1660, of supposed English
+ancestry. After spending his youth in study, he entered in his
+twenty-fourth year the convent of the third order of St Francis,
+founded at Picpus, near Paris, by his uncle Jérôme Helyot,
+canon of St Sepulchre. There he took the name of Père Hippolyte.
+Two journeys to Rome on monastic business afforded
+him the opportunity of travelling over most of Italy; and after
+his final return he saw much of France, while acting as secretary
+to various provincials of his order there. Both in Italy and
+France he was engaged in collecting materials for his great work,
+which occupied him about twenty-five years, <i>L&rsquo;Histoire des
+ordres monastiques, religieux, et militaires, et des congrégations
+séculières, de l&rsquo;un et de l&rsquo;autre sexe, qui ont été établies jusqu&rsquo;à
+présent</i>, published in 8 volumes in 1714-1721. Helyot died on
+the 5th of January 1716, before the fifth volume appeared, but
+his friend Maximilien Bullot completed the edition. Helyot&rsquo;s
+only other noteworthy work is <i>Le Chrétien mourant</i> (1695).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The <i>Histoire</i> is a work of first importance, being the great repertory
+of information for the general history of the religious orders up to the
+end of the 17th century. It is profusely illustrated by large plates
+exhibiting the dress of the various orders, and in the edition of 1792
+the plates are coloured. It was translated into Italian (1737) and
+into German (1753). The material has been arranged in dictionary
+form in Migne&rsquo;s <i>Encyclopédie théologique</i>, under the title &ldquo;Dictionnaire
+des orders religieux&rdquo; (4 vols., 1858).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEMANS, FELICIA DOROTHEA<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> (1793-1835), English poet,
+was born in Duke Street, Liverpool, on the 25th of September
+1793. Her father, George Browne, of Irish extraction, was a
+merchant in Liverpool, and her mother, whose maiden name
+was Wagner, was the daughter of the Austrian and Tuscan
+consul at Liverpool. Felicia, the fifth of seven children, was
+scarcely seven years old when her father failed in business, and
+retired with his family to Gwrych, near Abergele, Denbighshire;
+and there the young poet and her brothers and sisters grew
+up in a romantic old house by the sea-shore, and in the very
+midst of the mountains and myths of Wales. Felicia&rsquo;s education
+was desultory. Books of chronicle and romance, and every
+kind of poetry, she read with avidity; and she also studied
+Italian, Spanish, Portuguese and German. She played both
+harp and piano, and cared especially for the simple national
+melodies of Wales and Spain. In 1808, when she was only
+fourteen, a quarto volume of her <i>Juvenile Poems</i>, was published
+by subscription, and was harshly criticized in the <i>Monthly Review</i>.
+Two of her brothers were fighting in Spain under Sir John Moore;
+and Felicia, fired with military enthusiasm, wrote <i>England and
+Spain, or Valour and Patriotism</i>, a poem afterwards translated
+into Spanish. Her second volume, <i>The Domestic Affections and
+other Poems</i>, appeared in 1812, on the eve of her marriage to
+Captain Alfred Hemans. She lived for some time at Daventry,
+where her husband was adjutant of the Northamptonshire
+militia. About this time her father went to Quebec on business
+and died there; and, after the birth of her first son, she and
+her husband went to live with her mother at Bronwylfa, a house
+near St Asaph. Here during the next six years four more
+children&mdash;all boys&mdash;were born; but in spite of domestic cares
+arid failing health she still read and wrote indefatigably. Her
+poem entitled <i>The Restoration of Works of Art to Italy</i> was
+published in 1816, her <i>Modern Greece</i> in 1817, and in 1818
+<i>Translations from Camoens and other Poets</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In 1818 Captain Hemans went to Rome, leaving his wife,
+shortly before the birth of their fifth child, with her mother at
+Bronwylfa. There seems to have been a tacit agreement,
+perhaps on account of their limited means, that they should
+separate. Letters were interchanged, and Captain Hemans was
+often consulted about his children; but the husband and wife
+never met again. Many friends&mdash;among them the bishop of
+St Asaph and Bishop Heber&mdash;gathered round Mrs Hemans and
+her children. In 1819 she published <i>Tales and Historic Scenes in
+Verse</i>, and gained a prize of £50 offered for the best poem on
+<i>The Meeting of Wallace and Bruce on the Banks of the Carron</i>.
+In 1820 appeared <i>The Sceptic and Stanzas to the Memory of the
+late King</i>. In June 1821 she won the prize awarded by the Royal
+Society of Literature for the best poem on the subject of <i>Dartmoor</i>,
+and began her play, <i>The Vespers of Palermo</i>. She now
+applied herself to a course of German reading. Körner was her
+favourite German poet, and her lines on the grave of Körner
+were one of the first English tributes to the genius of the young
+soldier-poet. In the summer of 1823 a volume of her poems
+was published by Murray, containing &ldquo;The Siege of Valencia,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;The Last Constantine&rdquo; and &ldquo;Belshazzar&rsquo;s Feast.&rdquo; <i>The
+Vespers of Palermo</i> was acted at Covent Garden, December
+12, 1823, and Mrs Hemans received £200 for the copyright;
+but, though the leading parts were taken by Young and
+Charles Kemble, the play was a failure, and was withdrawn
+after the first performance. It was acted again in Edinburgh
+in the following April with greater success, when an epilogue,
+written for it by Sir Walter Scott at Joanna Baillie&rsquo;s request,
+was spoken by Harriet Siddons. This was the beginning of a
+cordial friendship between Mrs Hemans and Scott. In the same
+year she wrote <i>De Chatillon, or the Crusaders</i>; but the manuscript
+was lost, and the poem was published after her death,
+from a rough copy. In 1824 she began &ldquo;The Forest Sanctuary,&rdquo;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page257" id="page257"></a>257</span>
+which appeared a year later with the &ldquo;Lays of Many Lands&rdquo;
+and miscellaneous pieces collected from the <i>New Monthly
+Magazine</i> and other periodicals.</p>
+
+<p>In the spring of 1825 Mrs Hemans removed from Bronwylfa,
+which had been purchased by her brother, to Rhyllon, a house
+on an opposite height across the river Clwyd. The contrast
+between the two houses suggested her <i>Dramatic Scene between
+Bronwylfa and Rhyllon</i>. The house itself was bare and unpicturesque,
+but the beauty of its surroundings has been celebrated
+in &ldquo;The Hour of Romance,&rdquo; &ldquo;To the River Clwyd in
+North Wales,&rdquo; &ldquo;Our Lady&rsquo;s Well&rdquo; and &ldquo;To a Distant Scene.&rdquo;
+This time seems to have been the most tranquil in Mrs Hemans&rsquo;s
+life. But the death of her mother in January 1827 was a second
+great breaking-point in her life. Her heart was affected, and
+she was from this time an acknowledged invalid. In the summer
+of 1828 the <i>Records of Woman</i> was published by Blackwood,
+and in the same year the home in Wales was finally broken up
+by the marriage of Mrs Hemans&rsquo;s sister and the departure of
+her two elder boys to their father in Rome. Mrs Hemans
+removed to Wavertree, near Liverpool. But, although she had
+a few intimate friends there&mdash;among them her two subsequent
+biographers, Henry F. Chorley and Mrs Lawrence of Wavertree
+Hall&mdash;she was disappointed in her new home. She thought the
+people of Liverpool stupid and provincial; and they, on the
+other hand, found her uncommunicative and eccentric. In the
+following summer she travelled by sea to Scotland with two of
+her boys, to visit the Hamiltons of Chiefswood.</p>
+
+<p>Here she enjoyed &ldquo;constant, almost daily, intercourse&rdquo;
+with Sir Walter Scott, with whom she and her boys afterwards
+stayed some time at Abbotsford. &ldquo;There are some whom we
+meet, and should like ever after to claim as kith and kin; and
+you are one of those,&rdquo; was Scott&rsquo;s compliment to her at parting.
+One of the results of her Edinburgh visit was an article, full of
+praise, judiciously tempered with criticism, by Jeffrey himself
+for the <i>Edinburgh Review</i>. Mrs Hemans returned to Wavertree
+to write her <i>Songs of the Affections</i>, which were published early
+in 1830. In the following June, however, she again left home,
+this time to visit Wordsworth and the Lake country; and in
+August she paid a second visit to Scotland. In 1831 she removed
+to Dublin. Her poetry of this date is chiefly religious. Early
+in 1834 her <i>Hymns for Childhood</i>, which had appeared some
+years before in America, were published in Dublin. At the same
+time appeared her collection of <i>National Lyrics</i>, and shortly
+afterwards <i>Scenes and Hymns of Life</i>. She was planning also a
+series of German studies, one of which, on Goethe&rsquo;s <i>Tasso</i>,
+was completed and published in the <i>New Monthly Magazine</i>
+for January 1834. In intervals of acute suffering she wrote the
+lyric <i>Despondency and Aspiration</i>, and dictated a series of sonnets
+called <i>Thoughts during Sickness</i>, the last of which, &ldquo;Recovery,&rdquo;
+was written when she fancied she was getting well. After three
+months spent at Redesdale, Archbishop Whately&rsquo;s country seat,
+she was again brought into Dublin, where she lingered till spring.
+Her last poem, the <i>Sabbath Sonnet</i>, was dedicated to her brother
+on Sunday April 26th, and she died in Dublin on the 16th of
+May 1835 at the age of forty-one.</p>
+
+<p>Mrs Hemans&rsquo;s poetry is the production of a fine imaginative
+and enthusiastic temperament, but not of a commanding
+intellect or very complex or subtle nature. It is the outcome
+of a beautiful but singularly circumscribed life, a life spent
+in romantic seclusion, without much worldly experience, and
+warped and saddened by domestic unhappiness and physical
+suffering. An undue preponderance of the emotional is its
+prevailing characteristic. Scott complained that it was &ldquo;too
+poetical,&rdquo; that it contained &ldquo;too many flowers&rdquo; and &ldquo;too
+little fruit.&rdquo; Many of her short poems, such as &ldquo;The Treasures
+of the Deep,&rdquo; &ldquo;The Better Land,&rdquo; &ldquo;The Homes of England,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;Casabianca,&rdquo; &ldquo;The Palm Tree,&rdquo; &ldquo;The Graves of a Household,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;The Wreck,&rdquo; &ldquo;The Dying Improvisatore,&rdquo; and &ldquo;The Lost
+Pleiad,&rdquo; have become standard English lyrics. It is on the
+strength of these that her reputation must rest.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Mrs Hemans&rsquo;s <i>Poetical Works</i> were collected in 1832; her <i>Memorials</i>
+&amp;c., by H. F. Chorley (1836).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEMEL HEMPSTEAD,<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> a market-town and municipal borough
+in the Watford parliamentary division of Hertfordshire, England,
+25 m. N.W. from London, with a station on a branch of the
+Midland railway from Harpenden, and near Boxmoor station
+on the London and North Western main line. Pop. (1891)
+9678; (1901) 11,264. It is pleasantly situated in the steep-sided
+valley of the river Gade, immediately above its junction
+with the Bulbourne, near the Grand Junction canal. The church
+of St Mary is a very fine Norman building with Decorated
+additions. Industries include the manufacture of paper, iron
+founding, brewing and tanning. Boxmoor, within the parish, is
+a considerable township of modern growth. Hemel Hempstead
+is governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area,
+7184 acres.</p>
+
+<p>Settlements in the neighbourhood of Hemel Hempstead
+(<i>Hamalamstede</i>, <i>Hemel Hampsted</i>) date from pre-Roman times,
+and a Roman villa has been discovered at Boxmoor. The manor,
+royal demesne in 1086, was granted by Edmund Plantagenet
+in 1285 to the house of Ashridge, and the town developed under
+monastic protection. In 1539 a charter incorporated the bailiff
+and inhabitants. A mayor, aldermen and councillors received
+governing power by a charter of 1898. The town has never had
+parliamentary representation. A market on Thursday and a
+fair on the feast of Corpus Christi were conferred in 1539. A
+statute fair, for long a hiring fair, originated in 1803.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEMEROBAPTISTS,<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> an ancient Jewish sect, so named from
+their observing a practice of daily ablution as an essential part
+of religion. Epiphanius (<i>Panarion</i>, i. 17), who mentions their
+doctrine as the fourth heresy among the Jews, classes the
+Hemerobaptists doctrinally with the Pharisees (<i>q.v.</i>) from whom
+they differed only in, like the Sadducees, denying the resurrection
+of the dead. The name has been sometimes given to the Mandaeans
+on account of their frequent ablutions; and in the <i>Clementine
+Homilies</i> (ii. 23) St John the Baptist is spoken of as a Hemerobaptist.
+Mention of the sect is made by Hegesippus (see Euseb.
+<i>Hist. Eccl.</i> iv. 22) and by Justin Martyr in the <i>Dialogue with
+Trypho</i>, § 80. They were probably a division of the Essenes.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEMICHORDA,<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Hemichordata</span>, a zoological term introduced
+by W. Bateson in 1884, without special definition, as
+equivalent to Enteropneusta, which then included the single
+genus <i>Balanoglossus</i>, and now generally employed to cover a
+group of marine worm-like animals believed by many zoologists
+to be related to the lower vertebrates and so to represent the
+invertebrate stock from which Vertebrates have been derived.
+Vertebrates, or as they are sometimes termed Chordates, are
+distinguished from other animals by several important features.
+The chief of these is the presence of an elastic rod, the notochord,
+which forms the longitudinal axis of the body, and which persists
+throughout life in some of the lowest forms, but which appears
+only in the embryo of the higher forms, being replaced by the
+jointed backbone or vertebral column. A second feature is the
+development of outgrowths of the pharynx which unite with the
+skin of the neck and form a series of perforations leading to the
+exterior. These structures are the gill-slits, which in fishes are
+lined with vascular tufts, but which in terrestrial breathing
+animals appear only in the embryo. The third feature of
+importance is the position of structure of the central nervous
+system, which in all the Chordates lies dorsally to the alimentary
+canal and is formed by the sinking in of a longitudinal media
+dorsal groove. Of these structures the Vertebrata or Craniata
+possess all three in a typical form; the Cephalochordata (see
+Amphioxus) also possess them, but the notochord extends
+throughout the whole length of the body to the extreme tip of
+the snout; the Urochordata (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tunicata</a></span>) possess them in a
+larval condition, but the notochord is present only in the tail,
+whilst in the adult the notochord disappears and the nervous
+system becomes profoundly modified; in the Hemichorda, the
+respiratory organs very closely resemble gill-slits, and structures
+comparable with the notochord and the tubular dorsal nervous
+system are present.</p>
+
+<p>The Hemichorda include three orders, the Phoronidea (<i>q.v.</i>),
+the Pterobranchia (<i>q.v.</i>) and the Enteropneusta (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Balanoglossus</a></span>),
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page258" id="page258"></a>258</span>
+but the relationship to the Chordata expressed in the
+designation Hemichordata cannot be regarded as more than an
+attractive theory with certain arguments in its favour.</p>
+<div class="author">(P. C. M.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEMICYCLE<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="hêmi">&#7969;&#956;&#953;</span>-, half, and <span class="grk" title="kyklos">&#954;&#973;&#954;&#955;&#959;&#962;</span>, circle), a semicircular
+recess of considerable size which formed one of the most
+conspicuous features in the Roman Thermae, where it was
+always covered with a hemispherical vault. A small example
+exists in Pompeii, in the street of tombs, with a seat round inside,
+where those who came to pay their respects to the departed
+could rest. An immense hemicycle was designed by Bramante
+for the Vatican, where it constitutes a fine architectural effect
+at the end of the great court.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEMIMERUS,<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> an Orthopterous or Dermapterous insect, the
+sole representative of the family <i>Hemimeridae</i>, which has affinities
+with both the <i>Forficulidae</i> (earwigs) and the <i>Blattidae</i> (cockroaches).
+Only two species have been discovered, both from
+West Africa. The better known of these (<i>H. hanseni</i>) lives upon
+a large rat-like rodent (<i>Cricetomys gambianus</i>) feeding perhaps
+upon its external parasites, perhaps upon scurf and other dermal
+products. Like many epizoic or parasitic insects, <i>Hemimerus</i>
+is wingless, eyeless and has relatively short and strong legs.
+Correlated also with its mode of life is the curious fact that it is
+viviparous, the young being born in an advanced stage of growth.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 180px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:134px; height:253px" src="images/img258a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"></td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="bold">HEMIMORPHITE,<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> a mineral consisting of hydrous zinc
+silicate, H<span class="su">2</span>Zn<span class="su">2</span>SiO<span class="su">5</span>, of importance as an ore of the metal, of
+which it contains 54.4%. It is interesting crystallographically
+by reason of the hemimorphic development of its orthorhombic
+crystals; these are prismatic in habit and are
+differently terminated at the two ends. In
+the figure, the faces at the upper end of the
+crystal are the basal plane <i>k</i> and the domes
+<i>o</i>, <i>p</i>, <i>l</i>, <i>m</i>, whilst at the lower end there are
+only the four faces of the pyramid P. Connected
+with this polarity of the crystals is
+their pyroelectric character&mdash;when a crystal
+is subjected to changes of temperature it
+becomes positively electrified at one end and
+negatively at the opposite end. There are perfect
+cleavages parallel to the prism faces (<i>d</i> in the
+figure). Crystals are usually colourless, sometimes
+yellowish or greenish, and transparent;
+they have vitreous lustre. The hardness is 5, and the specific
+gravity 3.45. The mineral also occurs as stalactitic or botryoidal
+masses with a fibrous structure, or in a massive, cellular or
+granular condition intermixed with calamine and clay. It is
+decomposed by hydrochloric acid with gelatinization; this
+property affords a ready means of distinguishing hemimorphite
+from calamine (zinc carbonate), these two minerals being, when
+not crystallized, very like each other in appearance. The water
+contained in hemimorphite is expelled only at a red heat, and
+the mineral must therefore be considered as a basic metasilicate,
+(ZnOH)<span class="su">2</span>SiO<span class="su">3</span>.</p>
+
+<p>The name hemimorphite was given by G. A. Kenngott in 1853
+because of the typical hemimorphic development of the crystals.
+The mineral had long been confused with <i>calamine</i> (<i>q.v.</i>) and
+even now this name is often applied to it. On account of its
+pyroelectric properties, it was called <i>electric calamine</i> by J.
+Smithson in 1803.</p>
+
+<p>Hemimorphite occurs with other ores of zinc (calamine and
+blende), forming veins and beds in <span class="correction" title="amended from sedimentry">sedimentary</span> limestones.
+British localities are Matlock, Alston, Mendip Hills and Leadhills;
+at Roughten Gill, Caldbeck Fells, Cumberland, it occurs as
+mammillated incrustations of a sky-blue colour. Well-crystallized
+specimens have been found in the zinc mines at Altenberg near
+Aachen in Rhenish Prussia, Nerchinsk mining district in Siberia,
+and Elkhorn in Montana.</p>
+<div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEMINGBURGH, WALTER OF,<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> also commonly, but erroneously,
+called <span class="sc">Walter Hemingford</span>, a Latin chronicler of the
+14th century, was a canon regular of the Austin priory of Gisburn
+in Yorkshire. Hence he is sometimes known as Walter of Gisburn
+(Walterus Gisburnensis). Bale seems to have been the first to
+give him the name by which he became more commonly known.
+His chronicle embraces the period of English history from the
+Conquest (1066) to the nineteenth year of Edward III., with
+the exception of the years 1316-1326. It ends with the title of a
+chapter in which it was proposed to describe the battle of Creçy
+(1346); but the chronicler seems to have died before the required
+information reached him. There is, however, some controversy
+as to whether the later portions which are lacking in some of the
+MSS. are by him. In compiling the first part, Hemingburgh
+apparently used the histories of Eadmer, Hoveden, Henry of
+Huntingdon, and William of Newburgh; but the reigns of the
+three Edwards are original, composed from personal observation
+and information. There are several manuscripts of the history
+extant&mdash;the best perhaps being that presented to the College of
+Arms by the earl of Arundel. The work is correct and judicious,
+and written in a pleasing style. One of its special features is the
+preservation in its pages of copies of the great charters, and
+Hemingburgh&rsquo;s versions have more than once supplied deficiencies
+and cleared up obscurities in copies from other sources.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The first three books were published by Thomas Gale in 1687, in
+his <i>Historiae Anglicanae scriptores quinque</i>, and the remainder by
+Thomas Hearne in 1731. The first portion was again published in
+1848 by the English Historical Society, under the title <i>Chronicon
+Walteri de Hemingburgh, vulgo Hemingford nuncupati, de gestis
+regum Angliae</i>, edited by H. C. Hamilton.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEMIPTERA<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="hêmi">&#7969;&#956;&#953;</span>-, half and <span class="grk" title="pteron">&#960;&#964;&#949;&#961;&#972;&#957;</span>, a wing), the name
+applied in zoological classification to that order of the class
+Hexapoda (<i>q.v.</i>) which includes bugs, cicads, aphids and scale-insects.
+The name was first used by Linnaeus (1735), who
+derived it from the half-coriaceous and half-membranous condition
+of the forewing in many members of the order. But the
+wings vary considerably in different families, and the most distinctive
+feature is the structure of the jaws, which form a beak-like
+organ with stylets adapted for piercing and sucking. Hence
+the name <i>Rhyngota</i> (or <i>Rhynchota</i>), proposed by J. C. Fabricius
+(1775), is used by many writers in preference to Hemiptera.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 320px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:283px; height:311px" src="images/img258b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">After Marlatt, <i>Bull.</i> 14 (N.S.) <i>Div. Ent. U.S.
+Dept. Agr.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Head and Prothorax of Cicad
+from side.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><p>I., Frons.</p>
+<p>II., Base of mandible.</p>
+<p>III., Base of first maxillae.</p>
+<p>IV., Second maxillae forming rostrum.</p>
+<p>V., Pronotum.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Structure.</i>&mdash;The head varies greatly in shape, and the feelers
+have usually but few segments&mdash;often only four or five. The
+arrangement of the jaws is remarkably constant throughout
+the order, if we exclude from it the lice (<i>Anoplura</i>). Taking as
+our type the head of a cicad, we find a jointed rostrum or beak
+(figs. 1 and 2, IV. <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>) with a deep groove on its anterior face;
+this organ is formed by
+the second pair of maxillae
+and corresponds therefore
+to the labium or &ldquo;lower
+lip&rdquo; of biting insects.
+Within the groove of the
+rostrum two pairs of
+slender piercers&mdash;often
+barbed at the tip&mdash;work
+to and fro. One of these
+pairs (fig. 2, II. <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>)
+represents the mandibles,
+the other (fig. 2, III. <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>,
+<i>c</i>) the first maxillae. The
+piercing portions of the
+latter&mdash;representing their
+inner lobes or laciniae&mdash;lie
+median to the mandibular
+piercers in the
+natural position of the
+organs. These homologies
+of the hemipterous jaws
+were determined by J. C.
+Savigny in 1816, and though disputed by various subsequent
+writers, they have been lately confirmed by the embryological
+researches of R. Heymons (1899). Vestigial palps have been
+described in various species of Hemiptera, but the true nature
+of these structures is doubtful. In front of the rostrum and the
+piercers lies the pointed flexible labrum and within its base a
+small hypopharynx (fig. 2, IV. <i>d</i>) consisting of paired conical
+processes which lie dorsal to the &ldquo;syringe&rdquo; of the salivary
+glands. This latter organ injects a secretion into the plant or
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page259" id="page259"></a>259</span>
+animal tissue from which the insect is sucking. The point of the
+rostrum is pressed against the surface to be pierced; then the
+stylets come into play and the fluid food is believed to pass into
+the mouth by capillary attraction.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:372px; height:332px" src="images/img259a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">After Marlatt, <i>Bull. 14</i> (N.S.) <i>Div. Ent. U.S. Dept. Agr.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Head and Prothorax of Cicad, parts separated.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><p>I., <i>a</i>, frons; <i>b</i>, clypeus; <i>c</i>, labrum; <i>d</i>, epipharynx.</p>
+<p>I&rsquo;., Same from behind.</p>
+<p>II., Mandible.</p>
+<p>III., 1st maxillae, <i>a</i>, base; <i>b</i>, sheath; <i>c</i>, stylet; <i>c</i>&prime;, muscle.</p>
+<p>IV., 2nd maxillae, <i>a</i>, sub-mentum; <i>b</i>, mentum; <i>c</i>, ligula, forming beak; <i>d</i>, hypopharynx (shown also from front <i>d</i>&prime;, and behind <i>d</i>&Prime;).</p>
+<p>V., Prothorax, <i>b</i>, haunch; <i>a</i>, trochanter.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">The prothorax (figs. 1 and 2, V.) in Hemiptera is large and
+free, and the mesothoracic scutellum is usually extensive. The
+number of tarsal segments is reduced; often three, two or only
+one may be present instead of the typical insectan number
+five. The wings will be described in connexion with the various
+sub-orders, but an interesting peculiarity of the Hemiptera
+is the occasional presence of winged and wingless races of the
+same species. Eleven abdominal segments can be recognized,
+at least in the early stages; as the adult condition is reached,
+the hinder segments become reduced or modified in connexion
+with the external reproductive organs, and show, in some male
+Hemiptera, a marked asymmetry. The typical insectan ovipositor
+with its three pairs of processes, one pair belonging to the
+eighth and two pairs to the ninth abdominal segment, can be
+distinguished in the female.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:469px; height:265px" src="images/img259b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">After Marlatt, <i>Bull. 4</i> (N.S.) <i>Div. Ent. U.S. Dept. Agr.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;<i>a</i>, Cast-off nymphal skin of Bed-bug (<i>Cimex lectularius</i>);
+<i>b</i>, Second instar after emergence from <i>a</i>; <i>c</i>, The same after a meal.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In the nervous system the concentration of the trunk ganglia
+into a single nerve-centre situated in the thorax is remarkable.
+The digestive system has a slender gullet, a large crop and no
+gizzard; in some Hemiptera the hinder region of the mid-gut
+forms a twisted loop with the gullet. Usually there are four
+excretory (Malpighian) tubes; but there are only two in the
+<i>Coccidae</i> and none in the <i>Aphidae</i>. &ldquo;Stink glands,&rdquo; which
+secrete a nauseous fluid with a defensive function, are present
+in many Hemiptera. In the adult there is a pair of such glands
+opening ventrally on the hindmost thoracic segment, or at the
+base of the abdomen; but in the young insect the glands are
+situated dorsally and open to the exterior on a variable number of
+the abdominal terga.</p>
+
+<p><i>Development.</i>&mdash;In most Hemiptera the young insect (fig. 3)
+resembles its parents except for the absence of wings, and is
+active through all stages of its growth. In all Hemiptera the
+wing-rudiments develop externally on the nymphal cuticle,
+but in some families&mdash;the cicads for example&mdash;the young insect
+(fig. 10) is a larva differing markedly in form from its parent,
+and adapted for a different mode of life, while the nymph before
+the final moult is sluggish and inactive. In the male <i>Coccidae</i>
+(Scale-insects) the nymph (fig. 4) remains passive and takes no
+food. The order of the Hemiptera affords, therefore, some
+interesting transition stages towards the complete metamorphosis
+of the higher insects.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:136px; height:311px" src="images/img259c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">After Riley and Howard, <i>Insect Life</i>, vol. i. (U.S. Dept. Agr.).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>&mdash;Passive
+Nymph or &ldquo;Pupa&rdquo;
+of male scale-insect
+(<i>Icerya</i>).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Distribution and Habits.</i>&mdash;Hemiptera are widely distributed,
+and are plentiful in most quarters of the globe, though they
+probably have not penetrated as far into remote and inhospitable
+regions as have the Coleoptera, Diptera
+and Aptera. They feed entirely by
+suction, and the majority of the species
+pierce plant tissues and suck sap. The
+leaves of plants are for the most part the
+objects of attack, but many aphids and
+scale-insects pierce stems, and some go
+underground and feed on roots. The
+enormous rate at which aphids multiply
+under favourable conditions makes them
+of the greatest economic importance,
+since the growth of immense numbers of
+the same kind of plant in close proximity&mdash;as
+in ordinary farm-crops&mdash;is especially
+advantageous to the insects that feed on
+them. Several families of bugs are predaceous
+in habit, attacking other insects&mdash;often
+members of their own order&mdash;and
+sucking their juices. Others are
+scavengers feeding on decaying organic
+matter; the pond skaters, for example,
+live mostly on the juices of dead floating
+insects. And some, like the bed-bugs,
+are parasites of vertebrate animals, on
+whose bodies they live temporarily or permanently, and whose
+blood they suck.</p>
+
+<p>The Hemiptera are especially interesting as an order from
+the variety of aquatic insects included therein. Some of these&mdash;the
+<i>Hydrometridae</i> or pond-skaters, for example&mdash;move over
+the surface-film, on which they are supported by their elongated,
+slender legs, the body of the insect being raised clear of the water.
+They are covered with short hairs which form a velvet-like pile,
+so dense that water cannot penetrate. Consequently when the
+insect dives, an air-bubble forms around it, a supply of oxygen is
+thus secured for breathing and the water is kept away from the
+spiracles. In many of these insects, while most individuals
+of the species are wingless, winged specimens are now and then
+met with. The occasional development of wings is probably
+of service to the species in enabling the insects to reach new
+fresh-water breeding-grounds. This family of Hemiptera (the
+<i>Hydrometridae</i>) and the <i>Saldidae</i> contain several insects that
+are marine, haunting the tidal margin. One genus of <i>Hydrometridae</i>
+(<i>Halobates</i>) is even oceanic in its habit, the species being
+met with skimming over the surface of the sea hundreds of miles
+from land. Probably they dive when the surface becomes
+ruffled. In these marine genera the abdomen often undergoes
+excessive reduction (fig. 5).</p>
+
+<p>Other families of Hemiptera&mdash;such as the &ldquo;Boatmen&rdquo;
+(<i>Notonectidae</i>) and the &ldquo;Water-scorpions&rdquo; (fig. 6) and their
+allies (<i>Nepidae</i>) dive and swim through the water. They obtain
+their supply of air from the surface. The <i>Nepidae</i> breathe by
+means of a pair of long, grooved tail processes (really outgrowths
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page260" id="page260"></a>260</span>
+of the abdominal pleura) which when pressed together form
+a tube whose point can pierce the surface film and convey
+air to the hindmost spiracles which are alone functional in the
+adult. The <i>Notonectidae</i> breathe mostly through the thoracic
+spiracles; the air is conveyed to these from the tail-end, which
+is brought to the surface, along a kind of tunnel formed by
+overlapping hairs.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:513px; height:298px" src="images/img260a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80" style="width: 50%;">After Carpenter, <i>Proc. R. Dublin Soc.</i>,
+vol. viii.</td>
+<td class="tcl" rowspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>&mdash;Water-scorpion
+(<i>Nepa cinerea</i>) with raptorial
+fore-legs, heteropterous wings,
+and long siphon for conveying
+air to spiracles. Somewhat
+magnified. <i>sc</i>, scutellum; <i>co</i>,
+<i>cl</i>, <i>m</i>, corium, clavus and
+membrane of forewing.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>&mdash;A reef-haunting
+hemipteron (<i>Hermatobates
+haddonii</i>) with excessively reduced
+abdomen. Magnified.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:419px; height:362px" src="images/img260b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="2">From Marlatt, <i>Bull.</i> 14 (N.S.) <i>Div. Ent. U.S. Dept. Agr.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>a</i>, Body of male Cicad from
+ below, showing cover-plates of musical organs;</p>
+<p><i>b</i>, From above showing drums, natural size;</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>c</i>, Section showing muscles which vibrate drum (magnified);</p>
+<p><i>d</i>, A drum at rest;</p>
+<p><i>e</i>, Thrown into vibration, more highly magnified.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2"><i>Sound-producing Organs.</i>&mdash;The Hemiptera are remarkable
+for the variety of their stridulating organs. In many genera of
+the <i>Pentatomidae</i>, bristle-bearing tubercles on the legs are
+scraped across a set of fine striations on the abdominal sterna.
+In <i>Halobates</i> a comb-like series of sharp spines on the fore-shin
+can be drawn across a set of blunt processes on the shin of the
+opposite leg. Males of the little water-bugs of the genus <i>Corixa</i>
+make a shrill chirping note by drawing a row of teeth on the
+flattened fore-foot across a group of spines on the haunch of
+the opposite leg. But the loudest and most remarkable vocal
+organs of all insects are those of the male cicads, which &ldquo;sing&rdquo;
+by the rapid vibration of a pair of &ldquo;drums&rdquo; or membranes
+within the metathorax. These drums are worked by special
+muscles, and the cavities in which they lie are protected by
+conspicuous plates visible beneath the base of the abdomen
+(see fig. 7).</p>
+
+<p><i>Fossil History.</i>&mdash;The Heteroptera can be traced back farther
+than any other winged insects if the fossil <i>Protocimex silurica</i>
+Moberg, from the Ordovician slates of Sweden is rightly regarded
+as the wing of a bug. But according to the recent researches
+of A. Handlirsch it is not insectan at all. Both Heteropterous
+and Homopterous genera have been described from the Carboniferous,
+but the true nature of some of these is doubtful. <i>Eugereon</i>
+is a remarkable Permian fossil, with jaws that are typically
+hemipterous except that the second maxillae are not fused and
+with cockroach-like wings. In the Jurassic period many of the
+existing families, such as the <i>Cicadidae</i>, <i>Fulgoridae</i>, <i>Aphidae</i>,
+<i>Nepidae</i>, <i>Reduviidae</i>, <i>Hydrometridae</i>, <i>Lygaeidae</i> and <i>Coreidae</i>,
+had already become differentiated.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Classification.</i>&mdash;The number of described species of Hemiptera
+must now be nearly 20,000. The order is divided into two sub-orders,
+the Heteroptera and the Homoptera. The Anoplura or lice
+should not be included among the Hemiptera, but it has been thought
+convenient to refer briefly to them at the close of this article.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">Heteroptera</p>
+
+<p>In this sub-order are included the various families of bugs and their
+aquatic relations. The front of the head is not in contact with the
+haunches of the fore-legs. There is usually a marked difference between
+the wings of the two pairs. The fore-wing is generally divided into a
+firm coriaceous basal region, occupying most of the area, and a membranous
+terminal portion, while the hind-wing is delicate and entirely
+membranous (see fig. 6). In the firm portion of the fore-wing two
+distinct regions can usually be distinguished; most of the area is
+formed by the <i>corium</i> (fig. 6, <i>co</i>), which is separated by a longitudinal
+suture from the <i>clavus</i> (fig. 6, <i>cl</i>) on its hinder edge, and in some
+families there is also a <i>cuneus</i> (fig. 9 <i>cu</i>) external to and an <i>embolium</i>
+in front of the <i>corium</i>.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:491px; height:340px" src="images/img260c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="2">After Marlatt, <i>Bull.</i> 4 (N.S.) <i>Div. Ent. U.S. Dept. Agr.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>&mdash;Bed-bug (<i>Cimex lectularius</i>, Linn.).</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>a</i>, Female from above;</p>
+<p><i>b</i>, From beneath;</p></td>
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>c</i>, Vestigial wing;</p>
+<p><i>d</i>, Jaws, very highly magnified (tips of mandibles and 1st
+ maxillae still more highly magnified).</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">Most Heteroptera are flattened in form, and the wings lie flat, or
+nearly so, when closed. The young Heteropteron is hatched from
+the egg in a form not markedly different from that of its parent;
+it is active and takes food through all the stages of its growth. It is
+usual to divide the Heteroptera into two tribes&mdash;the Gymnocerata
+and the Cryptocerata.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 280px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:231px; height:322px" src="images/img261a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">After M. V. Slingerland, <i>Cornell Univ.
+Ent. Bull.</i> 58.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span>&mdash;Capsid Leaf-bug (<i>Poecilocapsus
+lineatus</i>) N. America.
+Magnified&mdash;, <i>cu</i> cuneus.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Gymnocerata.</i>&mdash;This tribe includes some eighteen families of
+terrestrial, arboreal and marsh-haunting bugs, as well as those
+aquatic Heteroptera that live on the surface-film of water. The
+feelers are elongate and conspicuous. The <i>Pentatomidae</i> (shield-bugs),
+some of which are metallic or otherwise brightly coloured,
+are easily recognized by the great development of the scutellum,
+which reaches at least half-way back towards the tip of the abdomen,
+and in some genera covers the whole of the hind body, and also the
+wings when these are closed. The <i>Coreidae</i> have a smaller scutellum,
+and the feelers are inserted high on the head, while in the <i>Lygaeidae</i>
+they are inserted lower down. These three families have the foot with
+three segments. In the curious little <i>Tingidae</i>, whose integuments
+exhibit a pattern of network-like ridges, the feet are two-segmented
+and the scutellum is hidden by the pronotum. The <i>Aradidae</i> have
+two segmented feet, and a large visible scutellum. The <i>Hydrometridae</i>
+are a large family including the pond-skaters and other
+dwellers on the surface-film of fresh water, as well as the remarkable
+oceanic genus <i>Halobates</i> already referred to. The <i>Reduviidae</i> are
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page261" id="page261"></a>261</span>
+a family of predaceous bugs that attack other insects and suck
+their juices; the beak is short, and carried under the head in a hook-like
+curve, not&mdash;as in the preceding families&mdash;lying close against the
+breast. The <i>Cimicidae</i> have the feet three-segmented and the forewings
+greatly reduced; most of the species are parasites on birds
+and bats, but one&mdash;<i>Cimex lectidarius</i> (figs. 3, 8)&mdash;is the well-known
+&ldquo;bed-bug&rdquo; which abounds in unclean dwellings and sucks human
+blood (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bug</a></span>). The <i>Anthocoridae</i> are nearly related to the <i>Cimicidae</i>,
+but the wings are usually well developed and the forewing
+possesses cuneus and embolium as well as corium and clavus. The
+<i>Capsidae</i> are a large family of rather soft-skinned bugs mostly
+elongate in form with the two
+basal segments of the feelers
+stouter than the two terminal.
+The forewing in this family has a
+cuneus (fig. 9 <i>cu</i>), but not an
+embolium. These insects are often
+found in large numbers on plants
+whose juices they suck.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cryptocerata.</i>&mdash;In this tribe are
+included five or six families of
+aquatic Heteroptera which spend
+the greater part of their lives
+submerged, diving and swimming
+through the water. The feelers
+are very small and are often
+hidden in cavities beneath the
+head. The <i>Naucoridae</i> and
+<i>Belostomatidae</i> are flattened insects,
+with four-segmented feelers
+and fore-legs inserted at the front
+of the prosternum. Two species
+of the former family inhabit our
+islands, but the <i>Belostomatidae</i>
+are found only in the warmer
+regions of the globe; some of
+them, attaining a length of 4 to
+5 in., are giants among insects. The
+<i>Nepidae</i> (fig. 6) or water-scorpions
+(<i>q.v.</i>)&mdash;two British species&mdash;are
+distinguished by their three-segmented
+feelers, their raptorial
+fore-legs (in which the shin and foot, fused together, work like a sharp
+knife-blade on the grooved thigh), and their elongate tail-processes
+formed of the abdominal pleura and used for respiration. The
+<i>Notonectidae</i>, or &ldquo;water-boatmen&rdquo; (<i>q.v.</i>) have convex ovoid bodies
+admirably adapted for aquatic life. By means of the oar-like hind-legs
+they swim actively through the water with the ventral surface
+upwards; the fore-legs are inserted at the hinder edge of the prosternum.
+The <i>Corixidae</i> are small flattened water-bugs, with very
+short unjointed beak, the labrum being enclosed within the second
+maxillae, and the foot in the fore and intermediate leg having but
+a single segment. The hinder abdominal segments in the male show
+a curious asymmetrical arrangement, the sixth segment bearing on its
+upper side a small stalked plate (<i>strigil</i>) of unknown function,
+furnished with rows of teeth. On account of the reduction and
+modification of the jaws in the <i>Corixidae</i>, C. Börner has lately
+suggested that they should form a special sub-order of Hemiptera&mdash;the
+Sandaliorrhyncha.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:390px; height:392px" src="images/img261b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Mariatt, <i>Bull.</i> 14 (N. S.), <i>Div. Ent. U.S. Dept. Agr.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span>&mdash;<i>a</i>, Nymph (4th stage) of Cicad, magnified; <i>c</i>, <i>d</i>, inner
+and outer faces of front leg, magnified&mdash;; <i>b</i>, teeth on thigh, more
+highly magnified.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">Homoptera</p>
+
+<p>This sub-order includes the cicads, lantern-flies, frog-hoppers,
+aphids and scale-insects. The face has such a marked backward
+slope (see fig. 1) as to bring the beak into close contact with the
+haunches of the fore-legs. The feelers have one or more thickened
+basal segments, while the remaining segments are slender and thread-like.
+The fore-wings are sometimes membranous like the hind-wings,
+usually they are firmer in texture, but they never show the distinct
+areas that characterize the wings of Heteroptera. When at rest
+the wings of Homoptera slope roofwise across the back of the insect.
+In their life-history the Homoptera are more specialized than the
+Heteroptera; the young insect often differs markedly from its
+parent and does not live in the same situations; while in some
+families there is a passive stage before the last moult.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:498px; height:225px" src="images/img261c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">After Weed, Riley and Howard, <i>Insect Life</i>, vol iii.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span>&mdash;Cabbage Aphid (<i>Aphisbrassicae</i>). <i>a</i>, Male; <i>c</i>, female
+(wingless). Magnified. <i>b</i> and <i>d</i>, Head and feelers of male and
+female, more highly magnified.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:477px; height:476px" src="images/img261d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">After Howard, <i>Year Book U.S. Dept. Agr.</i>, 1894.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span>&mdash;Apple Scale Insect (<i>Mytilaspis pomorum</i>). <i>a</i>, Male;
+<i>e</i>, female; <i>c</i>, larva magnified&mdash;; <i>b</i>, foot of male; <i>d</i>, feeler of larva,
+more highly magnified.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The <i>Cicadidae</i> are for the most part large insects with ample wings;
+they are distinguished from other Homoptera by the front thighs
+being thickened and toothed beneath. The broad head carries, in
+addition to the prominent compound eyes, three simple eyes (ocelli)
+on the crown, while the feeler consists of a stout basal segment,
+followed by five slender segments. The female, by means of her
+serrated ovipositor, lays her eggs in slits cut in the twigs of plants.
+The young have simple feelers and stout fore-legs (fig. 10) adapted
+for digging; they live underground and feed on the roots of plants.
+In the case of a North American species it is known that this larval
+life lasts for seventeen years. The &ldquo;song&rdquo; of the male cicads is
+notorious and the structures by which it is produced have already
+been described (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cicada</a></span>). There are about 900 known
+species, but the family is mostly confined to warm countries; only
+a single cicad is found in England, and that is restricted to the south.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:486px; height:496px" src="images/img262a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">After Howard, <i>Year Book U.S. Dept. Agr.</i>, 1894.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span>&mdash;Apple Scale Insect (<i>Mytilaspis pomorum</i>). a, Scale from
+beneath showing female and eggs; <i>b</i>, from above, magnified&mdash;;
+<i>c</i> and <i>e</i>, female and male scales on twigs, natural size; <i>d</i>, male
+scale magnified.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:121px; height:177px" src="images/img262b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">From Osborn (after Denny),
+<i>Bull.</i> 5 (N.S.), <i>Div. Ent.
+U.S. Dept. Agr.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 14.</span>&mdash;Louse
+(<i>Pediculus vestimenti</i>).
+Magnified.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The <i>Fulgoridae</i> and <i>Membracidae</i> are two allied families most of
+whose members are also natives of hot regions. The <i>Fulgoridae</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page262" id="page262"></a>262</span>
+have the head with two ocelli and three-segmented feelers; frequently
+as in the tropical &ldquo;lantern-flies&rdquo; (<i>q.v.</i>) the head is prolonged into a
+conspicuous bladder, or trunk-like process. The <i>Membracidae</i> are
+remarkable on account of the backward prolongation of the pronotum
+into a process or hood-like structure which may extend far behind the
+tail-end of the abdomen. Two other allied families, the <i>Cercopidae</i>
+and <i>Jassidae</i>, are more numerously represented in our islands.
+The young of many of these insects are green and soft-skinned,
+protecting themselves
+by the well-known
+frothy secretion that is
+called &ldquo;cuckoo-spit.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:107px; height:440px" src="images/img262c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">From Osborn (after
+Schiödte), <i>Bull.</i> 5; (N.S.),
+<i>Div. Ent. U.S. Dept.
+Agr.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 15.</span>&mdash;Proboscis
+of Pediculus.
+Highly magnified.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In all the above-mentioned
+families of
+Homoptera there are
+three segments in each
+foot. The remaining
+four families have feet
+with only two segments.
+They are of
+very great zoological
+interest on account of
+the peculiarities of
+their life-history&mdash;parthenogenesis
+being of
+normal occurrence
+among most of them. The families <i>Psyllidae</i>
+(or &ldquo;jumpers&rdquo;) with eight or ten segments in
+the feeler and the <i>Aleyrodidae</i> (or &ldquo;snowy-flies&rdquo;)
+distinguished by their white mealy
+wings, are of comparatively slight importance.
+The two families to which special attention
+has been paid are the <i>Aphidae</i> or plant-lice
+(&ldquo;green fly&rdquo;) and the <i>Coccidae</i> or scale-insects.
+The aphids (fig. 11) have feelers with seven or
+fewer distinct segments, and the fifth abdominal
+segment usually carries a pair of tubular processes
+through which a waxy secretion is discharged.
+The sweet &ldquo;honey-dew,&rdquo; often
+sought as a food by ants, is secreted from the
+intestines of aphids. The peculiar life-cycle in
+which successive generations are produced
+through the summer months by virgin females&mdash;the
+egg developing within the body of the mother&mdash;is described
+at length in the articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aphides</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Phylloxera</a></span>. The
+<i>Coccidae</i> have only a single claw to the foot; the males (fig. 12 <i>a</i>)
+have the fore-wings developed and the hind-wings greatly reduced,
+while in the female wings are totally absent and the body undergoes
+marked degradation (figs. 12, <i>e</i>, 13, <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>). In the Coccids the formation
+of a protective waxy secretion&mdash;present in many genera of
+Homoptera&mdash;reaches its most extreme development. In some coccids&mdash;the
+&ldquo;mealy-bugs&rdquo; (<i>Dactylopius</i>, &amp;c.) for example&mdash;the secretion
+forms a white thread-like or plate-like covering which the insect
+carries about. But in most members of the family, the secretion,
+united with cast cuticles and excrement, forms a firm &ldquo;scale,&rdquo;
+closely attached by its edges to the surface of the plant on which
+the insect lives, and serving as a shield beneath which the female
+coccid, with her eggs (fig. 13 <i>a</i>) and brood, finds shelter. The male
+coccid passes through a passive stage (fig. 4) before attaining the
+perfect condition. Many scale-insects are among the most serious
+of pests, but various species have been utilized by man for the
+production of wax (lac) and red dye (cochineal). See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Economic
+Entomology</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Scale-Insect</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">Anoplura</p>
+
+<p>The Anoplura or lice (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Louse</a></span>) are wingless parasitic insects
+(fig. 14) forming an order distinct from the Hemiptera, their sucking
+and piercing mouth-organs being apparently formed on quite a
+different plan from those of the Heteroptera and Homoptera. In
+front of the head is a short tube armed with strong recurved hooks
+which can be fixed into the skin of the host, and from the tube an
+elongate more slender sucking-trunk can be protruded (fig. 15).
+Each foot is provided with a single strong claw which, opposed to
+a process on the shin, serves to grasp a hair of the host, all the lice
+being parasites on different mammals. Although G. Enderlein has
+recently shown that the jaws of the Hemiptera can be recognized
+in a reduced condition in connexion with the louse&rsquo;s proboscis, the
+modification is so excessive that the group certainly deserves ordinal
+separation.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;A recent standard work on the morphology of
+the Hemiptera by R. Heymons (<i>Nova Acta Acad. Leop. Carol.</i>
+lxxiv. 3, 1899) contains numerous references to older literature.
+An excellent survey of the order is given by D. Sharp (<i>Cambridge
+Nat. Hist.</i> vol. vi., 1898). For internal structure of Heteroptera see
+R. Dufour, <i>Mem. savans étrangers</i> (Paris, iv., 1833); of Homoptera,
+E. Witlaczil (<i>Arb. Zool. Inst. Wien</i>, iv., 1882, <i>Zeits. f. wiss. Zool.</i>
+xliii., 1885). The development of Aphids has been dealt with by
+T. H. Huxley (<i>Trans. Linn. Soc.</i> xxii., 1858) and E. Witlaczil (<i>Zeits.
+f. wiss. Zool.</i> xl., 1884). Fossil Hemiptera are described by S. H.
+Scudder in K. Zittel&rsquo;s <i>Paléontologie</i> (French translation, vol. ii.
+Paris, 1887, and English edition, vol. i., London, 1900), and by A.
+Handlirsch (<i>Verh. zool. bot. Gesell. Wien</i>, lii., 1902). Among general
+systematic works on Heteroptera may be mentioned J. C. Schiödte
+(<i>Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> (4) vi., 1870); C. Stal&rsquo;s <i>Enumeratio Hemipterorum</i>
+(<i>K. Svensk. Vet. Akad. Handl.</i> ix.-xiv., 1870-1876); L.
+Lethierry and G. Severin&rsquo;s <i>Catalogue générale des hémiptères</i> (Brussels
+1893, &amp;c.); G. C. Champion&rsquo;s volumes in the <i>Biologia Centrali-Americana</i>;
+W. L. Distant&rsquo;s Oriental Cicadidae (London, 1889-1892),
+and many other papers; M. E. Fernald&rsquo;s <i>Catalogue of the Coccidae</i>
+(Amherst, U.S.A., 1903). European Hemiptera have been dealt with
+in numerous papers by A. Puton. For British species we have
+E. Saunders&rsquo;s <i>Hemiptera-Heteroptera of the British Isles</i> (London,
+1892); J. Edwards&rsquo;s Hemiptera-Homoptera of the British Isles
+(London, 1896); J. B. Buckton&rsquo;s <i>British Aphidae</i> (London, Ray
+Society, 1875-1882); and R. Newstead&rsquo;s <i>British Coccidae</i> (London,
+Ray Society, 1901-1903). Aquatic Hemiptera are described by
+L. C. Miall (<i>Nat. History Aquatic Insects</i>; London, 1895), and by
+G. W. Kirkaldy in numerous recent papers (<i>Entomologist</i>, &amp;c.). For
+marine Hemiptera (<i>Halobates</i>) see F. B. White (<i>Challenger Reports</i>,
+vii., 1883); J. J. Walker (<i>Ent. Mo. Mag.</i>, 1893); N. Nassonov
+(Warsaw, 1893), and G. H. Carpenter (<i>Knowledge</i>, 1901, and <i>Report,
+Pearl Oyster Fisheries, Royal Society</i>, 1906). Sound-producing
+organs of Heteroptera are described by A. Handlirsch (<i>Ann. Hofmus.
+Wien</i>, xv. 1900), and G. W. Kirkaldy (<i>Journ. Quekett Club</i> (2) viii.
+1901); of Cicads by G. Carlet (<i>Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool.</i> (6) v. 1877).
+For the Anoplura see E. Piaget&rsquo;s <i>Pediculines</i> (Leiden, 1880-1905),
+and G. Enderlein (<i>Zool. Anz.</i> xxviii., 1904).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(G. H. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEMLOCK<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> (in O. Eng. <i>hemlic</i> or <i>hymlice</i>; no cognate is found
+in any other language, and the origin is unknown), the <i>Conium
+maculatum</i> of botanists, a biennial umbelliferous plant, found
+wild in many parts of Great Britain and Ireland, where it occurs
+in waste places on hedge-banks, and by the borders of fields,
+and also widely spread over Europe and temperate Asia, and
+naturalized in the cultivated districts of North and South
+America. It is an erect branching plant, growing from 3 to 6 ft.
+high, and emitting a disagreeable smell, like that of mice. The
+stems are hollow, smooth, somewhat glaucous green, spotted with
+dull dark purple, as alluded to in the specific name, <i>maculatum</i>.
+The root-leaves have long furrowed footstalks, sheathing the
+stem at the base, and are large, triangular in outline, and
+repeatedly divided or compound, the ultimate and very numerous
+segments being small, ovate, and deeply incised at the edge.
+These leaves generally perish after the growth of the flowering
+stem, which takes place in the second year, while the leaves
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page263" id="page263"></a>263</span>
+produced on the stem became gradually smaller upwards. The
+branches are all terminated by compound many-rayed umbels
+of small white flowers, the general involucres consisting of several,
+the partial ones of about three short lanceolate bracts, the latter
+being usually turned towards the outside of the umbel. The
+flowers are succeeded by broadly ovate fruits, the mericarps
+(half-fruits) having five ribs which, when mature, are waved
+or crenated; and when cut across the albumen is seen to be
+deeply furrowed on the inner face, so as to exhibit in section a
+reniform outline. The fruits when triturated with a solution
+of caustic potash evolve a most unpleasant odour.</p>
+
+<p>Hemlock is a virulent poison, but it varies much in potency
+according to the conditions under which it has grown, and the
+season or stage of growth at which it is gathered. In the first
+year the leaves have little power, nor in the second are their
+properties developed until the flowering period, at which time,
+or later on when the fruits are fully grown, the plant should be
+gathered. The wild plant growing in exposed situations is to
+be preferred to garden-grown samples, and is more potent in
+dry warm summers than in those which are dull and moist.</p>
+
+<p>The poisonous property of hemlock resides chiefly in the
+alkaloid <i>conine</i> or <i>conia</i> which is found in both the fruits and
+the leaves, though in exceedingly small proportions in the latter.
+Conine resembles nicotine in its deleterious action, but is much
+less powerful. No chemical antidote for it is known. The
+plant also yields a second less poisonous crystallizable base
+called <i>conhydrine</i>, which may be converted into conine by the
+abstraction of the elements of water. When collected for
+medicinal purposes, for which both leaves and fruits are used,
+the former should be gathered at the time the plant is in full
+blossom, while the latter are said to possess the greatest degree
+of energy just before they ripen. The fruits are the chief source
+whence conine is prepared. The principal forms in which hemlock
+is employed are the extract and juice of hemlock, hemlock
+poultice, and the tincture of hemlock fruits. Large doses
+produce vertigo, nausea and paralysis; but in smaller quantities,
+administered by skilful hands, it has a sedative action on the
+nerves. It has also some reputation as an alterative and resolvent,
+and as an anodyne.</p>
+
+<p>The acrid narcotic properties of the plant render it of some
+importance that one should be able to identify it, the more so
+as some of the compound-leaved umbellifers, which have a
+general similarity of appearance to it, form wholesome food
+for man and animals. Not only is this knowledge desirable
+to prevent the poisonous plant being detrimentally used in place
+of the wholesome one; it is equally important in the opposite
+case, namely, to prevent the inert being substituted for the
+remedial agent. The plant with which hemlock is most likely
+to be confounded is <i>Anthriscus sylvestris</i>, or cow-parsley, the
+leaves of which are freely eaten by cattle and rabbits; this plant,
+like the hemlock, has spotted stems but they are hairy, not
+hairless; it has much-divided leaves of the same general form,
+but they are downy and aromatic, not smooth and nauseous
+when bruised; and the fruit of <i>Anthriscus</i> is linear-oblong
+and not ovate.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEMP<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> (in O. Eng. <i>henep</i>, cf. Dutch <i>hennep</i>, Ger. <i>Hanf</i>, cognate
+with Gr. <span class="grk" title="kannabis">&#954;&#940;&#957;&#957;&#945;&#946;&#953;&#962;</span>, Lat. <i>cannabis</i>), an annual herb (<i>Cannabis sativa</i>)
+having angular rough stems and alternate deeply lobed leaves.
+The bast fibres of <i>Cannabis</i> are the hemp of commerce, but,
+unfortunately, the products from many totally different plants
+are often included under the general name of hemp. In some
+cases the fibre is obtained from the stem, while in others it
+comes from the leaf. Sunn hemp, Manila hemp, Sisal hemp,
+and Phormium (New Zealand flax, which is neither flax nor
+hemp) are treated separately. All these, however, are often
+classed under the above general name, and so are the following:&mdash;Deccan
+or Ambari hemp, <i>Hibiscus cannabinus</i>, an Indian and
+East Indian malvaceous plant, the fibre from which is often
+known as brown hemp or Bombay hemp; Pité hemp, which
+is obtained from the American aloe, <i>Agave americana</i>; and
+Moorva or bowstring-hemp, <i>Sansevieria zeylanica</i>, which is
+obtained from an aloe-like plant, and is a native of India and
+Ceylon. Then there are Canada hemp, <i>Apocynum cannabinum</i>,
+Kentucky hemp, <i>Urtica cannabina</i>, and others.</p>
+
+<p>The hemp plant, like the hop, which is of the same natural
+order, Cannabinaceae, is dioecious, <i>i.e.</i> the male and female
+flowers are borne on separate plants. The female plant grows
+to a greater height than the male, and its foliage is darker and
+more luxuriant, but the plant takes from five to six weeks longer
+to ripen. When the male plants are ripe they are pulled, put
+up into bundles, and steeped in a similar manner to flax, but
+the female plants are allowed to remain until the seed is perfectly
+ripe. They are then pulled, and after the seed has been removed
+are retted in the ordinary way. The seed is also a valuable
+product; the finest is kept for sowing, a large quantity is sold
+for the food of cage birds, while the remainder is sent to the oil
+mills to be crushed. The extracted oil is used in the manufacture
+of soap, while the solid remains, known as oil-cake, are valuable
+as a food for cattle. The leaves of hemp have five to seven
+leaflets, the form of which is lanceolate-acuminate, with a
+serrate margin. The loose panicles of male flowers, and the
+short spikes of female flowers, arise from the axils of the upper
+leaves. The height of the plant varies greatly with season, soil
+and manuring; in some districts it varies from 3 to 8 ft.,
+but in the Piedmont province it is not unusual to see them
+from 8 to 16 ft. in height, whilst a variety (<i>Cannabis
+sativa</i>, variety <i>gigantea</i>) has produced specimens over 17 ft. in
+height.</p>
+
+<p>All cultivated hemp belongs to the same species, <i>Cannabis
+sativa</i>; the special varieties such as <i>Cannabis indica</i>, <i>Cannabis
+chinensis</i>, &amp;c., owe their differences to climate and soil, and they
+lose many of their peculiarities when cultivated in temperate
+regions. Rumphius (in the 17th century) had noticed these
+differences between Indian and European hemp.</p>
+
+<p>Wild hemp still grows on the banks of the lower Ural, and
+the Volga, near the Caspian Sea. It extends to Persia, the
+Altai range and northern and western China. The authors of
+the <i>Pharmacographia</i> say:&mdash;&ldquo;It is found in Kashmir and in
+the Himalaya, growing 10 to 12 ft. high, and thriving vigorously
+at an elevation of 6000 to 10,000 ft.&rdquo; Wild hemp is, however,
+of very little use as a fibre producer, although a drug is obtained
+from it.</p>
+
+<p>It would appear that the native country of the hemp plant is
+in some part of temperate Asia, probably near the Caspian Sea.
+It spread westward throughout Europe, and southward through
+the Indian peninsula.</p>
+
+<p>The names given to the plant and to its products in different
+countries are of interest in connexion with the utilization of the
+fibre and resin. In Sans. it is called <i>goni</i>, <i>sana</i>, <i>shanapu</i>, <i>banga</i>
+and <i>ganjika</i>; in Bengali, <i>ganga</i>; Pers. <i>bang</i> and <i>canna</i>; Arab.
+<i>kinnub</i> or <i>cannub</i>; Gr. <i>kannabis</i>; Lat. <i>cannabis</i>; Ital. <i>canappa</i>;
+Fr. <i>chanvre</i>; Span. <i>cáñamo</i>; Portuguese, <i>cánamo</i>; Russ.
+<i>konópel</i>; Lettish and Lithuanian, <i>kannapes</i>; Slav. <i>konopi</i>;
+Erse, <i>canaib</i> and <i>canab</i>; A. Sax. <i>hoenep</i>; Dutch, <i>hennep</i>;
+Ger. <i>Hanf</i>; Eng. <i>hemp</i>; Danish and Norwegian, <i>hamp</i>; Icelandic,
+<i>hampr</i>; and in Swed. <i>hampa</i>. The English word <i>canvas</i>
+sufficiently reveals its derivation from <i>cannabis</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Very little hemp is now grown in the British Isles, although
+this variety was considered to be of very good quality, and to
+possess great strength. The chief continental hemp-producing
+countries are Italy, Russia and France; it is also grown in
+several parts of Canada and the United States and India. The
+Central Provinces, Bengal and Bombay are the chief centres
+of hemp cultivation in India, where the plant is of most use for
+narcotics. The satisfactory growth of hemp demands a light,
+rich and fertile soil, but, unlike most substances, it may be
+reared for a few years in succession. The time of sowing, the
+quantity of seed per acre (about three bushels) and the method
+of gathering and retting are very similar to those of flax; but,
+as a rule, it is a hardier plant than flax, does not possess the same
+pliability, is much coarser and more brittle, and does not require
+the same amount of attention during the first few weeks of its
+growth.</p>
+
+<p>The very finest hemp, that grown in the province of Piedmont,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page264" id="page264"></a>264</span>
+Italy, is, however, very similar to flax, and in many cases the two
+fibres are mixed in the same material. The hemp fibre has
+always been valuable for the rope industry, and it was at one
+time very extensively used in the production of yarns for the
+manufacture of sail cloth, sheeting, covers, bagging, sacking, &amp;c.
+Much of the finer quality is still made into cloth, but almost all
+the coarser quality finds its way into ropes and similar material.</p>
+
+<p>A large quantity of hemp cloth is still made for the British
+navy. The cloth, when finished, is cut up into lengths, made
+into bags and tarred. They are then used as coal sacks. There
+is also a quantity made into sacks which are intended to hold
+very heavy material. Hemp yarns are also used in certain
+classes of carpets, for special bags for use in cop dyeing and for
+similar special purposes, but for the ordinary bagging and
+sacking the employment of hemp yarns has been almost entirely
+supplanted by yarns made from the jute fibre.</p>
+
+<p>Hemp is grown for three products&mdash;(1) the fibre of its stem;
+(2) the resinous secretion which is developed in hot countries
+upon its leaves and flowering heads; (3) its oily seeds.</p>
+
+<p>Hemp has been employed for its fibre from ancient times.
+Herodotus (iv. 74) mentions the wild and cultivated hemp of
+Scythia, and describes the hempen garments made by the
+Thracians as equal to linen in fineness. Hesychius says the
+Thracian women made sheets of hemp. Moschion (about 200
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span>) records the use of hempen ropes for rigging the ship
+&ldquo;Syracusia&rdquo; built for Hiero II. The hemp plant has been
+cultivated in northern India from a considerable antiquity,
+not only as a drug but for its fibre. The Anglo-Saxons were
+well acquainted with the mode of preparing hemp. Hempen
+cloth became common in central and southern Europe in the
+13th century.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hemp-resin.</i>&mdash;Hemp as a drug or intoxicant for smoking
+and chewing occurs in the three forms of bhang, ganja and
+charas.</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Bhang</i>, the Hindustani <i>siddhi</i> or <i>sabzi</i>, consists of the
+dried leaves and small stalks of the hemp; a few fruits occur in
+it. It is of a dark brownish-green colour, and has a faint peculiar
+odour and but a slight taste. It is smoked with or without
+tobacco; or it is made into a sweetmeat with honey, sugar
+and aromatic spices; or it is powdered and infused in cold water,
+yielding a turbid drink, <i>subdschi</i>. <i>Hashish</i> is one of the Arabic
+names given to the Syrian and Turkish preparations of the
+resinous hemp leaves. One of the commonest of these preparations
+is made by heating the bhang with water and butter, the
+butter becoming thus charged with the resinous and active
+substances of the plant.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Ganja</i>, the guaza of the London brokers, consists of the
+flowering and fruiting heads of the female plant. It is brownish-green,
+and otherwise resembles bhang, as in odour and taste.
+Some of the more esteemed kinds of hashish are prepared from
+this ganja. Ganja is met with in the Indian bazaars in dense
+bundles of 24 plants or heads apiece. The hashish in such
+extensive use in Central Asia is often seen in the bazaars of large
+cities in the form of cakes, 1 to 3 in. thick, 5 to 10 in. broad and
+10 to 15 in. long.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Charas</i>, or churrus, is the resin itself collected, as it exudes
+naturally from the plant, in different ways. The best sort is
+gathered by the hand like opium; sometimes the resinous
+exudation of the plant is made to stick first of all to cloths, or
+to the leather garments of men, or even to their skin, and is then
+removed by scraping, and afterwards consolidated by kneading,
+pressing and rolling. It contains about one-third or one-fourth
+its weight of the resin. But the churrus prepared by different
+methods and in different countries differs greatly in appearance
+and purity. Sometimes it takes the form of egg-like masses of
+greyish-brown colour, having when of high quality a shining
+resinous fracture. Often it occurs in the form of irregular
+friable lumps, like pieces of impure linseed oil-cake.</p>
+
+<p>The medicinal and intoxicating properties of hemp have
+probably been known in Oriental countries from a very early
+period. An ancient Chinese herbal, part of which was written
+about the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, while the remainder is of still earlier
+date, notices the seed and flower-bearing kinds of hemp. Other
+early writers refer to hemp as a remedy. The medicinal and
+dietetic use of hemp spread through India, Persia and Arabia
+in the early middle ages. The use of hemp (bhang) in India was
+noticed by Garcia d&rsquo;Orta in 1563. Berlu in his <i>Treasury of Drugs</i>
+(1690) describes it as of &ldquo;an infatuating quality and pernicious
+use.&rdquo; Attention was recalled to this drug, in consequence of
+Napoleon&rsquo;s Egyptian expedition, by de Sacy (1809) and Rouger
+(1810). Its modern medicinal use is chiefly due to trials by Dr
+O&rsquo;Shaughnessy in Calcutta (1838-1842). The plant is grown
+partly and often mainly for the sake of its resin in Persia, northern
+India and Arabia, in many parts of Africa and in Brazil.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pharmacology and Therapeutics.</i>&mdash;The composition of this
+drug is still extremely obscure; partly, perhaps, because it
+varies so much in individual specimens. It appears to contain
+at least two alkaloids&mdash;cannabinine and tetano-cannabine&mdash;of
+which the former is volatile. The chief active principle may
+possibly be neither of these, but the substance cannabinon.
+There are also resins, a volatile oil and several other constituents.
+Cannabis indica&mdash;as the drug is termed in the pharmacopoeias&mdash;may
+be given as an extract (dose ¼-1 gr.) or tincture (dose 5-15
+minims).</p>
+
+<p>The drug has no external action. The effects of its absorption,
+whether it be swallowed or smoked, vary within wide limits
+in different individuals and races. So great is this variation as
+to be inexplicable except on the view that the nature and proportions
+of the active principles vary greatly in different specimens.
+But typically the drug <span class="correction" title="amended from in">is</span> an intoxicant, resembling alcohol in
+many features of its action, but differing in others. The early
+symptoms are highly pleasurable, and it is for these, as in the case
+of other stimulants, that the drug is so largely consumed in the
+East. There is a subjective sensation of mental brilliance, but,
+as in other cases, this is not borne out by the objective results.
+It has been suggested that the incoordination of nervous action
+under the influence of Indian hemp may be due to independent
+and non-concerted action on the part of the two halves of the
+cerebrum. Following on a decided lowering of the pain and
+touch senses, which may even lead to complete loss of cutaneous
+sensation, there comes a sleep which is often accompanied by
+pleasant dreams. There appears to be no evidence in the case
+of either the lower animals or the human subject that the drug
+is an aphrodisiac. Excessive indulgence in cannabis indica is
+very rare, but may lead to general ill-health and occasionally to
+insanity. The apparent impossibility of obtaining pure and
+trustworthy samples of the drug has led to its entire abandonment
+in therapeutics. When a good sample is obtained it is a
+safe and efficient hypnotic, at any rate in the case of a European.
+The tincture should not be prescribed unless precautions are
+taken to avoid the precipitation of the resin which follows its
+dilution with water.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Watt, <i>Dictionary of the Economic Products of India</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEMSTERHUIS, FRANÇOIS<a name="ar27a" id="ar27a"></a></span> (1721-1790), Dutch writer on
+aesthetics and moral philosophy, son of Tiberius Hemsterhuis,
+was born at Franeker in Holland, on the 27th of December 1721.
+He was educated at the university of Leiden, where he studied
+Plato. Failing to obtain a professorship, he entered the service
+of the state, and for many years acted as secretary to the state
+council of the United Provinces. He died at the Hague on the
+7th of July 1790. Through his philosophical writings he became
+acquainted with many distinguished persons&mdash;Goethe, Herder,
+Princess Amalia of Gallitzin, and especially Jacobi, with whom
+he had much in common. Both were idealists, and their works
+suffer from a similar lack of arrangement, although distinguished
+by elegance of form and refined sentiment. His most valuable
+contributions are in the department of aesthetics or the general
+analysis of feeling. His philosophy has been characterized as
+Socratic in content and Platonic in form. Its foundation was
+the desire for self-knowledge and truth, untrammelled by the
+rigid bonds of any particular system.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His most important works, all of which were written in French, are:
+<i>Lettre sur la sculpture</i> (1769), in which occurs the well-known definition
+of the Beautiful as &ldquo;that which gives us the greatest number of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page265" id="page265"></a>265</span>
+ideas in the shortest space of time&rdquo;; its continuation, <i>Lettre sur
+les désirs</i> (1770); <i>Lettre sur l&rsquo;homme et ses rapports</i> (1772), in which
+the &ldquo;moral organ&rdquo; and the theory of knowledge are discussed;
+<i>Sopyle</i> (1778), a dialogue on the relation between the soul and the
+body, and also an attack on materialism; <i>Aristée</i> (1779), the
+&ldquo;theodicy&rdquo; of Hemsterhuis, discussing the existence of God and his
+relation to man; <i>Simon</i> (1787), on the four faculties of the soul,
+which are the will, the imagination, the moral principle (which is
+both passive and active); <i>Alexis</i> (1787), an attempt to prove that
+there are three golden ages, the last being the life beyond the grave;
+<i>Lettre sur l&rsquo;athéisme</i> (1787).</p>
+
+<p>The best collected edition of his works is by P. S. Meijboom
+(1846-1850); see also S. A. Gronemann, <i>F. Hemsterhuis, de Nederlandische
+Wijsgeer</i> (Utrecht, 1867); E. Grucker, <i>François Hemsterhuis,
+sa vie et ses &oelig;uvres</i> (Paris, 1866); E. Meyer, <i>Der Philosoph Franz
+Hemsterhuis</i> (Breslau, 1893), with bibliographical notice.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEMSTERHUIS, TIBERIUS<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> (1685-1766), Dutch philologist
+and critic, was born on the 9th of January 1685 at Groningen
+in Holland. His father, a learned physician, gave him so good
+an early education that, when he entered the university of his
+native town in his fifteenth year, he speedily proved himself to
+be the best student of mathematics. After a year or two at
+Groningen, he was attracted to the university of Leiden by the
+fame of Perizonius; and while there he was entrusted with the
+duty of arranging the manuscripts in the library. Though he
+accepted an appointment as professor of mathematics and
+philosophy at Amsterdam in his twentieth year, he had already
+directed his attention to the study of the ancient languages.
+In 1706 he completed the edition of Pollux&rsquo;s <i>Onomasticon</i> begun
+by Lederlin; but the praise he received from his countrymen
+was more than counterbalanced by two letters of criticism from
+Bentley, which mortified him so keenly that for two months he
+refused to open a Greek book. In 1717 Hemsterhuis was
+appointed professor of Greek at Franeker, but he did not enter
+on his duties there till 1720. In 1738 he became professor of
+national history also. Two years afterwards he was called to
+teach the same subjects at Leiden, where he died on the 7th of
+April 1766. Hemsterhuis was the founder of a laborious and
+useful Dutch school of criticism, which had famous disciples
+in Valckenaer, Lennep and Ruhnken.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His chief writings are the following: <i>Luciani colloquia et Timon</i>
+(1708); <i>Aristophanis Plutus</i> (1744); <i>Notae, &amp;c., ad Xenophontem
+Ephesium in the Miscellanea critica</i> of Amsterdam, vols. iii. and
+iv.; <i>Observationes ad Chrysostomi homilias; Orationes</i> (1784);
+a Latin translation of the <i>Birds</i> of Aristophanes, in Küster&rsquo;s edition;
+notes to Bernard&rsquo;s <i>Thomas Magister</i>, to Alberti&rsquo;s <i>Hesychius</i>, to
+Ernesti&rsquo;s <i>Callimachus</i> and to Burmann&rsquo;s <i>Propertius</i>. See <i>Elogium
+T. Hemsterhusii</i> (with Bentley&rsquo;s letters) by Ruhnken (1789), and
+<i>Supplementa annotationis ad elogium T. Hemsterhusii, &amp;c.</i> (Leiden,
+1874); also J. E. Sandys&rsquo; <i>Hist. Class. Scholarship</i>, ii. (1908).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEMY, CHARLES NAPIER<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> (1841-&emsp;&emsp;), British painter,
+born at Newcastle-on-Tyne, was trained in the Newcastle school
+of art, in the Antwerp academy and in the studio of Baron Leys.
+He has produced some figure subjects and landscapes, but is
+best known by his admirable marine paintings. He was elected
+an associate of the Royal Academy in 1898, associate of the Royal
+Society of Painters in Water Colours in 1890 and member in
+1897. Two of his paintings, &ldquo;Pilchards&rdquo; (1897) and &ldquo;London
+River&rdquo; (1904), are in the National Gallery of British Art.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEN,<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> a female bird, especially the female of the common fowl
+(<i>q.v.</i>). The O. Eng. <i>hæn</i> is the feminine form of <i>hana</i>, the male bird,
+a correlation of words which is represented in other Teutonic
+languages, cf. Ger. <i>Hahn</i>, <i>Henne</i>, Dutch <i>haan</i>, <i>hen</i>, Swed. <i>hane</i>,
+<i>hönne</i>, &amp;c. The O. Eng. name for the male bird has disappeared,
+its place being taken by &ldquo;cock,&rdquo; a word probably of onomatopoeic
+origin, being from a base <i>kuk</i>- or <i>kik</i>-, seen also in &ldquo;chicken.&rdquo;
+This word also appears in Fr. <i>coq</i>, and medieval Lat. <i>coccus</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HÉNAULT, CHARLES JEAN FRANÇOIS<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (1685-1770), French
+historian, was born in Paris on the 8th of February 1685. His
+father, a farmer-general of taxes, was a man of literary tastes,
+and young Hénault obtained a good education at the Jesuit
+college. Captivated by the eloquence of Massillon, in his fifteenth
+year he entered the Oratory with the view of becoming a preacher,
+but after two years&rsquo; residence he changed his intention, and,
+inheriting a position which secured him access to the most select
+society of Paris, he achieved distinction at an early period by his
+gay, witty and graceful manners. His literary talent, manifested
+in the composition of various light poetical pieces, an
+opera, a tragedy (<i>Cornélie vestale</i>, 1710), &amp;c., obtained his entrance
+to the Academy (1723). <i>Petit-maître</i> as he was, he had also
+serious capacity, for he became councillor of the <i>parlement</i> of
+Paris (1705), and in 1710 he was chosen president of the court of
+<i>enquêtes</i>. After the death of the count de Rieux (son of the
+famous financier, Samuel Bernard) he became (1753) superintendent
+of the household of Queen Marie Leszczynska, whose
+intimate friendship he had previously enjoyed. On his recovery
+in his eightieth year from a dangerous malady (1765) he professed
+to have undergone religious conversion and retired into
+private life, devoting the remainder of his days to study and
+devotion. His religion was, however, according to the marquis
+d&rsquo;Argenson, &ldquo;exempt from fanaticism, persecution, bitterness
+and intrigue&rdquo;; and it did not prevent him from continuing his
+friendship with Voltaire, to whom it is said he had formerly
+rendered the service of saving the manuscript of <i>La Henriade</i>,
+when its author was about to commit it to the flames. The
+literary work on which Hénault bestowed his chief attention was
+the <i>Abrégé chronologique de l&rsquo;histoire de France</i>, first published
+in 1744 without the author&rsquo;s name. In the compass of two
+volumes he comprised the whole history of France from the
+earliest times to the death of Louis XIV. The work has no
+originality. Hénault had kept his note-books of the history
+lectures at the Jesuit college, of which the substance was taken
+from Mézeray and P. Daniel. He revised them first in 1723,
+and later put them in the form of question and answer on the
+model of P. le Ragois, and by following Dubos and Boulainvilliers
+and with the aid of the abbé Boudot he compiled his <i>Abrégé</i>.
+The research is all on the surface and is only borrowed. But
+the work had a prodigious success, and was translated into
+several languages, even into Chinese. This was due partly to
+Hénault&rsquo;s popularity and position, partly to the agreeable style
+which made the history readable. He inserted, according to
+the fashion of the period, moral and political reflections,
+which are always brief and generally as fresh and pleasing as they
+are just. A few masterly strokes reproduced the leading features
+of each age and the characters of its illustrious men; accurate
+chronological tables set forth the most interesting events in the
+history of each sovereign and the names of the great men
+who flourished during his reign; and interspersed throughout
+the work are occasional chapters on the social and civil state of
+the country at the close of each era in its history. Continuations
+of the work have been made at separate periods by Fantin des
+Odoards, by Anguis with notes by Walckenaer, and by Michaud.
+He died at Paris on the 24th of November 1770.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;Hénault&rsquo;s <i>Mémoires</i> have come down to us in
+two different versions, both claiming to be authentic. One was
+published in 1855 by M. du Vigan; the other was owned by the
+Comte de Coutades, who permitted Lucien Perey to give long extracts
+in his work on President Hénault (Paris, 1893). The memoirs are
+fragmentary and disconnected, but contain interesting anecdotes and
+details concerning persons of note. See the <i>Correspondance</i> of Grimm,
+of Madame du Deffand and of Voltaire; the notice by Walckenaer
+in the edition of the <i>Abrégé</i>; Sainte-Beuve, <i>Causeries du lundi</i>,
+vol. xi.; and the <i>Origines de l&rsquo;abrégé</i> (<i>Ann. Bulletin de la Société de
+l&rsquo;histoire de France</i>, 1901). Also H. Lion, <i>Le Président Hénault</i>
+(Paris, 1903).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENBANE<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> (Fr. <i>jusquiaume</i>, from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="hyoskuamos">&#8017;&#959;&#963;&#954;&#973;&#945;&#956;&#959;&#962;</span>, or
+hog&rsquo;s-bean; Ital. <i>giusquiamo</i>; Ger. <i>Schwarzes Bilsenkraut</i>,
+<i>Hühnertod</i>, <i>Saubohne</i> and <i>Zigeuner-Korn</i> or &ldquo;gipsies&rsquo; corn&rdquo;),
+the common name of the plant <i>Hyoscyamus niger</i>, a member
+of the natural order Solanaceae, indigenous to Britain, found
+wild in waste places, on rubbish about villages and old castles,
+and cultivated for medicinal use in various counties in the south
+and east of England. It occurs also in central and southern
+Europe and in western Asia extending to India and Siberia,
+and has long been naturalized in the United States. There
+are two forms of the plant, an annual and a biennial, which
+spring indifferently from the same crop of seed&mdash;the one growing
+on during summer to a height of from 1 to 2 ft., and flowering
+and perfecting seed; the other producing the first season only
+a tuft of radical leaves, which disappear in winter, leaving underground
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page266" id="page266"></a>266</span>
+a thick fleshy root, from the crown of which arises in
+spring a branched flowering stem, usually much taller and more
+vigorous than the flowering stems of the annual plants. The
+biennial form is that which is considered officinal. The radical
+leaves of this biennial plant spread out flat on all sides from the
+crown of the root; they are ovate-oblong, acute, stalked, and
+more or less incisely-toothed, of a greyish-green colour, and
+covered with viscid hairs; these leaves perish at the approach
+of winter. The flowering stem pushes up from the root-crown
+in spring, ultimately reaching from 3 to 4 ft. in height, and as it
+grows becoming branched, and furnished with alternate sessile
+leaves, which are stem-clasping, oblong, unequally-lobed, clothed
+with glandular clammy hairs, and of a dull grey-green, the whole
+plant having a powerful nauseous odour. The flowers are
+shortly-stalked, the lower ones growing in the fork of the branches,
+the upper ones sessile in one-sided leafy spikes which are rolled
+back at the top before flowering, the leaves becoming smaller
+upwards and taking the place of bracts. The flowers have an
+urn-shaped calyx which persists around the fruit and is strongly
+veined, with five stiff, broad, almost prickly lobes; these,
+when the soft matter is removed by maceration, form very elegant
+specimens when associated with leaves prepared in a similar
+way. The corollas are obliquely funnel-shaped, of a dirty
+yellow or buff, marked with a close reticulation of purple veins.
+The capsule opens transversely by a convex lid and contains
+numerous seeds. Both the leaves and the seeds are employed
+in pharmacy. The Mahommedan doctors of India are
+accustomed to prescribe the seeds. Henbane yields a poisonous
+alkaloid, <i>hyoscyamine</i>, which is stated to have properties almost
+identical with those of atropine, from which it differs in being
+more soluble in water. It is usually obtained in an amorphous,
+scarcely ever in a crystalline state. Its properties have been
+investigated in Germany by T. Husemann, Schroff, Höhn, &amp;c.
+Höhn finds its chemical composition expressed by
+C<span class="su">18</span>H<span class="su">28</span>N<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>. (Compare Hellmann, <i>Beiträge zur Kenntnis der physiolog.
+Wirkung des Hyoscyamins</i>, &amp;c., Jena, 1874.) In small and
+repeated doses henbane has been found to have a tranquillizing
+effect upon persons affected by severe nervous irritability.
+In poisonous doses it causes loss of speech, distortion and
+paralysis. In the form of extract or tincture it is a valuable
+remedy in the hands of a medical man, either as an anodyne,
+a hypnotic or a sedative. The extract of henbane is rich in
+nitrate of potassium and other inorganic salts. The smoking
+of the seeds and capsules of henbane is noted in books as a
+somewhat dangerous remedy adopted by country people for
+toothache. Accidental poisoning from henbane occasionally
+occurs, owing sometimes to the apparent edibility and wholesomeness
+of the root.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Bentley and Trumen, <i>Medicinal Plants</i>, 194 (1880).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENCHMAN<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span>, originally, probably, one who attended on a
+horse, a groom, and hence, like groom (<i>q.v.</i>), a title of a subordinate
+official in royal or noble households. The first part
+of the word is the O. Eng. <i>hengest</i>, a horse, a word which occurs in
+many Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. and Dutch <i>hengst</i>. The word
+appears in the name, Hengest, of the Saxon chieftain (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hengest and Horsa</a></span>) and still survives in English in place and
+other names beginning with Hingst- or Hinx-. Henchmen,
+pages of honour or squires, rode or walked at the side of their
+master in processions and the like, and appear in the English
+royal household from the 14th century till Elizabeth abolished
+the royal henchmen, known also as the &ldquo;children of honour.&rdquo;
+The word was obsolete in English from the middle of the 17th
+century, and seems to have been revived through Sir Walter
+Scott, who took the word and its derivation, according to the
+<i>New English Dictionary</i>, from Edward Burt&rsquo;s <i>Letters from a
+Gentleman in the North of Scotland</i>, together with its erroneous
+derivation from &ldquo;haunch.&rdquo; The word is, in this sense, used as
+synonymous with &ldquo;gillie,&rdquo; the faithful personal follower of a
+Highland chieftain, the man who stands at his master&rsquo;s &ldquo;haunch,&rdquo;
+ready for any emergency. It is this sense that usually survives
+in modern usage of the word, where it is often used of an out-and-out
+adherent or partisan, ready to do anything.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENDERSON, ALEXANDER<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> (1583-1646), Scottish ecclesiastic,
+was born in 1583 at Criech, Fifeshire. He graduated at
+the university of St Andrews in 1603, and in 1610 was appointed
+professor of rhetoric and philosophy and questor of the faculty
+of arts. Shortly after this he was presented to the living of
+Leuchars. As Henderson was forced upon his parish by Archbishop
+George Gladstanes, and was known to sympathize with
+episcopacy, his settlement was at first extremely unpopular;
+but he subsequently changed his views and became a Presbyterian
+in doctrine and church government, and one of the most
+esteemed ministers in Scotland. He early made his mark as a
+church leader, and took an active part in petitioning against the
+&ldquo;five acts&rdquo; and later against the introduction of a service-book
+and canons drawn up on the model of the English prayer-book.
+On the 1st of March 1638 the public signing of the &ldquo;National
+Covenant&rdquo; began in Greyfriars Church, Edinburgh. Henderson
+was mainly responsible for the final form of this document,
+which consisted of (1) the &ldquo;king&rsquo;s confession&rdquo; drawn up in
+1581 by John Craig, (2) a recital of the acts of parliament
+against &ldquo;superstitious and papistical rites,&rdquo; and (3) an elaborate
+oath to maintain the true reformed religion. Owing to the skill
+shown on this occasion he seems to have been applied to when
+any manifesto of unusual ability was required. In July of the
+same year he proceeded to the north to debate on the &ldquo;Covenant&rdquo;
+with the famous Aberdeen doctors; but he was not well received
+by them. &ldquo;The voyd church was made fast, and the keys
+keeped by the magistrate,&rdquo; says Baillie. Henderson&rsquo;s next
+public opportunity was in the famous Assembly which met in
+Glasgow on the 21st of November 1638. He was chosen moderator
+by acclamation, being, as Baillie says, &ldquo;incomparablie the ablest
+man of us all for all things.&rdquo; James Hamilton, 3rd marquess
+of Hamilton, was the king&rsquo;s commissioner; and when the
+Assembly insisted on proceeding with the trial of the bishops,
+he formally dissolved the meeting under pain of treason. Acting
+on the constitutional principle that the king&rsquo;s right to convene
+did not interfere with the church&rsquo;s independent right to hold
+assemblies, they sat till the 20th of December, deposed all the
+Scottish bishops, excommunicated a number of them, repealed
+all acts favouring episcopacy, and reconstituted the Scottish
+Kirk on thorough Presbyterian principles. During the sitting of
+this Assembly it was carried by a majority of seventy-five votes
+that Henderson should be transferred to Edinburgh. He had
+been at Leuchars for about twenty-three years, and was extremely
+reluctant to leave it.</p>
+
+<p>While Scotland and England were preparing for the &ldquo;First
+Bishops&rsquo; War,&rdquo; Henderson drew up two papers, entitled respectively
+<i>The Remonstrance of the Nobility</i> and <i>Instructions for
+Defensive Arms</i>. The first of these documents he published
+himself; the second was published against his wish by John
+Corbet (1603-1641), a deposed minister. The &ldquo;First Bishops&rsquo;
+War&rdquo; did not last long. At the Pacification of Birks the king
+virtually granted all the demands of the Scots. In the negotiations
+for peace Henderson was one of the Scottish commissioners,
+and made a very favourable impression on the king. In 1640
+Henderson was elected by the town council rector of Edinburgh
+University&mdash;an office to which he was annually re-elected till
+his death. The Pacification of Birks had been wrung from the
+king; and the Scots, seeing that he was preparing for the
+&ldquo;Second Bishops&rsquo; War,&rdquo; took the initiative, and pressed into
+England so vigorously that Charles had again to yield everything.
+The maturing of the treaty of peace took a considerable time,
+and Henderson was again active in the negotiations, first at
+Ripon (October 1st) and afterwards in London. While he was
+in London he had a personal interview with the king, with the
+view of obtaining assistance for the Scottish universities from
+the money formerly applied to the support of the bishops.
+On Henderson&rsquo;s return to Edinburgh in July 1641 the Assembly
+was sitting at St Andrews. To suit the convenience of the
+parliament, however, it removed to Edinburgh; Henderson
+was elected moderator of the Edinburgh meeting. In this
+Assembly he proposed that &ldquo;a confession of faith, a catechism,
+a directory for all the parts of the public worship, and a platform
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page267" id="page267"></a>267</span>
+of government, wherein possibly England and we might agree,&rdquo;
+should be drawn up. This was unanimously approved of, and
+the laborious undertaking was left in Henderson&rsquo;s hands; but
+the &ldquo;notable motion&rdquo; did not lead to any immediate results.
+During Charles&rsquo;s second state-visit to Scotland, in the autumn
+of 1641, Henderson acted as his chaplain, and managed to get
+the funds, formerly belonging to the bishopric of Edinburgh,
+applied to the metropolitan university. In 1642 Henderson,
+whose policy was to keep Scotland neutral in the war which had
+now broken out between the king and the parliament, was
+engaged in corresponding with England on ecclesiastical topics;
+and, shortly afterwards, he was sent to Oxford to mediate
+between the king and his parliament; but his mission proved
+a failure.</p>
+
+<p>A memorable meeting of the General Assembly was held in
+August 1643. Henderson was elected moderator for the third
+time. He presented a draft of the famous &ldquo;Solemn League and
+Covenant,&rdquo; which was received with great enthusiasm. Unlike
+the &ldquo;National Covenant&rdquo; of 1638, which applied to Scotland
+only, this document was common to the two kingdoms.
+Henderson, Baillie, Rutherford and others were sent up to
+London to represent Scotland in the Assembly at Westminster.
+The &ldquo;Solemn League and Covenant,&rdquo; which pledged both
+countries to the extirpation of prelacy, leaving further decision
+as to church government to be decided by the &ldquo;example of the
+best reformed churches,&rdquo; after undergoing some slight alterations,
+passed the two Houses of Parliament and the Westminster
+Assembly, and thus became law for the two kingdoms. By
+means of it Henderson has had considerable influence on the
+history of Great Britain. As Scottish commissioner to the
+Westminster Assembly, he was in England from August 1643 till
+August 1646; his principal work was the drafting of the directory
+for public worship. Early in 1645 Henderson was sent to
+Uxbridge to aid the commissioners of the two parliaments in
+negotiating with the king; but nothing came of the conference.
+In 1646 the king joined the Scottish army; and, after retiring
+with them to Newcastle, he sent for Henderson, and discussed
+with him the two systems of church government in a number of
+papers. Meanwhile Henderson was failing in health. He sailed
+to Scotland, and eight days after his arrival died, on the 19th
+of August 1646. He was buried in Greyfriars churchyard,
+Edinburgh; and his death was the occasion of national mourning
+in Scotland. On the 7th of August Baillie had written that he
+had heard that Henderson was dying &ldquo;most of heartbreak.&rdquo; A
+document was published in London purporting to be a &ldquo;Declaration
+of Mr Alexander Henderson made upon his Death-bed&rdquo;;
+and, although this paper was disowned, denounced and shown to
+be false in the General Assembly of August 1648, the document
+was used by Clarendon as giving the impression that Henderson
+had recanted. Its foundation was probably certain expressions
+lamenting Scottish interference in English affairs.</p>
+
+<p>Henderson is one of the greatest men in the history of Scotland
+and, next to Knox, is certainly the most famous of Scottish
+ecclesiastics. He had great political genius; and his statesmanship
+was so influential that &ldquo;he was,&rdquo; as Masson well observes,
+&ldquo;a cabinet minister without office.&rdquo; He has made a deep mark
+on the history, not only of Scotland, but of England; and the
+existing Presbyterian churches in Scotland are largely indebted
+to him for the forms of their dogmas and their ecclesiastical
+organization. He is thus justly considered the second founder of
+the Reformed Church in Scotland.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See M&lsquo;Crie&rsquo;s <i>Life of Alexander Henderson</i> (1846); Aiton&rsquo;s <i>Life and
+Times of Alexander Henderson</i> (1836); <i>The Letters and Journals of
+Robert Baillie</i> (1841-1842) (an exceedingly valuable work, from an
+historical point of view); J. H. Burton&rsquo;s <i>History of Scotland</i>; D.
+Masson&rsquo;s <i>Life of Drummond of Hawthornden</i>; and, above all,
+Masson&rsquo;s <i>Life of Milton</i>; Andrew Lang, <i>Hist. of Scotland</i> (1907),
+vol. iii. Henderson&rsquo;s own works are chiefly contributions to current
+controversies, speeches and sermons.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. Gi.; D. Mn.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENDERSON, EBENEZER<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> (1784-1858), a Scottish divine, was
+born at the Linn near Dunfermline on the 17th of November
+1784, and died at Mortlake on the 17th of May 1858. He was the
+youngest son of an agricultural labourer, and after three years&rsquo;
+schooling spent some time at watchmaking and as a shoemaker&rsquo;s
+apprentice. In 1803 he joined Robert Haldane&rsquo;s theological
+seminary, and in 1805 was selected to accompany the Rev. John
+Paterson to India; but as the East India Company would not
+allow British vessels to convey missionaries to India, Henderson
+and his colleague went to Denmark to await the chance of a
+passage to Serampur, then a Danish port. Being unexpectedly
+delayed, and having begun to preach in Copenhagen, they
+ultimately decided to settle in Denmark, and in 1806 Henderson
+became pastor at Elsinore. From this time till about 1817 he
+was engaged in encouraging the distribution of Bibles in the
+Scandinavian countries, and in the course of his labours he
+visited Sweden and Lapland (1807-1808), Iceland (1814-1815)
+and the mainland of Denmark and part of Germany (1816).
+During most of this time he was an agent of the British and
+Foreign Bible Society. On the 6th of October 1811 he formed the
+first Congregational church in Sweden. In 1818, after a visit to
+England, he travelled in company with Paterson through Russia
+as far south as Tiflis, but, instead of settling as was proposed at
+Astrakhan, he retraced his steps, having resigned his connexion
+with the Bible Society owing to his disapproval of a translation
+of the Scriptures which had been made in Turkish. In 1822 he
+was invited by Prince Alexander (Galitzin) to assist the Russian
+Bible Society in translating the Scriptures into various languages
+spoken in the Russian empire. After twenty years of foreign
+labour Henderson returned to England, and in 1825 was appointed
+tutor of the Mission College, Gosport. In 1830 he succeeded Dr
+William Harrison as theological lecturer and professor of Oriental
+languages in Highbury Congregational College. In 1850, on the
+amalgamation of the colleges of Homerton, Coward and Highbury,
+he retired on a pension. In 1852-1853 he was pastor of Sheen
+Vale chapel at Mortlake. His last work was a translation of the
+book of Ezekiel. Henderson was a man of great linguistic attainment.
+He made himself more or less acquainted, not only with the
+ordinary languages of scholarly accomplishment and the various
+members of the Scandinavian group, but also with Hebrew,
+Syriac, Ethiopic, Russian, Arabic, Tatar, Persian, Turkish,
+Armenian, Manchu, Mongolian and Coptic. He organized the
+first Bible Society in Denmark (1814), and paved the way for
+several others. In 1817 he was nominated by the Scandinavian
+Literary Society a corresponding member; and in 1840 he was
+made D.D. by the university of Copenhagen. He was honorary
+secretary for life of the Religious Tract Society, and one of the
+first promoters of the British Society for the Propagation of the
+Gospel among the Jews. The records of his travels in Iceland
+(1818) were valuable contributions to our knowledge of that
+island. His other principal works are: <i>Iceland, or the Journal
+of a Residence in that Island</i> (2 vols., 1818); <i>Biblical Researches
+and Travels in Russia</i> (1826); <i>Elements of Biblical Criticism and
+Interpretation</i> (1830); <i>The Vaudois, a Tour of the Valleys of
+Piedmont</i> (1845).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Memoirs of Ebenezer Henderson</i>, by Thulia S. Henderson (his
+daughter) (London, 1859); <i>Congregational Year Book</i> (1859).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENDERSON, GEORGE FRANCIS ROBERT<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> (1854-1903),
+British soldier and military writer, was born in Jersey in 1854.
+Educated at Leeds Grammar School, of which his father, afterwards
+Dean of Carlisle, was headmaster, he was early attracted
+to the study of history, and obtained a scholarship at St John&rsquo;s
+College, Oxford. But he soon left the University for Sandhurst,
+whence he obtained his first commission in 1878. One year
+later, after a few months&rsquo; service in India, he was promoted
+lieutenant and returned to England, and in 1882 he went on
+active service with his regiment, the York and Lancaster (65th/84th)
+to Egypt. He was present at Tell-el-Mahuta and Kassassin,
+and at Tell-el-Kebir was the first man of his regiment to enter the
+enemy&rsquo;s works. His conduct attracted the notice of Sir Garnet
+(afterwards Lord) Wolseley, and he received the 5th class of the
+Medjidieh order. His name was, further, noted for a brevet-majority,
+which he did not receive till he became captain in
+1886. During these years he had been quietly studying military
+art and history at Gibraltar, in Bermuda and in Nova Scotia,
+in spite of the difficulties of research, and in 1889 appeared
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page268" id="page268"></a>268</span>
+(anonymously) his first work, <i>The Campaign of Fredericksburg</i>.
+In the same year he became Instructor in Tactics, Military Law
+and Administration at Sandhurst. From this post he proceeded
+as Professor of Military Art and History to the Staff College
+(1892-1899), and there exercised a profound influence on the
+younger generation of officers. His study on <i>Spicheren</i> had been
+begun some years before, and in 1898 appeared, as the result of
+eight years&rsquo; work, his masterpiece, <i>Stonewall Jackson and the
+American Civil War</i>. In the South African War Lieutenant-Colonel
+Henderson served with distinction on the staff of Lord
+Roberts as Director of Intelligence. But overwork and malaria
+broke his health, and he had to return home, being eventually
+selected to write the official history of the war. But failing
+health obliged him to go to Egypt, where he died at Assuan on
+the 5th of March 1903. He had completed the portion of the
+history of the South African War dealing with the events up to the
+commencement of hostilities, amounting to about a volume, but
+the War Office decided to suppress this, and the work was begun
+<i>de novo</i> and carried out by Sir F. Maurice.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Various lectures and papers by Henderson were collected and
+published in 1905 by Captain Malcolm, D.S.O., under the title
+<i>The Science of War</i>; to this collection a memoir was contributed by
+Lord Roberts. See also Journal of the Royal United Service
+Institution, vol. xlvii. No. 302.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENDERSON, JOHN<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (1747-1785), English actor, of Scottish
+descent, was born in London. He made his first appearance
+on the stage at Bath on the 6th of October 1772 as Hamlet.
+His success in this and other Shakespearian parts led to his
+being called the &ldquo;Bath Roscius.&rdquo; He had great difficulty in
+getting a London engagement, but finally appeared at the
+Haymarket in 1777 as Shylock, and his success was a source of
+considerable profit to Colman, the manager. Sheridan then
+engaged him to play at Drury Lane, where he remained for two
+years. When the companies joined forces he went to Covent
+Garden, appearing as Richard III. in 1778, and creating original
+parts in many of the plays of Cumberland, Shirley, Jephson
+and others. His last appearance was in 1785 as Horatius in
+<i>The Roman Father</i>, and he died on the 25th of November of
+that year and was buried in Westminster Abbey. Garrick was
+very jealous of Henderson, and the latter&rsquo;s power of mimicry
+separated him also from Colman, but he was always gratefully
+remembered by Mrs. Siddons and others of his profession whom
+he had encouraged. He was a close friend of Gainsborough,
+who painted his portrait, as did also Stewart and Romney.
+He was co-author of Sheridan and Henderson&rsquo;s <i>Practical Method
+of Reading and Writing English Poetry</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENDERSON,<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Henderson county,
+Kentucky, U.S.A., on the S. bank of the Ohio river, about
+142 m. W.S.W. of Louisville. Pop. (1890), 8835; (1900), 10,272,
+of whom 4029 were negroes; (1910 census) 11,452. It is
+served by the Illinois Central, the Louisville &amp; Nashville, and
+the Louisville, Henderson &amp; St. Louis railways, and has direct
+communication by steamboat with Louisville, Evansville, Cairo,
+Memphis and New Orleans. Henderson is built on the high
+bank of the river, above the flood level; the river is spanned
+here by a fine steel bridge, designed by George W. G. Ferris
+(1859-1896), the designer of the Ferris Wheel. The city has a
+public park of 80 acres and a Carnegie library. It is situated
+in the midst of a region whose soil is said to be the best in the
+world for the raising of dark, heavy-fibred tobacco, and is well
+adapted also for the growing of fruit, wheat and Indian corn.
+Bituminous coal is obtained from the surrounding country.
+Immense quantities of stemmed tobacco are shipped from here,
+and the city is an important market for Indian corn. The
+manufactures of the city include cotton and woollen goods,
+hominy, meal, flour, tobacco and cigars, carriages, baskets,
+chairs and other furniture, bricks, ice, whisky and beer; the
+value of the city&rsquo;s factory products in 1905 was $1,365,120.
+The municipality owns and operates its water works, gas plant
+and electric-lighting plant. Henderson, named in honour of
+Richard Henderson (1734-1785), was settled as early as 1784,
+was first known as Red Banks, was laid out as a town by Henderson&rsquo;s
+company in 1797, was incorporated as a town in 1810, and
+was first chartered as a city in 1854. The city boundary lines
+were extended in 1905 by the annexation of Audubon and
+Edgewood. Henderson was for some time the home of John
+James Audubon, the ornithologist.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENDIADYS,<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> the name adopted from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="hen dia duoin">&#7955;&#957; &#948;&#953;&#8048; &#948;&#965;&#959;&#8150;&#957;</span>
+(&ldquo;one by means of two&rdquo;) for a rhetorical figure, in which two
+words connected by a copulative conjunction are used of a single
+idea; usually the figure takes the form of two substantives
+instead of a substantive and adjective, as in the classical example
+<i>pateris libamus et auro</i> (Virgil, <i>Georgics</i>, ii. 192), &ldquo;we pour
+libations in cups and gold&rdquo; for &ldquo;cups of gold.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENDON,<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> an urban district in the Harrow parliamentary
+division of Middlesex, England, on the river Brent, 8 m. N.W.
+of St Paul&rsquo;s Cathedral, London, served by the Midland railway.
+Pop. (1891), 15,843; (1901), 22,450. The nucleus of the township
+lies on high ground to the east of the Edgware road, which crosses
+the Welsh Harp reservoir of Regent&rsquo;s Canal, a favourite fishing
+and skating resort. The church of St Mary is mainly Perpendicular,
+and contains a Norman font and monuments of the
+18th century. To the north of the village, which has extended
+greatly as a residential suburb of the metropolis, is Mill Hill,
+with a Roman Catholic Missionary College, opened in 1871,
+with branches at Rosendaal, Holland and Brixen, Austria, and
+a preparatory school at Freshfield near Liverpool; and a large
+grammar school founded by Nonconformists in 1807. The
+manor belonged at an early date to the abbot of Westminster.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENDRICKS, THOMAS ANDREWS<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> (1819-1885), American
+political leader, vice-president of the United States in 1885,
+was born near Zanesville, Ohio, on the 7th of September 1819.
+He graduated at Hanover College, Hanover, Indiana, in 1841,
+and began in 1843 a successful career at the bar. Identifying
+himself with the Democratic party, he served in the state House
+of Representatives in 1848, and was a prominent member of the
+convention for the revision of the state constitution in 1850-1851,
+a representative in Congress (1851-1855), commissioner of the
+United States General Land Office (1855-1859), a United States
+senator (1863-1869), and governor of Indiana (1873-1877).
+From 1868 until his death he was put forward for nomination
+for the presidency at every national Democratic Convention save
+in 1872. Both in 1876 and 1884, after his failure to receive the
+nomination for the presidency, he was nominated by the Democratic
+National Convention for vice-president, his nomination
+in each of these conventions being made partly, it seems, with
+the hope of gaining &ldquo;greenback&rdquo; votes&mdash;Hendricks had opposed
+the immediate resumption of specie payments. In 1876, with
+S. J. Tilden, he lost the disputed election by the decision
+of the electoral commission, but he was elected with Grover
+Cleveland in 1884. He died at Indianapolis on the 25th of
+November 1885.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENGELO,<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Hengeloo</span>, a town in the province of Overyssel,
+Holland, and a junction station 5 m. by rail N.W. of Enschede.
+Pop. (1900), 14,968. The castle belonging to the ancient territorial
+lords of Hengelo has long since disappeared, and the only
+interest the town now possesses is as the centre of the flourishing
+industries of the Twente district. The manufacture of cotton
+in all its branches is very actively carried on, and there are
+dye-works and breweries, besides the engineering works of the
+state railway company.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENGEST<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> and <b>HORSA</b>, the brother chieftains who led the first
+Saxon bands which settled in England. They were apparently
+called in by the British king Vortigern (<i>q.v.</i>) to defend him against
+the Picts. The place of their landing is said to have been
+Ebbsfleet in Kent. Its date is not certainly known, 450-455
+being given by the English authorities, 428 by the Welsh (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kent</a></span>). The settlers of Kent are described by Bede as Jutes
+(<i>q.v.</i>), and there are traces in Kentish custom of differences
+from the other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. Hengest and Horsa
+were at first given the island of Thanet as a home, but soon
+quarrelled with their British allies, and gradually possessed
+themselves of what became the kingdom of Kent. In 455 the
+Saxon Chronicle records a battle between Hengest and Horsa
+and Vortigern at a place called Aegaels threp, in which Horsa
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page269" id="page269"></a>269</span>
+was slain. Thenceforward Hengest reigned in Kent, together
+with his son Aesc (Oisc). Both the <i>Saxon Chronicle</i> and the
+<i>Historia Brittonum</i> record three subsequent battles, though
+the two authorities disagree as to their issue. There is no doubt,
+however, that the net result was the expulsion of the Britons
+from Kent. According to the <i>Chronicle</i>, which probably
+derived its information from a lost list of Kentish kings, Hengest
+died in 488, while his son Aesc continued to reign until 512.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Bede, <i>Hist. Eccl.</i> (Plummer, 1896), i. 15, ii. 5; <i>Saxon Chronicle</i>
+(Earle and Plummer, 1899), s.a. 449, 455, 457, 465, 473; Nennius,
+<i>Historia Brittonum</i> (San Marte, 1844), §§ 31, 37, 38, 43-46, 58.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENGSTENBERG, ERNST WILHELM<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> (1802-1869), German
+Lutheran divine and theologian, was born at Fröndenberg, a
+Westphalian village, on the 20th of October 1802. He was
+educated by his father, who was a minister of the Reformed
+Church, and head of the Fröndenberg convent of canonesses
+(Fräuleinstift). Entering the university of Bonn in 1819, he
+attended the lectures of G. G. Freytag for Oriental languages
+and of F. K. L. Gieseler for church history, but his energies were
+principally devoted to philosophy and philology, and his earliest
+publication was an edition of the Arabic <i>Moallakat</i> of Amru&rsquo;l-Qais,
+which gained for him the prize at his graduation in the
+philosophical faculty. This was followed in 1824 by a German
+translation of Aristotle&rsquo;s <i>Metaphysics</i>. Finding himself without
+the means to complete his theological studies under Neander
+and Tholuck in Berlin, he accepted a post at Basel as tutor in
+Oriental languages to J. J. Stähelin, who afterwards became
+professor at the university. Then it was that he began to direct
+his attention to a study of the Bible, which led him to a conviction,
+never afterwards shaken, not only of the divine character of
+evangelical religion, but also of the unapproachable adequacy
+of its expression in the Augsburg Confession. In 1824 he joined
+the philosophical faculty of Berlin as a <i>Privatdozent</i>, and in
+1825 he became a licentiate in theology, his theses being remarkable
+for their evangelical fervour and for their emphatic protest
+against every form of &ldquo;rationalism,&rdquo; especially in questions of
+Old Testament criticism. In 1826 he became professor extraordinarius
+in theology; and in July 1827 appeared, under his
+editorship, the <i>Evangelische Kirchenzeitung</i>, a strictly orthodox
+journal, which in his hands acquired an almost unique reputation
+as a controversial organ. It did not, however, attain to great
+notoriety until in 1830 an anonymous article (by E. L. von
+Gerlach) appeared, which openly charged Wilhelm Gesenius
+and J. A. L. Wegscheider with infidelity and profanity, and on
+the ground of these accusations advocated the interposition of
+the civil power, thus giving rise to the prolonged <i>Hallische
+Streit</i>. In 1828 the first volume of Hengstenberg&rsquo;s <i>Christologie
+des Alten Testaments</i> passed through the press; in the autumn
+of that year he became professor ordinarius in theology, and
+in 1829 doctor of theology. He died on the 28th of May 1869.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The following is a list of his principal works: <i>Christologie des
+Alten Testaments</i> (1829-1835; 2nd ed., 1854-1857; Eng. trans. by
+R. Keith, 1835-1839, also in Clark&rsquo;s &ldquo;Foreign Theological Library,&rdquo;
+by T. Meyer and J. Martin, 1854-1858), a work of much learning,
+the estimate of which varies according to the hermeneutical principles
+of the individual critic; <i>Beiträge zur Einleitung in das Alte Testament</i>
+(1831-1839); Eng. trans., <i>Dissertations on the Genuineness of Daniel
+and the Integrity of Zechariah</i> (Edin., 1848), and <i>Dissertations
+on the Genuineness of the Pentateuch</i> (Edin., 1847), in which the
+traditional view on each question is strongly upheld, and much
+capital is made of the absence of harmony among the negative
+critics; <i>Die Bücher Moses und Ägypten</i> (1841); <i>Die Geschichte
+Bileams u. seiner Weissagungen</i> (1842; translated along with the
+Dissertations on Daniel and Zechariah); <i>Commentar über die Psalmen</i>
+(1842-1847; 2nd ed., 1849-1852; Eng. trans. by P. Fairbairn
+and J. Thomson, Edin., 1844-1848), which shares the merits
+and defects of the <i>Christologie; Die Offenbarung Johannis erläutert</i>
+(1849-1851; 2nd ed., 1861-1862; Eng. trans. by P. Fairbairn,
+also in Clark&rsquo;s &ldquo;Foreign Theological Library,&rdquo; 1851-1852); <i>Das
+Hohe Lied ausgelegt</i> (1853); <i>Der Prediger Salomo ausgelegt</i> (1859);
+<i>Das Evangelium Johannis erläutert</i> (1861-1863; 2nd ed., 1867-1871;
+Eng. trans., 1865) and <i>Die Weissagungen des Propheten Ezechiel
+erläutert</i> (1867-1868). Of minor importance are <i>De rebus Tyriorum
+commentatio academica</i> (1832); <i>Über den Tag des Herrn</i> (1852); <i>Das
+Passa, ein Vortrag</i> (1853); and <i>Die Opfer der heiligen Schrift</i> (1859).
+Several series of papers also, as, for example, on &ldquo;The Retention
+of the Apocrypha,&rdquo; &ldquo;Freemasonry&rdquo; (1854), &ldquo;Duelling&rdquo; (1856) and
+&ldquo;The Relation between the Jews and the Christian Church&rdquo; (1857;
+2nd ed., 1859), which originally appeared in the <i>Kirchenzeitung</i>, were
+afterwards printed in a separate form. <i>Geschichte des Reiches Gottes
+unter dem Alten Bunde</i> (1869-1871), <i>Das Buch Hiob erläutert</i> (1870-1875)
+and <i>Vorlesungen über die Leidensgeschichte</i> (1875) were published
+posthumously.</p>
+
+<p>See J. Bachmann&rsquo;s <i>Ernst Wilhelm Hengstenberg</i> (1876-1879);
+also his article in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i> (1899), and the
+article in the <i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i>. Also F. Lichtenberger,
+<i>History of German Theology in the Nineteenth Century</i> (1889), pp.
+212-217; Philip Schaff, <i>Germany; its Universities, Theology and
+Religion</i> (1857), pp. 300-319.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENKE, HEINRICH PHILIPP KONRAD<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> (1752-1809),
+German theologian, best known as a writer on church history,
+was born at Hehlen, Brunswick, on the 3rd of July 1752. He
+was educated at the gymnasium of Brunswick and the university
+of Helmstädt, and from 1778 to 1809 he was professor, first of
+philosophy, then of theology, in that university. In 1803 he
+was appointed principal of the Carolinum in Brunswick as well.
+He died on the 2nd of May 1809. Henke belonged to the
+rationalistic school. His principal work (<i>Allgemeine Geschichte
+der christl. Kirche</i>, 6 vols., 1788-1804; 2nd ed., 1795-1806) is
+commended by F. C. Baur for fullness, accuracy and artistic
+composition. His other works are <i>Lineamenta institutionum
+fidei Christianae historico-criticarum</i> (1783), <i>Opuscula academica</i>
+(1802) and two volumes of <i>Predigten</i>. He was also editor of
+the <i>Magazin für die Religionsphilosophie, Exegese und Kirchengeschichte</i>
+(1793-1802) and the <i>Archiv für die neueste Kirchengeschichte</i>
+(1794-1799).</p>
+
+<p>His son, <span class="sc">Ernst Ludwig Theodor Henke</span> (1804-1872), after
+studying at the university of Jena, became <i>professor extraordinarius</i>
+there in 1833, and professor ordinarius of Marburg
+in 1839. He is known as the author of monographs upon
+<i>Georg Calixt u. seine Zeit</i> (1853-1860), <i>Papst Pius VII.</i> (1860),
+<i>Konrad von Marburg</i> (1861), <i>Kaspar Peucer u. Nik. Krell</i>
+(1865), <i>Jak. Friedr. Fries</i> (1867), <i>Zur neuern Kirchengeschichte</i>
+(1867).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENLE, FRIEDRICH GUSTAV JAKOB<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> (1809-1885),
+German pathologist and anatomist, was born on the 9th of
+July 1809 at Fürth, in Franconia. After studying medicine
+at Heidelberg and at Bonn, where he took his doctor&rsquo;s degree
+in 1832, he became prosector in anatomy to Johannes Müller at
+Berlin. During the six years he spent in that position he published
+a large amount of work, including three anatomical
+monographs on new species of animals, and papers on the
+structure of the lacteal system, the distribution of epithelium
+in the human body, the structure and development of the hair,
+the formation of mucus and pus, &amp;c. In 1840 he accepted the
+chair of anatomy at Zürich, and in 1844 he was called to Heidelberg,
+where he taught not only anatomy, but physiology and
+pathology. About this period he was engaged on his complete
+system of general anatomy, which formed the sixth volume of
+the new edition of S. T. von Sömmerring&rsquo;s treatise, published
+at Leipzig between 1841 and 1844. While at Heidelberg he
+published a zoological monograph on the sharks and rays, in
+conjunction with his master Müller, and in 1846 his famous
+<i>Manual of Rational Pathology</i> began to appear; this marked
+the beginning of a new era in pathological study, since in it
+physiology and pathology were treated, in Henle&rsquo;s own words,
+as &ldquo;branches of one science,&rdquo; and the facts of disease were
+systematically considered with reference to their physiological
+relations. In 1852 he moved to Göttingen, whence he issued
+three years later the first instalment of his great <i>Handbook
+of Systematic Human Anatomy</i>, the last volume of which was not
+published till 1873. This work was perhaps the most complete
+and comprehensive of its kind that had so far appeared, and
+it was remarkable not only for the fullness and minuteness of
+the anatomical descriptions, but also for the number and excellence
+of the illustrations with which they were elucidated.
+During the latter half of his life Henle&rsquo;s researches were mainly
+histological in character, his investigations embracing the
+minute anatomy of the blood vessels, serous membranes, kidney,
+eye, nails, central nervous system, &amp;c. He died at Göttingen
+on the 13th of May 1885.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page270" id="page270"></a>270</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">HENLEY, JOHN<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> (1692-1759), English clergyman, commonly
+known as &ldquo;Orator Henley,&rdquo; was born on the 3rd of August
+1692 at Melton-Mowbray, where his father was vicar. After
+attending the grammar schools of Melton and Oakham, he
+entered St John&rsquo;s College, Cambridge, and while still an undergraduate
+he addressed in February 1712, under the pseudonym
+of Peter de Quir, a letter to the <i>Spectator</i> displaying no small wit
+and humour. After graduating B.A., he became assistant and
+then headmaster of the grammar school of his native town,
+uniting to these duties those of assistant curate. His abundant
+energy found still further expression in a poem entitled <i>Esther,
+Queen of Persia</i> (1714), and in the compilation of a grammar
+of ten languages entitled <i>The Complete Linguist</i> (2 vols., London,
+1719-1721). He then decided to go to London, where he obtained
+the appointment of assistant preacher in the chapels of Ormond
+Street and Bloomsbury. In 1723 he was presented to the rectory
+of Chelmondiston in Suffolk; but residence being insisted on,
+he resigned both his appointments, and on the 3rd of July 1726
+opened what he called an &ldquo;oratory&rdquo; in Newport Market, which
+he licensed under the Toleration Act. In 1729 he transferred
+the scene of his operations to Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn Fields. Into his
+services he introduced many peculiar alterations: he drew up
+a &ldquo;Primitive Liturgy,&rdquo; in which he substituted for the Nicene
+and Athanasian creeds two creeds taken from the Apostolical
+Constitutions; for his &ldquo;Primitive Eucharist&rdquo; he made use of
+unleavened bread and mixed wine; he distributed at the price of
+one shilling medals of admission to his oratory, with the device
+of a sun rising to the meridian, with the motto <i>Ad summa</i>, and
+the words <i>Inveniam viam aut faciam</i> below. But the most original
+element in the services was Henley himself, who is described by
+Pope in the <i>Dunciad</i> as</p>
+
+<p class="center f90">&ldquo;Preacher at once and zany of his age.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p class="noind">He possessed some oratorical ability and adopted a very theatrical
+style of elocution, &ldquo;tuning his voice and balancing his hands&rdquo;;
+and his addresses were a strange medley of solemnity and
+buffoonery, of clever wit and the wildest absurdity, of able and
+original disquisition and the worst artifices of the oratorical
+charlatan. His services were much frequented by the &ldquo;free-thinkers,&rdquo;
+and he himself expressed his determination &ldquo;to die
+a rational.&rdquo; Besides his Sunday sermons, he delivered Wednesday
+lectures on social and political subjects; and he also projected
+a scheme for connecting with the &ldquo;oratory&rdquo; a university
+on quite a utopian plan. For some time he edited the <i>Hyp
+Doctor</i>, a weekly paper established in opposition to the <i>Craftsman</i>,
+and for this service he enjoyed a pension of £100 a year
+from Sir Robert Walpole. At first the orations of Henley drew
+great crowds, but, although he never discontinued his services,
+his audience latterly dwindled almost entirely away. He died
+on the 13th of October 1759.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Henley is the subject of several of Hogarth&rsquo;s prints. His life,
+professedly written by A. Welstede, but in all probability by himself,
+was inserted by him in his <i>Oratory Transactions</i>. See J. B. Nichols,
+<i>History of Leicestershire</i>; I. Disraeli, <i>Calamities of Authors</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENLEY, WILLIAM ERNEST<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> (1849-1903), British poet,
+critic and editor, was born on the 23rd of August 1849 at Gloucester,
+and was educated at the Crypt Grammar School in that
+city. The school was a sort of Cinderella sister to the Cathedral
+School, and Henley indicated its shortcomings in his article
+(<i>Pall Mall Magazine</i>, Nov. 1900) on T. E. Brown the poet, who
+was headmaster there for a brief period. Brown&rsquo;s appointment,
+uncongenial to himself, was a stroke of luck for Henley, for whom,
+as he said, it represented a first acquaintance with a man of
+genius. &ldquo;He was singularly kind to me at a moment when I
+needed kindness even more than I needed encouragement.&rdquo;
+Among other kindnesses Brown did him the essential service
+of lending him books. To the end Henley was no classical
+scholar, but his knowledge and love of literature were vital.
+Afflicted with a physical infirmity, he found himself in 1874, at
+the age of twenty-five, an inmate of the hospital at Edinburgh.
+From there he sent to the <i>Cornhill Magazine</i> poems in irregular
+rhythms, describing with poignant force his experiences in
+hospital. Leslie Stephen, then editor, being in Edinburgh,
+visited his contributor in hospital and took Robert Louis Stevenson,
+another recruit of the <i>Cornhill</i>, with him. The meeting
+between Stevenson and Henley, and the friendship of which it
+was the beginning, form one of the best-known episodes in recent
+literature (see especially Stevenson&rsquo;s letter to Mrs Sitwell,
+Jan. 1875, and Henley&rsquo;s poems &ldquo;An Apparition&rdquo; and &ldquo;Envoy
+to Charles Baxter&rdquo;). In 1877 Henley went to London and
+began his editorial career by editing <i>London</i>, a journal of a
+type more usual in Paris than London, written for the sake of
+its contributors rather than of the public. Among other distinctions
+it first gave to the world <i>The New Arabian Nights</i> of
+Stevenson. Henley himself contributed to his journal a series
+of verses chiefly in old French forms. He had been writing
+poetry since 1872, but (so he told the world in his &ldquo;advertisement&rdquo;
+to his collected <i>Poems</i>, 1898) he &ldquo;found himself about
+1877 so utterly unmarketable that he had to own himself beaten
+in art and to addict himself to journalism for the next ten years.&rdquo;
+After the decease of <i>London</i>, he edited the <i>Magazine of Art</i> from
+1882 to 1886. At the end of that period he came before the public
+as a poet. In 1887 Mr Gleeson White made for the popular series
+of <i>Canterbury Poets</i> (edited by Mr William Sharp) a selection
+of poems in old French forms. In his selection Mr Gleeson White
+included a considerable number of pieces from <i>London</i>, and only
+after he had completed the selection did he discover that the
+verses were all by one hand, that of Henley. In the following
+year, Mr H. B. Donkin in his volume <i>Voluntaries</i>, done for an
+East End hospital, included Henley&rsquo;s unrhymed rhythms
+quintessentializing the poet&rsquo;s memories of the old Edinburgh
+Infirmary. Mr Alfred Nutt read these, and asked for more;
+and in 1888 his firm published <i>A Book of Verse</i>. Henley was
+by this time well known in a restricted literary circle, and the
+publication of this volume determined for them his fame as a
+poet, which rapidly outgrew these limits, two new editions of
+this volume being called for within three years. In this same
+year (1888) Mr Fitzroy Bell started the <i>Scots Observer</i> in Edinburgh,
+with Henley as literary editor, and early in 1889 Mr Bell
+left the conduct of the paper to him. It was a weekly review
+somewhat on the lines of the old <i>Saturday Review</i>, but inspired
+in every paragraph by the vigorous and combative personality
+of the editor. It was transferred soon after to London as the
+<i>National Observer</i>, and remained under Henley&rsquo;s editorship until
+1893. Though, as Henley confessed, the paper had almost as
+many writers as readers, and its fame was mainly confined to
+the literary class, it was a lively and not uninfluential feature
+of the literary life of its time. Henley had the editor&rsquo;s great gift
+of discerning promise, and the &ldquo;Men of the <i>Scots Observer</i>,&rdquo; as
+Henley affectionately and characteristically called his band of
+contributors, in most instances justified his insight. The paper
+found utterance for the growing imperialism of its day, and
+among other services to literature gave to the world Mr Kipling&rsquo;s
+<i>Barrack-Room Ballads</i>. In 1890 Henley published <i>Views and
+Reviews</i>, a volume of notable criticisms, described by himself
+as &ldquo;less a book than a <span class="correction" title="amended from mosiac">mosaic</span> of scraps and shreds recovered
+from the shot rubbish of some fourteen years of journalism.&rdquo;
+The criticisms, covering a wide range of authors (except Heine
+and Tolstoy, all English and French), though wilful and often
+one-sided were terse, trenchant and picturesque, and remarkable
+for insight and gusto. In 1892 he published a second volume of
+poetry, named after the first poem, <i>The Song of the Sword</i>, but
+on the issue of the second edition (1893) re-christened <i>London
+Voluntaries</i> after another section. Stevenson wrote that he
+had not received the same thrill of poetry since Mr Meredith&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;Joy of Earth&rdquo; and &ldquo;Love in the Valley,&rdquo; and he did not know
+that that was so intimate and so deep. &ldquo;I did not guess you
+were so great a magician. These are new tunes; this is an
+undertone of the true Apollo. These are not verse; they are
+poetry.&rdquo; In 1892 Henley published also three plays written
+with Stevenson&mdash;<i>Beau Austin</i>, <i>Deacon Brodie</i> and <i>Admiral
+Guinea</i>. In 1895 followed <i>Macaire</i>, afterwards published in
+a volume with the other plays. <i>Deacon Brodie</i> was produced in
+Edinburgh in 1884 and later in London. Beerbohm Tree produced
+<i>Beau Austin</i> at the Haymarket on the 3rd of November 1890
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page271" id="page271"></a>271</span>
+and <i>Macaire</i> at His Majesty&rsquo;s on the 2nd of May 1901. <i>Admiral
+Guinea</i> also achieved stage performance. In the meantime
+Henley was active in the magazines and did notable editorial
+work for the publishers: the <i>Lyra Heroica</i>, 1891; <i>A Book of
+English Prose</i> (with Mr Charles Whibley), 1894; the centenary
+Burns (with Mr T. F. Henderson) in 1896-1897, in which Henley&rsquo;s
+Essay (published separately 1898) roused considerable controversy.
+In 1892 he undertook for Mr Nutt the general editorship
+of the <i>Tudor Translations</i>; and in 1897 began for Mr
+Heinemann an edition of Byron, which did not proceed beyond
+one volume of letters. In 1898 he published a collection of his
+<i>Poems</i> in one volume, with the autobiographical &ldquo;advertisement&rdquo;
+above quoted; in 1899 <i>London Types</i>, Quatorzains to
+accompany Mr William Nicolson&rsquo;s designs; and in 1900 during
+the Boer War, a patriotic poetical brochure, <i>For England&rsquo;s
+Sake</i>. In 1901 he published a second volume of collected poetry
+with the title <i>Hawthorn and Lavender</i>, uniform with the volume
+of 1898. In 1902 he collected his various articles on painters and
+artists and published them as a companion volume of <i>Views
+and Reviews: Art</i>. These with &ldquo;A Song of Speed&rdquo; printed
+in May 1903 within two months of his death make up his tale
+of work. At the close of his life he was engaged upon his edition
+of the Authorized Version of the Bible for his series of <i>Tudor
+Translations</i>. There remained uncollected some of his scattered
+articles in periodicals and reviews, especially the series of literary
+articles contributed to the <i>Pall Mall Magazine</i> from 1899 until
+his death. These contain the most outspoken utterances of a
+critic never mealy-mouthed, and include the splenetic attack on
+the memory of his dead friend R. L. Stevenson, which aroused
+deep regret and resentment. In 1894 Henley lost his little six-year-old
+daughter Margaret; he had borne the &ldquo;bludgeonings
+of chance&rdquo; with &ldquo;the unconquerable soul&rdquo; of which he boasted,
+not unjustifiably, in a well-known poem; but this blow broke
+his heart. With the knowledge of this fact, some of these outbursts
+may be better understood; yet we have the evidence of
+a clear-eyed critic who knew Henley well, that he found him
+more generous, more sympathetic at the close of his life than he
+had been before. He died on the 11th of July 1903. In spite
+of his too boisterous mannerism and prejudices, he exercised
+by his originality, independence and fearlessness an inspiring
+and inspiriting influence on the higher class of journalism. This
+influence he exercised by word of mouth as well as by his pen,
+for he was a famous talker, and figures as &ldquo;Burly&rdquo; in Stevenson&rsquo;s
+essay on <i>Talk and Talkers</i>. As critic he was a good hater and a
+good fighter. His virtue lay in his vital and vitalizing love of good
+literature, and the vivid and pictorial phrases he found to give
+it expression. But his fame must rest on his poetry. He excelled
+alike in his delicate experiments in complicated metres, and the
+strong impressionism of <i>Hospital Sketches</i> and <i>London Voluntaries</i>.
+The influence of Heine may be discerned in these &ldquo;unrhymed
+rhythms&rdquo;; but he was perhaps a truer and more
+successful disciple of Heine in his snatches of passionate song,
+the best of which should retain their place in English literature.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also references in <i>Stevenson&rsquo;s Letters</i>; <i>Cornhill Magazine</i> (1903)
+(Sidney Low); <i>Fortnightly Review</i> (August 1892) (Arthur Symons);
+and for bibliography, <i>English Illustrated Magazine</i>, vol. xxix. p. 548.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. P. J.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENLEY-ON-THAMES,<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> a market town and municipal
+borough in the Henley parliamentary division of Oxfordshire,
+England, on the left bank of the Thames, the terminus of a
+branch of the Great Western railway, by which it is 35¾ m. W.
+of London, while it is 57½ m. by river. Pop. (1901) 5984. It
+occupies one of the most beautiful situations on the Thames,
+at the foot of the finely wooded Chiltern Hills. The river is
+crossed by an elegant stone bridge of five arches, constructed
+in 1786. The parish church (Decorated and Perpendicular)
+possesses a lofty tower of intermingled flint and stone, attributed
+to Cardinal Wolsey, but more probably erected by Bishop
+Longland. The grammar school, founded in 1605, is incorporated
+with a Blue Coat school. Henley is a favourite summer resort,
+and is celebrated for the annual Henley Royal Regatta, the
+principal gathering of amateur oarsmen in England, first held
+in 1839 and usually taking place in July. Henley is governed
+by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 549 acres.</p>
+
+<p>Henley-on-Thames (Hanlegang, Henle, Handley), not
+mentioned in Domesday, was a manor or ancient demesne of the
+crown and was granted (1337) to John de Molyns, whose family
+held it for about 250 years. It is said that members for Henley
+sat in parliaments of Edward I. and Edward III., but no writs
+have been found. Henry VIII. having granted the use of the
+titles &ldquo;mayor&rdquo; and &ldquo;burgess,&rdquo; the town was incorporated
+in 1570-1571 by the name of the warden, portreeves, burgesses
+and commonalty. Henley suffered from both parties in the Civil
+War. William III. on his march to London (1688) rested here
+and received a deputation from the Lords. The period of
+prosperity in the 17th and 18th centuries was due to manufactures
+of glass and malt, and to trade in corn and wool. The
+existing Thursday market was granted by a charter of John
+and the existing Corpus Christi fair by a charter of Henry VI.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J. S. Burn, <i>History of Henley-on-Thames</i> (London, 1861).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENNA,<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> the Persian name for a small shrub found in India,
+Persia, the Levant and along the African coasts of the Mediterranean,
+where it is frequently cultivated. It is the <i>Lawsonia
+alba</i> of botanists, and from the fact that young trees are spineless,
+while older ones have the branchlets hardened into spines, it
+has also received the names of <i>Lawsonia inermis</i> and <i>L. spinosa</i>.
+It forms a slender shrubby plant of from 8 to 10 ft. high, with
+opposite lance-shaped smooth leaves, which are entire at the
+margins, and bears small white four-petalled sweet-scented
+flowers disposed in panicles. Its Egyptian name is <i>Khenna</i>,
+its Arabic name <i>Al Khanna</i>, its Indian name <i>Mendee</i>, while in
+England it is called <i>Egyptian privet</i>, and in the West Indies,
+where it is naturalized, <i>Jamaica mignonette</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Henna or Henné is of ancient repute as a cosmetic. This
+consists of the leaves of the <i>Lawsonia</i> powdered and made up
+into a paste; this is employed by the Egyptian women, and
+also by the Mahommedan women in India, to dye their fingernails
+and other parts of their hands and feet of an orange-red
+colour, which is considered to add to their beauty. The colour
+lasts for three or four weeks, when it requires to be renewed.
+It is moreover used for dyeing the hair and beard, and even the
+manes of horses; and the same material is employed for dyeing
+skins and morocco-leather a reddish-yellow, but it contains no
+tannin. The practice of dyeing the nails was common amongst
+the Egyptians, and not to conform to it would have been considered
+indecent. It has descended from very remote ages,
+as is proved by the evidence afforded by Egyptian mummies,
+the nails of which are most commonly stained of a reddish hue.
+Henna is also said to have been held in repute amongst the
+Hebrews, being considered to be the plant referred to as camphire
+in the Bible (Song of Solomon i. 14, iv. 13). &ldquo;The custom of
+dyeing the nails and palms of the hands and soles of the feet of
+an iron-rust colour with henna,&rdquo; observes Dr J. Forbes Royle,
+&ldquo;exists throughout the East from the Mediterranean to the
+Ganges, as well as in northern Africa. In some parts the practice
+is not confined to women and children, but is also followed by
+men, especially in Persia. In dyeing the beard the hair is turned
+to red by this application, which is then changed to black by
+a preparation of indigo. In dyeing the hair of children, and the
+tails and manes of horses and asses, the process is allowed to
+stop at the red colour which the henna produces.&rdquo; Mahomet,
+it is said, used henna as a dye for his beard, and the fashion was
+adopted by the caliphs. &ldquo;The use of henna,&rdquo; remarks Lady
+Callcott in her <i>Scripture Herbal</i>, &ldquo;is scarcely to be called a
+caprice in the East. There is a quality in the drug which gently
+restrains perspiration in the hands and feet, and produces an
+agreeable coolness equally conducive to health and comfort.&rdquo;
+She further suggests that if the Jewish women were not in the
+habit of using this dye before the time of Solomon, it might
+probably have been introduced amongst them by his wife, the
+daughter of Pharaoh, and traces to this probability the allusion
+to &ldquo;camphire&rdquo; in the passages in Canticles above referred to.</p>
+
+<p>The preparation of henna consists in reducing the leaves
+and young twigs to a fine powder, catechu or lucerne leaves
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page272" id="page272"></a>272</span>
+in a pulverized state being sometimes mixed with them. When
+required for use, the powder is made into a pasty mass with hot
+water, and is then spread upon the part to be dyed, where it
+is generally allowed to remain for one night. According to Lady
+Callcott, the flowers are often used by the Eastern women to adorn
+their hair. The distilled water from the flowers is used as a
+perfume.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENNEBONT,<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> a town of western France, in the department
+of Morbihan, 6 m. N.E. of Lorient by road. Pop. (1906) 7250.
+It is situated about 10 m. from the mouth of the Blavet, which
+divides it into two parts&mdash;the <i>Ville Close</i>, the medieval military
+town, and the <i>Ville Neuve</i> on the left bank and the <i>Vieille Ville</i>
+on the right bank. The Ville Close, surrounded by ramparts
+and entered by a massive gateway flanked by machicolated
+towers, consists of narrow quiet streets bordered by houses of the
+16th and 17th centuries. The Ville Neuve, which lies nearer the
+river, developed during the 17th century and later than the
+Ville Close, while the Vieille Ville is older than either. The only
+building of architectural importance is the church of Notre-Dame
+de Paradis (16th century) preceded by a tower with an ornamented
+stone spire. There are scanty remains of the old fortress.
+Hennebont has a small but busy river-port accessible to vessels
+of 200 to 300 tons. An important foundry in the environs of
+the town employs 1400 work-people in the manufacture of tin-plate
+for sardine boxes and other purposes. Boat-building,
+tanning, distilling and the manufacture of earthenware, white
+lead and chemical manures are also carried on. Granite is worked
+in the neighbourhood. Hennebont is famed for the resistance
+which it made, under the widow of Jean de Montfort, when
+besieged in 1342 by the armies of Philip of Valois and Charles of
+Blois during the War of the Succession in Brittany (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Brittany</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENNEQUIN, PHILIPPE AUGUSTE<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> (1763-1833), French
+painter, was a pupil of David. He was born at Lyons in 1763,
+distinguished himself early by winning the &ldquo;Grand Prix,&rdquo; and
+left France for Italy. The disturbances at Rome, during the
+course of the Revolution, obliged him to return to Paris, where
+he executed the Federation of the 14th of July, and he was
+at work on a large design commissioned for the town-hall of
+Lyons, when in July 1794 he was accused before the revolutionary
+tribunal and thrown into prison. Hennequin escaped, only to be
+anew accused and imprisoned in Paris, and after running great
+danger of death, seems to have devoted himself thenceforth
+wholly to his profession. At Paris he finished the picture ordered
+for the municipality of Lyons, and in 1801 produced his chief
+work, &ldquo;Orestes pursued by the Furies&rdquo; (Louvre, engraved by
+Landon, <i>Annales du Musée</i>, vol. i. p. 105). He was one of the
+four painters who competed when in 1802 Gros carried off the
+official prize for a picture of the Battle of Nazareth, and in 1808
+Napoleon himself ordered Hennequin to illustrate a series of
+scenes from his German campaigns, and commanded that his
+picture of the &ldquo;Death of General Salomon&rdquo; should be engraved.
+After 1815 Hennequin retired to Liége, and there, aided by
+subventions from the Government, carried out a large historical
+picture of the &ldquo;Death of the Three Hundred in defence of Liége&rdquo;&mdash;a
+sketch of which he himself engraved. In 1824 Hennequin
+settled at Tournay, and became director of the academy; he
+exhibited various works at Lille in the following year, and
+continued to produce actively up to the day of his death in
+May 1833.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENNER, JEAN JACQUES<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> (1829-1905), French painter, was
+born on the 5th of March 1829 at Dornach (Alsace). At first
+a pupil of Drolling and of Picot, he entered the École des Beaux-Arts
+in 1848, and took the Prix de Rome with a painting of
+&ldquo;Adam and Eve finding the Body of Abel&rdquo; (1858). At Rome
+he was guided by Flandrin, and, among other works, painted
+four pictures for the gallery at Colmar. He first exhibited at
+the Salon in 1863 a &ldquo;Bather Asleep,&rdquo; and subsequently contributed
+&ldquo;Chaste Susanna&rdquo; (1865); &ldquo;Byblis turned into a Spring&rdquo;
+(1867); &ldquo;The Magdalene&rdquo; (1878); &ldquo;Portrait of M. Hayem&rdquo;
+(1878); &ldquo;Christ Entombed&rdquo; (1879); &ldquo;Saint Jerome&rdquo; (1881);
+&ldquo;Herodias&rdquo; (1887); &ldquo;A Study&rdquo; (1891); &ldquo;Christ in His
+Shroud,&rdquo; and a &ldquo;Portrait of Carolus-Duran&rdquo; (1896); a &ldquo;Portrait
+of Mlle Fouquier&rdquo; (1897); &ldquo;The Levite of the Tribe of Ephraim&rdquo;
+(1898), for which a first-class medal was awarded to him; and
+&ldquo;The Dream&rdquo; (1900). Among other professional distinctions
+Henner also took a Grand Prix for painting at the Paris International
+Exhibition of 1900. He was made Knight of the Legion
+of Honour in 1873, Officer in 1878 and Commander in 1889.
+In 1889 he succeeded Cabanel in the Institut de France.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See E. Bricon, <i>Psychologie d&rsquo;art</i> (Paris, 1900); C. Phillips, <i>Art
+Journal</i> (1888); F. Wedmore, <i>Magazine of Art</i> (1888).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENRIETTA MARIA<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> (1609-1666), queen of Charles I. of
+England, born on the 25th of November 1609, was the daughter
+of Henry IV. of France. When the first serious overtures for
+her hand were made on behalf of Charles, prince of Wales,
+in the spring of 1624, she was little more than fourteen years of
+age. Her brother, Louis XIII., only consented to the marriage
+on the condition that the English Roman Catholics were relieved
+from the operation of the penal laws. When therefore she set
+out for her new home in June 1625, she had already pledged
+the husband to whom she had been married by proxy on the
+1st of May to a course of action which was certain to bring
+unpopularity on him as well as upon herself.</p>
+
+<p>That husband was now king of England. The early years of
+the married life of Charles I. were most unhappy. He soon
+found an excuse for breaking his promise to relieve the English
+Catholics. His young wife was deeply offended by treatment
+which she naturally regarded as unhandsome. The favourite
+Buckingham stirred the flames of his master&rsquo;s discontent.
+Charles in vain strove to reduce her to tame submission. After
+the assassination of Buckingham in 1628 the barrier between the
+married pair was broken down, and the bond of affection which
+from that moment united them was never loosened. The children
+of the marriage were Charles II. (b. 1630), Mary, princess of
+Orange (b. 1631), James II (b. 1633), Elizabeth (b. 1636)
+Henry, duke of Gloucester (b. 1640), and Henrietta, duchess at
+Orleans (b. 1644).</p>
+
+<p>For some years Henrietta Maria&rsquo;s chief interests lay in her
+young family, and in the amusements of a gay and brilliant
+court. She loved to be present at dramatic entertainments, and
+her participation in the private rehearsals of the <i>Shepherd&rsquo;s
+Pastoral</i>, written by her favourite Walter Montague, probably
+drew down upon her the savage attack of Prynne. With political
+matters she hardly meddled as yet. Even her co-religionists
+found little aid from her till the summer of 1637. She had then
+recently opened a diplomatic communication with the see of
+Rome. She appointed an agent to reside at Rome, and a papal
+agent, a Scotsman named George Conn, accredited to her,
+was soon engaged in effecting conversions amongst the English
+gentry and nobility. Henrietta Maria was well pleased to become
+a patroness of so holy a work, especially as she was not asked
+to take any personal trouble in the matter. Protestant England
+took alarm at the proceedings of a queen who associated herself
+so closely with the doings of &ldquo;the grim wolf with privy paw.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>When the Scottish troubles broke out, she raised money from
+her fellow-Catholics to support the king&rsquo;s army on the borders in
+1639. During the session of the Short Parliament in the spring
+of 1640, the queen urged the king to oppose himself to the House
+of Commons in defence of the Catholics. When the Long Parliament
+met, the Catholics were believed to be the authors and
+agents of every arbitrary scheme which was supposed to have
+entered into the plans of Strafford or Laud. Before the Long
+Parliament had sat for two months, the queen was urging upon
+the pope the duty of lending money to enable her to restore her
+husband&rsquo;s authority. She threw herself heart and soul into the
+schemes for rescuing Strafford and coercing the parliament.
+The army plot, the scheme for using Scotland against England,
+and the attempt upon the five members were the fruits of her
+political activity.</p>
+
+<p>In the next year the queen effected her passage to the Continent.
+In February 1643 she landed at Burlington Quay, placed herself
+at the head of a force of loyalists, and marched through England
+to join the king near Oxford. After little more than a year&rsquo;s
+residence there, on the 3rd of April 1644, she left her husband,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page273" id="page273"></a>273</span>
+to see his face no more. Henrietta Maria found a refuge in
+France. Richelieu was dead, and Anne of Austria was compassionate.
+As long as her husband was alive the queen never
+ceased to encourage him to resistance.</p>
+
+<p>During her exile in France she had much to suffer. Her
+husband&rsquo;s execution in 1649 was a terrible blow. She brought
+up her youngest child Henrietta in her own faith, but her efforts
+to induce her youngest son, the duke of Gloucester, to take the
+same course only produced discomfort in the exiled family. The
+story of her marriage with her attached servant Lord Jermyn
+needs more confirmation than it has yet received to be accepted,
+but all the information which has reached us of her relations with
+her children points to the estrangement which had grown up
+between them. When after the Restoration she returned to
+England, she found that she had no place in the new world.
+She received from parliament a grant of £30,000 a year in compensation
+for the loss of her dower-lands, and the king added
+a similar sum as a pension from himself. In January 1661 she
+returned to France to be present at the marriage of her daughter
+Henrietta to the duke of Orleans. In July 1662 she set out again
+for England, and took up her residence once more at Somerset
+House. Her health failed her, and on the 24th of June 1665, she
+departed in search of the clearer air of her native country. She
+died on the 31st of August 1666, at Colombes, not far from Paris.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See I. A. Taylor, <i>The Life of Queen Henrietta Maria</i> (1905).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENRY<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> (Fr. <i>Henri</i>; Span. <i>Enrique</i>; Ger. <i>Heinrich</i>; Mid.
+H. Ger. <i>Heinrîch</i> and <i>Heimrîch</i>; O.H.G. <i>Haimi-</i> or <i>Heimirîh</i>,
+<i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;prince, or chief of the house,&rdquo; from O.H.G. <i>heim</i>, the Eng.
+<i>home</i>, and <i>rîh</i>, Goth. <i>reiks</i>; compare Lat. <i>rex</i> &ldquo;king&rdquo;&mdash;&ldquo;rich,&rdquo;
+therefore &ldquo;mighty,&rdquo; and so &ldquo;a ruler.&rdquo; Compare Sans. <i>r&#257;dsh</i>
+&ldquo;to shine forth, rule, &amp;c.&rdquo; and mod. <i>raj</i> &ldquo;rule&rdquo; and <i>raja</i>,
+&ldquo;king&rdquo;), the name of many European sovereigns, the more
+important of whom are noticed below in the following order:
+(1) emperors and German kings; (2) kings of England; (3)
+other kings in the alphabetical order of their states; (4) other
+reigning princes in the same order; (5) non-reigning princes;
+(6) bishops, nobles, chroniclers, &amp;c.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENRY I.<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 876-936), surnamed the &ldquo;Fowler,&rdquo; German king,
+son of Otto the Illustrious, duke of Saxony, grew to manhood
+amid the disorders which witnessed to the decay of the Carolingian
+empire, and in early life shared in various campaigns for the
+defence of Saxony. He married Hatburg, a daughter of Irwin,
+count of Merseburg, but as she had taken the veil on the death
+of a former husband this union was declared illegal by the church,
+and in 909 he married Matilda, daughter of a Saxon count named
+Thiederich, and a reputed descendant of the hero Widukind.
+On his father&rsquo;s death in 912 he became duke of Saxony, which he
+ruled with considerable success, defending it from the attacks
+of the Slavs and resisting the claims of the German king Conrad I.
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Saxony</a></span>). He afterwards won the esteem of Conrad to such
+an extent that in 918 the king advised the nobles to make the
+Saxon duke his successor. After Conrad&rsquo;s death the Franks
+and the Saxons met at Fritzlar in May 919 and chose Henry as
+German king, after which the new king refused to allow his election
+to be sanctioned by the church. His authority, save in Saxony,
+was merely nominal; but by negotiation rather than by warfare
+he secured a recognition of his sovereignty from the Bavarians
+and the Swabians. A struggle soon took place between Henry
+and Charles III., the Simple, king of France, for the possession
+of Lorraine. In 921 Charles recognized Henry as king of the East
+Franks, and when in 923 the French king was taken prisoner
+by Herbert, count of Vermandois, Lorraine came under Henry&rsquo;s
+authority, and Giselbert, who married his daughter Gerberga,
+was recognized as duke. Turning his attention to the east, Henry
+reduced various Slavonic tribes to subjection, took Brennibor,
+the modern Brandenburg, from the Hevelli, and secured both
+banks of the Elbe for Saxony. In 923 he had bought a truce for
+ten years with the Hungarians, by a promise of tribute, but on
+its expiration he gained a great victory over these formidable
+foes in March 933. The Danes were defeated, and territory as far
+as the Eider secured for Germany; and the king sought further
+to extend his influence by entering into relations with the kings
+of England, France and Burgundy. He is said to have been
+contemplating a journey to Rome, when he died at Memleben on
+the 2nd of July 936, and was buried at Quedlinburg. By his first
+wife, Hatburg, he left a son, Thankmar, who was excluded from
+the succession as illegitimate; and by Matilda he left three sons,
+the eldest of whom, Otto (afterwards the emperor Otto the Great),
+succeeded him, and two daughters. Henry was a successful
+ruler, probably because he was careful to undertake only such
+enterprises as he was able to carry through. Laying more stress
+on his position as duke of Saxony than king of Germany, he
+conferred great benefits on his duchy. The founder of her town
+life and the creator of her army, he ruled in harmony with her
+nobles and secured her frontiers from attack. The story that he
+received the surname of &ldquo;Fowler&rdquo; because the nobles, sent to
+inform him of his election to the throne, found him engaged in
+laying snares for the birds, appears to be mythical.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Widukind of Corvei, <i>Res gestae Saxonicae</i>, edited by G.
+Waitz in the <i>Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scriptores</i>, Band
+iii. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826 seq.); &ldquo;Die Urkunde des deutschen
+Königs Heinrichs I.,&rdquo; edited by T. von Sickel in the <i>Monumenta
+Germaniae historica. Diplomata</i> (Hanover, 1879); W. von Giesebrecht,
+<i>Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit</i>, Bände i., ii. (Leipzig,
+1881); G. Waitz, <i>Jahrbücher des deutschen Reichs unter König
+Heinrich I.</i> (Leipzig, 1885); and F. Löher, <i>Die deutsche Politik
+König Heinrich I.</i> (Munich, 1857).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENRY II.<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> (973-1024), surnamed the &ldquo;Saint,&rdquo; Roman
+emperor, son of Henry II, the Quarrelsome, duke of Bavaria,
+and Gisela, daughter of Conrad, king of Burgundy, or Arles
+(d. 993), and great-grandson of the German king Henry I., the
+Fowler, was born on the 6th of May 973. When his father was
+driven from his duchy in 976 it was intended that Henry should
+take holy orders, and he received the earlier part of a good
+education at Hildesheim. This idea, however, was abandoned
+when his father was restored to Bavaria in 985; but young
+Henry, whose education was completed at Regensburg, retained
+a lively interest in ecclesiastical affairs. He became duke of
+Bavaria on his father&rsquo;s death in 995, and appears to have
+governed his duchy quietly and successfully for seven years.
+He showed a special regard for monastic reform and church
+government, accompanied his kinsman, the emperor Otto III.,
+on two occasions to Italy, and about 1001 married Kunigunde
+(d. 1037), daughter of Siegfried, count of Luxemburg. When
+Otto III. died childless in 1002, Henry sought to secure the
+German throne, and seizing the imperial insignia made an
+arrangement with Otto I., duke of Carinthia. There was considerable
+opposition to his claim; but one rival, Ekkard I.,
+margrave of Meissen, was murdered, and, hurrying to Mainz,
+Henry was chosen German king by the Franks and Bavarians
+on the 7th of June 1002, and subsequently crowned by Willigis,
+archbishop of Mainz, who had been largely instrumental in
+securing his election. Having ravaged the lands of another rival,
+Hermann II., duke of Swabia, Henry purchased the allegiance
+of the Thuringians and the Saxons; and when shortly afterwards
+the nobles of Lorraine did homage and Hermann of Swabia
+submitted, he was generally recognized as king. Danger soon
+arose from Boleslaus I., the Great, king of Poland, who had
+extended his authority over Meissen and Lusatia, seized Bohemia,
+and allied himself with some discontented German nobles,
+including the king&rsquo;s brother, Bruno, bishop of Augsburg. Henry
+easily crushed his domestic foes; but the incipient war with
+Boleslaus was abandoned in favour of an expedition into Italy,
+where Arduin, margrave of Ivrea, had been elected king. Crossing
+the Alps Henry met with no resistance from Arduin, and in
+May 1004 he was chosen and crowned king of the Lombards
+at Pavia; but a tumult caused by the presence of the Germans
+soon arose in the city, and having received the homage of several
+cities of Lombardy the king returned to Germany. He then
+freed Bohemia from the rule of the Poles, led an expedition into
+Friesland, and was successful in compelling Boleslaus to sue
+for peace in 1005. A struggle with Baldwin IV., count of
+Flanders, in 1006 and 1007 was followed by trouble with the
+king&rsquo;s brothers-in-law, Dietrich and Adalbero of Luxemburg,
+who had seized respectively the bishopric of Metz and the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page274" id="page274"></a>274</span>
+archbishopric of Trier (Treves). Henry sought to dislodge them,
+but aided by their elder brother Henry, who had been made
+duke of Bavaria in 1004, they held their own in a desultory
+warfare in Lorraine. In 1009, however, the eldest of the three
+brothers was deprived of Bavaria, while Adalbero had in the
+previous year given up his claim to Trier, but Dietrich retained
+the bishopric of Metz. The Polish war had been renewed in
+1007, but it was not until 1010 that the king was able to take
+a personal part in these campaigns. Meeting with indifferent
+success, he made peace with Boleslaus early in 1013, when the
+duke retained Lusatia, but did homage to Henry at Merseburg.</p>
+
+<p>In 1013 the king made a second journey to Italy where two
+popes were contending for the papal chair, and meeting with
+no opposition was received with great honour at Rome. Having
+recognized Benedict VIII. as the rightful pope, he was crowned
+emperor on the 14th of February 1014, and soon returned to
+Germany laden with treasures from Italian cities. But the
+struggle with the Poles now broke out afresh, and in 1015 and
+1017 the king, having obtained assistance from the heathen
+Liutici, led formidable armies against Boleslaus. During the
+campaign of 1017 he had as an ally the grand duke of Russia,
+but his troops suffered considerable loss, and on the 30th of
+January 1018 he made peace at Bautzen with Boleslaus, who
+again retained Lusatia. As early as 1006 Henry had concluded
+a succession treaty with his uncle Rudolph III., the childless
+king of Burgundy, or Arles; but when Rudolph desired to
+abdicate in 1016 Henry&rsquo;s efforts to secure possession of the
+territory were foiled by the resistance of the nobles. In 1020
+the emperor was visited at Bamberg by Pope Benedict, in
+response to whose entreaty for assistance against the Greeks of
+southern Italy he crossed the Alps in 1021 for the third and last
+time. With the aid of the Normans he captured many fortresses
+and seriously crippled the power of the Greeks, but was compelled
+by the ravages of pestilence among his troops to return to
+Germany in 1022. It was probably about this time that Henry
+gave Benedict the diploma which ratified the gifts made by his
+predecessors to the papacy. Spending his concluding years
+in disputes over church reform he died on the 13th of July 1024
+at Grona near Göttingen, and was buried at Bamberg, where
+he had founded and richly endowed a bishopric.</p>
+
+<p>Henry was an enthusiast for church reform, and under the
+influence of his friend Odilo, abbot of Cluny, sought to further
+the principles of the Cluniacs, and seconded the efforts of Benedict
+VIII. to prevent the marriage of the clergy and the sale of
+spiritual dignities. He was energetic and capable, but except
+in his relations with the church was not a strong ruler. But
+though devoted to the church and a strict observer of religious
+rites, he was by no means the slave of the clergy. He appointed
+bishops without the formality of an election, and attacked
+clerical privileges although he made clerics the representatives
+of the imperial power. He held numerous diets and issued
+frequent ordinances for peace, but feuds among the nobles were
+common, and the frontiers of the empire were insecure. Henry,
+who was the last emperor of the Saxon house, was the first to
+use the title &ldquo;King of the Romans.&rdquo; He died childless, and a
+tradition of the 12th century says he and his wife took vows
+of chastity. He was canonized in 1146 by Pope Eugenius III.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Adalbold of Utrecht, <i>Vita Heinrici II.</i>, Thietmar of Merseburg,
+<i>Chronicon</i>, both in the <i>Monumenta Germaniae historica,
+Scriptores</i>, Bände iii. and iv. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826 seq.); W. von
+Giesebrecht, <i>Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit</i> (Leipzig, 1881-1890);
+S. Hirsch, continued by R. Usinger, H. Pabst and H. Bresslau,
+<i>Jahrbücher des deutschen Reichs unter Kaiser Heinrich II</i>. (Leipzig,
+1874); A. Cohn, <i>Kaiser Heinrich II</i>. (Halle, 1867); H. Zeissberg,
+<i>Die Kriege Kaiser Heinrichs II. mit Boleslaw I. von Polen</i> (Vienna,
+1868); and G. Matthaei, <i>Die Klosterpolitik Kaiser Heinrichs II</i>.
+(Göttingen, 1877).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENRY III.<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> (1017-1056), surnamed the &ldquo;Black,&rdquo; Roman
+emperor, only son of the emperor Conrad II., and Gisela, widow
+of Ernest I., duke of Swabia, was born on the 28th of October
+1017, designated as his father&rsquo;s successor in 1026, and crowned
+German king at Aix-la-Chapelle by Pilgrim, archbishop of
+Cologne, on the 14th of April 1028. In 1027 he was appointed
+duke of Bavaria, and his early years were mainly spent in this
+country, where he received an excellent education under the
+care of Bruno, bishop of Augsburg and, afterwards, of Egilbert,
+bishop of Freising. He soon began to take part in the business
+of the empire. In 1032 he took part in a campaign in Burgundy;
+in 1033 led an expedition against Ulalrich, prince of the
+Bohemians; and in June 1036 was married at Nijmwegen to
+Gunhilda, afterwards called Kunigunde, daughter of Canute,
+king of Denmark and England. In 1038 he followed his father
+to Italy, and in the same year the emperor formally handed
+over to him the kingdom of Burgundy, or Arles, and appointed
+him duke of Swabia. In spite of the honours which Conrad
+heaped upon Henry the relations between father and son were
+not uniformly friendly, as Henry disapproved of the emperor&rsquo;s
+harsh treatment of some of his allies and adherents. When
+Conrad died in June 1039, Henry became sole ruler of the
+empire, and his authority was at once recognized in all parts
+of his dominions. Three of the duchies were under his direct
+rule, no rival appeared to contest his claim, and the outlying
+parts of the empire, as well as Germany, were practically free
+from disorder. This peaceful state of affairs was, however,
+soon broken by the ambition of Bretislaus, prince of the
+Bohemians, who revived the idea of an independent Slavonic
+state, and conquered various Polish towns. Henry took up arms,
+and having suffered two defeats in 1040 renewed the struggle
+with a stronger force in the following year, when he compelled
+Bretislaus to sue for peace and to do homage for Bohemia at
+Regensburg. In 1042 he received the homage of the Burgundians
+and his attention was then turned to the Hungarians, who had
+driven out their king Peter, and set up in his stead one Aba
+Samuel, or Ovo, who attacked the eastern border of Bavaria.</p>
+
+<p>In 1043 and the two following years Henry crushed the
+Hungarians, restored Peter, and brought Hungary completely
+under the power of the German king. In 1038 Queen Kunigunde
+had died in Italy, and in 1043 the king was married at
+Ingelheim to Agnes, daughter of William V., duke of Guienne,
+a union which drew him much nearer to the reforming party in
+the church. In 1044 Gothelon (Gozelo), duke of Lorraine, died,
+and some disturbance arose over Henry&rsquo;s refusal to grant the
+whole of the duchy to his son Godfrey, called the Bearded.
+Godfrey took up arms, but after a short imprisonment was
+released and confirmed in the possession of Upper Lorraine in
+1046 which, however, he failed to secure. About this time
+Henry was invited to Italy where three popes were contending
+for power, and crossing the Alps with a large army he marched
+to Rome. Councils held at Sutri and at Rome having declared
+the popes deposed, the king secured the election of Suidger,
+bishop of Bamberg, who took the name of Clement II., and by
+this pontiff Henry was crowned as emperor on the 25th of
+December 1046. He was immediately recognized by the Romans
+as <i>Patricius</i>, an office which carried with it at this time the
+right to appoint the pope. Supreme in church and state alike,
+ruler of Germany, Italy and Burgundy, overlord of Hungary
+and Bohemia, Henry occupied a commanding position, and
+this time may be regarded as marking the apogee of the power
+of the Roman empire of the Germans. The emperor assisted
+Pope Clement in his efforts to banish simony. He made a
+victorious progress in southern Italy, where he restored Pandulph
+IV. to the principality of Capua, and asserted his authority
+over the Normans in Apulia and Aversa. Returning to Germany
+in 1047 he appointed two popes, Damasus II. and Leo IX.,
+in quick succession, and turned to face a threatening combination
+in the west of the empire, where Godfrey of Lorraine was again
+in revolt, and with the help of Baldwin V., count of Flanders
+and Dirk IV., count of Holland, who had previously caused
+trouble to Henry, was ravaging the lands of the emperor&rsquo;s
+representatives in Lorraine. Assisted by the kings of England
+and Denmark, Henry succeeded with some difficulty in bringing
+the rebels to submission in 1050. Godfrey was deposed; but
+Baldwin soon found an opportunity for a further revolt, which
+an expedition undertaken by the emperor in 1054 was unable
+to crush.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page275" id="page275"></a>275</span></p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile a reaction against German influence had taken
+place in Hungary. King Peter had been driven out in 1046
+and his place taken by Andreas I. Inroads into Bavaria followed,
+and in 1051 and 1052 Henry led his forces against the Hungarians,
+and after the pope had vainly attempted to mediate, peace was
+made in 1053. It was quickly broken, however, and the emperor,
+occupied elsewhere, soon lost most of his authority in the east;
+although in 1054 he made peace between Brestislav of Bohemia
+and Casimir I., duke of the Poles. Henry had not lost sight of
+affairs in Italy during these years, and had received several
+visits from the pope, whose aim was to bring southern Italy
+under his own dominion. Henry had sent military assistance
+to Leo, and had handed over to him the government of the
+principality of Benevento in return for the bishopric of Bamberg.
+But the pope&rsquo;s defeat by the Normans was followed by his death.
+Henry then nominated Gebhard, bishop of Eichstädt, who took
+the name of Victor II., to the vacant chair, and promised his
+assistance to the reluctant candidate. In 1055 the emperor
+went a second time to Italy, where his authority was threatened
+by Godfrey of Lorraine, who had married Beatrice, widow of
+Boniface III., margrave of Tuscany, and was ruling her vast
+estates. Godfrey fled, however, on the appearance of Henry,
+who only remained a short time in Italy, during which he granted
+the duchy of Spoleto to Pope Victor, and negotiated for an
+attack upon the Normans. Before the journey to Italy, Henry
+had found it necessary to depose Conrad III., duke of Bavaria,
+and to suppress a rising in southern Germany. During his
+absence Conrad formed an alliance with Welf, duke of Carinthia,
+and Gebhard III., bishop of Regensburg. A conspiracy to depose
+the emperor, support for which was found in Lorraine, was
+quickly discovered, and Henry, leaving Victor as his representative
+in Italy, returned in 1055 to Germany to receive the
+submission of his foes. In 1056, the emperor was visited by
+the pope; and on the 5th of October in the same year he died
+at Bodfeld and was buried at Spires. Henry was a pious and
+peace-loving prince, who favoured church reform, sought earnestly
+to suppress private warfare, and alone among the early emperors
+is said to have been innocent of simony. Although under his
+rule Germany enjoyed considerable tranquillity, and a period
+of wealth and progress set in for the towns, yet his secular and
+ecclesiastical policy showed signs of weakness. Unable, or
+unwilling, seriously to curb the increasing power of the church,
+he alienated the sympathies of the nobles as a class, and by
+allowing the southern duchies to pass into other hands restored
+a power which true to its traditions was not always friendly
+to the royal house. Henry was a patron of learning, a founder
+of schools, and built or completed cathedrals at Spires, Worms
+and Mainz.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The chief original authorities for the life and reign of Henry
+III. are the <i>Chronicon</i> of Herimann of Reichenau, the <i>Annales
+Sangallenses majores</i>, the <i>Annales Hildesheimenses</i>, all in the
+<i>Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scriptores</i> (Hanover and Berlin,
+1826 fol.). The best modern authorities are W. von Giesebrecht,
+<i>Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit</i>, Band ii. (Leipzig, 1888); M.
+Perlbach, &ldquo;Die Kriege Heinrichs III. gegen Böhmen,&rdquo; in the
+<i>Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte</i>, Band x. (Göttingen, 1862-1886);
+E. Steindorff, <i>Jahrbücher des deutschen Reichs unter Heinrich
+III.</i> (Leipzig, 1874-1881); and F. Steinhoff, <i>Das Königthum und
+Kaiserthum Heinrichs III.</i> (Göttingen, 1865).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENRY IV.<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> (1050-1106), Roman emperor, son of the emperor
+Henry III. and Agnes, daughter of William V., duke of Guienne,
+was born on the 11th of November 1050, chosen German king
+at Tribur in 1053, and crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle on the 17th
+of July 1054. In 1055 he was appointed duke of Bavaria,
+and on his father&rsquo;s death in October 1056 inherited the kingdoms
+of Germany, Italy and Burgundy. These territories were
+governed in his name by his mother, who was unable to repress
+the internal disorder or to take adequate measures for their
+defence. Some opposition was soon aroused, and in 1062 Anno,
+archbishop of Cologne, and others planned to seize the person
+of the young king and to deprive Agnes of power. This plot
+met with complete success. Henry, who was at Kaiserwerth,
+was persuaded to board a boat lying in the Rhine; it was
+immediately unmoored and the king sprang into the stream, but
+was rescued by one of the conspirators and carried to Cologne.
+Agnes made no serious effort to regain her control, and the
+chief authority was exercised for a time by Anno; but his rule
+proved unpopular, and he was soon compelled to share his power
+with Adalbert, archbishop of Bremen. The education and
+training of Henry were supervised by Anno, who was called his
+<i>magister</i>, while Adalbert was styled <i>patronus</i>; but Anno was
+disliked by Henry, and during his absence in Italy the chief
+power passed into the hands of Adalbert. Henry&rsquo;s education
+seems to have been neglected, and his wilful and headstrong
+nature was developed by the conditions under which his early
+years were passed. In March 1065 he was declared of age, and
+in the following year a powerful coalition of ecclesiastical and
+lay nobles brought about the banishment of Adalbert from court
+and the return of Anno to power. In 1066 Henry was persuaded
+to marry Bertha, daughter of Otto, count of Savoy, to whom he
+had been betrothed since 1055. For some time he regarded
+his wife with strong dislike and sought in vain for a divorce,
+but after she had borne him a son in 1071 she gained his affections,
+and became his most trusted friend and companion.</p>
+
+<p>In 1069 the king took the reins of government into his own
+hands. He recalled Adalbert to court; led expeditions against
+the Liutici, and against Dedo or Dedi II., margrave of a district
+east of Saxony; and soon afterwards quarrelled with Rudolph,
+duke of Swabia, and Berthold, duke of Carinthia. Much more
+serious was Henry&rsquo;s struggle with Otto of Nordheim, duke of
+Bavaria. This prince, who occupied an influential position in
+Germany, was accused in 1070 by a certain Egino of being
+privy to a plot to murder the king. It was decided that a trial
+by battle should take place at Goslar, but when the demand
+of Otto for a safe conduct for himself and his followers, to and
+from the place of meeting, was refused, he declined to appear.
+He was thereupon declared deposed in Bavaria, and his Saxon
+estates were plundered. He obtained sufficient support, however,
+to carry on a struggle with the king in Saxony and Thuringia
+until 1071, when he submitted at Halberstadt. Henry aroused
+the hostility of the Thuringians by supporting Siegfried, archbishop
+of Mainz, in his efforts to exact tithes from them; but
+still more formidable was the enmity of the Saxons, who had
+several causes of complaint against the king. He was the son
+of one enemy, Henry III., and the friend of another, Adalbert
+of Bremen. He had ordered a restoration of all crown lands
+in Saxony and had built forts among this people, while the
+country was ravaged to supply the needs of his courtiers, and
+its duke Magnus was a prisoner in his hands. All classes were
+united against him, and when the struggle broke out in 1073
+the Thuringians joined the Saxons; and the war, which lasted
+with slight intermissions until 1088, exercised a most potent
+influence upon Henry&rsquo;s fortunes elsewhere (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Saxony</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>Henry soon found himself confronted by an abler and more
+stubborn antagonist than either Thuringian or Saxon. In 1073
+Hildebrand became pope as Gregory VII. Two years later
+this great ecclesiastic issued his memorable prohibition of lay
+investiture, and the blow then struck at the secular power by
+the papacy threatened seriously to undermine the imperial
+authority. Spurred on by his advisers, Henry did not refuse the
+challenge. Threatened with the papal ban, he summoned a
+synod of German bishops which met at Worms in January 1076
+and declared Gregory deposed; and he wrote his famous letter
+to the pope, in which he referred to him as &ldquo;not pope, but false
+monk.&rdquo; The king was at once excommunicated. His adherents
+gradually fell away, the Saxons were again in arms, and Otto of
+Nordheim succeeded in uniting the malcontents of north and
+south Germany. In October 1076 an important diet met at
+Tribur, and after discussing the deposition of the king, decided
+that he should be judged by an assembly to be held at Augsburg
+in the following February under the presidency of the pope. This
+union of the temporal and spiritual forces was too strong for the
+king, and he decided to submit.</p>
+
+<p>Crossing the Alps, Henry appeared in January 1077 as a
+penitent before the castle of Canossa, where Gregory had taken
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page276" id="page276"></a>276</span>
+refuge. The story of this famous occurrence, which represents
+the king as standing in the courtyard of the castle for three days in
+the snow, clad as a penitent, and entreating to be admitted to the
+pope&rsquo;s presence, is now regarded as mythical in its details; but
+there is no doubt that the king visited the castle at intervals, and
+prayed for admission for three days until the 28th of January,
+when he was received by Gregory and absolved, after promising
+to submit to the pope&rsquo;s authority and to secure for him a safe
+journey to Germany. No historical incident has more profoundly
+impressed the imagination of the Western world. It marked the
+highest point reached by papal authority, and presents a vivid
+picture of the awe inspired during the middle ages by the supernatural
+powers supposed to be wielded by the church.</p>
+
+<p>Scorned by his Lombard allies, Henry left Italy to find that in
+his absence Rudolph, duke of Swabia, had been chosen German
+king; and although Gregory had taken no part in this election,
+Henry sought to prevent the pope&rsquo;s journey to Germany, and
+regaining courage, tried to recover his former position. Supported
+by most of the German bishops and by the Lombards, now
+reconciled to him, and recognized in Burgundy, Bavaria and
+Franconia, Henry (who at this time is referred to by Bruno, the
+author of <i>De bello Saxonico</i>, as <i>exrex</i>) appeared stronger than his
+rival Rudolph; but the ensuing war was waged with varying
+success. He was beaten at Mellrichstadt in 1078, and at
+Flarchheim in 1080, but these defeats were due rather to the
+fierce hostility of the Saxons, and the military skill of Otto of
+Nordheim, than to any general sympathy with Rudolph.
+Gregory&rsquo;s attitude remained neutral, in spite of appeals from
+both sides, until March 1080, when he again excommunicated
+Henry, but without any serious effect on the fortunes of the king.
+At Henry&rsquo;s initiative, Gregory was declared deposed on three
+occasions, and an anti-pope was elected in the person of Wibert,
+archbishop of Ravenna, who took the name of Clement III.</p>
+
+<p>The death of Rudolph in October 1080, and a consequent lull in
+the war, enabled the king to go to Italy early in 1081. He found
+considerable support in Lombardy; placed Matilda, marchioness
+of Tuscany, the faithful friend of Gregory, under the imperial
+ban; took the Lombard crown at Pavia; and secured the
+recognition of Clement by a council. Marching to Rome, he
+undertook the siege of the city, but was soon compelled to retire
+to Tuscany, where he granted privileges to various cities, and
+obtained monetary assistance from a new ally, the eastern
+emperor, Alexius I. A second and equally unsuccessful attack
+on Rome was followed by a war of devastation in northern Italy
+with the adherents of Matilda; and towards the end of 1082 the
+king made a third attack on Rome. After a siege of seven months
+the Leonine city fell into his hands. A treaty was concluded
+with the Romans, who agreed that the quarrel between king and
+pope should be decided by a synod, and secretly bound themselves
+to induce Gregory to crown Henry as emperor, or to choose
+another pope. Gregory, however, shut up in the castle of St
+Angelo, would hear of no compromise; the synod was a failure,
+as Henry prevented the attendance of many of the pope&rsquo;s
+supporters; and the king, in pursuance of his treaty with
+Alexius, marched against the Normans. The Romans soon fell
+away from their allegiance to the pope; and, recalled to the city,
+Henry entered Rome in March 1084, after which Gregory was
+declared deposed and Clement was recognized by the Romans.
+On the 31st of March 1084 Henry was crowned emperor by
+Clement, and received the patrician authority. His next step
+was to attack the fortresses still in the hands of Gregory. The
+pope was saved by the advance of Robert Guiscard, duke of
+Apulia, with a large force, which compelled Henry to return
+to Germany.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the German rebels had chosen a fresh anti-king,
+Hermann, count of Luxemburg, whom Henry&rsquo;s supporters had
+already driven to his last line of defence in Saxony. During the
+campaign of 1086 Henry was defeated near Würzburg, but in
+1088 Hermann abandoned the struggle and the emperor was
+generally recognized in Saxony, to which country he showed
+considerable clemency. Although Henry&rsquo;s power was in the
+ascendent, a few powerful nobles adhered to the cause of Gregory&rsquo;s
+successor, Urban II. Among them was Welf, son of Welf I., the
+deposed duke of Bavaria, whose marriage with Matilda of
+Tuscany rendered him too formidable to be neglected. The
+emperor accordingly returned to Italy in 1090, where Mantua
+and Milan were taken, and Pope Clement was restored to Rome.
+Henry&rsquo;s communications with Germany were, however, threatened
+by a league of the Lombard cities, and his anxieties were soon
+augmented by domestic troubles.</p>
+
+<p>Henry&rsquo;s first wife had died in 1087, and in 1089 he had married
+a Russian princess, Praxedis, afterwards called Adelaide. Her
+conduct soon aroused his suspicions, and his own eldest son,
+Conrad, who had been crowned German king in 1087, was thought
+to be a partner in her guilt. Escaping from prison, Adelaide fled
+to Henry&rsquo;s enemies and brought grave charges against her
+husband; while the papal party induced Conrad to desert his
+father and to be crowned king of Italy at Monza in 1093.
+Crushed by this blow, Henry remained almost helpless and
+inactive in northern Italy for five years, until 1097, when having
+lost every shred of authority in that country, he returned to
+Germany, where his position was stronger than ever. Welf had
+submitted, had forsaken the cause of Matilda and had been restored
+to Bavaria, and in 1098 the diet assembled at Mainz declared
+Conrad deposed, and chose the emperor&rsquo;s second son, Henry,
+afterwards the emperor Henry V., as German king. The crusade
+of 1096 had freed Germany from many turbulent spirits, and the
+emperor, meeting with some success in his efforts to restore order,
+could afford to ignore his repeated excommunication. A successful
+campaign in Flanders was followed in 1103 by a diet at Mainz,
+where serious efforts were made to restore peace, and Henry
+himself promised to go on crusade. But this plan was shattered
+by the revolt of the younger Henry in 1104, who, encouraged by
+the adherents of the pope, declared he owed no allegiance to an
+excommunicated father. Saxony and Thuringia were soon in
+arms, the bishops held mainly to the younger Henry, while the
+emperor was supported by the towns. A desultory warfare was
+unfavourable, however, to the emperor, who, deceived by false
+promises, became a prisoner in the hands of his son in 1105. The
+diet met at Mainz in December, when he was compelled to abdicate;
+but contrary to the conditions, he was detained at Ingelheim and
+denied his freedom. Escaping to Cologne, he found considerable
+support in the lower Rhineland; he entered into negotiations with
+England, France and Denmark, and was engaged in collecting an
+army when he died at Liége on the 7th of August 1106. His body
+was buried by the bishop of Liége with suitable ceremony, but by
+command of the papal legate it was unearthed, taken to Spires,
+and placed in an unconsecrated chapel. After being released from
+the sentence of excommunication the remains were buried in
+the cathedral of Spires in August 1111.</p>
+
+<p>Henry IV. was very licentious and in his early years was
+careless and self-willed, but better qualities were developed in
+his later life. He displayed much diplomatic ability, and his
+abasement at Canossa may fairly be regarded as a move of policy
+to weaken the pope&rsquo;s position at the cost of a personal humiliation
+to himself. He was always regarded as a friend of the lower
+orders, was capable of generosity and gratitude, and showed
+considerable military skill. Unfortunate in the time in which
+he lived, and in the troubles with which he had to contend, he
+holds an honourable position in history as a monarch who resisted
+the excessive pretensions both of the papacy and of the ambitious
+feudal lords of Germany.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The authorities for the life and reign of Henry are Lambert of
+Hersfeld, <i>Annales</i>; Bernold of Reichenau, Chronicon; Ekkehard of
+Aura, <i>Chronicon</i>; and Bruno, <i>De bello Saxonico</i>, which gives several
+of the more important letters that passed between Henry and
+Gregory VII. These are all found in the <i>Monumenta Germaniae
+historica. Scriptores</i>, Bände v. and vi. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826-1892).
+There is an anonymous <i>Vita Heinrici IV.</i>, edited by W.
+Wattenbach (Hanover, 1876). The best modern authorities are:
+G. Meyer von Knonau, <i>Jahrbücher des deutschen Reiches unter
+Heinrich IV.</i> (Leipzig, 1890); H. Floto, <i>Kaiser Heinrich IV. und
+sein Zeitalter</i> (Stuttgart, 1855); E. Kilian, <i>Itinerar Kaiser Heinrichs
+IV.</i> (Karlsruhe, 1886); K. W. Nitzsch, &ldquo;Das deutsche Reich und
+Heinrich IV.,&rdquo; in the <i>Historische Zeitschrift</i>, Band xlv. (Munich,
+1859); H. Ulmann, <i>Zum Verständniss der sächsischen Erhebung
+gegen Heinrich IV.</i> (Hanover, 1886), W. von Giesebrecht, <i>Geschichte</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page277" id="page277"></a>277</span>
+<i>der deutschen Kaiserzeit</i> (Leipzig, 1881-1890); B. Gebhardt, <i>Handbuch
+der deutschen Geschichte</i> (Berlin, 1901). For a list of other
+works, especially those on the relations between Henry and Gregory,
+see Dahlmann-Waitz, <i>Quellenkunde der deutschen Geschichte</i> (Göttingen,
+1894).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. W. H.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENRY V.<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> (1081-1125), Roman emperor, son of the emperor
+Henry IV., was born on the 8th of January 1081, and after
+the revolt and deposition of his elder brother, the German king
+Conrad (d. 1101), was chosen as his successor in 1098. He
+promised to take no part in the business of the Empire during
+his father&rsquo;s lifetime, and was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle on
+the 6th of January 1099. In spite of his oath Henry was induced
+by his father&rsquo;s enemies to revolt in 1104, and some of the princes
+did homage to him at Mainz in January 1106. In August of the
+same year the elder Henry died, when his son became sole ruler
+of the Empire. Order was soon restored in Germany, the citizens
+of Cologne were punished by a fine, and an expedition against
+Robert II., count of Flanders, brought this rebel to his knees.
+In 1107 a campaign, which was only partially successful, was
+undertaken to restore Bo&#345;iwoj II. to the dukedom of Bohemia,
+and in the year following the king led his forces into Hungary,
+where he failed to take Pressburg. In 1109 he was unable to
+compel the Poles to renew their accustomed tribute, but in
+1110 he succeeded in securing the dukedom of Bohemia for
+Ladislaus I.</p>
+
+<p>The main interest of Henry&rsquo;s reign centres in the controversy
+over lay investiture, which had caused a serious dispute during
+the previous reign. The papal party who had supported Henry
+in his resistance to his father hoped he would assent to the
+decrees of the pope, which had been renewed by Paschal II. at
+the synod of Guastalla in 1106. The king, however, continued
+to invest the bishops, but wished the pope to hold a council in
+Germany to settle the question. Paschal after some hesitation
+preferred France to Germany, and, after holding a council at
+Troyes, renewed his prohibition of lay investiture. The matter
+slumbered until 1110, when, negotiations between king and pope
+having failed, Paschal renewed his decrees and Henry went to
+Italy with a large army. The strength of his forces helped him to
+secure general recognition in Lombardy, and at Sutri he concluded
+an arrangement with Paschal by which he renounced the right
+of investiture in return for a promise of coronation, and the
+restoration to the Empire of all lands given by kings, or emperors,
+to the German church since the time of Charlemagne. It was a
+treaty impossible to execute, and Henry, whose consent to it
+is said to have been conditional on its acceptance by the princes
+and bishops of Germany, probably foresaw that it would occasion
+a breach between the German clergy and the pope. Having
+entered Rome and sworn the usual oaths, the king presented
+himself at St Peter&rsquo;s on the 12th of February 1111 for his
+coronation and the ratification of the treaty. The words commanding
+the clergy to restore the fiefs of the crown to Henry
+were read amid a tumult of indignation, whereupon the pope
+refused to crown the king, who in return declined to hand over
+his renunciation of the right of investiture. Paschal was seized
+by Henry&rsquo;s soldiers and, in the general disorder into which the
+city was thrown, an attempt to liberate the pontiff was thwarted
+in a struggle during which the king himself was wounded. Henry
+then left the city carrying the pope with him; and Paschal&rsquo;s failure
+to obtain assistance drew from him a confirmation of the king&rsquo;s
+right of investiture and a promise to crown him emperor. The
+coronation ceremony accordingly took place on the 13th of
+April 1111, after which the emperor returned to Germany,
+where he sought to strengthen his power by granting privileges
+to the inhabitants of the region of the upper Rhine.</p>
+
+<p>In 1112 Lothair, duke of Saxony, rose in arms against Henry,
+but was easily quelled. In 1113, however, a quarrel over the
+succession to the counties of Weimar and Orlamünde gave
+occasion for a fresh outbreak on the part of Lothair, whose troops
+were defeated at Warnstädt, after which the duke was pardoned.
+Having been married at Mainz on the 7th of January 1114 to
+Matilda, or Maud, daughter of Henry I., king of England, the
+emperor was confronted with a further rising, initiated by the
+citizens of Cologne, who were soon joined by the Saxons and
+others. Henry failed to take Cologne, his forces were defeated
+at Welfesholz on the 11th of February 1115, and complications
+in Italy compelled him to leave Germany to the care of Frederick
+II. of Hohenstaufen, duke of Swabia, and his brother Conrad,
+afterwards the German king Conrad III. After the departure
+of Henry from Rome in 1111 a council had declared the privilege
+of lay investiture, which had been extorted from Paschal, to
+be invalid, and Guido, archbishop of Vienne, excommunicated
+the emperor and called upon the pope to ratify this sentence.
+Paschal, however, refused to take so extreme a step; and the
+quarrel entered upon a new stage in 1115 when Matilda, daughter
+and heiress of Boniface, margrave of Tuscany, died leaving her
+vast estates to the papacy. Crossing the Alps in 1116 Henry
+won the support of town and noble by privileges to the one and
+presents to the other, took possession of Matilda&rsquo;s lands, and was
+gladly received in Rome. By this time Paschal had withdrawn
+his consent to lay investiture and the excommunication had been
+published in Rome; but the pope was compelled to fly from the
+city. Some of the cardinals withstood the emperor, but by
+means of bribes he broke down the opposition, and was crowned
+a second time by Burdinas, archbishop of Braga. Meanwhile
+the defeat at Welfesholz had given heart to Henry&rsquo;s enemies;
+many of his supporters, especially among the bishops, fell away;
+the excommunication was published at Cologne, and the pope,
+with the assistance of the Normans, began to make war. In
+January 1118 Paschal died and was succeeded by Gelasius II.
+The emperor immediately returned from northern Italy to Rome.
+But as the new pope escaped from the city, Henry, despairing
+of making a treaty, secured the election of an antipope who took
+the name of Gregory VIII., and who was left in possession of
+Rome when the emperor returned across the Alps in 1118.
+The opposition in Germany was gradually crushed and a general
+peace declared at Tribur, while the desire for a settlement of
+the investiture dispute was growing. Negotiations, begun at
+Würzburg, were continued at Worms, where the new pope,
+Calixtus II., was represented by Cardinal Lambert, bishop of
+Ostia. In the concordat of Worms, signed in September 1122,
+Henry renounced the right of investiture with ring and crozier,
+recognized the freedom of election of the clergy and promised
+to restore all church property. The pope agreed to allow elections
+to take place in presence of the imperial envoys, and the investiture
+with the sceptre to be granted by the emperor as a symbol
+that the estates of the church were held under the crown. Henry,
+who had been solemnly excommunicated at Reims by Calixtus
+in October 1119, was received again into the communion of the
+church, after he had abandoned his nominee, Gregory, to defeat
+and banishment. The emperor&rsquo;s concluding years were occupied
+with a campaign in Holland, and with a quarrel over the succession
+to the margraviate of Meissen, two disputes in which his
+enemies were aided by Lothair of Saxony. In 1124 he led an
+expedition against King Louis VI. of France, turned his arms
+against the citizens of Worms, and on the 23rd of May 1125
+died at Utrecht and was buried at Spires. Having no children,
+he left his possessions to his nephew, Frederick II. of Hohenstaufen,
+duke of Swabia, and on his death the line of Franconian,
+or Salian, emperors became extinct.</p>
+
+<p>The character of Henry is unattractive. His love of power
+was inordinate; he was wanting in generosity, and he did not
+shrink from treachery in pursuing his ends.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The chief authority for the life and reign of Henry V. is Ekkehard
+of Aura, <i>Chronicon</i>, edited by G. Waitz in the <i>Monumenta
+Germaniae historica. Scriptores</i>, Band vi. (Hanover and Berlin,
+1826-1892), See also W. von Giesebrecht, <i>Geschichte der deutschen
+Kaiserzeit</i>, Band iii. (Leipzig, 1881-1890); L. von Ranke, <i>Weltgeschichte</i>,
+pt. vii. (Leipzig, 1886); M. Manitius, <i>Deutsche Geschichte</i>
+(Stuttgart, 1889); G. Meyer von Knonau, <i>Jahrbücher des deutschen
+Reiches unter Heinrich IV. und Heinrich V.</i> (Leipzig, 1890); E.
+Gervais, <i>Politische Geschichte Deutschlands unter der Regierung der
+Kaiser Heinrich V. und Lothar III.</i> (Leipzig, 1841-1842); G. Peiser,
+<i>Der deutsche Investiturstreit unter Kaiser Heinrich V.</i> (Berlin, 1883);
+C. Stutzer, &ldquo;Zur Kritik der Investiturverhandlungen im Jahre
+1119,&rdquo; in the <i>Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte</i>, Band xviii.
+(Göttingen, 1862-1886); T. von Sickel and H. Bresslau, &ldquo;Die
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page278" id="page278"></a>278</span>
+kaiserliche Ausfertigung des Wormser Konkordats,&rdquo; in the <i>Mittheilungen
+des Instituts für österreichische Geschichtsforschung</i> (Innsbruck,
+1880); B. Gebhardt, <i>Handbuch der deutschen Geschichte</i>, Band i.
+(Berlin, 1901), and E. Bernheim, <i>Zur Geschichte des Wormser
+Konkordats</i> (Göttingen, 1878).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENRY VI.<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> (1165-1197), Roman emperor, son of the emperor
+Frederick I. and Beatrix, daughter of Renaud III., count of
+upper Burgundy, was born at Nijmwegen, and educated under
+the care of Conrad of Querfurt, afterwards bishop of Hildesheim
+and Würzburg. Chosen German king, or king of the Romans,
+at Bamberg in June 1169, he was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle
+on the 15th of August 1169, invested with lands in Germany
+in 1179, and at Whitsuntide 1184 his knighthood was celebrated
+in the most magnificent manner at Mainz. Frederick was anxious
+to associate his son with himself in the government of the empire,
+and when he left Germany in 1184 Henry remained behind as
+regent, while his father sought to procure his coronation from
+Pope Lucius III. The pope was hesitating when he heard that
+the emperor had arranged a marriage between Henry and
+Constance, daughter of the late king of Sicily, Roger I., and aunt
+and heiress of the reigning king, William II.; and this step,
+which threatened to unite Sicily with Germany, decided him to
+refuse the proposal. This marriage took place at Milan on the
+27th of January 1186, and soon afterwards Henry was crowned
+king of Italy. The claim of Henry and his wife on Sicily was
+recognized by the barons of that kingdom; and having been
+recognized by the pope as Roman emperor elect, Henry returned
+to Germany, and was again appointed regent when Frederick
+set out on crusade in May 1189. His attempts to bring peace to
+Germany were interrupted by the return of Henry the Lion,
+duke of Saxony, in October 1189, and a campaign against him
+was followed by a peace made at Fulda in July 1190.</p>
+
+<p>Henry&rsquo;s desire to make this peace was due to the death of
+William of Sicily, which was soon followed by that of the emperor
+Frederick. Germany and Italy alike seemed to need the king&rsquo;s
+presence, but for him, like all the Hohenstaufen, Italy had the
+greater charm, and having obtained a promise of his coronation
+from Pope Clement III. he crossed the Alps in the winter of
+1190. He purchased the support of the cities of northern Italy,
+but on reaching Rome he found Clement was dead and his
+successor, Celestine III., disinclined to carry out the engagement
+of his predecessor. The strength of the German army and a
+treaty made between the king and the Romans induced him,
+however, to crown Henry as emperor on the 14th of April 1191.
+The aid of the Romans had been purchased by the king&rsquo;s promise
+to place in their possession the city of Tusculum, which they had
+attacked in vain for three years. After the ceremony the
+emperor fulfilled this contract, when the city was destroyed and
+many of the inhabitants massacred. Meanwhile a party in Sicily
+had chosen Tancred, an illegitimate son of Roger, son of King
+Roger II., as their king, and he had already won considerable
+authority and was favoured by the pope. Leaving Rome Henry
+met with no resistance until he reached Naples, which he was
+unable to take, as the ravages of fever and threatening news
+from Germany, where his death was reported, compelled him to
+raise the siege. In December 1191 he returned to Germany.
+Disorder was general and a variety of reasons induced both the
+Welfs and their earlier opponents to join in a general league
+against the emperor. Vacancies in various bishoprics added to
+the confusion, and Henry&rsquo;s enemies gained in numbers and
+strength when it was suspected that he was implicated in the
+murder of Albert, bishop of Liége. Henry acted energetically
+in fighting this formidable combination, but his salvation came
+from the captivity of Richard I., king of England, and the skill
+with which he used this event to make peace with his foes; and,
+when Henry the Lion came to terms in March 1194, order was
+restored to Germany.</p>
+
+<p>In the following May, Henry made his second expedition to
+Italy, where Pope Celestine had definitely espoused the cause of
+Tancred. The ransom received from Richard enabled him to
+equip a large army, and aided by a fleet fitted out by Genoa and
+Pisa he soon secured a complete mastery over the Italian mainland.
+When he reached Sicily he found Tancred dead, and,
+meeting with very little resistance, he entered Palermo, where
+he was crowned king on Christmas day 1194. A stay of a few
+months&rsquo; duration enabled Henry to settle the affairs of the
+kingdom; and leaving his wife, Constance, as regent, and
+appointing many Germans to positions of influence, he returned
+to Germany in June 1195.</p>
+
+<p>Having established his position in Germany and Italy, Henry
+began to cherish ideas of universal empire. Richard of England
+had already owned his supremacy, and declaring he would
+compel the king of France to do the same Henry sought to stir
+up strife between France and England. Nor did the Spanish
+kingdoms escape his notice. Tunis and Tripoli were claimed,
+and when the eastern emperor, Isaac Angelus, asked his help,
+he demanded in return the cession of the Balkan peninsula.
+The kings of Cyprus and Armenia asked for investiture at his
+hands; and in general Henry, in the words of a Byzantine
+chronicler, put forward his demands as &ldquo;the lord of all lords,
+the king of all kings.&rdquo; To complete this scheme two steps were
+necessary, a reconciliation with the pope and the recognition of
+his young son, Frederick, as his successor in the Empire. The
+first was easily accomplished; the second was more difficult.
+After attempting to suppress the renewed disorder in Germany,
+Henry met the princes at Worms in December 1195 and put his
+proposal before them. In spite of promises they disliked the
+suggestion as tending to draw them into Sicilian troubles, and
+avoided the emperor&rsquo;s displeasure by postponing their answer.
+By threats or negotiations, however, Henry won the consent of
+about fifty princes; but though the diet which met at Würzburg
+in April 1196 agreed to the scheme, the vigorous opposition of
+Adolph, archbishop of Cologne, and others rendered it inoperative.
+In June 1196 Henry went again to Italy, sought vainly
+to restore order in the north, and tried to persuade the pope to
+crown his son who had been chosen king of the Romans at
+Frankfort. Celestine, who had many causes of complaint against
+the emperor and his vassals, refused. The emperor then went
+to the south, where the oppression of his German officials had
+caused an insurrection, which was put down with terrible cruelty.
+At Messina on the 28th of September 1197 Henry died from
+a cold caught whilst hunting, and was buried at Palermo.
+He was a man of small frame and delicate constitution, but
+possessed considerable mental gifts and was skilled in knightly
+exercises. His ambition was immense, and to attain his
+ends he often resorted deliberately to cruelty and treachery.
+His chief recreation was hunting, and he also found pleasure
+in the society of the Minnesingers and in writing poems,
+which appear in F. H. von der Hagen&rsquo;s <i>Minnesinger</i> (Leipzig,
+1838). He left an only son Frederick, afterwards the emperor
+Frederick II.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The chief authorities for the life and reign of Henry VI. are Otto of
+Freising, <i>Chronicon</i>, continued by Otto of St Blasius; Godfrey of
+Viterbo, <i>Gesta Friderici I.</i> and <i>Gesta Heinrici VI.</i>; Giselbert of
+Mons, <i>Chronicon Hanoniense</i>, all of which appear in the <i>Monumenta
+Germaniae historica. Scriptores</i>, Bände xx., xxi., xxii.
+(Hanover and Berlin, 1826-1892), and the various annals of the time.</p>
+
+<p>The best modern authorities are: W. von Giesebrecht, <i>Geschichte
+der deutschen Kaiserzeit</i>, Band iv. (Brunswick, 1877); T. Toeche,
+<i>Kaiser Heinrich VI.</i> (Leipzig, 1867); H. Bloch, <i>Forschungen zur
+Politik Kaiser Heinrichs VI.</i> (Berlin, 1892), and K. A. Kneller,
+<i>Des Richard Löwenherz deutsche Gefangenschaft</i> (Freiburg, 1893).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENRY VII.<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1269-1313), Roman emperor, son of Henry
+III., count of Luxemburg, was knighted by Philip IV., king of
+France, and passed his early days under French influences,
+while the French language was his mother-tongue. His father
+was killed in battle in 1288, and Henry ruled his tiny inheritance
+with justice and prudence, but came into collision with the
+citizens of Trier over a question of tolls. In 1292 he married
+Margaret (d. 1311), daughter of John I., duke of Brabant, and
+after the death of the German king, Albert I., he was elected to
+the vacant throne on the 27th of November 1308. Recognized
+at once by the German princes and by Pope Clement V., the aspirations
+of the new king turned to Italy, where he hoped by restoring
+the imperial authority to prepare the way for the conquest of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page279" id="page279"></a>279</span>
+the Holy Land. Meanwhile he strove to secure his position in
+Germany. The Rhenish archbishops were pacified by the
+restoration of the Rhine tolls, negotiations were begun with
+Philip IV., king of France, and with Robert, king of Naples,
+and the Habsburgs were confirmed in their possessions. At
+this time Bohemia was ruled by Henry V., duke of Carinthia,
+but the terrible disorder which prevailed induced some of the
+Bohemians to offer the crown, together with the hand of Elizabeth,
+daughter of the late king Wenceslas II., to John, the son of the
+German king. Henry accepted the offer, and in August 1310
+John was invested with Bohemia and his marriage was celebrated.
+Before John&rsquo;s coronation at Prague, however, in
+February 1311, Henry had crossed the Alps. His hopes of reuniting
+Germany and Italy and of restoring the empire of the
+Hohenstaufen were flattered by an appeal from the Ghibellines
+to come to their assistance, and by the fact that many Italians,
+sharing the sentiments expressed by Dante in his <i>De Monarchia</i>,
+looked eagerly for a restoration of the imperial authority. In
+October 1310 he reached Turin where, on receiving the homage
+of the Lombard cities, he declared that he favoured neither
+Guelphs nor Ghibellines, but only sought to impose peace.
+Having entered Milan he placed the Lombard crown upon his
+head on the 6th of January 1311. But trouble soon showed
+itself. His poverty compelled him to exact money from the
+citizens; the peaceful professions of the Guelphs were insincere,
+and Robert, king of Naples, watched his progress with suspicion.
+Florence was fortified against him, and the mutual hatred of
+Guelph and Ghibelline was easily renewed. Risings took place
+in various places and, after the capture of Brescia, Henry
+marched to Rome only to find the city in the hands of the Guelphs
+and the troops of King Robert. Some street fighting ensued,
+and the king, unable to obtain possession of St Peter&rsquo;s, was
+crowned emperor on the 29th of June 1312 in the church of St
+John Lateran by some cardinals who declared they only acted
+under compulsion. Failing to subdue Florence, the emperor
+from his headquarters at Pisa prepared to attack Robert of
+Naples, for which purpose he had allied himself with Frederick
+III., king of Sicily. But Clement, anxious to protect Robert,
+threatened Henry with excommunication. Undeterred by the
+threat the emperor collected fresh forces, made an alliance with
+the Venetians, and set out for Naples. On the march he was,
+however, taken ill, and died at Buonconvento near Siena on the
+24th of August 1313, and was buried at Pisa. His death was
+attributed, probably without reason, to poison given him by a
+Dominican friar in the sacramental wine. Henry is described
+by his contemporary Albertino Mussato, in the <i>Historia Augusta</i>,
+as a handsome man, of well-proportioned figure, with reddish
+hair and arched eyebrows, but disfigured by a squint. He adds,
+among other details, that he was slow and laconic in his speech,
+magnanimous and devout, but impatient of any compacts
+with his subjects, loathing the mention of the Guelph and
+Ghibelline factions, and insisting on the absolute authority
+of the Empire over all (<i>cuncta absoluto complectens Imperio</i>).
+He was, however, a lover of justice, and as a knight both bold
+and skilful. He was hailed by Dante as the deliverer of Italy,
+and in the <i>Paradiso</i> the poet reserved for him a place marked
+by a crown.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The contemporary documents for the life and reign of Henry VII.
+are very numerous. Many of them are found in the <i>Rerum Italicarum
+scriptores</i>, edited by L. A. Muratori (Milan, 1723-1751),
+others in <i>Fontes rerum Germanicarum</i>, edited by J. F. Böhmer
+(Stuttgart, 1843-1868), and in <i>Die Geschichtsschreiber der deutschen
+Vorzeit</i>, Bände 79 and 80 (Leipzig, 1884). The following modern
+works may also be consulted: <i>Acta Henrici VII. imperatoris
+Romanorum</i>, edited by G. Dönniges (Berlin, 1839); F. Bonaini,
+<i>Acta Henrici VII. Romanorum imperatoris</i> (Florence, 1877); T.
+Lindner, <i>Deutsche Geschichte unter den Habsburgern und Luxemburgern</i>
+(Stuttgart, 1888-1893); J. Heidemann, &ldquo;Die Königswahl
+Heinrichs von Luxemburg,&rdquo; in the <i>Forschungen zur deutschen
+Geschichte</i>, Band xi. (Göttingen, 1862-1886); B. Thomas, <i>Zur
+Königswahl des Grafen Heinrich von Luxemburg</i> (Strassburg, 1875);
+D. König, <i>Kritische Erörterungen zu einigen italienischen Quellen
+für die Geschichte des Römerzuges Königs Heinrich VII.</i> (Göttingen,
+1874); K. Wenck, <i>Clemens V. und Heinrich VII.</i> (Halle, 1882);
+F. W. Barthold, <i>Der Römerzug König Heinrichs von Lützelburg</i>
+(Königsberg, 1830-1831); R. Pöhlmann, <i>Der Römerzug König
+Heinrichs VII. und die Politik der Curie</i> (Nuremberg, 1875); W.
+Dönniges, <i>Kritik der Quellen für die Geschichte Heinrichs VII. des
+Luxemburgers</i> (Berlin, 1841), and G. Sommerfeldt, <i>Die Romfahrt
+Kaiser Heinrichs VII.</i> (Königsberg, 1888).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENRY VII.<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> (1211-1242), German king, son of the emperor
+Frederick II. and his first wife Constance, daughter of Alphonso
+II., king of Aragon, was crowned king of Sicily in 1212 and made
+duke of Swabia in 1216. Pope Innocent III. had favoured his
+coronation as king of Sicily in the hope that the union of this
+island with the Empire would be dissolved, and had obtained a
+promise from Frederick to this effect. In spite of this, however,
+Henry was chosen king of the Romans, or German king, at
+Frankfort in April 1220, and crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle on the
+8th of May 1222 by his guardian Engelbert, archbishop of Cologne.
+He appears to have spent most of his youth in Germany, and
+on the 18th of November 1225 was married at Nuremberg to
+Margaret (d. 1267), daughter of Leopold VI., duke of Austria.
+Henry&rsquo;s marriage was the occasion of some difference of opinion,
+as Engelbert wished him to marry an English princess, and the
+name of a Bohemian princess was also mentioned in this connexion,
+but Frederick insisted upon the union with Margaret.
+The murder of Engelbert in 1225 was followed by an increase of
+disorder in Germany in which Henry soon began to participate,
+and in 1227 he took part in a quarrel which had arisen on the
+death of Henry V., the childless count palatine of the Rhine.
+About this time the relations between Frederick and his son
+began to be somewhat strained. The emperor had favoured the
+Austrian marriage because Margaret&rsquo;s brother, Duke Frederick
+II., was childless; but Henry took up a hostile attitude towards
+his brother-in-law and wished to put away his wife and
+marry Agnes, daughter of Wenceslaus I., king of Bohemia.
+Other causes of trouble probably existed, for in 1231 Henry not
+only refused to appear at the diet at Ravenna, but opposed
+the privileges granted by Frederick to the princes at Worms. In
+1232, however, he submitted to his father, promising to adopt
+the emperor&rsquo;s policy and to obey his commands. He did not
+long keep his word and was soon engaged in thwarting Frederick&rsquo;s
+wishes in several directions, until in 1233 he took the decisive
+step of issuing a manifesto to the princes, and the following year
+raised the standard of revolt at Boppard. He obtained very
+little support in Germany, however, while the suspicion that he
+favoured heresy deprived him of encouragement from the pope.
+On the other hand, he succeeded in forming an alliance with the
+Lombards in December 1234, but his few supporters fell away
+when the emperor reached Germany in 1235, and, after a vain
+attack on Worms, Henry submitted and was kept for some time
+as a prisoner in Germany, though his formal deposition as German
+king was not considered necessary, as he had broken the oath
+taken in 1232. He was soon removed to San Felice in Apulia,
+and afterwards to Martirano in Calabria, where he died, probably
+by his own hand, on the 12th of February 1242, and was
+buried at Cosenza. He left two sons, Frederick and Henry,
+both of whom died in Italy about 1251.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J. Rohden, <i>Der Sturz Heinrichs VII.</i> (Göttingen, 1883); F. W.
+Schirrmacher, <i>Die letzten Hohenstaufen</i> (Göttingen, 1871), and E.
+Winkelmann, <i>Kaiser Friedrich II.</i> (Leipzig, 1889).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENRY RASPE<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1202-1247), German king and landgrave
+of Thuringia, was the second surviving son of Hermann I.,
+landgrave of Thuringia, and Sophia, daughter of Otto I., duke of
+Bavaria. When his brother the landgrave Louis IV. died in
+Italy in September 1227, Henry seized the government of
+Thuringia and expelled his brother&rsquo;s widow, St Elizabeth of
+Hungary, and her son Hermann. With some trouble Henry
+made good his position, although his nephew Hermann II. was
+nominally the landgrave, and was declared of age in 1237.
+Henry, who governed with a zealous regard for his own interests,
+remained loyal to the emperor Frederick II. during his quarrel
+with the Lombards and the revolt of his son Henry. In 1236
+he accompanied the emperor on a campaign against Frederick
+II., duke of Austria, and took part in the election of his son
+Conrad as German king at Vienna in 1237. He appears, however,
+to have become somewhat estranged from Frederick after this
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page280" id="page280"></a>280</span>
+expedition, for he did not appear at the diet of Verona in 1238;
+and it is not improbable that he disliked the betrothal of his
+nephew Hermann to the emperor&rsquo;s daughter Margaret. At
+all events, when the projected marriage had been broken off
+the landgrave publicly showed his loyalty to the emperor in
+1239 in opposition to a plan formed by various princes to elect
+an anti-king. Henry, whose attitude at this time was very
+important to Frederick, was probably kept loyal by the influence
+which his brother Conrad, grand-master of the Teutonic
+Order, exercised over him, for after the death of this brother
+in 1241 Henry&rsquo;s loyalty again wavered, and he was himself
+mentioned as a possible anti-king. Frederick&rsquo;s visit to Germany
+in 1242 was successful in preventing this step for a time, and in
+May of that year the landgrave was appointed administrator of
+Germany for King Conrad; and by the death of his nephew
+in this year he became the nominal, as well as the actual, ruler
+of Thuringia. Again he contemplated deserting the cause of
+Frederick, and in April 1246 Pope Innocent IV. wrote to the
+German princes advising them to choose Henry as their king
+in place of Frederick who had just been declared deposed. Acting
+on these instructions, Henry was elected at Veitshöchheim on
+the 22nd of May 1246, and owing to the part played by the
+spiritual princes in this election was called the <i>Pfaffenkönig</i>, or
+parsons&rsquo; king. Collecting an army, he defeated King Conrad
+near Frankfort on the 5th of August 1246, and then, after holding
+a diet at Nuremberg, undertook the siege of Ulm. But he was
+soon compelled to give up this enterprise, and returning to
+Thuringia died at the Wartburg on the 17th of February 1247.
+Henry married Gertrude, sister of Frederick II., duke of Austria,
+but left no children, and on his death the male line of his family
+became extinct.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See F. Reuss, <i>Die Wahl Heinrich Raspes</i> (Lüdenscheid, 1878);
+A. Rübesamen, <i>Landgraf Heinrich Raspe von Thüringen</i> (Halle,
+1885); F. W. Schirrmacher, <i>Die letzten Hohenstaufen</i> (Göttingen,
+1871); E. Winkelmann, <i>Kaiser Friedrich II.</i> (Leipzig, 1889), and
+T. Knochenhauer, <i>Geschichte Thüringens zur Zeit des ersten Landgrafenhauses</i>
+(Gotha, 1871).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENRY<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1174-1216), emperor of Romania, or Constantinople,
+was a younger son of Baldwin, count of Flanders and
+Hainaut (d. 1195). Having joined the Fourth Crusade about 1201,
+he distinguished himself at the siege of Constantinople in 1204
+and elsewhere, and soon became prominent among the princes
+of the new Latin empire of Constantinople. When his brother,
+the emperor Baldwin I., was captured at the battle of Adrianople
+in April 1205, Henry was chosen regent of the empire, succeeding
+to the throne when the news of Baldwin&rsquo;s death arrived. He
+was crowned on the 20th of August 1205. Henry was a wise
+ruler, whose reign was largely passed in successful struggles
+with the Bulgarians and with his rival, Theodore Lascaris I.,
+emperor of Nicaea. Henry appears to have been brave but not
+cruel, and tolerant but not weak; possessing &ldquo;the superior
+courage to oppose, in a superstitious age, the pride and avarice
+of the clergy.&rdquo; The emperor died, poisoned, it is said, by his
+Greek wife, on the 11th of June 1216.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Gibbon&rsquo;s <i>Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</i>, vol. vi. (ed.
+J. B. Bury, 1898).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENRY I.<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> (1068-1135), king of England, nicknamed Beauclerk,
+the fourth and youngest son of William I. by his queen
+Matilda of Flanders, was born in 1068 on English soil. Of his
+life before 1086, when he was solemnly knighted by his father
+at Westminster, we know little. He was his mother&rsquo;s favourite,
+and she bequeathed to him her English estates, which, however,
+he was not permitted to hold in his father&rsquo;s lifetime. Henry
+received a good education, of which in later life he was proud;
+he is credited with the saying that an unlettered king is only a
+crowned ass. His attainments included Latin, which he could
+both read and write; he knew something of the English laws
+and language, and it may have been from an interest in natural
+history that he collected, during his reign, the Woodstock
+menagerie which was the admiration of his subjects. But
+from 1087 his life was one of action and vicissitudes which left
+him little leisure. Receiving, under the Conqueror&rsquo;s last dispositions,
+a legacy of five thousand pounds of silver, but no land,
+he traded upon the pecuniary needs of Duke Robert of Normandy,
+from whom he purchased, for the small sum of £3000, the
+district of the Cotentin. He negotiated with Rufus to obtain
+the possession of their mother&rsquo;s inheritance, but only incurred
+thereby the suspicions of the duke, who threw him into prison.
+In 1090 the prince vindicated his loyalty by suppressing, on
+Robert&rsquo;s behalf, a revolt of the citizens of Rouen which Rufus
+had fomented. But when his elder brothers were reconciled
+in the next year they combined to evict Henry from the
+Cotentin. He dissembled his resentment for a time, and lived
+for nearly two years in the French Vexin in great poverty. He
+then accepted from the citizens of Domfront an invitation to
+defend them against Robert of Bellême; and subsequently,
+coming to an agreement with Rufus, assisted the king in making
+war on their elder brother Robert. When Robert&rsquo;s departure
+for the First Crusade left Normandy in the hands of Rufus
+(1096) Henry took service under the latter, and he was in
+the royal hunting train on the day of Rufus&rsquo;s death (August 2nd,
+1100). Had Robert been in Normandy the claim of Henry to
+the English crown might have been effectually opposed. But
+Robert only returned to the duchy a month after Henry&rsquo;s
+coronation. In the meantime the new king, by issuing his
+famous charter, by recalling Anselm, and by choosing the
+Anglo-Scottish princess Edith-Matilda, daughter of Malcolm III.,
+king of the Scots, as his future queen, had cemented that alliance
+with the church and with the native English which was the
+foundation of his greatness. Anselm preached in his favour,
+English levies marched under the royal banner both to repel
+Robert&rsquo;s invasion (1101) and to crush the revolt of the Montgomeries
+headed by Robert of Bellême (1102). The alliance
+of crown and church was subsequently imperilled by the question
+of Investitures (1103-1106). Henry was sharply criticized for
+his ingratitude to Anselm (<i>q.v.</i>), in spite of the marked respect
+which he showed to the archbishop. At this juncture a sentence
+of excommunication would have been a dangerous blow to Henry&rsquo;s
+power in England. But the king&rsquo;s diplomatic skill enabled him
+to satisfy the church without surrendering any rights of consequence
+(1106); and he skilfully threw the blame of his previous
+conduct upon his counsellor, Robert of Meulan. Although the
+Peterborough Chronicle accuses Henry of oppression in his
+early years, the nation soon learned to regard him with respect.
+William of Malmesbury, about 1125, already treats Tinchebrai
+(1106) as an English victory and the revenge for Hastings.
+Henry was disliked but feared by the baronage, towards whom
+he showed gross bad faith in his disregard of his coronation
+promises. In 1110 he banished the more conspicuous malcontents,
+and from that date was safe against the plots of his
+English feudatories.</p>
+
+<p>With Normandy he had more trouble, and the military skill
+which he had displayed at Tinchebrai was more than once put
+to the test against Norman rebels. His Norman, like his English
+administration, was popular with the non-feudal classes, but
+doubtless oppressive towards the barons. The latter had
+abandoned the cause of Duke Robert, who remained a prisoner
+in England till his death (1134); but they embraced that of
+Robert&rsquo;s son William the Clito, whom Henry in a fit of generosity
+had allowed to go free after Tinchebrai. The Norman conspiracies
+of 1112, 1118, and 1123-24 were all formed in the
+Clito&rsquo;s interest. Both France and Anjou supported this pretender&rsquo;s
+cause from time to time; he was always a thorn in
+Henry&rsquo;s side till his untimely death at Alost (1128), but more
+especially after the catastrophe of the White Ship (1120) deprived
+the king of his only lawful son. But Henry emerged from these
+complications with enhanced prestige. His campaigns had
+been uneventful, his chief victory (Brémule, 1119) was little
+more than a skirmish. But he had held his own as a general,
+and as a diplomatist he had shown surpassing skill. The chief
+triumphs of his foreign policy were the marriage of his daughter
+Matilda to the emperor Henry V. (1114) which saved Normandy
+in 1124; the detachment of the pope, Calixtus II., from the
+side of France and the Clito (1119), and the Angevin marriages
+which he arranged for his son William Aetheling (1119) and for
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page281" id="page281"></a>281</span>
+the widowed empress Matilda (1129) after her brother&rsquo;s death.
+This latter match, though unpopular in England and Normandy,
+was a fatal blow to the designs of Louis VI., and prepared the
+way for the expansion of English power beyond the Loire.
+After 1124 the disaffection of Normandy was crushed. The
+severity with which Henry treated the last rebels was regarded
+as a blot upon his fame; but the only case of merely vindictive
+punishment was that of the poet Luke de la Barre, who was
+sentenced to lose his eyes for a lampoon upon the king, and only
+escaped the sentence by committing suicide.</p>
+
+<p>Henry&rsquo;s English government was severe and grasping; but
+he &ldquo;kept good peace&rdquo; and honourably distinguished himself
+among contemporary statesmen in an age when administrative
+reform was in the air. He spent more time in Normandy than
+in England. But he showed admirable judgment in his choice
+of subordinates; Robert of Meulan, who died in 1118, and
+Roger of Salisbury, who survived his master, were statesmen
+of no common order; and Henry was free from the mania of
+attending in person to every detail, which was the besetting
+sin of medieval sovereigns. As a legislator Henry was conservative.
+He issued few ordinances; the unofficial compilation
+known as the <i>Leges Henrici</i> shows that, like the Conqueror,
+he made it his ideal to maintain the &ldquo;law of Edward.&rdquo; His
+itinerant justices were not altogether a novelty in England or
+Normandy. It is characteristic of the man that the exchequer
+should be the chief institution created in his reign. The eulogies
+of the last <i>Peterborough Chronicle</i> on his government were
+written after the anarchy of Stephen&rsquo;s reign had invested his
+predecessor&rsquo;s &ldquo;good peace&rdquo; with the glamour of a golden age.
+Henry was respected and not tyrannous. He showed a lofty
+indifference to criticism such as that of Eadmer in the <i>Historia
+novorum</i>, which was published early in the reign. He showed,
+on some occasions, great deference to the opinions of the magnates.
+But dark stories, some certainly unfounded, were told of his
+prison-houses. Men thought him more cruel and more despotic
+than he actually was.</p>
+
+<p>Henry was twice married. After the death of his first wife,
+Matilda (1080-1118), he took to wife Adelaide, daughter of
+Godfrey, count of Louvain (1121), in the hope of male issue.
+But the marriage proved childless, and the empress Matilda
+was designated as her father&rsquo;s successor, the English baronage
+being compelled to do her homage both in 1126, and again,
+after the Angevin marriage, in 1131. He had many illegitimate
+sons and daughters by various mistresses. Of these bastards the
+most important is Robert, earl of Gloucester, upon whom fell the
+main burden of defending Matilda&rsquo;s title against Stephen.</p>
+
+<p>Henry died near Gisors on the 1st of December, 1135, in the
+thirty-sixth year of his reign, and was buried in the abbey of
+Reading which he himself had founded.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Original Authorities.</span>&mdash;<i>The Peterborough Chronicle</i> (ed. Plummer,
+Oxford, 1882-1889); <i>Florence of Worcester</i> and his first continuator
+(ed. B. Thorpe, 1848-1849); Eadmer, <i>Historia novorum</i> (ed. Rule,
+Rolls Series, 1884); William of Malmesbury, <i>Gesta regum</i> and
+<i>Historia novella</i> (ed. Stubbs, Rolls Series, 1887-1889); Henry of
+Huntingdon, <i>Historia Anglorum</i> (ed. Arnold, Rolls Series, 1879);
+Simeon of Durham (ed. Arnold, Rolls Series, 1882-1885); Orderic
+Vitalis, <i>Historia ecclesiastica</i> (ed. le Prévost, Paris, 1838-1855);
+Robert of Torigni, <i>Chronica</i> (ed. Howlett, Rolls Series, 1889), and
+<i>Continuatio Willelmi Gemmeticensis</i> (ed. Duchesne, <i>Hist. Normannorum
+scriptores</i>, pp. 215-317, Paris, 1619). See also the Pipe Roll
+of 31 H. I. (ed. Hunter, <i>Record Commission</i>, 1833); the documents in
+W. Stubbs&rsquo;s <i>Select Chapters</i> (Oxford, 1895); the <i>Leges Henrici</i> in
+Liebermann&rsquo;s <i>Gesetze der Angel-Sachsen</i> (Halle, 1898, &amp;c.); and the
+same author&rsquo;s monograph, <i>Leges Henrici</i> (Halle, 1901); the treaties,
+&amp;c., in the Record Commission edition of Thomas Rymer&rsquo;s <i>Foedera</i>,
+vol. i. (1816).</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Modern authorities.</span>&mdash;E. A. Freeman, <i>History of the Norman
+Conquest</i>, vol. v.; J. M. Lappenberg, <i>History of England under the
+Norman Kings</i> (tr. Thorpe, Oxford, 1857); Kate Norgate, <i>England
+under the Angevin Kings</i>, vol. i. (1887); Sir James Ramsay, <i>Foundations
+of England</i>, vol. ii.; W. Stubbs, <i>Constitutional History</i>, vol. i.;
+H. W. C. Davis, <i>England under the Normans and Angevins</i>; Hunt
+and Poole, <i>Political History of England</i>, vol. ii.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. W. C. D.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENRY II.<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> (1133-1189), king of England, son of Geoffrey
+Plantagenet, count of Anjou, by Matilda, daughter of Henry
+I., was born at Le Mans on the 25th of March 1133. He was
+brought to England during his mother&rsquo;s conflict with Stephen
+(1142), and was placed under the charge of a tutor at Bristol.
+He returned to Normandy in 1146. He next appeared on English
+soil in 1149<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> when he came to court the help of Scotland and the
+English baronage against King Stephen. The second visit was of
+short duration. In 1150 he was invested with Normandy by his
+father, whose death in the next year made him also count of
+Anjou. In 1152 by a marriage with Eleanor of Aquitaine, the
+divorced wife of the French king Louis VII., he acquired
+Poitou, Guienne and Gascony; but in doing so incurred the
+ill-will of his suzerain from which he suffered not a little in the
+future. Lastly in 1153 he was able, through the aid of the
+Church and his mother&rsquo;s partisans, to extort from Stephen the
+recognition of his claim to the English succession; and this
+claim was asserted without opposition immediately after Stephen&rsquo;s
+death (25th of October 1154). Matilda retired into seclusion,
+although she possessed, until her death (1167), great influence
+with her son.</p>
+
+<p>The first years of the reign were largely spent in restoring the
+public peace and recovering for the crown the lands and prerogatives
+which Stephen had bartered away. Amongst the
+older partisans of the Angevin house the most influential were
+Archbishop Theobald, whose good will guaranteed to Henry
+the support of the Church, and Nigel, bishop of Ely, who presided
+at the exchequer. But Thomas Becket, archdeacon of Canterbury,
+a younger statesman whom Theobald had discovered
+and promoted, soon became all-powerful. Becket lent himself
+entirely to his master&rsquo;s ambitions, which at this time centred
+round schemes of territorial aggrandizement. In 1155 Henry
+asked and obtained from Adrian IV. a licence to invade Ireland,
+which the king contemplated bestowing upon his brother,
+William of Anjou. This plan was dropped; but Malcolm of
+Scotland was forced to restore the northern counties which had
+been ceded to David; North Wales was invaded in 1157; and
+in 1159 Henry made an attempt, which was foiled by the intervention
+of Louis VII., to assert his wife&rsquo;s claims upon Toulouse.
+After vainly invoking the aid of the emperor Frederick I., the
+young king came to terms with Louis (1160), whose daughter
+was betrothed to Henry&rsquo;s namesake and heir. The peace proved
+unstable, and there was desultory skirmishing in 1161. The
+following year was chiefly spent in reforming the government of
+the continental provinces. In 1163 Henry returned to England,
+and almost immediately embarked on that quarrel with the
+Church which is the keynote to the middle period of the reign.</p>
+
+<p>Henry had good cause to complain of the ecclesiastical courts,
+and had only awaited a convenient season to correct abuses
+which were admitted by all reasonable men. But he allowed
+the question to be complicated by personal issues. He was
+bitterly disappointed that Becket, on whom he bestowed the
+primacy, left vacant by the death of Theobald (1162), at once
+became the champion of clerical privilege; he and the archbishop
+were no longer on speaking terms when the Constitutions of
+Clarendon came up for debate. The king&rsquo;s demands were not
+intrinsically irreconcilable with the canon law, and the papacy
+would probably have allowed them to take effect <i>sub silentio</i>,
+if Becket (<i>q.v.</i>) had not been goaded to extremity by persecution
+in the forms of law. After Becket&rsquo;s flight (1164), the king put
+himself still further in the wrong by impounding the revenues
+of Canterbury and banishing at one stroke a number of the
+archbishop&rsquo;s friends and connexions. He showed, however,
+considerable dexterity in playing off the emperor against
+Alexander III. and Louis VII., and contrived for five years,
+partly by these means, partly by insincere negotiations with
+Becket, to stave off a papal interdict upon his dominions. When,
+in July 1170, he was forced by Alexander&rsquo;s threats to make
+terms with Becket, the king contrived that not a word should
+be said of the Constitutions. He undoubtedly hoped that in
+this matter he would have his way when Becket should be more
+in England and within his grasp. For the murder of Becket
+(Dec. 29, 1170) the king cannot be held responsible, though the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page282" id="page282"></a>282</span>
+deed was suggested by his impatient words. It was a misfortune
+to the royal cause; and Henry was compelled to purchase the
+papal absolution by a complete surrender on the question of
+criminous clerks (1172). When he heard of the murder he was
+panic-stricken; and his expedition to Ireland (1171), although so
+momentous for the future, was originally a mere pretext for
+placing himself beyond the reach of Alexander&rsquo;s censures.</p>
+
+<p>Becket&rsquo;s fate, though it supplied an excuse, was certainly not
+the real cause of the troubles with his sons which disturbed the
+king&rsquo;s later years (1173-1189). But Henry&rsquo;s misfortunes were
+largely of his own making. Queen Eleanor, whom he alienated
+by his faithlessness, stirred up her sons to rebellion; and they
+had grievances enough to be easily persuaded. Henry was an
+affectionate but a suspicious and close-handed father. The
+titles which he bestowed on them carried little power, and served
+chiefly to denote the shares of the paternal inheritance which
+were to be theirs after his death. The excessive favour which
+he showed to John, his youngest-born, was another cause of
+heart-burning; and Louis, the old enemy, did his utmost to
+foment all discords. It must, however, be remembered in
+Henry&rsquo;s favour, that the supporters of the princes, both in
+England and in the foreign provinces, were animated by resentment
+against the soundest features of the king&rsquo;s administration;
+and that, in the rebellion of 1173, he received from the English
+commons such hearty support that any further attempt to
+raise a rebellion in England was considered hopeless. Henry,
+like his grandfather, gained in popularity with every year of his
+reign. In 1183 the death of Prince Henry, the heir-apparent,
+while engaged in a war against his brother Richard and their
+father, secured a short interval of peace. But in 1184 Geoffrey
+of Brittany and John combined with their father&rsquo;s leave to make
+war upon Richard, now the heir-apparent. After Geoffrey&rsquo;s
+death (1186) the feud between John and Richard drove the
+latter into an alliance with Philip Augustus of France. The
+ill-success of the old king in this war aggravated the disease from
+which he was suffering; and his heart was broken by the discovery
+that John, for whose sake he had alienated Richard, was
+in secret league with the victorious allies. Henry died at Chinon
+on the 6th of July 1189, and was buried at Fontevraud. By
+Eleanor of Aquitaine the king had five sons and three daughters.
+His eldest son, William, died young; his other sons, Henry,
+Richard, Geoffrey and John, are all mentioned above. His
+daughters were: Matilda (1156-1189), who became the wife of
+Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony; Eleanor (1162-1214), who
+married Alphonso III., king of Castile; and Joanna, who, after
+the death of William of Sicily in 1189, became the wife of Raymund
+VI., count of Toulouse, having previously accompanied
+her brother, Richard, to Palestine. He had also three illegitimate
+sons: Geoffrey, archbishop of York; Morgan; and
+William Longsword, earl of Salisbury.</p>
+
+<p>Henry&rsquo;s power impressed the imagination of his contemporaries,
+who credited him with aiming at the conquest of France
+and the acquisition of the imperial title. But his ambitions
+of conquest were comparatively moderate in his later
+years. He attempted to secure Maurienne and Savoy for John
+by a marriage-alliance, for which a treaty was signed in 1173.
+But the project failed through the death of the intended bride;
+nor did the marriage of his third daughter, the princess Joanna
+(1165-1199), with William II., king of Sicily (1177) lead to English
+intervention in Italian politics. Henry once declined an offer
+of the Empire, made by the opponents of Frederick Barbarossa;
+and he steadily supported the young Philip Augustus against
+the intrigues of French feudatories. The conquest of Ireland
+was carried out independently of his assistance, and perhaps
+against his wishes. He asserted his suzerainty over Scotland
+by the treaty of Falaise (1175), but not so stringently as to provoke
+Scottish hostility. This moderation was partly due to the
+embarrassments produced by the ecclesiastical question and
+the rebellions of the princes. But Henry, despite a violent and
+capricious temper, had a strong taste for the work of a legislator
+and administrator. He devoted infinite pains and thought to
+the reform of government both in England and Normandy.
+The legislation of his reign was probably in great part of his own
+contriving. His supervision of the law courts was close and
+jealous; he transacted a great amount of judicial business in
+his own person, even after he had formed a high court of justice
+which might sit without his personal presence. To these
+activities he devoted his scanty intervals of leisure. His government
+was stern; he over-rode the privileges of the baronage
+without regard to precedent; he persisted in keeping large
+districts under the arbitrary and vexatious jurisdiction of the
+forest-courts. But it is the general opinion of historians that
+he had a high sense of his responsibilities and a strong love of
+justice; despite the looseness of his personal morals, he commanded
+the affection and respect of Gilbert Foliot and Hugh of
+Lincoln, the most upright of the English bishops.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Original Authorities.</span>&mdash;Henry&rsquo;s laws are printed in W. Stubb&rsquo;s
+<i>Select Charters</i> (Oxford, 1895). The chief chroniclers of his reign are
+William of Newburgh, Ralph de Diceto, the so-called Benedict of
+Peterborough, Roger of Hoveden, Robert de Torigni (or de Monte),
+Jordan Fantosme, Giraldus Cambrensis, Gervase of Canterbury;
+all printed in the Rolls Series. The biographies and letters contained
+in the 7 vols. of <i>Materials for the History of Thomas Becket</i> (ed. J. C.
+Robertson, Rolls Series, 1875-1885) are valuable for the early and
+middle part of the reign. For Irish affairs the <i>Song of Dermot</i> (ed.
+Orpen, Oxford, 1892), for the rebellions of the princes the metrical
+<i>Histoire de Guillaume le Maréchal</i> (ed. Paul Meyer, 3 vols., Paris,
+1891, &amp;c.) are of importance. Henry&rsquo;s legal and administrative
+reforms are illustrated by the <i>Tractatus de legibus</i> attributed to
+Ranulph Glanville, his chief justiciar (ed. G. Phillips, Berlin, 1828);
+by the <i>Dialogus de scaccario</i> of Richard fitz Nigel (Oxford, 1902);
+the <i>Pipe Rolls</i>, printed by J. Hunter for the Record Commission
+(1844) and by the Pipe-Roll Society (London, 1884, &amp;c.) supply
+valuable details. The works of John of Salisbury (ed. Giles, 1848),
+Peter of Blois (ed. Migne), Walter Map (Camden Society, 1841,
+1850) and the letters of Gilbert Foliot (ed. J. A. Giles, Oxford, 1845)
+are useful for the social and Church history of the reign.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Modern Authorities.</span>&mdash;R. W. Eyton, <i>Itinerary of Henry II.</i>
+(London, 1878); W. Stubbs, <i>Constitutional History</i>, vol. i. (Oxford,
+1893), <i>Lectures on Medieval and Modern History</i> (Oxford, 1886) and
+<i>Early Plantagenets</i> (London, 1876); the same author&rsquo;s introduction
+to the Rolls editions of &ldquo;Benedict,&rdquo; Gervase, Diceto, Hoveden;
+Mrs J. R. Green, Henry II. (London, 1888); Miss K. Norgate,
+<i>England under the Angevin Kings</i> (2 vols., London, 1887); Sir J. H.
+Ramsay&rsquo;s <i>The Angevin Empire</i> (London, 1893); H. W. C. Davis&rsquo;s
+<i>England under the Normans and Angevins</i> (London, 1905); Sir F.
+Pollock and F. W. Maitland, <i>History of English Law</i> (2 vols., Cambridge,
+1898); and F. Hardegen, <i>Imperialpolitik König Heinrichs II.
+von England</i> (Heidelberg, 1905).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. W. C. D.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For a supposed visit in 1147, see J. H. Round in <i>English Historical
+Review</i>, v. 747.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENRY III.<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> (1207-1272), king of England, was the eldest son
+of King John by Isabella of Angoulême. Born on the 1st of
+October 1207, the prince was but nine years old at the time of
+his father&rsquo;s death. The greater part of eastern England being
+in the hands of the French pretender, Prince Louis, afterwards
+King Louis VIII., and the rebel barons, Henry was crowned by
+his supporters at Gloucester, the western capital. John had
+committed his son to the protection of the Holy See; and a
+share in the government was accordingly allowed to the papal
+legates, Gualo and Pandulf, both during the civil war and for
+some time afterwards. But the title of regent was given by the
+loyal barons to William Marshal, the aged earl of Pembroke;
+and Peter des Roches, the Poitevin bishop of Winchester,
+received the charge of the king&rsquo;s person. The cause of the
+young Henry was fully vindicated by the close of the year 1217.
+Defeated both by land and sea, the French prince renounced his
+pretensions and evacuated England, leaving the regency to deal
+with the more difficult questions raised by the lawless insolence
+of the royal partisans. Henry remained a passive spectator of
+the measures by which William Marshal (d. 1219), and his
+successor, the justiciar Hubert de Burgh, asserted the royal
+prerogative against native barons and foreign mercenaries.
+In 1223 Honorius III. declared the king of age, but this was a
+mere formality, intended to justify the resumption of the royal
+castles and demesnes which had passed into private hands during
+the commotions of the civil war.</p>
+
+<p>The personal rule of Henry III. began in 1227, when he was
+again proclaimed of age. Even then he remained for some time
+under the influence of Hubert de Burgh, whose chief rival, Peter
+des Roches, found it expedient to quit the kingdom for four
+years. But Henry was ambitions to recover the continental
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page283" id="page283"></a>283</span>
+possessions which his father had lost. Against the wishes of
+the justiciar he planned and carried out an expedition to the
+west of France (1230); when it failed he laid the blame upon
+his minister. Other differences arose soon afterwards. Hubert
+was accused, with some reason, of enriching himself at the expense
+of the crown, and of encouraging popular riots against the
+alien clerks for whom the papacy was providing at the expense
+of the English Church. He was disgraced in 1232; and power
+passed for a time into the hands of Peter des Roches, who filled
+the administration with Poitevins. So began the period of
+misrule by which Henry III. is chiefly remembered in history.
+The Poitevins fell in 1234; they were removed at the demand
+of the barons and the primate Edmund Rich, who held them
+responsible for the tragic fate of the rebellious Richard Marshal.
+But the king replaced them with a new clique of servile and
+rapacious favourites. Disregarding the wishes of the Great
+Council, and excluding all the more important of the barons and
+bishops from office, he acted as his own chief minister and never
+condescended to justify his policy except when he stood in need
+of subsidies. When these were refused, he extorted aids from
+the towns, the Jews or the clergy, the three most defenceless
+interests in the kingdom. Always in pecuniary straits through
+his extravagance, he pursued a foreign policy which would have
+been expensive under the most careful management. He
+hoped not only to regain the French possessions but to establish
+members of his own family as sovereigns in Italy and the Empire.
+These plans were artfully fostered by the Savoyard kinsmen
+of Eleanor, daughter of Raymond Berenger, count of Provence,
+whom he married at Canterbury in January 1236, and by his
+half-brothers, the sons of Queen Isabella and Hugo, count of la
+Marche. These favourites, not content with pushing their
+fortunes in the English court, encouraged the king in the wildest
+designs. In 1242 he led an expedition to Gascony which terminated
+disastrously with the defeat of Taillebourg; and
+hostilities with France were intermittently continued for seventeen
+years. The Savoyards encouraged his natural tendency to
+support the Papacy against the Empire; at an early date in the
+period of misrule he entered into a close alliance with Rome,
+which resulted in heavy taxation of the clergy and gave great
+umbrage to the barons. A cardinal-legate was sent to England
+at Henry&rsquo;s request, and during four years (1237-1241) administered
+the English Church in a manner equally profitable to the
+king and to the pope. After the recall of the legate Otho the
+alliance was less open and less cordial. Still the pope continued
+to share the spoils of the English clergy with the king, and the
+king to enforce the demands of Roman tax-collectors.</p>
+
+<p>Circumstances favoured Henry&rsquo;s schemes. Archbishop
+Edmund Rich was timid and inexperienced; his successor,
+Boniface of Savoy, was a kinsman of the queen; Grosseteste,
+the most eminent of the bishops, died in 1253, when he was on
+the point of becoming a popular hero. Among the lay barons,
+the first place naturally belonged to Richard of Cornwall who,
+as the king&rsquo;s brother, was unwilling to take any steps which
+might impair the royal prerogative; while Simon de Montfort,
+earl of Leicester, the ablest man of his order, was regarded with
+suspicion as a foreigner, and linked to Henry&rsquo;s cause by his
+marriage with the princess Eleanor. Although the Great Council
+repeatedly protested against the king&rsquo;s misrule and extravagance,
+their remonstrances came to nothing for want of leaders and a
+clear-cut policy. But between 1248 and 1252 Henry alienated
+Montfort from his cause by taking the side of the Gascons,
+whom the earl had provoked to rebellion through his rigorous
+administration of their duchy. A little later, when Montfort
+was committed to opposition, Henry foolishly accepted from
+Innocent IV. the crown of Sicily for his second son Edmund
+Crouchback (1255). Sicily was to be conquered from the
+Hohenstaufen at the expense of England; and Henry pledged
+his credit to the papacy for enormous subsidies, although years
+of comparative inactivity had already overwhelmed him with
+debts. On the publication of the ill-considered bargain the
+baronage at length took vigorous action. They forced upon the
+king the Provisions of Oxford (1258), which placed the government
+in the hands of a feudal oligarchy; they reduced expenditure,
+expelled the alien favourites from the kingdom, and
+insisted upon a final renunciation of the French claims. The
+king submitted for the moment, but at the first opportunity
+endeavoured to cancel his concessions. He obtained a papal
+absolution from his promises; and he tricked the opposition
+into accepting the arbitration of the French king, Louis IX.,
+whose verdict was a foregone conclusion. But Henry was
+incapable of protecting with the strong hand the rights which
+he had recovered by his double-dealing. Ignominiously defeated
+by Montfort at Lewes (1264) he fell into the position of a
+cipher, equally despised by his opponents and supporters. He
+acquiesced in the earl&rsquo;s dictatorship; left to his eldest son,
+Edward, the difficult task of reorganizing the royal party;
+marched with the Montfortians to Evesham; and narrowly
+escaped sharing the fate of his gaoler. After Evesham he is
+hardly mentioned by the chroniclers. The compromise with
+the surviving rebels was arranged by his son in concert with
+Richard of Cornwall and the legate Ottobuono; the statute
+of Marlborough (1267), which purchased a lasting peace by
+judicious concessions, was similarly arranged between Edward
+and the earl of Gloucester. Edward was king in all but name
+for some years before the death of his father, by whom he was
+alternately suspected and adored.</p>
+
+<p>Henry had in him some of the elements of a fine character.
+His mind was cultivated; he was a discriminating patron of
+literature, and Westminster Abbey is an abiding memorial of
+his artistic taste. His personal morality was irreproachable,
+except that he inherited the Plantagenet taste for crooked
+courses and dissimulation in political affairs; even in this
+respect the king&rsquo;s reputation has suffered unduly at the hands
+of Matthew Paris, whose literary skill is only equalled by his
+malice. The ambitions which Henry cherished, if extravagant,
+were never sordid; his patriotism, though seldom attested by
+practical measures, was thoroughly sincere. Some of his worst
+actions as a politician were due to a sincere, though exaggerated,
+gratitude for the support which the Papacy had given him during
+his minority. But he had neither the training nor the temper
+of a statesman. His dreams of autocracy at home and far-reaching
+dominion abroad were anachronisms in a century of
+constitutional ideas and national differentiation. Above all he
+earned the contempt of Englishmen and foreigners alike by
+the instability of his purpose. Matthew Paris said that he had
+a heart of wax; Dante relegated him to the limbo of ineffectual
+souls; and later generations have endorsed these scathing
+judgments.</p>
+
+<p>Henry died at Westminster on the 16th of November 1272;
+his widow, Eleanor, took the veil in 1276 and died at Amesbury
+on the 25th of June 1291. Their children were: the future king
+Edward I.; Edmund, earl of Lancaster; Margaret (1240-1275),
+the wife of Alexander III., king of Scotland; Beatrice; and
+Katherine.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Original Authorities.</span>&mdash;Roger of Wendover, <i>Flores historiarum</i>
+(ed. H. O. Coxe, 4 vols., 1841-1844); and Matthew of Paris, <i>Chronica
+majora</i> (ed. H. R. Luard, Rolls Series, 7 vols., 1872-1883) are the
+chief narrative sources. See also the <i>Annales monastici</i> (ed. H. R.
+Luard, Rolls Series, 5 vols., 1864-1869); the collection of <i>Royal and
+other Historical Letters</i> edited by W. Shirley (Rolls Series, 2 vols.,
+1862-1866); the Close and Patent Rolls edited for the Record Commission
+and the Master of the Rolls; the <i>Epistolae Roberti Grosseteste</i>
+(ed. H. R. Luard, Rolls Series, 1861); the <i>Monumenta Franciscana</i>,
+vol. i. (ed. J. S. Brewer, Rolls Series, 1858); the documents
+in the new <i>Foedera</i>, vol. i. (Record Commission, 1816).</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Modern Works.</span>&mdash;G. J. Turner&rsquo;s article on the king&rsquo;s minority in
+<i>Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, New Series</i>, vol. xviii.;
+Dom Gasquet&rsquo;s <i>Henry III. and the Church</i> (1905); the lives of Simon
+de Montfort by G. W. Prothero (1871), R. Pauli (Eng. ed., 1876)
+and C. Bémont (Paris, 1884); W. Stubbs&rsquo;s <i>Constitutional History
+of England</i>, vol. ii. (1887); R. Pauli&rsquo;s <i>Geschichte von England</i>, vol. iii.
+(Hamburg, 1853); T. F. Tout in the <i>Political History of England</i>,
+vol. iii. (1905), and H. W. C. Davis in <i>England under the Normans and
+Angevins</i> (1905).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. W. C. D.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENRY IV.<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> (1367-1413), king of England, son of John of
+Gaunt, by Blanche, daughter of Henry, duke of Lancaster, was
+born on the 3rd of April 1367, at Bolingbroke in Lincolnshire.
+As early as 1377 he is styled earl of Derby, and in 1380 he married
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page284" id="page284"></a>284</span>
+Mary de Bohun (d. 1394) one of the co-heiresses of the last earl
+of Hereford. In 1387 he supported his uncle Thomas, duke of
+Gloucester, in his armed opposition to Richard II. and his
+favourites. Afterwards, probably through his father&rsquo;s influence,
+he changed sides. He was already distinguished for his knightly
+prowess, and for some years devoted himself to adventure.
+He thought of going on the crusade to Barbary; but instead, in
+July 1390, went to serve with the Teutonic knights in Lithuania.
+He came home in the following spring, but next year went
+again to Prussia, whence he journeyed by way of Venice to
+Cyprus and Jerusalem. After his return to England he sided
+with his father and the king against Gloucester, and in 1397
+was made duke of Hereford. In January 1398 he quarrelled
+with the duke of Norfolk, who charged him with treason. The
+dispute was to have been decided in the lists at Coventry in
+September; but at the last moment Richard intervened and
+banished them both.</p>
+
+<p>When John of Gaunt died in February 1399 Richard, contrary
+to his promise, confiscated the estates of Lancaster. Henry
+then felt himself free, and made friends with the exiled Arundels.
+Early in July, whilst Richard was absent in Ireland, he landed
+at Ravenspur in Yorkshire. He was at once joined by the
+Percies; and Richard, abandoned by his friends, surrendered
+at Flint on the 19th of August. In the parliament, which
+assembled on the 30th of September, Richard was forced to
+abdicate. Henry then made his claim as coming by right line
+of blood from King Henry III., and through his right to recover
+the realm which was in point to be undone for default of governance
+and good law. Parliament formally accepted him, and thus
+Henry became king, &ldquo;not so much by title of blood as by popular
+election&rdquo; (Capgrave). The new dynasty had consequently a
+constitutional basis. With this Henry&rsquo;s own political sympathies
+well accorded. But though the revolution of 1399 was popular
+in form, its success was due to an oligarchical faction. From
+the start Henry was embarrassed by the power and pretensions
+of the Percies. Nor was his hereditary title so good as that of the
+Mortimers. To domestic troubles was added the complication
+of disputes with Scotland and France. The first danger came
+from the friends of Richard, who plotted prematurely, and were
+crushed in January 1400. During the summer of 1400 Henry
+made a not over-successful expedition to Scotland. The French
+court would not accept his overtures, and it was only in the
+summer of 1401 that a truce was patched up by the restoration
+of Richard&rsquo;s child-queen, Isabella of Valois. Meantime a more
+serious trouble had arisen through the outbreak of the Welsh
+revolt under Owen Glendower (<i>q.v.</i>). In 1400 and again in each
+of the two following autumns Henry invaded Wales in vain.
+The success of the Percies over the Scots at Homildon Hill
+(Sept. 1402) was no advantage. Henry Percy (Hotspur) and
+his father, the earl of Northumberland, thought their services
+ill-requited, and finally made common cause with the partisans
+of Mortimer and the Welsh. The plot was frustrated by Hotspur&rsquo;s
+defeat at Shrewsbury (21st of July 1403); and Northumberland
+for the time submitted. Henry had, however, no one on whom
+he could rely outside his own family, except Archbishop Arundel.
+The Welsh were unsubdued; the French were plundering the
+southern coast; Northumberland was fomenting trouble in the
+north. The crisis came in 1405. A plot to carry off the young
+Mortimers was defeated; but Mowbray, the earl marshal, who
+had been privy to it, raised a rebellion in the north supported
+by Archbishop Scrope of York. Mowbray and Scrope were
+taken and beheaded; Northumberland escaped into Scotland.
+For the execution of the archbishop Henry was personally
+responsible, and he could never free himself from its odium.
+Popular belief regarded his subsequent illness as a judgment for
+his impiety. Apart from ill-health and unpopularity Henry had
+succeeded&mdash;relations with Scotland were secured by the
+capture of James, the heir to the crown; Northumberland was at
+last crushed at Bramham Moor (Feb. 1408); and a little later the
+Welsh revolt was mastered.</p>
+
+<p>Henry, stricken with sore disease, was unable to reap the
+advantage. His necessities had all along enabled the Commons
+to extort concessions in parliament, until in 1406 he was forced
+to nominate a council and govern by its advice. However, with
+Archbishop Arundel as his chancellor, Henry still controlled
+the government. But in January 1410 Arundel had to give way
+to the king&rsquo;s half-brother, Thomas Beaufort. Beaufort and his
+brother Henry, bishop of Winchester, were opposed to Arundel
+and supported by the prince of Wales. For two years the real
+government rested with the prince and the council. Under
+the prince&rsquo;s influence the English intervened in France in 1411
+on the side of Burgundy. In this, and in some matters of home
+politics, the king disagreed with his ministers. There is good
+reason to suppose that the Beauforts had gone so far as to contemplate
+a forced abdication on the score of the king&rsquo;s ill-health.
+However, in November 1411 Henry showed that he was still
+capable of vigorous action by discharging the prince and his supporters.
+Arundel again became chancellor, and the king&rsquo;s
+second son, Thomas, took his brother&rsquo;s place. The change was
+further marked by the sending of an expedition to France in
+support of Orleans. But Henry&rsquo;s health was failing steadily.
+On the 20th of March 1413, whilst praying in Westminster
+Abbey he was seized with a fainting fit, and died that same
+evening in the Jerusalem Chamber. At the time he was believed
+to have been a leper, but as it would appear without sufficient
+reason.</p>
+
+<p>As a young man Henry had been chivalrous and adventurous,
+and in politics anxious for good government and justice. As
+king the loss and failure of friends made him cautious, suspicious
+and cruel. The persecution of the Lollards, which began with
+the burning statute of 1401, may be accounted for by Henry&rsquo;s
+own orthodoxy, or by the influence of Archbishop Arundel, his
+one faithful friend. But that political Lollardry was strong is
+shown by the proposal in the parliament of 1410 for a wholesale
+confiscation of ecclesiastical property. Henry&rsquo;s faults may be
+excused by his difficulties. Throughout he was practical and
+steadfast, and he deserved credit for maintaining his principles
+as a constitutional ruler. So after all his troubles he founded
+his dynasty firmly, and passed on the crown to his son with a
+better title. He is buried under a fine tomb at Canterbury.</p>
+
+<p>By Mary Bohun Henry had four sons: his successor Henry V.,
+Thomas, duke of Clarence, John, duke of Bedford, and Humphrey,
+duke of Gloucester; and two daughters, Blanche, who married
+Louis III., elector palatine of the Rhine, and Philippa, who
+married Eric XIII., king of Sweden. Henry&rsquo;s second wife was
+Joan, or Joanna, (<i>c.</i> 1370-1437), daughter of Charles the Bad,
+king of Navarre, and widow of John IV. or V., duke of Brittany,
+who survived until July 1437. By her he had no children.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The chief contemporary authorities are the <i>Annales Henrici Quarti</i>
+and T. Walsingham&rsquo;s <i>Historia Anglicana</i> (Rolls Series), Adam of
+Usk&rsquo;s <i>Chronicle</i> and the various <i>Chronicles of London</i>. The life by
+John Capgrave (<i>De illustribus Henricis</i>) is of little value. Some
+personal matter is contained in <i>Wardrobe Accounts of Henry, Earl of
+Derby</i> (Camden Soc.). For documents consult T. Rymer&rsquo;s <i>Foedera</i>;
+Sir N. H. Nicolas, <i>Proceedings and Ordinances of the Privy Council</i>;
+Sir H. Ellis, <i>Original Letters illustrative of English History</i> (London,
+1825-1846); <i>Rolls of Parliament</i>; <i>Royal and Historical Letters,
+Henry IV.</i> (Rolls Series) and the <i>Calendars of Patent Rolls</i>. Of
+modern authorities the foremost is J. H. Wylie&rsquo;s minute and learned
+<i>Hist. of England under Henry IV.</i> (4 vols., London, 1884-1898).
+See also W. Stubbs, <i>Constitutional History</i>; Sir J. Ramsay, <i>Lancaster
+and York</i> (2 vols., Oxford, 1892), and C. W. C. Oman, <i>The Political
+History of England</i>, vol. iv.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. L. K.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENRY V.<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> (1387-1422), king of England, son of Henry IV.
+by Mary de Bohun, was born at Monmouth, in August 1387.
+On his father&rsquo;s exile in 1398 Richard II. took the boy into his
+own charge, and treated him kindly. Next year the Lancastrian
+revolution forced Henry into precocious prominence as heir to
+the throne. From October 1400 the administration of Wales
+was conducted in his name; less than three years later he was
+in actual command of the English forces and fought against
+the Percies at Shrewsbury. The Welsh revolt absorbed his
+energies till 1408. Then through the king&rsquo;s ill-health he began
+to take a wider share in politics. From January 1410, helped by
+his uncles Henry and Thomas Beaufort, he had practical control
+of the government. Both in foreign and domestic policy he
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page285" id="page285"></a>285</span>
+differed from the king, who in November 1411 discharged the
+prince from the council. The quarrel of father and son was
+political only, though it is probable that the Beauforts had
+discussed the abdication of Henry IV., and their opponents
+certainly endeavoured to defame the prince. It may be that to
+political enmity the tradition of Henry&rsquo;s riotous youth, immortalized
+by Shakespeare, is partly due. To that tradition Henry&rsquo;s
+strenuous life in war and politics is a sufficient general contradiction.
+The most famous incident, his quarrel with the chief-justice,
+has no contemporary authority and was first related by
+Sir Thomas Elyot in 1531. The story of Falstaff originated partly
+in Henry&rsquo;s early friendship for Oldcastle (<i>q.v.</i>). That friendship,
+and the prince&rsquo;s political opposition to Archbishop Arundel,
+perhaps encouraged Lollard hopes. If so, their disappointment
+may account for the statements of ecclesiastical writers, like
+Walsingham, that Henry on becoming king was changed suddenly
+into a new man.</p>
+
+<p>Henry succeeded his father on the 20th of March 1413. With
+no past to embarrass him, and with no dangerous rivals, his
+practical experience had full scope. He had to deal with three
+main problems&mdash;the restoration of domestic peace, the healing
+of schism in the Church and the recovery of English prestige in
+Europe. Henry grasped them all together, and gradually built
+upon them a yet wider policy. From the first he made it clear
+that he would rule England as the head of a united nation,
+and that past differences were to be forgotten. Richard II.
+was honourably reinterred; the young Mortimer was taken
+into favour; the heirs of those who had suffered in the last reign
+were restored gradually to their titles and estates. With Oldcastle
+Henry used his personal influence in vain, and the gravest
+domestic danger was Lollard discontent. But the king&rsquo;s firmness
+nipped the movement in the bud (Jan. 1414), and made his own
+position as ruler secure. Save for the abortive Scrope and
+Cambridge plot in favour of Mortimer in July 1415, the rest of
+his reign was free from serious trouble at home. Henry could
+now turn his attention to foreign affairs. A writer of the next
+generation was the first to allege that Henry was encouraged
+by ecclesiastical statesmen to enter on the French war as a means
+of diverting attention from home troubles. For this story there
+is no foundation. The restoration of domestic peace was the
+king&rsquo;s first care, and until it was assured he could not embark
+on any wider enterprise abroad. Nor was that enterprise one of
+idle conquest. Old commercial disputes and the support which
+the French had lent to Glendower gave a sufficient excuse for
+war, whilst the disordered state of France afforded no security
+for peace. Henry may have regarded the assertion of his own
+claims as part of his kingly duty, but in any case a permanent
+settlement of the national quarrel was essential to the success
+of his world policy. The campaign of 1415, with its brilliant
+conclusion at Agincourt (October 25), was only the first step.
+Two years of patient preparation followed. The command of the
+sea was secured by driving the Genoese allies of the French out
+of the Channel. A successful diplomacy detached the emperor
+Sigismund from France, and by the Treaty of Canterbury paved
+the way to end the schism in the Church. So in 1417 the war
+was renewed on a larger scale. Lower Normandy was quickly
+conquered, Rouen cut off from Paris and besieged. The French
+were paralysed by the disputes of Burgundians and Armagnacs.
+Henry skilfully played them off one against the other, without
+relaxing his warlike energy. In January 1419 Rouen fell. By
+August the English were outside the walls of Paris. The intrigues
+of the French parties culminated in the assassination of John
+of Burgundy by the dauphin&rsquo;s partisans at Montereau (September
+10, 1419). Philip, the new duke, and the French court
+threw themselves into Henry&rsquo;s arms. After six months&rsquo; negotiation
+Henry was by the Treaty of Troyes recognized as heir and
+regent of France, and on the 2nd of June 1420 married Catherine,
+the king&rsquo;s daughter. He was now at the height of his power.
+His eventual success in France seemed certain. He shared with
+Sigismund the credit of having ended the Great Schism by obtaining
+the election of Pope Martin V. All the states of western
+Europe were being brought within the web of his diplomacy.
+The headship of Christendom was in his grasp, and schemes for
+a new crusade began to take shape. He actually sent an envoy
+to collect information in the East; but his plans were cut short
+by death. A visit to England in 1421 was interrupted by the
+defeat of Clarence at Baugé. The hardships of the longer winter
+siege of Meaux broke down his health, and he died at Bois de
+Vincennes on the 31st of August 1422.</p>
+
+<p>Henry&rsquo;s last words were a wish that he might live to rebuild the
+walls of Jerusalem. They are significant. His ideal was founded
+consciously on the models of Arthur and Godfrey as national
+king and leader of Christendom. So he is the typical medieval
+hero. For that very reason his schemes were doomed to end in
+disaster, since the time was come for a new departure. Yet he
+was not reactionary. His policy was constructive: a firm
+central government supported by parliament; church reform on
+conservative lines; commercial development; and the maintenance
+of national prestige. His aims in some respects anticipated
+those of his Tudor successors, but he would have accomplished
+them on medieval lines as a constitutional ruler. His success was
+due to the power of his personality. He could train able lieutenants,
+but at his death there was no one who could take his
+place as leader. War, diplomacy and civil administration were
+all dependent on his guidance. His dazzling achievements as a
+general have obscured his more sober qualities as a ruler, and
+even the sound strategy, with which he aimed to be master of the
+narrow seas. If he was not the founder of the English navy he was
+one of the first to realize its true importance. Henry had so high
+a sense of his own rights that he was merciless to disloyalty.
+But he was scrupulous of the rights of others, and it was his eager
+desire to further the cause of justice that impressed his French
+contemporaries. He has been charged with cruelty as a religious
+persecutor; but in fact he had as prince opposed the harsh
+policy of Archbishop Arundel, and as king sanctioned a more
+moderate course. Lollard executions during his reign had more
+often a political than a religious reason. To be just with sternness
+was in his eyes a duty. So in his warfare, though he kept strict
+discipline and allowed no wanton violence, he treated severely all
+who had in his opinion transgressed. In his personal conduct
+he was chaste, temperate and sincerely pious. He delighted in
+sport and all manly exercises. At the same time he was cultured,
+with a taste for literature, art and music. Henry lies buried in
+Westminster Abbey. His tomb was stripped of its splendid
+adornment during the Reformation. The shield, helmet and
+saddle, which formed part of the original funeral equipment,
+still hang above it.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Of original authorities the best on the English side is the <i>Gesta
+Henrici Quinti</i> (down to 1416), printed anonymously for the English
+Historical Society, but probably written by Thomas Elmham, one
+of Henry&rsquo;s chaplains. Two lives edited by Thomas Hearne under
+the names of Elmham and Titus Livius Forojuliensis come from a
+common source; the longer, which Hearne ascribed incorrectly to
+Elmham, is perhaps the original work of Livius, who was an Italian
+in the service of Humphrey of Gloucester, and wrote about 1440.
+Other authorities are the Chronicles of Walsingham and Otterbourne,
+the <i>English Chronicle</i> or <i>Brut</i>, and the various <i>London Chronicles</i>.
+On the French side the most valuable are Chronicles of Monstrelet
+and St Rémy (both Burgundian) and the <i>Chronique du religieux de
+S. Denys</i> (the official view of the French court). For documents and
+modern authorities see under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Henry IV.</a></span> See also Sir N. H. Nicolas,
+<i>Hist. of the Battle of Agincourt and the Expedition of 1415</i> (London,
+1833); C. L. Kingsford, <i>Henry V., the Typical Medieval Hero</i> (New
+York, 1901), where a fuller bibliography will be found.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. L. K.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENRY VI.<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> (1421-1471), king of England, son of Henry V. and
+Catherine of Valois, was born at Windsor on the 6th of December
+1421. He became king of England on the 1st of September 1422,
+and a few weeks later, on the death of his grandfather Charles VI.,
+was proclaimed king of France also. Henry V. had directed that
+Richard Beauchamp, earl of Warwick (<i>q.v.</i>), should be his son&rsquo;s
+preceptor; Warwick took up his charge in 1428; he trained his
+pupil to be a good man and refined gentleman, but he could not
+teach him kingship. As early as 1423 the baby king was made to
+appear at public functions and take his place in parliament.
+He was knighted by his uncle Bedford at Leicester in May 1426,
+and on the 6th of November 1429 was crowned at Westminster.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page286" id="page286"></a>286</span>
+Early in the next year he was taken over to France, and after
+long delay crowned in Paris on the 16th of December 1431. His
+return to London on the 14th of February 1432 was celebrated
+with a great pageant devised by Lydgate.</p>
+
+<p>During these early years Bedford ruled France wisely and at
+first with success, but he could not prevent the mischief which
+Humphrey of Gloucester (<i>q.v.</i>) caused both at home and abroad.
+Even in France the English lost ground steadily after the victory
+of Joan of Arc before Orleans in 1429. The climax came with the
+death of Bedford, and defection of Philip of Burgundy in 1435.
+This closed the first phase of Henry&rsquo;s reign. There followed
+fifteen years of vain struggle in France, and growing disorder at
+home. The determining factor in politics was the conduct of the
+war. Cardinal Beaufort, and after him Suffolk, sought by working
+for peace to secure at least Guienne and Normandy.
+Gloucester courted popularity by opposing them throughout;
+with him was Richard of York, who stood next in succession to
+the crown. Beaufort controlled the council, and it was under his
+guidance that the king began to take part in the government.
+Thus it was natural that as Henry grew to manhood he seconded
+heartily the peace policy. That policy was wise, but national pride
+made it unpopular and difficult. Henry himself had not the
+strength or knowledge to direct it, and was unfortunate in his
+advisers. The cardinal was old, his nephews John and Edmund
+Beaufort were incompetent, Suffolk, though a man of noble character,
+was tactless. Suffolk, however, achieved a great success
+by negotiating the marriage of Henry to Margaret of Anjou (<i>q.v.</i>)
+in 1445. Humphrey of Gloucester and Cardinal Beaufort both
+died early in 1447. Suffolk was now all-powerful in the favour of
+the king and queen. But his home administration was unpopular,
+whilst the incapacity of Edmund Beaufort ended in the loss of all
+Normandy and Guienne. Suffolk&rsquo;s fall in 1450 left Richard of
+York the foremost man in England. Henry&rsquo;s reign then entered
+on its last phase of dynastic struggle. Cade&rsquo;s rebellion suggested
+first that popular discontent might result in a change of rulers.
+But York, as heir to the throne, could abide his time. The situation
+was altered by the mental derangement of the king, and the
+birth of his son in 1453. York after a struggle secured the
+protectorship, and for the next year ruled England. Then Henry
+was restored to sanity, and the queen and Edmund Beaufort,
+now Duke of Somerset, to power. Open war followed, with the
+defeat and death of Somerset at St Albans on the 22nd of May
+1455. Nevertheless a hollow peace was patched up, which continued
+during four years with lack of all governance. In 1459 war
+broke out again. On the 10th of July 1460 Henry was taken
+prisoner at Northampton, and forced to acknowledge York as
+heir, to the exclusion of his own son. Richard of York&rsquo;s death at
+Wakefield (Dec. 29, 1460), and the queen&rsquo;s victory at St
+Albans (Feb. 17, 1461), brought Henry his freedom and no
+more. Edward of York had himself proclaimed king, and by his
+decisive victory at Towton on the 29th of March, put an end to
+Henry&rsquo;s reign. For over three years Henry was a fugitive in
+Scotland. He returned to take part in an abortive rising in 1464.
+A year later he was captured in the north, and brought a prisoner
+to the Tower. For six months in 1470-1471 he emerged to hold
+a shadowy kingship as Warwick&rsquo;s puppet. Edward&rsquo;s final
+victory at Tewkesbury was followed by Henry&rsquo;s death on the 21st
+of May 1471, certainly by violence, perhaps at the hands of
+Richard of Gloucester.</p>
+
+<p>Henry was the most hapless of monarchs. He was so honest
+and well-meaning that he might have made a good ruler in quiet
+times. But he was crushed by the burden of his inheritance.
+He had not the genius to find a way out of the French entanglement
+or the skill to steer a constitutional monarchy between
+rival factions. So the system and policy which were the creations
+of Henry IV. and Henry V. led under Henry VI. to the ruin of
+their dynasty. Henry&rsquo;s very virtues added to his difficulties.
+He was so trusting that any one could influence him, so faithful
+that he would not give up a minister who had become impossible.
+Thus even in the middle period he had no real control of the
+government. In his latter years he was mentally too weak for
+independent action. At his best he was a &ldquo;good and gentle
+creature,&rdquo; but too kindly and generous to rule others. Religious
+observances and study were his chief occupations. His piety
+was genuine; simple and pure, he was shocked at any suggestion
+of impropriety, but his rebuke was only &ldquo;Fie, for shame! forsooth
+ye are to blame.&rdquo; For education he was really zealous. Even
+as a boy he was concerned for the upbringing of his half-brothers,
+his mother&rsquo;s children by Owen Tudor. Later, the planning of
+his great foundations at Eton and King&rsquo;s College, Cambridge,
+was the one thing which absorbed his interest. To both he was
+more than a royal founder, and the credit of the whole scheme
+belongs to him. The charter for Eton was granted on the 11th
+of October 1440, and that for King&rsquo;s College in the following
+February. Henry himself laid the foundation-stones of both
+buildings. He frequently visited Cambridge to superintend the
+progress of the work. When at Windsor he loved to send for the
+boys from his school and give them good advice.</p>
+
+<p>Henry&rsquo;s only son was Edward, prince of Wales (1453-1471),
+who, having shared the many journeys and varying fortunes of
+his mother, Margaret, was killed after the battle of Tewkesbury
+(May 4, 1471) by some noblemen in attendance on Edward IV.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>There is a life of Henry by his chaplain John Blakman (printed at
+the end of Hearne&rsquo;s edition of Otterbourne); but it is concerned
+only with his piety and patience in adversity. English chronicles
+for the reign are scanty; the best are the <i>Chronicles of London</i> (ed.
+C. L. Kingsford), with the analogous <i>Gregory&rsquo;s Chronicle</i> (ed. J.
+Gairdner for Camden Soc.) and <i>Chronicle of London</i> (ed. Sir H. N.
+Nicolas). <i>The Paston Letters</i>, with James Gairdner&rsquo;s valuable
+Introductions, are indispensable. Other useful authorities are
+Joseph Stevenson&rsquo;s <i>Letters and Papers illustrative of the Wars of the
+English in France during the Reign of Henry VI.</i>; and <i>Correspondence
+of T. Bekynton</i> (both in &ldquo;Rolls&rdquo; series). For the French war the chief
+sources are the <i>Chronicles</i> of Monstrelet, D&rsquo;Escouchy and T. Basin.
+For other documents and modern authorities see under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Henry IV.</a></span>
+For Henry&rsquo;s foundations see Sir H. C. Maxwell-Lyte, <i>History of Eton
+College</i> (London, 1899), and J. B. Mullinger, <i>History of the University
+of Cambridge</i> (London, 1888).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. L. K.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENRY VII.<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> (1457-1509), king of England, was the first
+of the Tudor dynasty. His claim to the throne was through
+his mother from John of Gaunt and Catherine Swynford, whose
+issue born before their marriage had been legitimated by
+parliament. This, of course, was only a Lancastrian claim,
+never valid, even as such, till the direct male line of John of
+Gaunt had become extinct. By his father the genealogists
+traced his pedigree to Cadwallader, but this only endeared him
+to the Welsh when he had actually become king. His grandfather,
+Owen Tudor, however, had married Catherine, the widow
+of Henry V. and daughter to Charles VI. of France. Their
+son Edmund, being half brother of Henry VI., was created by
+that king earl of Richmond, and having married Margaret
+Beaufort, only daughter of John, duke of Somerset, died more
+than two months before their only child, Henry, was born in
+Pembroke Castle in January 1457. The fatherless child had
+sore trials. Edward IV. won the crown when he was four years
+old, and while Wales partly held out against the conqueror,
+he was carried for safety from one castle to another. Then
+for a time he was made a prisoner; but ultimately he was taken
+abroad by his uncle Jasper, who found refuge in Brittany. At
+one time the duke of Brittany was nearly induced to surrender
+him to Edward IV.; but he remained safe in the duchy till
+the cruelties of Richard III. drove more and more Englishmen
+abroad to join him. An invasion of England was planned in
+1483 in concert with the duke of Buckingham&rsquo;s rising; but
+stormy weather at sea and an inundation in the Severn defeated
+the two movements. A second expedition, two years later,
+aided this time by France, was more successful. Henry landed
+at Milford Haven among his Welsh allies and defeated Richard
+at the battle of Bosworth (August 22, 1485). He was crowned
+at Westminster on the 30th of October following. Then, in
+fulfilment of pledges by which he had procured the adhesion
+of many Yorkist supporters, he was married at Westminster to
+Elizabeth (1465-1503), eldest daughter and heiress of Edward IV.
+(Jan. 18, 1486), whose two brothers had both been murdered by
+Richard III. Thus the Red and White Roses were united and
+the pretexts for civil war done away with.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, Henry&rsquo;s reign was much disturbed by a succession
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page287" id="page287"></a>287</span>
+of Yorkist conspiracies and pretenders. Of the two most notable
+impostors, the first, Lambert Simnel, personated the earl
+of Warwick, son of the duke of Clarence, a youth of seventeen
+whom Henry had at his accession taken care to imprison in the
+Tower. Simnel, who was but a boy, was taken over to Ireland
+to perform his part, and the farce was wonderfully successful.
+He was crowned as Edward VI. in Christchurch Cathedral,
+Dublin, and received the allegiance of every one&mdash;bishops,
+nobles and judges, alike with others. From Ireland, accompanied
+by some bands of German mercenaries procured for him
+in the Low Countries, he invaded England; but the rising was
+put down at Stoke near Newark in Nottinghamshire, and,
+Simnel being captured, the king made him a menial of his
+kitchen.</p>
+
+<p>This movement had been greatly assisted by Margaret, duchess
+dowager of Burgundy, sister of Edward IV., who could not
+endure to see the House of York supplanted by that of Tudor.
+The second pretender, Perkin Warbeck, was also much indebted
+to her support; but he seems to have entered on his career
+at first without it. And his story, which was more prolonged,
+had to do with the attitude of many countries towards England.
+Anxious as Henry was to avoid being involved in foreign wars,
+it was not many years before he was committed to a war with
+France, partly by his desire of an alliance with Spain, and partly
+by the indignation of his own subjects at the way in which the
+French were undermining the independence of Brittany. Henry
+gave Brittany defensive aid; but after the duchess Anne had
+married Charles VIII. of France, he felt bound to fulfil his
+obligations to Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, and also to the
+German king Maximilian, by an invasion of France in 1492.
+His allies, however, were not equally scrupulous or equally
+able to fulfil their obligations to him; and after besieging
+Boulogne for some little time, he received very advantageous
+offers from the French king and made peace with him.</p>
+
+<p>Now Perkin Warbeck had first appeared in Ireland in 1491,
+and had somehow been persuaded there to personate Richard,
+duke of York, the younger of the two princes murdered in the
+Tower, pretending that he had escaped, though his brother
+had been killed. Charles VIII., then expecting war with England,
+called him to France, recognized his pretensions and gave him
+a retinue; but after the peace he dismissed him. Then
+Margaret of Burgundy received him as her nephew, and Maximilian,
+now estranged from Henry, recognized him as king of
+England. With a fleet given him by Maximilian he attempted
+to land at Deal, but sailed away to Ireland and, not succeeding
+very well there either, sailed farther to Scotland, where James IV.
+received him with open arms, married him to an earl&rsquo;s daughter
+and made a brief and futile invasion of England along with him.
+But in 1497 he thought best to dismiss him, and Perkin, after
+attempting something again in Ireland, landed in Cornwall
+with a small body of men.</p>
+
+<p>Already Cornwall had risen in insurrection that year, not
+liking the taxation imposed for the purpose of repelling the
+Scotch invasion. A host of the country people, led first by a
+blacksmith, but afterwards by a nobleman, marched up towards
+London and were only defeated at Blackheath. But the Cornishmen
+were quite ready for another revolt, and indeed had invited
+Perkin to their shores. He had little fight in him, however,
+and after a futile siege of Exeter and an advance to Taunton
+he stole away and took sanctuary at Beaulieu in Hampshire.
+But, being assured of his life, he surrendered, was brought to
+London, and was only executed two years later, when, being
+imprisoned near the earl of Warwick in the Tower, he inveigled
+that simple-minded youth into a project of escape. For this
+Warwick, too, was tried, condemned and executed&mdash;no doubt
+to deliver Henry from repeated conspiracies in his favour.</p>
+
+<p>Henry had by this time several children, of whom the eldest,
+Arthur, had been proposed in infancy for a bridegroom to
+Catherine, daughter of Ferdinand of Aragon. The match had
+always been kept in view, but its completion depended greatly
+on the assurance Ferdinand and Isabella could feel of Henry&rsquo;s
+secure position upon the throne. At last Catherine was brought
+to England and was married to Prince Arthur at St Paul&rsquo;s on
+the 14th of November 1501. The lad was just over fifteen and
+the co-habitation of the couple was wisely delayed; but he
+died on the 2nd of April following. Another match was presently
+proposed for Catherine with the king&rsquo;s second son, Henry, which
+only took effect when the latter had become king himself. Meanwhile
+Henry&rsquo;s eldest daughter Margaret was married to James IV.
+of Scotland&mdash;a match distinctly intended to promote international
+peace, and make possible that ultimate union which
+actually resulted from it. The espousals had taken place at
+Richmond in 1502, and the marriage was celebrated in Scotland
+the year after. In the interval between these two events Henry
+lost his queen, who died on the 11th of February 1503, and
+during the remainder of his reign he made proposals in various
+quarters for a second marriage&mdash;proposals in which political
+objects were always the chief consideration; but none of them
+led to any result. In his latter years he became unpopular from
+the extortions practised by his two instruments, Empson and
+Dudley, under the authority of antiquated statutes. From
+the beginning of his reign he had been accumulating money,
+mainly for his own security against intrigues and conspiracies,
+and avarice had grown upon him with success. He died in April
+1509, undoubtedly the richest prince in Christendom. He was
+not a niggard, however, in his expenditure. Before his death
+he had finished the hospital of the Savoy and made provision for
+the magnificent chapel at Westminster which bears his name.
+His money-getting was but part of his statesmanship, and for
+his statesmanship his country owes him not a little gratitude.
+He not only terminated a disastrous civil war and brought
+under control the spirit of ancient feudalism, but with a clear
+survey of the conditions of foreign powers he secured England in
+almost uninterrupted peace while he developed her commerce,
+strengthened her slender navy and built, apparently for the first
+time, a naval dock at Portsmouth.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to his sons Arthur and Henry, Henry VII. had
+several daughters, one of whom, Margaret, married James IV.,
+king of Scotland, and another, Mary, became the wife of Louis XII.
+of France, and afterwards of Charles Brandon, duke of Suffolk.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The popular view of Henry VII.&rsquo;s reign has always been derived
+from Bacon&rsquo;s <i>History</i> of that king. This has been edited by J. R.
+Lumby (Cambridge, 1881). But during the last half century large
+accessions to our knowledge have been made from foreign and
+domestic archives, and the sources of Bacon&rsquo;s work have been more
+critically examined. For a complete account of those sources the
+reader may be referred to W. Busch&rsquo;s <i>England under the Tudors</i>,
+published in German in 1892 and in an English translation in
+1895. Some further information of a special kind will be found in
+M. Oppenheim&rsquo;s <i>Naval Accounts and Inventories</i>, published by
+the Navy Records Society in 1896. See also J. Gairdner&rsquo;s <i>Henry
+VII.</i> (1889).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. Ga.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENRY VIII.<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> (1491-1547), king of England and Ireland, the
+third child and second son of Henry VII. and Elizabeth of
+York, was born on the 28th of June 1491 and, like all the Tudor
+sovereigns except Henry VII., at Greenwich. His two brothers,
+Prince Arthur and Edmund, duke of Somerset, and two of
+his sisters predeceased their father; Henry was the only son,
+and Margaret, afterwards queen of Scotland, and Mary, afterwards
+queen of France and duchess of Suffolk, were the only
+daughters who survived. Henry is said, on authority which
+has not been traced farther back than Paolo Sarpi, to have
+been destined for the church; but the story is probably a mere
+surmise from his theological accomplishments, and from his
+earliest years high secular posts such as the viceroyalty of Ireland
+were conferred upon the child. He was the first English monarch
+to be educated under the influence of the Renaissance, and his
+tutors included the poet Skelton; he became an accomplished
+scholar, linguist, musician and athlete, and when by the death
+of his brother Arthur in 1502 and of his father on the 22nd of
+April 1509 Henry VIII. succeeded to the throne, his accession
+was hailed with universal acclamation.</p>
+
+<p>He had been betrothed to his brother&rsquo;s widow Catherine of
+Aragon, and in spite of the protest which he had been made to
+register against the marriage, and of the doubts expressed by
+Julius II. and Archbishop Warham as to its validity, it was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page288" id="page288"></a>288</span>
+completed in the first few months of his reign. This step was
+largely due to the pressure brought to bear by Catherine&rsquo;s father
+Ferdinand upon Henry&rsquo;s council; he regarded England as a
+tool in his hands and Catherine as his resident ambassador.
+The young king himself at first took little interest in politics,
+and for two years affairs were managed by the pacific Richard
+Fox (<i>q.v.</i>) and Warham. Then Wolsey became supreme,
+while Henry was immersed in the pursuit of sport and other
+amusements. He took, however, the keenest interest from the
+first in learning and in the navy, and his inborn pride easily
+led him to support Wolsey&rsquo;s and Ferdinand&rsquo;s warlike designs
+on France. He followed an English army across the Channel
+in 1513, and personally took part in the successful sieges of
+Therouanne and Tournay and the battle of Guinegate which
+led to the peace of 1514. Ferdinand, however, deserted the
+English alliance, and amid the consequent irritation against
+everything Spanish, there was talk of a divorce between Henry
+and Catherine (1514), whose issue had hitherto been attended
+with fatal misfortune. But the renewed antagonism between
+England and France which followed the accession of Francis I.
+(1515) led to a rapprochement with Ferdinand; the birth of
+the lady Mary (1516) held out hopes of the male issue which
+Henry so much desired; and the question of a divorce was
+postponed. Ferdinand died in that year (1516) and the emperor
+Maximilian in 1519. Their grandson Charles V. succeeded them
+both in all their realms and dignities in spite of Henry&rsquo;s hardly
+serious candidature for the empire; and a lifelong rivalry broke
+out between him and Francis I. Wolsey used this antagonism
+to make England arbiter between them; and both monarchs
+sought England&rsquo;s favour in 1520, Francis at the Field of Cloth
+of Gold and Charles V. more quietly in Kent. At the conference
+of Calais in 1521 English influence reached its zenith; but the
+alliance with Charles destroyed the balance on which that
+influence depended. Francis was overweighted, and his defeat
+at Pavia in 1525 made the emperor supreme. Feeble efforts
+to challenge his power in Italy provoked the sack of Rome in
+1527; and the peace of Cambrai in 1529 was made without
+any reference to Wolsey or England&rsquo;s interests.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile Henry had been developing a serious interest in
+politics, and he could brook no superior in whatever sphere
+he wished to shine. He began to adopt a more critical attitude
+towards Wolsey&rsquo;s policy, foreign and domestic; and to give
+ear to the murmurs against the cardinal and his ecclesiastical
+rule. Parliament had been kept at arm&rsquo;s length since 1515 lest
+it should attack the church; but Wolsey&rsquo;s expensive foreign
+policy rendered recourse to parliamentary subsidies indispensable.
+When it met in 1523 it refused Wolsey&rsquo;s demands, and forced
+loans were the result which increased the cardinal&rsquo;s unpopularity.
+Nor did success abroad now blunt the edge of domestic discontent.
+His fate, however, was sealed by his failure to obtain a divorce
+for Henry from the papal court. The king&rsquo;s hopes of male
+issue had been disappointed, and by 1526 it was fairly certain
+that Henry could have no male heir to the throne while Catherine
+remained his wife. There was Mary, but no queen regnant had
+yet ruled in England; Margaret Beaufort had been passed over
+in favour of her son in 1485, and there was a popular impression
+that women were excluded from the throne. No candidate
+living could have secured the succession without a recurrence of
+civil war. Moreover the unexampled fatality which had attended
+Henry&rsquo;s issue revived the theological scruples which had always
+existed about the marriage; and the breach with Charles V.
+in 1527 provoked a renewal of the design of 1514. All these
+considerations were magnified by Henry&rsquo;s passion for Anne
+Boleyn, though she certainly was not the sole or the main cause
+of the divorce. That the succession was the main point is proved
+by the fact that Henry&rsquo;s efforts were all directed to securing a
+wife and not a mistress. Wolsey persuaded him that the
+necessary divorce could be obtained from Rome, as it had been
+in the case of Louis XII. of France and Margaret of Scotland.
+For a time Clement VII. was inclined to concede the demand,
+and Campeggio in 1528 was given ample powers. But the
+prospect of French success in Italy which had encouraged the
+pope proved delusive, and in 1529 he had to submit to the yoke
+of Charles V. This involved a rejection of Henry&rsquo;s suit, not
+because Charles cared anything for his aunt, but because a
+divorce would mean disinheriting Charles&rsquo;s cousin Mary, and
+perhaps the eventual succession of the son of a French princess
+to the English throne.</p>
+
+<p>Wolsey fell when Campeggio was recalled, and his fall involved
+the triumph of the anti-ecclesiastical party in England. Laymen
+who had resented their exclusion from power were now
+promoted to offices such as those of lord chancellor and lord
+privy seal which they had rarely held before; and parliament
+was encouraged to propound lay grievances against the church.
+On the support of the laity Henry relied to abolish papal jurisdiction
+and reduce clerical privilege and property in England;
+and by a close alliance with Francis I. he insured himself against
+the enmity of Charles V. But it was only gradually that the
+breach was completed with Rome. Henry had defended the
+papacy against Luther in 1521 and had received in return the
+title &ldquo;defender of the faith.&rdquo; He never liked Protestantism,
+and he was prepared for peace with Rome on his own terms.
+Those terms were impossible of acceptance by a pope in Clement
+VII.&rsquo;s position; but before Clement had made up his mind
+to reject them, Henry had discovered that the papacy was hardly
+worth conciliating. His eyes were opened to the extent of his
+own power as the exponent of national antipathy to papal
+jurisdiction and ecclesiastical privilege; and his appetite for
+power grew. With Cromwell&rsquo;s help he secured parliamentary
+support, and its usefulness led him to extend parliamentary representation
+to Wales and Calais, to defend the privileges
+of Parliament, and to yield rather than forfeit its confidence.
+He had little difficulty in securing the Acts of Annates,
+Appeals and Supremacy which completed the separation from
+Rome, or the dissolution of the monasteries which, by transferring
+enormous wealth from the church to the crown, really, in Cecil&rsquo;s
+opinion, ensured the reformation.</p>
+
+<p>The abolition of the papal jurisdiction removed all obstacles
+to the divorce from Catherine and to the legalization of Henry&rsquo;s
+marriage with Anne Boleyn (1533). But the recognition of the
+royal supremacy could only be enforced at the cost of the heads
+of Sir Thomas More, Bishop Fisher and a number of monks
+and others among whom the Carthusians signalized themselves
+by their devotion (1535-1536). Anne Boleyn fared no better
+than the Catholic martyrs; she failed to produce a male heir
+to the throne, and her conduct afforded a jury of peers, over
+which her uncle, the duke of Norfolk, presided, sufficient excuse
+for condemning her to death on a charge of adultery (1536).
+Henry then married Jane Seymour, who was obnoxious to no
+one, gave birth to Edward VI., and then died (1537). The
+dissolution of the monasteries had meanwhile evoked a popular
+protest in the north, and it was only by skilful and unscrupulous
+diplomacy that Henry was enabled to suppress so easily the
+Pilgrimage of Grace. Foreign intervention was avoided through
+the renewal of war between Francis and Charles; and the
+insurgents were hampered by having no rival candidate for the
+throne and no means of securing the execution of their
+programme.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless their rising warned Henry against further
+doctrinal change. He had authorized the English Bible and
+some approach towards Protestant doctrine in the Ten Articles.
+He also considered the possibility of a political and theological
+alliance with the Lutheran princes of Germany. But in 1538
+he definitely rejected their theological terms, while in 1539-1540
+they rejected his political proposals. By the statute of Six
+Articles (1539) he took his stand on Catholic doctrine; and
+when the Lutherans had rejected his alliance, and Cromwell&rsquo;s
+nominee, Anne of Cleves, had proved both distasteful on personal
+grounds and unnecessary because Charles and Francis were not
+really projecting a Catholic crusade against England, Anne was
+divorced and Cromwell beheaded. The new queen Catherine
+Howard represented the triumph of the reactionary party under
+Gardiner and Norfolk; but there was no idea of returning to the
+papal obedience, and even Catholic orthodoxy as represented
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page289" id="page289"></a>289</span>
+by the Six Articles was only enforced by spasmodic outbursts
+of persecution and vain attempts to get rid of Cranmer.</p>
+
+<p>The secular importance of Henry&rsquo;s activity has been somewhat
+obscured by his achievements in the sphere of ecclesiastical
+politics; but no small part of his energies was devoted to the
+task of expanding the royal authority at the expense of temporal
+competitors. Feudalism was not yet dead, and in the north and
+west there were medieval franchises in which the royal writ and
+common law hardly ran at all. Wales and its marches were
+brought into legal union with the rest of England by the statutes
+of Wales (1534-1536); and after the Pilgrimage of Grace the
+Council of the North was set up to bring into subjection the
+extensive jurisdictions of the northern earls. Neither they nor
+the lesser chiefs who flourished on the lack of common law and
+order could be reduced by ordinary methods, and the Councils of
+Wales and of the North were given summary powers derived
+from the Roman civil law <span class="correction" title="amended from similiar">similar</span> to those exercised by the Star
+Chamber at Westminster and the court of Castle Chamber at
+Dublin. Ireland had been left by Wolsey to wallow in its own
+disorder; but disorder was anathema to Henry&rsquo;s mind, and in
+1535 Sir William Skeffington was sent to apply English methods
+and artillery to the government of Ireland. Sir Anthony St
+Leger continued his policy from 1540; Henry, instead of being
+merely lord of Ireland dependent on the pope, was made by an
+Irish act of parliament king, and supreme head of the Irish
+church. Conciliation was also tried with some success; plantation
+schemes were rejected in favour of an attempt to Anglicize
+the Irish; their chieftains were created earls and endowed with
+monastic lands; and so peaceful was Ireland in 1542 that the
+lord-deputy could send Irish kernes and gallowglasses to fight
+against the Scots.</p>
+
+<p>Henry, however, seems to have believed as much in the
+coercion of Scotland as in the conciliation of Ireland. Margaret
+Tudor&rsquo;s marriage had not reconciled the realms; and as soon
+as James V. became a possible pawn in the hands of Charles V.,
+Henry bethought himself of his old claims to suzerainty over
+Scotland. At first he was willing to subordinate them to an
+attempt to win over Scotland to his anti-papal policy, and he
+made various efforts to bring about an interview with his nephew.
+But James V. was held aloof by Beaton and two French
+marriages; and France was alarmed by Henry&rsquo;s growing
+friendliness with Charles V., who was mollified by his cousin
+Mary&rsquo;s restoration to her place in the succession to the throne.
+In 1542 James madly sent a Scottish army to ruin at Solway
+Moss; his death a few weeks later left the Scottish throne to
+his infant daughter Mary Stuart, and Henry set to work to
+secure her hand for his son Edward and the recognition of his
+own suzerainty. A treaty was signed with the Scottish estates;
+but it was torn up a few months later under the influence of
+Beaton and the queen-dowager Mary of Guise, and Hertford was
+sent in 1544 to punish this breach of promise by sacking Edinburgh.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps to prevent French intervention in Scotland Henry
+joined Charles V. in invading France, and captured Boulogne
+(Sept. 1544). But Charles left his ally in the lurch and concluded
+the peace of Crépy that same month; and in 1545 Henry had to
+face alone a French invasion of the Isle of Wight. This attack
+proved abortive, and peace between England and France was
+made in 1546. Charles V.&rsquo;s desertion inclined Henry to listen
+to the proposals of the threatened Lutheran princes, and the
+last two years of his reign were marked by a renewed tendency
+to advance in a Protestant direction. Catherine Howard had
+been brought to the block (1542) on charges in which there was
+probably a good deal of truth, and her successor, Catherine Parr,
+was a patroness of the new learning. An act of 1545 dissolved
+chantries, colleges and other religious foundations; and in the
+autumn of 1546 the Spanish ambassador was anticipating further
+anti-ecclesiastical measures. Gardiner had almost been sent
+to the Tower, and Norfolk and Surrey were condemned to death,
+while Cranmer asserted that it was Henry&rsquo;s intention to convert
+the mass into a communion service. An opportunist to the last,
+he would readily have sacrificed any theological convictions he
+may have had in the interests of national uniformity. He died
+on the 28th of January 1547, and was buried in St George&rsquo;s
+Chapel, Windsor.</p>
+
+<p>The atrocity of many of Henry&rsquo;s acts, the novelty and success
+of his religious policy, the apparent despotism of his methods,
+or all combined, have made it difficult to estimate calmly the
+importance of Henry&rsquo;s work or the conditions which made it
+possible. Henry&rsquo;s egotism was profound, and personal motives
+underlay his public action. While political and ecclesiastical
+conditions made the breach with Rome possible&mdash;and in the
+view of most Englishmen desirable&mdash;Henry VIII. was led to
+adopt the policy by private considerations. He worked for the
+good of the state because he thought his interests were bound up
+with those of the nation; and it was the real coincidence of this
+private and public point of view that made it possible for so
+selfish a man to achieve so much for his country. The royal
+supremacy over the church and the means by which it was
+enforced were harsh and violent expedients; but it was of the
+highest importance that England should be saved from religious
+civil war, and it could only be saved by a despotic government.
+It was necessary for the future development of England that its
+governmental system should be centralized and unified, that the
+authority of the monarchy should be more firmly extended over
+Wales and the western and northern borders, and that the still
+existing feudal franchises should be crushed; and these objects
+were worth the price paid in the methods of the Star Chamber
+and of the Councils of the North and of Wales. Henry&rsquo;s work
+on the navy requires no apology; without it Elizabeth&rsquo;s victory
+over the Spanish Armada, the liberation of the Netherlands
+and the development of English colonies would have been
+impossible; and &ldquo;of all others the year 1545 best marks the
+birth of the English naval power&rdquo; (Corbett, <i>Drake</i>, i. 59). His
+judgment was more at fault when he conquered Boulogne and
+sought by violence to bring Scotland into union with England.
+But at least Henry appreciated the necessity of union within
+the British Isles; and his work in Ireland relaid the foundations
+of English rule. No less important was his development of the
+parliamentary system. Representation was extended to Wales,
+Cheshire, Berwick and Calais; and parliamentary authority
+was enhanced, largely that it might deal with the church, until
+men began to complain of this new parliamentary infallibility.
+The privileges of the two Houses were encouraged and expanded,
+and parliament was led to exercise ever wider powers. This
+policy was not due to any belief on Henry&rsquo;s part in parliamentary
+government, but to opportunism, to the circumstance that
+parliament was willing to do most of the things which Henry
+desired, while competing authorities, the church and the old
+nobility, were not. Nevertheless, to the encouragement given
+by Henry VIII. parliament owed not a little of its future growth,
+and to the aid rendered by parliament Henry owed his success.</p>
+
+<p>He has been described as a &ldquo;despot under the forms of law&rdquo;;
+and it is apparently true that he committed no illegal act. His
+despotism consists not in any attempt to rule unconstitutionally,
+but in the extraordinary degree to which he was able to use
+constitutional means in the furtherance of his own personal
+ends. His industry, his remarkable political insight, his lack of
+scruple, and his combined strength of will and subtlety of intellect
+enabled him to utilize all the forces which tended at that time
+towards strong government throughout western Europe. In
+Michelet&rsquo;s words, &ldquo;le nouveau Messie est le roi&rdquo;; and the
+monarchy alone seemed capable of guiding the state through
+the social and political anarchy which threatened all nations in
+their transition from medieval to modern organization. The
+king was the emblem, the focus and the bond of national unity;
+and to preserve it men were ready to put up with vagaries which
+to other ages seem intolerable. Henry could thus behead
+ministers and divorce wives with comparative impunity, because
+the individual appeared to be of little importance compared
+with the state. This impunity provoked a licence which is
+responsible for the unlovely features of Henry&rsquo;s reign and
+character. The elevation and the isolation of his position
+fostered a detachment from ordinary virtues and compassion,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page290" id="page290"></a>290</span>
+and he was a remorseless incarnation of Machiavelli&rsquo;s <i>Prince</i>.
+He had an elastic conscience which was always at the beck and
+call of his desire, and he cared little for principle. But he had a
+passion for efficiency, and for the greatness of England and
+himself. His mind, in spite of its clinging to the outward forms
+of the old faith, was intensely secular; and he was as devoid
+of a moral sense as he was of a genuine religious temperament.
+His greatness consists in his practical aptitude, in his political
+perception, and in the self-restraint which enabled him to
+confine within limits tolerable to his people an insatiable appetite
+for power.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The original materials for Henry VIII.&rsquo;s biography are practically
+all incorporated in the monumental <i>Letters and Papers of the Reign
+of Henry VIII.</i> (21 vols.), edited by Brewer and Gairdner and completed
+after fifty years&rsquo; labour in 1910. A few further details may
+be gleaned from such contemporary sources as Hall&rsquo;s <i>Chronicle</i>,
+Cavendish&rsquo;s <i>Life of Wolsey</i>, W. Thomas&rsquo;s <i>The Pilgrim</i> and others;
+and some additions have been made to the documentary sources
+contained in the <i>Letters and Papers</i> by recent works, such as Ehses&rsquo;
+<i>Römische Dokumente</i>, and Merriman&rsquo;s <i>Life and Letters of Thomas
+Cromwell</i>. Lord Herbert of Cherbury&rsquo;s <i>Life and Reign of Henry
+VIII.</i> (1649), while good for its time, is based upon a very partial
+knowledge of the sources and somewhat antiquated principles of
+historical scholarship. Froude&rsquo;s famous portraiture of Henry is
+coloured by the ideas of hero-worship and history which the author
+imbibed from Carlyle, and the rival portraits in Lingard, R. W.
+Dixon&rsquo;s <i>Church History</i> and Gasquet&rsquo;s <i>Henry VIII. and the Monasteries</i>
+by strong religious feeling. A more discriminating estimate
+is attempted by H. A. L. Fisher in Messrs Longmans&rsquo; <i>Political
+History of England</i>, vol. v. (1906). Of the numerous paintings of
+Henry none is by Holbein, who, however, executed the striking
+chalk-drawing of Henry&rsquo;s head, now at Munich, and the famous but
+decaying cartoon at Devonshire House. The well-known three-quarter
+length at Windsor, usually attributed to Holbein, is by an
+inferior artist. The best collection of Henry&rsquo;s portraits was exhibited
+at the Burlington Fine Arts Club in 1909, and the catalogue of that
+exhibition contains the best description of them; several are reproduced
+in Pollard&rsquo;s <i>Henry VIII.</i> (Goupil) (1902), the letterpress
+of which was published by Longmans in a cheaper edition (1905).
+Henry composed numerous state papers still extant; his only book
+was his <i>Assertio septem sacramentorum contra M. Lutherum</i> (1521),
+a copy of which, signed by Henry himself, is at Windsor. Several
+anthems composed by him are extant; and one at least, <i>O Lord,
+the Maker of all Things</i>, is still occasionally rendered in English
+cathedrals.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. F. P.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENRY I.<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> (1214-1217), king of Castile, son of Alphonso VIII.
+of Castile, and his wife Eleanor of Aquitaine, daughter of Henry
+II. of England, after whom he was named, was born about
+1207. He was killed, while still a boy, by the fall of a tile from
+a roof.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Henry II.</span> of Trastamara (1369-1379), king of Castile, founder
+of the dynasty known as &ldquo;the new kings,&rdquo; was the eldest son of
+Alphonso XI. and of his mistress Leonora de Guzman. He
+was born in 1333. His father endowed him with great lordships
+in northern Spain, and made him count of Trastamara. After
+the death of Alphonso XI. in 1350, Leonora was murdered to
+satisfy the revenge of the king&rsquo;s neglected wife. Several of the
+numerous children she had borne to Alphonso were slain at
+different times by Peter the Cruel, the king&rsquo;s legitimate son and
+successor. Henry preserved his life by submissions and by
+keeping out of the king&rsquo;s way. At last, after taking part in
+several internal commotions, he fled to France in 1356. In
+1366 he persuaded the mercenary soldiers paid off by the kings
+of England and France to accompany him on an expedition to
+upset Peter, who was driven out. The Black Prince having
+intervened on behalf of Peter, Henry was defeated at Najera
+(3rd of April 1367) and had again to flee to Aragon. When the
+Black Prince was told that &ldquo;the Bastard&rdquo; had neither been
+slain nor taken, he said that nothing had been done. And so it
+turned out; for, when the Black Prince had left Spain, Henry
+came back with a body of French soldiers of fortune under du
+Guesclin, and drove his brother into the castle of Montiel in La
+Mancha. Peter was tempted out by du Guesclin, and the half
+brothers met in the Frenchman&rsquo;s tent. They rushed at one
+another, and Peter, the stronger man, threw Henry down, and fell
+on him. One of Henry&rsquo;s pages seized the king by the leg and
+threw him on his back. Henry then pulled up Peter&rsquo;s hauberk
+and stabbed him mortally in the stomach, on the 23rd of March
+1369. He reigned for ten years, with some success both in
+pacifying the kingdom and in war with Portugal. But as his
+title was disputed he was compelled to purchase support by vast
+grants to the nobles and concessions to the cities, by which he
+gained the title of <i>El de las Mercedes</i>&mdash;he of the largesse. Henry
+was a strong ally of the French king in his wars with the English,
+who supported the claims of Peter&rsquo;s natural daughters. He
+died on the 30th of May 1379.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">HENRY III.</span> (1390-1406) king of Castile, called <i>El Doliente</i>,
+the Sufferer, was the son of John I. of Castile and Leon, and of
+his wife Beatrice, daughter of Ferdinand of Portugal. He was
+born in 1379. The period of minority was exceptionally anarchical,
+even for Castile, but as the cities, always the best supporters
+of the royal authority, were growing in strength, Henry was able
+to reduce his kingdom to obedience, and, when he took the
+government into his own hands after 1393, to compel his nobles
+with comparative ease to surrender the crown lands they had
+seized. The meeting of the Cortes summoned by him at Madrid
+in 1394 marked a great epoch in the establishment of a practically
+despotic royal authority, based on the consent of the commons,
+who looked to the crown to protect them against the excesses
+of the nobles. Henry strengthened his position still further
+by his marriage with Catherine, daughter of John of Gaunt and
+of Constance, elder daughter of Peter the Cruel and Maria de
+Padilla. This union combined the rival claims of the descendants
+of Peter and of Henry of Trastamara. The king&rsquo;s bodily weakness
+limited his real capacity, and his early death on the 25th
+of December 1406 cut short the promise of his reign.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">HENRY IV.</span> (1453-1474), king of Castile, surnamed the Impotent,
+or the Spendthrift, was the son of John II. of Castile and Leon,
+and of his wife, Mary, daughter of Ferdinand I. of Aragon and
+Sicily. He was born at Valladolid on the 6th of January 1425.
+The surnames given to this king by his subjects are of much more
+than usual accuracy. His personal character was one of mere
+weakness, bodily and mental. Henry was an undutiful son, and
+his reign was one long period of confusion, marked by incidents
+of the most ignominious kind. He divorced his first wife Blanche
+of Navarre in 1453 on the ground of &ldquo;mutual impotence.&rdquo;
+Yet in 1468 he married Joan of Portugal, and when she bore a
+daughter, first repudiated her as adulterine, and then claimed
+her for his own. In 1468 he was solemnly deposed in favour
+of his brother Alphonso, on whose death in the same year his
+authority was again recognized. The last years of his life were
+spent in vain endeavours, first to force his half-sister Isabella,
+afterwards queen, to marry his favourite, the Master of Santiago,
+and then to exclude her from the throne. Henry died at Madrid
+on the 12th of December 1474.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENRY I.<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> (1008-1060), king of France, son of King Robert and
+his queen, Constance of Aquitaine, and grandson of Hugh Capet,
+came to the throne upon the death of his father in 1031, although
+in 1027 he had been anointed king at Reims and associated
+in the government with his father. His mother, who favoured
+her younger son Robert, and had retired from court upon
+Henry&rsquo;s coronation, formed a powerful league against him, and
+he was forced to take refuge with Robert II., duke of Normandy.
+In the civil war which resulted, Henry was able to break up the
+league of his opponents in 1032. Constance died in 1034, and
+the rebel brother Robert was given the duchy of Burgundy,
+thus founding that great collateral line which was to rival the
+kings of France for three centuries. Henry atoned for this by
+a reign marked by unceasing struggle against the great barons.
+From 1033 to 1043 he was involved in a life and death contest
+with those nobles whose territory adjoined the royal domains,
+especially with the great house of Blois, whose count, Odo II.,
+had been the centre of the league of Constance, and with the
+counts of Champagne. Henry&rsquo;s success in these wars was largely
+due to the help given him by Robert of Normandy, but upon the
+accession of Robert&rsquo;s son William (the Conqueror), Normandy
+itself became the chief danger. From 1047 to the year of his
+death, Henry was almost constantly at war with William, who
+held his own against the king&rsquo;s formidable leagues and beat
+back two royal invasions, in 1055 and 1058. Henry&rsquo;s reign
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page291" id="page291"></a>291</span>
+marks the height of feudalism. The Normans were independent
+of him, with their frontier barely 25 m. west of Paris; to the
+south his authority was really bounded by the Loire; in the east
+the count of Champagne was little more than nominally his
+subject, and the duchy of Burgundy was almost entirely cut off
+from the king. Yet Henry maintained the independence of the
+clergy against the pope Leo IX., and claimed Lorraine from the
+emperor Henry III. In an interview at Ivois, he reproached
+the emperor with the violation of promises, and Henry III.
+challenged him to a single combat. According to the German
+chronicle&mdash;which French historians doubt&mdash;the king of France
+declined the combat and fled from Ivois during the night. In
+1059 he had his eldest son Philip crowned as joint king, and died
+the following year. Henry&rsquo;s first wife was Maud, niece of the
+emperor Henry III., whom he married in 1043. She died childless
+in 1044. Historians have sometimes confused her with
+Maud (or Matilda), the emperor Conrad II.&rsquo;s daughter, to whom
+Henry was affianced in 1033, but who died before the marriage.
+In 1051 Henry married the Russian princess Anne, daughter of
+Yaroslav I., grand duke of Kiev. She bore him two sons, Philip,
+his successor, and Hugh the great, count of Vermandois.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the <i>Historiae</i> of Rudolph Glaber, edited by M. Prou (Paris,
+1886); F. Sochnée, <i>Catalogue des actes d&rsquo;Henri I<span class="sp">er</span></i> (1907); de Caiz
+de Saint Aymour, <i>Anne de Russie, reine de France</i> (1896); E. Lavisse,
+<i>Histoire de France</i>, tome ii. (1901), and the article on Henry I. in
+<i>La Grande Encyclopédie</i> by M. Prou.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENRY II.<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> (1519-1559), king of France, the second son of
+Francis I. and Claude, succeeded to the throne in 1547. When
+only seven years old he was sent by his father, with his brother
+the dauphin Francis, as a hostage to Spain in 1526, whence they
+returned after the conclusion of the peace of Cambrai in 1530.
+Henry was too young to have carried away any abiding impressions,
+yet throughout his life his character, dress and bearing
+were far more Spanish than French. In 1533 his father married
+him to Catherine de&rsquo; Medici, from which match, as he said,
+Francis hoped to gain great advantage, even though it might
+be somewhat of a misalliance. In 1536 Henry, hitherto duke of
+Orleans, became dauphin by the death of his elder brother
+Francis. From that time he was under the influence of two
+personages, who dominated him completely for the remainder
+of his life&mdash;Diane de Poitiers, his mistress, and Anne de Montmorency,
+his mentor. Moreover, his younger brother, Charles
+of Orleans, who was of a more sprightly temperament, was his
+father&rsquo;s favourite; and the rivalry of Diane and the duchesse
+d&rsquo;Étampes helped to make still wider the breach between the
+king and the dauphin. Henry supported the constable Montmorency
+when he was disgraced in 1541; protested against
+the treaty of Crépy in 1544; and at the end of the reign held
+himself completely aloof. His accession in 1547 gave rise to a
+veritable revolution at the court. Diane, Montmorency and the
+Guises were all-powerful, and dismissed Cardinal de Tournon,
+de Longueval, the duchesse d&rsquo;Étampes and all the late king&rsquo;s
+friends and officials. At that time Henry was twenty-eight years
+old. He was a robust man, and inherited his father&rsquo;s love of
+violent exercise; but his character was weak and his intelligence
+mediocre, and he had none of the superficial and brilliant gifts
+of Francis I. He was cold, haughty, melancholy and dull.
+He was a bigoted Catholic, and showed to the Protestants even
+less mercy than his father. During his reign the royal authority
+became more severe and more absolute than ever. Resistance to
+the financial extortions of the government was cruelly chastised,
+and the &ldquo;Chambre Ardente&rdquo; was instituted against the Reformers.
+Abroad, the struggle was continued against Charles V.
+and Philip II., which ended in the much-discussed treaty of
+Cateau-Cambrésis. Some weeks afterwards high feast was held
+on the occasion of the double marriage of the king&rsquo;s daughter
+Elizabeth with the king of Spain, and of his sister Margaret
+with the duke of Savoy. On the 30th of June 1559, when
+tilting with the count of Montgomery, Henry was wounded in
+the temple by a lance. In spite of the attentions of Ambroise
+Paré he died on the 10th of July. By his wife Catherine de&rsquo;
+Medici he had seven children living: Elizabeth, queen of Spain;
+Claude, duchess of Lorraine; Francis (II), Charles (IX.) and
+Henry (III.), all of whom came to the throne; Marguerite,
+who became queen of Navarre in 1572; and Francis, duke of
+Alençon and afterwards of Anjou, who died in 1584.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The bulk of the documents for the reign of Henry II. are unpublished,
+and are in the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris. Of the
+published documents, see especially the correspondence of Catherine
+de&rsquo; Medici (ed. by de la Ferrière, Paris, 1880), of Diane de Poitiers
+(ed. by Guiffrey, Paris, 1866), of Antoine de Bourbon and Jeanne
+d&rsquo;Albret (ed. by Rochambeau, Paris, 1877), of Odet de Selve,
+ambassador to England (ed. by Lefèvre-Pontalis, Paris, 1888) and
+of Dominique du Gabre, ambassador to Venice (ed. by Vitalis, Paris,
+1903); Ribier, <i>Lettres et mémoires d&rsquo;estat</i> (Paris, 1666); <i>Relations
+des ambassadeurs vénitiens</i>, &amp;c. Of the contemporary memoirs and
+histories, see Brantôme (ed. by Lalanne, Paris, 1864-1882), François
+de Lorraine (ed. by Michaud and Poujoulat, Paris, 1839), Montluc
+(ed. by de Ruble, Paris, 1864), F. de Boyvin du Villars (Michaud
+and Poujoulat), F. de Rabutin (<i>Panthéon littéraire</i>, Paris, 1836).
+See also de Thou, <i>Historia sui temporis</i> ... (London, 1733);
+Decrue, <i>Anne de Montmorency</i> (Paris, 1889); H. Forneron, <i>Les
+Ducs de Guise et leur époque</i>, vol. i. (Paris, 1877); and H. Lemonnier,
+&ldquo;La France sous Henri II&rdquo; (Paris, 1904), in the <i>Histoire de France</i>,
+by E. Lavisse, which contains a fuller bibliography of the subject.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENRY III.<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> (1551-1589), king of France, third son of Henry II.
+and Catherine de&rsquo; Medici, was born at Fontainebleau on the
+19th of September 1551, and succeeded to the throne of France
+on the death of his brother Charles IX. in 1574. In his youth,
+as duke of Anjou, he was warmly attached to the Huguenot
+opinions, as we learn from his sister Marguerite de Valois; but
+his unstable character soon gave way before his mother&rsquo;s will,
+and both Henry and Marguerite remained choice ornaments
+of the Catholic Church. Henry won, under the direction of
+Marshal de Tavannes, two brilliant victories at Jarnac and
+Moncontour (1569). He was the favourite son of his mother, and
+took part with her in organizing the massacre of St Bartholomew.
+In 1573 Catherine procured his election to the throne of Poland.
+Passionately enamoured of the princess of Condé, he set out
+reluctantly to Warsaw, but, on the death of his brother Charles
+IX. in 1574, he escaped from his Polish subjects, who endeavoured
+to retain him by force, came back to France and assumed the
+crown. He returned to a wretched kingdom, torn with civil
+war. In spite of his good intentions, he was incapable of governing,
+and abandoned the power to his mother and his favourites.
+Yet he was no dullard. He was a man of keen intelligence and
+cultivated mind, and deserves as much as Francis I. the title of
+patron of letters and art. But his incurable indolence and love
+of pleasure prevented him from taking any active part in affairs.
+Surrounded by his <i>mignons</i>, he scandalized the people by his
+effeminate manners. He dressed himself in women&rsquo;s clothes,
+made a collection of little dogs and hid in the cellars when it
+thundered. The disgust aroused by the vices and effeminacy
+of the king increased the popularity of Henry of Guise. After
+the &ldquo;day of the barricades&rdquo; (the 12th of May 1588), the king,
+perceiving that his influence was lost, resolved to rid himself
+of Guise by assassination; and on the 23rd of December 1588
+his faithful bodyguard, the &ldquo;forty-five,&rdquo; carried out his design
+at the château of Blois. But the fanatical preachers of the League
+clamoured furiously for vengeance, and on the 1st of August 1589,
+while Henry III. was investing Paris with Henry of Navarre,
+Jacques Clement, a Dominican friar, was introduced into his
+presence on false letters of recommendation, and plunged a
+knife into the lower part of his body. He died a few hours
+afterwards with great fortitude. By his wife Louise of Lorraine,
+daughter of the count of Vaudémont, he had no children, and on
+his deathbed he recognized Henry of Navarre as his successor.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the memoirs and chronicles of l&rsquo;Estoile, Villeroy, Ph. Hurault
+de Cheverny, Brantôme, Marguerite de Valois, la Huguerye, du
+Plessis-Mornay, &amp;c.; <i>Archives curieuses</i> of Cimber and Danjou,
+vols. x. and xi.; <i>Mémoires de la Ligue</i> (new ed., Amsterdam, 1758);
+the histories of T. A. d&rsquo;Aubigné and J. A. de Thou; Correspondence
+of Catherine de&rsquo; Medici and of Henry IV. (in the <i>Collection de documents
+inédits</i>), and of the Venetian ambassadors, &amp;c.; P. Matthieu,
+<i>Histoire de France</i>, vol. i. (1631); Scipion Dupleix, <i>Histoire de Henri
+III</i> (1633); Robiquet, <i>Paris et la Ligue</i> (1886); and J. H. Mariéjol,
+&ldquo;La Réforme et la Ligue,&rdquo; in the <i>Histoire de France</i>, by E. Lavisse
+(Paris, 1904), which contains a more complete bibliography.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page292" id="page292"></a>292</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">HENRY IV.<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> (1553-1610), king of France, the son of Antoine
+de Bourbon, duke of Vendôme, head of the younger branch of
+the Bourbons, descendant of Robert of Clermont, sixth son of
+St Louis and of Jeanne d&rsquo;Albret, queen of Navarre, was born
+at Pau (Basses Pyrénées) on the 14th of December 1553. He
+was educated as a Protestant, and in 1557 was sent to the court
+at Amiens. In 1561 he entered the Collège de Navarre at Paris,
+returning in 1565 to Béarn. During the third war of religion
+in France (1568-1570) he was taken by his mother to Gaspard
+de Coligny, leader of the Protestant forces since the death of
+Louis I., prince of Condé, at Jarnac, and distinguished himself
+at the battle of Arnay-le-Duc in Burgundy in 1569. On the 9th
+of June 1572, Jeanne d&rsquo;Albret died and Henry became king of
+Navarre, marrying Margaret of Valois, sister of Charles IX. of
+France, on the 18th of August of that year. He escaped the
+massacre of St Bartholomew on the 24th of August by a feigned
+abjuration. On the 2nd of February 1576, after several vain
+attempts, he escaped from the court, joined the combined forces
+of Protestants and of opponents of the king, and obtained by
+the treaty of Beaulieu (1576) the government of Guienne. In
+1577 he secured the treaty of Bergerac, which foreshadowed
+the edict of Nantes. As a result of quarrels with his unworthy
+wife, and the unwelcome intervention of Henry III., he undertook
+the seventh war of religion, known as the &ldquo;war of the lovers&rdquo;
+(<i>des amoureux</i>), seized Cahors on the 5th of May 1580, and signed
+the treaty of Fleix on the 26th of November 1580. On the 10th
+of June 1584 the death of Monsieur, the duke of Anjou, brother
+of King Henry III., made Henry of Navarre heir presumptive
+to the throne of France. Excluded from it by the treaty of
+Nemours (1585) he began the &ldquo;war of the three Henrys&rdquo; by a
+campaign in Guienne (1586) and defeated Anne, duc de Joyeuse,
+at Coutras on the 20th of October 1587. Then Henry III.,
+driven from Paris by the League on account of his murder of the
+duke of Guise at Blois (1588), sought the aid of the king of Navarre
+to win back his capital, recognizing him as his heir. The assassination
+of Henry III. on the 1st of August 1589 left Henry king
+of France; but he had to struggle for ten more years against the
+League and against Spain before he won his kingdom. The
+main events in that long struggle were the victory of Arques
+over Charles, duke of Mayenne, on the 28th of September 1589;
+of Ivry, on the 14th of March 1590; the siege of Paris (1590);
+of Rouen (1592); the meeting of the Estates of the League (1593),
+which the <i>Satire Ménippée</i> turned to ridicule; and finally the
+conversion of Henry IV. to Catholicism in July 1593&mdash;an act of
+political wisdom, since it brought about the collapse of all
+opposition. Paris gave in to him on the 22nd of March 1594
+and province by province yielded to arms or negotiations;
+while the victory of Fontaine-Française (1595) and the capture
+of Amiens forced Philip II. of Spain to sign the peace of Vervins
+on the 2nd of May 1598. On the 13th of April of that year
+Henry IV. had promulgated the Edict of Nantes.</p>
+
+<p>Then Henry set to work to pacify and restore prosperity
+to his kingdom. Convinced by the experience of the wars that
+France needed an energetic central power, he pushed at times
+his royal prerogatives to excess, raising taxes in spite of the
+Estates, interfering in the administration of the towns, reforming
+their constitutions, and holding himself free to reject the advice
+of the notables if he consulted them. Aided by his faithful
+friend Maximilien de Béthune, baron de Rosny and duc de
+Sully (<i>q.v.</i>), he reformed the finances, repressed abuses, suppressed
+useless offices, extinguished the formidable debt and realized
+a reserve of eighteen millions. To alleviate the distress of the
+people, he undertook to develop both agriculture and industry:
+planting colonies of Dutch and Flemish settlers to drain the
+marshes of Saintonge, issuing prohibitive measures against the
+importation of foreign goods (1597), introducing the silk industry,
+encouraging the manufacture of cloth, of glass-ware, of tapestries
+(Gobelins), and under the direction of Sully&mdash;named <i>grand-voyer
+de France</i>&mdash;improving and increasing the routes for commerce.
+A complete system of canals was planned, that of Briare partly
+dug. New capitulations were concluded with the sultan Ahmed
+I. (1604) and treaties of commerce with England (1606), with
+Spain and Holland. Attempts were made in 1604 and 1608 to
+colonize Canada (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Champlain, Samuel de</a></span>). The army was
+reorganized, its pay raised and assured, a school of cadets formed
+to supply it with officers, artillery constituted and strongholds
+on the frontier fortified. While lacking the artistic tastes of the
+Valois, Henry beautified Paris, building the great gallery of the
+Louvre, finishing the Tuileries, building the Pont Neuf, the
+Hôtel-de-Ville and the Place Royale.</p>
+
+<p>The foreign policy of Henry IV. was directed against the
+Habsburgs. Without declaring war, he did all possible harm
+to them by alliances and diplomacy. In Italy he gained the
+grand duke of Tuscany&mdash;marrying his niece Marie de&rsquo; Medici
+in 1600&mdash;the duke of Mantua, the republic of Venice and Pope
+Paul V. The duke of Savoy, who had held back from the treaty
+of Vervins in 1598, signed the treaty of Lyons in 1601; in exchange
+for the marquisate of Saluzzo, France acquired Bresse,
+Bugey, Valromey and the bailliage of Gex. In the Low Countries,
+Henry sent subsidies to the Dutch in their struggle against
+Spain. He concluded alliances with the Protestant princes in
+Germany, with the duke of Lorraine, the Swiss cantons (treaty
+of Soleure, 1602) and with Sweden.</p>
+
+<p>The opening on the 25th of March 1609 of the question of the
+succession of John William the Good, duke of Cleves, of Jülich
+and of Berg, led Henry, in spite of his own hesitations and those
+of his German allies, to declare war on the emperor Rudolph II.
+But he was assassinated by Ravaillac (<i>q.v.</i>) on the 14th of May
+1610, upon the eve of his great enterprise, leaving his policy to
+be followed up later by Richelieu. Sully in his <i>Économies
+royales</i> attributes to his master the &ldquo;great design&rdquo; of constituting,
+after having defeated Austria, a vast European confederation
+of fifteen states&mdash;a &ldquo;Christian Republic&rdquo;&mdash;directed by a
+general council of sixty deputies reappointed every three years.
+But this &ldquo;design&rdquo; has been attributed rather to the imagination
+of Sully himself than to the more practical policy of the king.</p>
+
+<p>No figure in France has been more popular than that of
+&ldquo;Henry the Great.&rdquo; He was affable to the point of familiarity,
+quick-witted like a true Gascon, good-hearted, indulgent, yet
+skilled in reading the character of those around him, and he
+could at times show himself severe and unyielding. His courage
+amounted almost to recklessness. He was a better soldier than
+strategist. Although at bottom authoritative he surrounded
+himself with admirable advisers (Sully, Sillery, Villeroy, Jeannin)
+and profited from their co-operation. His love affairs, undoubtedly
+too numerous (notably with Gabrielle d&rsquo;Estrées and
+Henriette d&rsquo;Entragues), if they injure his personal reputation,
+had no bad effect on his policy as king, in which he was guided
+only by an exalted ideal of his royal office, and by a sympathy
+for the common people, his reputation for which has perhaps
+been exaggerated somewhat in popular tradition by the circumstances
+of his reign.</p>
+
+<p>Henry IV. had no children by his first wife, Margaret of
+Valois. By Marie de&rsquo; Medici he had Louis, later Louis XIII.;
+Gaston, duke of Orleans; Elizabeth, who married Philip IV. of
+Spain; Christine, duchess of Savoy; and Henrietta, wife of
+Charles I. of England. Among his bastards the most famous
+were the children of Gabrielle d&rsquo;Estrées&mdash;Caesar, duke of
+Vendôme, Alexander of Vendôme, and Catherine Henriette,
+duchess of Elbeuf.</p>
+
+<p>Several portraits of Henry are preserved at Paris, in the
+Bibliothèque Nationale (cf. Bouchot, <i>Portraits au crayon</i>, p. 189),
+at the Louvre (by Probus, bust by Barthélemy Prieur) at
+Versailles, Geneva (Henry at the age of fifteen), at Hampton
+Court, at Munich and at Florence.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The works dealing with Henry IV. and his reign are too numerous
+to be enumerated here. For sources, see the <i>Recueil des lettres
+missives de Henri IV</i>, published from 1839 to 1853 by B. de Xivrey,
+in the <i>Collection de documents inédits relatifs à l&rsquo;histoire de France</i>,
+and the various researches of Galitzin, Bautiot, Halphen, Dussieux
+and others. Besides their historic interest, the letters written
+personally by Henry, whether love notes or letters of state, reveal a
+charming writer. Mention should be made of Auguste Poirson&rsquo;s
+<i>Histoire du règne de Henri IV</i> (2nd ed., 4 vols., Paris, 1862-1867)
+and of J. H. Mariéjol&rsquo;s volume (vi.) in the <i>Histoire de France</i>, edited
+by Ernest Lavisse (Paris, 1905), where main sources and literature
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page293" id="page293"></a>293</span>
+are given with each chapter. A <i>Revue Henri IV</i> has been founded
+at Paris (1905). Finally, a complete survey of the sources for the
+period 1494-1610 is given by Henri Hauser in vol. vii. of <i>Sources de
+l&rsquo;histoire de France</i> (Paris, 1906) in continuation of A. Molinier&rsquo;s
+collection of the sources for French history during the middle
+ages.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENRY I.<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1210-1274), surnamed <i>le Gros</i>, king of Navarre
+and count of Champagne, was the youngest son of Theobald I.
+king of Navarre by Margaret of Foix, and succeeded his eldest
+brother Theobald III. as king of Navarre and count of Champagne
+in December 1270. His proclamation at Pamplona, however,
+did not take place till March of the following year, and his
+coronation was delayed until May 1273. After a brief reign,
+characterized, it is said, by dignity and talent, he died in July
+1274, suffocated, according to the generally received accounts, by
+his own fat. In him the male line of the counts of Champagne
+and kings of Navarre, became extinct. He married in 1269
+Blanche, daughter of Robert, count of Artois, and niece of King
+Louis IX. and was succeeded by his only legitimate child, Jeanne
+or Joanna, by whose marriage to Philip IV. afterwards king of
+France in 1284, the crown of Navarre became united to that of
+France.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENRY II.<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> (1503-1555), titular king of Navarre, was the
+eldest son of Jean d&rsquo;Albret (d. 1516) by his wife Catherine de
+Foix, sister and heiress of Francis Phoebus, king of Navarre,
+and was born at Sanquesa in April 1503. When Catherine died
+in exile in 1517 Henry succeeded her in her claim on Navarre,
+which was disputed by Ferdinand I. king of Spain; and under
+the protection of Francis I. of France he assumed the title of
+king. After ineffectual conferences at Noyon in 1516 and at
+Montpellier in 1518, an active effort was made in 1521 to establish
+him in the <i>de facto</i> sovereignty; but the French troops which
+had seized the country were ultimately expelled by the Spaniards.
+In 1525 Henry was taken prisoner at the battle of Pavia, but
+he contrived to escape, and in 1526 married Margaret, the sister
+of Francis I. and widow of Charles, duke of Alençon. By her
+he was the father of Jeanne d&rsquo;Albret (d. 1572), and was consequently
+the grandfather of Henry IV. of France. Henry, who
+had some sympathy with the Huguenots, died at Pau on the
+25th of May 1555.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENRY I.<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> (1512-1580), king of Portugal, third son of Emanuel
+the Fortunate, was born in Lisbon, on the 31st of January 1512.
+He was destined for the church, and in 1532 was raised to the
+archiepiscopal see of Braga. In 1542 he received the cardinal&rsquo;s
+hat, and in 1578 when he was called to succeed his grandnephew
+Sebastian on the throne, he held the archbishoprics of Lisbon
+and Coimbra as well as that of Braga, in addition to the wealthy
+abbacy of Alcobazar. As an ecclesiastic he was pious, pure,
+simple in his mode of life, charitable, and a learned and liberal
+patron of letters; but as a sovereign he proved weak, timid
+and incapable. On his death in 1580, after a brief reign of
+seventeen months, the male line of the royal family which traced
+its descent from Henry, first count of Portugal (<i>c.</i> 1100), came
+to an end; and all attempts to fix the succession during his
+lifetime having ignominiously failed, Portugal became an easy
+prey to Philip II. of Spain.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENRY II.<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> (1489-1568), duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel,
+was a son of Duke Henry I., and was born on the 10th of November
+1489. He began to reign in 1514, but his brother William
+objected to the indivisibility of the duchy which had been
+decreed by the elder Henry, and it was only in 1535, after an imprisonment
+of eleven years, that William recognized his brother&rsquo;s
+title. Sharing in an attack on John, bishop of Hildesheim,
+Henry was defeated at the battle of Soltau in June 1519, but
+afterwards he was more successful, and when peace was made
+received some lands from the bishop. In 1525 he assisted
+Philip, landgrave of Hesse, to crush the rising of the peasants
+in north Germany, and in 1528 took help to Charles V. in Italy,
+where he narrowly escaped capture. As a pronounced opponent
+of the reformed doctrines, he joined the Catholic princes in
+concerting measures for defence at Dessau and elsewhere, but
+on the other hand promised Philip of Hesse to aid him in restoring
+his own brother-in-law Ulrich, duke of Württemberg, to his
+duchy. However he gave no assistance when this enterprise
+was undertaken in 1534, and subsequently the hostility between
+Philip and himself was very marked. Henry was attacked
+by Luther with unmeasured violence in a writing <i>Wider Hans
+Worst</i>; but more serious was his isolation in north Germany.
+The duke soon came into collision with the Protestant towns of
+Goslar and Brunswick, against the former of which a sentence
+of restitution had been pronounced by the imperial court of
+justice (<i>Reichskammergericht</i>). To conciliate the Protestants
+Charles V. had suspended the execution of this sentence, a
+proceeding which Henry declared was <i>ultra vires</i>. The league
+of Schmalkalden, led by Philip of Hesse and John Frederick,
+elector of Saxony, then took up arms to defend the towns; and
+in 1542 Brunswick was overrun and the duke forced to flee. In
+September 1545 he made an attempt to regain his duchy, but
+was taken prisoner by Philip, and only released after the victory
+of Charles V. at Mühlberg in April 1547. Returning to Brunswick,
+where he was very unpopular, he soon quarrelled with his subjects
+both on political and religious questions, while his duchy was
+ravaged by Albert Alcibiades, prince of Bayreuth. Henry was
+among the princes who banded themselves together to crush
+Albert, and after the death of Maurice, elector of Saxony, at
+Sievershausen in July 1553, he took command of the allied troops
+and defeated Albert in two engagements. In his later years
+he became more tolerant, and was reconciled with his Protestant
+subjects. He died at Wolfenbüttel on the 11th of June 1568.
+The duke was twice married, firstly in 1515 to Maria (d. 1541),
+sister of Ulrich of Württemberg, and secondly in 1556 to Sophia
+(d. 1575) daughter of Sigismund I., king of Poland. He attained
+some notoriety through his romantic attachment to Eva von
+Trott, whom he represented as dead and afterwards kept concealed
+at Staufenburg. Henry was succeeded by his only
+surviving son, Julius (1528-1589).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See F. Koldewey, <i>Heinz von Wolfenbüttel</i> (Halle, 1883); and
+F. Bruns, <i>Die Vertreibung Herzog Heinrichs von Braunschweig durch
+den Schmalkaldischen Bund</i> (Marburg, 1889).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENRY<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1108-1139), surnamed the &ldquo;Proud,&rdquo; duke of
+Saxony and Bavaria, second son of Henry the Black, duke
+of Bavaria, and Wulfhild, daughter of Magnus Billung, duke of
+Saxony, was a member of the Welf family. His father and
+mother both died in 1126, and as his elder brother Conrad had
+entered the church, Henry became duke of Bavaria and shared
+the family possessions in Saxony, Bavaria and Swabia with his
+younger brother, Welf. At Whitsuntide 1127 he was married
+to Gertrude, the only child of the German king, Lothair the
+Saxon, and at once took part in the warfare between the king
+and the Hohenstaufen brothers, Frederick II., duke of Swabia,
+and Conrad, afterwards the German king Conrad III. While
+engaged in this struggle Henry was also occupied in suppressing
+a rising in Bavaria, led by Frederick, count of Bogen, during
+which both duke and count sought to establish their own candidates
+in the bishopric of Regensburg. After a war of devastation,
+Frederick submitted in 1133, and two years later the Hohenstaufen
+brothers made their peace with Lothair. In 1136
+Henry accompanied his father-in-law to Italy, and taking
+command of one division of the German army marched into
+southern Italy, devastating the land as he went. It was probably
+about this time that he was invested with the margraviate of
+Tuscany and the lands of Matilda, the late margravine. Having
+distinguished himself by his military genius during this campaign
+Henry left Italy with the German troops, and was appointed
+by the emperor as his successor in the dukedom of Saxony.
+When Lothair died in December 1137 Henry&rsquo;s wealth and position
+made him a formidable candidate for the German throne; but
+the same qualities which earned for him the surname of &ldquo;Proud,&rdquo;
+aroused the jealousy of the princes, and so prevented his election.
+The new king, Conrad III., demanded the imperial <i>insignia</i>
+which were in Henry&rsquo;s possession, and the duke in return asked
+for his investiture with the Saxon duchy. But Conrad, who
+feared his power, refused to assent to this on the pretext that
+it was unlawful for two duchies to be in one hand. Attempts
+at a settlement failed, and in July 1138 the duke was placed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page294" id="page294"></a>294</span>
+under the ban, and Saxony was given to Albert the Bear, afterwards
+margrave of Brandenburg. War broke out in Saxony
+and Bavaria, but was cut short by Henry&rsquo;s sudden death at
+Quedlinburg on the 20th of October 1139. He was buried at
+Königslutter. Henry was a man of great ability, and his early
+death alone prevented him from playing an important part in
+German history. Conrad the Priest, the author of the <i>Rolandslied</i>,
+was in Henry&rsquo;s service, and probably wrote this poem
+at the request of the duchess, Gertrude.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See S. Riezler, <i>Geschichte Bayerns</i>, Band i. (Gotha, 1878); W.
+Bernhardi, <i>Lothar von Supplinburg</i> (Leipzig, 1879); W. von Giesebrecht,
+<i>Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit</i>, Band iv. (Brunswick,
+1877).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENRY<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> (1129-1195), surnamed the &ldquo;Lion,&rdquo; duke of Saxony
+and Bavaria, only son of Henry the Proud, duke of Saxony and
+Bavaria, and Gertrude, daughter of the emperor Lothair the
+Saxon, was born at Ravensburg, and was a member of the family
+of Welf. In 1138 the German king Conrad III. had sought to
+deprive Henry the Proud of his duchies, and when the duke died
+in the following year the interests of his young son were
+maintained in Saxony by his mother, and his grandmother
+Richenza, widow of Lothair, and in Bavaria by his uncle, Count
+Welf VI. This struggle ended in May 1142 when Henry was
+invested as duke of Saxony at Frankfort, and Bavaria was given
+to Henry II., Jasomirgott, margrave of Austria, who married
+his mother Gertrude. In 1147 he married Clementia, daughter
+of Conrad, duke of Zähringen (d. 1152), and began to take an
+active part in administering his dukedom and extending its
+area. He engaged in a successful expedition against the Abotrites,
+or Obotrites, in 1147, and won a considerable tract of land
+beyond the Elbe, in which were re-established the bishoprics of
+Mecklenburg,<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Oldenburg<a name="fa2e" id="fa2e" href="#ft2e"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and Ratzeburg. Hartwig, archbishop
+of Bremen, wished these sees to be under his authority,
+but Henry contested this claim, and won the right to invest
+these bishops himself, a privilege afterwards confirmed by the
+emperor Frederick I. Henry, meanwhile, had not forgotten
+Bavaria. In 1147 he made a formal claim on this duchy, and
+in 1151 sought to take possession, but failing to obtain the aid
+of his uncle Welf, did not effect his purpose. The situation was
+changed in his favour when Frederick I., who was anxious to
+count the duke among his supporters, succeeded Conrad as
+German king in February 1152. Frederick was unable at first to
+persuade Henry Jasomirgott to abandon Bavaria, but in June
+1154 he recognized the claim of Henry the Lion, who accompanied
+him on his first Italian campaign and distinguished
+himself in suppressing a rising at Rome, Henry&rsquo;s formal investiture
+as duke of Bavaria taking place in September 1156
+on the emperor&rsquo;s return to Germany. Henry soon returned to
+Saxony, where he found full scope for his untiring energy.
+Adolph II., count of Holstein, was compelled to cede Lübeck
+to him in 1158; campaigns in 1163 and 1164 beat down further
+resistance of the Abotrites; and Saxon garrisons were established
+in the conquered lands. The duke was aided in this work
+by the alliance of Valdemar I., king of Denmark, and, it is said,
+by engines of war brought from Italy. During these years he
+had also helped Frederick I. in his expedition of 1157 against
+the Poles, and in July 1159 had gone to his assistance in Italy,
+where he remained for about two years.</p>
+
+<p>The vigorous measures taken by Henry to increase his power
+aroused considerable opposition. In 1166 a coalition was formed
+against him at Merseburg under the leadership of Albert the Bear,
+margrave of Brandenburg, and Archbishop Hartwig. Neither
+side met with much success in the desultory warfare that ensued,
+and Frederick made peace between the combatants at Würzburg
+in June 1168. Having obtained a divorce from his first wife in
+1162, Henry was married at Minden in February 1168 to Matilda
+(1156-1189), daughter of Henry II., king of England, and was
+soon afterwards sent by the emperor Frederick I. on an embassy
+to the kings of England and France. A war with Valdemar of
+Denmark, caused by a quarrel over the booty obtained from
+the conquest of Rügen, engaged Henry&rsquo;s activity until June
+1171, when, in pursuance of a treaty which restored peace,
+Henry&rsquo;s daughter, Gertrude, married the Danish prince, Canute.
+Henry, whose position was now very strong, made a pilgrimage
+to Jerusalem in 1172, was received with great respect by the
+eastern emperor Manuel Comnenus at Constantinople, and
+returned to Saxony in 1173.</p>
+
+<p>A variety of reasons were leading to a rupture in the harmonious
+relations between Frederick and Henry, whose increasing
+power could not escape the emperor&rsquo;s notice, and who showed
+little inclination to sacrifice his interests in Germany in order
+to help the imperial cause in Italy. He was not pleased when
+he heard that his uncle, Welf, had bequeathed his Italian and
+Swabian lands to the emperor, and the crisis came after
+Frederick&rsquo;s check before Alessandria in 1175. The emperor
+appealed personally to Henry for help in February, or March
+1176, but Henry made no move in response, and his defection
+contributed in some measure to the emperor&rsquo;s defeat at Legnano.
+The peace of Venice provided for the restoration of Ulalrich
+to his see of Halberstadt. Henry, however, refused to give up
+the lands which he had seized belonging to the bishopric, and
+this conduct provoked a war in which Ulalrich was soon joined
+by Philip, archbishop of Cologne. No attack on Henry appears
+to have been contemplated by Frederick to whom both parties
+carried their complaints, and a day was fixed for the settlement
+of the dispute at Worms. But neither then, nor on two further
+occasions, did Henry appear to answer the charges preferred
+against him; accordingly in January 1180 he was placed under
+the imperial ban at Würzburg, and was declared deprived of
+all his lands.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the war with Ulalrich continued, but after his
+victory at Weissensee Henry&rsquo;s allies began to fall away, and his
+cause to decline. When Frederick took the field in June 1181
+the struggle was soon over. Henry sought for peace, and the
+conditions were settled at Erfurt in November 1181, when he
+was granted the counties of Lüneburg and Brunswick, but was
+banished under oath not to return without the emperor&rsquo;s permission.
+In July 1182 he went to his father-in-law&rsquo;s court in
+Normandy, and afterwards to England, returning to Germany
+with Frederick&rsquo;s permission in 1185. He was soon regarded once
+more as a menace to the peace of Germany, and of the three
+alternatives presented to him by the emperor in 1188 he rejected
+the idea of making a formal renunciation of his claim, or of
+participating in the crusade, and chose exile, going again to
+England in 1189. In October of the same year, however, he
+returned to Saxony, excusing himself by asserting that his lands
+had not been defended according to the emperor&rsquo;s promise.
+He found many allies, took Lübeck, and soon almost the whole
+of Saxony was in his power. King Henry VI. was obliged to
+take the field against him, after which the duke&rsquo;s cause declined,
+and in July 1190 a peace was arranged at Fulda, by which he
+retained Brunswick and Lüneburg, received half the revenues of
+Lübeck, and gave two of his sons as hostages. Still hoping to
+regain his former position, he took advantage of a league against
+Henry VI. in 1193 to engage in a further revolt; but the captivity
+of his brother-in-law Richard I., king of England, led to a
+reconciliation. Henry passed his later years mainly at his
+castle of Brunswick, where he died on the 6th of August 1195,
+and was buried in the church of St Blasius which he had founded
+in the town. He had by his first wife a son and a daughter, and
+by his second wife five sons and a daughter. One of his sons
+was Otto, afterwards the emperor Otto IV., and another was
+Henry (d. 1227) count palatine of the Rhine.</p>
+
+<p>Henry was a man of great ambition, and won his surname of
+&ldquo;Lion&rdquo; by his personal bravery. His influence on the fortunes
+of Saxony and northern Germany was very considerable. He
+planted Flemish and Dutch settlers in the land between the Elbe
+and the Oder, fostered the growth and trade of Lübeck, and in
+other ways encouraged trade and agriculture. He sought to
+spread Christianity by introducing the Cistercians, founding
+bishoprics, and building churches and monasteries. In 1874 a
+colossal statue was erected to his memory at Brunswick.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page295" id="page295"></a>295</span></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The authorities for the life of Henry the Lion are those dealing
+with the reign of the emperor Frederick I., and the early years of
+his son King Henry VI. The chief modern works are H. Prutz,
+<i>Heinrich der Löwe</i> (Leipzig, 1865); M. Philippson, <i>Geschichte
+Heinrichs des Löwen</i> (Leipzig, 1867); and L. Weiland, <i>Das sächsische
+Herzogthum unter Lothar und Heinrich dem Löwen</i> (Greifswald, 1866).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The see was transferred to Schwerin by Henry in 1167.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2e" id="ft2e" href="#fa2e"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Transferred to Lübeck in 1163.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENRY,<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> <span class="sc">Prince of Battenberg</span> (1858-1896), was the third
+son of Prince Alexander of Hesse and his morganatic wife, the
+beautiful Countess Julia von Hauke, to whom was granted in
+1858 the title of princess of Battenberg, which her children
+inherited. He was born at Milan on the 5th of October 1858,
+was educated with a special view to military service, and in due
+time became a lieutenant in the first regiment of Rhenish
+hussars. By their relationship to the grand dukes of Hesse the
+princes of Battenberg were brought into close contact with the
+English court, and Prince Henry paid several visits to England,
+where he soon became popular both in public and in private
+circles. It therefore created but little surprise when, towards
+the close of 1884, it was announced that Queen Victoria had
+sanctioned his engagement to the Princess Beatrice. The
+wedding took place at Whippingham on the 23rd of July 1885,
+and after the honeymoon the prince and princess settled down
+to a quiet home life with the queen, being seldom absent from
+the court, and accompanying her majesty in her annual visits
+to the continent. Three sons and a daughter were the issue
+of the marriage. On the 31st of July 1885 a bill to naturalize
+Prince Henry was passed by the House of Lords, and he received
+the title of royal highness. He was made a Knight of the Garter
+and a member of the Privy Council, and also appointed a colonel
+in the army, and afterwards captain-general and governor of the
+Isle of Wight and governor of Carisbrooke Castle. He adapted
+himself very readily to English country life, for he was an excellent
+shot and an enthusiastic yachtsman. Coming of a martial race,
+the prince would gladly have embraced an active military career,
+and when the Ashanti expedition was organized in November
+1895 he volunteered to join it. But when the expedition reached
+Prahsu, about 30 m. from Kumasi, he was struck down by fever,
+and being promptly conveyed back to the coast, was placed
+on board H.M.S. &ldquo;Blonde.&rdquo; On the 17th of January he seemed
+to recover slightly, but a relapse occurred on the 19th, and he
+died on the evening of the 20th off the coast of Sierra Leone.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENRY FITZ HENRY<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> (1155-1183), second son of Henry II.,
+king of England, by Eleanor of Aquitaine, became heir to the
+throne on the death of his brother William (1156), and at the
+age of five was married to Marguerite, the infant daughter of
+Louis VII. In 1170 he was crowned at Westminster by Roger
+of York. The protests of Becket against this usurpation of
+the rights of Canterbury were the ultimate cause of the primate&rsquo;s
+murder. The young king soon quarrelled with his father, who
+allowed him no power and a wholly inadequate revenue, and
+headed the great baronial revolt of 1173. He was assisted by his
+father-in-law, to whose court he had repaired; but, failing
+to shake the old king&rsquo;s power either in Normandy or England,
+made peace in 1174. Despite the generous terms which he
+received, he continued to intrigue with Louis VII., and was
+in consequence jealously watched by his father. In 1182 he
+and his younger brother Geoffrey took up arms, on the side of
+the Poitevin rebels, against Richard C&oelig;ur de Lion; apparently
+from resentment at the favour which Henry II. had shown to
+Richard in giving him the government of Poitou while they
+were virtually landless. Henry II. took the field in aid of
+Richard; but the young king and Geoffrey had no scruples
+about withstanding their father, and continued to aid the
+Aquitanian rising until the young king fell ill of a fever which
+proved fatal to him (June 11, 1183). His death was bitterly
+regretted by his father and by all who had known him. Though
+of a fickle and treacherous nature, he had all the personal fascination
+of his family, and is extolled by his contemporaries as a
+mirror of chivalry. His train was full of knights who served
+him without pay for the honour of being associated with his
+exploits in the tilting-lists and in war.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The original authorities for Henry&rsquo;s life are Robert de Torigni,
+<i>Chronica</i>; Giraldus Cambrensis, <i>De instructione principum, Guillaume
+le Maréchal</i> (ed. P. Meyer, Paris, 1891, &amp;c.); Benedict, <i>Gesta
+Henrici</i>, William of Newburgh. See also Kate Norgate, <i>England
+under the Angevin Kings</i> (1887); Sir James Ramsay, <i>Angevin Empire</i>
+(1903); and C. E. Hodgson, <i>Jung Heinrich, König von England</i>
+(Jena, 1906).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENRY,<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> or in full, <span class="sc">Henry Benedict Maria Clement
+Stuart</span> (1725-1807), usually known as Cardinal York, the
+last prince of the royal house of Stuart, was the younger son
+of James Stuart, and was born in the Palazzo Muti at Rome
+on the 6th of March 1725. He was created duke of York by his
+father soon after his birth, and by this title he was always
+alluded to by Jacobite adherents of his house. British visitors
+to Rome speak of him as a merry high-spirited boy with martial
+instincts; nevertheless, he grew up studious, peace-loving and
+serious. In order to be of assistance to his brother Charles,
+who was then campaigning in Scotland, Henry was despatched
+in the summer of 1745 to France, where he was placed in nominal
+command of French troops at Dunkirk, with which the marquis
+d&rsquo;Argenson had some vague idea of invading England. Seven
+months after Charles&rsquo;s return from Scotland Henry secretly
+departed to Rome and, with the full approval of his father,
+but to the intense disgust of his brother, was created a cardinal
+deacon under the title of the cardinal of York by Pope Benedict
+XIV. on the 3rd of July 1747. In the following year he was
+ordained priest, and nominated arch-priest of the Vatican
+Basilica. In 1759 he was consecrated archbishop of Corinth
+<i>in partibus</i>, and in 1761 bishop of Frascati (the ancient Tusculum)
+in the Alban Hills near Rome. Six years later he was
+appointed vice-chancellor of the Holy See. Henry Stuart
+likewise held sinecure benefices in France, Spain and Spanish
+America, so that he became one of the wealthiest churchmen of
+the period, his annual revenue being said to amount to £30,000
+sterling. On the death of his father, James Stuart (whose
+affairs he had managed during the last five years of his life),
+Henry made persistent attempts to induce Pope Clement XIII.
+to acknowledge his brother Charles as legitimate king of Great
+Britain, but his efforts were defeated, chiefly through the adverse
+influence of Cardinal Alessandro Albani, who was bitterly
+opposed to the Stuart cause. On Charles&rsquo;s death in 1788 Henry
+issued a manifesto asserting his hereditary right to the British
+crown, and likewise struck a medal, commemorative of the event,
+with the legend &ldquo;Hen. IX. Mag. Brit. Fr. et Hib. Rex. Fid.
+Def. Card. Ep. Tusc:&rdquo; (Henry the Ninth of Great Britain, France
+and Ireland, King, Defender of the Faith, Cardinal, Bishop of
+Frascati). In February 1798, at the approach of the invading
+French forces, Henry was forced to fly from Frascati to Naples,
+whence at the close of the same year he sailed to Messina. From
+Messina he proceeded by sea in order to be present at the expected
+conclave at Venice, where he arrived in the spring of
+1799, aged, ill and almost penniless. His sad plight was now
+made known by Cardinal Stefano Borgia to Sir John Coxe
+Hippisley (d. 1825), who had formerly acted semi-officially on
+behalf of the British government at the court of Pius VI. Sir
+John Hippisley appealed to George III., who on the warm
+recommendation of Prince Augustus Frederick, duke of Sussex,
+gave orders for the annual payment of a pension of £4000 to the
+last of the Royal Stuarts. Henry received the proffered assistance
+gratefully, and in return for the king&rsquo;s kindness subsequently
+left by his will certain British crown jewels in his possession to
+the prince regent. In 1800 Henry was able to return to Rome,
+and in 1803, being now senior cardinal bishop, he became <i>ipso
+facto</i> dean of the Sacred College and bishop of Ostia and Velletri.
+He died at Frascati on the 13th of July 1807, and was buried in
+the <i>Grotte Vaticane</i> of St Peter&rsquo;s in an urn bearing the title
+of &ldquo;Henry IX.&rdquo;; he is also commemorated in Canova&rsquo;s well-known
+monument to the Royal Stuarts (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">James</a></span>). The
+Stuart archives, once the property of Cardinal York, were
+subsequently presented by Pope Pius VII. to the prince
+regent, who placed them in the royal library at Windsor
+Castle.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See B. W. Kelly, <i>Life of Cardinal York</i>; H. M. Vaughan, <i>Last of
+the Royal Stuarts</i>; and A. Shield, <i>Henry Stuart, Cardinal of York,
+and his Times</i> (1908).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. M. V.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page296" id="page296"></a>296</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">HENRY OF PORTUGAL,<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> surnamed the &ldquo;Navigator&rdquo; (1394-1460),
+duke of Viseu, governor of the Algarve, was born at Oporto
+on the 4th of March 1394. He was the third (or, counting
+children who died in infancy, the fifth) son of John (João) I.,
+the founder of the Aviz dynasty, under whom Portugal, victorious
+against Castile and against the Moors of Morocco, began to take
+a prominent place among European nations; his mother was
+Philippa, daughter of John of Gaunt. When Ceuta, the &ldquo;African
+Gibraltar,&rdquo; was taken in 1415, Prince Henry performed the most
+distinguished service of any Portuguese leader, and received
+knighthood; he was now created duke of Viseu and lord of
+Covilham, and about the same time began his explorations,
+which, however, limited in their original conception, certainly
+developed into a search for a better knowledge of the western
+ocean and for a sea-way along the unknown coast of Africa to
+the supposed western Nile (our Senegal), to the rich negro lands
+beyond the Sahara desert, to the half-true, half-fabled realm
+of Prester John, and so ultimately to the Indies.</p>
+
+<p>Disregarding the traditions which assign 1412 or even 1410
+as the commencement of these explorations, it appears that in
+1415, the year of Ceuta, the prince sent out one John de Trasto
+on a voyage which brought the Portuguese to Grand Canary.
+There was no discovery here, for the whole Canarian archipelago
+was now pretty well known to French and Spanish mariners,
+especially since the conquest of 1402-06 by French adventurers
+under Castillan overlordship; but in 1418 Henry&rsquo;s captain,
+João Gonçalvez Zarco rediscovered Porto Santo, and in 1420
+Madeira, the chief members of an island group which had
+originally been discovered (probably by Genoese pioneers)
+before 1351 or perhaps even before 1339, but had rather faded
+from Christian knowledge since. The story of the rediscovery
+of Madeira by the Englishman Robert Machim or Machin,
+eloping from Bristol with his lady-love, Anne d&rsquo;Arfet, in the reign
+of Edward III. (about 1370), has been the subject of much controversy;
+in any case it does not affect the original Italian
+discovery, nor the first sighting of Porto Santo by Zarco, who,
+while exploring the west African mainland coast, was driven by
+storms to this island. In 1424-1425 Prince Henry attempted
+to purchase the Canaries, and began the colonization of the
+Madeira group, both in Madeira itself and in Porto Santo;
+to aid this latter movement he procured the famous charters of
+1430 and 1433 from the Portuguese crown. In 1427, again,
+with the co-operation of his father King John, he seems to have
+sent out the royal pilot Diogo de Sevill, followed in 1431 by
+Gonçalo Velho Cabral, to explore the Azores, first mentioned
+and depicted in a Spanish treatise of 1345 (the <i>Conosçimiento
+de todos los Reynos</i>) and in an Italian map of 1351 (the <i>Laurentian
+Portolano</i>, also the first cartographical work to give us the
+Madeiras with modern names), but probably almost unvisited
+from that time to the advent of Sevill. This rediscovery of the
+far western archipelago, and the expeditions which, even within
+Prince Henry&rsquo;s life (as in 1452) pushed still deeper into the
+Atlantic, seem to show that the infante was not entirely forgetful
+of the possibility of such a western route to Asia as Columbus
+attempted in 1492, only to find America across his path. Meantime,
+in 1418, Henry had gone in person to relieve Ceuta from an
+attack of Morocco and Granada Mussulmans; had accomplished
+his task, and had planned, though he did not carry out, a seizure
+of Gibraltar. About this time, moreover, it is probable that he
+had begun to gather information from the Moors with regard to
+the coast of &ldquo;Guinea&rdquo; and the interior of Africa. In 1419,
+after his return to Portugal, he was created governor of the
+&ldquo;kingdom&rdquo; of Algarve, the southernmost province of Portugal;
+and his connexion now appears to have begun with what afterwards
+became known as the &ldquo;Infante&rsquo;s Town&rdquo; (<i>Villa do Iffante</i>)
+at Sagres, close to Cape St Vincent; where, before 1438, a
+<i>Tercena Nabal</i> or naval arsenal grew up; where, from 1438,
+after the Tangier expedition, the prince certainly resided for
+a great part of his later life; and where he died in 1460.</p>
+
+<p>In 1433 died King John, exhorting his son not to abandon
+those schemes which were now, in the long-continued failure
+to round Cape Bojador, ridiculed by many as costly absurdities;
+and in 1434 one of the prince&rsquo;s ships, commanded by Gil Eannes,
+at length doubled the cape. In 1435 Affonso Gonçalvez Baldaya,
+the prince&rsquo;s cup-bearer, passed fifty leagues beyond; and before
+the close of 1436 the Portuguese had almost reached Cape Blanco.
+Plans of further conquest in Morocco, resulting in 1437 in the
+disastrous attack upon Tangier, and followed in 1438 by the death
+of King Edward (Duarte) and the domestic troubles of the
+earlier minority of Affonso V., now interrupted Atlantic and
+African exploration down to 1441, except only in the Azores.
+Here rediscovery and colonization both progressed, as is shown
+by the royal licence of the 2nd of July 1439, to people &ldquo;the seven
+islands&rdquo; of the group then known. In 1441 exploration began
+again in earnest with the venture of Antam Gonçalvez, who
+brought to Portugal the first slaves and gold-dust from the
+Guinea coasts beyond Bojador; while Nuno Tristam in the same
+year pushed on to Cape Blanco. These successes produced a great
+effect; the cause of discovery, now connected with boundless
+hopes of profit, became popular; and many volunteers, especially
+merchants and seamen from Lisbon and Lagos, came forward.
+In 1442 Nuno Tristam reached the Bay or Bight of Arguim,
+where the infante erected a fort in 1448, and where for years the
+Portuguese carried on vigorous slave-raiding. Meantime the
+prince, who had now, in 1443, been created by Henry VI. a
+knight of the Garter of England, proceeded with his Sagres
+buildings, especially the palace, church and observatory (the
+first in Portugal) which formed the nucleus of the &ldquo;Infante&rsquo;s
+Town,&rdquo; and which were certainly commenced soon after the
+Tangier fiasco (1437), if not earlier. In 1444-1446 there was an
+immense burst of maritime and exploring activity; more than
+30 ships sailed with Henry&rsquo;s licence to Guinea; and several of
+their commanders achieved notable success. Thus Diniz Diaz,
+Nuno Tristam, and others reached the Senegal in 1445; Diaz
+rounded Cape Verde in the same year; and in 1446 Alvaro
+Fernandez pushed on almost to our Sierra Leone, to a point
+110 leagues beyond Cape Verde. This was perhaps the most
+distant point reached before 1461. In 1444, moreover, the
+island of St Michael in the Azores was sighted (May 8), and
+in 1445 its colonization was begun. During this latter year
+also John Fernandez (<i>q.v.</i>) spent seven months among the natives
+of the Arguim coast, and brought back the first trustworthy
+first-hand European account of the Sahara hinterland. Slave-raiding
+continued ceaselessly; by 1446 the Portuguese had carried
+off nearly a thousand captives from the newly surveyed coasts;
+but between this time and the voyages of Cadamosto (<i>q.v.</i>)
+in 1455-1456, the prince altered his policy, forbade the kidnapping
+of the natives (which had brought about fierce reprisals, causing
+the death of Nuno Tristam in 1446, and of other pioneers in 1445,
+1448, &amp;c.), and endeavoured to promote their peaceful intercourse
+with his men. In 1445-1446, again, Dom Henry renewed
+his earlier attempts (which had failed in 1424-1425) to purchase
+or seize the Canaries for Portugal; by these he brought his
+country to the verge of war with Castile; but the home government
+refused to support him, and the project was again
+abandoned. After 1446 our most voluminous authority, Azurara,
+records but little; his narrative ceases altogether in 1448; one
+of the latest expeditions noticed by him is that of a foreigner in
+the prince&rsquo;s service, &ldquo;Vallarte the Dane,&rdquo; which ended in utter
+destruction near the Gambia, after passing Cape Verde in 1448.
+After this the chief matters worth notice in Dom Henry&rsquo;s life
+are, first, the progress of discovery and colonization in the Azores&mdash;where
+Terceira was discovered before 1450, perhaps in 1445,
+and apparently by a Fleming, called &ldquo;Jacques de Bruges&rdquo;
+in the prince&rsquo;s charter of the 2nd of March 1450 (by this charter
+Jacques receives the captaincy of this isle as its intending
+colonizer); secondly, the rapid progress of civilization in Madeira,
+evidenced by its timber trade to Portugal, by its sugar, corn and
+honey, and above all by its wine, produced from the Malvoisie
+or Malmsey grape, introduced from Crete; and thirdly, the
+explorations of Cadamosto and Diogo Gomez (<i>q.v.</i>). Of these
+the former, in his two voyages of 1455 and 1456, explored part
+of the courses of the Senegal and the Gambia, discovered the Cape
+Verde Islands (1456), named and mapped more carefully than
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page297" id="page297"></a>297</span>
+before a considerable section of the African littoral beyond
+Cape Verde, and gave much new information on the trade-routes
+of north-west Africa and on the native races; while Gomez,
+in his first important venture (after 1448 and before 1458),
+though not accomplishing the full Indian purpose of his voyage
+(he took a native interpreter with him for use &ldquo;in the event of
+reaching India&rdquo;), explored and observed in the Gambia valley
+and along the adjacent coasts with fully as much care and profit.
+As a result of these expeditions the infante seems to have sent
+out in 1458 a mission to convert the Gambia negroes. Gomez&rsquo;
+second voyage, resulting in another &ldquo;discovery&rdquo; of the Cape
+Verde Islands, was probably in 1462, after the death of Prince
+Henry; it is likely that among the infante&rsquo;s last occupations
+were the necessary measures for the equipment and despatch
+of this venture, as well as of Pedro de Sintra&rsquo;s important expedition
+of 1461.</p>
+
+<p>The infante&rsquo;s share in home politics was considerable, especially
+in the years of Affonso V.&rsquo;s minority (1438, &amp;c.) when he helped
+to make his elder brother Pedro regent, reconciled him with the
+queen-mother, and worked together with them both in a council
+of regency. But when Dom Pedro rose in revolt (1447), Henry
+stood by the king and allowed his brother to be crushed. In the
+Morocco campaigns of his last years, especially at the capture of
+Alcazar the Little (1458), he restored the military fame which he
+had founded at Ceuta and compromised at Tangier, and which
+brought him invitations from the pope, the emperor and the
+kings of Castile and England, to take command of their armies.
+The prince was also grand master of the Order of Christ, the
+successor of the Templars in Portugal; and most of his Atlantic
+and African expeditions sailed under the flag of his order, whose
+revenues were at the service of his explorations, in whose name
+he asked and obtained the official recognition of Pope Eugenius
+IV. for his work, and on which he bestowed many privileges in the
+new-won lands&mdash;the tithes of St Michael in the Azores and one-half
+of its sugar revenues, the tithe of all merchandise from
+Guinea, the ecclesiastical dues of Madeira, &amp;c. As &ldquo;protector of
+Portuguese studies,&rdquo; Dom Henry is credited with having founded
+a professorship of theology, and perhaps also chairs of mathematics
+and medicine, in Lisbon&mdash;where also, in 1431, he is said to have
+provided house-room for the university teachers and students.
+To instruct his captains, pilots and other pioneers more fully in
+the art of navigation and the making of maps and instruments he
+procured, says Barros, the aid of one Master Jacome from Majorca,
+together with that of certain Arab and Jewish mathematicians.
+We hear also of one Master Peter, who inscribed and illuminated
+maps for the infante; the mathematician Pedro Nunes declares
+that the prince&rsquo;s mariners were well taught and provided with
+instruments and rules of astronomy and geometry &ldquo;which all
+map-makers should know&rdquo;; Cadamosto tells us that the
+Portuguese caravels in his day were the best sailing ships afloat;
+while, from several matters recorded by Henry&rsquo;s biographers, it
+is clear that he devoted great attention to the study of earlier
+charts and of any available information he could gain upon the
+trade-routes of north-west Africa. Thus we find an Oran
+merchant corresponding with him about events happening in the
+negro-world of the Gambia basin in 1458. Even if there were
+never a formal &ldquo;geographical school&rdquo; at Sagres, or elsewhere in
+Portugal, founded by Prince Henry, it appears certain that his
+court was the centre of active and useful geographical study, as
+well as the source of the best practical exploration of the time.</p>
+
+<p>The prince died on the 13th of November 1460, in his town
+near Cape St Vincent, and was buried in the church of St Mary in
+Lagos, but a year later his body was removed to the superb
+monastery of Batalha. His great-nephew, King Dom Manuel,
+had a statue of him placed over the centre column of the side
+gate of the church of Belem. On the 24th of July 1840, a monument
+was erected to him at Sagres at the instance of the marquis
+de Sá da Bandeira.</p>
+
+<p>The glory attaching to the name of Prince Henry does not rest
+merely on the achievements effected during his own lifetime, but
+on the subsequent results to which his genius and perseverance
+had lent the primary inspiration. To him the human race is
+indebted, in large measure, for the maritime exploration, within
+one century (1420-1522), of more than half the globe, and
+especially of the great waterways from Europe to Asia both by
+east and by west. His own life only sufficed for the accomplishment
+of a small portion of his task. The complete opening out of
+the African or south-east route to the Indies needed nearly forty
+years of somewhat intermittent labour after his death (1460-1498),
+and the prince&rsquo;s share has often been forgotten in that of
+pioneers who were really his executors&mdash;Diogo Cam, Bartholomew
+Diaz or Vasco da Gama. Less directly, other sides of his activity
+may be considered as fulfilled by the Portuguese penetration of
+inland Africa, especially of Abyssinia, the land of the &ldquo;Prester
+John&rdquo; for whom Dom Henry sought, and even by the finding of
+a western route to Asia through the discoveries of Columbus,
+Balboa and Magellan.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Alguns documentos do archivo nacional da Torre do Tombo
+acerca das navegações ... portuguezas</i> (Lisbon, 1892); Alves,
+<i>Dom Henrique o Infante</i> (Oporto, 1894); <i>Archivo dos Açores</i> (Ponta
+Delgada, 1878-1894); Gomes Eannes de Azurara, <i>Chronica do
+descobrimento e conquista de Guiné</i>, ed. Carreira and Santarem (Paris,
+1841; Eng. trans. by Raymond Beazley and Edgar Prestage,
+Hakluyt Society, London, 1896-1899); João de Barros, <i>Decadas da
+Asia</i> (Lisbon, 1652); Raymond Beazley, <i>Prince Henry the Navigator</i>
+(London, 1895), and introduction to Azurara, vol. ii., in Hakluyt
+Soc. trans. (see above); Antonio Cordeiro, <i>Historia Insultana</i> (Lisbon,
+1717); Freire (Candido Lusitano), <i>Vida do Infante D. Henrique</i>
+(Lisbon, 1858); &ldquo;Diogo Gomez,&rdquo; in Dr Schmeller&rsquo;s <i>Über Valentim
+Fernandez Alemão</i>, vol. iv. pt. iii., in the publications of the 1st
+class of the Royal Bavarian Academy of Sciences (Munich, 1845);
+R. H. Major, <i>The Life of Henry of Portugal, surnamed the Navigator</i>
+(London, 1868); Jules Mees, <i>Henri le Navigateur et l&rsquo;académie ...
+de Sagres</i> (Brussels, 1901), and <i>Histoire de la découverte des îles
+Açores</i> (Ghent, 1901); Duarte Pacheco Pereira, <i>Esmeraldo de situ
+orbis</i> (Lisbon, 1892); Sophus Ruge, &ldquo;Prinz Heinrich der Seefahrer,&rdquo;
+in vol. 65 of <i>Globus</i>, p. 153 (Brunswick, 1894); Gustav de
+Veer, <i>Prinz Heinrich der Seefahrer</i> (Danzig, 1863); H. E. Wauwerman,
+<i>Henri le Navigateur et l&rsquo;académie portugaise de Sagres</i> (Antwerp
+and Brussels, 1890).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. R. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENRY OF ALMAIN<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> (1235-1271), so called from his father&rsquo;s
+German connexions, was the son of Richard, earl of Cornwall and
+king of the Romans. As a nephew of both Henry III. and Simon
+de Montfort he wavered between the two at the beginning of the
+Barons&rsquo; War, but finally took the royalist side and was among the
+prisoners taken by Montfort at Lewes (1264). In 1268 he took
+the cross with his cousin Edward, who, however, sent him back
+from Sicily to pacify the unruly province of Gascony. Henry
+took the land route with the kings of France and Sicily. While
+attending mass at Viterbo (13 March 1271) he was attacked by
+Guy and Simon de Montfort, sons of Earl Simon, and foully
+murdered. This revenge was the more outrageous since Henry
+had personally exerted himself on behalf of the Montforts after
+Evesham. The deed is mentioned by Dante, who put Guy de
+Montfort in the seventh circle of hell.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See W. H. Blaauw&rsquo;s <i>The Barons&rsquo; War</i> (ed. 1871); Ch. Bémont&rsquo;s
+<i>Simon de Montfort</i> (1884).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENRY OF BLOIS,<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> bishop of Winchester (1101-1171), was the
+son of Stephen, count of Blois, by Adela, daughter of William I.,
+and brother of King Stephen. He was educated at Cluny, and
+consistently exerted himself for the principles of Cluniac reform.
+If these involved high claims of independence and power for the
+Church, they also asserted a high standard of devotion and
+discipline. Henry was brought to England by Henry I. and
+made abbot of Glastonbury. In 1129 he was given the bishopric
+of Winchester and allowed to hold his abbey in conjunction with
+it. His hopes of the see of Canterbury were disappointed, but
+he obtained in 1139 a legatine commission which gave him a
+higher rank than the primate. In fact as well as in theory he
+became the master of the Church in England. He even contemplated
+the erection of a new province, with Winchester as its
+centre, which was to be independent of Canterbury. Owing both
+to local and to general causes the power of the Church in England
+has never been higher than in the reign of Stephen (1135-1154),
+Henry as its leader and a legate of the pope was the real &ldquo;lord of
+England,&rdquo; as the chronicles call him. Indeed, one of the ecclesiastical
+councils over which he presided formally declared that the
+election of the king in England was the special privilege of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page298" id="page298"></a>298</span>
+clergy. Stephen owed his crown to Henry (1135), but they
+quarrelled when Stephen refused to give Henry the primacy;
+and the bishop took up the cause of Roger of Salisbury (1139).
+After the battle of Lincoln (1141) Henry declared for Matilda;
+but finding his advice treated with contempt, rejoined his
+brother&rsquo;s side, and his successful defence of Winchester against
+the empress (Aug.-Sept. 1141) was the turning-point of the civil
+war. The expiration of his legatine commission of 1144 deprived
+him of much of his power. He spent the rest of Stephen&rsquo;s reign in
+trying to procure its renewal. But his efforts were unsuccessful,
+though he made a personal visit to Rome. At the accession of
+Henry II. (1154) he retired from the world and spent the rest of
+his life in works of charity and penitence. He died in 1171.
+Henry seems to have been a man of high character, great courage,
+resolution and ability. Like most great bishops of his age he had
+a passion for architecture. He built, among other castles, that
+of Farnham; and he began the hospital of St Cross at Winchester.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;Original: William of Malmesbury, <i>De gestis
+regum</i>; the <i>Gesta Stephani</i>. Modern: Sir James Ramsay, <i>Foundations
+of England</i>, vol. ii.; Kate Norgate&rsquo;s <i>Angevin Kings</i>;
+Kitchin&rsquo;s <i>Winchester</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENRY OF GHENT<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> [Henricus a Gandavo] (<i>c.</i> 1217-1293),
+scholastic philosopher, known as &ldquo;Doctor Solennis,&rdquo; was born
+in the district of Mude, near Ghent, and died at Tournai (or
+Paris). He is said to have belonged to an Italian family named
+Bonicolli, in Flemish Goethals, but the question of his name
+has been much discussed (see authorities below). He studied
+at Ghent and then at Cologne under Albertus Magnus. After
+obtaining the degree of doctor he returned to Ghent, and is
+said to have been the first to lecture there publicly on philosophy
+and theology. Attracted to Paris by the fame of the university,
+he took part in the many disputes between the orders and the
+secular priests, and warmly defended the latter. A contemporary
+of Aquinas, he opposed several of the dominant theories of the
+time, and united with the current Aristotelian doctrines a strong
+infusion of Platonism. He distinguished between knowledge
+of actual objects and the divine inspiration by which we cognize
+the being and existence of God. The first throws no light upon
+the second. Individuals are constituted not by the material
+element but by their independent existence, <i>i.e.</i> ultimately by
+the fact that they are created as separate entities. Universals
+must be distinguished according as they have reference to our
+minds or to the divine mind. In the divine intelligence exist
+exemplars or types of the genera and species of natural objects.
+On this subject Henry is far from clear; but he defends Plato
+against the current Aristotelian criticism, and endeavours to
+show that the two views are in harmony. In psychology, his
+view of the intimate union of soul and body is remarkable.
+The body he regards as forming part of the substance of the
+soul, which through this union is more perfect and complete.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Works.</span>&mdash;<i>Quodlibeta theologica</i> (Paris, 1518; Venice, 1608 and
+1613); <i>Summa theologiae</i> (Paris, 1520; Ferrara, 1646); <i>De scriptoribus
+ecclesiasticis</i> (Cologne, 1580).</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;F. Huet&rsquo;s <i>Recherches hist. et crit. ... de H. de G.</i>
+(Paris, 1838) has been superseded by F. Ehrle&rsquo;s monograph in
+<i>Archiv für Lit. u. Kirchengeschichte des Mittelalters</i>, i. (1885); see
+also A. Wauters and N. de Pauw in the <i>Bull. de la Com. royale
+d&rsquo;histoire de Belgique</i> (4th series, xiv., xv., xvi., 1887-1889); H.
+Delehaye, <i>Nouvelles Recherches sur Henri de Gand</i> (1886); C. Werner,
+<i>Heinrich von Gent als Repräsentant des christlichen Platonismus im
+13ten Jahrh.</i> (Vienna, 1878); A. Stöckl, <i>Phil. d. Mittelalters</i>, ii.
+738-758; C. Bréchillet Jourdain, <i>La Philosophie de St Thomas
+d&rsquo;Aquin</i> (1858), ii. 29-46; Alphonse le Roy in <i>Biographie nationale
+de Belgique</i>, vii. (Brussels, 1880); and article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Scholasticism</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENRY OF HUNTINGDON,<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> English chronicler of the 12th
+century, was born, apparently, between the years 1080 and 1090.
+His father, by name Nicholas, was a clerk, who became archdeacon
+of Cambridge, Hertford and Huntingdon, in the time of Remigius,
+bishop of Lincoln (d. 1092). The celibacy of the clergy was not
+strictly enforced in England before 1102. Hence the chronicler
+makes no secret of his antecedents, nor did they interfere with
+his career. At an early age Henry entered the household of
+Bishop Robert Bloet, who appointed him, immediately after
+the death of Nicholas (1110), archdeacon of Hertford and
+Huntingdon. Henry was on familiar terms with his patron;
+and also, it would seem, with Bloet&rsquo;s successor, by whom he
+was encouraged to undertake the writing of an English history
+from the time of Julius Caesar. This work, undertaken before
+1130, was first published in that year; the author subsequently
+published in succession four more editions, of which the last
+ends in 1154 with the accession of Henry II. The only recorded
+fact of the chronicler&rsquo;s later life is that he went with Archbishop
+Theobald to Rome in 1139. On the way Henry halted at Bec,
+and there made the acquaintance of Robert de Torigni, who
+mentions their encounter in the preface to his Chronicle.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The <i>Historia Anglorum</i> was first printed in Savile, <i>Rerum Anglicarum
+scriptores post Bedam</i> (London, 1596). The first six books
+excepting the third, which is almost entirely taken from Bede, are
+given in <i>Monumenta historica Britannica</i>, vol. i. (ed. H. Petrie and
+J. Sharpe, London, 1848). The standard edition is that of T. Arnold
+in the Rolls Series (London, 1879). There is a translation by T.
+Forester in Bohn&rsquo;s <i>Antiquarian Library</i> (London, 1853). The
+Historia is of little independent value before 1126. Up to that point
+the author compiles from Eutropius, Aurelius Victor, Nennius, Bede
+and the English chronicles, particularly that of Peterborough; in
+some cases he professes to supplement these sources from oral
+tradition; but most of his amplifications are pure rhetoric (see
+F. Liebermann in <i>Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte</i> for 1878,
+pp. 265 seq.). Arnold prints, in an appendix, a minor work from
+Henry&rsquo;s pen, the <i>Epistola ad Walterum de contemptu mundi</i>, which
+was written in 1135. It is a moralizing tract, but contains some
+interesting anecdotes about contemporaries. Henry also wrote
+epistles to Henry I. (on the succession of kings and emperors in the
+great monarchies of the world) and to &ldquo;Warinus, a Briton&rdquo; (on the
+early British kings, after Geoffrey of Monmouth). A book, <i>De
+miraculis</i>, composed of extracts from Bede, was appended along
+with these three epistles to the later recensions of the <i>Historia</i>.
+Henry composed eight books of Latin epigrams; two books survive
+in the Lambeth MS., No. 118. His value as a historian, formerly
+much overrated, is discussed at length by Liebermann and in T.
+Arnold&rsquo;s introduction to the Rolls edition of the <i>Historia</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. W. C. D.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENRY OF LAUSANNE<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> (variously known as of Bruys, of
+Cluny, of Toulouse, and as the Deacon), French heresiarch of
+the first half of the 12th century. Practically nothing is known
+of his origin or early life. He may have been one of those
+hermits who at that time swarmed in the forests of western
+Europe, and particularly in France, always surrounded by
+popular veneration, and sometimes the founders of monasteries
+or religious orders, such as those of Prémontré or Fontevrault.
+If St Bernard&rsquo;s reproach (<i>Ep.</i> 241) be well founded, Henry was
+an apostate monk&mdash;a &ldquo;black monk&rdquo; (Benedictine) according
+to the chronicler Alberic de Trois Fontaines. The information
+we possess as to his degree of instruction is scarcely more precise
+or less conflicting. When he arrived at Le Mans in 1101, his
+<i>terminus a quo</i> was probably Lausanne. At that moment
+Hildebert, the bishop of Le Mans, was absent from his episcopal
+town, and this is one of the reasons why Henry was granted
+permission to preach (March to July 1101), a function jealously
+guarded by the regular clergy. Whether by his prestige as a
+hermit and ascetic or by his personal charm, he soon acquired
+enormous influence over the people. His doctrine at that date
+appears to have been very vague; he seemingly rejected the
+invocation of saints and also second marriages, and preached
+penitence. Women, inflamed by his words, gave up their jewels
+and luxurious apparel, and young men married courtesans in
+the hope of reclaiming them. Henry was peculiarly fitted for
+a popular preacher. In person he was tall and had a long
+beard; his voice was sonorous, and his eyes flashed fire. He
+went bare-footed, preceded by a man carrying a staff surmounted
+with an iron cross; he slept on the bare ground, and lived by
+alms. At his instigation the inhabitants of Le Mans soon began
+to slight the clergy of their town and to reject all ecclesiastical
+authority. On his return from Rome, Hildebert had a public
+disputation with Henry, in which, according to the bishop&rsquo;s
+<i>Acta episcoporum Cenomannensium</i>, Henry was shown to be
+less guilty of heresy than of ignorance. He, however, was forced
+to leave Le Mans, and went probably to Poitiers and afterwards
+to Bordeaux. Later we find him in the diocese of Arles, where
+the archbishop arrested him and had his case referred to the
+tribunal of the pope. In 1134 Henry appeared before Pope
+Innocent III. at the council of Pisa, where he was compelled
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page299" id="page299"></a>299</span>
+to abjure his errors and was sentenced to imprisonment. It
+appears that St Bernard offered him an asylum at Clairvaux;
+but it is not known if he reached Clairvaux, nor do we know
+when or in what circumstances he resumed his activities.
+Towards 1139, however, Peter the Venerable, abbot of Cluny,
+wrote a treatise called <i>Epistola seu tractatus adversus Petrobrusianos</i>
+(Migne, <i>Patr. Lat.</i> clxxxix.) against the disciples
+of Peter of Bruys and Henry of Lausanne, whom he calls Henry
+of Bruys, and whom, at the moment of writing, he accuses of
+preaching, in all the dioceses in the south of France, errors which
+he had inherited from Peter of Bruys. According to Peter the
+Venerable, Henry&rsquo;s teaching is summed up as follows: rejection
+of the doctrinal and disciplinary authority of the church;
+recognition of the Gospel freely interpreted as the sole rule of
+faith; condemnation of the baptism of infants, of the eucharist,
+of the sacrifice of the mass, of the communion of saints, and of
+prayers for the dead; and refusal to recognize any form of
+worship or liturgy. The success of this teaching spread very
+rapidly in the south of France. Speaking of this region, St
+Bernard (<i>Ep.</i> 241) says: &ldquo;The churches are without flocks,
+the flocks without priests, the priests without honour; in a
+word, nothing remains save Christians without Christ.&rdquo; On
+several occasions St Bernard was begged to fight the innovator
+on the scene of his exploits, and in 1145, at the instance of the
+legate Alberic, cardinal bishop of Ostia, he set out, passing through
+the diocese of Angoulême and Limoges, sojourning for some time
+at Bordeaux, and finally reaching the heretical towns of Bergerac,
+Périgueux, Sarlat, Cahors and Toulouse. At Bernard&rsquo;s approach
+Henry quitted Toulouse, leaving there many adherents, both of
+noble and humble birth, and especially among the weavers.
+But Bernard&rsquo;s eloquence and miracles made many converts,
+and Toulouse and Albi were quickly restored to orthodoxy.
+After inviting Henry to a disputation, which he refused to attend,
+St Bernard returned to Clairvaux. Soon afterwards the heresiarch
+was arrested, brought before the bishop of Toulouse, and
+probably imprisoned for life. In a letter to the people of
+Toulouse, undoubtedly written at the end of 1146, St Bernard
+calls upon them to extirpate the last remnants of the heresy. In
+1151, however, some Henricians still remained in Languedoc, for
+Matthew Paris relates (<i>Chron. maj.</i>, at date 1151) that a young
+girl, who gave herself out to be miraculously inspired by the
+Virgin Mary, was reputed to have converted a great number
+of the disciples of Henry of Lausanne. It is impossible to
+designate definitely as Henricians one of the two sects discovered
+at Cologne and described by Everwin, provost of Steinfeld, in
+his letter to St Bernard (Migne, <i>Patr. Lat.</i>, clxxxii. 676-680),
+or the heretics of Périgord mentioned by a certain monk Heribert
+(Martin Bouquet, <i>Recueil des historiens des Gaules et de la France</i>,
+xii. 550-551).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See &ldquo;Les Origines de l&rsquo;hérésie albigeoise,&rdquo; by Vacandard in the
+<i>Revue des questions historiques</i> (Paris, 1894, pp. 67-83).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(P. A.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENRY, EDWARD LAMSON<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> (1841-&emsp;&emsp;), American genre
+painter, was born in Charleston, South Carolina, on the 12th of
+January 1841. He was a pupil of the schools of the Pennsylvania
+Academy of Fine Arts in Philadelphia, and of Gleyre and Courbet
+in Paris, and in 1870 was elected to the National Academy of
+Design, New York. As a painter of colonial and early American
+themes and incidents of rural life, he displays a quaint humour
+and a profound knowledge of human nature. Among his best-known
+compositions are some of early railroad travel, incidents
+of stage coach and canal boat journeys, rendered with much
+detail on a minute scale.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENRY, JAMES<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> (1798-1876), Irish classical scholar, was born
+in Dublin on the 13th of December 1798. He was educated at
+Trinity College, and until 1845 practised as a physician in the
+city. In spite of his unconventionally and unorthodox views
+on religion and his own profession, he was very successful. His
+accession to a large fortune enabled him to devote himself
+entirely to the absorbing occupation of his life&mdash;the study of
+Virgil. Accompanied by his wife and daughter, he visited all
+those parts of Europe where he was likely to find rare editions
+or MSS. of the poet. He died near Dublin on the 14th of July
+1876. As a commentator on Virgil Henry will always deserve
+to be remembered, notwithstanding the occasional eccentricity
+of his notes and remarks. The first fruits of his researches were
+published at Dresden in 1853 under the quaint title <i>Notes of a
+Twelve Years&rsquo; Voyage of Discovery in the first six Books of the
+Eneis</i>. These were embodied, with alterations and additions,
+in the <i>Aeneidea, or Critical, Exegetical and Aesthetical Remarks
+on the Aeneis</i> (1873-1892), of which only the notes on the first
+book were published during the author&rsquo;s lifetime. As a textual
+critic Henry was exceedingly conservative. His notes, written
+in a racy and interesting style, are especially valuable for their
+wealth of illustration and references to the less-known classical
+authors. Henry was also the author of several poems, some of
+them descriptive accounts of his travels, and of various pamphlets
+of a satirical nature.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See obituary notice by J. P. Mahaffy in the <i>Academy</i> of the 12th
+of August 1876, where a list of his works, nearly all of which were
+privately printed, is given.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENRY, JOSEPH<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> (1797-1878), American physicist, was born
+in Albany, N.Y., on the 17th of December 1797. He received
+his education at an ordinary school, and afterwards at the
+Albany Academy, which enjoyed considerable reputation for
+the thoroughness of its classical and mathematical courses.
+On finishing his academic studies he contemplated adopting the
+medical profession, and prosecuted his studies in chemistry,
+anatomy and physiology with that view. He occasionally
+contributed papers to the Albany Institute, in the years 1824
+and 1825, on chemical and mechanical subjects; and in the
+latter year, having been unexpectedly appointed assistant
+engineer on the survey of a route for a state road from the Hudson
+river to Lake Erie, a distance somewhat over 300 m., he at once
+embarked with zeal and success in the new enterprise. This
+diversion from his original bent gave him an inclination to the
+career of civil and mechanical engineering; and in the spring
+of 1826 he was elected by the trustees of the Albany Academy
+to the chair of mathematics and natural philosophy in that
+institution. In the latter part of 1827 he read before the Albany
+Institute his first important contribution, &ldquo;On Some Modifications
+of the Electro-Magnetic Apparatus.&rdquo; Struck with the great
+improvements then recently introduced into such apparatus
+by William Sturgeon of Woolwich, he had still further
+extended their efficiency, with considerable reduction of battery-power,
+by adopting in all the experimental circuits (where
+applicable) the principle of J. S. C. Schweigger&rsquo;s &ldquo;multiplier,&rdquo;
+that is, by substituting for single wire circuits, voluminous coils
+(<i>Trans. Albany Institute</i>, 1827, 1, p. 22). In June 1828 and in
+March 1829 he exhibited before the institute small electro-magnets
+closely and repeatedly wound with silk-covered wire,
+which had a far greater lifting power than any then known.
+Henry appears to have been the first to adopt insulated or silk-covered
+wire for the magnetic coil; and also the first to employ
+what may be called the &ldquo;spool&rdquo; winding for the limbs of the
+magnet. He was also the first to demonstrate experimentally
+the difference of action between what he called a &ldquo;quantity&rdquo;
+magnet excited by a &ldquo;quantity&rdquo; battery of a single pair, and an
+&ldquo;intensity&rdquo; magnet with long fine wire coil excited by an
+&ldquo;intensity&rdquo; battery of many elements, having their resistances
+suitably proportioned. He pointed out that the latter form alone
+was applicable to telegraphic purposes. A detailed account
+of these experiments and exhibitions was not, however, published
+till 1831 (<i>Sill. Journ.</i>, 19, p. 400). Henry&rsquo;s &ldquo;quantity&rdquo; magnets
+acquired considerable celebrity at the time, from their unprecedented
+attractive power&mdash;one (August 1830) lifting 750 &#8468;,
+another (March 1831) 2300, and a third (1834) 3500.</p>
+
+<p>Early in 1831 he arranged a small office-bell to be tapped by
+the polarized armature of an &ldquo;intensity&rdquo; magnet, whose coil
+was in continuation of a mile of insulated copper wire, suspended
+about one of the rooms of his academy. This was the first
+instance of magnetizing iron at a distance, or of a suitable
+combination of magnet and battery being so arranged as to be
+capable of such action. It was, therefore, the earliest example
+of a true &ldquo;magnetic&rdquo; telegraph, all preceding experiments to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page300" id="page300"></a>300</span>
+this end having been on the galvanometer or needle principle.
+About the same time he devised and constructed the first
+electromagnetic engine with automatic polechanger (<i>Sill. Journ.</i>,
+1831, 20, p. 340; and Sturgeon&rsquo;s <i>Annals Electr.</i>, 1839, 3, p. 554).
+Early in 1832 he discovered the induction of a current on itself,
+in a long helical wire, giving greatly increased intensity of
+discharge (<i>Sill. Journ.</i>, 1832, 22, p. 408). In 1832 he was elected
+to the chair of natural philosophy in the New Jersey college
+at Princeton. In 1834 he continued and extended his researches
+&ldquo;On the Influence of a Spiral Conductor in increasing the
+Intensity of Electricity from a Galvanic Arrangement of a Single
+Pair,&rdquo; a memoir of which was read before the American Philosophical
+Society on the 5th of February 1835. In 1835 he
+combined the short circuit of his monster magnet (of 1834) with
+the small &ldquo;intensity&rdquo; magnet of an experimental telegraph
+wire, thereby establishing the fact that very powerful mechanical
+effects could be produced at a great distance by the agency
+of a very feeble magnet used as a circuit maker and breaker,
+or as a &ldquo;trigger&rdquo;&mdash;the precursor of later forms of relay and
+receiving magnets. In 1837 he paid his first visit to England
+and Europe. In 1838 he made important investigations in
+regard to the conditions and range of induction from electrical
+currents&mdash;showing that induced currents, although merely
+momentary, produce still other or tertiary currents, and thus on
+through successive orders of induction, with alternating signs,
+and with reversed initial and terminal signs. He also discovered
+similar successive orders of induction in the case of the passage
+of frictional electricity (<i>Trans. Am. Phil. Soc.</i>, 6, pp. 303-337).
+Among many minor observations, he discovered in 1842 the
+oscillatory nature of the electrical discharge, magnetizing about
+a thousand needles in the course of his experiments (<i>Proc. Am.
+Phil. Soc.</i>, 1, p. 301). He traced the influence of induction to surprising
+distances, magnetizing needles in the lower story of a
+house through several intervening floors by means of electrical
+discharges in the upper story, and also by the secondary current
+in a wire 220 ft. distant from the wire of the primary circuit.
+The five numbers of his <i>Contributions to Electricity and Magnetism</i>
+(1835-1842) were separately republished from the <i>Transactions</i>.
+In 1843 he made some interesting original observations on
+&ldquo;Phosphorescence&rdquo; (<i>Proc. Am. Phil. Soc.</i>, 3, pp. 38-44). In 1844,
+by experiments on the tenacity of soap-bubbles, he showed that
+the molecular cohesion of water is equal (if not superior) to that
+of ice, and hence, generally, that solids and their liquids have
+practically the same amount of cohesion (<i>Proc. Am. Phil. Soc.</i>, 4,
+pp. 56 and 84). In 1845 he showed, by means of a thermo-galvanometer,
+that the solar spots radiate less heat than the general
+solar surface (<i>Proc. Am. Phil. Soc.</i>, 4, pp. 173-176).</p>
+
+<p>In December 1846 Henry was elected secretary and director of
+the Smithsonian Institution, then just established. While closely
+occupied with the exacting duties of that office, he still found time
+to prosecute many original inquiries&mdash;as into the application of
+acoustics to public buildings, and the best construction and
+arrangement of lecture-rooms, into the strength of various
+building materials, &amp;c. Having early devoted much attention
+to meteorology, both in observing and in reducing and discussing
+observations, he (among his first administrative acts) organized
+a large and widespread corps of observers, and made arrangements
+for simultaneous reports by means of the electric telegraph,
+which was yet in its infancy (<i>Smithson. Report</i> for 1847, pp. 146,
+147). He was the first to apply the telegraph to meteorological
+research, to have the atmospheric conditions daily indicated
+on a large map, to utilize the generalizations made in weather
+forecasts, and to embrace a continent under a single system&mdash;British
+America and Mexico being included in the field of observation.
+In 1852, on the reorganization of the American lighthouse
+system, he was appointed a member of the new board; and
+in 1871 he became the presiding officer of the establishment&mdash;a
+position he continued to hold during the rest of his life. His
+diligent investigations into the efficiency of various illuminants
+in differing circumstances, and into the best conditions for
+developing their several maximum powers of brilliancy, while
+greatly improving the usefulness of the line of beacons along the
+extensive coast of the United States, effected at the same time
+a great economy of administration. His equally careful experiments
+on various acoustic instruments also resulted in giving to
+his country the most serviceable system of fog-signals known to
+maritime powers. In the course of these varied and prolonged
+researches from 1865 to 1877, he also made important contributions
+to the science of acoustics; and he established by several
+series of laborious observations, extending over many years and
+along a wide coast range, the correctness of G. G. Stokes&rsquo;s
+hypothesis (<i>Report Brit. Assoc.</i>, 1857, part ii. 27) that the wind
+exerts a very marked influence in refracting sound-beams.
+From 1868 Henry continued to be annually chosen as president
+of the National Academy of Sciences; and he was also president
+of the Philosophical Society of Washington from the date of its
+organization in 1871.</p>
+
+<p>Henry was by general concession the foremost of American
+physicists. He was a man of varied culture, of large breadth and
+liberality of views, of generous impulses, of great gentleness and
+courtesy of manner, combined with equal firmness of purpose and
+energy of action. He died at Washington on the 13th of May
+1878.</p>
+<div class="author">(S. F. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENRY, MATTHEW<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> (1662-1714), English nonconformist
+divine, was born at Broad Oak, a farm-house on the confines of
+Flintshire and Shropshire, on the 18th of October 1662. He
+was the son of Philip Henry, who had, two months earlier, been
+ejected by the Act of Uniformity. Unlike most of his fellow-sufferers,
+Philip Henry possessed some private means, and was
+thus enabled to give a good education to his son, who went first
+to a school at Islington, and then to Gray&rsquo;s Inn. He soon
+relinquished his legal studies for theology, and in 1687 became
+minister of a Presbyterian congregation at Chester, removing
+in 1712 to Mare Street, Hackney. Two years later (22nd of June
+1714), he died suddenly of apoplexy at Nantwich while on a
+journey from Chester to London. Henry&rsquo;s well-known <i>Exposition
+of the Old and New Testaments</i> (1708-1710) is a commentary
+of a practical and devotional rather than of a critical kind,
+covering the whole of the Old Testament, and the Gospels and
+Acts in the New. Here it was broken off by the author&rsquo;s death,
+but the work was finished by a number of ministers, and edited
+by G. Burder and John Hughes in 1811. Of no value as criticism,
+its unfailing good sense, its discriminating thought, its high moral
+tone, its simple piety and its singular felicity of practical
+application, combine with the well-sustained flow of its racy
+English style to secure for it the foremost place among works
+of its class.</p>
+
+<p>His <i>Miscellaneous Writings</i>, including a <i>Life of Mr Philip
+Henry</i>, <i>The Communicant&rsquo;s Companion</i>, <i>Directions for Daily
+Communion with God</i>, <i>A Method for Prayer</i>, <i>A Scriptural Catechism</i>,
+and numerous sermons, were edited in 1809 and in 1830.
+See biographies by W. Tong (1816), C. Chapman (1859), J. B.
+Williams (1828, new ed. 1865); and M. H. Lee&rsquo;s <i>Diaries and
+Letters of Philip Henry</i> (1883).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENRY, PATRICK<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> (1736-1799), American statesman and
+orator, was born at Studley, Hanover county, Virginia, on the
+29th of May 1736. He was the son of John Henry, a well-educated
+Scotsman, among whose relatives was the historian
+William Robertson, and who served in Virginia as county
+surveyor, colonel and judge of a county court. His mother
+was one of a family named Winston, of Welsh descent, noted for
+conversational and musical talent. At the age of ten Patrick
+was making slow progress in the study of reading, writing and
+arithmetic at a small country school, when his father became
+his tutor and taught him Latin, Greek and mathematics for
+five years, but with limited success. His school days being
+then terminated, he was employed as a store-clerk for one year.
+Within the seven years next following he failed twice as a storekeeper
+and once as a farmer; but in the meantime acquired a
+taste for reading, of history especially, and read and re-read the
+history of Greece and Rome, of England, and of her American
+colonies. Then, poor but not discouraged, he resolved to be
+a lawyer, and after reading <i>Coke upon Littleton</i> and the Virginia
+laws for a few weeks only, he strongly impressed one of his
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page301" id="page301"></a>301</span>
+examiners, and was admitted to the bar at the age of twenty-four,
+on condition that he spend more time in study before
+beginning to practise. He rapidly acquired a considerable
+practice, his fee books shewing that for the first three years he
+charged fees in 1185 cases. Then in 1763 was delivered his
+speech in &ldquo;The Parson&rsquo;s Cause&rdquo;&mdash;a suit brought by a clergyman,
+Rev. James Maury, in the Hanover County Court, to
+secure restitution for money considered by him to be due on
+account of his salary (16,000 pounds of tobacco by law) having
+been paid in money calculated at a rate less than the current
+market price of tobacco. This speech, which, according to
+reports, was extremely radical and denied the right of the king
+to disallow acts of the colonial legislature, made Henry the idol
+of the common people of Virginia and procured for him an
+enormous practice. In 1765 he was elected a member of the
+Virginia legislature, where he became in the same year the author
+of the &ldquo;Virginia Resolutions,&rdquo; which were no less than a declaration
+of resistance to the Stamp Act and an assertion of the right
+of the colonies to legislate for themselves independently of the
+control of the British parliament, and gave a most powerful
+impetus to the movement resulting in the War of Independence.
+In a speech urging their adoption appear the often-quoted
+words: &ldquo;Tarquin and Caesar had each his Brutus, Charles the
+First his Cromwell, and George the Third [here he was interrupted
+by cries of &ldquo;Treason&rdquo;] and George the Third may profit by
+their example! If <i>this</i> be treason, make the most of it.&rdquo; Until
+1775 he continued to sit in the House of Burgesses, as a leader
+during all that eventful period. He was prominent as a radical
+in all measures in opposition to the British government, and was
+a member of the first Virginia committee of correspondence.
+In 1774 and 1775 he was a delegate to the Continental Congress
+and served on three of its most important committees: that on
+colonial trade and manufactures, that for drawing up an address
+to the king, and that for stating the rights of the colonies. In
+1775, in the second revolutionary convention of Virginia, Henry,
+regarding war as inevitable, presented resolutions for arming the
+Virginia militia. The more conservative members strongly
+opposed them as premature, whereupon Henry supported them
+in a speech familiar to the American school-boy for several
+generations following, closing with the words, &ldquo;Is life so dear
+or peace so sweet as to be purchased at the price of chains and
+slavery? Forbid it, Almighty God! I know not what course
+others may take, but as for me, give me liberty or give me
+death!&rdquo; The resolutions were passed and their author was made
+chairman of the committee for which they provided. The chief
+command of the newly organized army was also given to him,
+but previously, at the head of a body of militia, he had demanded
+satisfaction for powder removed from the public store by order
+of Lord Dunmore, the royal governor, with the result that £330
+was paid in compensation. But his military appointment
+required obedience to the Committee of Public Safety, and this
+body, largely dominated by Edmund Pendleton, so restrained him
+from active service that he resigned on the 28th of February
+1776. In the Virginia convention of 1776 he favoured the
+postponement of a declaration of independence, until a firm
+union of the colonies and the friendship of France and Spain had
+been secured. In the same convention he served on the committee
+which drafted the first constitution for Virginia, and was
+elected governor of the State&mdash;to which office he was re-elected
+in 1777 and 1778, thus serving as long as the new constitution
+allowed any man to serve continuously. As governor he gave
+Washington able support and sent out the expedition under
+George Rogers Clark (<i>q.v.</i>) into the Illinois country. In 1778 he
+was chosen a delegate to Congress, but declined to serve. From
+1780 to 1784 and from 1787 to 1790 he was again a member of
+his State legislature; and from 1784 to 1786 was again governor.
+Until 1786 he was a leading advocate of a stronger central
+government but when chosen a delegate to the Philadelphia
+constitutional convention of 1787, he had become cold in the
+cause and declined to serve. Moreover, in the state convention
+called to decide whether Virginia should ratify the Federal
+Constitution he led the opposition, contending that the proposed
+Constitution, because of its centralizing character, was dangerous
+to the liberties of the country. This change of attitude is
+thought to have been due chiefly to his suspicion of the North
+aroused by John Jay&rsquo;s proposal to surrender to Spain for twenty-five
+or thirty years the navigation of the Mississippi. From
+1794 until his death he declined in succession the following
+offices: United States senator (1794), secretary of state in
+Washington&rsquo;s cabinet (1795), chief justice of the United States
+Supreme Court (1795), governor of Virginia (1796), to which
+office he had been elected by the Assembly, and envoy to France
+(1799). In 1799, however, he consented to serve again in his
+State legislature, where he wished to combat the Virginia
+Resolutions; he never took his seat, since he died, on his Red
+Hill estate in Charlotte county, Virginia, on the 6th of June of
+that year. Henry was twice married, first to Sarah Skelton, and
+second to Dorothea Spotswood Dandridge, a grand-daughter
+of Governor Alexander Spotswocd.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Moses Coit Tyler, <i>Patrick Henry</i> (Boston, 1887; new ed.,
+1899), and William Wirt Henry (Patrick Henry&rsquo;s grandson), <i>Patrick
+Henry: Life, Correspondence and Speeches</i> (New York, 1890-1891);
+these supersede the very unsatisfactory biography by William Wirt,
+<i>Sketches of the Life and Character of Patrick Henry</i> (Philadelphia,
+1817). See also George Morgan, <i>The True Patrick Henry</i> (Philadelphia,
+1907).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(N. D. M.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENRY, ROBERT<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> (1718-1790), British historian, was the
+son of James Henry, a farmer of Muirton, near Stirling. Born
+on the 18th of February 1718 he was educated at the parish
+school of St Ninians, and at the grammar school of Stirling, and,
+after completing his course at Edinburgh University, became
+master of the grammar school at Annan. In 1746 he was
+licensed to preach, and in 1748 was chosen minister of a Presbyterian
+congregation at Carlisle, where he remained until 1760,
+when he removed to a similar charge at Berwick-on-Tweed.
+In 1768 he became minister of the New Greyfriars&rsquo; Church,
+Edinburgh, and having received the degree of D.D. from Edinburgh
+University in 1771, and served as moderator of the
+general assembly of the church of Scotland in 1774, he was
+appointed one of the ministers of the Old Greyfriars&rsquo; Church,
+Edinburgh, in 1776, remaining in this charge until his death
+on the 24th of November 1790. During his residence in Berwick,
+Henry commenced his <i>History of Great Britain, written on a new
+plan</i>; but, owing to the difficulty of consulting the original
+authorities, he did not make much progress with the work until
+his removal to Edinburgh in 1768. The first five volumes
+appeared between 1771 and 1785, and the sixth, edited and
+completed by Malcolm Laing, was published three years after the
+author&rsquo;s death. A life of Henry was prefixed to this volume.
+The <i>History</i> covers the years between the Roman invasion and
+the death of Henry VIII., and the &ldquo;new plan&rdquo; is the combination
+of an account of the domestic life and commercial and social
+progress of the people with the narrative of the political events
+of each period. The work was virulently assailed by Dr Gilbert
+Stuart (1742-1786), who appeared anxious to damage the sale
+of the book; but the injury thus effected was only slight, as
+Henry received £3300 for the volumes published during his
+lifetime. In 1781, through the influence of the earl of Mansfield,
+he obtained a pension of £100 a year from the British
+government.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The <i>History of Great Britain</i> has been translated into French, and
+has passed into several English editions. An account of Stuart&rsquo;s
+attack on Henry is given in Isaac D&rsquo;Israeli&rsquo;s <i>Calamities of Authors</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENRY, VICTOR<a name="ar99a" id="ar99a"></a></span> (1850-&emsp;&emsp;), French philologist, was born
+at Colmar in Alsace. Having held appointments at Douai and
+Lille, he was appointed professor of Sanskrit and comparative
+grammar in the university of Paris. A prolific and versatile
+writer, he is probably best known by the English translations
+of his <i>Précis de Grammaire comparée de l&rsquo;anglais et de l&rsquo;allemand</i>
+and <i>Précis ... du Grec et du Latin</i>. Important works by him
+on India and Indian languages are: <i>Manuel pour étudier le
+Sanscrit vedique</i> (with A. Bergaigne, 1890); <i>Éléments de Sanscrit
+classique</i> (1902); <i>Précis de grammaire Pâlie</i> (1904); <i>Les Littératures
+de l&rsquo;Inde: Sanscrit, Pâli, Prâcrit</i> (1904); <i>La Magie dans
+l&rsquo;Inde antique</i> (1904); <i>Le Parsisme</i> (1905); <i>L&rsquo;Agnistoma</i> (1906).
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page302" id="page302"></a>302</span>
+Obscure languages (such as Innok, Quichua, Greenland) and
+local dialects (<i>Lexique étymologique du Breton moderne; Le
+Dialecte Alaman de Colmar</i>) also claimed his attention. <i>Le
+Langage Martien</i> is a curious book. It contains a discussion of
+some 40 phrases (amounting to about 300 words), which a certain
+Mademoiselle Hélène Smith (a well-known spiritualist medium
+of Geneva), while on a hypnotic visit to the planet Mars, learnt
+and repeated and even wrote down during her trance as specimens
+of a language spoken there, explained to her by a disembodied
+interpreter.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENRY, WILLIAM<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> (1775-1836), English chemist, son of
+Thomas Henry (1734-1816), an apothecary and writer on
+chemistry, was born at Manchester on the 12th of December
+1775. He began to study medicine at Edinburgh in 1795,
+taking his doctor&rsquo;s degree in 1807, but ill-health interrupted his
+practice as a physician, and he devoted his time mainly to
+chemical research, especially in regard to gases. One of his
+best-known papers (<i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1803) describes experiments
+on the quantity of gases absorbed by water at different temperatures
+and under different pressures, the conclusion he reached
+(&ldquo;Henry&rsquo;s law&rdquo;) being that &ldquo;water takes up of gas condensed
+by one, two or more additional atmospheres, a quantity which,
+ordinarily compressed, would be equal to twice, thrice, &amp;c. the
+volume absorbed under the common pressure of the atmosphere.&rdquo;
+Others of his papers deal with gas-analysis, fire-damp, illuminating
+gas, the composition of hydrochloric acid and of ammonia,
+urinary and other morbid concretions, and the disinfecting
+powers of heat. His <i>Elements of Experimental Chemistry</i> (1799)
+enjoyed considerable vogue in its day, going through 11 editions
+in 30 years. He died at Pendlebury, near Manchester, on the
+2nd of September 1836.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENRYSON, ROBERT<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1425-<i>c.</i> 1500), Scottish poet, was
+born about 1425. It has been surmised that he was connected
+with the family of Henderson of Fordell, but of this there is
+no evidence. He is described, on the title-page of the 1570
+edition of his <i>Fables</i>, as &ldquo;scholemaister of Dunfermeling,&rdquo;
+probably of the grammar-school of the Benedictine Abbey
+there. There is no record of his having studied at St Andrews,
+the only Scottish university at this time; but in 1462 a &ldquo;Master
+Robert Henryson&rdquo; is named among those incorporated in the
+recently founded university of Glasgow. It is therefore likely
+that his first studies were completed abroad, at Paris or Louvain.
+He would appear to have been in lower orders, if, in addition
+to being master of the grammar-school, he is the notary Robert
+Henryson who subscribes certain deeds in 1478. As Dunbar
+(<i>q.v.</i>) refers to him as deceased in his <i>Lament for the Makaris</i>,
+his death may be dated about 1500.</p>
+
+<p>Efforts have been made to draw up a chronology of his poems;
+but every scheme of this kind, is, in a stronger sense than in the
+case of Dunbar, mere guess-work. There are no biographical
+or bibliographical facts to guide us, and the &ldquo;internal evidence&rdquo;
+is inconclusive.</p>
+
+<p>Henryson&rsquo;s longest, and in many respects his most original
+and effective work, is his <i>Morall Fabillis of Esope</i>, a collection
+of thirteen fables, chiefly based on the versions of Anonymus,
+Lydgate and Caxton. The outstanding merit of the work
+is its freshness of treatment. The old themes are retold with
+such vivacity, such fresh lights on human character, and with
+so much local &ldquo;atmosphere,&rdquo; that they deserve the credit of
+original productions. They are certainly unrivalled in English
+fabulistic literature. The earliest available texts are the Charteris
+text printed by Lekpreuik in Edinburgh in 1570 and the
+Harleian MS. No. 3865 in the British Museum.</p>
+
+<p>In the <i>Testament of Cresseid</i> Henryson supplements Chaucer&rsquo;s
+tale of Troilus with the story of the tragedy of Cresseid. Here
+again his literary craftsmanship saves him from the disaster
+which must have overcome another poet in undertaking to continue
+the part of the story which Chaucer had intentionally
+left untold. The description of Cresseid&rsquo;s leprosy, of her meeting
+with Troilus, of his sorrow and charity, and of her death, give
+the poem a high place in writings of this <i>genre</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The poem entitled <i>Orpheus and Eurydice</i>, which is drawn from
+Boethius, contains some good passages, especially the lyrical
+lament of Orpheus, with the refrains &ldquo;Quhar art thow gane,
+my luf Erudices?&rdquo; and &ldquo;My lady quene and luf, Erudices.&rdquo;
+It is followed by a long <i>moralitas</i>, in the manner of the <i>Fables</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Thirteen shorter poems have been ascribed to Henryson.
+Of these the pastoral dialogue &ldquo;Robene and Makyne,&rdquo; perhaps
+the best known of his work, is the most successful. Its model
+may perhaps be found in the <i>pastourelles</i>, but it stands safely
+on its own merits. Unlike most of the minor poems it is independent
+of Chaucerian tradition. The other pieces deal with the
+conventional 15th-century topics: Age, Death, Hasty Credence,
+Want of Wise Men and the like. The verses entitled &ldquo;Sum
+Practysis of Medecyne,&rdquo; in which some have failed to see Henryson&rsquo;s
+hand, is an example of that boisterous alliterative burlesque
+which is represented by a single specimen in the work of the
+greatest makers, Dunbar, Douglas and Lyndsay. For this
+reason, if not for others, the difference of its manner is no argument
+against its authenticity.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The MS. authorities for the text are the Asloan, Bannatyne,
+Maitland Folio, Makculloch, Gray and Riddell. Chepman and
+Myllar&rsquo;s Prints (1508) have preserved two of the minor poems and a
+fragment of <i>Orpheus and Eurydice</i>. The first complete edition was
+prepared by David Laing (1 vol., Edinburgh, 1865). A more exhaustive
+edition in three volumes, containing all the texts, was
+undertaken by the Scottish Text Society (ed. G. Gregory Smith),
+the first volume of the text (vol. ii. of the work) appearing in 1907.
+For a critical account of Henryson, see Irving&rsquo;s <i>History of Scottish
+Poetry</i>, Henderson&rsquo;s <i>Vernacular Scottish Literature</i>, Gregory Smith&rsquo;s
+<i>Transition Period</i>, J. H. Millar&rsquo;s <i>Literary History of Scotland</i>, and
+the second volume of the <i>Cambridge History of English Literature</i>
+(1908).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(G. G. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENSCHEL, GEORGE<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Isidor Georg</span>] (1850-&emsp;&emsp;), English
+musician (naturalized 1890), of German family, was born at
+Breslau, and educated as a pianist, making his first public
+appearance in Berlin in 1862. He subsequently, however, took
+up singing, having developed a fine baritone voice; and in 1868
+he sang the part of Hans Sachs in <i>Meistersinger</i> at Munich.
+In 1877 he began a successful career in England, singing at the
+principal concerts; and in 1881 he married the American
+soprano, Lilian Bailey (d. 1901), who was associated with him
+in a number of vocal recitals. He was also prominent as a conductor,
+starting the London symphony concerts in 1886, and both
+in England and America (where he was the first conductor of
+the Boston symphony concerts, 1881) he took a leading part in
+advancing his art. He composed a number of instrumental
+works, a fine <i>Stabat Mater</i> (Birmingham festival, 1894), &amp;c.,
+and an opera, <i>Nubia</i> (Dresden, 1899).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENSELT, ADOLF VON<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> (1814-1889), German composer,
+was born at Schwabach, in Bavaria, on the 12th of May 1814.
+At three years old he began to learn the violin, and at five the
+pianoforte under Frau v. Fladt. On obtaining financial help
+from King Louis I. he went to study under Hummel in Weimar,
+and thence in 1832 to Vienna, where, besides studying composition
+under Simon Sechter, he made a great success as a concert
+pianist. In order to recruit his health he made a prolonged tour
+in 1836 through the chief German towns. In 1837 he settled
+at Breslau, where he had married, but in the following year he
+migrated to St Petersburg, where previous visits had made him
+<i>persona grata</i> at Court. He then became court pianist and
+inspector of musical studies in the Imperial Institute of Female
+Education, and was ennobled. In 1852 and again in 1867 he
+visited England, though in the latter year he made no public
+appearance. St Petersburg was his home practically until his
+death, which took place at Warmbrunn on the 10th of October
+1889. The characteristic of Henselt&rsquo;s playing was a combination
+of Liszt&rsquo;s sonority with Hummel&rsquo;s smoothness. It was full of
+poetry, remarkable for the great use he made of extended
+chords, and for his perfect technique. He excelled in his own
+works and in those of Weber and Chopin. His concerto in F
+minor is frequently played on the continent; and of his many
+valuable studies, <i>Si oiseau j&rsquo;étais</i> is very familiar. His A minor
+trio deserves to be better known. At one time Henselt was
+second to Rubinstein in the direction of the St Petersburg
+Conservatorium.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page303" id="page303"></a>303</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENSLOW, JOHN STEVENS<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> (1796-1861), English botanist
+and geologist, was born at Rochester on the 6th of February
+1796. From his father, who was a solicitor in that city, he
+imbibed a love of natural history which largely influenced his
+career. He was educated at St John&rsquo;s College, Cambridge,
+where he graduated as sixteenth wrangler in 1818, the year in
+which Sedgwick became Woodwardian professor of geology.
+He accompanied Sedgwick in 1819 during a tour in the Isle
+of Wight, and there he learned his first lessons in geology. He
+also studied chemistry under Professor James Cumming and
+mineralogy under E. D. Clarke. In the autumn of 1819 he made
+some valuable observations on the geology of the Isle of Man
+(<i>Trans. Geol. Soc.</i>, 1821), and in 1821 he investigated the geology
+of parts of Anglesey, the results being printed in the first volume
+of the <i>Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society</i> (1821),
+the foundation of which society was originated by Sedgwick
+and Henslow. Meanwhile, Henslow had studied mineralogy
+with considerable zeal, so that on the death of Clarke he was in
+1822 appointed professor of mineralogy in the university at
+Cambridge. Two years later he took holy orders. Botany, however,
+had claimed much of his attention, and to this science he
+became more and more attached, so that he gladly resigned the
+chair of mineralogy in 1825, to succeed to that of botany. As
+a teacher both in the class-room and in the field he was eminently
+successful. To him Darwin largely owed his attachment to natural
+history, and also his introduction to Captain Fitzroy of H.M.S.
+&ldquo;Beagle.&rdquo; In 1832 Henslow was appointed vicar of Cholsey-cum-Moulsford
+in Berkshire, and in 1837 rector of Hitcham in
+Suffolk, and at this latter parish he lived and laboured, endeared
+to all who knew him, until the close of his life. His energies were
+devoted to the improvement of his parishioners, but his influence
+was felt far and wide. In 1843 he discovered nodules of coprolitic
+origin in the Red Crag at Felixstowe in Suffolk, and two years
+later he called attention to those also in the Cambridge Greensand
+and remarked that they might be of use in agriculture. Although
+Henslow derived no benefit, these discoveries led to the establishment
+of the phosphate industry in Suffolk and Cambridgeshire;
+and the works proved lucrative until the introduction of foreign
+phosphates. The museum at Ipswich, which was established
+in 1847, owed much to Henslow, who was elected president in
+1850, and then superintended the arrangement of the collections.
+He died at Hitcham on the 16th of May 1861. His publications
+included <i>A Catalogue of British Plants</i> (1829; ed. 2, 1835);
+<i>Principles of Descriptive and Physiological Botany</i> (1835);
+<i>Flora of Suffolk</i> (with E. Skepper) (1860).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Memoir</i>, by the Rev. Leonard Jenyns (1862).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENSLOWE, PHILIP<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> (d. 1616), English theatrical manager,
+was the son of Edmund Henslowe of Lindfield, Sussex, master of
+the game in Ashdown Forest and Broil Park. He was originally
+a servant in the employment of the bailiff to Viscount Montague,
+whose property included Montague House in Southwark, and his
+duties led him to settle there before 1577. He subsequently
+married the bailiff&rsquo;s widow, and, with the fortune he got with her,
+he developed into a clever business man and became a considerable
+owner of Southwark property. He started his connexion
+with the stage when, on the 24th of March 1584, he bought land
+near what is now the southern end of Southwark Bridge, on
+which stood the Little Rose playhouse, afterwards rebuilt as the
+Rose. Successive companies played in it under Henslowe&rsquo;s
+financial management between 1592 and 1603. The theatre at
+Newington Butts was also under him in 1594. A share of the
+control in the Swan theatre, which like the Rose was on the
+Bankside, fell to Henslowe before the close of the 16th century.
+With the actor Edward Alleyn, who married his step-daughter
+Joan Woodward, he built in Golden Lane, Cripplegate Without,
+the Fortune Playhouse, opened in November 1600. In December
+of 1594, they had secured the Paris Garden, a place for bear-baiting,
+on the Bankside, and in 1604 they bought the office of
+master of the royal game of bears, bulls and mastiffs from the
+holder, and obtained a patent. Alleyn sold his share to Henslowe
+in February 1610, and three years later Henslowe formed a new
+partnership with Jacob Meade and built the Hope playhouse,
+designed for stage performances as well as bull and bear-baiting,
+and managed by Meade.</p>
+
+<p>In Henslowe&rsquo;s theatres were first produced many plays by the
+famous Elizabethan dramatists. What is known as &ldquo;Henslowe&rsquo;s
+Diary&rdquo; contains some accounts referring to Ashdown Forest
+between 1576 and 1581, entered by John Henslowe, while the
+later entries by Philip Henslowe from 1592 to 1609 are those
+which throw light on the theatrical matters of the time, and which
+have been subjected to much controversial criticism as a result of
+injuries done to the manuscript. &ldquo;Henslowe&rsquo;s Diary&rdquo; passed
+into the hands of Edward Alleyn, and thence into the Library of
+Dulwich College, where the manuscript remained intact for more
+than a hundred and fifty years. In 1780 Malone tried to borrow
+it, but it had been mislaid; in 1790 it was discovered and given
+into his charge. He was then at work on his <i>Variorum Shakespeare</i>.
+Malone had a transcript made of certain portions, and
+collated it with the original; and this transcript, with various
+notes and corrections by Malone, is now in the Dulwich
+Library. An abstract of this transcript he also published
+with his <i>Variorum Shakespeare</i>. The MS. of the diary was
+eventually returned to the library in 1812 by Malone&rsquo;s executor.
+In 1840 it was lent to J. P. Collier, who in 1845 printed for the
+Shakespeare Society what purported to be a full edition, but it
+was afterwards shown by G. F. Warner (<i>Catalogue</i> of the Dulwich
+Library, 1881) that a number of forged interpolations have been
+made, the responsibility for which rests on Collier.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The complicated history of the forgeries and their detection has
+been exhaustively treated in Walter W. Greg&rsquo;s edition of <i>Henslowe&rsquo;s
+Diary</i> (London, 1904; enlarged 1908).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENTY, GEORGE ALFRED<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> (1832-1902), English war-correspondent
+and author, was born at Trumpington, near
+Cambridge, in December 1832, and educated at Westminster
+School and Caius College, Cambridge. He served in the Crimea
+in the Purveyor&rsquo;s department, and after the peace filled various
+posts in the department in England and Ireland, but he found the
+routine little to his taste, and drifted into journalism for the
+London <i>Standard</i>. He volunteered as Special Correspondent for
+the Austro-Italian War of 1866, accompanied Garibaldi in his
+Tirolese Campaign, followed Lord Napier through the mountain
+gorges to Magdala, and Lord Wolseley across bush and swamp to
+Kumassi. Next he reported the Franco-German War, starved in
+Paris through the siege of the Commune, and then turned south to
+rough it in the Pyrenees during the Carlist insurrection. He was
+in Asiatic Russia at the time of the Khiva expedition, and later
+saw the desperate hand-to-hand fighting of the Turks in the
+Servian War. He found his real vocation in middle life. Invited
+to edit a magazine for boys called the <i>Union Jack</i>, he became the
+mainstay of the new periodical, to which he contributed several
+serials in succession. The stories pleased their public, and had
+ever increasing circulation in book form, until Henty became
+a name to conjure with in juvenile circles. Altogether he wrote
+about eighty of these books. Henty was an enthusiastic yachtsman,
+having spent at least six months afloat each year, and he
+died on board his yacht in Weymouth Harbour on the 16th
+of November 1902.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENWOOD, WILLIAM JORY<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> (1805-1875), English mining
+geologist, was born at Perron Wharf, Cornwall, on the 16th of
+January 1805. In 1822 he commenced work as a clerk in a mining
+office, and soon took an active interest in the working of mines
+and in the metalliferous deposits. In 1832 he was appointed to the
+office of assay-master and supervisor of tin in the duchy of
+Cornwall, a post from which he retired in 1838. Meanwhile he
+had commenced in 1826 to communicate papers on mining subjects
+to the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall, and the
+Geological Society of London, and in 1840 he was elected F.R.S.
+In 1843 he went to take charge of the Gongo-Soco mines in Brazil;
+afterwards he proceeded to India to report on certain metalliferous
+deposits for the Indian government; and in 1858, impaired in
+health, he retired and settled at Penzance. His most important
+memoirs on the metalliferous deposits of Cornwall and Devon
+were published in 1843 by the Royal Geological Society of
+Cornwall. At a much later date he communicated with enlarged
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page304" id="page304"></a>304</span>
+experience a second series of <i>Observations on Metalliferous
+Deposits, and on Subterranean Temperature</i> (reprinted from
+<i>Trans. R. Geol. Soc. Cornwall</i>, 2 vols., 1871). In 1874 he contributed
+a paper on the <i>Detrital Tin-ore of Cornwall</i> (<i>Journ. R.
+Inst. Cornwall</i>). The Murchison medal of the Geological Society
+was awarded to him in 1875, and the mineral Henwoodite was
+named after him. He died at Penzance on the 5th of August
+1875.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HENZADA,<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> a district of Lower Burma, formerly in the Pegu,
+but now in the Irrawaddy division. Area, 2870 sq. m. Pop.
+(1901) 484,558. It stretches from north to south in one vast
+plain, forming the valley of the Irrawaddy, and is divided by
+that river into two nearly equal portions. This country is
+protected from inundation by immense embankments, so that
+almost the whole area is suitable for rice cultivation. The chief
+mountains are the Arakan and Pegu Yoma ranges. The greatest
+elevation of the Arakan Yomas in Henzada, attained in the
+latitude of Myan-aung, is 4003 ft. above sea-level. Numerous
+torrents pour down from the two boundary ranges, and unite
+in the plains to form large streams, which fall into the chief
+streams of the district, which are the Irrawaddy, Hlaing and
+Bassein, all of them branches of the Irrawaddy. The forests
+comprise almost every variety of timber found in Burma.
+The bulk of the cultivation is rice, but a number of acres are
+under tobacco. The chief town of the district is <span class="sc">Henzada</span>,
+which had in 1901 a population of 24,756. It is a municipal
+town, with ten elective and three <i>ex-officio</i> members. Other
+municipal towns in the district are Zalun, with a population of
+6642; Myan-aung, with a population of 6351; and Kyangin, with
+a population of 7183, according to the 1901 census. The town
+of Lemyethna had a population of 5831. The steamers of the
+Irrawaddy Flotilla Company call at Henzada and Myan-aung.</p>
+
+<p>The district was once a portion of the Talaing kingdom of
+Pegu, afterwards annexed to the Burmese empire in 1753, and has
+no history of its own. During the second Burmese war, after
+Prome had been seized, the Burmese on the right bank of the
+Irrawaddy crossed the river and offered resistance to the British,
+but were completely routed. Meanwhile, in Tharawaddy, or
+the country east of the Irrawaddy, and in the south of Henzada,
+much disorder was caused by a revolt, the leaders of which were,
+however, defeated by the British and their gangs dispersed.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEPBURN, SIR JOHN<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1598-1636), Scottish soldier in
+the Thirty Years&rsquo; War, was a son of George Hepburn of Athelstaneford
+near Haddington. In 1620 and in the following years
+he served in Bohemia, on the lower Rhine and in the Netherlands,
+and in 1623 he entered the service of Gustavus Adolphus, who,
+two years later, appointed him colonel of a Scottish regiment
+of his army. He took part with his regiment in Gustavus&rsquo;s
+Polish wars, and in 1631, a few months before the battle of
+Breitenfeld he was placed in command of the &ldquo;Scots&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;Green&rdquo; brigade of the Swedish army. At Breitenfeld it was
+Hepburn&rsquo;s brigade which delivered the decisive stroke, and
+after this he remained with the king, who placed the fullest
+reliance on his skill and courage, until the battle of the Alte
+Veste near Nuremberg. He then entered the French service,
+and raised two thousand men in Scotland for the French army,
+to which force was added in France the historic Scottish archer
+bodyguard of the French kings. The existing Royal Scots
+(Lothian) regiment (late 1st Foot) represents in the British army
+of to-day Hepburn&rsquo;s French regiment, and indirectly, through
+the amalgamation referred to, the Scottish contingent of the
+Hundred Years&rsquo; War. Hepburn&rsquo;s claim to the right of the line
+of battle was bitterly resented by the senior French regiments.
+Shortly after this, in 1633, Hepburn was under a <i>maréchal de
+camp</i>, and he took part in the campaigns in Alsace and Lorraine
+(1634-36). In 1635 Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar, on entering the
+French service, brought with him Hepburn&rsquo;s former Swedish
+regiment, which was at once amalgamated with the French
+&ldquo;régiment d&rsquo;Hébron,&rdquo; the latter thus attaining the unusual
+strength of 8300 men. Sir John Hepburn was killed shortly
+afterwards during the siege of Saverne (Zabern) on the 8th of
+July 1636. He was buried in Toul cathedral. With his friend
+Sir Robert Monro, Hepburn was the foremost of the Scottish
+soldiers of fortune who bore so conspicuous a part in the Thirty
+Years&rsquo; War. He was a sincere Roman Catholic. It is stated
+that he left Gustavus owing to a jest about his religion, and at
+any rate he found in the French service, in which he ended his
+days, the opportunity of reconciling his beliefs with the desire
+of military glory which had led him into the Swedish army, and
+with the patriotic feeling which had first brought him out to the
+wars to fight for the Stuart princess, Queen Elizabeth of Bohemia.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See James Grant, <i>Memoirs of Sir John Hepburn</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEPHAESTION,<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> a Macedonian general, celebrated as the
+friend of Alexander the Great, who, comparing himself with
+Achilles, called Hephaestion his Patroclus. In the later campaigns
+in Bactria and India, he was entrusted with the task of
+founding cities and colonies, and built the fleet intended to sail
+down the Indus. He was rewarded with a golden crown and the
+hand of Drypetis, the sister of Alexander&rsquo;s wife Stateira (324).
+In the same year he died suddenly at Ecbatana. A general
+mourning was ordered throughout Asia; at Babylon a funeral
+pile was erected at enormous cost, and temples were built in
+his honour (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Alexander the Great</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEPHAESTION,<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> a grammarian of Alexandria, who flourished
+in the age of the Antonines. He was the author of a manual
+(abridged from a larger work in 48 books) of Greek metres
+(<span class="grk" title="Hegcheiridion peri metrôn">&#7960;&#947;&#967;&#949;&#953;&#961;&#943;&#948;&#953;&#959;&#957; &#960;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#956;&#941;&#964;&#961;&#969;&#957;</span>), which is most valuable as the
+only complete treatise on the subject that has been preserved.
+The concluding chapter (<span class="grk" title="Peri poiêmatos">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#960;&#959;&#953;&#942;&#956;&#945;&#964;&#959;&#962;</span>) discusses the various
+kinds of poetical composition. It is written in a clear and simple
+style, and was much used as a school-book.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Editions by T. Gaisford (1855, with the valuable scholia); R.
+Westphal (1886, in <i>Scriptores metrici Graeci</i>) and M. Consbruch
+(1906); translation by T. F. Barham (1843); see also W. Christ,
+<i>Gesch. der griech. Litt.</i> (1898); M. Consbruch, <i>De veterum</i> <span class="grk" title="Peri
+poiêmatos">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#960;&#959;&#953;&#942;&#956;&#945;&#964;&#959;&#962;</span> <i>doctrina</i> (1890); J. E. Sandys, <i>Hist. Class. Schol.</i> i. (1906).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEPHAESTUS,<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> in Greek mythology, the god of fire, analogous
+to, and by the ancients often confused with, the Roman god
+Vulcan (<i>q.v.</i>); the derivation of the name is uncertain, but it
+may well be of Greek origin. The elemental character of
+Hephaestus is far more apparent than is the case with the
+majority of the Olympian gods; the word Hephaestus was used
+as a synonym for fire not only in poetry (Homer, <i>Il.</i> ii. 426 and
+later), but also in common speech (Diod. v. 74). It is doubtful
+whether the origin of the god can be traced to any specific form
+of fire. As all earthly fire was thought to have come from heaven,
+Hephaestus has been identified with the lightning. This is
+supported by the myth of his fall from heaven, and by the fact
+that, according to the Homeric tradition, his father was Zeus,
+the heaven-god. On the other hand, the lightning is not
+associated with him in literature or cult, and his connexion with
+volcanic fires is so close as to suggest that he was originally a
+volcano-god. The connexion, however, though it may be early,
+is probably not primitive, and it seems reasonable to conclude
+that Hephaestus was a general fire-god, though some of his
+characteristics were due to particular manifestations of the
+element.</p>
+
+<p>In Homer the fire-god was the son of Zeus and Hera, and
+found a place in the Olympian system as the divine smith. The
+<i>Iliad</i> contains two versions of his fall from heaven. In one
+account (i. 590) he was cast out by Zeus and fell on Lemnos;
+in the other, Hera threw him down immediately after his birth
+in disgust at his lameness, and he was received by the sea-goddesses
+Eurynome and Thetis. The Lemnian version is due to
+the prominence of his cult at Lemnos in very early times; and
+his fall into the sea may have been suggested by volcanic
+activity in Mediterranean islands, as at Lipara and Thera.
+The subsequent return of Hephaestus to Olympus is a favourite
+theme in early art. His wife was Charis, one of the Graces
+(in the <i>Iliad</i>) or Aphrodite (in the <i>Odyssey</i>). The connexion of
+the rough Hephaestus with these goddesses is curious; it may
+be due to the beautiful works of the smith-god (<span class="grk" title="charienta erga">&#967;&#945;&#961;&#953;&#941;&#957;&#964;&#945; &#7956;&#961;&#947;&#945;</span>),
+but it is possibly derived from the supposed fertilizing and
+productive power of fire, in which case Hephaestus is a natural
+mate of Charis, a goddess of spring, and Aphrodite the goddess
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page305" id="page305"></a>305</span>
+of love. In Homer, the skill of Hephaestus in metallurgy is
+often mentioned; his forge was on Olympus, where he was
+served by images of golden handmaids which he had animated.
+Similar myths are found in relation to the Finnish smith-god
+Ilmarinen, who made a golden woman, and the Teutonic Wieland;
+a belief in the magical power of metal-workers is a common
+survival from an age in which their art was new and mysterious.
+In epic poetry Hephaestus is rather a comic figure, and his
+limping gait provokes &ldquo;Homeric laughter&rdquo; among the gods.
+In Vedic poetry Agni, the fire-god, is footless; and the ancients
+themselves attributed this lameness to the crooked appearance
+of flame (Servius on <i>Aen.</i> viii. 814), and possibly no better
+explanation can be found, though it has been suggested that in
+an early stage of society the trade of a smith would be suitable
+for the lame; Hephaestus and the lame Wieland would thus
+conform to the type of their human counterparts.</p>
+
+<p>Except in Lemnos and Attica, there are few indications of
+any cult of Hephaestus. His association with Lemnos can be
+traced from Homer to the Roman age. A town in the island was
+called Hephaestia, and the functions of the god must have been
+wide, as we are told that his Lemnian priests could cure snake-bites.
+Once a year every fire was extinguished on the island for
+nine days, during which period sacrifice was offered to the gods
+of the underworld and the dead. After the nine days were passed,
+new fire was brought from the sacred hearth at Delos. The
+significance of this and similar customs is examined by J. G.
+Frazer, <i>Golden Bough</i>, iii. ch. 4. The close connexion of
+Hephaestus with Lemnos and especially with its mountain
+Mosychlus has been explained by the supposed existence of a
+volcano; but no crater or other sign of volcanic agency is now
+apparent, and the &ldquo;Lemnian fire&rdquo;&mdash;a phenomenon attributed
+to Hephaestus&mdash;may have been due to natural gas (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lemnos</a></span>).
+In Sicily, however, the volcanic nature of the god is prominent
+in his cult at Etna, as well as in the neighbouring Liparaean
+isles. The Olympian forge had been transferred to Etna or
+some other volcano, and Hephaestus had become a subterranean
+rather than a celestial power.</p>
+
+<p>The divine smith naturally became a &ldquo;culture-god&rdquo;; in
+Crete the invention of forging in iron was attributed to him,
+and he was honoured by all metal-workers. But we have little
+record of his cult in this aspect, except at Athens, where his
+worship was of real importance, belonging to the oldest stratum
+of Attic religion. A tribe was called after his name, and Erichthonius,
+the mythical father of the Attic people, was the son of
+Hephaestus. Terra-cotta statuettes of the god seem to have been
+placed before the hearths of Athenian houses. This temple has
+been identified, not improbably, with the so-called &ldquo;Theseum&rdquo;;
+it contained a statue of Athena, and the two deities are often
+associated, in literature and cult, as the joint givers of civilization
+to the Athenians. The class of artisans was under their special
+protection; and the joint festival of the two divinities&mdash;the
+Chalceia&mdash;commemorated the invention of bronze-working by
+Hephaestus. In the Hephaesteia (the particular festival of the
+god) there was a torch race, a ceremonial not indeed confined
+to fire-gods like Hephaestus and Prometheus, but probably
+in its origin connected with them, whether its object was to
+purify and quicken the land, or (according to another theory)
+to transmit a new fire with all possible speed to places where the
+fire was polluted. If the latter view is correct, the torch race
+would be closely akin to the Lemnian fire-ritual which has been
+mentioned. The relation between Hephaestus and Prometheus
+is in some respects close, though the distinction between these
+gods is clearly marked. The fire, as an element, belongs to the
+Olympian Hephaestus; the Titan Prometheus, a more human
+character, steals it for the use of man. Prometheus resembles
+the Polynesian Maui, who went down to fetch fire from the
+volcano of Mahuika, the fire-god. Hephaestus is a culture-god
+mainly in his secondary aspect as the craftsman, whereas
+Prometheus originates all civilization with the gift of fire. But
+the importance of Prometheus is mainly mythological; the
+Titan belonged to a fallen dynasty, and in actual cult was largely
+superseded by Hephaestus.</p>
+
+<p>In archaic art Hephaestus is generally represented as bearded,
+though occasionally a younger beardless type is found, as on a
+vase (in the British Museum), on which he appears as a young
+man assisting Athena in the creation of Pandora. At a later
+time the bearded type prevails. The god is usually clothed in a
+short sleeveless tunic, and wears a round close-fitting cap. His
+face is that of a middle-aged man, with unkempt hair. He is
+in fact represented as an idealized Greek craftsman, with the
+hammer, and sometimes the pincers. Some mythologists have
+compared the hammer of Hephaestus with that of Thor, and
+have explained it as the emblem of a thunder-god; but it is
+Zeus, not Hephaestus, who causes the thunder, and the emblems
+of the latter god are merely the signs of his occupation as a
+smith. In art no attempt was made, as a rule, to indicate the
+lameness of Hephaestus; but one sculptor (Alcamenes) is said
+to have suggested the deformity without spoiling the statue.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;L. Preller (ed. C. Robert), <i>Griech. Mythologie</i>,
+i. 174 f. (Berlin, 1894); W. H. Roscher, <i>Lex. der griech. u. röm.
+Mythologie</i>, s.v. &ldquo;Hephaistos&rdquo; (Leipzig, 1884-1886); Harrison,
+<i>Myth. and Mon. of Ancient Athens</i>, p. 119 f. (London, 1890); O.
+Gruppe, <i>Griech. Mythologie u. Religionsgesch.</i> p. 1304 f. (Munich,
+1906); O. Schrader and F. B. Jevons, <i>Prehistoric Antiquities of the
+Aryan People</i>, p. 161, &amp;c. (London, 1890); L. R. Farnell, <i>Cults of the
+Greek States</i>, v. (1909).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. E. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEPPENHEIM,<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of
+Hesse-Darmstadt, on the Bergstrasse, between Darmstadt
+and Heidelberg, 21 m. N. of the latter by rail. Pop. (1905), 6364.
+It possesses a parish church, occupying the site of one reputed to
+have been built by Charlemagne about 805, an interesting town
+hall and several schools. On an isolated hill close by stand the
+extensive ruins of the castle of Starkenburg, built by the abbot,
+Ulrich von Lorsch, about 1064 and destroyed during the Seven
+Years&rsquo; War, and another hill, the Landberg, was a place of
+assembly in the middle ages. Heppenheim, at first the property
+of the abbey of Lorsch, became a town in 1318. After belonging
+to the Rhenish Palatinate, it came into the possession of Hesse-Darmstadt
+in 1803. Hops, wine and tobacco are grown, and
+there are large stone quarries, and several small industries
+in the town.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEPPLEWHITE, GEORGE<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> (d. 1786), one of the most famous
+English cabinet-makers of the 18th century. There is practically
+no biographical material relating to Hepplewhite. The only
+facts that are known with certainty are that he was apprenticed
+to Gillow at Lancaster, that he carried on business in the parish
+of Saint Giles, Cripplegate, and that administration of his estate
+was granted to his widow Alice on the 27th of June 1786. The
+administrator&rsquo;s accounts, which were filed in the Prerogative
+Court of Canterbury a year later, indicate that his property was
+of considerable value. After his death the business was continued
+by his widow under the style of A. Hepplewhite &amp; Co. Our only
+approximate means of identifying his work are <i>The Cabinet-Maker
+and Upholsterer&rsquo;s Guide</i>, which was first published in
+1788, two years after his death, and ten designs in <i>The Cabinet-maker&rsquo;s
+London Book of Prices</i> (1788), issued by the London
+Society of Cabinet-Makers. It is, however, exceedingly difficult
+to earmark any given piece of furniture as being the actual work
+or design of Hepplewhite, since it is generally recognized that to
+a very large extent the name represents rather a fashion than
+a man. Lightness, delicacy and grace are the distinguishing
+characteristics of Hepplewhite work. The massiveness of
+Chippendale had given place to conceptions that, especially in
+regard to chairs&mdash;which had become smaller as hoops went out
+of fashion&mdash;depended for their effect more upon inlay than upon
+carving. In one respect at least the Hepplewhite style was
+akin to that of Chippendale&mdash;in both cases the utmost ingenuity
+was lavished upon the chair, and if Hepplewhite was not the
+originator he appears to have been the most constant and successful
+user of the shield back. This elegant form was employed by
+the school in a great variety of designs, and nearly always in
+a way artistically satisfying. Where Chippendale, his contemporaries
+and his immediate successors had used the cabriole
+and the square leg with a good deal of carving, the Hepplewhite
+manner preferred a slighter leg, plain, fluted or reeded, tapering to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page306" id="page306"></a>306</span>
+a spade foot which often became the &ldquo;spider leg&rdquo; that characterized
+much of the late 18th-century furniture; this form of leg
+was indeed not confined to chairs but was used also for tables
+and sideboards. Of the dainty drawing-room grace of the style
+there can be no question. The great majority of modern chairs
+are of Hepplewhite inspiration, while he, or those who worked
+with him, appears to have a clear claim to have originated, or
+at all events popularized, the winged easy-chair, in which the
+sides are continued to the same height as the back. This is
+probably the most comfortable type of chair that has ever been
+made. The backs of Hepplewhite chairs were often adorned
+with galleries and festoons of wheat-ears or pointed fern leaves,
+and not infrequently with the prince of Wales&rsquo;s feathers in some
+more or less decorative form. The frequency with which this
+badge was used has led to the suggestion either that A. Hepplewhite
+&amp; Co. were employed by George IV. when prince of Wales,
+or that the feathers were used as a political emblem. The former
+suggestion is obviously the more feasible, but there is little doubt
+that the feathers were used by other makers working in the same
+style. It has been objected as an artistic flaw in Hepplewhite&rsquo;s
+chairs that they have the appearance of fragility. They are,
+however, constructionally sound as a rule. The painted and
+japanned work has been criticized on safer grounds. This
+delicate type of furniture, often made of satinwood, and painted
+with wreaths and festoons, with amorini and musical instruments
+or floral motives, is the most elegant and pleasing that can be
+imagined. It has, however, no elements of decorative permanence.
+With comparatively little use the paintings wear off
+and have to be renewed. A piece of untouched painted satinwood
+is almost unknown, and one of the essential charms of
+old furniture as of all other antiques is that it should retain the
+patina of time. A large proportion of Hepplewhite furniture
+is inlaid with the exotic woods which had come into high favour
+by the third quarter of the 18th century. While the decorative
+use upon furniture of so evanescent a medium as paint is always
+open to criticism, any form of marquetry is obviously legitimate,
+and, if inlaid furniture be less ravishing to the eye, its beauty
+is but enhanced by time. It was not in chairs alone that
+the Hepplewhite manner excelled. It acquired, for instance, a
+speciality of seats for the tall, narrow Georgian sash windows,
+which in the Hepplewhite period had almost entirely superseded
+the more picturesque forms of an earlier time. These window-seats
+had ends rolling over outwards, and no backs, and despite
+their skimpiness their elegant simplicity is decidedly pleasing.
+Elegance, in fact, was the note of a style which on the whole was
+more distinctly English than that which preceded or immediately
+followed it. The smaller Hepplewhite pieces are much prized
+by collectors. Among these may be included urn-shaped knife-boxes
+in mahogany and satinwood, charming in form and
+decorative in the extreme; inlaid tea-caddies, varying greatly
+in shape and material, but always appropriate and <i>coquet</i>;
+delicate little fire-screens with shaped poles; painted work-tables,
+and inlaid stands. Hepplewhite&rsquo;s bedsteads with carved
+and fluted pillars were very handsome and attractive. The
+evolution of the dining-room sideboard made rapid progress
+towards the end of the 18th century, but neither Hepplewhite
+nor those who worked in his style did much to advance it. Indeed
+they somewhat retarded its development by causing it to revert
+to little more than that side-table which had been its original
+form. It was, however, a very delightful table with its undulating
+front, its many elegant spade-footed legs and its delicate
+carving. If we were dealing with a less elusive personality it
+would be just to say that Hepplewhite&rsquo;s work varies from the
+extreme of elegance and the most delicious simplicity to an
+unimaginative commonplace, and sometimes to actual ugliness.
+As it is, this summary may well be applied to the style as a whole&mdash;a
+style which was assuredly not the creation of any one man,
+but owed much alike of excellence and of defect to a school
+of cabinet-makers who were under the influence of conflicting
+tastes and changing ideals. At its best the taste was so fine and
+so full of distinction, so simple, modest and sufficient, that it
+amounted to genius. On its lower planes it was clearly influenced
+by commercialism and the desire to make what tasteless people
+preferred. Yet this is no more than to say that the Hepplewhite
+style succumbed sometimes, perhaps very often, to the eternal
+enemy of all art&mdash;the uninspired banality of the average
+man.</p>
+<div class="author">(J. P.-B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEPTARCHY<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="hepta">&#7953;&#960;&#964;&#940;</span>, seven, and <span class="grk" title="archê">&#7936;&#961;&#967;&#942;</span>, rule), a word
+which is frequently used to designate the period of English
+history between the coming of the Anglo-Saxons in 449 and the
+union of the kingdoms under Ecgbert in 828. It was first used
+during the 16th century because of the belief held by Camden
+and other older historians, that during this period there were
+exactly seven kingdoms in England, these being Northumbria,
+Mercia, East Anglia, Essex, Kent, Sussex and Wessex. This
+belief is erroneous, as the number of kingdoms varied considerably
+from time to time; nevertheless the word still serves a
+useful purpose to denote the period.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERA,<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> in Greek mythology, the sister and wife of Zeus and
+queen of the Olympian gods; she was identified by the Romans
+with Juno. The derivation of the name is obscure, but there
+is no reason to doubt that she was a genuine Greek deity. There
+are no signs of Oriental influence in her cults, except at Corinth,
+where she seems to have been identified with Astarte. It is
+probable that she was originally a personification of some department
+of nature; but the traces of her primitive significance are
+vague, and have been interpreted to suit various theories. Some
+of the ancients connected her with the earth; Plato, followed
+by the Stoics, derived her name from <span class="grk" title="aêr">&#7936;&#942;&#961;</span>, the air. Both theories
+have been revived in modern times, the former notably by F. G.
+Welcker, the latter by L. Preller. A third view, that Hera is
+the moon, is held by W. H. Roscher and others. Of these
+explanations, that advanced by Preller has little to commend it,
+even if, with O. Gruppe, we understand the air-goddess as a
+storm deity; some of the arguments in support of the two other
+theories will be examined in this article.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever may have been the origin of Hera, to the historic
+Greeks (except a few poets or philosophers) she was a purely
+anthropomorphic goddess, and had no close relation to any
+province of nature. In literature, from the times of Homer
+and Hesiod, she played an important part, appearing most
+frequently as the jealous and resentful wife of Zeus. In this
+character she pursues with vindictive hatred the heroines, such
+as Alcmene, Leto and Semele, who were beloved by Zeus. She
+visits his sins upon the children born of his intrigues, and is
+thus the constant enemy of Heracles and Dionysus. This character
+of the offended wife was borrowed by later poets from the
+Greek epic; but it belongs to literature rather than to cult, in
+which the dignity and power of the goddess is naturally more
+emphasized.</p>
+
+<p>The worship of Hera is found, in different degrees of prominence,
+throughout the Greek world. It was especially important
+in the ancient Achaean centres, Argos, Mycenae and Sparta,
+which she claims in the <i>Iliad</i> (iv. 51) as her three dearest cities.
+Whether Hera was also worshipped by the early Dorians is uncertain;
+after the Dorian invasion she remained the chief deity of
+Argos, but her cult at Sparta was not so conspicuous. She received
+honour, however, in other parts of the Peloponnese, particularly
+in Olympia, where her temple was the oldest, and in Arcadia.
+In several Boeotian cities she seems to have been one of the
+principal objects of worship, while the neighbouring island of
+Euboea probably derived its name from a title of Hera, who
+was &ldquo;rich in cows&rdquo; (<span class="grk" title="Euboia">&#917;&#8020;&#946;&#959;&#953;&#945;</span>). Among the islands of the Aegean,
+Samos was celebrated for the cult of Hera; according to the
+local tradition, she was born in the island. As Hera Lacinia
+(from her Lacinian temple near Croton) she was extensively
+worshipped in Magna Graecia.</p>
+
+<p>The connexion of Zeus and Hera was probably not primitive,
+since Dione seems to have preceded Hera as the wife of Zeus
+at Dodona. The origin of the connexion may possibly be due
+to the fusion of two &ldquo;Pelasgic&rdquo; tribes, worshipping Zeus and
+Hera respectively; but speculation on the earliest cult of the
+goddess, before she became the wife of Zeus, must be largely
+conjectural. The close relation of the two deities appears in a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page307" id="page307"></a>307</span>
+frequent community of altars and sacrifices, and also in the
+<span class="grk" title="hieros gamos">&#7985;&#949;&#961;&#8056;&#962; &#947;&#940;&#956;&#959;&#962;</span>, a dramatic representation of their sacred marriage.
+The festival, which was certainly ancient, was held not only
+in Argos, Samos, Euboea and other centres of Hera-worship,
+but also in Athens, where the goddess was obscured by the
+predominance of Athena. The details of the <span class="grk" title="hieros gamos">&#7985;&#949;&#961;&#8056;&#962; &#947;&#940;&#956;&#959;&#962;</span> may
+have varied locally, but the main idea of the ritual was the same.
+In the Daedala, as the festival was called at Plataea, an effigy
+was made from an oak-tree, dressed in bridal attire, and carried
+in a cart with a woman who acted as bridesmaid. The image
+was called Daedale, and the ritual was explained by a myth:
+Hera had left Zeus in her anger; in order to win her back,
+Zeus announced that he was about to marry, and dressed up a
+puppet to imitate a bride; Hera met the procession, tore the
+veil from the false bride, and, on discovering the ruse, became
+reconciled to her husband. The image was put away after each
+occasion; every sixty years a large number of such images,
+which had served in previous celebrations, were carried in
+procession to the top of Mount Cithaeron, and were burned on
+an altar together with animals and the altar itself. As Frazer
+notes (<i>Golden Bough</i>,² i. 227), this festival appears to belong
+to the large class of mimetic charms designed to quicken the
+growth of vegetation; the marriage of Zeus and Hera would
+in this case represent the union of the king and queen of May.
+But it by no means follows that Hera was therefore originally
+a goddess of the earth or of vegetation. When the real nature
+of the ritual had become lost or obscured, it was natural to
+explain it by the help of an aetiological myth; in European
+folklore, images, corresponding to those burnt at the Daedala,
+were sometimes called Judas Iscariot or Luther (<i>Golden Bough</i>,²
+iii. 315). At Samos the <span class="grk" title="hieros gamos">&#7985;&#949;&#961;&#8056;&#962; &#947;&#940;&#956;&#959;&#962;</span> was celebrated annually;
+the image of Hera was concealed on the sea-shore and solemnly
+discovered. This rite seems to reflect an actual custom of
+abduction; or it may rather refer to the practice of intercourse
+between the betrothed before marriage. Such intercourse was
+sanctioned by the Samians, who excused it by the example of
+Zeus and Hera (schol. on <i>Il.</i> xiv. 296). There is nothing in the
+Samian <span class="grk" title="hieros gamos">&#7985;&#949;&#961;&#8056;&#962; &#947;&#940;&#956;&#959;&#962;</span> to suggest a marriage of heaven and earth,
+or of two vegetation-spirits; as Dr Farnell points out, the
+ritual appears to explain the custom of human nuptials. The
+sacred marriage, therefore, though connected with vegetation
+at the Daedala, was not necessarily a vegetation-charm in its
+origin; consequently, it does not prove that Hera was an earth-goddess
+or tree-spirit. It is at least remarkable that, except
+at Argos, Hera had little to do with agriculture, and was not
+closely associated with such deities as Cybele, Demeter, Persephone
+and Dionysus, whose connexion with the earth, or with
+its fruits, is beyond doubt.</p>
+
+<p>In her general cult Hera was worshipped in two main capacities:
+(1) as the consort of Zeus and queen of heaven; (2) as
+the goddess who presided over marriage, and, in a wider sense,
+over the various phases of a woman&rsquo;s life. Dionysius of Halicarnassus
+(<i>Ars rhet.</i> ii. 2) calls Zeus and Hera the first wedded
+pair, and a sacrifice to Zeus <span class="grk" title="teleios">&#964;&#941;&#955;&#949;&#953;&#959;&#962;</span> and Hera <span class="grk" title="teleia">&#964;&#949;&#955;&#949;&#943;&#945;</span> was a
+regular feature of the Greek wedding. Girls offered their hair
+or veils to Hera before marriage. In Aristophanes (<i>Thesm.</i> 973)
+she &ldquo;keeps the keys of wedlock.&rdquo; The marriage-goddess
+naturally became the protector of women in childbed, and bore
+the title of the birth-goddess (Eileithyia), at Argos and Athens.
+In Homer (<i>Il.</i> xi. 270) and Hesiod (<i>Theog.</i> 922) she is the mother
+of the Eileithyiae, or the single Eileithyia. Her cult-titles
+<span class="grk" title="parthenos">&#960;&#945;&#961;&#952;&#941;&#957;&#959;&#962;</span> (or <span class="grk" title="pais">&#960;&#945;&#8150;&#962;</span>), <span class="grk" title="teleia">&#964;&#949;&#955;&#949;&#943;&#945;</span> and <span class="grk" title="chêra">&#967;&#942;&#961;&#945;</span> the &ldquo;maiden,&rdquo; &ldquo;wife,&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;widow&rdquo; (or &ldquo;divorced&rdquo;) have been interpreted as
+symbolical of the earth in spring, summer, and winter; but they
+may well express the different conditions in the lives of her
+human worshippers. The Argives believed that Hera recovered
+her virginity every year by bathing in a certain spring (Paus.
+viii. 22, 2), a belief which probably reflects the custom of ceremonial
+purification after marriage (see Frazer, <i>Adonis</i>, p. 176).
+Although Hera was not the bestower of feminine charm to the
+same extent as Aphrodite, she was the patron of a contest
+for beauty in a Lesbian festival (<span class="grk" title="kallisteia">&#954;&#945;&#955;&#955;&#953;&#963;&#964;&#949;&#8150;&#945;</span>). This intimate
+relation with women has been held a proof that Hera was
+originally a moon-goddess, as the moon is often thought to
+influence childbirth and other aspects of feminine life. But
+Hera&rsquo;s patronage of women, though undoubtedly ancient, is
+not necessarily primitive. Further, the Greeks themselves,
+who were always ready to identify Artemis with the moon,
+do not seem to have recognized any lunar connexion in
+Hera.</p>
+
+<p>Among her particular worshippers, at Argos and Samos,
+Hera was much more than the queen of heaven and the marriage-goddess.
+As the patron of these cities (<span class="grk" title="poliouchos">&#960;&#959;&#955;&#953;&#959;&#8166;&#967;&#959;&#962;</span>) she held a
+place corresponding to that of Athena in Athens. The Argives
+are called &ldquo;the people of Hera&rdquo; by Pindar; the Heraeum,
+situated under a mountain significantly called Mt. Euboea,
+was the most important temple in Argolis. Here the agricultural
+character of her ritual is well marked; the first oxen used in
+ploughing were, according to an Argive myth, dedicated to her
+as <span class="grk" title="zeuxidia">&#950;&#949;&#965;&#958;&#953;&#948;&#943;&#945;</span>; and the sprouting ears of corn were called &ldquo;the
+flowers of Hera.&rdquo; She was worshipped as the goddess of flowers
+(<span class="grk" title="antheia">&#7936;&#957;&#952;&#949;&#943;&#945;</span>); girls served in her temple under the name of &ldquo;flower-bearers,&rdquo;
+and a flower festival (<span class="grk" title="Hêrosantheia, Hêroanthia">&#7976;&#961;&#959;&#963;&#945;&#957;&#952;&#949;&#943;&#945;, &#7976;&#961;&#959;&#940;&#957;&#952;&#953;&#945;</span>) was
+celebrated by Peloponnesian women in spring. These rites
+recall our May day observance, and give colour to the earth-goddess
+theory. On the other hand it must be remembered that
+the patron deity of a Greek state had very wide functions; and
+it is not surprising to find that Hera (whatever her origin may
+have been) assumed an agricultural character among her own
+people whose occupations were largely agricultural. So, although
+the warlike character of Hera was not elsewhere prominent,
+she assumed a militant aspect in her two chief cities; a festival
+called the Shield (<span class="grk" title="aspis">&#7936;&#963;&#960;&#943;&#962;</span>, in Pindar <span class="grk" title="agôn chalkeos">&#7936;&#947;&#8060;&#957; &#967;&#940;&#955;&#954;&#949;&#959;&#962;</span>) was part of the
+Argive cult, and there was an armed procession in her honour
+at Samos. The city-goddess, whether Hera or Athena, must be
+chief alike in peace and war.</p>
+
+<p>The cow was the animal specially sacred to Hera both in ritual
+and in mythology. The story of Io, metamorphosed into a cow,
+is familiar; she was priestess of Hera, and was originally, no
+doubt, a form of the goddess herself. The Homeric epithet
+<span class="grk" title="boôpis">&#946;&#959;&#8182;&#960;&#953;&#962;</span> may have meant &ldquo;cow-faced&rdquo; to the earliest worshippers
+of Hera, though by Homer and the later Greeks it was understood
+as &ldquo;large-eyed,&rdquo; like the cow. A car drawn by oxen seems to
+have been widely used in the processions of Hera, and the cow
+was her most frequent sacrifice. The origin of Hera&rsquo;s association
+with the cow is uncertain, but there is no need to see in it, with
+Roscher, a symbol of the moon. The cuckoo was also sacred
+to Hera, who, according to the Argive legend, was wooed by
+Zeus in the form of the bird. In later times the peacock, which
+was still unfamiliar to the Greeks in the 5th century, was her
+favourite, especially at Samos.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest recorded images of Hera preceded the rise of
+Greek sculpture; a log at Thespiae, a plank at Samos, a pillar
+at Argos served to represent the goddess. In the archaic period
+of sculpture the <span class="grk" title="xoanon">&#958;&#972;&#945;&#957;&#959;&#957;</span> or wooden statue of the Samian Hera
+by Smilis was famous. In the first half of the 5th century the
+sacred marriage was represented on an extant metope from a
+temple at Selinus. The most celebrated statue of Hera was the
+chryselephantine work of Polyclitus, made for the Heraeum at
+Argos soon after 423 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> It is fully described by Pausanias,
+who says that Hera was seated on a throne, wearing a crown
+(<span class="grk" title="stephanos">&#963;&#964;&#941;&#966;&#945;&#957;&#959;&#962;</span>), and carrying a sceptre in one hand and a pomegranate
+in the other. Various ancient writers testify to the beauty and
+dignity of the statue, which was considered equal to the Zeus
+of Pheidias. Polyclitus seems to have fixed the type of Hera
+as a youthful matron, but unfortunately the exact character
+of her head cannot be determined. A majestic and rather
+severe beauty marks the conception of Hera in later art, of
+which the Farnese bust at Naples and the Ludovisi Hera are
+the most conspicuous examples.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;F. G. Welcker, <i>Griech. Götterl.</i> i. 362 f.
+(Göttingen, 1857-1863); L. Preller (ed. C. Robert), <i>Griech. Mythologie</i>,
+i. 160 f. (Berlin, 1894); W. H. Roscher, <i>Lex. der griech. u.
+röm. Mythologie</i>, s.v. (Leipzig, 1884); C. Daremberg and E. Saglio,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page308" id="page308"></a>308</span>
+<i>Dict. des ant. grecques et rom.</i> s.v. &ldquo;Juno&rdquo; (Paris, 1877); L. R.
+Farnell, <i>Cults of the Greek States</i>, i. 179 f. (Oxford, 1896); A. B.
+Cook in <i>Class. Rev.</i> xx. 365 f. 416 f.; O. Gruppe, <i>Griech. Mythologie
+u. Religionsgesch.</i> p. 1121 f. (Munich, 1903). In the article
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek Art</a></span>, fig. 24, will be found a roughly executed head of Hera,
+from the pediment of the treasury of the Megarians.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. E. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERACLEA,<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> the name of a large number of ancient cities
+founded by the Greeks.</p>
+
+<p>1. <span class="sc">Heraclea</span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="Hêrakleia">&#7977;&#961;&#940;&#954;&#955;&#949;&#953;&#945;</span>), an ancient city of Lucania,
+situated near the modern Policoro, 3 m. from the coast of the gulf
+of Tarentum, between the rivers Aciris (Agri) and Siris (Sinni)
+about 13 m. S.S.W. of Metapontum. It was a Greek colony
+founded by the Tarentines and Thurians in 432 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, the former
+being predominant. It was chosen as the meeting-place of the
+general assembly of the Italiot Greeks, which Alexander of
+Epirus, after his alienation from Tarentum, tried to transfer to
+Thurii. Here Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, defeated the consul
+Laevinus in 280 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, after he had crossed the river Siris. In
+278 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, or possibly in 282 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, probably in order to detach it
+from Tarentum, the Romans made a special treaty with Heraclea,
+on such favourable terms that in 89 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the Roman citizenship
+given to the inhabitants by the Lex Plautia Papiria was only
+accepted after considerable hesitation. We hear that Heraclea
+surrendered under compulsion to Hannibal in 212 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and that
+in the Social war the public records were destroyed by fire.
+Cicero in his defence of the poet Archias, an adopted citizen of
+Heraclea, speaks of it as a flourishing town. As a consequence
+of its having accepted Roman citizenship, it became a <i>municipium</i>;
+part of a copy of the Lex Iulia Municipalis of 46 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (engraved
+on the back of two bronze tablets, on the front of which is a Greek
+inscription of the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> defining the boundaries of
+lands belonging to various temples), which was found between
+Heraclea and Metapontum, is of the highest importance for our
+knowledge of that law. It was still a place of some importance
+under the empire; a branch road from Venusia joined the coast
+road here. The circumstances of its destruction and abandonment
+was unknown; the site is now marked by a few heaps of
+ruins. Its medieval representative was Anglona, once a bishopric,
+but now itself a heap of ruins, among which are those of an
+11th-century church.</p>
+
+<p>2. <span class="sc">Heraclea Minoa</span>, an ancient town on the south coast of
+Sicily, at the mouth of the river Halycus, near the modern
+Montallegro, some 20 m. N.W. of Girgenti. It was at first an
+outpost of Selinus (Herod. v. 46), then overthrown by Carthage,
+later a border town of Agrigentum. It passed into Carthaginian
+hands by the treaty of 405 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, was won back by Dionysius in
+his first Punic war, but recovered by Carthage in 383. From this
+date onwards coins bearing its Semitic name, <i>Ras Melkart</i>,
+become common, and it was obviously an important border
+fortress. It was here that Dion landed in 357 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, when he
+attacked Syracuse. The Agrigentines won it back in 309, but
+it soon fell under the power of Agathocles. It was temporarily
+recovered for Greece by Pyrrhus.</p>
+<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>
+
+<p>3. <span class="sc">Heraclea Pontica</span> (mod. <i>Bender Eregli</i>), an ancient city
+on the coast of Bithynia in Asia Minor, at the mouth of the
+Kilijsu. It was founded by a Megarian colony, which soon
+subjugated the native Mariandynians and extended its power
+over a considerable territory. The prosperity of the city, rudely
+shaken by the Galatians and the Bithynians, was utterly
+destroyed in the Mithradatic war. It was the birthplace of
+Heraclides Ponticus. The modern town is best known for its
+lignite coal-mines, from which Constantinople receives a good
+part of its supply.</p>
+
+<p>4. <span class="sc">Heraclea Sintica</span>, a town in Thracian Macedonia, to the
+south of the Strymon, the site of which is marked by the village
+of Zervokhori, and identified by the discovery of local coins.</p>
+
+<p>5. <span class="sc">Heraclea</span>, a town on the borders of Caria and Ionia, near
+the foot of Mount Latmus. In its neighbourhood was the
+burial cave of Endymion.</p>
+
+<p>6. <span class="sc">Heraclea-Cybistra</span> (mod. <i>Eregli</i> in the vilayet of Konia),
+under the name Cybistra, had some importance in Hellenistic
+times owing to its position near the point where the road to the
+Cilician Gates enters the hills. It lay in the way of armies and was
+more than once sacked by the Arab invaders of Asia Minor
+(<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 805 and 832). It became Turkish (Seljuk) in the 11th
+century. Modern Eregli had grown from a large village to a
+town since the railway reached it from Konia and Karaman
+in 1904; and it has now an hotel and good shops. Three hours&rsquo;
+ride S. is the famous &ldquo;Hittite&rdquo; rock-relief of Ivriz, representing
+a king (probably of neighbouring Tyana) adoring a god (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hittites</a></span>). This was the first &ldquo;Hittite&rdquo; monument discovered
+in modern times (early 18th century, by the Swede Otter, an
+emissary of Louis XIV.).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For Heraclea Trachinia see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Trachis</a></span>, and for Heraclea Perinthus
+see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Perinthus</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Heraclea</span> was also the name of one of the Sporades, between
+Naxos and Ios, which is still called Raklia, and bears traces of a
+Greek township with temples to Tyche and Zeus Lophites.</p>
+<div class="author">(D. G. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERACLEON,<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> a Gnostic who flourished about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 125,
+probably in the south of Italy or in Sicily, and is generally
+classed by the early heresiologists with the Valentinian school
+of heresy. In his system he appears to have regarded the
+divine nature as a vast abyss in whose <i>pleroma</i> were aeons of
+different orders and degrees,&mdash;emanations from the source of
+being. Midway between the supreme God and the material
+world was the Demiurgus, who created the latter, and under
+whose jurisdiction the lower, animal soul of man proceeded after
+death, while his higher, celestial soul returned to the pleroma
+whence at first it issued. Though conspicuously uniting faith
+in Christ with spiritual maturity, there are evidences that, like
+other Valentinians, Heracleon did not sufficiently emphasize
+abstinence from the moral laxity and worldliness into which his
+followers fell. He seems to have received the ordinary Christian
+scriptures; and Origen, who treats him as a notable exegete,
+has preserved fragments of a commentary by him on the fourth
+gospel (brought together by Grabe in the second volume of his
+<i>Spicilegium</i>), while Clement of Alexandria quotes from him
+what appears to be a passage from a commentary on Luke.
+These writings are remarkable for their intensely mystical and
+allegorical interpretations of the text.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERACLEONAS,<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> east-Roman emperor (Feb.-Sept. 641), was
+the son of Heraclius (<i>q.v.</i>) and Martina. At the end of Heraclius&rsquo;
+reign he obtained through his mother&rsquo;s influence the title of
+Augustus (638), and after his father&rsquo;s death was proclaimed
+joint emperor with his half-brother Constantine III. The
+premature death of Constantine, in May 641, left Heracleonas
+sole ruler. But a suspicion that he and Martina had murdered
+Constantine led soon after to a revolt, and to the mutilation
+and banishment of the supposed offenders. Nothing further is
+known about Heracleonas subsequent to 641.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERACLIDAE,<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> the general name for the numerous descendants
+of Heracles (Hercules), and specially applied in a narrower
+sense to the descendants of Hyllus, the eldest of his four sons
+by Deïaneirathe, conquerors of Peloponnesus. Heracles, whom
+Zeus had originally intended to be ruler of Argos, Lacedaemon
+and Messenian Pylos, had been supplanted by the cunning of
+Hera, and his intended possessions had fallen into the hands of
+Eurystheus, king of Mycenae. After the death of Heracles,
+his children, after many wanderings, found refuge from Eurystheus
+at Athens. Eurystheus, on his demand for their surrender
+being refused, attacked Athens, but was defeated and slain.
+Hyllus and his brothers then invaded Peloponnesus, but after
+a year&rsquo;s stay were forced by a pestilence to quit. They withdrew
+to Thessaly, where Aegimius, the mythical ancestor of the
+Dorians, whom Heracles had assisted in war against the Lapithae,
+adopted Hyllus and made over to him a third part of his territory.
+After the death of Aegimius, his two sons, Pamphilus and Dymas,
+voluntarily submitted to Hyllus (who was, according to the
+Dorian tradition in Herodotus v. 72, really an Achaean), who
+thus became ruler of the Dorians, the three branches of that
+race being named after these three heroes. Being desirous
+of reconquering his paternal inheritance, Hyllus consulted the
+Delphic oracle, which told him to wait for &ldquo;the third fruit,&rdquo;
+and then enter Peloponnesus by &ldquo;a narrow passage by sea.&rdquo;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page309" id="page309"></a>309</span>
+Accordingly, after three years, Hyllus marched across the
+isthmus of Corinth to attack Atreus, the successor of Eurystheus,
+but was slain in single combat by Echemus, king of Tegea. This
+second attempt was followed by a third under Cleodaeus and
+a fourth under Aristomachus, both of which were equally unsuccessful.
+At last, Temenus, Cresphontes and Aristodemus,
+the sons of Aristomachus, complained to the oracle that its
+instructions had proved fatal to those who had followed them.
+They received the answer that by the &ldquo;third fruit&rdquo; the &ldquo;third
+generation&rdquo; was meant, and that the &ldquo;narrow passage&rdquo; was not
+the isthmus of Corinth, but the straits of Rhium. They accordingly
+built a fleet at Naupactus, but before they set sail,
+Aristodemus was struck by lightning (or shot by Apollo) and
+the fleet destroyed, because one of the Heraclidae had slain an
+Acarnanian soothsayer. The oracle, being again consulted by
+Temenus, bade him offer an expiatory sacrifice and banish
+the murderer for ten years, and look out for a man with three
+eyes to act as guide. On his way back to Naupactus, Temenus
+fell in with Oxylus, an Aetolian, who had lost one eye, riding
+on a horse (thus making up the three eyes) and immediately
+pressed him into his service. According to another account,
+a mule on which Oxylus rode had lost an eye. The Heraclidae
+repaired their ships, sailed from Naupactus to Antirrhium,
+and thence to Rhium in Peloponnesus. A decisive battle was
+fought with Tisamenus, son of Orestes, the chief ruler in the
+peninsula, who was defeated and slain. The Heraclidae, who
+thus became practically masters of Peloponnesus, proceeded to
+distribute its territory among themselves by lot. Argos fell to
+Temenus, Lacedaemon to Procles and Eurysthenes, the twin sons
+of Aristodemus; and Messene to Cresphontes. The fertile district
+of Elis had been reserved by agreement for Oxylus. The Heraclidae
+ruled in Lacedaemon till 221 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, but disappeared much
+earlier in the other countries. This conquest of Peloponnesus
+by the Dorians, commonly called the &ldquo;Return of the Heraclidae,&rdquo;
+is represented as the recovery by the descendants of Heracles
+of the rightful inheritance of their hero ancestor and his sons.
+The Dorians followed the custom of other Greek tribes in claiming
+as ancestor for their ruling families one of the legendary heroes,
+but the traditions must not on that account be regarded as
+entirely mythical. They represent a joint invasion of Peloponnesus
+by Aetolians and Dorians, the latter having been driven
+southward from their original northern home under pressure
+from the Thessalians. It is noticeable that there is no mention
+of these Heraclidae or their invasion in Homer or Hesiod.
+Herodotus (vi. 52) speaks of poets who had celebrated their
+deeds, but these were limited to events immediately succeeding
+the death of Heracles. The story was first amplified by the Greek
+tragedians, who probably drew their inspiration from local
+legends, which glorified the services rendered by Athens to the
+rulers of Peloponnesus.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Apollodorus ii. 8; Diod. Sic. iv. 57, 58; Pausanias i. 32, 41,
+ii. 13, 18, iii. 1, iv. 3, v. 3; Euripides, <i>Heraclidae</i>; Pindar,
+<i>Pythia</i>, ix. 137; Herodotus ix. 27. See Müller&rsquo;s <i>Dorians</i>, i. ch. 3;
+Thirlwall, <i>History of Greece</i>, ch. vii.; Grote, <i>Hist. of Greece</i>, pt. i.
+ch. xviii.; Busolt, <i>Griechische Geschichte</i>, i. ch. ii. sec. 7, where a list
+of modern authorities is given.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERACLIDES PONTICUS,<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> Greek philosopher and miscellaneous
+writer, born at Heraclea in Pontus, flourished in the 4th
+century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He studied philosophy at Athens under Speusippus,
+Plato and Aristotle. According to Suidas, Plato, on his departure
+for Sicily, left his pupils in charge of Heraclides. The latter
+part of his life was spent at Heraclea. He is said to have been
+vain and fat, and to have been so fond of display that he was
+nicknamed Pompicus, or the Showy (unless the epithet refers
+to his literary style). Various idle stories are related about him.
+On one occasion, for instance, Heraclea was afflicted with famine,
+and the Pythian priestess at Delphi, bribed by Heraclides,
+assured his inquiring townsmen that the dearth would be stayed
+if they granted a golden crown to that philosopher. This was
+done; but just as Heraclides was receiving his honour in a
+crowded assembly, he was seized with apoplexy, while the
+dishonest priestess perished at the same moment from the bite
+of a serpent. On his death-bed he is said to have requested a
+friend to hide his body as soon as life was extinct, and, by putting
+a serpent in its place, induce his townsmen to suppose that he
+had been carried up to heaven. The trick was discovered,
+and Heraclides received only ridicule instead of divine honours
+(Diogenes Laërtius v. 6). Whatever may be the truth about
+these stories, Heraclides seems to have been a versatile and
+prolific writer on philosophy, mathematics, music, grammar,
+physics, history and rhetoric. Many of the works attributed
+to him, however, are probably by one or more persons of the
+same name.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The extant fragment of a treatise <i>On Constitutions</i> (C. W. Müller,
+<i>F.H.G.</i> ii. 197-207) is probably a compilation from the <i>Politics</i> of
+Aristotle by Heraclides Lembos, who lived in the time of Ptolemy
+VI. Philometor (181-146). See Otto Voss, <i>De Heraclidis Pontici vita
+et scriptis</i> (1896).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERACLITUS<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> (<span class="grk" title="Hêrakleitos">&#7977;&#961;&#940;&#954;&#955;&#949;&#953;&#964;&#959;&#962;</span>; <i>c.</i> 540-475 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), Greek philosopher,
+was born at Ephesus of distinguished parentage.
+Of his early life and education we know nothing; from the
+contempt with which he spoke of all his fellow-philosophers and
+of his fellow-citizens as a whole we may gather that he regarded
+himself as self-taught and a pioneer of wisdom. So intensely
+aristocratic (hence his nickname <span class="grk" title="ochloloidoros">&#8000;&#967;&#955;&#959;&#955;&#959;&#943;&#948;&#959;&#961;&#959;&#962;</span>, &ldquo;he who rails
+at the people&rdquo;) was his temperament that he declined to exercise
+the regal-hieratic office of <span class="grk" title="Basileus">&#946;&#945;&#963;&#953;&#955;&#949;&#973;&#962;</span> which was hereditary in his
+family, and presented it to his brother. It is probable, however,
+that he did occasionally intervene in the affairs of the city at
+the period when the rule of Persia had given place to autonomy;
+it is said that he compelled the usurper Melancomas to abdicate.
+From the lonely life he led, and still more from the extreme
+profundity of his philosophy and his contempt for mankind in
+general, he was called the &ldquo;Dark Philosopher&rdquo; (<span class="grk" title="ho skoteinos">&#8001; &#963;&#954;&#959;&#964;&#949;&#953;&#957;&#972;&#962;</span>),
+or the &ldquo;Weeping Philosopher,&rdquo; in contrast to Democritus, the
+&ldquo;Laughing Philosopher.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Heraclitus is in a real sense the founder of metaphysics.
+Starting from the physical standpoint of the Ionian physicists,
+he accepted their general idea of the unity of nature, but entirely
+denied their theory of being. The fundamental uniform fact
+in nature is constant change (<span class="grk" title="panta chôrei kai ouden menei">&#960;&#940;&#957;&#964;&#945; &#967;&#969;&#961;&#949;&#8150; &#954;&#945;&#8054; &#959;&#8016;&#948;&#8050;&#957; &#956;&#941;&#957;&#949;&#953;</span>);
+everything both is and is not at the same time. He thus arrives
+at the principle of Relativity; harmony and unity consist in
+diversity and multiplicity. The senses are &ldquo;bad witnesses&rdquo;
+(<span class="grk" title="kakoi martyres">&#954;&#945;&#954;&#959;&#8054; &#956;&#940;&#961;&#964;&#965;&#961;&#949;&#962;</span>); only the wise man can obtain knowledge.</p>
+
+<p>To appreciate the significance of the doctrines of Heraclitus,
+it must be borne in mind that to Greek philosophy the sharp
+distinction between subject and object which pervades modern
+thought was foreign, a consideration which suggests the conclusion
+that, while it is a great mistake to reckon Heraclitus with the
+materialistic cosmologists of the Ionic schools, it is, on the other
+hand, going too far to treat his theory, with Hegel and Lassalle,
+as one of pure Panlogism. Accordingly, when he denies the
+reality of Being, and declares Becoming, or eternal flux and
+change, to be the sole actuality, Heraclitus must be understood
+to enunciate not only the unreality of the abstract notion of being,
+except as the correlative of that of not-being, but also the
+physical doctrine that all phenomena are in a state of continuous
+transition from non-existence to existence, and vice versa, without
+either distinguishing these propositions or qualifying them by
+any reference to the relation of thought to experience. &ldquo;Every
+thing is and is not&rdquo;; all things are, and nothing remains. So
+far he is in general agreement with Anaximander (<i>q.v.</i>), but he
+differs from him in the solution of the problem, disliking, as a
+poet and a mystic, the primary matter which satisfied the patient
+researcher, and demanding a more vivid and picturesque element.
+Naturally he selects fire, according to him the most complete
+embodiment of the process of Becoming, as the principle of
+empirical existence, out of which all things, including even the
+soul, grow by way of a <i>quasi</i> condensation, and into which all
+things must in course of time be again resolved. But this
+primordial fire is in itself that divine rational process, the
+harmony of which constitutes the law of the universe (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Logos</a></span>).
+Real knowledge consists in comprehending this all-pervading
+harmony as embodied in the manifold of perception, and the
+senses are &ldquo;bad-witnesses,&rdquo; because they apprehend phenomena,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page310" id="page310"></a>310</span>
+not as its manifestation, but as &ldquo;stiff and dead.&rdquo; In like
+manner real virtue consists in the subordination of the individual
+to the laws of this harmony as the universal reason wherein alone
+true freedom is to be found. &ldquo;The law of things is a law of
+Reason Universal (<span class="grk" title="logos">&#955;&#972;&#947;&#959;&#962;</span>), but most men live as though they
+had a wisdom of their own.&rdquo; Ethics here stands to sociology
+in a close relation, similar, in many respects, to that which we
+find in Hegel and in Comte. For Heraclitus the soul approaches
+most nearly to perfection when it is most akin to the fiery vapour
+out of which it was originally created, and as this is most so in
+death, &ldquo;while we live our souls are dead in us, but when we die
+our souls are restored to life.&rdquo; The doctrine of immortality
+comes prominently forward in his ethics, but whether this must
+not be reckoned with the figurative accommodation to the
+popular theology of Greece which pervades his ethical teaching,
+is very doubtful.</p>
+
+<p>The school of disciples founded by Heraclitus flourished for
+long after his death, the chief exponent of his teaching being
+Cratylus. A good deal of the information in regard to his
+doctrines has been gathered from the later Greek philosophy,
+which was deeply influenced by it.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;The only authentic extant work of Heraclitus is
+the <span class="grk" title="peri physeôs">&#960;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#966;&#973;&#963;&#949;&#969;&#962;</span>. The best edition (containing also the probably
+spurious <span class="grk" title="Epistolai">&#7960;&#960;&#953;&#963;&#964;&#959;&#955;&#945;&#943;</span>) is that of I. Bywater, <i>Heracliti Ephesii reliquiae</i>
+(Oxford, 1877); of the epistles alone by A. Westermann (Leipzig,
+1857). See also in A. H. Ritter and L. Preller&rsquo;s <i>Historia philosophiae
+Graecae</i> (8th ed. by E. Wellmann, 1898); F. W. A. Mullach,
+<i>Fragm. philos. Graec.</i> (Paris, 1860); A. Fairbanks, <i>The First Philosophers
+of Greece</i> (1898); H. Diels, <i>Heraklit von Ephesus</i> (2nd ed.,
+1909), Greek and German. English translation of Bywater&rsquo;s edition
+with introduction by G. T. W. Patrick (Baltimore, 1889). For
+criticism see, in addition to the histories of philosophy, F. Lassalle,
+<i>Die Philosophie Herakleitos&rsquo; des Dunklen</i> (Berlin, 1858; 2nd ed.,
+1892), which, however, is too strongly dominated by modern
+Hegelianism; Paul Schuster, <i>Heraklit von Ephesus</i> (Leipzig, 1873);
+J. Bernays, <i>Die heraklitischen Briefe</i> (Berlin, 1869); T. Gomperz,
+<i>Zu Heraclits Lehre und den Überresten seines Werkes</i> (Vienna, 1887),
+and in his <i>Greek Thinkers</i> (English translation, L. Magnus, vol. i.
+1901); J. Burnet, <i>Early Greek Philosophy</i> (1892); A. Patin, <i>Heraklits
+Einheitslehre</i> (Leipzig, 1886); E. Pfleiderer, <i>Die Philosophie des
+Heraklitus von Ephesus im Lichte der Mysterienidee</i> (Berlin, 1886);
+G. T. Schäfer, <i>Die Philosophie des Heraklit von Ephesus und die
+moderne Heraklitforschung</i> (Leipzig, 1902); Wolfgang Schultz, <i>Studien
+zur antiken Kultur</i>, i.; <i>Pythagoras und Heraklit</i> (Leipzig, 1905);
+O. Spengler, <i>Heraklit. Eine Studie über den energetischen Grundgedanken
+seiner Philosophie</i> (Halle, 1904); A. Brieger, &ldquo;Die Grundzüge
+der heraklitischen Physik&rdquo; in <i>Hermes</i>, xxxix. (1904), 182-223,
+and &ldquo;Heraklit der Dunkle&rdquo; in <i>Neue Jahrb. f. das klass. Altertum</i>
+(1904), p. 687. For his place in the development of early philosophy
+see also articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ionian School of Philosophy</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Logos</a></span>. Ancient
+authorities: Diog. Laërt. ix.; Sext. Empiric., <i>Adv. mathem.</i> vii.
+126, 127, 133; Plato, <i>Cratylus</i>, 402 <span class="scs">A</span> and <i>Theaetetus</i>, 152 <span class="scs">E</span>; Plutarch,
+<i>Isis and Osiris</i>, 45, 48; Arist. <i>Nic. Eth.</i> vii. 3, 4; Clement of Alexandria,
+<i>Stromata</i>, v. 599, 603 (ed. Paris).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. M. M.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERACLIUS<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> (<span class="grk" title="Hêrakleios">&#7977;&#961;&#945;&#954;&#955;&#949;&#8150;&#959;&#962;</span>) (<i>c.</i> 575-642), East Roman emperor,
+was born in Cappadocia. His father held high military command
+under the emperor Maurice, and as governor of Africa maintained
+his independence against the usurper Phocas (<i>q.v.</i>). When
+invited to head a rebellion against the latter, he sent his son with
+a fleet which reached Constantinople unopposed, and precipitated
+the dethronement of Phocas. Proclaimed emperor, Heraclius
+set himself to reorganize the utterly disordered administration.
+At first he found himself helpless before the Persian armies (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Persia</a></span>: <i>Ancient History</i>; and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chosroës II.</a></span>) of Chosroës II.,
+which conquered Syria and Egypt and since 616 had encamped
+opposite Constantinople; in 618 he even proposed in despair
+to abandon his capital and seek a refuge in Carthage, but at the
+entreaty of the patriarch he took courage. By securing a loan
+from the Church and suspending the corn-distribution at
+Constantinople, he raised sufficient funds for war, and after
+making a treaty with the Avars, who had nearly surprised the
+capital during an incursion in 619, he was at last able to take the
+field against Persia. During his first expedition (622) he failed
+to secure a footing in Armenia, whence he had hoped to take the
+Persians in flank, but by his unwearied energy he restored the
+discipline and efficiency of the army. In his second campaign
+(624-26) he penetrated into Armenia and Albania, and beat the
+enemy in the open field. After a short stay at Constantinople,
+which his son Constantine had successfully defended against
+renewed incursions by the Avars, Heraclius resumed his attacks
+upon the Persians (627). Though deserted by the Khazars,
+with whom he had made an alliance upon entering into Pontus,
+he gained a decisive advantage by a brilliant march across the
+Armenian highlands into the Tigris plain, and a hard-fought
+victory over Chosroës&rsquo; general, Shahrbaraz, in which Heraclius
+distinguished himself by his personal bravery. A subsequent
+revolution at the Persian court led to the dethronement of
+Chosroës in favour of his son Kavadh II. (<i>q.v.</i>); the new king
+promptly made peace with the emperor, whose troops were
+already advancing upon the Persian capital Ctesiphon (628).
+Having thus secured his eastern frontier, Heraclius returned
+to Constantinople with ample spoils, including the true cross,
+which in 629 he brought back in person to Jerusalem. On the
+northern frontier of the empire he kept the Avars in check by
+inducing the Serbs to migrate from the Carpathians to the
+Balkan lands so as to divert the attention of the Avars.</p>
+
+<p>The triumphs which Heraclius had won through his own
+energy and skill did not bring him lasting popularity. In his
+civil administration he followed out his own ideas without
+deferring to the nobles or the Church, and the opposition which
+he encountered from these quarters went far to paralyse his
+attempts at reform. Worn out by continuous fighting and
+weakened by dropsy, Heraclius failed to show sufficient energy
+against the new peril that menaced his eastern provinces towards
+the end of his reign. In 629 the Saracens made their first incursion
+into Syria (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Caliphate</a></span>, section A, § 1); in 636 they
+won a notable victory on the Yermuk (Hieromax), and in the
+following years conquered all Syria, Palestine and Egypt.
+Heraclius made no attempt to retrieve the misfortunes of his
+generals, but evacuated his possessions in sullen despair. The
+remaining years of his life he devoted to theological speculation
+and ecclesiastical reforms. His religious enthusiasm led him to
+oppress his Jewish subjects; on the other hand he sought to
+reconcile the Christian sects, and to this effect propounded in
+his <i>Ecthesis</i> a conciliatory doctrine of monothelism. Heraclius
+died of his disease in 642. He had been twice married; his
+second union, with his niece Martina, was frequently made a
+matter of reproach to him. In spite of his partial failures,
+Heraclius must be regarded as one of the greatest of Byzantine
+emperors, and his early campaigns were the means of saving the
+realm from almost certain destruction.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;G. Finlay, <i>History of Greece</i> (Oxford, 1877) i.
+311-358; J. B. Bury, <i>The Later Roman Empire</i> (London,
+1889), ii. 207-273; T. E. Evangelides, <span class="grk" title="Hêrakleios ho autokratôr
+tou Byzantiou">&#7977;&#961;&#945;&#954;&#955;&#949;&#8150;&#959;&#962; &#8001; &#945;&#8016;&#964;&#959;&#954;&#961;&#940;&#964;&#969;&#961; &#964;&#959;&#8166; &#914;&#965;&#950;&#945;&#957;&#964;&#943;&#959;&#965;</span> (Odessa, 1903); A. Pernice, <i>L&rsquo;Imperatore Eraclio</i>
+(Florence, 1905). On the Persian campaigns: the epic of George
+Pisides (ed. 1836, Bonn); F. Macler, <i>Histoire d&rsquo;Héraclius par
+l&rsquo;évêque Sebèos</i> (Paris, 1904); E. Gerland in <i>Byzantinische Zeitschrift</i>,
+iii. (1894) 330-337; N. H. Baynes in the <i>English Historical
+Review</i> (1904), pp. 694-702.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(M. O. B. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERALD<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> (O. Fr. <i>heraut</i>, <i>herault</i>; the origin is uncertain, but
+O.H.G. <i>heren</i>, to call, or <i>hariwald</i>, leader of an army, have been
+proposed; the Gr. equivalent is <span class="grk" title="kêryx">&#954;&#8134;&#961;&#965;&#958;</span>: Lat. <i>praeco</i>, <i>caduceator</i>,
+<i>fetialis</i>), in Greek and Roman antiquities, the term for the
+officials described below; in modern usage, while the word
+&ldquo;herald&rdquo; is often used generally in a sense analogous to that
+of the ancients, it is more specially restricted to that dealt with
+in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Heraldry</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>The Greek heralds, who claimed descent from Hermes, the
+messenger of the gods, through his son Keryx, were public
+functionaries of high importance in early times. Like Hermes,
+they carried a staff of olive or laurel wood surrounded by two
+snakes (or with wool as messengers of peace); their persons
+were inviolable; and they formed a kind of priesthood or corporation.
+In the Homeric age, they summoned the assemblies of
+the people, at which they preserved order and silence; proclaimed
+war; arranged the cessation of hostilities and the
+conclusion of peace; and assisted at public sacrifices and
+banquets. They also performed certain menial offices for the
+kings (mixing and pouring out the wine for the guests), by whom
+they were treated as confidential servants. In later times,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page311" id="page311"></a>311</span>
+their position was a less honourable one; they were recruited
+from the poorer classes, and were mostly paid servants of the
+various officials. Pollux in his <i>Onomasticon</i> distinguishes four
+classes of heralds: (1) the sacred heralds at the Eleusinian
+mysteries;<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (2) the heralds at the public games, who announced
+the names of the competitors and victors; (3) those who superintended
+the arrangements of festal processions; (4) those
+who proclaimed goods for sale in the market (for which purpose
+they mounted a stone), and gave notice of lost children and runaway
+slaves. To these should be added (5) the heralds of the
+boul&#275; and demos, who summoned the members of the council and
+ecclesia, recited the solemn formula of prayer before the opening
+of the meeting, called upon the orators to speak, counted the
+votes and announced the results; (6) the heralds of the law courts,
+who gave notice of the time of trials and summoned the parties.
+The heralds received payment from the state and free meals
+together with the officials to whom they were attached. Their
+appointment was subject to some kind of examination, probably
+of the quality of their voice. Like the earlier heralds, they were
+also employed in negotiations connected with war and peace.</p>
+
+<p>Among the Romans the <i>praecones</i> or &ldquo;criers&rdquo; exercised
+their profession both in private and official business. As private
+criers they were especially concerned with auctions; they advertized
+the time, place and conditions of sale, called out the various
+bids, and like the modern auctioneer varied the proceedings with
+jokes. They gave notice in the streets of things that had been
+lost, and took over various commissions, such as funeral arrangements.
+Although the calling was held in little estimation, some
+of these criers amassed great wealth. The state criers, who were
+mostly freedmen and well paid, formed the lowest class of
+<i>apparitores</i> (attendants on various magistrates). On the whole,
+their functions resembled those of the Greek heralds. They called
+the popular assemblies together, proclaimed silence and made
+known the result of the voting; in judicial cases, they summoned
+the plaintiff, defendant, advocates and witnesses; in criminal
+executions they gave out the reasons for the punishment and
+called on the executioner to perform his duty; they invited the
+people to the games and announced the names of the victors.
+Public criers were also employed at state auctions in the municipia
+and colonies, but, according to the lex Julia municipalis of
+Caesar, they were prohibited from holding office.</p>
+
+<p>Amongst the Romans the settlement of matters relating to
+war and peace was entrusted to a special class of heralds called
+<i>Fetiales</i> (not <i>Feciales</i>), a word of uncertain etymology, possibly
+connected with <i>fateor</i>, <i>fari</i>, and meaning &ldquo;the speakers.&rdquo; They
+formed a priestly college of 20 (or 15) members, the institution
+of which was ascribed to one of the kings. They were chosen from
+the most distinguished families, held office for life, and filled up
+vacancies in their number by co-optation. Their duties were to
+demand redress for insult or injury to the state, to declare war
+unless satisfaction was obtained within a certain number of days
+and to conclude treaties of peace. A deputation of four (or two),
+one of whom was called <i>pater patratus</i>, wearing priestly garments,
+with sacred herbs plucked from the Capitoline hill borne in front,
+proceeded to the frontier of the enemy&rsquo;s territory and demanded
+the surrender of the guilty party. This demand was called
+<i>clarigatio</i> (perhaps from its being made in a loud, clear voice).
+If no satisfactory answer was given within 30 days, the deputation
+returned to Rome and made a report. If war was decided
+upon, the deputation again repaired to the frontier, pronounced
+a solemn formula, and hurled a charred and blood-stained javelin
+across the frontier, in the presence of three witnesses, which
+was tantamount to a declaration of war (Livy i. 24, 32). With
+the extension of the Roman empire, it became impossible to
+carry out this ceremonial, for which was substituted the hurling
+of a javelin over a column near the temple of Bellona in the
+direction of the enemy&rsquo;s territory. When the termination of
+a war was decided upon, the fetiales either made an arrangement
+for the suspension of hostilities for a definite term of years,
+after which the war recommenced automatically or they concluded
+a solemn treaty with the enemy. Conditions of peace or
+alliance proposed by the general on his own responsibility
+(<i>sponsio</i>) were not binding upon the people, and in case of
+rejection the general, with hands bound, was delivered by the
+fetiales to the enemy (Livy ix. 10). But if the terms were
+agreed to, a deputation carrying the sacred herbs and the flint
+stones, kept in the temple of Jupiter Feretrius for sacrificial
+purposes, met a deputation of fetiales from the other side.
+After the conditions of the treaty had been read, the sacrificial
+formula was pronounced and the victims slain by a blow from a
+stone (hence the expression <i>foedus ferire</i>). The treaty was then
+signed and handed over to the keeping of the fetial college.
+These ceremonies usually took place in Rome, but in 201 a
+deputation of fetiales went to Africa to ratify the conclusion of
+peace with Carthage. From that time little is heard of the fetiales,
+although they appear to have existed till the end of the 4th
+century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> The <i>caduceator</i> (from <i>caduceus</i>, the latinized form
+of <span class="grk" title="kêrykeion">&#954;&#951;&#961;&#965;&#954;&#949;&#8150;&#959;&#957;</span>) was the name of a person who was sent to treat for
+peace. His person was considered sacred; and like the fetiales he
+carried the sacred herbs, instead of the caduceus, which was not
+in use amongst the Romans.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For the Greek heralds, see Ch. Ostermann, <i>De praeconibus Graecorum</i>
+(1845); for the Roman Praecones, Mommsen, <i>Römisches
+Staatsrecht</i>, i. 363 (3rd ed., 1887); also article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Praecones</a></span> in
+Pauly&rsquo;s <i>Realencyclopädie</i> (1852 edition); for the Fetiales, monographs
+by F. C. Conradi (1734, containing all the necessary material),
+and G. Fusinato (1884, from <i>Atti della R. Accad. dei Lincei</i>, series
+iii. vol. 13); also Marquardt, <i>Römische Staatsverwaltung</i>, iii. 415
+(3rd ed., 1885), and A. Weiss in Daremberg and Saglio&rsquo;s <i>Dictionnaire
+des antiquités</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. H. F.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> These heralds are regarded by some as a branch of the Eumolpidae,
+by others as of Athenian origin. They enjoyed great prestige
+and formed a hieratic caste like the Eumolpidae, with whom they
+shared the most important liturgical functions. From them were
+selected the <span class="grk" title="dadouchos">&#948;&#945;&#948;&#959;&#8166;&#967;&#959;&#962;</span> or torch-bearer, the <span class="grk" title="hierokêryx">&#7985;&#949;&#961;&#959;&#954;&#8134;&#961;&#965;&#958;</span>, whose chief
+duty was to proclaim silence, and <span class="grk" title="ho epi bômô">&#8001; &#7952;&#960;&#8054; &#946;&#969;&#956;&#8183;</span>, an official connected
+with the service at the altar (see L. R. Farnell, Cults of the Greek
+States, iii. 161; J. Töpffer, <i>Attische Genealogie</i> (1889); Dittenberger
+in <i>Hermes</i>, xx.; P. Foucart, &ldquo;Les Grands Mystères
+d&rsquo;Eleusis&rdquo; in <i>Mém. de l&rsquo;Institut National de France</i>, xxxvii. (1904).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERALDRY.<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> Although the word Heraldry properly belongs
+to all the business of the herald (<i>q.v.</i>), it has long attached itself
+to that which in earlier times was known as armory, the science
+of armorial bearings.</p>
+
+<p><i>History of Armorial Bearings.</i>&mdash;In all ages and in all quarters
+of the world distinguishing symbols have been adopted by tribes
+or nations, by families or by chieftains. Greek and Roman poets
+describe the devices borne on the shields of heroes, and many
+such painted shields are pictured on antique vases. Rabbinical
+writers have supported the fancy that the standards of the tribes
+set up in their camps bore figures devised from the prophecy of
+Jacob, the ravening wolf for Benjamin, the lion&rsquo;s whelp for
+Judah and the ship of Zebulon. In the East we have such ancient
+symbols as the five-clawed dragon of the Chinese empire and the
+chrysanthemum of the emperor of Japan. In Japan, indeed, the
+systematized badges borne by the noble clans may be regarded as
+akin to the heraldry of the West, and the circle with the three
+asarum leaves of the Tokugawa shoguns has been made as
+familiar to us by Japanese lacquer and porcelain as the red pellets
+of the Medici by old Italian fabrics. Before the landing of the
+Spaniards in Mexico the Aztec chiefs carried shields and banners,
+some of whose devices showed after the fashion of a phonetic
+writing the names of their bearers; and the eagle on the new
+banner of Mexico may be traced to the eagle that was once carved
+over the palace of Montezuma. That mysterious business of
+totemism, which students of folk-lore have discovered among
+most primitive peoples, must be regarded as another of the forerunners
+of true heraldry, the totem of a tribe supplying a badge
+which was sometimes displayed on the body of the tribesman in
+paint, scars or tattooing. Totemism so far touches our heraldry
+that some would trace to its symbols the white horse of Westphalia,
+the bull&rsquo;s head of the Mecklenburgers and many other
+ancient armories.</p>
+
+<p>When true heraldry begins in Western Europe nothing is more
+remarkable than the suddenness of its development, once the
+idea of hereditary armorial symbols was taken by the nobles and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page312" id="page312"></a>312</span>
+knights. Its earliest examples are probably still to be discovered
+by research, but certain notes may be made which narrow the
+dates between which we must seek its origin. The older writers
+on heraldry, lacking exact archaeology, were wont to carry back
+the beginnings to the dark ages, even if they lacked the assurance
+of those who distributed blazons among the angelic host before
+the Creation. Even in our own times old misconceptions give
+ground slowly. Georg Ruexner&rsquo;s <i>Thurnier Buch</i> of 1522 is still
+cited for its evidence of the tournament laws of Henry the Fowler,
+by which those who would contend in tournaments were forced to
+show four generations of arms-bearing ancestors. Yet modern
+criticism has shattered the elaborated fiction of Ruexner. In
+England many legends survive of arms borne by the Conqueror
+and his companions. But nothing is more certain than that
+neither armorial banners nor shields of arms were borne on either
+side at Hastings. The famous record of the Bayeux tapestry
+shows shields which in some cases suggest rudely devised armorial
+bearings, but in no case can a shield be identified as one which is
+recognized in the generations after the Conquest. So far is the
+idea of personal arms from the artist, that the same warrior, seen
+in different parts of the tapestry&rsquo;s history, has his shield with
+differing devices. A generation later, Anna Comnena, the
+daughter of the Byzantine emperor, describing the shields of the
+French knights who came to Constantinople, tells us that their
+polished faces were plain.</p>
+
+<p>Of all men, kings and princes might be the first to be found
+bearing arms. Yet the first English sovereign who appears on
+his great seal with arms on his shield is Richard I. His seal of
+1189 shows his shield charged with a lion ramping towards the
+sinister side. Since one half only is seen of the rounded face of the
+shield, English antiquaries have perhaps too hastily suggested
+that the whole bearing was two lions face to face. But the
+mounted figure of Philip of Alsace, count of Flanders, on his seal
+of 1164 bears a like shield charged with a like lion, and in this case
+another shield on the counterseal makes it clear that this is the
+single lion of Flanders. Therefore we may take it that, in 1189,
+King Richard bore arms of a lion rampant, while, nine years later,
+another seal shows him with a shield of the familiar bearings
+which have been borne as the arms of England by each one of his
+successors.</p>
+
+<p>That seal of Philip of Alsace is the earliest known example of
+the arms of the great counts of Flanders. The ancient arms of
+the kings of France, the blue shield powdered with golden fleurs-de-lys,
+appear even later. Louis le Jeune, on the crowning of his
+son Philip Augustus, ordered that the young prince should be
+clad in a blue dalmatic and blue shoes, sewn with golden fleurs-de-lys,
+a flower whose name, as &ldquo;Fleur de Loys,&rdquo; played upon
+that of his own, and possibly upon his epithet name of Florus. A
+seal of the same king has the device of a single lily. But the first
+French royal seal with the shield of the lilies is that of Louis VIII.
+(1223-1226). The eagle of the emperors may well be as ancient
+a bearing as any in Europe, seeing that Charlemagne is said, as
+the successor of the Caesars, to have used the eagle as his badge.
+The emperor Henry III. (1039-1056) has the sceptre on his seal
+surmounted by an eagle; in the 12th century the eagle was
+embroidered upon the imperial gloves. At Mölsen in 1080 the
+emperor&rsquo;s banner is said by William of Tyre to have borne the
+eagle, and with the beginning of regular heraldry this imperial
+badge would soon be displayed on a shield. The double-headed
+eagle is not seen on an imperial seal until after 1414, when the
+bird with one neck becomes the recognized arms of the king of the
+Romans.</p>
+
+<p>There are, however, earlier examples of shields of arms than
+any of these. A document of the first importance is the description
+by John of Marmoustier of the marriage of Geoffrey of Anjou
+with Maude the empress, daughter of Henry I., when the king is
+said to have hung round the neck of his son-in-law a shield with
+golden &ldquo;lioncels.&rdquo; Afterwards the monk speaks of Geoffrey in
+fight, &ldquo;pictos leones preferens in clypeo.&rdquo; Two notes may be
+added to this account. The first is that the enamelled plate now
+in the museum at Le Mans, which is said to have been placed over
+the tomb of Geoffrey after his death in 1151, shows him bearing a
+long shield of azure with six golden lioncels, thus confirming the
+monk&rsquo;s story. The second is the well-known fact that Geoffrey&rsquo;s
+bastard grandson, William with the Long Sword, undoubtedly
+bore these same arms of the six lions of gold in a blue field, even
+as they are still to be seen upon his tomb at Salisbury. Some ten
+years before Richard I. seals with the three leopards, his brother
+John, count of Mortain, is found using a seal upon which he bears
+two leopards, arms which later tradition assigns to the ancient
+dukes of Normandy and to their descendants the kings of England
+before Henry II., who is said to have added the third leopard in
+right of his wife, a legend of no value. Mr Round has pointed out
+that Gilbert of Clare, earl of Hertford, who died in 1152, bears on
+his seal to a document sealed after 1138 and not later than 1146,
+the three cheverons afterwards so well known in England as the
+bearings of his successors. An old drawing of the seal of his uncle
+Gilbert, earl of Pembroke (<i>Lansdowne MS.</i> 203), shows a cheveronny
+shield used between 1138 and 1148. At some date between
+1144 and 1150, Waleran, count of Meulan, shows on his seal a
+pennon and saddle-cloth with a checkered pattern: the house of
+Warenne, sprung from his mother&rsquo;s son, bore shields checky of
+gold and azure. If we may trust the inventory of Norman seals
+made by M. Demay, a careful antiquary, there is among the
+archives of the Manche a grant by Eudes, seigneur du Pont,
+sealed with a seal and counterseal of arms, to which M. Demay
+gives a date as early as 1128. The writer has not examined this
+seal, the earliest armorial evidence of which he has any knowledge,
+but it may be remarked that the arms are described as varying on
+the seal and counterseal, a significant touch of primitive armory.
+Another type of seal common in this 12th century shows
+the personal device which had not yet developed into an armorial
+charge. A good example is that of Enguerrand de Candavène,
+count of St Pol, where, although the shield of the horseman
+is uncharged, sheaves of oats, playing on his name, are strewn at
+the foot of the seal. Five of these sheaves were the arms of
+Candavène when the house came to display arms. In the same
+fashion three different members of the family of Armenteres in
+England show one, two or three swords upon their seals, but here
+the writer has no evidence of a coat of arms derived from these
+devices.</p>
+
+<p>From the beginning of the 13th century arms upon shields
+increase in number. Soon the most of the great houses of the
+west display them with pride. Leaders in the field, whether
+of a royal army or of a dozen spears, saw the military advantage
+of a custom which made shield and banner things that might
+be recognized in the press. Although it is probable that armorial
+bearings have their first place upon the shield, the charges of
+the shield are found displayed on the knight&rsquo;s long surcoat,
+his &ldquo;coat of arms,&rdquo; on his banner or pennon, on the trappers
+of his horse and even upon the peaks of his saddle. An attempt
+has been made to connect the rise of armory with the adoption
+of the barrel-shaped close helm; but even when wearing the
+earlier Norman helmet with its long nasal the knight&rsquo;s face was
+not to be recognized. The Conqueror, as we know, had to
+bare his head before he could persuade his men at Hastings that
+he still lived. Armory satisfied a need which had long been
+felt. When fully armed, one galloping knight was like another;
+but friend and foe soon learned that the gold and blue checkers
+meant that Warenne was in the field and that the gold and
+red vair was for Ferrers. Earl Simon at Evesham sent up his
+barber to a spying place and, as the barber named in turn the
+banners which had come up against him, he knew that his last
+fight was at hand. In spite of these things the growth of the
+custom of sealing deeds and charters had at least as much influence
+in the development of armory as any military need.
+By this way, women and clerks, citizens and men of peace,
+corporations and colleges, came to share with the fighting man
+in the use of armorial bearings. Arms in stone, wood and brass
+decorated the tombs of the dead and the houses of the living;
+they were broidered in bed-curtains, coverlets and copes, painted
+on the sails of ships and enamelled upon all manner of goldsmiths&rsquo;
+and silversmiths&rsquo; work. And, even by warriors, the
+full splendour of armory was at all times displayed more fully
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page313" id="page313"></a>313</span>
+in the fantastic magnificence of the tournament than in the
+rougher business of war.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate I.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:840px; height:1125px" src="images/img312.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">PART OF A ROLL OF ARMS PAINTED IN ENGLAND AT THE BEGINNING OF THE 14TH CENTURY. THE NAMES HAVE BEEN ADDED BY A
+SOMEWHAT LATER HAND, AND ARE IN MANY CASES MISTAKEN AND MIS-SPELLED.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption8"><i>Drawn by William Gibb for the</i> ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>There can be little doubt that ancient armorial bearings were
+chosen at will by the man who bore them, many reasons guiding
+his choice. Crosses in plenty were taken. Old writers have
+asserted that these crosses commemorate the badge of the
+crusaders, yet the fact that the cross was the symbol of the
+faith was reason enough. No symbolism can be found in such
+charges as bends and fesses; they are on the shield because a
+broad band, aslant or athwart, is a charge easily recognized.
+Medieval wisdom gave every noble and magnanimous quality
+to the lion, and therefore this beast is chosen by hundreds of
+knights as their bearing. We have already seen how the arms
+of a Candavène play upon his name. Such an example was
+imitated on all sides. Salle of Bedfordshire has two <i>sal</i>amanders
+<i>sal</i>tirewise; Belet has his namesake the weasel. In ancient
+shields almost all beasts and birds other than the lion and the
+eagle play upon the bearer&rsquo;s name. No object is so humble
+that it is unwelcome to the knight seeking a pun for his shield.
+Trivet has a three-legged trivet; Trumpington two trumps; and
+Montbocher three pots. The legends which assert that certain
+arms were &ldquo;won in the Holy Land&rdquo; or granted by ancient
+kings for heroic deeds in the field are for the most part
+worthless fancies.</p>
+
+<p>Tenants or neighbours of the great feudal lords were wont to
+make their arms by differencing the lord&rsquo;s shield or by bringing
+some charge of it into their own bearings. Thus a group of
+Kentish shields borrow lions from that of Leyborne, which is
+azure with six lions of silver. Shirland of Minster bore the same
+arms differenced with an ermine quarter. Detling had the
+silver lions in a sable field. Rokesle&rsquo;s lions are azure in a golden
+field with a fesse of gules between them; while Wateringbury
+has six sable lions in a field of silver, and Tilmanstone six
+ermine lions in a field of azure. The Vipont ring or annelet is
+in several shields of Westmorland knights, and the cheverons
+of Clare, the cinquefoil badge of Beaumont and the sheaves of
+Chester can be traced in the coats of many of the followers of
+those houses. Sometimes the lord himself set forth such arms
+in a formal grant, as when the baron of Greystock grants to
+Adam of Blencowe a shield in which his own three chaplets
+are charges. The Whitgreave family of Staffordshire still show
+a shield granted to their ancestor in 1442 by the earl of Stafford,
+in which the Stafford red cheveron on a golden field is four
+times repeated.</p>
+
+<p><i>Differences.</i>&mdash;By the custom of the middle ages the &ldquo;whole
+coat,&rdquo; which is the undifferenced arms, belonged to one man
+only and was inherited whole only by his heirs. Younger
+branches differenced in many ways, following no rule. In modern
+armory the label is reckoned a difference proper only to an eldest
+son. But in older times, although the label was very commonly
+used by the son and heir apparent, he often chose another distinction
+during his father&rsquo;s lifetime, while the label is sometimes found
+upon the shields of younger sons. Changing the colours or varying
+the number of charges, drawing a bend or baston over the shield
+or adding a border are common differences of cadet lines.
+Beauchamp, earl of Warwick, bore &ldquo;Gules with a fesse and six
+crosslets gold.&rdquo; His cousins are seen changing the crosslets for
+martlets or for billets. Bastards difference their father&rsquo;s arms,
+as a rule, in no more striking manner than the legitimate cadets.
+Towards the end of the 14th century we have the beginning of
+the custom whereby certain bastards of princely houses differenced
+the paternal arms by charging them upon a bend, a fesse or a
+chief, a cheveron or a quarter. Before his legitimation the eldest
+son of John of Gaunt by Katharine Swinford is said to have
+borne a shield party silver and azure with the arms of Lancaster
+on a bend. After his legitimation in 1397 he changed his bearings
+to the royal arms of France and England within a border gobony
+of silver and azure. Warren of Poynton, descended from the
+last earl Warenne and his concubine, Maude of Neirford, bore
+the checkered shield of Warenne with a quarter charged with the
+ermine lion of Neirford. By the end of the middle ages the
+baston under continental influence tended to become a bastard&rsquo;s
+difference in England and the jingle of the two words may have
+helped to support the custom. About the same time the border
+gobony began to acquire a like character. The &ldquo;bar sinister&rdquo;
+of the novelists is probably the baston sinister, with the ends
+couped, which has since the time of Charles II. been familiar
+on the arms of certain descendants of the royal house. But
+it has rarely been seen in England over other shields; and,
+although the border gobony surrounds the arms granted to a
+peer of Victorian creation, the modern heralds have fallen into
+the habit of assigning, in nineteen cases out of twenty, a wavy
+border as the standard difference for illegitimacy.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:120px; height:130px" src="images/img313a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"> Shield from seal of
+Robert de Pinkeny, an
+early example of
+parted arms.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Although no general register of arms was maintained it is
+remarkable that there was little conflict between persons who
+had chanced to assume the same arms. The famous suit in
+which Scrope, Grosvenor and Carminow all claimed the blue
+shield with the golden bend is well known, and there are a few
+cases in the 14th century of like disputes which were never
+carried to the courts. But the men of the middle ages would
+seem to have had marvellous memories for blazonry; and we
+know that rolls of arms for reference, some of them the records
+of tournaments, existed in great numbers. A few examples of
+these remain to us, with painted shields or descriptions in French
+blazon, some of them containing many hundreds of names and
+arms.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 300px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:245px; height:289px" src="images/img313b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">Shield of Joan atte Pole,
+widow of Robert of Hemenhale,
+from her seal (1403), showing
+parted arms.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>To women were assigned, as a rule, the undifferenced arms
+of their fathers. In the early days of armory married women&mdash;well-born
+spinsters of full age were all
+but unknown outside the walls of religious
+houses&mdash;have seals on which appear
+the shield of the husband or the father
+or both shields side by side. But we have
+some instances of the shield in which two
+coats of arms are parted or, to use the
+modern phrase, &ldquo;impaled.&rdquo; Early in
+the reign of King John, Robert de Pinkeny
+seals with a parted shield. On the right
+or dexter side&mdash;the right hand of a shield
+is at the right hand of the person covered
+by it&mdash;are two fusils of an indented fesse: on the left or
+sinister side are three waves. The arms of Pinkeny being an
+indented fesse, we may see in this shield the parted arms of
+husband and wife&mdash;the latter being probably a Basset. In
+many of the earliest examples, as in this, the dexter half of the
+husband&rsquo;s shield was united with the sinister half of that of
+the wife, both coats being, as modern antiquaries have it,
+dimidiated. This &ldquo;dimidiation,&rdquo; however, had its inconvenience.
+With some coats it was impossible. If the wife bore
+arms with a quarter for the only charge, her half of the shield
+would be blank. Therefore the
+practice was early abandoned
+by the majority of bearers of
+parted shields although there
+is a survival of it in the fact
+that borders and tressures continue
+to be &ldquo;dimidiated&rdquo; in
+order that the charges within
+them shall not be cramped.
+Parted shields came into common
+use from the reign of
+Edward II., and the rule is
+established that the husband&rsquo;s
+arms should take the dexter
+side. There are, however,
+several instances of the contrary
+practice. On the seal
+(1310) of Maude, wife of John
+Boutetort of Halstead, the
+engrailed saltire of the Boutetorts takes the sinister place. A
+twice-married woman would sometimes show a shield charged
+with her paternal arms between those of both of her husbands, as
+did Beatrice Stafford in 1404, while in 1412 Elizabeth, Lady of
+Clinton, seals with a shield paled with five coats&mdash;her arms
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page314" id="page314"></a>314</span>
+of la Plaunche between those of four husbands. In most
+cases the parted shield is found on the wife&rsquo;s seal alone. Even
+in our own time it is recognized that the wife&rsquo;s arms should not
+appear upon the husband&rsquo;s official seal, upon his banner or
+surcoat or upon his shield when it is surrounded by the collar
+of an order. Parted arms, it may be noted, do not always represent
+a husband and wife. Richard II. parted with his quartered
+arms of France and England
+those ascribed to Edward
+the Confessor, and parting is
+often used on the continent
+where quartering would serve in
+England. In 1497 the seal of
+Giles Daubeney and Reynold
+Bray, fellow justices in eyre,
+shows their arms parted in one
+shield. English bishops, by a
+custom begun late in the 14th
+century, part the see&rsquo;s arms
+with their own. By modern
+English custom a husband and
+wife, where the wife is not
+an heir, use the parted coat
+on a shield, a widow bearing
+the same upon the lozenge
+on which, when a spinster,
+she displayed her father&rsquo;s
+coat alone. When the wife is an heir, her arms are now borne in
+a little scocheon above those of her husband. If the husband&rsquo;s
+arms be in an unquartered shield the central charge is often
+hidden away by this scocheon.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" style="width: 50%;"><img style="width:250px; height:295px" src="images/img314a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:248px; height:284px" src="images/img314b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90">Shield of Beatrice Stafford
+from her seal (1404), showing her
+arms of Stafford between those
+of her husbands&mdash;Thomas, Lord
+Roos, and Sir Richard Burley.</td>
+<td class="tcl f90">Shield of John Talbot, first
+earl of Shrewsbury (d. 1453),
+showing four coats quartered.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">The practice of marshalling arms by quartering spread in
+England by reason of the example given by Eleanor, wife of
+Edward I., who displayed the castle of Castile quartered with the
+lion of Leon. Isabel of France, wife of Edward II., seals with a
+shield in whose four quarters are the arms of England, France,
+Navarre and Champagne. Early In the 14th century Simon de
+Montagu, an ancestor of the earls of Salisbury, quartered with his
+own arms a coat of azure with a golden griffon. In 1340 we
+have Laurence Hastings, earl of Pembroke, quartering with the
+Hastings arms the arms of Valence, as heir of his great-uncle
+Aymer, earl of Pembroke. In the preceding year the king had
+already asserted his claim to another kingdom by quartering
+France with England, and after this quartered shields became
+common in the great houses whose sons were carefully matched
+with heirs female. When the wife was an heir the husband
+would quarter her arms with his own, displaying, as a rule,
+the more important coat in the
+first quarter. Marshalling becomes
+more elaborate with shields
+showing both quarterings and
+partings, as in the seal (1368) of
+Sibil Arundel, where Arundel
+(Fitzalan) is quartered with
+Warenne and parted with the
+arms of Montagu. In all, save
+one, of these examples the quartering
+is in its simplest form,
+with one coat repeated in the
+first and fourth quarters of the
+shield and another in the second
+and third. But to a charter of 1434
+Sir Henry Bromflete sets a seal
+upon which Bromflete quarters
+Vesci in the second quarter, Aton
+in the third and St John in the fourth, after the fashion of the
+much earlier seal of Edward II.&rsquo;s queen. Another development
+is that of what armorists style the &ldquo;grand quarter,&rdquo; a quarter
+which is itself quartered, as in the shield of Reynold Grey of
+Ruthyn, which bears Grey in the first and fourth quarters and
+Hastings quartered with Valence in the third and fourth.
+Humphrey Bourchier, Lord Cromwell, in 1469, bears one grand
+quarter quartered with another, the first having Bourchier
+and Lovaine, the second Tatershall and Cromwell.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 290px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:238px; height:283px" src="images/img314c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">Shield of Richard Beauchamp,
+earl of Warwick, from his garter
+stall-plate (after 1423). The
+arms are Beauchamp quartering
+Newburgh, with a scocheon of
+Clare quartering Despenser.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The last detail to be noted in medieval marshalling is the
+introduction into the shield of another surmounting shield
+called by old armorists the &ldquo;innerscocheon&rdquo; and by modern
+blazoners the &ldquo;inescutcheon.&rdquo; John the Fearless, count of
+Flanders, marshalled his arms in 1409 as a quartered shield
+of the new and old coats of Burgundy. Above these coats a
+little scocheon, borne over the crossing of the quartering lines,
+had the black lion of Flanders, the arms of his mother. Richard
+Beauchamp, the adventurous earl of Warwick, who had seen
+most European courts during his wanderings, may have had
+this shield in mind when, over his arms of Beauchamp quartering
+Newburgh, he set a scocheon of Clare quartering Despenser,
+the arms of his wife Isabel Despenser, co-heir of the earls of
+Gloucester. The seal of his son-in-law, the King-Maker, shows
+four quarters&mdash;Beauchamp quartering Clare, Montagu quartering
+Monthermer, Nevill alone, and Newburgh quartering Despenser.
+An interesting use of the scocheon <i>en surtout</i> is that made by
+Richard Wydvile, Lord Rivers,
+whose garter stall-plate has a
+grand quarter of Wydvile and
+Prouz quartering Beauchamp of
+Hache, the whole surmounted
+by a scocheon with the arms of
+Reviers or Rivers, the house
+from which he took the title
+of his barony. On the continent
+the common use of the scocheon
+is to bear the paternal arms of a
+sovereign or noble, surmounting
+the quarterings of his kingdoms,
+principalities, fiefs or seigniories.
+Our own prince of Wales bears
+the arms of Saxony above those
+of the United Kingdom differenced
+with his silver label. Marshalling
+takes its most elaborate
+form, the most removed from
+the graceful simplicity of the
+middle ages, in such shields as the &ldquo;Great Arms&rdquo; of the
+Austrian empire, wherein are nine grand quarters each marshalling
+in various fashions from three to eleven coats, six of the
+grand-quarters bearing scocheons <i>en surtout</i>, each scocheon
+ensigned with a different crown.</p>
+
+<p><i>Crests.</i>&mdash;The most important accessory of the arms is the
+crested helm. Like the arms it has its pre-heraldic history in
+the crests of the Greek helmets, the wings, the wild boar&rsquo;s and
+bull&rsquo;s heads of Viking headpieces. A little roundel of the arms
+of a Japanese house was often borne as a crest in the Japanese
+helmet, stepped in a socket above the middle of the brim. The
+12th-century seal of Philip of Alsace, count of Flanders, shows
+a demi-lion painted or beaten on the side of the upper part of
+his helm, and on his seal of 1198 our own Richard C&oelig;ur de
+Lion&rsquo;s barrel-helm has a leopard upon the semicircular comb-ridge,
+the edge of which is set off with feathers arranged as
+two wings. Crests, however, came slowly into use in England,
+although before 1250 Roger de Quincy, earl of Winchester,
+is seen on his seal with a wyver upon his helm. Of the long roll
+of earls and barons sealing the famous letter to the pope in 1301
+only five show true crests on their seals. Two of them are the
+earl of Lancaster and his brother, each with a wyver crest like
+that of Quincy. One, and the most remarkable, is John St John
+of Halnaker, whose crest is a leopard standing between two
+upright palm branches. Ralph de Monthermer has an eagle
+crest, while Walter de Moncy&rsquo;s helm is surmounted by a fox-like
+beast. In three of these instances the crest is borne, as was often
+the case, by the horse as well as the rider. Others of these
+seals to the barons&rsquo; letter have the fan-shaped crest without
+any decoration upon it. But as the furniture of tournaments
+grew more magnificent the crest gave a new field for display,
+and many strange shapes appear in painted and gilded wood,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page315" id="page315"></a>315</span>
+metal, leather or parchment above the helms of the jousters.
+The Berkeleys, great patrons of abbeys, bore a mitre as their
+crest painted with their arms, like crests being sometimes seen
+on the continent where the wearer was <i>advocatus</i> of a bishopric
+or abbey. The whole or half figures or the heads and necks
+of beasts and birds were employed by other families. Saracens&rsquo;
+heads topped many helms, that of the great Chandos among them.
+Astley bore for his crest a silver harpy standing in marsh-sedge,
+a golden chain fastened to a crown about her neck. Dymoke
+played pleasantly on his name with a long-eared moke&rsquo;s scalp.
+Stanley took the eagle&rsquo;s nest in which the eagle is lighting
+down with a swaddled babe in his claws. Burnell had a burdock
+bush, la Vache a cow&rsquo;s leg, and Lisle&rsquo;s strange fancy was to
+perch a huge millstone on edge above his head. Many early
+helms, as that of Sir John Loterel, painted in the Loterel psalter,
+repeat the arms on the sides of a fan-crest. Howard bore for a
+crest his arms painted on a pair of wings, while simple &ldquo;bushes&rdquo;
+or feathers are seen in great plenty. The crest of a cadet is often
+differenced like the arms, and thus a wyver or a leopard will
+have a label about its neck. The Montagu griffon on the helm
+of John, marquess of Montagu, holds in its beak the gimel ring
+with which he differenced his father&rsquo;s shield. His brother,
+the King-Maker, following a custom commoner abroad than at
+home, shows two crested helms on his seal, one for Montagu
+and one for Beauchamp&mdash;none for his father&rsquo;s house of Nevill.
+It is often stated that a man, unless by some special grace or
+allowance, can have but one crest. This, however, is contrary
+to the spirit of medieval armory in which a man, inheriting the
+coat of arms of another house than his own, took with it all its
+belongings, crest, badge and the like. The heraldry books,
+with more reason, deny crests to women and to the clergy, but
+examples are not wanting of medieval seals in which even this
+rule is broken. It is perhaps unfair to cite the case of the bishops
+of Durham who ride in full harness on their palatinate seals; but
+Henry Despenser, bishop of Norwich, has a helm on which the
+winged griffon&rsquo;s head of his house springs from a mitre, while
+Alexander Nevill, archbishop of York, seals with shield, supporters
+and crowned and crested helm like those of any lay magnate.
+Richard Holt, a Northamptonshire clerk in holy orders, bears
+on his seal in the reign of Henry V. a shield of arms and a mantled
+helm with the crest of a collared greyhound&rsquo;s head. About the
+middle of the same century a seal cut for the wife of Thomas
+Chetwode, a Cheshire squire, has a shield of her husband&rsquo;s arms
+parted with her own and surmounted by a crowned helm with the
+crest of a demi-lion; and this is not the only example of such
+bearings by a woman.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:476px; height:448px" src="images/img315a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Ralph de Monthermer (1301), showing shield of arms, helm with
+crest and mantle, horse-crest and armorial trappers.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 220px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:174px; height:358px" src="images/img315b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">Shield and crested
+helm with hat and
+mantle of Thomas of
+Hengrave (1401).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Before passing from the crest let us note that in England the
+juncture of crest and helm was commonly covered, especially
+after the beginning of the 15th century, by a torse or &ldquo;wreath&rdquo;
+of silk, twisted with one, two or three colours. Coronets or
+crowns and &ldquo;hats of estate&rdquo; often take the place of the wreath as
+a base for the crest, and there are other curious variants. With
+the wreath may be considered the
+mantle, a hanging cloth which, in its
+earliest form, is seen as two strips of
+silk or sendal attached to the top of the
+helm below the crest and streaming
+like pennants as the rider bent his head
+and charged. Such strips are often
+displayed from the conical top of an
+uncrested helm, and some ancient examples
+have the air of the two ends of
+a stole or of the <i>infulae</i> of a bishop&rsquo;s
+mitre. The general opinion of antiquaries
+has been that the mantle
+originated among the crusaders as a
+protection for the steel helm from the
+rays of an Eastern sun; but the fact that
+mantles take in England their fuller
+form after our crusading days were over
+seems against this theory. When the
+fashion for slittering the edges of
+clothing came in, the edges of the
+mantle were slittered like the edge
+of the sleeve or skirt, and, flourished
+out on either side of the helm, it became the delight of
+the painter of armories and the seal engraver. A worthless
+tale, repeated by popular manuals, makes the slittered edge
+represent the shearing work of the enemy&rsquo;s sword, a fancy
+which takes no account of the like developments in civil dress.
+Modern heraldry in England paints the mantle with the principal
+colour of the shield, lining it with the principal metal. This in
+cases where no old grant of arms is cited as evidence of another
+usage. The mantles of the king and of the prince of Wales are,
+however, of gold lined with ermine and those of other members
+of the royal house of gold lined with silver. In ancient examples
+there is great variety and freedom. Where the crest is the head
+of a griffon or bird the feathering of the neck will be carried on
+to cover the mantle. Other mantles will be powdered with
+badges or with charges from the shield, others checkered, barred
+or paled. More than thirty of the mantles enamelled on the
+stall-plates of the medieval Garter-knights are of red with an
+ermine lining, tinctures which in most cases have no reference
+to the shields below them.</p>
+
+<p><i>Supporters.</i>&mdash;Shields of arms, especially upon seals, are
+sometimes figured as hung round the necks of eagles, lions,
+swans and griffons, as strapped between the horns of a hart or to
+the boughs of a tree. Badges may fill in the blank spaces at
+the sides between the shield and the inscription on the rim, but
+in the later 13th and early 14th centuries the commonest objects
+so serving are sprigs of plants, lions, leopards, or, still more
+frequently, lithe-necked wyvers. John of Segrave in 1301 flanks
+his shields with two of the sheaves of the older coat of Segrave:
+William Marshal of Hingham does the like with his two marshal&rsquo;s
+staves. Henry of Lancaster at the same time shows on his seal
+a shield and a helm crested with a wyver, with two like wyvers
+ranged on either side of the shield as &ldquo;supporters.&rdquo; It is
+uncertain at what time in the 14th century these various fashions
+crystallize into the recognized use of beasts, birds, reptiles, men
+or inanimate objects, definitely chosen as &ldquo;supporters&rdquo; of the
+shield, and not to be taken as the ornaments suggested by the
+fancy of the seal engraver. That supporters originate in the
+decoration of the seal there can be little doubt. Some writers,
+the learned Menêtrier among them, will have it that they were
+first the fantastically clad fellows who supported and displayed
+the knight&rsquo;s shield at the opening of the tournament. If the
+earliest supporters were wild men, angels or Saracens, this theory
+might be defended; but lions, boars and talbots, dogs and trees
+are guises into which a man would put himself with difficulty.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page316" id="page316"></a>316</span>
+By the middle of the 14th century we find what are clearly
+recognizable as supporters. These, as in a lesser degree the
+crest, are often personal rather than hereditary, being changed
+generation by generation. The same person is found using more
+than one pair of them. The kings of France have had angels as
+supporters of the shield of the fleurs de lys since the 15th century,
+but the angels have only taken their place as the sole royal
+supporters since the time of Louis XIV. Sovereigns of
+England from Henry IV. to Elizabeth changed about between
+supporters of harts, leopards, antelopes, bulls, greyhounds, boars
+and dragons. James I. at his accession to the English throne
+brought the Scottish unicorn to face the English leopard rampant
+across his shield, and, ever since, the &ldquo;lion and unicorn&rdquo; have
+been the royal supporters.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:530px; height:577px" src="images/img316a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Arms of William, Lord Hastings, from his seal (1477), showing
+shield, crowned and crested helm with mantle and supporters.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:450px; height:258px" src="images/img316b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" style="width: 50%;"> Badge of John of Whethamstede,<br />
+abbot of St Albans (d. 1465), from<br />
+his tomb in the abbey church.</td>
+<td class="caption">Rudder badge of
+Willoughby.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>An old herald wrote as his opinion that &ldquo;there is little or
+nothing in precedent to direct the use of supporters.&rdquo; Modern
+custom gives them, as a rule, only to peers, to knights of the
+Garter, the Thistle and St Patrick, and to knights who are &ldquo;Grand
+Crosses&rdquo; or Grand Commanders of other orders. Royal
+warrants are sometimes issued for the granting of supporters
+to baronets, and, in rare cases, they have been assigned to untitled
+persons. But in spite of the jealousy with which official
+heraldry hedges about the display of these supporters once
+assumed so freely, a few old English families still assert their
+right by hereditary prescription to use these ornaments as their
+forefathers were wont to use them.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 250px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:196px; height:230px" src="images/img316c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">Badge of Dacre of
+Gilsland and Dacre of the
+North.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Badges.</i>&mdash;The badge may claim a greater antiquity and a
+wider use than armorial bearings. The &ldquo;Plantagenet&rdquo; broom
+is an early example in England, sprigs
+of it being figured on the seal of
+Richard I. In the 14th and 15th centuries
+every magnate had his badge,
+which he displayed on his horse-furniture,
+on the hangings of his bed,
+his wall and his chair of state, besides
+giving it as a &ldquo;livery&rdquo; to his servants
+and followers. Such were the knots of
+Stafford, Bourchier and Wake, the
+scabbard-crampet of La Warr, the
+sickle of Hungerford, the swan of
+Toesni, Bohun and Lancaster, the dun-bull
+of Nevill, the blue boar of Vere and
+the bear and ragged staff of Beauchamp,
+Nevill of Warwick and Dudley of Northumberland. So well
+known of all were these symbols that a political ballad of 1449
+sings of the misfortunes of the great lords without naming one
+of them, all men understanding what signified the Falcon, the
+Water Bowge and the Cresset and the other badges of the
+doggerel. More famous still were the White
+Hart, the Red Rose, the White Rose, the
+Sun, the Falcon and Fetterlock, the Portcullis
+and the many other badges of the
+royal house. We still call those wars that
+blotted out the old baronage the Wars of
+the Roses, and the Prince of Wales&rsquo;s feathers
+are as well known to-day as the royal arms.
+The Flint and Steel of Burgundy make a
+collar for the order of the Golden Fleece.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:136px; height:406px" src="images/img316d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">Ostrich feather
+badge of Beaufort,
+from a garter stall-plate
+of 1440. The
+silver feather has
+a quill gobony
+silver and azure.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Mottoes.</i>&mdash;The motto now accompanies
+every coat of arms in these islands. Few of
+these Latin aphorisms, these bald assertions
+of virtue, high courage, patriotism, piety and
+loyalty have any antiquity. Some few, however,
+like the &ldquo;Espérance&rdquo; of Percy, were
+the war-cries of remote ancestors. &ldquo;I mak&rsquo;
+sicker&rdquo; of Kirkpatrick recalls pridefully a
+bloody deed done on a wounded man,
+and the &ldquo;Dieu Ayde,&rdquo; &ldquo;Agincourt&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;D&rsquo;Accomplir Agincourt&rdquo; of the Irish
+&ldquo;Montmorencys&rdquo; and the English Wodehouses
+and Dalisons, glorious traditions
+based upon untrustworthy genealogy. The
+often-quoted punning mottoes may be illustrated
+by that of Cust, who says &ldquo;Qui
+Cust-odit caveat,&rdquo; a modern example and a
+fair one. Ancient mottoes as distinct from
+the war or gathering cry of a house are often cryptic sentences
+whose meaning might be known to the user and perchance to
+his mistress. Such are the &ldquo;Plus est en vous&rdquo; of Louis de
+Bruges, the Flemish earl of Winchester, and the &ldquo;So have I
+cause&rdquo; and &ldquo;Till then thus&rdquo; of two Englishmen. The word
+motto is of modern use, our forefathers speaking rather of their
+&ldquo;word&rdquo; or of their &ldquo;reason.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><i>Coronets of Rank.</i>&mdash;Among accessories of the shield may now
+be counted the coronets of peers, whose present form is post-medieval.
+When Edward III. made dukes of his sons, gold
+circlets were set upon their heads in token of their new dignity.
+In 1385 John de Vere, marquess of Dublin, was created in the
+same fashion. Edward VI. extended the honour of the gold
+circle to earls. Caps of honour were worn with these circles or
+coronets, and viscounts wore the cap by appointment of James I.,
+Vincent the herald stating that &ldquo;a verge of pearls on top of
+the circulet of gold&rdquo; was added at the creation of Robert Cecil
+as Viscount Cranborne. At the coronation of Charles I. the
+viscounts walked in procession with their caps and coronets.
+A few days before the coronation of Charles II. the privilege
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page317" id="page317"></a>317</span>
+of the cap of honour was given to the lowest rank of the peerage,
+and letters patent of January 1661 assign to them both cap and
+coronet. The caps of velvet turned up with miniver, which are
+now always worn with the peer&rsquo;s coronet, are therefore the ancient
+caps of honour, akin to that &ldquo;cap of maintenance&rdquo; worn by
+English sovereigns on their coronation days when walking to the
+Abbey Church, and borne before them on occasions of royal state.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate II.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:829px; height:1106px" src="images/img316e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">SIXTEEN SHIELDS FROM A ROLL OF ARMS OF ENGLISH KNIGHTS AND BARONS MADE BY AN ENGLISH PAINTER EARLY IN THE REIGN OF EDWARD III.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Drawn by William Gibb.</i></td>
+<td class="tcr f80"><i>Niagara Litho. Co., Buffalo, N. Y.</i></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">The ancient circles were enriched according to the taste of
+the bearer, and, although used at creations as symbols of the
+rank conferred, were worn in the 14th and 15th centuries by men
+and women of rank without the use signifying a rank in the
+peerage. Edmund, earl of March, in his will of 1380, named his
+<i>sercle ove roses, emeraudes et rubies d&rsquo;alisaundre en les roses</i>, and
+bequeathed it to his daughter. Modern coronets are of silver-gilt,
+without jewels, set upon caps of crimson velvet turned up with
+ermine, with a gold tassel at the top. A duke&rsquo;s coronet has the
+circle decorated with eight gold &ldquo;strawberry leaves&rdquo;; that of
+a marquess has four gold strawberry leaves and four silver balls.
+The coronet of an earl has eight silver balls, raised upon points,
+with gold strawberry leaves between the points. A viscount&rsquo;s
+coronet has on the circle sixteen silver balls, and a baron&rsquo;s coronet
+six silver balls. On the continent the modern use of coronets
+is not ordered in the precise English fashion, men of gentle birth
+displaying coronets which afford but slight indication of the
+bearer&rsquo;s rank.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lines.</i>&mdash;Eleven varieties of lines, other than straight lines,
+which divide the shield, or edge our cheverons, pales, bars and
+the like, are pictured in the heraldry books and named as engrailed,
+embattled, indented, invected, wavy or undy, nebuly,
+dancetty, raguly, potenté, dovetailed and urdy.</p>
+
+<p>As in the case of many other such lists of the later armorists
+these eleven varieties need some pruning and a new explanation.</p>
+
+<p>The most commonly found is the line engrailed, which for the
+student of medieval armory must be associated with the line
+indented. In its earliest form the line which a roll of arms will
+describe indifferently as indented or engrailed takes almost
+invariably the form to which the name indented is restricted
+by modern armorists.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 310px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:259px; height:146px" src="images/img317a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Mohun.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The cross may serve as our first example. A cross, engrailed
+or indented, the words being used indifferently, is a cross so
+deeply notched at the edges that it seems made up of so many
+lozenge-shaped wedges or fusils. About the middle of the 14th
+century begins a tendency, resisted in practice by many conservative
+families, to draw the engrailing lines in the fashion to which
+modern armorists restrict the word &ldquo;engrailed,&rdquo; making
+shallower indentures in the form of lines of half circles. Thus
+the engrailed cross of the
+Mohuns takes either of the
+two forms which we illustrate.
+Bends follow the same fashion,
+early bends engrailed or indented
+being some four or
+more fusils joined bendwise by
+their blunt sides, bends of less
+than four fusils being very rare.
+Thus also the engrailed or indented
+saltires, pales or cheverons, the exact number of the fusils
+which go to the making of these being unconsidered. For the fesse
+there is another law. The fesse indented or engrailed is made up
+of fusils as is the engrailed bend. But although early rolls of
+arms sometimes neglect this detail in their blazon, the fusils
+making a fesse must always be of an ascertained number.
+Montagu, earl of Salisbury, bore a fesse engrailed or indented
+of three fusils only, very few shields imitating this. Medieval
+armorists will describe his arms as a fesse indented of three
+indentures, as a fesse fusilly of three pieces, or as a fesse engrailed
+of three points or pieces, all of these blazons having the same
+value. The indented fesse on the red shield of the Dynhams
+has four such fusils of ermine. Four, however, is almost as rare
+a number as three, the normal form of a fesse indented being that
+of five fusils as borne by Percys, Pinkenys, Newmarches and
+many other ancient houses. Indeed, accuracy of blazon is served
+if the number of fusils in a fesse be named in the cases of threes
+and fours. Fesses of six fusils are not to be found. Note that
+bars indented or engrailed are, for a reason which will be evident,
+never subject to this counting of fusils. Fauconberg, for
+example, bore &ldquo;Silver with two bars engrailed, or indented,
+sable.&rdquo; Displayed on a shield of the flat-iron outline, the
+lower bar would show fewer fusils than the upper, while on a
+square banner each bar would have an equal number&mdash;usually
+five or six.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:517px; height:144px" src="images/img317b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Montagu.</td>
+<td class="caption">Dynham.</td>
+<td class="caption">Percy.</td>
+<td class="caption">Fauconberg.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>While bends, cheverons, crosses, saltires and pales often
+follow, especially in the 15th century, the tendency towards the
+rounded &ldquo;engrailing,&rdquo; fesses keep, as a rule, their bold indentures&mdash;neither
+Percy nor Montagu being ever found with his bearings
+in aught but their ancient form. Borders take the newer fashion
+as leaving more room for the charges of the field. But indented
+chiefs do not change their fashion, although many saw-teeth
+sometimes take the place of the three or four strong points of
+early arms, and parti-coloured shields whose party line is indented
+never lose the bold zig-zag.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 170px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:123px; height:144px" src="images/img317c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">West.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>While bearing in mind that the two words have no distinctive
+force in ancient armory, the student and the herald of modern
+times may conveniently allow himself to blazon the sharp and
+saw-toothed line as &ldquo;indented&rdquo; and the scolloped line as
+&ldquo;engrailed,&rdquo; especially when dealing with the debased armory
+in which the distinction is held to be a true one and one of the
+first importance. One error at least he must avoid, and that
+is the following of the heraldry-book compilers in their use of the
+word &ldquo;dancetty.&rdquo; A &ldquo;dancetty&rdquo; line, we are told, is a line
+having fewer and deeper indentures than the line indented. But
+no dancetty line could make a bolder dash across the shield than
+do the lines which the old armorists recognized as &ldquo;indented.&rdquo;
+In old armory we have fesses dancy&mdash;commonly
+called &ldquo;dances&rdquo;&mdash;bends dancy, or cheverons
+dancy; there are no chiefs dancy nor borders
+dancy, nor are there shields blazoned as parted
+with a dancy line. Waved lines, battled lines
+and ragged lines need little explanation that a
+picture cannot give. The word invecked or
+invected is sometimes applied by old-fashioned
+heraldic pedants to engrailed lines; later
+pedants have given it to a line found in
+modern grants of arms, an engrailed line reversed. Dove-tailed
+and urdy lines are mere modernisms. Of the very
+rare nebuly or clouded line we can only say that the ancient
+form, which imitated the conventional cloud-bank of the old
+painters, is now almost forgotten, while the bold &ldquo;wavy&rdquo; lines
+of early armory have the word &ldquo;nebuly&rdquo; misapplied to them.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Ordinary Charges.</i>&mdash;The writers upon armory have given
+the name of Ordinaries to certain conventional figures commonly
+charged upon shields. Also they affect to divide these into
+Honourable Ordinaries and Sub-Ordinaries without explaining
+the reason for the superior honour of the Saltire or for the
+subordination of the Quarter. Disregarding such distinctions,
+we may begin with the description of the &ldquo;Ordinaries&rdquo; most
+commonly to be found.</p>
+
+<p>From the first the Cross was a common bearing on English
+shields, &ldquo;Silver a cross gules&rdquo; being given early to St George,
+patron of knights and of England, for his arms; and under St
+George&rsquo;s red cross the English were wont to fight. Our armorial
+crosses took many shapes, but the &ldquo;crosses innumerabill&rdquo;
+of the Book of St Albans and its successors may be left to the
+heraldic dictionary makers who have devised them. It is more
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page318" id="page318"></a>318</span>
+important to define those forms in use during the middle ages,
+and to name them accurately after the custom of those who bore
+them in war, a task which the heraldry books have never as yet
+attempted with success.</p>
+
+<p>The cross in its simple form needs no definition, but it will be
+noted that it is sometimes borne &ldquo;voided&rdquo; and that in a very
+few cases it appears as a lesser charge with its ends cut off square,
+in which case it must be clearly blazoned as &ldquo;a plain Cross.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Andrew Harcla, the march-warden, whom Edward II. made an
+earl and executed as a traitor, bore the arms of St George with a
+martlet sable in the quarter.</p>
+
+<p>Crevequer of Kent bore &ldquo;Gold a voided cross gules.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Newsom (14th century) bore &ldquo;Azure a fesse silver with three plain
+crosses gules.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:530px; height:151px" src="images/img318a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">St George.</td>
+<td class="caption">Harcla.</td>
+<td class="caption">Crevequer.</td>
+<td class="caption">Latimer.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Next to the plain Cross may be taken the Cross paty, the
+<i>croiz patee</i> or <i>pate</i> of old rolls of arms. It has several forms,
+according to the taste of the artist and the age. So, in the
+13th and early 14th centuries, its limbs curve out broadly, while
+at a later date the limbs become more slender and of even breadth,
+the ends somewhat resembling fleurs-de-lys. Each of these forms
+has been seized by the heraldic writers as the type of a distinct
+cross for which a name must be found, none of them, as a rule,
+being recognized as a cross paty, a word which has its misapplication
+elsewhere. Thus the books have &ldquo;cross patonce&rdquo; for the
+earlier form, while &ldquo;cross clechée&rdquo; and &ldquo;cross fleurie&rdquo; serve
+for the others. But the true identification of the various crosses
+is of the first importance to the antiquary, since without it
+descriptions of the arms on early seals or monuments must needs
+be valueless. Many instances of this need might be cited from
+the British Museum catalogue of seals, where, for example,
+the cross paty of Latimer is described twice as a &ldquo;cross flory,&rdquo;
+six times as a &ldquo;cross patonce,&rdquo; but not once by its own name,
+although there is no better known example of this bearing in
+England.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Latimer bore &ldquo;Gules a cross paty gold.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The cross formy follows the lines of the cross paty save that its
+broadening ends are cut off squarely.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Chetwode bore &ldquo;Quarterly silver and gules with four crosses formy
+countercoloured&rdquo;&mdash;that is to say, the two crosses in the gules are
+of silver and the two in the silver of gules.</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 180px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:126px; height:150px" src="images/img318b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Mill-rinds.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The cross flory or flowered cross, the &ldquo;cross with the ends
+flowered&rdquo;&mdash;<i>od les boutes floretes</i> as some of the old rolls have
+it&mdash;is, like the cross paty, a mark for the misapprehension of
+writers on armory, who describe some shapes of the cross paty
+by its name. Playing upon discovered or fancied variants of the
+word, they bid us mark the distinctions between crosses &ldquo;fleur-de-lisée,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;fleury&rdquo; and &ldquo;fleurettée,&rdquo; although each author has
+his own version of the value which must be given these precious
+words. But the facts of the medieval practice are clear to those
+who take their armory from ancient examples
+and not from phrases plagiarized from the
+hundredth plagiarist. The flowered cross is one
+whose limbs end in fleur-de-lys, which spring
+sometimes from a knop or bud but more frequently
+issue from the square ends of a cross of
+the &ldquo;formy&rdquo; type.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Swynnerton bore &ldquo;Silver a flowered cross sable.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The mill-rind, which takes its name from the
+iron of a mill-stone&mdash;<i>fer de moline</i>&mdash;must be set with the
+crosses. Some of the old rolls call it <i>croiz recercele</i>, from which
+armorial writers have leaped to imagine a distinct type. Also
+they call the mill-rind itself a &ldquo;cross moline&rdquo; keeping the word
+mill-rind for a charge having the same origin but of somewhat
+differing form. Since this charge became common in Tudor
+armory it is perhaps better that the original mill-rind should
+be called for distinction a mill-rind cross.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Willoughby bore &ldquo;Gules a mill-rind cross silver.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:528px; height:146px" src="images/img318c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Chetwode.</td>
+<td class="caption">Swynnerton.</td>
+<td class="caption">Willoughby.</td>
+<td class="caption">Brerelegh.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The crosslet, cross botonny or cross crosletted, is a cross whose
+limbs, of even breadth, end as trefoils or treble buds. It is
+rarely found in medieval examples in the shape&mdash;that of a cross
+with limbs ending in squarely cut plain crosses&mdash;which it took
+during the 16th-century decadence. As the sole charge of a
+shield it is very rare; otherwise it is one of the commonest of
+charges.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Brerelegh bore &ldquo;Silver a crosslet gules.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Within these modest limits we have brought the greater part
+of that monstrous host of crosses which cumber the dictionaries.
+A few rare varieties may be noticed.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Dukinfield bore &ldquo;Silver a voided cross with sharpened ends.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Skirlaw, bishop of Durham (d. 1406), the son of a basket-weaver,
+bore &ldquo;Silver a cross of three upright wattles sable, crossed and
+interwoven by three more.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Drury bore &ldquo;Silver a chief vert with a St Anthony&rsquo;s cross gold
+between two golden molets, pierced gules.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Brytton bore &ldquo;Gold a patriarch&rsquo;s cross set upon three degrees or
+steps of gules.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Hurlestone of Cheshire bore &ldquo;Silver a cross of four ermine tails
+sable.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Melton bore &ldquo;Silver a Toulouse cross gules.&rdquo; By giving this cross
+a name from the counts of Toulouse, its best-known bearers, some
+elaborate blazonry is spared.</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:527px; height:148px" src="images/img318d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Skirlaw.</td>
+<td class="caption">Drury.</td>
+<td class="caption">St Anthony&rsquo;s Cross.</td>
+<td class="caption">Brytton.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The crosses paty and formy, and more especially the crosslets,
+are often borne fitchy, that is to say, with the lower limb somewhat
+lengthened and ending in a point, for which reason the
+15th-century writers call these &ldquo;crosses fixabill.&rdquo; In the 14th-century
+rolls the word &ldquo;potent&rdquo; is sometimes used for these
+crosses fitchy, the long foot suggesting a potent or staff. From
+this source modern English armorists derive many of their
+&ldquo;crosses potent,&rdquo; whose four arms have the <b>T</b> heads of old-fashioned
+walking staves.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Howard bore &ldquo;Silver a bend between six crosslets fitchy gules.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Scott of Congerhurst in Kent bore &ldquo;Silver a crosslet fitchy sable.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:527px; height:147px" src="images/img318e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Hurlestone.</td>
+<td class="caption">Melton.</td>
+<td class="caption">Howard.</td>
+<td class="caption">Scott.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The Saltire is the cross in the form of that on which St Andrew
+suffered, whence it is borne on the banner of Scotland, and by
+the Andrew family of Northamptonshire.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Nevile of Raby bore &ldquo;Gules a saltire silver.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Nicholas Upton, the 15th-century writer on armory, bore &ldquo;Silver
+a saltire sable with the ends couped and five golden rings thereon.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page319" id="page319"></a>319</span></p>
+
+<p>Aynho bore &ldquo;Sable a saltire silver having the ends flowered between
+four leopards gold.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Mayster Elwett of Yorke chyre&rdquo; in a 15th-century roll bears
+&ldquo;Silver a saltire of chains sable with a crescent in the chief.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:516px; height:145px" src="images/img319a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Nevile.</td>
+<td class="caption">Upton.</td>
+<td class="caption">Aynho.</td>
+<td class="caption">Elwett.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Restwolde bore &ldquo;Party saltirewise of gules and ermine.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 170px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:120px; height:146px" src="images/img319b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Fenwick.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The chief is the upper part of the shield and, marked out by a
+line of division, it is taken as one of the Ordinaries. Shields
+with a plain chief and no more are rare in England, but Tichborne
+of Tichborne has borne since the 13th century &ldquo;Vair a chief
+gold.&rdquo; According to the heraldry books the
+chief should be marked off as a third part of
+the shield, but its depth varies, being broader
+when charged with devices and narrower
+when, itself uncharged, it surmounts a charged
+field. Fenwick bore &ldquo;Silver a chief gules
+with six martlets countercoloured,&rdquo; and in this
+case the chief would be the half of the shield.
+Clinging to the belief that the chief must not
+fill more than a third of the shield, the heraldry
+books abandon the word in such cases, blazoning them as &ldquo;party
+per fesse.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Hastang bore &ldquo;Azure a chief gules and a lion with a forked tail
+over all.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Walter Kingston seals in the 13th century with a shield of &ldquo;Two
+rings or annelets in the chief.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Hilton of Westmoreland bore &ldquo;Sable three rings gold and two
+saltires silver in the chief.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>With the chief may be named the Foot, the nether part of the
+shield marked off as an Ordinary. So rare is this charge that
+we can cite but one example of it, that of the shield of John
+of Skipton, who in the 14th century bore &ldquo;Silver with the foot
+indented purple and a lion purple.&rdquo; The foot, however, is a
+recognized bearing in France, whose heralds gave it the name
+of <i>champagne</i>.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:517px; height:148px" src="images/img319c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Restwolde.</td>
+<td class="caption">Hastang.</td>
+<td class="caption">Hilton.</td>
+<td class="caption">Provence.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The Pale is a broad stripe running the length of the shield.
+Of a single pale and of three pales there are several old examples.
+Four red pales in a golden shield were borne by Eleanor of
+Provence, queen of Henry III.; but the number did not commend
+itself to English armorists. When the field is divided
+evenly into six pales it is said to be paly; if into four or eight
+pales, it is blazoned as paly of that number of pieces. But paly
+of more or less than six pieces is rarely found.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The Yorkshire house of Gascoigne bore &ldquo;Silver a pale sable with
+a golden conger&rsquo;s head thereon, cut off at the shoulder.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Ferlington bore &ldquo;Gules three pales vair and a chief gold.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Strelley bore &ldquo;Paly silver and azure.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Rothinge bore &ldquo;Paly silver and gules of eight pieces.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>When the shield or charge is divided palewise down the middle
+into two tinctures it is said to be &ldquo;party.&rdquo; &ldquo;Party silver
+and gules&rdquo; are the arms of the Waldegraves. Bermingham
+bore &ldquo;Party silver and sable indented.&rdquo; Caldecote bore &ldquo;Party
+silver and azure with a chief gules.&rdquo; Such partings of the
+field often cut through charges whose colours change about on
+either side of the parting line. Thus Chaucer the poet bore
+&ldquo;Party silver and gules with a bend countercoloured.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:517px; height:146px" src="images/img319d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Gascoigne.</td>
+<td class="caption">Ferlington.</td>
+<td class="caption">Strelley.</td>
+<td class="caption">Rothinge.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The Fesse is a band athwart the shield, filling, according to the
+rules of the heraldic writers, a third part of it. By ancient use,
+however, as in the case of the chief and pale, its width varies
+with the taste of the painter, narrowing when set in a field full
+of charges and broadening when charges are displayed on itself.
+When two or three fesses are borne they are commonly called
+Bars. &ldquo;Ermine <i>four</i> bars gules&rdquo; is given as the shield of Sir
+John Sully, a 14th-century Garter knight, on his stall-plate
+at Windsor: but the plate belongs to a later generation, and
+should probably have three bars only. Little bars borne in
+couples are styled Gemels (twins). The field divided into an
+even number of bars of alternate colours is said to be barry,
+barry of six pieces being the normal number. If four or eight
+divisions be found the number of pieces must be named; but with
+ten or more divisions the number is unreckoned and &ldquo;burely&rdquo;
+is the word.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:515px; height:147px" src="images/img319e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Bermingham.</td>
+<td class="caption">Caldecote.</td>
+<td class="caption">Colevile.</td>
+<td class="caption">Fauconberg.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Colevile of Bitham bore &ldquo;Gold a fesse gules.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>West bore &ldquo;Silver a dance (or fesse dancy) sable.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Fauconberg bore &ldquo;Gold a fesse azure with three pales gules in the
+chief.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Cayvile bore &ldquo;Silver a fesse gules, flowered on both sides.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:517px; height:146px" src="images/img319f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Cayvile.</td>
+<td class="caption">Devereux.</td>
+<td class="caption">Chamberlayne.</td>
+<td class="caption">Harcourt.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Devereux bore &ldquo;Gules a fesse silver with three roundels silver in
+the chief.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Chamberlayne of Northamptonshire bore &ldquo;Gules a fesse and three
+scallops gold.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Harcourt bore &ldquo;Gules two bars gold.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Manners bore &ldquo;Gold two bars azure and a chief gules.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Wake bore &ldquo;Gold two bars gules with three roundels gules in the
+chief.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Bussy bore &ldquo;Silver three bars sable.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Badlesmere of Kent bore &ldquo;Silver a fesse between two gemels
+gules.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Melsanby bore &ldquo;Sable two gemels and a chief silver.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:518px; height:147px" src="images/img319g.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Manners.</td>
+<td class="caption">Wake.</td>
+<td class="caption">Melsanby.</td>
+<td class="caption">Grey.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Grey bore &ldquo;Barry of silver and azure.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Fitzalan of Bedale bore &ldquo;Barry of eight pieces gold and gules.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Stutevile bore &ldquo;Burely of silver and gules.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page320" id="page320"></a>320</span></p>
+
+<p>The Bend is a band traversing the shield aslant, arms with
+one, two or three bends being common during the middle ages
+in England. Bendy shields follow the rule of shields paly and
+barry, but as many as ten pieces have been counted in them.
+The bend is often accompanied by a narrow bend on either
+side, these companions being called Cotices. A single narrow
+bend, struck over all other charges, is the Baston, which during
+the 13th and 14th centuries was a common difference for the
+shields of the younger branches of a family, coming in later
+times to suggest itself as a difference for bastards.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:528px; height:151px" src="images/img320a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Fitzalan of Bedale.</td>
+<td class="caption">Mauley.</td>
+<td class="caption">Harley.</td>
+<td class="caption">Wallop.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The Bend Sinister, the bend drawn from right to left beginning
+at the &ldquo;sinister&rdquo; corner of the shield, is reckoned in the heraldry
+books as a separate Ordinary, and has a peculiar significance
+accorded to it by novelists. Medieval English seals afford
+a group of examples of Bends Sinister and Bastons Sinister,
+but there seems no reason for taking them as anything more
+than cases in which the artist has neglected the common rule.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Mauley bore &ldquo;Gold a bend sable.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Harley bore &ldquo;Gold a bend with two cotices sable.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Wallop bore &ldquo;Silver a bend wavy sable.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Ralegh bore &ldquo;Gules a bend indented, or engrailed, silver.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:527px; height:152px" src="images/img320b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Ralegh.</td>
+<td class="caption">Tracy.</td>
+<td class="caption">Bodrugan.</td>
+<td class="caption">St Philibert.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Tracy bore &ldquo;Gold two bends gules with a scallop sable in the chief
+between the bends.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Bodrugan bore &ldquo;Gules three bends sable.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>St Philibert bore &ldquo;Bendy of six pieces, silver and azure.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Bishopsdon bore &ldquo;Bendy of six pieces, gold and azure, with a
+quarter ermine.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Montfort of Whitchurch bore &ldquo;Bendy of ten pieces gold and
+azure.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:530px; height:149px" src="images/img320c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Bishopsdon.</td>
+<td class="caption">Montfort.</td>
+<td class="caption">Lancaster.</td>
+<td class="caption">Fraunceys.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Henry of Lancaster, second son of Edmund Crouchback, bore the
+arms of his cousin, the king of England, with the difference of &ldquo;a
+baston azure.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Adam Fraunceys (14th century) bore &ldquo;Party gold and sable
+bendwise with a lion countercoloured.&rdquo; The parting line is here
+commonly shown as &ldquo;sinister.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Cheveron, a word found In medieval building accounts
+for the barge-boards of a gable, is an Ordinary whose form is
+explained by its name. Perhaps the very earliest of English
+armorial charges, and familiarized by the shield of the great
+house of Clare, it became exceedingly popular in England.
+Like the bend and the chief, its width varies in different examples.
+Likewise its angle varies, being sometimes so acute as to touch
+the top of the shield, while in post-medieval armory the point
+is often blunted beyond the right angle. One, two or three
+cheverons occur in numberless shields, and five cheverons have
+been found. Also there are some examples of the bearing of
+cheveronny.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The earls of Gloucester of the house of Clare bore &ldquo;Gold three
+cheverons gules&rdquo; and the Staffords derived from them their shield of
+&ldquo;Gold a cheveron gules.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Chaworth bore &ldquo;Azure two cheverons gold.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Peytevyn bore &ldquo;Cheveronny of ermine and gules.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>St Quintin of Yorkshire bore &ldquo;Gold two cheverons gules and a
+chief vair.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Sheffield bore &ldquo;Ermine a cheveron gules between three sheaves
+gold.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Cobham of Kent bore &ldquo;Gules a cheveron gold with three fleurs-de-lys
+azure thereon.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Fitzwalter bore &ldquo;Gold a fesse between two cheverons gules.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:527px; height:149px" src="images/img320d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Chaworth.</td>
+<td class="caption">Peytevyn.</td>
+<td class="caption">Sheffield.</td>
+<td class="caption">Cobham.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Shields parted cheveronwise are common in the 15th century,
+when they are often blazoned as having chiefs &ldquo;enty&rdquo; or
+grafted. Aston of Cheshire bore &ldquo;Party sable and silver cheveronwise&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;Silver a chief enty sable.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The Pile or stake (<i>estache</i>) is a wedge-shaped figure jutting
+from the chief to the foot of the shield, its name allied to the
+pile of the bridge-builder. A single pile is found in the notable
+arms of Chandos, and the black piles in the ermine shield of
+Hollis are seen as an example of the bearing of two piles. Three
+piles are more easily found, and when more than one is represented
+the points are brought together at the foot. In ancient armory
+piles in a shield are sometimes reckoned as a variety of pales,
+and a Basset with three piles on his shield is seen with three
+pales on his square banner.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Chandos bore &ldquo;Gold a pile gules.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Bryene bore &ldquo;Gold three piles azure.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Quarter is the space of the first quarter of the shield
+divided crosswise into four parts. As an Ordinary it is an
+ancient charge and a common one in medieval England, although
+it has all but disappeared from modern heraldry books, the
+&ldquo;Canton,&rdquo; an alleged &ldquo;diminutive,&rdquo; unknown to early armory,
+taking its place. Like the other Ordinaries, its size is found
+to vary with the scheme of the shield&rsquo;s charges, and this has
+persuaded those armorists who must needs call a narrow bend
+a &ldquo;bendlet,&rdquo; to the invention of the &ldquo;Canton,&rdquo; a word which
+in the sense of a quarter or small quarter appears for the first
+time in the latter part of the 15th century. Writers of the
+14th century sometimes give it the name of the Cantel, but this
+word is also applied to the void space on the opposite side of
+the chief, seen above a bend.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:528px; height:149px" src="images/img320e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Aston.</td>
+<td class="caption">Hollis.</td>
+<td class="caption">Bryene.</td>
+<td class="caption">Blencowe.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Blencowe bore &ldquo;Gules a quarter silver.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Basset of Drayton bore &ldquo;Gold three piles (or pales) gules with a
+quarter ermine.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Wydvile bore &ldquo;Silver a fesse and a quarter gules.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Odingseles bore &ldquo;Silver a fesse gules with a molet gules in the
+quarter.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Robert Dene of Sussex (14th century) bore &ldquo;Gules a quarter
+azure &lsquo;embelif,&rsquo; or aslant, and thereon a sleeved arm and hand of
+silver.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Shields or charges divided crosswise with a downward line
+and a line athwart are said to be quarterly. An ancient coat
+of this fashion is that of Say who bore (13th century) &ldquo;Quarterly
+gold and gules&rdquo;&mdash;the first and fourth quarters being gold and
+the second and third red. Ever or Eure bore the same with the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page321" id="page321"></a>321</span>
+addition of &ldquo;a bend sable with three silver scallops thereon.&rdquo;
+Phelip, Lord Bardolf, bore &ldquo;Quarterly gules and silver with an
+eagle gold in the quarter.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate III.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:818px; height:1125px" src="images/img320f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">SHIELDS OF ARMS OF &ldquo;LE ROY DARRABE,&rdquo; &ldquo;LE ROY DE TARSSE,&rdquo; AND OTHER SOVEREIGNS. MOSTLY MYTHICAL. TAKEN FROM A
+ROLL OF ARMS MADE BY AN ENGLISH PAINTER IN THE TIME OF HENRY VI.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Drawn by William Gibb.</i></td>
+<td class="tcr f80"><i>Niagara Litho. Co., Buffalo, N. Y.</i></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:516px; height:143px" src="images/img321a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Basset.</td>
+<td class="caption">Wydvile.</td>
+<td class="caption">Odingseles.</td>
+<td class="caption">Ever.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>With the 15th century came a fashion of dividing the shield
+into more than four squares, six and nine divisions being often
+found in arms of that age. The heraldry books, eager to work
+out problems of blazonry, decide that a shield divided into
+six squares should be described as &ldquo;Party per fesse with a pale
+counterchanged,&rdquo; and one divided into nine squares as bearing
+&ldquo;a cross quarter-pierced.&rdquo; It seems a simpler business to
+follow a 15th-century fashion and to blazon such shields as
+being of six or nine &ldquo;pieces.&rdquo; Thus John Garther (15th century)
+bore &ldquo;Nine pieces erminees and ermine&rdquo; and Whitgreave of
+Staffordshire &ldquo;Nine pieces of azure and of Stafford&rsquo;s arms,
+which are gold with a cheveron gules.&rdquo; The Tallow Chandlers
+of London had a grant in 1456 of &ldquo;Six pieces azure and silver
+with three doves in the azure, each with an olive sprig in her
+beak.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Squared into more than nine squares the shield becomes
+checky or checkered and the number is not reckoned. Warenne&rsquo;s
+checker of gold and azure is one of the most ancient coats in
+England and checkered fields and charges follow in great numbers.
+Even lions have been borne checkered.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Warenne bore &ldquo;Checky gold and azure.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Clifford bore the like with &ldquo;a fesse gules.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Cobham bore &ldquo;Silver a lion checky gold and sable.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Arderne bore &ldquo;Ermine a fesse checky gold and gules.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:517px; height:150px" src="images/img321b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Phelip Lord Bardolf.</td>
+<td class="caption">Whitgreave.</td>
+<td class="caption">Tallow Chandlers.</td>
+<td class="caption">Warenne.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Such charges as this fesse of Arderne&rsquo;s and other checkered
+fesses, bars, bends, borders and the like, will commonly bear but
+two rows of squares, or three at the most. The heraldry writers
+are ready to note that when two rows are used &ldquo;counter-compony&rdquo;
+is the word in place of checky, and &ldquo;compony-counter-compony&rdquo;
+in the case of three rows. It is needless to
+say that these words have neither practical value nor antiquity
+to commend them. But bends and bastons, labels, borders
+and the rest are often coloured with a single row of alternating
+tinctures. In this case the pieces are said to be &ldquo;gobony.&rdquo;
+Thus John Cromwell (14th century) bore &ldquo;Silver a chief gules
+with a baston gobony of gold and azure.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The scocheon or shield used as a charge is found among the
+earliest arms. Itself charged with arms, it served to indicate
+alliance by blood or by tenure with another house, as in the
+bearings of St Owen whose shield of &ldquo;Gules with a cross silver&rdquo;
+has a scocheon of Clare in the quarter. In the latter half of the
+15th century it plays an important part in the curious marshalling
+of the arms of great houses and lordships.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Erpingham bore &ldquo;Vert a scocheon silver with an orle (or border)
+of silver martlets.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Davillers bore at the battle of Boroughbridge &ldquo;Silver three
+scocheons gules.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The scocheon was often borne voided or pierced, its field cut
+away to a narrow border. Especially was this the case in the
+far North, where the Balliols, who bore such a voided scocheon,
+were powerful. The voided scocheon is wrongly named in all
+the heraldry books as an orle, a term which belongs to a number
+of small charges set round a central charge. Thus the martlets
+in the shield of Erpingham, already described, may be called an
+orle of martlets or a border of martlets. This misnaming of the
+voided scocheon has caused a curious misapprehension of its
+form, even Dr Woodward, in his <i>Heraldry, British and Foreign</i>,
+describing the &ldquo;orle&rdquo; as &ldquo;a narrow border detached from the
+edge of the shield.&rdquo; Following this definition modern armorial
+artists will, in the case of quartered arms, draw the &ldquo;orle&rdquo; in
+a first or second quarter of a quartered shield as a rectangular
+figure and in a third or fourth quarter as a scalene triangle
+with one arched side. Thereby the original voided scocheon
+changes into forms without meaning.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Balliol bore &ldquo;Gules a voided scocheon silver.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Surtees bore &ldquo;Ermine with a quarter of the arms of Balliol.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:518px; height:146px" src="images/img321c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Clifford.</td>
+<td class="caption">Arderne.</td>
+<td class="caption">Cromwell.</td>
+<td class="caption">Erpingham.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The <i>Tressure</i> or flowered tressure is a figure which is correctly
+described by Woodward&rsquo;s incorrect description of the orle as
+cited above, being a narrow inner border of the shield. It is
+distinguished, however, by the fleurs-de-lys which decorate it,
+setting off its edges. The double tressure which surrounds the
+lion in the royal shield of Scotland, and which is borne by many
+Scottish houses who have served their kings well or mated with
+their daughters, is carefully described by Scottish heralds as
+&ldquo;flowered and counter-flowered,&rdquo; a blazon which is held to
+mean that the fleurs-de-lys show head and tail in turn from the
+outer rim of the outer tressure and from the inner rim of the
+innermost. But this seems to have been no essential matter
+with medieval armorists and a curious 15th-century enamelled
+roundel of the arms of Vampage shows that in this English
+case the flowering takes the more convenient form of allowing
+all the lily heads to sprout from the outer rim.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Vampage bore &ldquo;Azure an eagle silver within a flowered tressure
+silver.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The king of Scots bore &ldquo;Gold a lion within a double tressure
+flowered and counterflowered gules.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Felton bore &ldquo;Gules two lions passant within a double tressure
+flory silver.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:521px; height:148px" src="images/img321d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Davillers.</td>
+<td class="caption">Balliol.</td>
+<td class="caption">Surtees.</td>
+<td class="caption">Vampage.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The Border of the shield when marked out in its own tincture
+is counted as an Ordinary. Plain or charged, it was commonly
+used as a difference. As the principal charge of a shield it is
+very rare, so rare that in most cases where it apparently occurs
+we may, perhaps, be following medieval custom in blazoning
+the shield as one charged with a scocheon and not with a border.
+Thus Hondescote bore &ldquo;Ermine a border gules&rdquo; or &ldquo;Gules a
+scocheon ermine.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Somerville bore &ldquo;Burely silver and gules and a border azure with
+golden martlets.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Paynel bore &ldquo;Silver two bars sable with a border, or orle, of
+martlets gules.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Flaunches are the flanks of the shield which, cut off by
+rounded lines, are borne in pairs as Ordinaries. These charges
+are found in many coats devised by 15th-century armorists.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page322" id="page322"></a>322</span>
+&ldquo;Ermine two flaunches azure with six golden wheat-ears&rdquo; was borne
+by John Greyby of Oxfordshire (15th century).</p>
+
+<p>The Label is a narrow fillet across the upper part of the chief,
+from which hang three, four, five or more pendants, the pendants
+being, in most old examples, broader than the fillet. Reckoned
+with the Ordinaries, it was commonly used as a means of
+differencing a cadet&rsquo;s shield, and in the heraldry books it has
+become the accepted difference for an eldest son, although the
+cadets often bore it in the middle ages. John of Hastings bore in
+1300 before Carlaverock &ldquo;Gold a sleeve (or maunche) gules,&rdquo;
+while Edmund his brother bore the same arms with a sable label.
+In modern armory the pendants are all but invariably reduced to
+three, which, in debased examples, are given a dovetailed form
+while the ends of the fillet are cut off.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:525px; height:146px" src="images/img322a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Scotland.</td>
+<td class="caption">Hondescote.</td>
+<td class="caption">Greyby.</td>
+<td class="caption">Hastings.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The Fret, drawn as a voided lozenge interlaced by a slender
+saltire, is counted an Ordinary. A charge in such a shape is
+extremely rare in medieval armory, its ancient form when the
+field is covered by it being a number of bastons&mdash;three being
+the customary number&mdash;interlaced by as many more from the
+sinister side. Although the whole is described as a fret in
+certain English blazons of the 15th century, the adjective
+&ldquo;fretty&rdquo; is more commonly used. Trussel&rsquo;s fret is remarkable for its
+bezants at the joints, which stand, doubtless, for the golden
+nail-heads of the &ldquo;trellis&rdquo; suggested by his name. Curwen,
+Wyvile and other northern houses bearing a fret and a chief have,
+owing to their fashion of drawing their frets, often seen them
+changed by the heraldry books into &ldquo;three cheverons braced or
+interlaced.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Huddlestone bore &ldquo;Gules fretty silver.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Trussel bore &ldquo;Silver fretty gules, the joints bezanty.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Hugh Giffard (14th century) bore &ldquo;Gules with an engrailed fret
+of ermine.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Wyvile bore &ldquo;Gules fretty vair with a chief gold.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Boxhull bore &ldquo;Gold a lion azure fretty silver.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:528px; height:147px" src="images/img322b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Trussel.</td>
+<td class="caption">Giffard.</td>
+<td class="caption">Wyvile.</td>
+<td class="caption">Mortimer.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Another Ordinary is the Giron or Gyron&mdash;a word now commonly
+mispronounced with a hard &ldquo;g.&rdquo; It may be defined as the lower
+half of a quarter which has been divided bendwise. No old example
+of a single giron can be found to match the figure in the
+heraldry books. Gironny, or gyronny, is a manner of dividing the
+field into sections, by lines radiating from a centre point, of
+which many instances may be given. Most of the earlier examples
+have some twelve divisions although later armory gives eight as
+the normal number, as Campbell bears them.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Bassingbourne bore &ldquo;Gironny of gold and azure of twelve pieces.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>William Stoker, who died Lord Mayor of London in 1484, bore
+&ldquo;Gironny of six pieces azure and silver with three popinjays in
+the silver pieces.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>A pair of girons on either side of a chief were borne in the
+strange shield of Mortimer, commonly blazoned as &ldquo;Barry azure
+and gold of six pieces, the chief azure with two pales and two
+girons gold, a scocheon silver over all.&rdquo; An early example shows
+that this shield began as a plain field with a gobony border.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>With the Ordinaries we may take the Roundels or Pellets, disks or
+balls of various colours. Ancient custom gives the name of a
+bezant to the golden roundel, and the folly of the heraldic
+writers has found names for all the others, names which may be
+disregarded together with the belief that, while bezants and
+silver roundels, as representing coins, must be pictured with a
+flat surface, roundels of other hues must needs be shaded by the
+painter to represent rounded balls. Rings or Annelets were common
+charges in the North, where Lowthers, Musgraves and many more,
+differenced the six rings of Vipont by bearing them in various
+colours.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:527px; height:149px" src="images/img322c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Campbell.</td>
+<td class="caption">Bassingbourne.</td>
+<td class="caption">Stoker.</td>
+<td class="caption">Burlay.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Burlay of Wharfdale bore &ldquo;Gules a bezant.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Courtenay, earl of Devon, bore &ldquo;Gold three roundels gules with a
+label azure.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Caraunt bore &ldquo;Silver three roundels azure, each with three
+cheverons gules.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Vipont bore &ldquo;Gold six annelets gules.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Avenel bore &ldquo;Silver a fesse and six annelets (<i>aunels</i>) gules.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Hawberk of Stapleford bore &ldquo;Silver a bend sable charged with
+three pieces of a mail hawberk, each of three linked rings of
+gold.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Stourton bore &ldquo;Sable a bend gold between six fountains.&rdquo; The
+fountain is a roundel charged with waves of white and blue.</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:526px; height:151px" src="images/img322d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Courtenay.</td>
+<td class="caption">Caraunt.</td>
+<td class="caption">Vipont.</td>
+<td class="caption">Avenel.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The Lozenge is linked in the heraldry book with the Fusil. This
+Fusil is described as a lengthened and sharper lozenge. But
+it will be understood that the Fusil, other than as part of an
+engrailed or indented bend, pale or fesse, is not known to true
+armory. Also it is one of the notable achievements of the English
+writers on heraldry that they should have allotted to the
+lozenge, when borne voided, the name of Mascle. This &ldquo;mascle&rdquo;
+is the word of the oldest armorists for the unvoided charge, the
+voided being sometimes described by them as a lozenge, without
+further qualifications. Fortunately the difficulty can be solved
+by following the late 14th-century custom in distinguishing
+between &ldquo;lozenges&rdquo; and &ldquo;voided lozenges&rdquo; and by abandoning
+altogether this misleading word Mascle.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:529px; height:151px" src="images/img322e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Hawberk.</td>
+<td class="caption">Stourton.</td>
+<td class="caption">Charles.</td>
+<td class="caption">Fitzwilliam.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Thomas of Merstone, a clerk, bore on his seal in 1359 &ldquo;Ermine a
+lozenge with a pierced molet thereon.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Braybroke bore &ldquo;Silver seven voided lozenges gules.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Charles bore &ldquo;Ermine a chief gules with five golden lozenges.
+thereon.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Fitzwilliam bore &ldquo;Lozengy silver and gules.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Billets are oblong figures set upright. Black billets in the
+arms of Delves of Cheshire stand for &ldquo;delves&rdquo; of earth and the
+gads of steel in the arms of the London Ironmongers&rsquo; Company took
+a somewhat similar form.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page323" id="page323"></a>323</span></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Sir Ralph Mounchensy bore in the 14th century &ldquo;Silver a cheveron
+between three billets sable.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Haggerston bore &ldquo;Azure a bend with cotices silver and three billets
+sable on the bend.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>With the Billet, the Ordinaries, uncertain as they are in number,
+may be said to end. But we may here add certain armorial
+charges which might well have been counted with them.</p>
+
+<p>First of these is the Molet, a word corrupted in modern heraldry
+to Mullet, a fish-like change with nothing to commend it. This
+figure is as a star of five or six points, six points being perhaps
+the commonest form in old examples, although the sixth point is,
+as a rule, lost during the later period. Medieval armorists are
+not, it seems, inclined to make any distinction between molets
+of five and six points, but some families, such as the Harpedens
+and Asshetons, remained constant to the five-pointed form. It
+was generally borne pierced with a round hole, and then represents,
+as its name implies, the rowel of a spur. In ancient rolls of arms
+the word Rowel is often used, and probably indicated the pierced
+molet. That the piercing was reckoned an essential difference
+is shown by a roll of the time of Edward II., in which Sir John
+of Pabenham bears &ldquo;Barry azure and silver, with a bend gules
+and three molets gold thereon,&rdquo; arms which Sir John his son
+differences by piercing the molets. Beside these names is that
+of Sir Walter Baa with &ldquo;Gules a cheveron and three rowels
+silver,&rdquo; rowels which are shown on seals of this family as pierced
+molets. Probably an older bearing than the molet, which would
+be popularized when the rowelled spur began to take the place
+of the prick-spur, is the Star or Estoile, differing from the
+molet in that its five or six points are wavy. It is possible that
+several star bearings of the 13th century were changed in the
+14th for molets. The star is not pierced in the fashion of the
+molet; but, like the molet, it tends to lose its sixth point in armory
+of the decadence. Suns, sometimes blazoned in old rolls as Sun-rays&mdash;<i>rays
+de soleil</i>&mdash;are pictured as unpierced molets of many
+points, which in rare cases are waved.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Harpeden bore &ldquo;Silver a pierced molet gules.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Gentil bore &ldquo;Gold a chief sable with two molets goles pierced
+gules.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Grimston bore &ldquo;Silver a fesse sable and thereon three molets silver
+pierced gules.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Ingleby of Yorkshire bore &ldquo;Sable a star silver.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Sir John de la Haye of Lincolnshire bore &ldquo;Silver a sun gules.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:515px; height:146px" src="images/img323a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Mounchensy.</td>
+<td class="caption">Haggerston.</td>
+<td class="caption">Harpeden.</td>
+<td class="caption">Gentil.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The Crescent is a charge which has to answer for many idle
+tales concerning the crusading ancestors of families who bear
+it. It is commonly borne with both points uppermost, but when
+representing the waning or the waxing moon&mdash;decrescent or
+increscent&mdash;its horns are turned to the sinister or dexter side
+of the shield.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Peter de Marines (13th century) bore on his seal a shield charged
+with a crescent in the chief.</p>
+
+<p>William Gobioun (14th century) bore &ldquo;A bend between two
+waxing moons.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Longchamp bore &ldquo;Ermine three crescents gules, pierced silver.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Tinctures.</i>&mdash;The tinctures or hues of the shield and its charges
+are seven in number&mdash;gold or yellow, silver or white, red, blue,
+black, green and purple. Medieval custom gave, according to
+a rule often broken, &ldquo;gules,&rdquo; &ldquo;azure&rdquo; and &ldquo;sable&rdquo; as more
+high-sounding names for the red, blue and black. Green was
+often named as &ldquo;vert,&rdquo; and sometimes as &ldquo;synobill,&rdquo; a word
+which as &ldquo;sinople&rdquo; is used to this day by French armorists.
+The song of the siege of Carlaverock and other early documents
+have red, gules or &ldquo;vermeil,&rdquo; sable or black, azure or blue, but
+gules, azure, sable and vert came to be recognized as armorists&rsquo;
+adjectives, and an early 15th-century romance discards the simple
+words deliberately, telling us of its hero that</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;His shield was black and blue, sanz fable,</p>
+<p class="i05">Barred of azure and of sable.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">But gold and silver served as the armorists&rsquo; words for yellows
+and whites until late in the 16th century, when gold and silver
+made way for &ldquo;or&rdquo; and &ldquo;argent,&rdquo; words which those for whom
+the interest of armory lies in its liveliest days will not be eager
+to accept. Likewise the colours of &ldquo;sanguine&rdquo; and &ldquo;tenné&rdquo;
+brought in by the pedants to bring the tinctures to the mystical
+number of nine may be disregarded.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:516px; height:145px" src="images/img323b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Grimston.</td>
+<td class="caption">Ingilby.</td>
+<td class="caption">Gobioun.</td>
+<td class="caption">Longchamp.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>A certain armorial chart of the duchy of Brabant, published
+in 1600, is the earliest example of the practice whereby later
+engravers have indicated colours in uncoloured plates by the
+use of lines and dots. Gold is indicated by a powdering of dots;
+silver is left plain. Azure is shown by horizontal shading lines;
+gules by upright lines; sable by cross-hatching of upright and
+horizontal lines. Diagonal lines from sinister to dexter indicate
+purple; vert is marked with diagonal lines from dexter to
+sinister. The practice, in spite of a certain convenience, has been
+disastrous in its cramping effects on armorial art, especially
+when applied to seals and coins.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the two &ldquo;metals&rdquo; and five &ldquo;colours,&rdquo; fields and
+charges are varied by the use of the furs ermine and vair. Ermine
+is shown by a white field flecked with black ermine tails, and vair
+by a conventional representation of a fur of small skins sewn in
+rows, white and blue skins alternately. In the 15th century
+there was a popular variant of ermine, white tails upon a black
+field. To this fur the books now give the name of &ldquo;ermines&rdquo;&mdash;a
+most unfortunate choice, since ermines is a name used in old
+documents for the original ermine. &ldquo;Erminees,&rdquo; which has
+at least a 15th-century authority, will serve for those who are
+not content to speak of &ldquo;sable ermined with silver.&rdquo; Vair,
+although silver and blue be its normal form, may be made up
+of gold, silver or ermine, with sable or gules or vert, but in these
+latter cases the colours must be named in the blazon. To the
+vairs and ermines of old use the heraldry books have added
+&ldquo;erminois,&rdquo; which is a gold field with black ermine fails, &ldquo;pean,&rdquo;
+which is &ldquo;erminois&rdquo; reversed, and &ldquo;erminites,&rdquo; which is
+ermine with a single red hair on either side of each black tail.
+The vairs, mainly by misunderstanding of the various patterns
+found in old paintings, have been amplified with &ldquo;countervair,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;potent,&rdquo; &ldquo;counter-potent&rdquo; and &ldquo;vair-en-point,&rdquo; no one of
+which merits description.</p>
+
+<p>No shield of a plain metal or colour has ever been borne by
+an Englishman, although the knights at Carlaverock and Falkirk
+saw Amaneu d&rsquo;Albret with his banner all of red having no
+charge thereon. Plain ermine was the shield of the duke of
+Brittany and no Englishman challenged the bearing. But
+Beauchamp of Hatch bore simple vair, Ferrers of Derby &ldquo;Vairy
+gold and gules,&rdquo; and Ward &ldquo;Vairy silver and sable.&rdquo; Gresley
+had &ldquo;Vairy ermine and gules,&rdquo; and Beche &ldquo;Vairy silver and
+gules.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Only one English example has hitherto been discovered of a
+field covered not with a fur but with overlapping feathers.
+A 15th-century book of arms gives &ldquo;Plumetty of gold and
+purple&rdquo; for &ldquo;Mydlam in Coverdale.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Drops of various colours which variegate certain fields and
+charges are often mistaken for ermine tails when ancient seals
+are deciphered. A simple example of such spattering is in the
+shield of Grayndore, who bore &ldquo;Party ermine and vert, the vert
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page324" id="page324"></a>324</span>
+dropped with gold.&rdquo; Sir Richard le Brun (14th century) bore
+&ldquo;Azure a silver lion dropped with gules.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:531px; height:152px" src="images/img324a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Brittany.</td>
+<td class="caption">Beauchamp.</td>
+<td class="caption">Mydlam.</td>
+<td class="caption">Grayndorge.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>A very common variant of charges and fields is the sowing
+or &ldquo;powdering&rdquo; them with a small charge repeated many times.
+Mortimer of Norfolk bore &ldquo;gold powdered with fleurs-de-lys
+sable&rdquo; and Edward III. quartered for the old arms of France
+&ldquo;Azure powdered with fleurs-de-lys gold,&rdquo; such fields being often
+described as flowered or flory. Golden billets were scattered
+in Cowdray&rsquo;s red shield, which is blazoned as &ldquo;Gules billety
+gold,&rdquo; and bezants in that of Zouche, which is &ldquo;Gules bezanty
+with a quarter ermine.&rdquo; The disposition of such charges varied
+with the users. Zouche as a rule shows ten bezants placed four,
+three, two and one on his shield, while the old arms of France
+in the royal coat allows the pattern of flowers to run over the
+edge, the shield border thus showing halves and tops and stalk
+ends of the fleurs-de-lys. But the commonest of these powderings
+is that with crosslets, as in the arms of John la Warr &ldquo;Gules
+crusily silver with a silver lion.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:527px; height:148px" src="images/img324b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Mortimer.</td>
+<td class="caption">Cowdray.</td>
+<td class="caption">Zouche.</td>
+<td class="caption">La Warr.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Trees, Leaves and Flowers.</i>&mdash;Sir Stephen Cheyndut, a 13th-century
+knight, bore an oak tree, the <i>cheyne</i> of his first syllable,
+while for like reasons a Piriton had a pear tree on his shield.
+Three pears were borne (<i>temp.</i> Edward III.) by Nicholas Stivecle
+of Huntingdonshire, and about the same date is Applegarth&rsquo;s
+shield of three red apples in a silver field. Leaves of burdock
+are in the arms (14th century) of Sir John de Lisle and mulberry
+leaves in those of Sir Hugh de Morieus. Three roots of trees
+are given to one Richard Rotour in a 14th-century roll. Malherbe
+(13th century) bore the &ldquo;evil herb&rdquo;&mdash;a teazle bush.
+Pineapples are borne here and there, and it will be noted that
+armorists have not surrendered this, our ancient word for the
+&ldquo;fir-cone,&rdquo; to the foreign <i>ananas</i>. Out of the cornfield English
+armory took the sheaf, three sheaves being on the shield of an
+earl of Chester early in the 13th century and Sheffield bearing
+sheaves for a play on his name. For a like reason Peverel&rsquo;s
+sheaves were sheaves of pepper. Rye bore three ears of rye on a
+bend, and Graindorge had barley-ears. Flowers are few in this
+field of armory, although lilies with their stalks and leaves are
+in the grant of arms to Eton College. Ousethorpe has water
+flowers, and now and again we find some such strange charges
+as those in the 15th-century shield of Thomas Porthelyne who
+bore &ldquo;Sable a cheveron gules between three &lsquo;popyebolles,&rsquo; or
+poppy-heads vert.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:532px; height:148px" src="images/img324c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Cheyndut.</td>
+<td class="caption">Applegarth.</td>
+<td class="caption">Chester.</td>
+<td class="caption">Rye.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The fleur-de-lys, a conventional form from the beginnings of
+armory, might well be taken amongst the &ldquo;ordinaries.&rdquo; In
+England as in France it is found in great plenty.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Aguylon bore &ldquo;Gules a fleur-de-lys silver.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Peyferer bore &ldquo;Silver three fleur-de-lys sable.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:124px; height:146px" src="images/img324d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Eton College.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Trefoils are very rarely seen until the 15th century, although
+Hervey has them, and Gausill, and a Bosville coat seems to have
+borne them. They have always their stalk left
+hanging to them. Vincent, Hattecliffe and
+Massingberd all bore the quatrefoil, while
+the Bardolfs, and the Quincys, earls of Winchester,
+had cinqfoils. The old rolls of arms
+made much confusion between cinqfoils and
+sixfoils (<i>quintefoilles e sisfoilles</i>) and the rose.
+It is still uncertain how far that confusion
+extended amongst the families which bore
+these charges. The cinqfoil and sixfoil, however,
+are all but invariably pierced in the middle like
+the spur rowel, and the rose&rsquo;s blunt-edged petals give it
+definite shape soon after the decorative movement of the
+Edwardian age began to carve natural buds and flowers in stone
+and wood.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:514px; height:149px" src="images/img324e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Aguylon.</td>
+<td class="caption">Peyferer.</td>
+<td class="caption">Hervey.</td>
+<td class="caption">Vincent.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Hervey bore &ldquo;Gules a bend silver with three trefoils vert thereon.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Vincent bore &ldquo;Azure three quatrefoils silver.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Quincy bore &ldquo;Gules a cinqfoil silver.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Bardolf of Wormegay bore &ldquo;Gules three cinqfoils silver.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Cosington bore &ldquo;Azure three roses gold.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Hilton bore &ldquo;Silver three chaplets or garlands of red roses.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:527px; height:152px" src="images/img324f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Quincy.</td>
+<td class="caption">Bardolf.</td>
+<td class="caption">Cosington.</td>
+<td class="caption">Hilton.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Beasts and Birds.</i>&mdash;The book of natural history as studied in
+the middle ages lay open at the chapter of the lion, to which
+royal beast all the noble virtues were set down. What is the
+oldest armorial seal of a sovereign prince as yet discovered bears
+the rampant lion of Flanders. In England we know of no royal
+shield earlier than that first seal of Richard I. which has a like
+device. A long roll of our old earls, barons and knights wore the
+lion on their coats&mdash;Lacy, Marshal, Fitzalan and Montfort,
+Percy, Mowbray and Talbot. By custom the royal beast is
+shown as rampant, touching the ground with but one foot and
+clawing at the air in noble rage. So far is this the normal
+attitude of a lion that the adjective &ldquo;rampant&rdquo; was often
+dropped, and we have leave and good authority for blazoning
+the rampant beast simply as &ldquo;a lion,&rdquo; leave which a writer on
+armory may take gladly to the saving of much repetition. In
+France and Germany this licence has always been the rule, and
+the modern English herald&rsquo;s blazon of &ldquo;Gules a lion rampant
+or&rdquo; for the arms of Fitzalan, becomes in French <i>de gueules au
+lion d&rsquo;or</i> and in German <i>in Rot ein goldener Loewe</i>. Other
+positions must be named with care and the prowling &ldquo;lion
+passant&rdquo; distinguished from the rampant beast, as well as from
+such rarer shapes as the couchant lion, the lion sleeping, sitting
+or leaping. Of these the lion passant is the only one commonly
+encountered. The lion standing with his forepaws together is
+not a figure for the shield, but for the crest, where he takes this
+position for greater stableness upon the helm, and the sitting
+lion is also found rather upon helms than in shields. For a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page325" id="page325"></a>325</span>
+couchant lion or a dormant lion one must search far afield,
+although there are some medieval instances. The leaping lion
+is in so few shields that no maker of a heraldry book has, it
+would appear, discovered an example. In the books this &ldquo;lion
+salient&rdquo; is described as with the hind paws together on the
+ground and the fore paws together in the air, somewhat after the
+fashion of a diver&rsquo;s first movement. But examples from seals
+and monuments of the Felbrigges and the Merks show that the
+leaping lion differed only from the rampant in that he leans
+somewhat forward in his eager spring. The compiler of the
+British Museum catalogue of medieval armorial seals, and others
+equally unfamiliar with medieval armory, invariably describe
+this position as &ldquo;rampant,&rdquo; seeing no distinction from other
+rampings. As rare as the leaping lion is the lion who looks
+backward over his shoulder. This position is called &ldquo;regardant&rdquo;
+by modern armorists. The old French blazon calls it <i>rere
+regardant or turnaunte le visage arere</i>, &ldquo;regardant&rdquo; alone meaning
+simply &ldquo;looking,&rdquo; and therefore we shall describe it more
+reasonably in plain English as &ldquo;looking backward.&rdquo; The two-headed
+lion occurs in a 15th-century coat of Mason, and at the
+same period a monstrous lion of three bodies and one head is
+borne, apparently, by a Sharingbury.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate IV.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:831px; height:1079px" src="images/img324g.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">THE BEGINNING OF A ROLL OF THE ARMS OF THOSE JOUSTING IN A TOURNAMENT HELD ON THE FIELD OF
+THE CLOTH OF GOLD. BESIDES THE ARMS OF THE KINGS OF FRANCE AND ENGLAND ARE TWO COLUMNS
+OF &ldquo;CHEQUES,&rdquo; MARKED WITH THE NAMES AND SCORING POINTS OF THE JOUSTERS.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Drawn by William Gibb.</i></td>
+<td class="tcr f80"><i>Niagara Litho. Co., Buffalo, N. Y.</i></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:122px; height:146px" src="images/img325a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">England.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">The lion&rsquo;s companion is the leopard. What might be the
+true form of this beast was a dark thing to the old armorist, yet
+knowing from the report of grave travellers that the leopard
+was begotten in spouse-breach between the lion and the pard,
+it was felt that his shape would favour his sire&rsquo;s. But nice
+distinctions of outline, even were they ascertainable, are not to be
+marked on the tiny seal, or easily expressed by the broad strokes
+of the shield painter. The leopard was indeed lesser than the
+lion, but in armory, as in the Noah&rsquo;s arks launched by the old
+yards, the bear is no bigger than the badger. Then a happy
+device came to the armorist. He would paint the leopard like
+the lion at all points. But as the lion looks forward the leopard
+should look sidelong, showing his whole face. The matter was
+arranged, and until the end of the middle ages the distinction
+held and served. The disregarded writers on armory, Nicholas
+Upton, and his fellows, protested that a lion did not become a
+leopard by turning his face sidelong, but none who fought in the
+field under lion and leopard banners heeded this pedantry from
+cathedral closes. The English king&rsquo;s beasts were leopards in
+blazon, in ballad and chronicle, and in the mouths of liegeman
+and enemy. Henry V.&rsquo;s herald, named from his master&rsquo;s coat,
+was Leopard Herald; and Napoleon&rsquo;s gazettes
+never fail to speak of the English leopards. In
+our own days, those who deal with armory as
+antiquaries and students of the past will observe
+the old custom for convenience&rsquo; sake. Those
+for whom the interest of heraldry lies in the
+nonsense-language brewed during post-medieval
+years may correct the medieval ignorance at
+their pleasure. The knight who saw the king&rsquo;s
+banner fly at Falkirk or Crécy tells us that it
+bore &ldquo;Gules with three leopards of gold.&rdquo; The modern
+armorist will shame the uninstructed warrior with &ldquo;Gules
+three lions passant gardant in pale or.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>As the lion rampant is the normal lion, so the normal leopard
+is the leopard passant, the adjective being needless. In a few
+cases only the leopard rises up to ramp in the lion&rsquo;s fashion,
+and here he must be blazoned without fail as a leopard rampant.</p>
+
+<p>Parts of the lion and the leopard are common charges. Chief
+of these are the demi-lion and the demi-leopard, beasts complete
+above their slender middles, even to the upper parts of
+their lashing tails. Rampant or passant, they follow the customs
+of the unmaimed brute. Also the heads of lion and leopard
+are in many shields, and here the armorist of the modern handbooks
+stumbles by reason of his refusal to regard clearly marked
+medieval distinctions. The instructed will know a lion&rsquo;s head
+because it shows but half the face and a leopard&rsquo;s head because
+it is seen full-face. But the handbooks of heraldry, knowing
+naught of leopards, must judge by absence or presence of a
+mane, speaking uncertainly of leopards&rsquo; faces and lions&rsquo; heads
+and faces. Here again the old path is the straighter. The head
+of a lion, or indeed of any beast, bird or monster, is generally
+painted as &ldquo;razed,&rdquo; or torn away with a ragged edge which
+is pleasantly conventionalized. Less often it is found &ldquo;couped&rdquo;
+or cut off with a sheer line. But the leopard&rsquo;s head is neither
+razed nor couped, for no neck is shown below it. Likewise the
+lion&rsquo;s fore leg or paw&mdash;&ldquo;gamb&rdquo; is the book word&mdash;may be
+borne, razed or coupled. Its normal position is raided upright,
+although Newdegate seems to have borne &ldquo;Gules three lions&rsquo;
+legs razed silver, the paws downward.&rdquo; With the strange
+bearing of the lion&rsquo;s whip-like tail cut off at the rump, we may
+end the list of these oddments.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Fitzalan, earl of Arundel, bore &ldquo;Gules a lion gold.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Simon de Montfort bore &ldquo;Gules a silver lion with a forked tail.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Segrave bore &ldquo;Sable a lion silver crowned gold.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Havering bore &ldquo;Silver a lion rampant gules with a forked tail,
+having a collar azure.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Felbrigge of Felbrigge bore &ldquo;Gold a leaping lion gules.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Esturmy bore &ldquo;Silver a lion sable (or purple) looking backward.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Marmion bore &ldquo;Gules a lion vair.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Mason bore &ldquo;Silver a two-headed lion gules.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Lovetot bore &ldquo;Silver a lion parted athwart of sable and gules.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Richard le Jen bore &ldquo;Vert a lion gold&rdquo;&mdash;the arms of Wakelin
+of Arderne&mdash;&ldquo;with a fesse gules on the lion.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Fiennes bore &ldquo;Azure three lions gold.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Leyburne of Kent bore &ldquo;Azure six lions silver.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:518px; height:147px" src="images/img325b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Fitzalan.</td>
+<td class="caption">Felbrigge.</td>
+<td class="caption">Fiennes.</td>
+<td class="caption">Leyburne.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Carew bore &ldquo;Gold three lions passant sable.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Fotheringhay bore &ldquo;Silver two lions passant sable, looking backward.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Richard Norton of Waddeworth (1357) sealed with arms of &ldquo;A
+lion dormant.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Lisle bore &ldquo;Gules a leopard silver crowned gold.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Ludlowe bore &ldquo;Azure three leopards silver.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Brocas bore &ldquo;Sable a leopard rampant gold.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:518px; height:146px" src="images/img325c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Carew.</td>
+<td class="caption">Fotheringhay.</td>
+<td class="caption">Brocas.</td>
+<td class="caption">Lisle.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>John Hardrys of Kent seals in 1372 with arms of &ldquo;a sitting
+leopard.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>John Northampton, Lord Mayor of London in 1381, bore &ldquo;Azure
+a crowned leopard gold with two bodies rampant against each other.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Newenham bore &ldquo;Azure three demi-lions silver.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>A deed delivered at Lapworth in Warwickshire in 1466 is sealed
+with arms of &ldquo;a molet between three demi-leopards.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Kenton bore &ldquo;Gules three lions&rsquo; heads razed sable.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:518px; height:148px" src="images/img325d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Kenton.</td>
+<td class="caption">Pole.</td>
+<td class="caption">Cantelou.</td>
+<td class="caption">Pynchebek.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Pole, earl and duke of Suffolk, bore &ldquo;Azure a fesse between three
+leopards&rsquo; heads gold.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Cantelou bore &ldquo;Azure three leopards&rsquo; heads silver with silver
+fleurs-de-lys issuing from them.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Wederton bore &ldquo;Gules a cheveron between three lions&rsquo; legs razed
+silver.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Pynchebek bore &ldquo;silver three forked tails of lions sable.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The tiger is rarely named in collections of medieval arms.
+Deep mystery wrapped the shape of him, which was never during
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page326" id="page326"></a>326</span>
+the middle ages standardized by artists. A crest upon a 15th-century
+brass shows him as a lean wolf-like figure, with a dash
+of the boar, gazing after his vain wont into a looking-glass;
+and the 16th-century heralds gave him the body of a lion with the
+head of a wolf, head and body being tufted here and there with
+thick tufts of hair. But it is noteworthy that the arms of Sir
+John Norwich, a well-known knight of the 14th century, are
+blazoned in a roll of that age as &ldquo;party azure and gules with a
+tiger rampant ermine.&rdquo; Now this beast in the arms of Norwich
+has been commonly taken for a lion, and the Norwich family
+seem in later times to have accepted the lion as their bearing.
+But a portion of a painted roll of Sir John&rsquo;s day shows on careful
+examination that his lion has been given two moustache-like
+tufts to the nose. A copy made about 1600 of another roll gives
+the same decoration to the Norwich lion, and it is at least possible
+we have here evidence that the economy of the medieval armorist
+allowed him to make at small cost his lion, his leopard and
+his tiger out of a single beast form.</p>
+
+<p>Take away the lions and the leopards, and the other beasts
+upon medieval shields are a little herd. In most cases they
+are here to play upon the names of their bearers. Thus Swinburne
+of Northumberland has the heads of swine in his coat
+and Bacon has bacon pigs. Three white bears were borne by
+Barlingham, and a bear ramping on his hind legs is for Barnard.
+Lovett of Astwell has three running wolves, Videlou three
+wolves&rsquo; heads, Colfox three foxes&rsquo; heads.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="3"><img style="width:449px; height:149px" src="images/img326a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Lovett.</td>
+<td class="caption">Talbot.</td>
+<td class="caption">Saunders.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Three hedgehogs were in the arms of Heriz. Barnewall
+reminds us of extinct natives of England by bearing two beavers,
+and Otter of Yorkshire had otters. Harewell had hares&rsquo; heads,
+Cunliffe conies, Mitford moles or moldiwarps. A Talbot of
+Lancashire had three purple squirrels in a silver shield. An
+elephant was brought to England as early as the days of Henry
+III., but he had no immediate armorial progeny, although
+Saunders of Northants may have borne before the end of the
+middle ages the elephants&rsquo; heads which speak of Alysaunder
+the Great, patron of all Saunderses. Bevil of the west had a red
+bull, and Bulkeley bore three silver bulls&rsquo; heads. The heads
+in Neteham&rsquo;s 14th-century shield are neat&rsquo;s heads, ox heads
+are for Oxwyk. Calves are for Veel, and the same mild beasts
+are in the arms of that fierce knight Hugh Calveley. Stansfeld
+bore three rams with bells at their necks, and a 14th-century
+Lecheford thought no shame to bear the head of the ram who
+is the symbol of lechery. Lambton had lambs. Goats were
+borne by Chevercourt to play on his name, a leaping goat by
+Bardwell, and goats&rsquo; heads by Gateshead. Of the race of dogs
+the greyhound and the talbot, or mastiff, are found most often.
+Thus Talbot of Cumberland had talbots, and Mauleverer, running
+greyhounds or &ldquo;leverers&rdquo; for his name&rsquo;s sake. The alaund,
+a big, crop-eared dog, is in the 15th-century shield of John Woode
+of Kent, and &ldquo;kenets,&rdquo; or little tracking dogs, in a 13th-century
+coat of Kenet. The horse is not easily found as an English charge,
+but Moyle&rsquo;s white mule seems an old coat; horses&rsquo; heads are
+in Horsley&rsquo;s shield, and ass heads make crests for more than
+one noble house. Askew has three asses in his arms. Three bats
+or flittermice are in the shield of Burninghill and in that of
+Heyworth of Whethamstede.</p>
+
+<p>As might be looked for in a land where forest and greenwood
+once linked from sea to sea, the wild deer is a common charge
+in the shield. Downes of Cheshire bore a hart &ldquo;lodged&rdquo; or
+lying down. Hertford had harts&rsquo; heads, Malebis, fawns&rsquo; heads
+(<i>testes de bis</i>), Bukingham, heads of bucks. The harts in Rotherham&rsquo;s
+arms are the roes of his name&rsquo;s first syllable. Reindeer
+heads were borne by Bowet in the 14th century. Antelopes,
+fierce beasts with horns that have something of the ibex, show
+by their great claws, their lion tails, and their boar muzzles
+and tusks that they are midway between the hart and the
+monster.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:124px; height:147px" src="images/img326b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Griffin.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:125px; height:145px" src="images/img326c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Drake.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Of the outlandish monsters the griffon is the oldest and the
+chief. With the hinder parts of a lion, the rest of him is eagle,
+head and shoulders, wings and fore legs. The
+long tuft under the beak and his pointed ears
+mark him out from the eagle when his head
+alone is borne. At an early date a griffon
+rampant, his normal position, was borne by
+the great house of Montagu as a quartering,
+and another griffon played upon Griffin&rsquo;s name.</p>
+
+<p>The wyver, who becomes wyvern in the 16th
+century, and takes a new form under the
+care of inventive heralds, was in the middle
+ages a lizard-like dragon, generally with small wings. Sir
+Edmund Mauley in the 14th century is found differencing the
+black bend of his elder brother by charging it with three wyvers
+of silver. During the middle ages there seems small distinction
+between the wyver and the still rarer dragon, which, with the
+coming of the Tudors, who bore it as their
+badge, is seen as a four-legged monster with
+wings and a tail that ends like a broad
+arrow. The monster in the arms of Drake,
+blazoned by Tudor heralds as a wyvern, is
+clearly a fire-drake or dragon in his origin.</p>
+
+<p>The unicorn rampant was borne by Harlyn
+of Norfolk, unicorn&rsquo;s heads by the Cambridgeshire
+family of Paris. The mermaid with her
+comb and looking-glass makes a 14th-century
+crest for Byron, while &ldquo;Silver a bend gules with three silver
+harpies thereon&rdquo; is found in the 15th century for Entyrdene.</p>
+
+<p>Concerning beasts and monsters the heraldry books have
+many adjectives of blazonry which may be disregarded. Even
+as it was once the pride of the cook pedant to carve each bird
+on the board with a new word for the act, so it became the
+delight of the pedant herald to order that the rampant horse
+should be &ldquo;forcené,&rdquo; the rampant griffon &ldquo;segreant,&rdquo;
+the passant hart &ldquo;trippant&rdquo;; while the same hart must
+needs be &ldquo;attired&rdquo; as to its horns and &ldquo;unguled&rdquo; as to
+its hoofs. There is ancient authority for the nice blazonry
+which sometimes gives a separate colour to the tongue and claws
+of the lion, but even this may be set aside. Though a black lion
+in a silver field may be armed with red claws, and a golden
+leopard in a red field given blue claws and tongues, these trifles
+are but fancies which follow the taste of the painter, and are never
+of obligation. The tusks and hoofs of the boar, and often the
+horns of the hart, are thus given in some paintings a colour of
+their own which elsewhere is neglected.</p>
+
+<p>As the lion is among armorial beasts, so is the eagle among
+the birds. A bold convention of the earliest shield painters
+displayed him with spread wing and claw, the feat of a few
+strokes of the brush, and after this fashion he appears on many
+scores of shields. Like the claws and tongue of the lion, the beak
+and claws of the eagle are commonly painted of a second colour
+in all but very small representations. Thus the golden eagle of
+Lymesey in a red field may have blue beak and claws, and golden
+beak and claws will be given to Jorce&rsquo;s silver eagle upon red.
+A lure, or two wings joined and spread like those of an eagle,
+is a rare charge sometimes found. When fitted with the cord by
+which a falconer&rsquo;s lure is swung, the cord must be named.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Monthermer bore &ldquo;Gold an eagle vert.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Siggeston bore &ldquo;Silver a two-headed eagle sable.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Gavaston, earl of Cornwall, bore &ldquo;Vert six eagles gold.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Bayforde of Fordingbridge sealed (in 1388) with arms of &ldquo;An eagle
+bendwise, with a border engrailed and a baston.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Graunson bore &ldquo;Paly silver and azure with a bend gules and three
+golden eagles thereon.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Seymour bore &ldquo;Gules a lure of two golden wings.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Commoner than the eagle as a charge is the martlet, a humbler
+bird which is never found as the sole charge of a shield. In all
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page327" id="page327"></a>327</span>
+but a few early representations the feathers of the legs are seen
+without the legs or claws. The martlet indicates both swallow
+and martin, and in the arms of the Cornish Arundels the martlets
+must stand for &ldquo;hirundels&rdquo; or swallows.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:515px; height:142px" src="images/img327a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Monthermer.</td>
+<td class="caption">Siggeston.</td>
+<td class="caption">Gavaston.</td>
+<td class="caption">Graunson.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 190px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:119px; height:146px" src="images/img327b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Arundel.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The falcon or hawk is borne as a rule with close wings, so that
+he may not be taken for the eagle. In most cases he is there
+to play on the bearer&rsquo;s name, and this may be
+said of most of the flight of lesser birds.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Naunton bore &ldquo;Sable three martlets silver.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Heron bore &ldquo;Azure three herons silver.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Fauconer bore &ldquo;Silver three falcons gules.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Hauvile bore &ldquo;Azure a dance between three
+hawks gold.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Twenge bore &ldquo;Silver a fesse gules between
+three popinjays (or parrots) vert.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Cranesley bore &ldquo;Silver a cheveron gules between
+three cranes azure.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Asdale bore &ldquo;Gules a swan silver.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Dalston bore &ldquo;Silver a cheveron engrailed between three daws&rsquo;
+heads razed sable.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Corbet bore &ldquo;Gold two corbies sable.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:515px; height:143px" src="images/img327c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Seymour.</td>
+<td class="caption">Naunton.</td>
+<td class="caption">Fauconer.</td>
+<td class="caption">Twenge.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Cockfield bore &ldquo;Silver three cocks gules.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Burton bore &ldquo;Sable a cheveron sable between three silver owls.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Rokeby bore &ldquo;Silver a cheveron sable between three rooks.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Duffelde bore &ldquo;Sable a cheveron silver between three doves.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Pelham bore &ldquo;Azure three pelicans silver.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:516px; height:146px" src="images/img327d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Asdale.</td>
+<td class="caption">Corbet.</td>
+<td class="caption">Cockfield.</td>
+<td class="caption">Burton.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Sumeri (13th century) sealed with arms of &ldquo;A peacock with his
+tail spread.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>John Pyeshale of Suffolk (14th century) sealed with arms of
+&ldquo;Three magpies.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Fishes, Reptiles and Insects.</i>&mdash;Like the birds, the fishes are
+borne for the most part to call to mind their bearers&rsquo; names.
+Unless their position be otherwise named, they are painted as
+upright in the shield, as though rising towards the water surface.
+The dolphin is known by his bowed back, old artists making
+him a grotesquely decorative figure.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Lucy bore &ldquo;Gules three luces (or pike) silver.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Heringaud bore &ldquo;Azure, crusilly gold, with six golden herrings.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Fishacre bore &ldquo;Gules a dolphin silver.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>La Roche bore &ldquo;Three roach swimming.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>John Samon (14th century) sealed with arms of &ldquo;Three salmon
+swimming.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Sturgeon bore &ldquo;Azure three sturgeon swimming gold, with a fret
+gules over all.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Whalley bore &ldquo;Silver three whales&rsquo; heads razed sable.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Shell-fish would hardly have place in English armory were
+it not for the abundance of scallops which have followed their
+appearance in the banners of Dacre and Scales. The crest
+of the Yorkshire Scropes, playing upon their name, was a pair
+of crabs&rsquo; claws.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Dacre bore &ldquo;Gules three scallops silver.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Shelley bore &ldquo;Sable a fesse engrailed between three whelk-shells
+gold.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:519px; height:143px" src="images/img327e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Rokeby.</td>
+<td class="caption">Pelham.</td>
+<td class="caption">Lucy.</td>
+<td class="caption">Fishacre.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:123px; height:145px" src="images/img327f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Roche.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Reptiles and insects are barely represented. The lizards
+in the crest and supporters of the Ironmongers of London belong
+to the 15th century. Gawdy of Norfolk may have borne the
+tortoise in his shield in the same age. &ldquo;Silver three toads
+sable&rdquo; was quartered as a second coat for Botreaux of Cornwall
+in the 16th century&mdash;Botereau or Boterel
+signifying a little toad in the old French
+tongue&mdash;but the arms do not appear on the
+old Botreaux seals beside their ancient bearing
+of the griffon. Beston bore &ldquo;Silver a bend
+between six bees sable&rdquo; and a 15-century
+Harbottle seems to have sealed with arms of
+three bluebottle flies. Three butterflies are in
+the shield of Presfen of Lancashire in 1415, while
+the winged insect shown on the seal of John Mayre, a King&rsquo;s
+Lynn burgess of the age of Edward I., is probably a mayfly.</p>
+
+<p><i>Human Charges.</i>&mdash;Man and the parts of him play but a small
+part in English shields, and we have nothing to put beside such
+a coat as that of the German Manessen, on which two armed
+knights attack each other&rsquo;s hauberks with their teeth. But
+certain arms of religious houses and the like have the whole
+figure, the see of Salisbury bearing the Virgin and Child in a
+blue field. And old crests have demi-Saracens and falchion
+men, coal-miners, monks and blackamoors. Sowdan bore in his
+shield a turbaned soldan&rsquo;s head; Eady, three old men&rsquo;s &ldquo;&rsquo;eads&rdquo;!
+Heads of maidens, the &ldquo;winsome marrows&rdquo; of the ballad, are
+in the arms of Marow. The Stanleys, as kings of Man, quartered
+the famous three-armed legs whirling mill-sail fashion, and
+Tremayne of the west bore three men&rsquo;s arms in like wise. &ldquo;Gules
+three hands silver&rdquo; was for Malmeyns as early as the 13th century,
+and Tynte of Colchester displayed hearts.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:520px; height:145px" src="images/img327g.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Dacre.</td>
+<td class="caption">Shelley.</td>
+<td class="caption">See of Salisbury.</td>
+<td class="caption">Isle of Man.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Miscellaneous Charges.</i>&mdash;Other charges of the shield are less
+frequent but are found in great variety, the reason for most of
+them being the desire to play upon the bearer&rsquo;s name.</p>
+
+<p>Weapons and the like are rare, having regard to the military
+associations of armory. Daubeney bore three helms; Philip
+Marmion took with his wife, the coheir of Kilpek, the Kilpek
+shield of a sword (<i>espek</i>). Tuck had a stabbing sword or &ldquo;tuck.&rdquo;
+Bent bows were borne by Bowes, an arblast by Arblaster, arrows
+by Archer, birding-bolts or <i>bosouns</i> by Bosun, the mangonel
+by Mangnall. The three lances of Amherst is probably a medieval
+coat; Leweston had battle-axes.</p>
+
+<p>A scythe was in the shield of Praers; Picot had picks; Bilsby
+a hammer or &ldquo;beal&rdquo;; Malet showed mallets. The chamberlain&rsquo;s
+key is in the shield of a Chamberlain, and the spenser&rsquo;s key
+in that of a Spenser. Porter bore the porter&rsquo;s bell, Boteler
+the butler&rsquo;s cup. Three-legged pots were borne by Monbocher.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page328" id="page328"></a>328</span>
+Crowns are for Coroun. Yarde had yard-wands; Bordoun a
+burdon or pilgrim&rsquo;s staff.</p>
+
+<p>Of horse-furniture we have the stirrups of Scudamore and
+Giffard, the horse-barnacles of Bernake, and the horse-shoes
+borne by many branches and tenants of the house of Ferrers.</p>
+
+<p>Of musical instruments there are pipes, trumps and harps
+for Pipe, Trumpington and Harpesfeld. Hunting horns are
+common among families bearing such names as Forester or
+Horne. Remarkable charges are the three organs of Grenville,
+who held of the house of Clare, the lords of Glamorgan.</p>
+
+<p>Combs play on the name of Tunstall, and gloves (<i>wauns</i> or
+<i>gauns</i>) on that of Wauncy. Hose were borne by Hoese; buckles
+by a long list of families. But the most notable of the charges
+derived from clothing is the hanging sleeve familiar in the arms
+of Hastings, Conyers and Mansel.</p>
+
+<p>Chess-rooks, hardly to be distinguished from the <i>roc</i> or <i>roquet</i>
+at the head of a jousting-lance, were borne by Rokewode and
+by many more. Topcliffe had pegtops in his shield, while
+Ambesas had a cast of three dice which should each show the
+point of one, for &ldquo;to throw ambesace&rdquo; is an ancient phrase
+used of those who throw three aces.</p>
+
+<p>Although we are a sea-going people, there are few ships in our
+armory, most of these in the arms of sea-ports. Anchors are
+commoner.</p>
+
+<p>Castles and towers, bridges, portcullises and gates have all
+examples, and a minster-church was the curious charge borne
+by the ancient house of Musters of Kirklington.</p>
+
+<p>Letters of the alphabet are very rarely found in ancient armory;
+but three capital T&rsquo;s, in old English script, were borne by Toft
+of Cheshire in the 14th century. In the period of decadence
+whole words or sentences, commonly the names of military or
+naval victories, are often seen.</p>
+
+<p><i>Blazonry.</i>&mdash;An ill-service has been done to the students of
+armory by those who have pretended that the phrases in which
+the shields and their charges are described or blazoned must
+follow arbitrary laws devised by writers of the period of armorial
+decadence. One of these laws, and a mischievous one, asserts
+that no tincture should be named a second time in the blazon
+of one coat. Thus if gules be the hue of the field any charge of
+that colour must thereafter be styled &ldquo;of the first.&rdquo; Obeying
+this law the blazoner of a shield of arms elaborately charged
+may find himself sadly involved among &ldquo;of the first,&rdquo; &ldquo;of the
+second,&rdquo; and &ldquo;of the third.&rdquo; It is needless to say that no such
+law obtained among armorists of the middle ages. The only
+rule that demands obedience is that the brief description should
+convey to the reader a true knowledge of the arms described.</p>
+
+<p>The examples of blazonry given in that part of this article
+which deals with armorial charges will be more instructive to the
+student than any elaborated code of directions. It will be
+observed that the description of the field is first set down, the
+blazoner giving its plain tincture or describing it as burely,
+party, paly or barry, as powdered or sown with roses, crosslets
+or fleurs-de-lys. Then should follow the main or central charges,
+the lion or griffon dominating the field, the cheveron or the pale,
+the fesse, bend or bars, and next the subsidiary charges in the
+field beside the &ldquo;ordinary&rdquo; and those set upon it. Chiefs and
+quarters are blazoned after the field and its contents, and the
+border, commonly an added difference, is taken last of all.
+Where there are charges both upon and beside a bend, fesse or
+the like, a curious inversion is used by pedantic blazoners.
+The arms of Mr Samuel Pepys of the Admiralty Office would
+have been described in earlier times as &ldquo;Sable a bend gold between
+two horses&rsquo; heads razed silver, with three fleurs-de-lys sable on the
+bend.&rdquo; Modern heraldic writers would give the sentence as
+&ldquo;Sable, on a bend or between two horses&rsquo; heads erased argent,
+three fleurs-de-lys of the first.&rdquo; Nothing is gained by this
+inversion but the precious advantage of naming the bend but
+once. On the other side it may be said that, while the newer
+blazon couches itself in a form that seems to prepare for the
+naming of the fleurs-de-lys as the important element of the shield,
+the older form gives the fleurs-de-lys as a mere postscript, and
+rightly, seeing that charges in such a position are very commonly
+the last additions to a shield by way of difference. In like
+manner when a crest is described it is better to say &ldquo;a lion&rsquo;s
+head out of a crown&rdquo; than &ldquo;out of a crown a lion&rsquo;s head.&rdquo;
+The first and last necessity in blazonry is lucidity, which is cheaply
+gained at the price of a few syllables repeated.</p>
+
+<p><i>Modern Heraldry.</i>&mdash;With the accession of the Tudors armory
+began a rapid decadence. Heraldry ceased to play its part in
+military affairs, the badges and banners under which the medieval
+noble&rsquo;s retinue came into the field were banished, and even the
+tournament in its later days became a renascence pageant which
+did not need the painted shield and armorial trappers. Treatises
+on armory had been rare in the days before the printing press,
+but even so early a writer as Nicholas Upton had shown himself
+as it were unconcerned with the heraldry that any man might
+see in the camp and the street. From the Book of St Albans
+onward the treatises on armory are informed with a pedantry
+which touches the point of crazy mysticism in such volumes
+as that of Sylvanus Morgan. Thus came into the books those
+long lists of &ldquo;diminutions of ordinaries,&rdquo; the closets and escarpes,
+the endorses and ribands, the many scores of strange crosses
+and such wild fancies as the rule, based on an early German
+pedantry, that the tinctures in peers shields should be given the
+names of precious stones and those in the shields of sovereigns
+the names of planets. Blazon became cumbered with that
+vocabulary whose French of Stratford atte Bowe has driven
+serious students from a business which, to use a phrase as true
+as it is hackneyed, was at last &ldquo;abandoned to the coachpainter
+and the undertaker.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>With the false genealogy came in the assumption or assigning
+of shields to which the new bearers had often no better claim
+than lay in a surname resembling that of the original owner.
+The ancient system of differencing arms disappeared. Now and
+again we see a second son obeying the book-rules and putting
+a crescent in his shield or a third son displaying a molet, but
+long before our own times the practice was disregarded, and the
+most remote kinsman of a gentle house displayed the &ldquo;whole
+coat&rdquo; of the head of his family.</p>
+
+<p>The art of armory had no better fate. An absurd rule current
+for some three hundred years has ordered that the helms of
+princes and knights should be painted full-faced and those of
+peers and gentlemen sidelong. Obeying this, the herald painters
+have displayed the crests of knights and princes as sideways
+upon a full-faced helm; the torse or wreath, instead of being
+twisted about the brow of the helm, has become a sausage-shaped
+bar see-sawing above the helm; and upon this will be balanced
+a crest which might puzzle the ancient craftsman to mould in
+his leather or parchment. A ship on a lee-shore with a thunderstorm
+lowering above its masts may stand as an example of such
+devices. &ldquo;Tastes, of course, differ,&rdquo; wrote Dr Woodward, &ldquo;but
+the writer can hardly think that the épergne given to Lieut.-General
+Smith by his friends at Bombay was a fitting ornament
+for a helmet.&rdquo; As with the crest, so with the shield. It became
+crowded with ill-balanced figures devised by those who despised
+and ignored the ancient examples whose painters had followed
+instinctively a simple and pleasant convention. Landscapes
+and seascapes, musical lines, military medals and corrugated
+boiler-flues have all made their appearance in the shield. Even
+as on the signs of public houses, written words have taken the
+place of figures, and the often-cited arms exemplified to the first
+Earl Nelson marked, it may be hoped, the high watermark of
+these distressing modernisms. Of late years, indeed, official
+armory in England has shown a disposition to follow the lessons
+of the archaeologist, although the recovery of medieval use has
+not yet been as successful as in Germany, where for a long
+generation a school of vigorous armorial art has flourished.</p>
+
+<p><i>Officers of Arms.</i>&mdash;Officers of arms, styled kings of arms,
+heralds and pursuivants, appear at an early period of the history
+of armory as the messengers in peace and war of princes and
+magnates. It is probable that from the first they bore in some
+wise their lord&rsquo;s arms as the badge of their office. In the 14th
+century we have heralds with the arms on a short mantle, witness
+the figure of the duke of Gelderland&rsquo;s herald painted in the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page329" id="page329"></a>329</span>
+<i>Armorial de Gelre</i>. The title of Blue Mantle pursuivant, as old
+as the reign of Edward III., suggests a like usage in England.
+When the tight-laced coat of arms went out of fashion among the
+knighthood the loose tabard of arms with its wide sleeves was
+at once taken in England as the armorial dress of both herald
+and cavalier, and the fashion of it has changed but little since
+those days. Clad in such a coat the herald was the image of his
+master and, although he himself was rarely chosen from any
+rank above that of the lesser gentry, his person, as a messenger,
+acquired an almost priestly sacredness. To injure or to insult
+him was to affront the coat that he wore.</p>
+
+<p>We hear of kings of arms in the royal household of the 13th
+century, and we may compare their title with those of such
+officers as the King of the Ribalds and the King of the Minstrels;
+but it is noteworthy that, even in modern warrants for heralds&rsquo;
+patents, the custom of the reign of Edward III. is still cited as
+giving the necessary precedents for the officers&rsquo; liveries. Officers
+of arms took their titles from their provinces or from the titles
+and badges of their masters. Thus we have Garter, Norroy
+and Clarenceux, March, Lancaster, Windsor, Leicester, Leopard,
+Falcon and Blanc Sanglier as officers attached to the royal house;
+Chandos, the herald of the great Sir John Chandos; Vert Eagle
+of the Nevill earls of Salisbury, Esperance and Crescent of the
+Percys of Northumberland. The spirit of Henry VII.&rsquo;s legislation
+was against such usages in baronial houses, and in the age of the
+Tudors the last of the private heralds disappears.</p>
+
+<p>In England the royal officers of arms were made a corporation
+by Richard III. Nowadays the members of this corporation,
+known as the College of Arms or Heralds&rsquo; College, are Garter
+Principal King of Arms, Clarenceux King of Arms South of
+Trent, Norroy King of Arms North of Trent, the heralds Windsor,
+Chester, Richmond, Somerset, York and Lancaster, and the
+pursuivants Rouge Croix, Bluemantle, Rouge Dragon and
+Portcullis. Another king of arms, not a member of this corporation,
+has been attached to the order of the Bath since the reign
+of George I., and an officer of arms, without a title, attends the
+order of St Michael and St George.</p>
+
+<p>There is no college or corporation of heralds in Scotland or
+Ireland. In Scotland &ldquo;Lyon-king-of-arms,&rdquo; &ldquo;Lyon rex armorum,&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;Leo fecialis,&rdquo; so called from the lion on the royal
+shield, is the head of the office of arms. When first the dignity
+was constituted is not known, but Lyon was a prominent figure
+in the coronation of Robert II. in 1371. The office was at first,
+as in England, attached to the earl marshal, but it has long
+been conferred by patent under the great seal, and is held direct
+from the crown. Lyon is also king-of-arms for the national
+order of the Thistle. He is styled &ldquo;Lord Lyon,&rdquo; and the office
+has always been held by men of family, and frequently by a
+peer who would appoint a &ldquo;Lyon depute.&rdquo; He is supreme
+in all matters of heraldry in Scotland. Besides the &ldquo;Lyon
+depute,&rdquo; there are the Scottish heralds, Albany, Ross and
+Rothesay, with precedence according to date of appointment;
+and the pursuivants, Carrick, March and Unicorn. Heralds
+and pursuivants are appointed by Lyon.</p>
+
+<p>In Ireland also there is but one king-of-arms, Ulster. The
+office was instituted by Edward VI. in 1553. The patent is
+given by Rymer, and refers to certain emoluments as &ldquo;praedicto
+officio ... ab antiquo spectantibus.&rdquo; The allusion is to an
+Ireland king-of-arms mentioned in the reign of Richard II. and
+superseded by Ulster. Ulster holds office by patent, during
+pleasure; under him the Irish office of arms consists of two
+heralds, Cork and Dublin; and a pursuivant, Athlone. Ulster
+is king-of-arms to the order of St Patrick. He held visitations
+in parts of Ireland from 1568 to 1620, and these and other records,
+including all grants of arms from the institution of the office, are
+kept in the Birmingham Tower, Dublin.</p>
+
+<p>The armorial duties of the ancient heralds are not clearly
+defined. The patent of Edward IV., creating John Wrythe
+king of arms of England with the style of Garter, speaks vaguely
+of the care of the office of arms and those things which belong to
+that office. We know that the heralds had their part in the
+ordering of tournaments, wherein armory played its greatest
+part, and that their expert knowledge of arms gave them such
+duties as reckoning the noble slain on a battlefield. But it is
+not until the 15th century that we find the heralds following
+a recognized practice of granting or assigning arms, a practice
+on which John of Guildford comments, saying that such arms
+given by a herald are not of greater authority than those which
+a man has taken for himself. The Book of St Albans, put forth
+in 1486, speaking of arms granted by princes and lords, is careful
+to add that &ldquo;armys bi a mannys proper auctorite take, if an
+other man have not borne theym afore, be of strength enogh,&rdquo;
+repeating, as it seems, Nicholas Upton&rsquo;s opinion which, in this
+matter, does not conflict with the practice of his day. It is
+probable that the earlier grants of arms by heralds were made
+by reason of persons uncunning in armorial lore applying
+for a suitable device to experts in such matters&mdash;and that such
+setting forth of arms may have been practised even in the 14th
+century.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest known grants of arms in England by sovereigns
+or private persons are, as a rule, the conveyance of a right in a
+coat of arms already existing or of a differenced version of it.
+Thus in 1391 Thomas Grendale, a squire who had inherited
+through his grandmother the right in the shield of Beaumeys,
+granted his right in it to Sir William Moigne, a knight who seems
+to have acquired the whole or part of the Beaumeys manor
+in Sawtry. Under Henry VI. we have certain rare and curious
+letters of the crown granting nobility with arms &ldquo;<i>in signum
+hujusmodi nobilitatis</i>&rdquo; to certain individuals, some, and perhaps
+all of whom, were foreigners who may have asked for letters which
+followed a continental usage. After this time we have a regular
+series of grants by heralds who in later times began to assert
+that new arms, to be valid, must necessarily be derived from
+their assignments, although ancient use continued to be recognized.</p>
+
+<p>An account of the genealogical function of the heralds, so
+closely connected with their armorial duties will be found in the
+article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Genealogy</a></span>. In spite of the work of such distinguished
+men as Camden and Dugdale they gradually fell in public
+estimation until Blackstone could write of them that the marshalling
+of coat-armour had fallen into the hands of certain officers
+called heralds, who had allowed for lucre such falsity and confusion
+to creep into their records that even their common seal
+could no longer be received as evidence in any court of justice.
+From this low estate they rose again when the new archaeology
+included heraldry in its interests, and several antiquaries of
+repute have of late years worn the herald&rsquo;s tabard.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of the vast amount of material which the libraries
+catalogue under the head of &ldquo;Heraldry,&rdquo; the subject has as yet
+received little attention from antiquaries working in the modern
+spirit. The old books are as remarkable for their detachment
+from the facts as for their folly. The work of Nicholas Upton,
+<i>De studio militari</i>, although written in the first half of the 15th
+century, shows, as has been already remarked, no attempt to
+reconcile the conceits of the author with the armorial practice
+which he must have seen about him on every side. Gerard Leigh,
+Bossewell, Ferne and Morgan carry on this bad tradition, each
+adding his own extravagances. The <i>Display of Heraldry</i>, first
+published in 1610 under the name of John Guillim, is more
+reasonable if not more learned, and in its various editions gives
+a valuable view of the decadent heraldry of the 17th century.
+In the 19th century many important essays on the subject are
+to be found in such magazines as the <i>Genealogist</i>, the <i>Herald and
+Genealogist</i> and the <i>Ancestor</i>, while Planché&rsquo;s <i>Pursuivant of
+Arms</i> contains some slight but suggestive work which attempts
+original enquiry. But Dr Woodward&rsquo;s <i>Treatise on Heraldry,
+British and Foreign</i> (1896), in spite of many errors arising from
+the author&rsquo;s reliance upon unchecked material, must be counted
+the only scholarly book in English upon a matter which has
+engaged so many pens. Among foreign volumes may be cited
+those of Menestrier and Spener, and the vast compilation of the
+German Siebmacher. Notable ordinaries of arms are those of
+Papworth and Renesse, companions to the armorials of Burke and
+Rietstap. The student may be advised to turn his attention to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page330" id="page330"></a>330</span>
+all works dealing with the effigies, brasses and other monuments
+of the middle ages, to the ancient heraldic seals and to the
+heraldry of medieval architecture and ornament.</p>
+<div class="author">(O. Ba.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERAT,<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> a city and province of Afghanistan. The city of
+Herat lies in 340° 20&prime; 30&Prime; N., and 62° 11&prime; 0&Prime; E., at an altitude
+of 2500 ft. above sea-level. Estimated pop. about 10,000. It
+is a city of great interest historically, geographically, politically
+and strategically, but in modern days it has quite lost its ancient
+commercial importance. From this central point great lines
+of communication radiate in all directions to Russian, British,
+Persian and Afghan territory. Sixty-six miles to the north lies
+the terminus of the Russian railway system; to the south-east
+is Kandahar (360 m.) and about 70 m. beyond that, New Chaman,
+the terminus of the British railway system. Southward lies
+Seistan (200 m.), and eastward Kabul (550 m.); while on the
+west four routes lead into Persia by Turbet to Meshed (215 m.),
+and by Birjend to Kerman (400 m.), to Yezd (500 m.), or to
+Isfahan (600 m.). The city forms a quadrangle of nearly 1 m.
+square (more accurately about 1600 yds. by 1500 yds.); on
+the western, southern and eastern faces the line of defence is
+almost straight, the only projecting points being the gateways,
+but on the northern face the contour is broken by a double
+outwork, consisting of the <i>Ark</i> or citadel, which is built of sun-dried
+brick on a high artificial mound within the enceinte,
+and a lower work at its foot, called the <i>Ark-i-nao</i>, or &ldquo;new
+citadel,&rdquo; which extends 100 yds. beyond the line of the city
+wall. That which distinguishes Herat from all other Oriental
+cities, and at the same time constitutes its main defence, is the
+stupendous character of the earthwork upon which the city wall
+is built. This earthwork averages 250 ft. in width at the base
+and about 50 ft. in height, and as it is crowned by a wall 25 ft.
+high and 14 ft. thick at the base, supported by about 150 semicircular
+towers, and is further protected by a ditch 45 ft. in
+width and 16 in depth, it presents an appearance of imposing
+strength. When the royal engineers of the Russo-Afghan
+Boundary Commission entered Herat in 1885 they found its
+defences in various stages of disrepair. The gigantic rampart
+was unflanked, and the covered ways in the face of it subject to
+enfilade from end to end. The ditch was choked, the gates were
+unprotected; the tumbled mass of irregular mud buildings
+which constituted the city clung tightly to the walls; there
+were no gun emplacements. Outside, matters were almost
+worse than inside. To the north of the walls the site of old
+Herat was indicated by a vast mass of débris&mdash;mounds of bricks
+and pottery intersected by a network of shallow trenches,
+where the only semblance of a protective wall was the irregular
+line of the Tal-i-Bangi. South of the city was a vast area filled
+in with the graveyards of centuries. Here the trenches dug by
+the Persians during the last siege were still in a fair state of
+preservation; they were within a stone&rsquo;s-throw of the walls.
+Round about the city on all sides were similar opportunities
+for close approach; even the villages stretched out long irregular
+streets towards the city gates. To the north-west, beyond the
+Tal-i-Bangi, the magnificent outlines of the Mosalla filled a wide
+space with the glorious curves of dome and gateway and the
+stately grace of tapering minars, but the impressive beauty
+of this, by far the finest architectural structure in all Afghanistan,
+could not be permitted to weigh against the fact that the position
+occupied by this pile of solid buildings was fatal to the interests
+of effective defence. By the end of August 1885, when a political
+crisis had supervened between Great Britain and Russia, under
+the orders of the Amir the Mosalla was destroyed; but four
+minars standing at the corners of the wide plinth still remain
+to attest to the glorious proportions of the ancient structure,
+and to exhibit samples of that decorative tilework, which for
+intricate beauty of design and exquisite taste in the blending
+of colour still appeals to the memory as unique. At the same time
+the ancient graveyards round the city were swept smooth and
+levelled; obstructions were demolished, outworks constructed,
+and the defences generally renovated. Whether or no the strength
+of this bulwark of North-Western Afghanistan should ever be
+practically tested, the general result of the most recent investigations
+into the value of Herat as a strategic centre has
+been largely to modify the once widely-accepted view that the
+key to India lies within it. Abdur Rahman and his successor
+Habibullah steadfastly refused the offer of British engineers
+to strengthen its defences; and though the Afghans themselves
+have occasionally undertaken repairs, it is doubtful whether
+the old walls of Herat are maintained in a state of efficiency.</p>
+
+<p>The exact position of Herat, with reference to the Russian
+station of Kushk (now the terminus of a branch railway from
+Merv), is as follows: From Herat, a gentle ascent northwards
+for 3 m. reaches to the foot of the Koh-i-Mulla Khwaja, crossing
+the Jui Nao or &ldquo;new&rdquo; canal, which here divides the gravel-covered
+foot hills from the alluvial flats of the Hari Rud plain.
+The crest of the outer ridges of this subsidiary range is about
+700 ft. above the city, at a distance of 4 m. from it. For 28 m.
+farther the road winds first amongst the broken ridges of the
+Koh-i-Mulla Khwaja, then over the intervening <i>dasht</i> into the
+southern spurs of the Paropamisus to the Ardewan pass. This
+is the highest point it attains, and it has risen about 2150 ft.
+from Herat. From the pass it drops over the gradually decreasing
+grades of a wide sweep of Chol (which here happens to be
+locally free from the intersecting network of narrow ravines
+which is generally a distinguishing feature of Turkestan loess
+formations) for a distance of 35 m. into the Russian railway
+station, falling some 2700 ft. from the crest of the Paropamisus.
+To the south the road from Herat to India through Kandahar
+lies across an open plain, which presents no great engineering
+difficulties, but is of a somewhat waterless and barren character.</p>
+
+<p>The city possesses five gates, two on the northern face, the
+Kutab-chak near the north-east angle of the wall, and the Malik
+at the re-entering angle of the Ark-i-nao; and three others
+in the centres of the remaining faces, the Irak gate on the west,
+the Kandahar gate on the south and the Kushk gate on the
+east face. Four streets called the <i>Chahar-súk</i>, running from the
+centre of each face, meet in the centre of the town in a small
+domed quadrangle. The principal street runs from the south
+or Kandahar gate to the market in front of the citadel, and is
+covered in with a vaulted roof through its entire length, the
+shops and buildings of this bazaar being much superior to those
+of the other streets, and the merchants&rsquo; caravanserais, several
+of which are spacious and well built, all opening out on this
+great thoroughfare. Near the central quadrangle of the city
+is a vast reservoir of water, the dome of which is of bold and
+excellent proportions. The only other public building of any
+consequence in Herat is the great mosque or <i>Mesjid-i-Juma</i>,
+which comprises an area of 800 yds. square, and must have been
+a most magnificent structure. It was erected towards the close
+of the 15th century, during the reign of Shah Sultan Hussein
+of the family of Timur, and is said when perfect to have been
+465 ft. long by 275 ft. wide, to have had 408 cupolas, 130 windows,
+444 pillars and 6 entrances, and to have been adorned in the
+most magnificent manner with gilding, carving, precious mosaics
+and other elaborate and costly embellishments. Now, however,
+it is falling rapidly into ruin, the ever-changing provincial
+governors who administer Herat having neither the means
+nor the inclination to undertake the necessary repairs. Neither
+the palace of the Charbagh within the city wall, which was the residence
+of the British mission in 1840-1841, nor the royal quarters
+in the citadel deserve any special notice. At the present day,
+with the exception of the <i>Chahar-súk</i>, where there is always
+a certain amount of traffic, and where the great diversity of race
+and costume imparts much liveliness to the scene, Herat presents
+a very melancholy and desolate appearance. The mud houses
+in rear of the bazaars are for the most part uninhabited and in
+ruins, and even the burnt brick buildings are becoming everywhere
+dilapidated. The city is also one of the filthiest in the
+East, as there are no means of drainage or sewerage, and garbage
+of every description lies in heaps in the open streets.</p>
+
+<p>Along the slopes of the northern hills there is a space of some
+4 m. in length by 3 m. in breadth, the surface of the plain, strewn
+over its whole extent with pieces of pottery and crumbling
+bricks, and also broken here and there by earthen mounds and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page331" id="page331"></a>331</span>
+ruined walls, the débris of palatial structures which at one time
+were the glory and wonder of the East. Of these structures
+indeed some have survived to the present day in a sufficiently
+perfect state to bear witness to the grandeur and beauty of the
+old architecture of Herat. Such was the mosque of the Mosalla
+before its destruction. Scarcely inferior in beauty of design
+and execution, though of more moderate dimensions, is the tomb
+of the saint Abdullah Ansari, in the same neighbourhood. This
+building, which was erected by Shah Rukh Mirza, the grandson
+of Timur, over 500 years ago, contains some exquisite specimens
+of sculpture in the best style of Oriental art. Adjoining the tomb
+also are numerous marble mausoleums, the sepulchres of princes
+of the house of Timur; and especially deserving of notice is a
+royal building tastefully decorated by an Italian artist named
+Geraldi, who was in the service of Shah Abbas the Great. The
+locality, which is further enlivened by gardens and running
+streams, is named <i>Gazir-gáh</i>, and is a favourite resort of the
+Heratis. It is held indeed in high veneration by all classes, and
+the famous Dost Mahommed Khan is himself buried at the foot
+of the tomb of the saint. Two other royal palaces named
+respectively <i>Bagh-i-Shah</i> and <i>Takht-i-Sefer</i>, are situated on the
+same rising ground somewhat farther to the west. The buildings
+are now in ruins, but the view from the pavilions, shaded by
+splendid plane trees on the terraced gardens formed on the
+slope of the mountain, is said to be very beautiful.</p>
+
+<p>The population of Herat and the neighbourhood is of a very
+mixed character. The original inhabitants of Ariana were no
+doubt of the Aryan family, and immediately cognate with the
+Persian race, but they were probably intermixed at a very early
+period with the Sacae and Massagetae, who seem to have held
+the mountains from Kabul to Herat from the first dawn of
+history, and to whom must be ascribed&mdash;rather than to an
+infusion of Turco-Tartaric blood introduced by the armies of
+Jenghiz and Timur&mdash;the peculiar broad features and flattish
+countenance which distinguish the inhabitants of Herat, Seistan
+and the eastern provinces of Persia from their countrymen
+farther to the west. Under the government of Herat, however,
+there are a very large number cf tribes, ruled over by separate
+and semi-independent chiefs, and belonging probably to different
+nationalities. The principal group of tribes is called the <i>Chahar-Aimák</i>,
+or &ldquo;four races,&rdquo; the constituent parts of which, however,
+are variously stated by different authorities both as to strength
+and nomenclature. The Heratis are an agricultural race, and
+are not nearly so warlike as the Pathans from the neighbourhood
+of Kabul or Kandahar.</p>
+
+<p>The long narrow valley of the Hari Rud, starting from the
+western slopes of the Koh-i-Baba, extends almost due west
+for 300 m. before it takes its great northern bend at
+Kuhsan, and passes northwards through the broken
+<span class="sidenote">Environs of Herat.</span>
+ridges of the Siah Bubuk (the western extremity of the
+range which we now call Paropamisus) towards Sarakhs. For
+the greater part of its length it drains the southern slopes only
+of the Paropamisus and the northern slopes of a parallel range
+called Koh-i-Safed. The Paropamisus forms the southern face
+of the Turkestan plateau, which contains the sources of the
+Murghab river; the northern face of the same plateau is defined
+by the Band-i-Turkestan. On the south of the plateau we find a
+similar succession of narrow valleys dividing parallel flexures,
+or anticlinals, formed under similar geological conditions to
+those which appear to be universally applicable to the Himalaya,
+the Hindu Kush, and the Indus frontier mountain systems.
+From one of these long lateral valleys the Hari Rud receives its
+principal tributary, which joins the main river below Obeh, 180
+m. from its source; and it is this tributary (separated from the
+Hari Rud by the narrow ridges of the Koh-i-Safed and Band-i-Baian)
+that offers the high road from Herat to Kabul, and not
+the Hari Rud itself. From its source to Obeh the Hari Rud is a
+valley of sandy desolation. There are no glaciers near its sources,
+although they must have existed there in geologically recent
+times, but masses of melting snow annually give rise to floods,
+which rush through the midst of the valley in a turbid red stream,
+frequently rendering the river impassable and cutting off the
+crazy brick bridges at Herat and Tirpul. It is impossible,
+whilst watching the rolling, seething volume of flood-water
+which swirls westwards in April, to imagine the waste stretches
+of dry river-bed which in a few months&rsquo; time (when every
+available drop of water is carried off for irrigation) will represent
+the Hari Rud. The soft shales or clays of the hills bounding
+the valley render these hills especially subject to the action
+of denudation, and the result, in rounded slopes and easily
+accessible crests, determines the nature of the easy tracks and
+passes which intersect them. At the same time, any excessive
+local rainfall is productive of difficulty and danger from the
+floods of liquid mud and loose boulders which sweep like an
+avalanche down the hill sides. The intense cold which usually
+accompanies these sudden northern blizzards of Herat and
+Turkestan is a further source of danger.</p>
+
+<p>From Obeh, 50 m. east of Herat, the cultivated portion of the
+valley commences, and it extends, with a width which varies
+from 8 to 16 m., to Kuhsan, 60 m. west of the city. But the
+great stretch of highly irrigated and valuable fruit-growing
+land, which appears to spread from the walls of Herat east and
+west as far as the eye can reach, and to sweep to the foot of the
+hills north and south with an endless array of vineyards and
+melon-beds, orchards and villages, varied with a brilliant patchwork
+of poppy growth brightening the width of green wheat-fields
+with splashes of scarlet and purple&mdash;all this is really comprised
+within a narrow area which does not extend beyond a ten-miles&rsquo;
+radius from the city. The system of irrigation by which these
+agricultural results are attained is most elaborate. The despised
+Herati Tajik, in blue shirt and skull-cap, and with no instrument
+better than a three-cornered spade, is as skilled an agriculturist
+as is the Ghilzai engineer, but he cannot effect more than the
+limits of his water-supply will permit. He adopts the karez
+(or, Persian, <i>kanát</i>) system of underground irrigation, as does the
+Ghilzai, and brings every drop of water that he can find to the
+surface; but it cannot be said that he is more successful than
+the Ghilzai. It is the startling contrast of the Herati oasis with
+the vast expanse of comparative sterility that encloses it which
+has given such a fictitious value to the estimates of the material
+wealth of the valley of the Hari Rud.</p>
+
+<p>The valley about Herat includes a flat alluvial plain which
+might, for some miles on any side except the north, be speedily
+reduced to an impassable swamp by means of flood-water from
+the surrounding canals. Three miles to the south of the city
+the river flows from east to west, spanned by the Pal-i-Malun,
+a bridge possessing grand proportions, but which was in 1885 in
+a state of grievous disrepair and practically useless. East and
+west stretches the long vista of the Hari Rud. Due north the
+hills called the Koh-i-Mulla Khwaja appear to be close and
+dominating, but the foot of these hills is really about 3 m. distant
+from the city. This northern line of barren, broken sandstone
+hills is geographically no part of the Paropamisus range, from
+which it is separated by a stretch of sandy upland about 20 m.
+in width, called the Dasht-i-Hamdamao, or Dasht-i-Ardewán,
+formed by the talus or drift of the higher mountains, which,
+washed down through centuries of denudation, now forms long
+sweeping spurs of gravel and sand, scantily clothed with wormwood
+scrub and almost destitute of water. Through this stretch
+of <i>dasht</i> the drainage from the main water-divide breaks downwards
+to the plains of Herat, where it is arrested and utilized
+for irrigation purposes. To the north-east of the city a very
+considerable valley has been formed between the Paropamisus
+and the subsidiary Koh-i-Mulla Khwaja range, called Korokh.
+Here there are one or two important villages and a well-known
+shrine marked by a group of pine trees which is unique in this
+part of Afghanistan. The valley leads to a group of passes
+across the Paropamisus into Turkestan, of which the Zirmast is
+perhaps the best known. The main water-divide between Herat
+and the Turkestan Chol (the loess district) has been called
+Paropamisus for want of any well-recognized general name.
+To the north of the Korokh valley it exhibits something of the
+formation of the Hindu Kush (of which it is apparently a geological
+extension), but as it passes westwards it becomes broken
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page332" id="page332"></a>332</span>
+into fragments by processes of denudation, until it is hardly
+recognizable as a distinct range at all. The direct passes across
+it from Herat (the Baba and the Ardewán) wind amongst masses
+of disintegrating sandstone for some miles on each side of the
+dividing watershed, but farther west the rounded knolls of the
+rain-washed downs may be crossed almost at any point without
+difficulty. The names applied to this débris of a once formidable
+mountain system are essentially local and hardly distinctive.
+Beyond this range the sand and clay loess formation spreads
+downwards like a tumbled sea, hiding within the folds of its
+many-crested hills the twisting course of the Kushk and its
+tributaries.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;The origin of Herat is lost in antiquity. The name
+first appears in the list of primitive Zoroastrian settlements
+contained in the <i>Vendid&#257;d Sad&#275;</i>, where, however, like most of
+the names in the same list,&mdash;such as <i>Sughudu</i> (Sogdiana), <i>Mour&#363;</i>
+(Merv or Margus), <i>Haraquiti</i> (Arachotus or Arghand-ab), <i>Haetumant</i>
+(Etymander or Helmund), and <i>Ragha</i> (or Argha-stan),&mdash;it
+seems to apply to the river or river-basin, which was the special
+centre of population. This name of <i>Haroyu</i>, as it is written in
+the <i>Vendid&#257;d</i>, or <i>Hariwa</i>, as it appears in the inscriptions of Darius,
+is a cognate form with the Sanskrit <i>Sarayu</i>, which signifies &ldquo;a
+river,&rdquo; and its resemblance to the ethnic title of Aryan (Sans.
+<i>Arya</i>) is purely fortuitous; though from the circumstance of
+the city being named &ldquo;Aria Metropolis&rdquo; by the Greeks, and
+being also recognized as the capital of Ariana, &ldquo;the country of
+the Arians,&rdquo; the two forms have been frequently confounded.
+Of the foundation of Herat (or Heri, as it is still often called)
+nothing is known. We can only infer from the colossal character
+of the earth-works which surround the modern town, that, like
+the similar remains at Bost on the Helmund and at Ulan Robat
+of Arachosia, they belong to that period of Central-Asian history
+which preceded the rise of Achaemenian power, and which in
+Grecian romance is illustrated by the names of Bacchus, of
+Hercules and of Semiramis. To trace in any detail the fortunes
+of Herat would be to write the modern history of the East, for
+there has hardly been a dynastic revolution, or a foreign invasion,
+or a great civil war in Central Asia since the time of the prophet,
+in which Herat has not played a conspicuous part and suffered
+accordingly. Under the Tahirids of Khorasan, the Saffarids
+of Seistan and the Samanids of Bokhara, it flourished for some
+centuries in peace and progressive prosperity; but during the
+succeeding rule of the Ghaznevid kings its metropolitan
+character was for a time obscured by the celebrity of the neighbouring
+capital of Ghazni, until finally in the reign of Sultan
+Sanjar of Merv about 1157 the city was entirely destroyed by
+an irruption of the Ghuzz, the predecessors, in race as well as in
+habitat, of the modern Turkomans. Herat gradually recovered
+under the enlightened Ghorid kings, who were indeed natives
+of the province, though they preferred to hold their court amid
+their ancestral fortresses in the mountains of Ghor, so that at the
+time of Jenghiz Khan&rsquo;s invasion it equalled or even exceeded
+in populousness and wealth its sister capitals Of Balkh, Merv
+and Nishapur, the united strength of the four cities being
+estimated at three millions of inhabitants. But this Mogul
+visitation was most calamitous; forty persons, indeed, are
+stated to have alone survived the general massacre of 1232, and
+as a similar catastrophe overtook the city at the hands of Timur
+in 1398, when the local dynasty of Kurt, which had succeeded
+the Ghorides in eastern Khorasan, was put an end to, it is
+astonishing to find that early in the 15th century Herat was again
+flourishing and populous, and the favoured seat of the art and
+literature of the East. It was indeed under the princes of the
+house of Timur that most of the noble buildings were erected,
+of which the remains still excite our admiration at Herat, while
+all the great historical works relative to Asia, such as the <i>Rozetes-Sef&#257;</i>,
+the <i>Hab&#299;b-es-seir</i>, <i>Hafiz Abr&#363;&rsquo;s Tar&#299;kh</i>, the <i>Matl&#257;&rsquo; a-es-Sa&rsquo;adin</i>,
+&amp;c., date from the same place and the same age.
+Four times was Herat sacked by Turkomans and Usbegs during
+the centuries which intervened between the Timuride princes
+and the rise of the Afghan power, and it has never in modern
+times attained to anything like its old importance. Afghan
+tribes, who had originally dwelt far to the east, were first settled
+at Herat by Nadir Shah, and from that time they have monopolized
+the government and formed the dominant element in the
+population. It will be needless to trace the revolutions and
+counter-revolutions which have followed each other in quick
+succession at Herat since Ahmad Shah Durani founded the
+Afghan monarchy about the middle of the 18th century. Let
+it suffice to say that Herat has been throughout the seat of an
+Afghan government, sometimes in subordination to Kabul and
+sometimes independent. Persia indeed for many years showed
+a strong disposition to reassert the supremacy over Herat which
+was exercised by the Safawid kings, but great Britain, disapproving
+of the advance of Persia towards the Indian frontier,
+steadily resisted the encroachment; and, indeed, after helping
+the Heratis to beat off the attack of the Persian army in 1838,
+the British at length compelled the shah in 1857 at the close of
+his war with them to sign a treaty recognizing the further independence
+of the place, and pledging Persia against any further
+interference with the Afghans. In 1863 Herat, which for fifty
+years previously had been independent of Kabul, was incorporated
+by Dost Mahomed Khan in the Afghan monarchy, and
+the Amir, Habibullah of Afghanistan, like his father Abdur
+Rahman before him, remained Amir of Herat and Kandahar, as
+well as Kabul.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Holdich, <i>Indian Borderland</i> (1901); C. E. Yate, <i>Northern
+Afghanistan</i> (1888).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. H. H.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HÉRAULT,<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> a department in the south of France, formed
+from Lower Languedoc. Pop. (1906) 482,779. Area, 2403 sq. m.
+It is bounded N.E. by Gard, N.W. by Aveyron and Tarn, and
+S. by Aude and the Golfe du Lion. The southern prolongation
+of the Cévennes mountains occupies the north-western zone of
+the department, the highest point being about 4250 ft. above
+the sea-level. South-east of this range comes a region of hills
+and plateaus decreasing in height as they approach the sea,
+from which they are separated by the rich plains at the mouth
+of the Orb and the Hérault and, farther to the north-east, by
+the line of intercommunicating salt lagoons (Etang de Thau, &amp;c.)
+which fringes the coast. The region to the north-west of Montpellier
+comprises an extensive tract of country known as the
+Garrigues, a district of dry limestone plateaus and hills, which
+stretches into the neighbouring department of Gard. The
+mountains of the north-west form the watershed between the
+Atlantic and Mediterranean basins. From them flow the
+Hérault, its tributary the Lergue, and more to the south-west
+the Livron and the Orb, which are the main rivers of the department.
+Dry summers, varied by occasional violent storms, are
+characteristic of Hérault. The climate is naturally colder and
+more rainy in the mountains.</p>
+
+<p>A third of the surface of Hérault is planted with vines, which
+are the chief source of agricultural wealth, the department
+ranking first in France with respect to the area of its vineyards;
+the red wines of St Georges, Cazouls-lès-Béziers, Picpoul and
+Maranssan, and the white wines of Frontignan and Lunel (pop.
+in 1906, 6769) are held in high estimation. The area given over
+to arable land and pasture is small in extent. Fruit trees of
+various kinds, but especially mulberries, olives and chestnuts
+flourish. The rearing of silk-worms is largely carried on. Considerable
+numbers of sheep are raised, their milk being utilized
+for the preparation of Roquefort cheeses. The mineral wealth
+of the department is considerable. There are mines of lignite,
+coal in the vicinity of Graissessac, iron, calamine and copper,
+and quarries of building-stone, limestone, gypsum, &amp;c.;
+the marshes supply salt. Mineral springs are numerous, the
+most important being those of Lamalon-les-Bains and Balaruc-les-Bains.
+The chief manufactures are woollen and cotton
+cloth, especially for military use, silk (Ganges), casks, soap and
+fertilizing stuffs. There are also oil-works, distilleries (Béziers)
+and tanneries (Bédarieux). Fishing is an important industry.
+Cette and Mèze (pop. in 1906, 5574) are the chief ports. Hérault
+exports salt fish, wine, liqueurs, timber, salt, building-material,
+&amp;c. It imports cattle, skins, wool, cereals, vegetables, coal and
+other commodities. The railway lines belong chiefly to the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page333" id="page333"></a>333</span>
+Southern and Paris-Lyon-Méditerranée companies. The Canal
+du Midi traverses the south of the department for 44 m. and
+terminates at Cette. The Canal des Étangs traverses the
+department for about 20 m., forming part of a line of communication
+between Cette and Aigues-Mortes. Montpellier, the
+capital, is the seat of a bishopric of the province of Avignon, and
+of a court of appeal and centre of an academic (educational
+division). The department belongs to the 16th military region,
+which has its headquarters at Montpellier. It is divided into
+the arrondissements of Montpellier, Béziers, Lodève and St
+Pons, with 36 cantons and 340 communes.</p>
+
+<p>Montpellier, Béziers, Lodève, Bédarieux, Cette, Agde, Pézenas,
+Lamalou-les-Bains and Clermont-l&rsquo;Hérault are the more noteworthy
+towns and receive separate treatment. Among the other
+interesting places in the department are St Pons, with a church
+of the 12th century, once a cathedral, Villemagne, which has
+several old houses and two ruined churches, one of the 13th, the
+other of the 14th century; Pignan, a medieval town, near which
+is the interesting abbey-church of Vignogoul in the early Gothic
+style; and St Guilhem-le-Désert, which has a church of the
+11th and 12th centuries. Maguelonne, which in the 6th century
+became the seat of a bishopric transferred to Montpellier in 1536,
+has a cathedral of the 12th century.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HÉRAULT DE SÉCHELLES, MARIE JEAN<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> (1759-1794),
+French politician, was born at Paris on the 20th of September
+1759, of a noble family connected with those of Contades and
+Polignac. He made his début as a lawyer at the Châtelet, and
+delivered some very successful speeches; later he was <i>avocat
+général</i> to the parlement of Paris. His legal occupations did not
+prevent him from devoting himself also to literature, and after
+1789 he published an account of a visit he had made to the comte
+de Buffon at Montbard. Hérault&rsquo;s account is marked by a
+delicate irony, and it has with some justice been called a masterpiece
+of interviewing, before the day of journalists. Hérault,
+who was an ardent champion of the Revolution, took part in
+the taking of the Bastille, and on the 8th of December 1789
+was appointed judge of the court of the first arrondissement
+in the department of Paris. From the end of January to April
+1791 Hérault was absent on a mission in Alsace, where he had
+been sent to restore order. On his return he was appointed
+<i>commissaire du roi</i> in the court of cassation. He was elected
+as a deputy for Paris to the Legislative Assembly, where he
+gravitated more and more towards the extreme left; he was a
+member of several committees, and, when a member of the
+diplomatic committee, presented a famous report demanding
+that the nation should be declared to be in danger (11th June
+1793). After the revolution of the 10th of August 1792 (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">French Revolution</a></span>), he co-operated with Danton, one of the
+organizers of this rising, and on the 2nd of September was
+appointed president of the Legislative Assembly. He was a
+deputy to the National Convention for the department of
+Seine-et-Oise, and was sent on a mission to organize the new
+department of Mont Blanc. He was thus absent during the
+trial of Louis XVI., but he made it known that he approved
+of the condemnation of the king, and would probably have
+voted for the death penalty. On his return to Paris, Hérault was
+several times president of the Convention, notably on the 2nd of
+June 1793, the occasion of the attack on the Girondins, and
+on the 10th of August 1793, on which the passing of the new
+constitution was celebrated. On this occasion Hérault, as
+president of the Convention, had to make several speeches. It
+was he, moreover, who, on the rejection of the projected constitution
+drawn up by Condorcet, was entrusted with the task of
+preparing a fresh one; this work he performed within a few days,
+and his plan, which, however, differed very little from that of
+Condorcet, became the Constitution of 1793, which was passed,
+but never applied. As a member of the Committee of Public
+Safety, it was with diplomacy that Hérault was chiefly concerned,
+and from October to December 1793 he was employed on a
+diplomatic and military mission in Alsace. But this mission
+helped to make him an object of suspicion to the other members
+of the Committee of Public Safety, and especially to Robespierre,
+who as a deist and a fanatical follower of the ideas of Rousseau,
+hated Hérault, the follower of the naturalism of Diderot. He
+was accused of treason, and after being tried before the revolutionary
+tribunal, was condemned at the same time as Danton,
+and executed on the 16th Germinal in the year II. (5th April
+1794). He was handsome, elegant and a lover of pleasure, and
+was one of the most individual figures of the Revolution.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the <i>Voyage à Montbard</i>, published by A. Aulard (Paris, 1890);
+A. Aulard, <i>Les Orateurs de la Législative et de la Convention</i>, 2nd ed.
+(Paris, 1906); J. Claretie, <i>Camille Desmoulins ... étude sur les
+Dantonistes</i> (Paris, 1875); Dr Robinet, <i>Le Procès des Dantonistes</i>
+(Paris, 1879); &ldquo;Hérault de Séchelles, sa première mission en
+Alsace&rdquo; in the review <i>La Révolution Française</i>, tome 22; E. Daudet,
+<i>Le Roman d&rsquo;un conventionnel. Hérault de Séchelles et les dames de
+Bellegarde</i> (1904). His <i>&OElig;uvres littéraires</i> were edited (Paris, 1907)
+by E. Dard.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. A.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERB<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> (Lat. <i>herba</i>, grass, food for cattle, generally taken to
+represent the Old Lat. <i>forbea</i>, Gr. <span class="grk" title="phorbê">&#966;&#959;&#961;&#946;&#942;</span>, pasture, <span class="grk" title="pherbein">&#966;&#941;&#961;&#946;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to feed,
+Sans. <i>bharb</i>, to eat), in botany, the name given to those plants
+whose stem or stalk dies entirely or down to the root each year,
+and does not become, as in shrubs or trees, woody or permanent,
+such plants are also called &ldquo;herbaceous.&rdquo; The term &ldquo;herb&rdquo;
+is also used of those herbaceous plants, which possess certain
+properties, and are used for medicinal purposes, for flavouring
+or garnishing in cooking, and also for perfumes (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Horticulture</a></span>
+and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pharmacology</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERBARIUM,<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Hortus Siccus</span>, a collection of plants so
+dried and preserved as to illustrate as far as possible their
+characters. Since the same plant, owing to peculiarities of climate,
+soil and situation, degree of exposure to light and other influences
+may vary greatly according to the locality in which it occurs,
+it is only by gathering together for comparison and study a
+large series of examples of each species that the flora of different
+regions can be satisfactorily represented. Even in the best
+equipped botanical garden it is impossible to have, at one and
+the same time, more than a very small percentage of the representatives
+of the flora of any given region or of any large group
+of plants. Hence a good herbarium forms an indispensable part
+of a botanical museum or institution. There are large herbaria
+at the British Museum and at the Royal Gardens, Kew, and
+smaller collections at the botanical institutions at the principal
+British universities. The original herbarium of Linnaeus is in
+the possession of the Linnaean Society of London. It was
+purchased from the widow of Linnaeus by Dr (afterwards Sir)
+J. E. Smith, one of the founders of the Linnaean Society, and
+after his death was purchased by the society. Herbaria are also
+associated with the more important botanic gardens and museums
+in other countries. The value of a herbarium is much enhanced
+by the possession of &ldquo;types,&rdquo; that is, the original specimens
+on the study of which a species was founded. Thus the herbarium
+at the British Museum, which is especially rich in the earlier
+collections made in the 18th and early 19th centuries, contains
+the types of many species founded by the earlier workers in
+botany. It is also rich in the types of Australian plants in the
+collections of Sir Joseph Banks and Robert Brown, and contains
+in addition many valuable modern collections. The Kew
+herbarium, founded by Sir William Hooker and greatly increased
+by his son Sir Joseph Hooker, is also very rich in types, especially
+those of plants described in the <i>Flora of British India</i> and
+various colonial floras. The collection of Dillenius is deposited
+at Oxford, and that of Professor W. H. Harvey at Trinity
+College, Dublin. The collections of Antoine Laurent de Jussieu,
+his son Adrien, and of Auguste de St Hilaire, are included in the
+large herbarium of the Jardin des Plantes at Paris, and in the
+same city is the extensive private collection of Dr Ernest Cosson.
+At Geneva are three large collections&mdash;Augustin Pyrame de
+Candolle&rsquo;s, containing the typical specimens of the <i>Prodromus</i>,
+a large series of monographs of the families of flowering plants,
+Benjamin Delessert&rsquo;s fine series at the Botanic Garden, and the
+Boissier Herbarium, which is rich in Mediterranean and Oriental
+plants. The university of Göttingen has had bequeathed to it
+the largest collection (exceeding 40,000 specimens) ever made
+by a single individual&mdash;that of Professor Grisebach. At the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page334" id="page334"></a>334</span>
+herbarium in Brussels are the specimens obtained by the traveller
+Karl Friedrich Philipp von Martius, the majority of which
+formed the groundwork of his <i>Flora Brasiliensis</i>. The Berlin
+herbarium is especially rich in more recent collections, and other
+national herbaria sufficiently extensive to subserve the requirements
+of the systematic botanist exist at St Petersburg, Vienna,
+Leiden, Stockholm, Upsala, Copenhagen and Florence. Of
+those in the United States of America, the chief, formed by Asa
+Gray, is the property of Harvard university; there is also a
+large one at the New York Botanical Garden. The herbarium
+at Melbourne, Australia, under Baron Müller, attained large
+proportions; and that of the Botanical Garden of Calcutta is
+noteworthy as the repository of numerous specimens described
+by writers on Indian botany.</p>
+
+<p>Specimens of flowering plants and vascular cryptograms
+are generally mounted on sheets of stout smooth paper, of
+uniform quality; the size adopted at Kew is 17 in. long by 11 in.
+broad, that at the British Museum is slightly larger; the palms
+and their allies, however, and some ferns, require a larger size.
+The tough but flexible coarse grey paper (German <i>Fliesspapier</i>),
+upon which on the Continent specimens are commonly fixed by
+gummed strips of the same, is less hygroscopic than ordinary
+cartridge paper, but has the disadvantage of affording harbourage
+in the inequalities of its surface to a minute insect, <i>Atropos
+pulsatoria</i>, which commits great havoc in damp specimens,
+and which, even if noticed, cannot be dislodged without difficulty.
+The majority of plant specimens are most suitably fastened on
+paper by a mixture of equal parts of gum tragacanth and gum
+arabic made into a thick paste with water. Rigid leathery
+leaves are fixed by means of glue, or, if they present too smooth
+a surface, by stitching at their edges. Where, as in private
+herbaria, the specimens are not liable to be handled with great
+frequency, a stitch here and there round the stem, tied at the
+back of the sheet, or slips of paper passed over the stem through
+two slits in the sheet and attached with gum to its back, or
+simply strips of gummed paper laid across the stem, may be
+resorted to.</p>
+
+<p>To preserve from insects, the plants, after mounting, are
+often brushed over with a liquid formed by the solution of
+¼ &#8468;. each of corrosive sublimate and carbolic acid in 1 gallon
+of methylated spirits. They are then laid out to dry on shelves
+made of a network of stout galvanized iron wire. The use of
+corrosive sublimate is not, however, recommended, as it forms
+on drying a fine powder which when the plants are handled
+will rub off and, being carried into the air, may prove injurious
+to workers. If the plants are subjected to some process, before
+mounting, by which injurious organisms are destroyed, such
+as exposure in a closed chamber to vapour of carbon bisulphide
+for some hours, the presence of pieces of camphor or naphthalene
+in the cabinet will be found a sufficient preservative. After
+mounting are written&mdash;usually in the right-hand corner of the
+sheet, or on a label there affixed&mdash;the designation of each species,
+the date and place of gathering, and the name of the collector.
+Other particulars as to habit, local abundance, soil and claim
+to be indigenous may be written on the back of the sheet or on
+a slip of writing paper attached to its edge. It is convenient
+to place in a small envelope gummed to an upper corner of the
+sheet any flowers, seeds or leaves needed for dissection or
+microscopical examination, especially where from the fixation
+of the specimen it is impossible to examine the leaves for oil-receptacles
+and where seed is apt to escape from ripe capsules
+and be lost. The addition of a careful dissection of a flower
+greatly increases the value of the specimen. To ensure that
+all shall lie evenly in the herbarium the plants should be made
+to occupy as far as possible alternately the right and left sides
+of their respective sheets. The species of each genus are then
+arranged either systematically or alphabetically in separate
+covers of stout, usually light brown paper, or, if the genus be
+large, in several covers with the name of the genus clearly indicated
+in the lower left-hand corner of each, and opposite
+it the names or reference numbers of the species. Undetermined
+species are relegated to the end of the genus. Thus prepared,
+the specimens are placed on shelves or movable trays, at intervals
+of about 6 in., in an air-tight cupboard, on the inner side of the
+door of which, as a special protection against insects, is suspended
+a muslin bag containing a piece of camphor.</p>
+
+<p>The systematic arrangement varies in different herbaria. In
+the great British herbaria the orders and genera of flowering
+plants are usually arranged according to Bentham and Hooker&rsquo;s
+<i>Genera plantarum</i>; the species generally follow the arrangement
+of the most recent complete monograph of the family. In non-flowering
+plants the works usually followed are for ferns, Hooker
+and Baker&rsquo;s <i>Synopsis filicum</i>; for mosses, Müller&rsquo;s <i>Synopsis
+muscorum frondosorum</i>, Jaeger &amp; Sauerbeck&rsquo;s <i>Genera et species
+muscorum</i>, and Engler &amp; Prantl&rsquo;s <i>Pflanzenfamilien</i>; for algae,
+de Toni&rsquo;s <i>Sylloge algarum</i>; for hepaticae, Gottsche, Lindenberg
+and Nees ab Esenbeck&rsquo;s <i>Synopsis hepaticarum</i>, supplemented
+by Stephani&rsquo;s <i>Species hepaticarum</i>; for fungi, Saccardo&rsquo;s
+<i>Sylloge fungorum</i>, and for mycetozoa Lister&rsquo;s monograph of
+the group. For the members of large genera, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Piper</i> and
+<i>Ficus</i>, since the number of cosmopolitan or very widely distributed
+species is comparatively few, a geographical grouping is
+found specially convenient by those who are constantly receiving
+parcels of plants from known foreign sources. The ordinary
+systematic arrangement possesses the great advantage, in the
+case of large genera, of readily indicating the affinities of any
+particular specimen with the forms most nearly allied to it.
+Instead of keeping a catalogue of the species contained in the
+herbarium, which, owing to the constant additions, would be
+almost impossible, such species are usually ticked off with a
+pencil in the systematic work which is followed in arranging
+them, so that by reference to this work it is possible to see at a
+glance whether the specimen sought is in the herbarium and
+what species are still wanted.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Specimens intended for the herbarium should be collected when
+possible in dry weather, care being taken to select plants or portions
+of plants in sufficient number and of a size adequate to illustrate
+all the characteristic features of the species. When the root-leaves
+and roots present any peculiarities, they should invariably be
+collected, but the roots should be dried separately in an oven at a
+moderate heat. Roots and fruits too bulky to be placed on the sheet
+of the herbarium may be conveniently arranged in glass-covered
+boxes contained in drawers. The best and most effective mode of
+drying specimens is learned only by experience, different species
+requiring special treatment according to their several peculiarities.
+The chief points to be attended to are to have a plentiful supply of
+botanical drying paper, so as to be able to use about six sheets for
+each specimen; to change the paper at intervals of six to twelve
+hours; to avoid contact of one leaf or flower with another; and to
+increase the pressure applied only in proportion to the dryness of the
+specimen. To preserve the colour of flowers pledgets of cotton wool,
+which prevent bruising, should be introduced between them, as also,
+if the stamens are thick and succulent, as in <i>Digitalis</i>, between these
+and the corolla. A flower dissected and gummed on the sheets will
+often retain the colour which it is impossible to preserve in a crowded
+inflorescence. A flat sheet of lead or some other suitable weight
+should be laid upon the top of the pile of specimens, so as to keep up
+a continuous pressure. Succulent specimens, as many of the <i>Orchidaceae</i>
+and sedums and various other Crassulaceous plants, require
+to be killed by immersion in boiling water before being placed in
+drying paper, or, instead of becoming dry, they will grow between the
+sheets. When, as with some plants like <i>Verbascum</i>, the thick hard
+stems are liable to cause the leaves to wrinkle in drying by removing
+the pressure from them, small pieces of bibulous paper or cotton wool
+may be placed upon the leaves near their point of attachment to
+the stem. When a number of specimens have to be submitted to
+pressure, ventilation is secured by means of frames corresponding
+in size to the drying paper, and composed of strips of wood or wires
+laid across each other so as to form a kind of network. Another mode
+of drying is to keep the specimens in a box of dry sand in a warm
+place for ten or twelve hours, and then press them in drying paper.
+A third method consists in placing the specimen within bibulous
+paper, and enclosing the whole between two plates of coarsely
+perforated zinc supported in a wooden frame. The zinc plates are
+then drawn close together by means of straps, and suspended before
+a fire until the drying is effected. By the last two methods the
+colour of the flowers may be well preserved. When the leaves are
+finely divided, as in <i>Conium</i>, much trouble will be experienced in
+lifting a half-dried specimen from one paper to another; but the
+plant may be placed in a sheet of thin blotting paper, and the sheet
+containing the plant, instead of the plant itself, can then be moved.
+Thin straw-coloured paper, such as is used for biscuit bags, may be
+conveniently employed by travellers unable to carry a quantity of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page335" id="page335"></a>335</span>
+bibulous paper. It offers the advantage of fitting closely to thick-stemmed
+specimens and of rapidly drying. A light but strong
+portfolio, to which pressure by means of straps can be applied, and
+a few quires of this paper, if the paper be changed night and morning,
+will be usually sufficient to dry all except very succulent plants.
+When a specimen is too large for one sheet, and it is necessary, in
+order to show its habit, &amp;c., to dry the whole of it, it may be divided
+into two or three portions, and each placed on a separate sheet for
+drying. Specimens may be judged to be dry when they no longer
+cause a cold sensation when applied to the cheek, or assume a
+rigidity not evident in the earlier stages of preparation.</p>
+
+<p>Each class of flowerless or cryptogamic plants requires special
+treatment for the herbarium.</p>
+
+<p>Marine algae are usually mounted on tough smooth white cartridge
+paper in the following manner. Growing specimens of good colour
+and in fruit are if possible selected, and cleansed as much as practicable
+from adhering foreign particles, either in the sea or a rocky pool.
+Some species rapidly change colour, and cause the decay of any
+others with which they come in contact. This is especially the case
+with the <i>Ectocarpi</i>, <i>Desmarestiae</i>, and a few others, which should
+therefore be brought home in a separate vessel. In mounting, the
+specimen is floated out in a flat white dish containing sea-water, so
+that foreign matter may be detected, and a piece of paper of suitable
+size is placed under it, supported either by the fingers of the left hand
+or by a palette. It is then pruned, in order clearly to show the mode
+of branching, and is spread out as naturally as possible with the
+right hand. For this purpose a bone knitting-needle answers well
+for the coarse species, and a camel&rsquo;s-hair pencil for the more delicate
+ones. The paper with the specimen is then carefully removed from
+the water by sliding it over the edge of the dish so as to drain it as
+much as possible. If during this process part of the fronds run
+together, the beauty of the specimen may be restored by dipping
+the edge into water, so as to float out the part and allow it to subside
+naturally on the paper. The paper, with the specimen upwards, is
+then laid on bibulous paper for a few minutes to absorb as much as
+possible of the superfluous moisture. When freed from excess of
+water it is laid on a sheet of thick white blotting-paper, and a piece
+of smooth washed calico is placed upon it (unwashed calico, on account
+of its &ldquo;facing,&rdquo; adheres to the sea-weed). Another sheet of blotting-paper
+is then laid over it; and, a number of similar specimens
+being formed into a pile, the whole is submitted to pressure, the paper
+being changed every hour or two at first. The pressure is increased,
+and the papers are changed less frequently as the specimens become
+dry, which usually takes place in thirty-six hours. Some species,
+especially those of a thick or leathery texture, contract so much in
+drying that without strong pressure the edges of the paper become
+puckered. Other species of a gelatinous nature, like <i>Nemalion</i> and
+<i>Dudresnaya</i>, may be allowed to dry on the paper, and need not be
+submitted to pressure until they no longer present a gelatinous
+appearance. Large coarse algae, such, for instance, as the <i>Fucaceae</i>
+and <i>Laminariae</i>, do not readily adhere to paper, and require soaking
+for some time in fresh water before being pressed. The less robust
+species, such as <i>Sphacelaria scoparia</i>, which do not adhere well to
+paper, may be made to do so by brushing them over either with milk
+carefully skimmed, or with a liquid formed by placing isinglass (¼ oz.)
+and water (1½ oz.) in a wide-mouthed bottle, and the bottle in a small
+glue-pot or saucepan containing cold water, heating until solution is
+effected, and then adding 1 oz. of rectified spirits of wine; the whole
+is next stirred together, and when cold is kept in a stoppered bottle.
+For use, the mixture is warmed to render it fluid, and applied by
+means of a camel&rsquo;s hair brush to the under side of the specimen, which
+is then laid neatly on paper. For the more delicate species, such
+as the <i>Callithamnia</i> and <i>Ectocarpi</i>, it is an excellent plan to place a
+small fruiting fragment, carefully floated out in water, on a slip of
+mica of the size of an ordinary microscopical slide, and allow it to
+dry. The plant can then be at any time examined under the microscope
+without injuring the mounted specimen. Many of the fresh-water
+algae which form a mere crust, such as <i>Palmella cruenta</i>, may
+be placed in a vessel of water, where after a time they float like a
+scum, the earthy matter settling down to the bottom, and may then
+be mounted by slipping a piece of mica under them and allowing it
+to dry. <i>Oscillatoriae</i> may be mounted by laying a portion on a silver
+coin placed on a piece of paper in a plate, and pouring in water until
+the edge of the coin is just covered. The alga by its own peculiar
+movement will soon form a radiating circle, perfectly free from dirt,
+around the coin, which may then be removed. There is considerable
+difficulty in removing mounted specimens of algae from paper, and
+therefore a small portion preserved on mica should accompany each
+specimen, enclosed for safety in a small envelope fastened at one
+corner of the sheet of paper. Filamentous diatoms may be mounted
+like ordinary sea-weeds, and, as well as all parasitic algae, should
+whenever possible be allowed to remain attached to a portion of the
+alga on which they grow, some species being almost always <span class="correction" title="duplicated found">found</span>
+parasitical on particular plants. Ordinary diatoms and
+desmids may be mounted on mica, as above described, by putting
+a portion in a vessel of water and exposing it to sunlight, when they
+rise to the surface, and may be thus removed comparatively free
+from dirt or impurity. Owing to their want of adhesiveness, they are,
+however, usually mounted on glass as microscopic slides, either in
+glycerin jelly, Canada balsam or some other suitable medium.</p>
+
+<p>Lichens are generally mounted on sheets of paper of the ordinary
+size, several specimens from different localities being laid upon one
+sheet, each specimen having been first placed on a small square of
+paper which is gummed on the sheet, and which has the locality,
+date, name of collector, &amp;c., written upon it. This mode has some
+disadvantages attending it; such sheets are difficult to handle;
+the crustaceous species are liable to have their surfaces rubbed;
+the foliaceous species become so compressed as to lose their characteristic
+appearance; and the spaces between the sheets caused by the
+thickness of the specimen permit the entrance of dust. A plan which
+has been found to answer well is to arrange them in cardboard boxes,
+either with glass tops or in sliding covers, in drawers&mdash;the name being
+placed outside each box and the specimens gummed into the boxes.
+Lichens for the herbarium should, whenever possible, be sought for
+on a slaty or laminated rock, so as to procure them on flat thin pieces
+of the same, suitable for mounting. Specimens on the bark of trees
+require pressure until the bark is dry, lest they become curled;
+and those growing on sand or friable soil, such as <i>Coniocybe furfuracea</i>,
+should be laid carefully on a layer of gum in the box in which they
+are intended to be kept. Many lichens, such as the <i>Verrucariae</i> and
+<i>Collemaceae</i>, are found in the best condition during the winter
+months. In mounting collemas it is advisable to let the specimen
+become dry and hard, and then to separate a portion from adherent
+mosses, earth, &amp;c., and mount it separately so as to show the branching
+of the thallus. <i>Pertusariae</i> should be represented by both fruiting
+and sorediate specimens.</p>
+
+<p>The larger species of fungi, such as the <i>Agaricini</i> and <i>Polyporei</i>,
+&amp;c., are prepared for the herbarium by cutting a slice out of the
+centre of the plant so as to show the outline of the cap or pileus, the
+attachment of the gills, and the character of the interior of the stem.
+The remaining portions of the pileus are then lightly pressed, as well
+as the central slices, between bibulous paper until dry, and the whole
+is then &ldquo;poisoned,&rdquo; and gummed on a sheet of paper in such a manner
+as to show the under surface of the one and the upper surface of the
+other half of the pileus on the same sheet. A &ldquo;map&rdquo; of the spores
+should be taken by separating a pileus and placing it flat on a piece
+of thin paper for a few hours when the spores will fall and leave a
+nature print of the arrangement of the gills which may be fixed by
+gumming the other side of the paper. As it is impossible to preserve
+the natural colours of fungi, the specimens should, whenever possible,
+be accompanied by a coloured drawing of the plant. Microscopic
+fungi are usually preserved in envelopes, or simply attached to sheets
+of paper or mounted as microscopic slides. Those fungi which are
+of a dusty nature, and the <i>Myxomycetes</i> or <i>Mycetozoa</i> may, like the
+lichens, be preserved in small boxes and arranged in drawers.
+Fungi under any circumstances form the least satisfactory portion
+of an herbarium.</p>
+
+<p>Mosses when growing in tufts should be gathered just before the
+capsules have become brown, divided into small flat portions, and
+pressed lightly in drying paper. During this process the capsules
+ripen, and are thus obtained in a perfect state. They are then preserved
+in envelopes attached to a sheet of paper of the ordinary size, a
+single perfect specimen being washed, and spread out under the
+envelope so as to show the habit of the plant. For attaching it to the
+paper a strong mucilage of gum tragacanth, containing an eighth
+of its weight of spirit of wine, answers best. If not preserved in an
+envelope the calyptra and operculum are very apt to fall off and
+become lost. Scale-mosses are mounted in the same way, or may
+be floated out in water like sea-weeds, and dried in white blotting
+paper under strong pressure before gumming on paper, but are best
+mounted as microscopic slides, care being taken to show the stipules.
+The specimens should be collected when the capsules are just appearing
+above or in the colesule or calyx; if kept in a damp saucer they
+soon arrive at maturity, and can then be mounted in better condition,
+the fruit-stalks being too fragile to bear carriage in a botanical tin
+case without injury.</p>
+
+<p>Of the <i>Characeae</i> many are so exceedingly brittle that it is best
+to float them out like sea-weeds, except the prickly species, which
+may be carefully laid out on bibulous paper, and when dry fastened
+on sheets of white paper by means of gummed strips. Care should
+be taken in collecting charae to secure, in the case of dioecious
+species, specimens of both forms, and also to get when possible the
+roots of those species on which the small granular starchy bodies or
+gemmae are found, as in <i>C. fragifera</i>. Portions of the fructification
+may be preserved in small envelopes attached to the sheets.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERBART, JOHANN FRIEDRICH<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> (1776-1841), German
+philosopher and educationist, was born at Oldenburg on the
+4th of May 1776. After studying under Fichte at Jena he gave
+his first philosophical lectures at Göttingen in 1805, whence
+he removed in 1809 to occupy the chair formerly held by Kant
+at Königsberg. Here he also established and conducted a
+seminary of pedagogy till 1833, when he returned once more to
+Göttingen, and remained there as professor of philosophy till
+his death on the 14th of August 1841.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Philosophy, according to Herbart, begins with reflection upon our
+empirical conceptions, and consists in the reformation and elaboration
+of these&mdash;its three primary divisions being determined by as
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page336" id="page336"></a>336</span>
+many distinct forms of elaboration. Logic, which stands first, has
+to render our conceptions and the judgments and reasonings arising
+from them clear and distinct. But some conceptions are such that
+the more distinct they are made the more contradictory their elements
+become; so to change and supplement these as to make them at
+length thinkable is the problem of the second part of philosophy,
+or metaphysics. There is still a class of conceptions requiring more
+than a logical treatment, but differing from the last in not involving
+latent contradictions, and in being independent of the reality of their
+objects, the conceptions, viz. that embody our judgments of approval
+and disapproval; the philosophic treatment of these conceptions
+falls to Aesthetic.</p>
+
+<p>In Herbart&rsquo;s writings logic receives comparatively meagre notice;
+he insisted strongly on its purely formal character, and expressed
+himself in the main at one with Kantians such as Fries and Krug.</p>
+
+<p>As a metaphysician he starts from what he terms &ldquo;the higher
+scepticism&rdquo; of the Hume-Kantian sphere of thought, the beginnings
+of which he discerns in Locke&rsquo;s perplexity about the idea of substance.
+By this scepticism the real validity of even the <i>forms</i> of experience
+is called in question on account of the contradictions they are found
+to involve. And yet that these forms are &ldquo;given&rdquo; to us, as truly as
+sensations are, follows beyond doubt when we consider that we are
+as little able to control the one as the other. To attempt at this stage
+a psychological inquiry into the origin of these conceptions would be
+doubly a mistake; for we should have to use these unlegitimated
+conceptions in the course of it, and the task of clearing up their
+contradictions would still remain, whether we succeeded in our enquiry
+or not. But how are we to set about this task? We have given to us
+a conception A uniting among its constituent marks two that prove
+to be contradictory, say M and N; and we can neither deny the unity
+nor reject one of the contradictory members. For to do either is
+forbidden by experience; and yet to do nothing is forbidden by logic.
+We are thus driven to the assumption that the conception is contradictory
+because incomplete; but how are we to supplement it?
+What we have must point the way to what we want, or our procedure
+will be arbitrary. Experience asserts that M is the same (<i>i.e.</i> a mark
+of the same concept) as N, while logic denies it; and so&mdash;it being
+impossible for one and the same M to sustain these contradictory
+positions&mdash;there is but one way open to us; we must posit <i>several</i>
+Ms. But even now we cannot say one of these Ms is the same as N,
+another is not; for every M must be both thinkable and valid. We
+may, however, take the Ms not singly but together; and again, no
+other course being open to us, this is what we must do; we must
+assume that N results from a combination of Ms. This is Herbart&rsquo;s
+method of relations, the counterpart in his system of the Hegelian
+dialectic.</p>
+
+<p>In the <i>Ontology</i> this method is employed to determine what in
+reality corresponds to the empirical conceptions of substance and
+cause, or rather of inherence and change. But first we must analyse
+this notion of reality itself, to which our scepticism had already led
+us, for, though we could doubt whether &ldquo;the given&rdquo; is what it
+appears, we cannot doubt that it is something; the conception of the
+real thus consists of the two conceptions of being and quality. That
+which we are compelled to &ldquo;posit,&rdquo; which cannot be sublated, is
+that which <i>is</i>, and in the recognition of this lies the simple conception
+of being. But when is a thing thus posited? When it is posited
+as we are wont to posit the things we see and taste and handle.
+If we were without sensations, <i>i.e.</i> were never bound against our will
+to endure the persistence of a presentation, we should never know
+what being is. Keeping fast hold of this idea of absolute position,
+Herbart leads us next to the quality of the real. (1) This must
+exclude everything negative; for non-A sublates instead of positing,
+and is not absolute, but relative to A. (2) The real must be absolutely
+simple; for if it contain two determinations, A and B, then either
+these are reducible to one, which is the true quality, or they are not,
+when each is conditioned by the other and their position is no longer
+absolute. (3) All quantitative conceptions are excluded, for quantity
+implies parts, and these are incompatible with simplicity. (4) But
+there may be a plurality of &ldquo;reals,&rdquo; albeit the mere conception of
+being can tell us nothing as to this. The doctrine here developed
+is the first cardinal point of Herbart&rsquo;s system, and has obtained
+for it the name of &ldquo;pluralistic realism.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The contradictions he finds in the common-sense conception of
+inherence, or of &ldquo;a thing with several attributes,&rdquo; will now become
+obvious. Let us take some thing, say A, having <i>n</i> attributes, <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>,
+<i>c</i> ...: we are forced to posit each of these because each is presented
+in intuition. But in conceiving A we make, not <i>n</i> positions, still less
+<i>n</i> + 1 positions, but one position simply; for common sense removes
+the absolute position from its original source, sensation. So when we
+ask, What is the one posited? we are told&mdash;the possessor of <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>...,
+or in other words, their seat or substance. But if so, then
+A, as a real, being simple, must = <i>a</i>; similarly it must = <i>b</i>; and so
+on. Now this would be possible if <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i> ... were but &ldquo;contingent
+aspects&rdquo; of A, as <i>e.g.</i> 2³, &radic;64, 4 + 3 + 1 are contingent aspects of 8.
+Such, of course, is not the case, and so we have as many contradictions
+as there are attributes; for we must say A is <i>a</i>, is not <i>a</i>, is <i>b</i>,
+is not <i>b</i>, &amp;c. There must then, according to the method of relations,
+be several As. For a let us assume A<span class="su">1</span> + A<span class="su">1</span> + A<span class="su">1</span>...; for <i>b</i>,
+A<span class="su">2</span> + A<span class="su">2</span> + A<span class="su">2</span>...; and so on for the rest. But now what relation
+can there be among these several As, which will restore to us
+the unity of our original A or substance? There is but one; we
+must assume that the first A of every series is identical, just as the
+centre is the same point in every radius. By way of concrete
+illustration Herbart instances &ldquo;the common observation that the
+properties of things exist only under external conditions. Bodies, we
+say, are coloured, but colour is nothing without light, and nothing
+without eyes. They sound, but only in a vibrating medium, and
+for healthy ears. Colour and tone present the appearance of inherence,
+but on looking closer we find they are not really immanent
+in things but rather presuppose a communion among several.&rdquo;
+The result then is briefly thus: In place of the one absolute position,
+which in some unthinkable way the common understanding substitutes
+for the absolute positions of the <i>n</i> attributes, we have really
+a series of two or more positions for each attribute, every series,
+however, beginning with the same (as it were, central) real (hence
+the unity of substance in a group of attributes), but each being
+continued by different reals (hence the plurality and difference of
+attributes in unity of substance). Where there is the appearance of
+inherence, therefore, there is always a plurality of reals; no such
+correlative to substance as attribute or accident can be admitted
+at all. Substantiality is impossible without causality, and to this
+as its true correlative we now turn.</p>
+
+<p>The common-sense conception of change involves at bottom the
+same contradiction of opposing qualities in one real. The same A
+that was <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i> ... becomes <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>d</i> ...; and this, which experience
+thrusts upon us, proves on reflection unthinkable. The metaphysical
+supplementing is also fundamentally as before. Since <i>c</i>
+depended on a series of reals A<span class="su">3</span> + A<span class="su">3</span> + A<span class="su">3</span> ... in connexion with
+A, and <i>d</i> may be said similarly to depend on a series A<span class="su">4</span> + A<span class="su">4</span> + A<span class="su">4</span> ...,
+then the change from <i>c</i> to <i>d</i> means, not that the central real A or
+any real has changed, but that A is now in connexion with A<span class="su">4</span>, &amp;c., and
+no longer in connexion with A<span class="su">3</span>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>But to think a number of reals &ldquo;in connexion&rdquo; (<i>Zusammensein</i>)
+will not suffice as an explanation of phenomena; something or other
+must happen when they are in connexion; what is it? The answer
+to this question is the second hinge-point of Herbart&rsquo;s theoretical
+philosophy. What &ldquo;actually happens&rdquo; as distinct from all that
+seems to happen, when two reals A and B are together is that,
+assuming them to differ in quality, they tend to disturb each other
+to the extent of that difference, at the same time that each preserves
+itself intact by resisting, as it were, the other&rsquo;s disturbance. And
+so by coming into connexion with different reals the &ldquo;self-preservations&rdquo;
+of A will vary accordingly, A remaining the same through
+all; just as, by way of illustration, hydrogen remains the same in
+water and in ammonia, or as the same line may be now a normal
+and now a tangent. But to indicate this opposition in the qualities
+of the reals A + B, we must substitute for these symbols others,
+which, though only &ldquo;contingent aspects&rdquo; of A and B, <i>i.e.</i> representing
+their relations, not themselves, yet like similar devices in
+mathematics enable thought to advance. Thus we may put A =
+&alpha; + &beta; &minus; &gamma;, B = <i>m</i> + <i>n</i> + &gamma;; &gamma; then represents the character of the self-preservations
+in this case, and &alpha; + &beta; + <i>m</i> + <i>n</i> represents all that could
+be observed by a spectator who did not know the simple qualities,
+but was himself involved in the relations of A to B; and such is
+exactly our position.</p>
+
+<p>Having thus determined what really is and what actually happens,
+our philosopher proceeds next to explain synthetically the objective
+semblance (<i>der objective Schein</i>) that results from these. But if
+this construction is to be truly objective, <i>i.e.</i> valid for all intelligences,
+ontology must furnish us with a clue. This we have in the forms of
+Space, Time and Motion which are involved whenever we think the
+reals as being in, or coming into, connexion and the opposite.
+These forms then cannot be merely the products of our psychological
+mechanism, though they may turn out to coincide with these.
+Meanwhile let us call them &ldquo;intelligible,&rdquo; as being valid for all who
+comprehend the real and actual by thought, although no such forms
+are predicable of the real and actual themselves. The elementary
+spatial relation Herbart conceives to be &ldquo;the contiguity (<i>Aneinander</i>)
+of two points,&rdquo; so that every &ldquo;pure and independent line&rdquo; is discrete.
+But an investigation of dependent lines which are often incommensurable
+forces us to adopt the contradictory fiction of partially overlapping,
+<i>i.e.</i> divisible points, or in other words, the conception of
+Continuity.<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> But the contradiction here is one we cannot eliminate
+by the method of relations, because it does not involve anything
+real; and in fact as a necessary outcome of an &ldquo;intelligible&rdquo; form,
+the fiction of continuity is valid for the &ldquo;objective semblance,&rdquo;
+and no more to be discarded than say &radic;&minus;1. By its help we are
+enabled to comprehend what actually happens among reals to
+produce the appearance of matter. When three or more reals are
+together, each disturbance and self-preservation will (in general)
+be imperfect, <i>i.e.</i> of less intensity than when only two reals are
+together. But &ldquo;objective semblance&rdquo; corresponds with reality;
+the spatial or external relations of the reals in this case must, therefore,
+tally with their inner or actual states. Had the self-preservations
+been perfect, the coincidence in space would have been complete,
+and the group of reals would have been inextended; or had the several
+reals been simply contiguous, <i>i.e.</i> without connexion, then, as nothing
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page337" id="page337"></a>337</span>
+would actually have happened, nothing would appear. As it is
+we shall find a continuous molecule manifesting attractive and
+repulsive forces; attraction corresponding to the tendency of the
+self-preservations to become perfect, repulsion to the frustration of
+this. Motion, even more evidently than space, implicates the contradictory
+conception of continuity, and cannot, therefore, be a real
+predicate, though valid as an intelligible form and necessary to the
+comprehension of the objective semblance. For we have to think
+of the reals as absolutely independent and yet as entering into connexions.
+This we can only do by conceiving them as originally
+moving through intelligible space in rectilinear paths and with
+uniform velocities. For such motion no cause need be supposed;
+motion, in fact, is no more a state of the moving real than rest is,
+both alike being but relations, with which, therefore, the real has no
+concern. The changes in this motion, however, for which we <i>should</i>
+require a cause, would be the objective semblance of the self-preservations
+that actually occur when reals meet. Further, by means of such
+motion these actual occurrences, which are in themselves timeless,
+fall for an observer in a definite time&mdash;a time which becomes continuous
+through the partial coincidence of events.</p>
+
+<p>But in all this it has been assumed that we are spectators of the
+objective semblance; it remains to make good this assumption, or,
+in other words, to show the possibility of knowledge; this is the
+problem of what Herbart terms Eidolology, and forms the transition
+from metaphysic to psychology. Here, again, a contradictory conception
+blocks the way, that, viz. of the Ego as the identity of
+knowing and being, and as such the stronghold of idealism. The
+contradiction becomes more evident when the ego is defined to be
+a subject (and so a real) that is its own object. As real and not
+merely formal, this conception of the ego is amenable to the method
+of relations. The solution this method furnishes is summarily that
+there are several objects which mutually modify each other, and so
+constitute that ego we take for the presented real. But to explain
+this modification is the business of psychology; it is enough now to
+see that the subject like all reals is necessarily unknown, and that,
+therefore, the idealist&rsquo;s theory of knowledge is unsound. But though
+the simple quality of the subject or soul is beyond knowledge, we
+know what actually happens when it is in connexion with other&rsquo;s
+reals, for its self-preservations then are what we call sensations.
+And these sensations are the sole material of our knowledge; but
+they are not given to us as a chaos but in definite groups and series,
+whence we come to know the relations of those reals, which, though
+themselves unknown, our sensations compel us to posit absolutely.</p>
+
+<p>In his <i>Psychology</i> Herbart rejects altogether the doctrine of mental
+faculties as one refuted by his metaphysics, and tries to show that
+all psychical phenomena whatever result from the action and interaction
+of elementary ideas or presentations (<i>Vorstellungen</i>). The
+soul being one and simple, its separate acts of self-preservation
+or primary presentations must be simple too, and its several presentations
+must become united together. And this they can do at once
+and completely when, as is the case, for example, with the several
+attributes of an object, they are not of opposite quality. But otherwise
+there ensues a conflict in which the opposed presentations
+comport themselves like forces and mutually suppress or obscure
+each other. The act of presentation (<i>Vorstellen</i>) then becomes
+partly transformed into an effort, and its product, the idea, becomes
+in the same proportion less and less intense till a position of equilibrium
+is reached; and then at length the remainders coalesce.
+We have thus a statics and a mechanics of mind which investigate
+respectively the conditions of equilibrium and of movement among
+presentations. In the statics two magnitudes have to be determined:
+(1) the amount of the suppression or inhibition (<i>Hemmungssumme</i>),
+and (2) the ratio in which this is shared among the opposing presentations.
+The first must obviously be as small as possible; thus for
+two totally-opposed presentations a and b, of which a is the greater,
+the <i>inhibendum</i> = <i>b</i>. For a given degree of opposition this burden
+will be shared between the conflicting presentations in the inverse
+ratio of their strength. When its remainder after inhibition = 0,
+a presentation is said to be on the threshold of consciousness, for on
+a small diminution of the inhibition the &ldquo;effort&rdquo; will become actual
+presentation in the same proportion. Such total exclusion from
+consciousness is, however, manifestly impossible with only two
+presentations,<a name="fa2g" id="fa2g" href="#ft2g"><span class="sp">2</span></a> though with three or a greater number the residual
+value of one may even be negative. The first and simplest law in
+psychological mechanics relates to the &ldquo;sinking&rdquo; of inhibited
+presentations. As the presentations yield to the pressure, the
+pressure itself diminishes, so that the velocity of sinking decreases, <i>i.e.</i>
+we have the equation (S &minus; &sigma;) dt = d&sigma;, where S is the total <i>inhibendum</i>,
+and &sigma; the intensity actually inhibited after the time <i>t</i>. Hence
+<i>t</i> = log (S/S &minus; &sigma;), and &sigma; = S(1 &minus; e<span class="sp">&minus;t</span>). From this law it follows, for example,
+that equilibrium is never quite obtained for those presentations
+which continue above the threshold of consciousness, while the rest
+which cannot so continue are very speedily driven beyond the
+threshold. More important is the law according to which a presentation
+freed from inhibition and rising anew into consciousness tends
+to raise the other presentations with which it is combined. Suppose
+two presentations <i>p</i> and &pi; united by the residua <i>r</i> and &rho;; then the
+amount of <i>p</i>&rsquo;s &ldquo;help&rdquo; to &pi; is <i>r</i>, the portion of which appropriated by
+&pi; is given by the ratio &rho; : &pi;; and thus the initial help is <i>r</i>&rho;/&pi;.
+
+But after a time <i>t</i>, when a portion of &rho; represented by &omega; has been
+actually brought into consciousness, the help afforded in the next
+instant will be found by the equation</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>r&rho;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">·</td> <td>&rho; &minus; &omega;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">dt = d&omega;,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">&pi;</td> <td class="denom">&rho;</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">from which by integration we have the value of &omega;.</p>
+
+<p class="center">&omega; = &rho; <span class="f150">(</span>1 &minus; &epsilon;<span class="sp">&minus;rt/&pi;</span><span class="f150">)</span>.</p>
+
+<p class="noind">So that if there are several &pi;s connected with <i>p</i> by smaller and
+smaller parts, there will be a definite &ldquo;serial&rdquo; order in which they
+will be revived by <i>p</i>; and on this fact Herbart rests all the phenomena
+of the so-called faculty of memory, the development of spatial and
+temporal forms and much besides. Emotions and volitions, he
+holds, are not directly self-preservations of the soul, as our presentations
+are, but variable states of such presentations resulting from
+their interaction when above the threshold of consciousness. Thus
+when some presentations tend to force a presentation into consciousness,
+and others at the same time tend to drive it out, that
+presentation is the seat of painful feeling; when, on the other hand,
+its entrance is favoured by all, pleasure results. Desires are presentations
+struggling into consciousness against hindrances, and when
+accompanied by the supposition of success become volitions. Transcendental
+freedom of will in Kant&rsquo;s sense is an impossibility.
+Self-consciousness is the result of an interaction essentially the same
+in kind as that which takes place when a comparatively simple
+presentation finds the field of consciousness occupied by a long-formed
+and well-consolidated &ldquo;mass&rdquo; of presentations&mdash;as, <i>e.g.</i>
+one&rsquo;s business or garden, the theatre, &amp;c., which promptly inhibit
+the isolated presentation if incongruent, and unite it to themselves
+if not. What we call Self is, above all, such a central mass, and
+Herbart seeks to show with great ingenuity and detail how this
+position is occupied at first chiefly by the body, then by the seat of
+ideas and desires, and finally by that first-personal Self which recollects
+the past and resolves concerning the future. But at any stage
+the actual constituents of this &ldquo;complexion&rdquo; are variable; the
+concrete presentation of Self is never twice the same. And, therefore,
+finding on reflection any particular concrete factor contingent, we
+abstract the position from that which occupies it, and so reach the
+speculative notion of the pure Ego.</p>
+
+<p><i>Aesthetics</i> elaborates the &ldquo;ideas&rdquo; involved in the expression of
+taste called forth by those relations of object which acquire for them
+the attribution of beauty or the reverse. The beautiful (<span class="grk" title="kalon">&#954;&#945;&#955;&#972;&#957;</span>) is
+to be carefully distinguished from the allied conceptions of the useful
+and the pleasant, which vary with time, place and person; whereas
+beauty is predicated absolutely and involuntarily by all who have
+attained the right standpoint. Ethics, which is but one branch of
+aesthetics, although the chief, deals with such relations among
+volitions (<i>Willensverhältnisse</i>) as thus unconditionally please or displease.
+These relations Herbart finds to be reducible to five, which do
+not admit of further simplification; and corresponding to them are as
+many moral ideas (<i>Musterbegriffe</i>), viz.: (1) <i>Internal Freedom</i>, the
+underlying relation being that of the individual&rsquo;s will to his judgment
+of it; (2) <i>Perfection</i>, the relation being that of his several volitions
+to each other in respect of intensity, variety and concentration; (3)
+<i>Benevolence</i>, the relation being that between his own will and the
+thought of another&rsquo;s; (4) <i>Right</i>, in case of actual conflict with
+another; and (5) <i>Retribution</i> or <i>Equity</i>, for intended good or evil
+done. The ideas of a final society, a system of rewards and punishments,
+a system of administration, a system of culture and a
+&ldquo;unanimated society,&rdquo; corresponding to the ideas of law, equity,
+benevolence, perfection and internal freedom respectively, result
+when we take account of a number of individuals. Virtue is the
+perfect conformity of the will with the moral ideas; of this the single
+virtues are but special expressions. The conception of duty arises
+from the existence of hindrances to the attainment of virtue. A
+general scheme of principles of conduct is possible, but the subsumption
+of special cases under these must remain matter of tact.
+The application of ethics to things as they are with a view to the
+realization of the moral ideas is moral technology (<i>Tugendlehre</i>),
+of which the chief divisions are Paedagogy and Politics.</p>
+
+<p>In <i>Theology</i> Herbart held the argument from design to be as valid
+for divine activity as for human, and to justify the belief in a super-sensible
+real, concerning which, however, exact knowledge is neither
+attainable nor on practical grounds desirable.</p>
+
+<p>Among the post-Kantian philosophers Herbart doubtless ranks
+next to Hegel in importance, and this without taking into account
+his very great contributions to the science of education. His
+disciples speak of theirs as the &ldquo;exact philosophy,&rdquo; and the term
+well expresses their master&rsquo;s chief excellence and the character of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page338" id="page338"></a>338</span>
+the chief influence he has exerted upon succeeding thinkers of his
+own and other schools. His criticisms are worth more than his
+constructions; indeed for exactness and penetration of thought he
+is quite on a level with Hume and Kant. His merits in this respect,
+however, can only be appraised by the study of his works at first
+hand. But we are most of all indebted to Herbart for the enormous
+advance psychology has been enabled to make, thanks to his fruitful
+treatment of it, albeit as yet but few among the many who have
+appropriated and improved his materials have ventured to adopt
+his metaphysical and mathematical foundations.</p>
+<div class="author">(J. W.*)</div>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;Herbart&rsquo;s works were collected and published
+by his disciple G. Hartenstein (Leipzig, 1850-1852; reprinted at
+Hamburg, with supplementary volume, 1883-1893); another edition
+by K. Kehrbach (Leipzig, 1882, and Langensalza, 1887). The
+following are the most important: <i>Allgemeine Pädagogik</i> (1806; new
+ed., 1894); <i>Hauptpunkte der Metaphysik</i> (1808); <i>Allgemeine praktische
+Philosophie</i> (1808); <i>Lehrbuch zur Einleitung in die Philosophie</i>
+(1813; new ed. by Hartenstein, 1883); <i>Lehrbuch der Psychologie</i>
+(1816; new ed. by Hartenstein, 1887); <i>Psychologie als Wissenschaft</i>
+(1824-1825); <i>Allgemeine Metaphysik</i> (1828-1829); <i>Encyklopädie
+der Philosophie</i> (2nd ed., 1841); <i>Umriss pädagogischer Vorlesungen</i>
+(2nd ed., 1841); <i>Psychologische Untersuchungen</i> (1839-1840).</p>
+
+<p>Some of his works have been translated into English under the
+following titles: <i>Textbook in Psychology</i>, by M. K. Smith (1891);
+<i>The Science of Education and the Aesthetic Revelation of the World</i>
+(1892), and <i>Letters and Lectures on Education</i> (1898), by H. M. and
+E. Felkin; <i>A B C of Sense Perception and minor pedagogical works</i>
+(New York, 1896), by W. J. Eckhoff and others; <i>Application of
+Psychology to the Science of Education</i> (1898), by B. C. Mulliner;
+<i>Outlines of Educational Doctrine</i>, by A. F. Lange (1901).</p>
+
+<p>There is a life of Herbart in Hartenstein&rsquo;s introduction to his
+<i>Kleinere philosophische Schriften und Abhandlungen</i> (1842-1843)
+and by F. H. T. Allihn in <i>Zeitschrift für exacte Philosophie</i> (Leipzig,
+1861), the organ of Herbart and his school, which ceased to appear
+in 1873. In America the National Society for the Scientific Study of
+Education was originally founded as the National Herbart Society.</p>
+
+<p>Of the large number of writings dealing with Herbart&rsquo;s works and
+theories, the following may be mentioned: H. A. Fechner, <i>Zur
+Kritik der Grundlagen von Herbart&rsquo;s Metaphysik</i> (Leipzig, 1853);
+J. Kaftan, <i>Sollen und Sein in ihrem Verhältniss zu einander: eine
+Studie zur Kritik Herbarts</i> (Leipzig, 1872); M. W. Drobisch, <i>Über
+die Fortbildung der Philosophie durch Herbart</i> (Leipzig, 1876);
+K. S. Just, <i>Die Fortbildung der Kant&rsquo;schen Ethik durch Herbart</i>
+(Eisenach, 1876); C. Ufer, <i>Vorschule der Pädagogik Herbarts</i> (1883;
+Eng. tr. by J. C. Zinser, 1895); G. Közle, <i>Die pädagogische Schule
+Herbarts und ihre Lehre</i> (Gutersloh, 1889); L. Strümpell, <i>Das
+System der Pädagogik Herbarts</i> (Leipzig, 1894); J. Christinger,
+<i>Herbarts Erziehungslehre und ihre Fortbildner</i> (Zürich, 1895); O. H.
+Lang, <i>Outline of Herbart&rsquo;s Pedagogics</i> (1894); H. M. and E. Felkin,
+<i>Introduction to Herbart&rsquo;s Science and Practice of Education</i> (1895);
+C. de Garmo, <i>Herbart and the Herbartians</i> (New York, 1895); E.
+Wagner, <i>Die Praxis der Herbartianer</i> (Langensalza, 1897) and
+<i>Vollständige Darstellung der Lehre Herbarts</i> (ib., 1899); J. Adams,
+<i>The Herbartian Psychology applied to Education</i> (1897); F. H.
+Hayward, <i>The Student&rsquo;s Herbart</i> (1902), <i>The Critics of Herbartianism</i>
+(1903), <i>Three Historical Educators: Pestalozzi, Fröbel,
+Herbart</i> (1905), <i>The Secret of Herbart</i> (1907), <i>The Meaning of Education
+as interpreted by Herbart</i> (1907); W. Kinkel, <i>J. F. Herbart:
+sein Leben und seine Philosophie</i> (1903); A. Darroch, <i>Herbart and the
+Herbartian Theory of Education</i> (1903); C. J. Dodd, <i>Introduction
+to the Herbartian Principles of Teaching</i> (1904); J. Davidson, <i>A
+new Interpretation of Herbart&rsquo;s Psychology and Educational Theory
+through the Philosophy of Leibnitz</i> (1906); see also J. M. Baldwin,
+<i>Dictionary of Psychology and Philosophy</i> (1901-1905).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Hence Herbart gave the name Synechology to this branch of
+metaphysics, instead of the usual one, Cosmology.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2g" id="ft2g" href="#fa2g"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Thus, taking the case above supposed, the share of the inhibendum
+falling to the smaller presentation b is the fourth term of the proportion
+<i>a</i> + <i>b</i> : <i>a</i> :: <i>b</i> : <i>ab</i>/(<i>a</i> + <i>b</i>); and so <i>b</i>&rsquo;s remainder is <i>b</i> &minus; <i>ab</i>/(<i>a</i> + <i>b</i>) = <i>b</i><span class="sp">2</span>/(<i>a</i> + <i>b</i>),
+which only = 0 when a = &infin;.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERBELOT DE MOLAINVILLE, BARTHÉLEMY D&rsquo;<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> (1625-1695),
+French orientalist, was born on the 14th of December
+1625 at Paris. He was educated at the university of Paris,
+and devoted himself to the study of oriental languages, going
+to Italy to perfect himself in them by converse with the orientals
+who frequented its sea-ports. There he also made the acquaintance
+of Holstenius, the Dutch humanist (1596-1661), and Leo
+Allatius, the Greek scholar (1586-1669). On his return to
+France after a year and a half, he was received into the house
+of Fouquet, superintendent of finance, who gave him a pension
+of 1500 livres. Losing this on the disgrace of Fouquet in 1661,
+he was appointed secretary and interpreter of Eastern languages
+to the king. A few years later he again visited Italy, when the
+grand-duke Ferdinand II. of Tuscany presented him with a
+large number of valuable Oriental MSS., and tried to attach him
+to his court. Herbelot, however, was recalled to France by
+Colbert, and received from the king a pension equal to the one
+he had lost. In 1692 he succeeded D&rsquo;Auvergne in the chair of
+Syriac, in the Collège de France. He died in Paris on the 8th
+of December 1695. His great work is the <i>Bibliothèque orientale,
+ou dictionnaire universel contenant tout ce qui regarde la connaissance
+des peuples de l&rsquo;Orient</i>, which occupied him nearly all his
+life, and was completed in 1697 by A. Galland. It is based
+on the immense Arabic dictionary of Hadji Khalfa, of which
+indeed it is largely an abridged translation, but it also contains
+the substance of a vast number of other Arabic and Turkish
+compilations and manuscripts.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The <i>Bibliothèque</i> was reprinted at Maestricht (fol. 1776), and at the
+Hague (4 vols. 4to, 1777-1799). The latter edition is enriched with
+the contributions of the Dutch orientalist Schultens, Johann Jakob
+Reiske (1716-1774), and by a supplement provided by Visdelow
+and Galland. Herbelot&rsquo;s other works, none of which have been
+published, comprise an <i>Oriental Anthology</i>, and an <i>Arabic, Persian,
+Turkish and Latin Dictionary</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERBERAY DES ESSARTS, NICOLAS DE<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> (d. about 1557),
+French translator, was born in Picardy. He served in the
+artillery, and at the expressed desire of Francis I. he translated
+into French the first eight books of <i>Amadis de Gaul</i> (1540-1548).
+The remaining books were translated by other authors. His
+other translations from the Spanish include <i>L&rsquo;Amant maltraité
+de sa mye</i> (1539); <i>Le Premier Livre de la chronique de dom Florès
+de Grèce</i> (1552); and <i>L&rsquo;Horloge des princes</i> (1555) from Guevara.
+He also translated the works of Josephus (1557). He died
+about 1557. The <i>Amadis de Gaul</i> was translated into English
+by Anthony Munday in 1619.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERBERT<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Family</span>). The sudden rising of this English
+family to great wealth and high place is the more remarkable
+in that its elevation belongs to the 15th century and not to
+that age of the Tudors when many new men made their way
+upwards into the ranks of the nobility. Earlier generations of
+a pedigree which carries the origin of the Herberts to Herbert
+the Chamberlain, a Domesday tenant, being disregarded, their
+patriarch may be taken to be one Jenkin ap Adam (temp.
+Edward III.), who had a small Monmouthshire estate at Llanvapley
+and the office of master sergeant of the lordship of
+Abergavenny, a place which gave him precedence after the
+steward of that lordship. Jenkin&rsquo;s son, Gwilim ap Jenkin, who
+followed his father as master sergeant, is given six sons by the
+border genealogists, no less than six score pedigrees finding their
+origin in these six brothers. Their order is uncertain, although
+the Progers of Werndee, the last of whom sold his ancestral
+estate in 1780, are reckoned as the senior line of Gwilim&rsquo;s
+descendants. But Thomas ap Gwilim Jenkin, called the fourth
+son, is ancestor of all those who bore the surname of Herbert.</p>
+
+<p>Thomas&rsquo;s fifth son, William or Gwilim ap Thomas, who died
+in 1446, was the first man of the family to make any figure in
+history. This Gwilim ap Thomas was steward of the lordships
+of Usk and Caerleon under Richard, duke of York. Legend
+makes him a knight on the field of Agincourt, but his knighthood
+belongs to the year 1426. He appears to have married twice,
+his first wife being Elizabeth Bluet of Raglan, widow of Sir
+James Berkeley, and his second a daughter of David Gam, a
+valiant Welsh squire slain at Agincourt. Royal favour enriched
+Sir William, and he was able to buy Raglan Castle from the Lord
+Berkeley, his first wife&rsquo;s son, the deed, which remains among
+the Beaufort muniments, refuting the pedigree-maker&rsquo;s statement
+that he inherited the castle as heir of his mother &ldquo;Maude,
+daughter of Sir John Morley.&rdquo; His sons William and Richard,
+both partisans of the White Rose, took the surname of Herbert
+in or before 1461. Playing a part in English affairs remote from
+the Welsh Marches, their lack of a surname may well have
+inconvenienced them, and their choice of the name Herbert
+can only be explained by the suggestion that their long pedigree
+from Herbert the Chamberlain, absurdly represented as a bastard
+son of Henry I., must already have been discovered for them.
+Copies exist of an alleged commission issued by Edward IV.
+to a committee of Welsh bards for the ascertaining of the true
+ancestry of William Herbert, earl of Pembroke, whom &ldquo;the
+chiefest men of skill&rdquo; in the province of South Wales declare
+to be the descendant of &ldquo;Herbert, a noble lord, natural son to
+King Henry the first,&rdquo; and it is recited that King Edward, after
+the creation of the earldom, commanded the earl and Sir Richard
+his brother to &ldquo;take their surnames after their first progenitor
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page339" id="page339"></a>339</span>
+Herbert fitz Roy and to forego the British order and manner.&rdquo;
+But this commission, whose date anticipates by some years the
+true date of the creation of the earldom, is the work of one
+of the many genealogical forgers who flourished under the
+Tudors.</p>
+
+<p>Sir William Herbert, called by the Welsh Gwilim Ddu or
+Black William, was a baron in 1461 and a Knight of the Garter
+in the following year. With many manors and castles on the
+Marches he had the castle, town and lordship of Pembroke, and
+after the attainder of Jasper Tudor in 1468 was created earl of
+Pembroke. When in July 1469 he was taken by Sir John Conyers
+and the northern Lancastrians on Hedgecote, he was beheaded
+with his brother Sir Richard Herbert of Coldbrook. The second
+earl while still a minor exchanged at the king&rsquo;s desire in 1479
+his earldom of Pembroke for that of Huntingdon. In 1484 this
+son of one whom Hall not unjustly describes as born &ldquo;a mean
+gentleman&rdquo; contracted to marry Katharine the daughter of
+King Richard III., but her death annulled the contract and the
+earl married Mary, daughter of the Earl Rivers, by whom he had
+a daughter Elizabeth, whose descendants, the Somersets, lived
+in the Herbert&rsquo;s castle of Raglan until the cannon of the parliament
+broke it in ruins. With the second earl&rsquo;s death in 1491
+the first Herbert earldom became extinct. No claim being set
+up among the other descendants of the first earl, it may be taken
+that their lines were illegitimate. One of the chief difficulties
+which beset the genealogist of the Herberts lies in their Cambrian
+disregard of the marriage tie, bastards and legitimate issue
+growing up, it would seem, side by side in their patriarchal
+households. Thus the ancestor of the present earls of Pembroke
+and Carnarvon and of the Herbert who was created marquess
+of Powis was a natural son of the first earl, one Richard Herbert,
+whom the restored inscription on his tomb at Abergavenny
+incorrectly describes as a knight. He was constable and porter
+of Abergavenny Castle, and his son William, &ldquo;a mad fighting
+fellow&rdquo; in his youth, married a sister of Catherine Parr and thus
+in 1543 became nearly allied to the king, who made him one of
+the executors of his will. The earldom of Pembroke was revived
+for him in 1551. It is worthy of note that all traces of illegitimacy
+have long since been removed from the arms of the noble
+descendants of Richard Herbert.</p>
+
+<p>The honours and titles of this clan of marchmen make a long
+list. They include the marquessate of Powis, two earldoms
+with the title of Pembroke, two with that of Powis, and the
+earldoms of Huntingdon and Montgomery, Torrington and
+Carnarvon, the viscountcies of Montgomery and Ludlow, fourteen
+baronies and seven baronetcies. Seven Herberts have worn the
+Garter. The knights and rich squires of the stock can hardly
+be reckoned, more especially as they must be sought among
+Raglans, Morgans, Parrys, Vaughans, Progers, Hugheses,
+Thomases, Philips, Powels, Gwyns, Evanses and Joneses, as
+well as among those who have borne the surname of Herbert, a
+surname which in the 19th century was adopted by the Joneses
+of Llanarth and Clytha, although they claim no descent
+from those sons of Sir William ap Thomas for whom it was
+devised.</p>
+<div class="author">(O. Ba.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERBERT, GEORGE<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> (1593-1633), English poet, was born at
+Montgomery Castle on the 3rd of April 1593. He was the fifth
+son of Sir Richard Herbert and a brother of Lord Herbert of
+Cherbury. His mother, Lady Magdalen Herbert, a woman of
+great good sense and sweetness of character, and a friend of
+John Donne, exercised great influence over her son. Educated
+privately until 1605, he was then sent to Westminster School,
+and in 1609 he became a scholar of Trinity College, Cambridge,
+where he was made B.A. in 1613, M.A. and major fellow of the
+college in 1616. In 1618 he became Reader in Rhetoric, and in
+1619 orator for the university. In this capacity he was several
+times brought into contact with King James. From Cambridge
+he wrote some Latin satiric verses<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> in defence of the universities
+and the English Church against Andrew Melville, a Scottish
+Presbyterian minister. He numbered among his friends Dr
+Donne, Sir Henry Wotton, Izaak Walton, Bishop Andrewes
+and Francis Bacon, who dedicated to him his translation of the
+Psalms. Walton tells us that &ldquo;the love of a court conversation,
+mixed with a laudable ambition to be something more than he
+was, drew him often from Cambridge to attend the king wheresoever
+the court was,&rdquo; and James I. gave him in 1623 the sinecure
+lay rectory of Whitford, Flintshire, worth £120 a year. The
+death of his patrons, the duke of Richmond and the marquess
+of Hamilton, and of King James put an end to his hopes of
+political preferment; moreover he probably distrusted the
+conduct of affairs under the new reign. Largely influenced
+by his mother, he decided to take holy orders, and in July 1626
+he was appointed prebendary of Layton Ecclesia (Leighton
+Bromswold), Huntingdon. Here he was within two miles of Little
+Gidding, and came under the influence of Nicholas Ferrar.
+It was at Ferrar&rsquo;s suggestion that he undertook to rebuild the
+church at Layton, an undertaking carried through by his own
+gifts and the generosity of his friends. There is little doubt
+that the close friendship with Ferrar had a large share in Herbert&rsquo;s
+adoption of the religious life. In 1630 Charles I., at the instance
+of the earl of Pembroke, whose kinsman Herbert was, presented
+him to the living of Fugglestone with Bemerton, near Salisbury,
+and he was ordained priest in September. A year before, after
+three days&rsquo; acquaintance, he had married Jane Danvers, whose
+father had been set on the marriage for a long time. He had
+often spoken of his daughter Jane to Herbert, and &ldquo;so much
+commended Mr Herbert to her, that Jane became so much a
+Platonic as to fall in love with Mr Herbert unseen.&rdquo; The story
+of the poet&rsquo;s life at Bemerton, as told by Walton, is one of
+the most exquisite pictures in literary biography. He devoted
+much time to explaining the meaning of the various parts of the
+Prayer-Book, and held services twice every day, at which many
+of the parishioners attended, and some &ldquo;let their plough rest
+when Mr Herbert&rsquo;s saints-bell rung to prayers, that they might
+also offer their devotions to God with him.&rdquo; Next to Christianity
+itself he loved the English Church. He was passionately fond
+of music, and his own hymns were written to the accompaniment
+of his lute or viol. He usually walked twice a week to attend
+the cathedral at Salisbury, and before returning home, would
+&ldquo;sing and play his part&rdquo; at a meeting of music lovers. Walton
+illustrates Herbert&rsquo;s kindness to the poor by many touching
+anecdotes, but he had not been three years in Bemerton when
+he succumbed to consumption. He was buried beneath the
+altar of his church on the 3rd of March 1633.</p>
+
+<p>None of Herbert&rsquo;s English poems was published during his
+lifetime. On his death-bed he gave to Nicholas Ferrar a manuscript
+with the title <i>The Temple: Sacred Poems and Private
+Ejaculations</i>. This was published at Cambridge, apparently for
+private circulation, almost immediately after Herbert&rsquo;s death,
+and a second imprint followed in the same year. On the title-page
+of both is the quotation &ldquo;In his Temple doth every man speak
+of his honour.&rdquo; <i>The Temple</i> is a collection of religious poems
+connected by unity of sentiment and inspiration. Herbert
+tried to interpret his own devout meditations by applying
+images of all kinds to the ritual and beliefs of the Church.
+Nothing in his own church at Bemerton was too commonplace
+to serve as a starting-point for the epigrammatic expression of
+his piety. The church key reminds him that &ldquo;it is my sin that
+locks his handes,&rdquo; and the stones of the floor are patience and
+humility, while the cement that binds them together is love and
+charity. The chief faults of the book are obscurity, verbal
+conceits and a forced ingenuity which shows itself in grotesque
+puns, odd metres and occasional want of taste. But the quaint
+beauty of Herbert&rsquo;s style and its musical quality give <i>The
+Temple</i> a high place. &ldquo;The Church Porch,&rdquo; &ldquo;The Agony,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;Sin,&rdquo; &ldquo;Sunday,&rdquo; &ldquo;Virtue,&rdquo; &ldquo;Man,&rdquo; &ldquo;The British Church,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;The Quip,&rdquo; &ldquo;The Collar,&rdquo; &ldquo;The Pulley,&rdquo; &ldquo;The Flower,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;Aaron&rdquo; and &ldquo;The Elixir&rdquo; are among the best known of
+these poems. Herbert and Keble are the poets of Anglican
+theology. No book is fuller of devotion to the Church of England
+than <i>The Temple</i>, and no poems in our language exhibit more
+of the spirit of true Christianity. Every page is marked by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page340" id="page340"></a>340</span>
+transparent sincerity, and reflects the beautiful character of
+&ldquo;holy George Herbert.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Nicholas Ferrar&rsquo;s translation (Oxford, 1638) of the <i>Hundred and
+Ten Considerations ...</i> of Juan de Valdes contained a letter and
+notes by Herbert. In 1652 appeared <i>Herbert&rsquo;s Remains; or,
+Sundry Pieces of that Sweet Singer of the Temple, Mr George Herbert</i>.
+This included <i>A Priest to the Temple; or, The Country Parson, his
+Character, and Rule of Holy Life</i>, in prose; <i>Jacula prudentum</i>, a
+collection of proverbs with a separate title-page dated 1651, which
+had appeared in a shorter form as <i>Outlandish Proverbs</i> in 1640;
+and some miscellaneous matter. The completest edition of his
+works is that by Dr A. B. Grosart in 1874, this edition of the Poetical
+works being reproduced in the &ldquo;Aldine edition&rdquo; in 1876. <i>The
+English Works of George Herbert ...</i> (3 vols., 1905) were edited in
+much detail by G. H. Palmer. A contemporary account of Herbert&rsquo;s
+life by Barnabas Oley was prefixed to the <i>Remains</i> of 1652, but the
+classic authority is Izaak Walton&rsquo;s <i>Life of Mr George Herbert</i>, published
+in 1670, with some letters from Herbert to his mother. See
+also A. G. Hyde, <i>George Herbert and his Times</i> (1907), and the
+&ldquo;Oxford&rdquo; edition of his poems by A. Waugh (1908).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Printed in 1662 as an appendix to J. Vivian&rsquo;s <i>Ecclesiastes
+Solomonis</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERBERT, HENRY WILLIAM<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> [&rdquo;Frank Forester&rdquo;] (1807-1858),
+English novelist and writer on sport, son of the Hon. and
+Rev. William Herbert, dean of Manchester, a son of the first earl
+of Carnarvon, was born in London on the 3rd of April 1807. He
+was educated at Eton and at Caius College, Cambridge, where
+he graduated B.A. in 1830. Having become involved in debt,
+he emigrated to America, and from 1831 to 1839 was teacher
+of Greek in a private school in New York. In 1833 he started
+the <i>American Monthly Magazine</i>, which he edited, in conjunction
+with A. D. Patterson, till 1835. In 1834 he published his first
+novel, <i>The Brothers: a Tale of the Fronde</i>, which was followed
+by a number of others which obtained a certain degree of popularity.
+He also wrote a series of historical studies, including <i>The
+Cavaliers of England</i> (1852), <i>The Knights of England, France
+and Scotland</i> (1852), <i>The Chevaliers of France</i> (1853), and <i>The
+Captains of the Old World</i> (1851); but he is best known for his
+works on sport, published under the pseudonym of &ldquo;Frank
+Forester.&rdquo; These include <i>The Field Sports of the United States
+and British Provinces</i> (1849), <i>Frank Forester and his Friends</i>
+(1849), <i>The Fish and Fishing of the United States</i> (1850), <i>The
+Young Sportsman&rsquo;s Complete Manual</i> (1852), and <i>The Horse and
+Horsemanship in the United States and British Provinces of North
+America</i> (1858). He also translated many of the novels of
+Eugene Sue and Alexandre Dumas. Herbert was a man of
+varied accomplishments, but of somewhat dissipated habits.
+He died by his own hand in New York on the 17th of May 1858.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERBERT, SIR THOMAS<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> (1606-1682), English traveller
+and author, was born at York in 1606. Several of his ancestors
+were aldermen and merchants in that city&mdash;<i>e.g.</i> his grandfather
+and benefactor, Alderman Herbert (d. 1614)&mdash;and they traced
+a connexion with the earls of Pembroke. Thomas became a
+commoner of Jesus College, Oxford, in 1621, but afterwards
+removed to Cambridge, through the influence of his uncle
+Dr Ambrose Akroyd. In 1627 the earl of Pembroke procured
+his appointment in the suite of Sir Dodmore Cotton, then
+starting as ambassador for Persia with Sir Robert Shirley.
+Sailing in March they visited the Cape, Madagascar, Goa and
+Surat; landing at Gambrun (10th of January 1627-1628),
+they travelled inland to Ashraf and thence to Kazvin, where
+both Cotton and Shirley died, and whence Herbert made extensive
+travels in the Persian <i>Hinterland</i>, visiting Kashan, Bagdad,
+&amp;c. On his return voyage he touched at Ceylon, the Coromandel
+coast, Mauritius and St Helena. He reached England in 1629,
+travelled in Europe in 1630-1631, married in 1632 and retired
+from court in 1634 (his prospects perhaps blighted by Pembroke&rsquo;s
+death in 1630); after this he resided on his Tintern estate and
+elsewhere till the Civil War, siding with the parliament till his
+appointment to attend on the king in 1646. Becoming a devoted
+royalist, he was rewarded with a baronetcy at the Restoration
+(1660). He resided mainly in York Street, Westminster, till
+the Great Plague (1666), when he retired to York, where he died
+(at Petergate House) on the 1st of March 1682.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Herbert&rsquo;s chief work is the <i>Description of the Persian Monarchy
+now beinge: the Orientall Indyes, Iles and other parts of the Greater
+Asia and Africk</i> (1634), reissued with additions, &amp;c., in 1638 as
+<i>Some Yeares Travels into Africa and Asia the Great</i> (al. <i>into divers
+parts of Asia and Afrique</i>); a third edition followed in 1664, and a
+fourth in 1677. This is one of the best records of 17th-century
+travel. Among its illustrations are remarkable sketches of the dodo,
+cuneiform inscriptions and Persepolis. Herbert&rsquo;s <i>Threnodia Carolina;
+or, Memoirs of the two last years of the reign of that unparallell&rsquo;d prince
+of ever blessed memory King Charles I.</i>, was in great part printed at
+the author&rsquo;s request in Wood&rsquo;s <i>Athenae Oxonienses</i>; in full by Dr C.
+Goodall in his <i>Collection of Tracts</i> (1702, repr. G. &amp; W. Nicol, 1813).
+Sir William Dugdale is understood to have received assistance from
+Herbert in the <i>Monasticon Anglicanum</i>, vol. iv.; see two of Herbert&rsquo;s
+papers on St John&rsquo;s, Beverley and Ripon collegiate church, now
+cathedral, in Drake&rsquo;s <i>Eboracum</i> (appendix). Cf. also Robert Davies&rsquo;
+account of Herbert in <i>The Yorkshire Archaeological and Topographical
+Journal</i>, part iii., pp. 182-214 (1870), containing a facsimile of the
+inscription on Herbert&rsquo;s tomb; Wood&rsquo;s <i>Athenae</i>, iv. 15-41; and
+<i>Fasti</i>, ii. 26, 131, 138, 143-144, 150.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERBERT OF CHERBURY, EDWARD HERBERT,<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span>
+(1583-1648), English soldier, diplomatist, historian and religious
+philosopher, eldest son of Richard Herbert of Montgomery Castle
+(a member of a collateral branch of the family of the earls of
+Pembroke) and of Magdalen, daughter of Sir Richard Newport,
+was born at Eyton-on-Severn near Wroxeter on the 3rd of
+March 1583. After careful private tuition he matriculated
+at University College, Oxford, as a gentleman commoner, in
+May 1596. On the 28th of February 1599 he married his cousin
+Mary, daughter and heiress of Sir William Herbert (d. 1593).
+He returned to Oxford with his wife and mother, continued
+his studies, and obtained proficiency in modern languages as
+well as in music, riding and fencing. On the accession of James I.
+he presented himself at court and was created a knight of the
+Bath on the 24th of July 1603. In 1608 he went to Paris, enjoying
+the friendship and hospitality of the old constable de
+Montmorency, and being entertained by Henry IV. On his
+return, as he says himself with naïve vanity, he was &ldquo;in great
+esteem both in court and city, many of the greatest desiring
+my company.&rdquo; In 1610 he served as a volunteer in the Low
+Countries under the prince of Orange, whose intimate friend
+he became, and distinguished himself at the capture of Juliers
+from the emperor. He offered to decide the war by engaging
+in single combat with a champion chosen from among the
+enemy, but his challenge was declined. During an interval
+in the fighting he paid a visit to Spinola, in the Spanish camp
+near Wezel, and afterwards to the elector palatine at Heidelberg,
+subsequently travelling in Italy. At the instance of the duke
+of Savoy he led an expedition of 4000 Huguenots from Languedoc
+into Piedmont to help the Savoyards against Spain, but after
+nearly losing his life in the journey to Lyons he was imprisoned
+on his arrival there, and the enterprise came to nothing. Thence
+he returned to the Netherlands and the prince of Orange, arriving
+in England in 1617. In 1619 he was made by Buckingham ambassador
+at Paris, but a quarrel with de Luynes and a challenge
+sent by him to the latter occasioned his recall in 1621. After
+the death of de Luynes Herbert resumed his post in February
+1622. He was very popular at the French court and showed
+considerable diplomatic ability, his chief objects being to
+accomplish the union between Charles and Henrietta Maria and
+secure the assistance of Louis XIII. for the unfortunate elector
+palatine. This latter advantage he could not obtain, and he
+was dismissed in April 1624. He returned home greatly in
+debt and received little reward for his services beyond the Irish
+peerage of Castle island in 1624 and the English barony of
+Cherbury, or Chirbury, on the 7th of May 1629. In 1632 he
+was appointed a member of the council of war. He attended
+the king at York in 1639, and in May 1642 was imprisoned by
+the parliament for urging the addition of the words &ldquo;without
+cause&rdquo; to the resolution that the king violated his oath by
+making war on parliament. He determined after this to take
+no further part in the struggle, retired to Montgomery Castle,
+and declined the king&rsquo;s summons. On the 5th of September
+1644 he surrendered the castle to the parliamentary forces,
+returned to London, submitted, and was granted a pension
+of £20 a week. In 1647 he paid a visit to Gassendi at Paris,
+and died in London on the 20th of August, 1648, being buried
+in the church of St Giles&rsquo;s in the Fields.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page341" id="page341"></a>341</span></p>
+
+<p>Lord Herbert left two sons, Richard (<i>c.</i> 1600-1655), who
+succeeded him as 2nd Lord Herbert of Cherbury, and Edward,
+the title becoming extinct in the person of Henry Herbert, the
+4th baron, grandson of the 1st Lord Herbert in 1691. In 1694,
+however, it was revived in favour of Henry Herbert (1654-1709),
+son of Sir Henry Herbert (1595-1673), brother of the 1st Lord
+Herbert of Cherbury. Sir Henry was master of the revels to
+Charles I. and Charles II., being busily employed in reading
+and licensing plays and in supervising all kinds of public entertainments.
+He died in April 1673; his son Henry died in
+January 1709, when the latter&rsquo;s son Henry became 2nd Lord
+Herbert of Cherbury of the second creation. He died without
+issue in April 1738, and again the barony became extinct. In
+1743 it was revived for Henry Arthur Herbert (<i>c.</i> 1703-1772),
+who five years later was created earl of Powis. This nobleman
+was a great-grandson of the 2nd Lord Herbert of Cherbury of
+the first creation, and since his time the barony has been held
+by the earls of Powis.</p>
+
+<p>Lord Herbert&rsquo;s cousin, Sir Edward Herbert (<i>c.</i> 1591-1657),
+was a member of parliament under James I. and Charles I.
+Having become attorney-general he was instructed by Charles
+to take proceedings against some members of parliament who
+had been concerned in the passing of the Grand Remonstrance;
+the only result, however, was Herbert&rsquo;s own impeachment by
+the House of Commons and his imprisonment. Later in life
+he was with the exiled royal family in Holland and in France,
+becoming lord keeper of the great seal to Charles II., an office
+which he had refused in 1645. He died in Paris in December
+1657. One of Herbert&rsquo;s son was Arthur Herbert, earl of Torrington,
+and another was Sir Edward Herbert (<i>c.</i> 1648-1698),
+titular earl of Portland, who was made chief justice of the king&rsquo;s
+bench in 1685 in succession to Lord Jeffreys. It was Sir Edward
+who declared for the royal prerogative in the case of <i>Godden</i> v.
+<i>Hales</i>, asserting that the kings of England, being sovereign
+princes, could dispense with particular laws in particular cases.
+After the escape of James II. to France this king made Herbert
+his lord chancellor and created him earl of Portland, although
+he was a Protestant and had exhibited a certain amount of
+independence during 1687.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The first Lord Herbert&rsquo;s real claim to fame and remembrance is
+derived from his writings. Herbert&rsquo;s first and most important work
+is the <i>De veritate prout distinguitur a revelatione, a verisimili, a
+possibili, et a falso</i> (Paris, 1624; London, 1633; translated into
+French 1639, but never into English; a MS. in add. MSS. 7081.
+Another, Sloane MSS. 3957, has the author&rsquo;s dedication to his brother
+George in his own hand, dated 1622). It combines a theory of
+knowledge with a partial psychology, a methodology for the investigation
+of truth, and a scheme of natural religion. The author&rsquo;s
+method is prolix and often far from clear; the book is no compact
+system, but it contains the skeleton and much of the soul of a complete
+philosophy. Giving up all past theories as useless, Herbert
+professedly endeavours to constitute a new and true system. Truth,
+which he defines as a just conformation of the faculties with one
+another and with their objects, he distributed into four classes or
+stages: (1) truth in the thing or the truth of the object; (2) truth
+of the appearance; (3) truth of the apprehension (<i>conceptus</i>);
+(4) truth of the intellect. The faculties of the mind are as numerous
+as the differences of their objects, and are accordingly innumerable;
+but they may be arranged in four groups. The first and fundamental
+and most certain group is the <i>Natural Instinct</i>, to which belong the
+<span class="grk" title="koinai ennoiai">&#954;&#959;&#953;&#957;&#945;&#8054; &#7956;&#957;&#957;&#959;&#953;&#945;&#953;</span>, the <i>notitiae communes</i>, which are innate, of divine
+origin and indisputable. The second group, the next in certainty,
+is the <i>sensus internus</i> (under which head Herbert discusses amongst
+others love, hate, fear, conscience with its <i>communis notitia</i>, and
+free will); the third is the <i>sensus externus</i>; and the fourth is
+<i>discursus</i>, reasoning, to which, as being the least certain, we have
+recourse when the other faculties fail. The ratiocinative faculties
+proceed by division and analysis, by questioning, and are slow and
+gradual in their movement; they take aid from the other faculties,
+those of the <i>instinctus naturalis</i> being always the final test. Herbert&rsquo;s
+categories or questions to be used in investigation are ten in number
+whether (a thing is), what, of what sort, how much, in what relation,
+how, when, where, whence, wherefore. No faculty, rightly used, can
+err &ldquo;even in dreams&rdquo;; badly exercised, reasoning becomes the
+source of almost all our errors. The discussion of the <i>notitiae communes</i>
+is the most characteristic part of the book. The exposition
+of them, though highly dogmatic, is at times strikingly Kantian in
+substance. &ldquo;So far are these elements or sacred principles from
+being derived from experience or observation that without some
+of them, or at least some one of them, we can neither experience
+nor even observe.&rdquo; Unless we felt driven by them to explore the
+nature of things, &ldquo;it would never occur to us to distinguish one
+thing from another.&rdquo; It cannot be said that Herbert proves the
+existence of the common notions; he does not deduce them or even
+give any list of them. But each faculty has its common notion;
+and they may be distinguished by six marks, their <i>priority</i>, <i>independence</i>,
+<i>universality</i>, <i>certainty</i>, <i>necessity</i> (for the well-being of man),
+and <i>immediacy</i>. Law is based on certain <i>common notions</i>; so is
+religion. Though Herbert expressly defines the scope of his book as
+dealing with the intellect, not faith, it is the common notions of
+religion he has illustrated most fully; and it is plain that it is in
+this part of his system that he is chiefly interested. The common
+notions of religion are the famous five articles, which became the
+charter of the English deists (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Deism</a></span>). There is little polemic
+against the received form of Christianity, but Herbert&rsquo;s attitude
+towards the Church&rsquo;s doctrine is distinctly negative, and he denies
+revelation except to the individual soul. In the <i>De religione
+gentilium</i> (completed 1645, published Amsterdam, 1663, translated
+into English by W. Lewis, London, 1705) he gives what may be called,
+in Hume&rsquo;s words, &ldquo;a natural history of religion.&rdquo; By examining
+the heathen religions Herbert finds, to his great delight, the universality
+of his five great articles, and that these are clearly recognizable
+under their absurdities as they are under the rites, ceremonies
+and polytheism invented by sacerdotal superstition. The same vein
+is maintained in the tracts <i>De causis errorum</i>, an unfinished work
+on logical fallacies, <i>Religio laici</i>, and <i>Ad sacerdotes de religione
+laici</i> (1645). In the <i>De veritate</i> Herbert produced the first purely
+metaphysical treatise written by an Englishman, and in the <i>De
+religione gentilium</i> one of the earliest studies extant in comparative
+theology; while both his metaphysical speculations and his
+religious views are throughout distinguished by the highest originality
+and provoked considerable controversy. His achievements in historical
+writing are vastly inferior, and vitiated by personal aims and his
+preoccupation to gain the royal favour. Herbert&rsquo;s first historical
+work is the <i>Expeditio Buckinghami ducis</i> (published in a Latin
+translation in 1656 and in the original English by the earl of Powis
+for the Philobiblon Society in 1860), a defence of Buckingham&rsquo;s
+conduct of the ill-fated expedition of 1627. <i>The Life and Raigne
+of King Henry VIII.</i> (1649) derives its chief value from its composition
+from original documents, but is ill-proportioned, and the
+author judges the character and statesmanship of Henry with too
+obvious a partiality.</p>
+
+<p>His poems, published in 1665 (reprinted and edited by J. Churton
+Collins in 1881), show him in general a faithful disciple of Donne,
+obscure and uncouth. His satires are miserable compositions, but
+a few of his lyrical verses show power of reflection and true inspiration,
+while his use of the metre afterwards employed by Tennyson
+in his &ldquo;In Memoriam&rdquo; is particularly happy and effective. His
+Latin poems are evidence of his scholarship. Three of these had
+appeared together with the <i>De causis errorum</i> in 1645. To these
+works must be added <i>A Dialogue between a Tutor and a Pupil</i>
+(1768; a treatise on education, MS. in the Bodleian Library); a
+treatise on the king&rsquo;s supremacy in the Church (MS. in the Record
+Office and at Queen&rsquo;s College, Oxford), and his well-known autobiography,
+first published by Horace Walpole in 1764, a naïve and
+amusing narrative, too much occupied, however, with his duels and
+amorous adventures, to the exclusion of more creditable incidents
+in his career, such as his contributions to philosophy and history,
+his intimacy with Donne, Ben Jonson, Selden and Carew, Casaubon,
+Gassendi and Grotius, or his embassy in France, in relation to which
+he only described the splendour of his retinue and his social triumphs.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;The autobiography edited by Sidney Lee with
+correspondence from add. MSS. 7082 (1886); article in the <i>Dict. of
+Nat. Biog.</i> by the same writer and the list of authorities there
+collated; <i>Hist. MSS. Comm. Rep.</i> x. app. iv., 378; <i>Lord Herbert
+de Cherbury</i>, by Charles de Rémusat (1874); <i>Eduard, Lord Herbert
+von Cherbury</i>, by C. Güttler (a criticism of his philosophy; 1897);
+<i>Collections Historical and Archaeological</i> relating to Montgomeryshire,
+vols. vii., xi., xx.; R. Warner&rsquo;s <i>Epistolary Curiosities</i>, i. ser.;
+Reid&rsquo;s works, edited by Sir William Hamilton; <i>National Review</i>,
+xxxv. 661 (Leslie Stephen); Locke&rsquo;s <i>Essay on Human Understanding</i>;
+Wood, <i>Ath. Oxon.</i> (Bliss), iii. 239; <i>Gentleman&rsquo;s Magazine</i>
+(1816), i. 201 (print of remains of his birthplace); <i>Lord Herbert&rsquo;s
+Poems</i>, ed. by J. Churton Collins (1881); Aubrey&rsquo;s <i>Lives of Eminent
+Men</i>; also works quoted under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Deism</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERBERT OF LEA, SIDNEY HERBERT,<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Baron</span> (1810-1861),
+English statesman, was the younger son of the 11th earl
+of Pembroke. Educated at Harrow and Oriel, Oxford, he
+made a reputation at the Oxford Union as a speaker, and entered
+the House of Commons as Conservative member for a division
+of Wiltshire in 1832. Under Peel he held minor offices, and in
+1845 was included in the cabinet as secretary at war, and again
+held this office in 1852-1855, being responsible for the War
+Office during the Crimean difficulties, and in 1859. It was
+Sidney Herbert who sent Florence Nightingale out to the Crimea,
+and he led the movement for War Office reform after the war,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page342" id="page342"></a>342</span>
+the hard work entailed causing his breakdown in health, so that
+in July 1861, having been created a baron, he had to resign office,
+and died on the 2nd of August 1861. His statue was placed
+in front of the War Office in Pall Mall. He was succeeded in the
+title by his eldest son, who later became 13th earl of Pembroke,
+and the barony is now merged in that earldom; his second son
+became 14th earl. Another son, the Hon. Michael Herbert
+(1857-1904), was British Ambassador at Washington in succession
+to Lord Pauncefote.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A life of Lord Herbert by Lord Stanmore was published in 1906.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERBERTON,<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> a mining town of Cardwell county, Queensland,
+Australia, 55 m. S.W. of Cairns. Pop. (1901) 2806. Tin was
+discovered in the locality in 1879, and to this mineral the town
+chiefly owes its prosperity, though copper, bismuth and some
+silver and gold are also found. Atherton, 12 m. from the town,
+is served by rail from Cairns, which is the port for the Herberton
+district.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERCULANEUM,<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> an ancient city of Italy, situated about
+two-thirds of a mile from the Portici station of the railway from
+Naples to Pompeii. The ruins are less frequently visited than
+those of Pompeii, not only because they are smaller in extent
+and of less obvious interest, but also because they are more
+difficult of access. The history of their discovery and exploration,
+and the artistic and literary relics which they have yielded,
+are worthy, however, of particular notice. The small part of
+the city, which was investigated at the spot called <i>Gli scavi
+nuovi</i> (the new excavations) was discovered in the 19th century.
+But the more important works were executed in the 18th century;
+and of the buildings then explored at a great depth, by means of
+tunnels, none is visible except the theatre, the orchestra of
+which lies 85 ft. below the surface.</p>
+
+<p>The brief notices of the classical writers inform us that Herculaneum<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+was a small city of Campania between Neapolis and
+Pompeii, that it was situated between two streams at the foot
+of Vesuvius on a hill overlooking the sea, and that its harbour
+was at all seasons safe. With regard to its earlier history nothing
+is known. The account given by Dionysius repeats a tradition
+which was most natural for a city bearing the name of Hercules.
+Strabo follows up the topographical data with a few brief
+historical statements&mdash;<span class="grk" title="Oskoi eichon kai tautên kai tên ephexês
+Pompêian ... eita Turrhênoi kai Pelasgoi, meta tauta Saunitai.">&#8012;&#963;&#954;&#959;&#953; &#949;&#7990;&#967;&#959;&#957; &#954;&#945;&#8054; &#964;&#945;&#973;&#964;&#951;&#957; &#954;&#945;&#8054; &#964;&#8052;&#957; &#7952;&#966;&#949;&#958;&#8134;&#962; &#928;&#959;&#956;&#960;&#951;&#943;&#945;&#957; ...
+&#949;&#7990;&#964;&#945; &#932;&#965;&#8164;&#8165;&#951;&#957;&#959;&#8054; &#954;&#945;&#8054; &#928;&#949;&#955;&#945;&#963;&#947;&#959;&#943;, &#956;&#949;&#964;&#8048; &#964;&#945;&#8166;&#964;&#945; &#931;&#945;&#965;&#957;&#8150;&#964;&#945;&#953;</span>.
+But leaving the questions suggested by these names (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Etruria</a></span>,
+&amp;c.),<a name="fa2i" id="fa2i" href="#ft2i"><span class="sp">2</span></a> as well as those which relate to the origin of Pompeii (<i>q.v.</i>),
+it is sufficient here to say that the first historical record about
+Herculaneum has been handed down by Livy (viii. 25), where he
+relates how the city fell under the power of Rome during the
+Samnite wars. It remained faithful to Rome for a long time, but
+it joined the Italian allies in the Social War. Having submitted
+anew in June of the year 665 (88 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), it appears to have been less
+severely treated than Pompeii, and to have escaped the imposition
+of a colony of Sulla&rsquo;s veterans, although Zumpt has suspected
+the contrary (<i>Comm. epigr.</i> i. 259). It afterwards became a
+municipium, and enjoyed great prosperity towards the close of
+the republic and in the earlier times of the empire, since many
+noble families of Rome selected this pleasant spot for the construction
+of splendid villas, one of which indeed belonged to
+the imperial house (Seneca, <i>De ira</i>, iii.), and another to the
+family of Calpurnius Piso. By means of the Via Campana it
+had easy communication north-westward with Neapolis, Puteoli
+and Capua, and thence by the Via Appia with Rome; and
+southwards with Pompeii and Nuceria, and thence with Lucania
+and the Bruttii. In the year <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 63 it suffered terribly from
+the earthquake which, according to Seneca, &ldquo;Campaniam
+nunquam securam huius mali, indemnem tamen, et toties
+defunctam metu magna strage vastavit. Nam et Herculanensis
+oppidi pars ruit dubieque stant etiam quae relicta sunt&rdquo; (<i>Nat.
+quaest.</i> vi. 1). Hardly had Herculaneum completed the restoration
+of some of its principal buildings (cf. Mommsen, I.N. n.
+2384; <i>Catalogo del Museo Nazionale di Napoli</i>, n. 1151) when
+it fell beneath the great eruption of the year 79, described by
+Pliny the younger (<i>Ep.</i> vi. 16, 20), in which Pompeii also was
+destroyed, with other flourishing cities of Campania. According
+to the commonest account, on the 23rd of August of that year
+Pliny the elder, who had command of the Roman fleet at Misenum,
+set out to render assistance to a young lady of noble family
+named Rectina and others dwelling on that coast, but, as there
+was no escape by sea, the little harbour having been on a sudden
+filled up so as to be inaccessible, he was obliged to abandon to their
+fate those people of Herculaneum who had managed to flee from
+their houses, overwhelmed in a moment by the material poured
+forth by Vesuvius. But the text of Pliny the younger, where
+this account is given, has been subjected to various interpretations;
+and from the comparison of other classical testimonies
+and the study of the excavations it has been concluded that it is
+impossible to determine the date of the catastrophe, though
+there are satisfactory arguments to justify the statement that
+the event took place in the autumn. The opinion that immediately
+after the first outbreak of Vesuvius a torrent of lava
+was ejected over Herculaneum was refuted by the scholars of
+the 18th century, and their refutation is confirmed by Beulé
+(<i>Le Drame du Vésuve</i>, p. 240 seq.). And the last recensions of
+the passage quoted from Pliny, aided by an inscription,<a name="fa3i" id="fa3i" href="#ft3i"><span class="sp">3</span></a> prove
+that Rectina cannot have been the name of the harbour described
+by Beulé (<i>ib.</i> pp. 122, 247), but the name of a lady who had
+implored succour, the wife of Caesius Bassus, or rather Tascius
+(cf. Pliny, ed. Keil, Leipzig, 1870; Aulus Persius, ed. Jahn,
+<i>Sat.</i> vi.). The shore, moreover, according to the accurate studies
+of the engineer Michele Ruggiero, director of the excavations, was
+not altered by the causes adduced by Beulé (p. 125), but by a
+simpler event. &ldquo;It is certain,&rdquo; he says (<i>Pompei e la regione
+sotterrata dal Vesuvio l&rsquo;anno 79</i>, Naples, 1879, p. 21 seq.), &ldquo;that
+the districts between the south and west, and those between the
+south and east, were overwhelmed in two quite different ways.
+From Torre Annunziata (which is believed to be the site of the
+ancient Oplontii) to San Giovanni a Teduccio, for a distance of
+about 9 m., there flowed a muddy eruption which in Herculaneum
+and the neighbouring places, where it was most abundant,
+raised the level of the country more than 65 ft. The matter
+transported consisted of soil of various kinds&mdash;sand, ashes,
+fragments of lava, pozzolana and whitish pumice, enclosing
+grains of uncalcined lime, similar in every respect to those of
+Pompeii. In the part of Herculaneum already excavated the
+corridors in the upper portions of the theatre are compactly
+filled, up to the head of the arches, with pozzolana and pumice
+transformed into tufa (which proves that the formation of this
+stone may take place in a comparatively short time). Tufa is
+also found in the lowest part of the city towards the sea in front
+of the few houses that have been discovered; and in the very
+high banks that surround them, as also in the lowest part of the
+theatre, there are plainly to be seen earth, sand, ashes, fragments
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page343" id="page343"></a>343</span>
+of lava and pumice, with little distinction of strata, almost
+always confused and mingled together, and varying from spot
+to spot in degree of compactness. It is clear that this immense
+congeries of earth and stones could not flow in a dry state over
+those 5 m. of country (in the beginning very steep, and at
+intervals almost level), where certainly it would have been
+arrested and all accumulated in a mound; but it must have
+been borne along by a great quantity of water, the effects of
+which may be distinctly recognized, not only in the filling and
+choking up even of the most narrow, intricate and remote
+parts of the buildings, but also in the formation of the tufa, in
+which water has so great a share; for it cannot be supposed
+that enough of it has filtered through so great a depth of earth.
+The torrent ran in a few hours to the sea, and formed that shallow
+or lagoon called by Pliny <i>Subitum Vadum</i>, which prevented the
+ships approaching the shores.&rdquo; Hence it is that, while many
+made their escape from Pompeii (which was overwhelmed by
+the fall of the small stones and afterwards by the rain of ashes),
+comparatively few can have managed to escape from Herculaneum,
+and these, according to the interpretation given to the
+inscription preserved in the National Museum (Mommsen,
+<i>I.N.</i> n. 2455), found shelter in the neighbouring city of Neapolis,
+where they inhabited a quarter called that of the buried city
+(Suetonius, <i>Titus</i>, 8; <i>C.I.L.</i> x. No. 1492, in Naples: &ldquo;Regio
+primaria splendidissima Herculanensium&rdquo;). The name of
+Herculaneum, which for some time remained attached to the
+site of the disaster, is mentioned in the later itineraries; but
+in the course of the middle ages all recollection of it perished.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In 1719, while Prince Elbeuf of the house of Lorraine, in command
+of the armies of Charles VI., was seeking crushed marble to make
+plaster for his new villa near Portici, he learned from the peasants
+that there were in the vicinity some pits from which they not only
+quarried excellent marble, but had extracted many statues in the
+course of years (see Jorio, <i>Notizia degli scavi d&rsquo; Ercolano</i>, Naples,
+1827). In 1738, while Colonel D. Rocco de Alcubierre was directing
+the works for the construction of the &ldquo;Reali Delizie&rdquo; at Portici,
+he received orders from Charles IV. (later, Charles III. of Spain)
+to begin excavations on the spot where it had been reported to the
+king that the Elbeuf statues had been found. At first it was believed
+that a temple was being explored, but afterwards the inscriptions
+proved that the building was a theatre. This discovery excited the
+greatest commotion among the scholars of all nations; and many of
+them hastened to Naples to see the marvellous statues of the Balbi
+and the paintings on the walls. But everything was kept private,
+as the government wished to reserve to itself the right of illustrating
+the monuments. First of all Monsignor Bayardi was brought from
+Rome and commissioned to write about the antiquities which were
+being collected in the museum at Portici under the care of Camillo
+Paderni, and when it was recognized that the prelate had not sufficient
+learning, and by the progress of the excavations other most
+abundant material was accumulated, about which at once scholars
+and courtiers were anxious to be informed, Bernardo Tanucci,
+having become secretary of state in 1755, founded the Accademia
+Ercolanese, which published the principal works on Herculaneum
+(<i>Le Pitture ed i bronzi d&rsquo; Ercolano</i>, 8 vols., 1757, 1792; <i>Dissertations
+isagogicae ad Herculanensium voluminum explanationem pars
+prima</i>, 1797). The criterion which guided the studies of the
+academicians was far from being worthy of unqualified praise, and
+consequently their work did not always meet the approval of the
+best scholars who had the opportunity of seeing the monuments.
+Among these was Winckelmann, who in his letters gave ample
+notices of the excavations and the antiquities which he was able to
+visit on several occasions. Other notices were furnished by Gori,
+<i>Symbolae litterariae Florentinae</i> (1748, 1751), by Marcello Venuti,
+<i>Descrizione delle prime scoperte d&rsquo; Ercolano</i> (Rome, 1748), and Scipione
+Maffei, <i>Tre lettere intorno alle scoperte d&rsquo; Ercolano</i> (Verona, 1748).
+The excavations, which continued for more than forty years (1738-1780),
+were executed at first under the immediate direction of
+Alcubierre (1738-1741), and then with the assistance of the engineers
+Rorro and Bardet (1741-1745), Carl Weber (1750-1764), and
+Francesco La Vega. After the death of Alcubierre (1780) the
+last-named was appointed director-in-chief of the excavations; but
+from that time the investigations at Herculaneum were intermitted,
+and the researches at Pompeii were vigorously carried on. Resumed
+in 1827, the excavations at Herculaneum were shortly after suspended,
+nor were the new attempts made in 1866 with the money
+bestowed by King Victor Emmanuel attended with success, being
+impeded by the many dangers arising from the houses built overhead.
+The meagreness of the results obtained by the occasional works
+executed in the last century, and the fact that the investigators were
+unfortunate enough to strike upon places already explored, gave
+rise to the opinion that the whole area of the city had been crossed
+by tunnels in the time of Charles III. and in the beginning of the
+reign of Ferdinand IV. And although it is recognized that the works
+had not been prosecuted with the caution that they required, yet
+in view of the serious difficulties that would attend the collection
+of the little that had been left by the first excavators, every proposal
+for new investigations has been abandoned. But in a memoir which
+Professor Barnabei read in the Reale Accademia dei Lincei (<i>Atti
+della R. Ac.</i> series iii. vol. ii. p. 751) he undertook to prove that
+the researches made by the government in the 18th century did not
+cover any great area. The antiquities excavated at Herculaneum
+in that century (<i>i.e.</i> the 18th) form a collection of the highest scientific
+and artistic value. They come partly from the buildings of the ancient
+city (theatre, basilica, houses and forum), and partly from the
+private villa of a great Roman family (cf. Comparetti and de Petra,
+<i>La Villa Ercolanese dei Pisoni</i>, Turin, 1883). From the city come,
+among many other marble statues, the two equestrian statues of
+the Balbi (<i>Museo Borbonico</i>, vol. ii. pl. xxxviii.-xxxix.), and the great
+imperial and municipal bronze statues. Mural paintings of extraordinary
+beauty were also discovered here, such as those that represent
+Theseus after the slaughter of the Minotaur (Helbig, <i>Wandgemälde</i>,
+Leipzig, 1878, No. 1214), Chiron teaching Achilles the art
+of playing on the lyre (<i>ibid.</i> No. 1291), and Hercules finding Telephus
+who is being suckled by the hind (<i>ibid.</i> No. 1143).</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding subsequent discoveries of stupendous paintings
+in the gardens of the Villa Farnesina on the banks of the Tiber, the
+monochromes of Herculaneum remain among the finest specimens
+of the exquisite taste and consummate skill displayed by the ancient
+artists. Among the best preserved is Leto and Niobe, which has
+been the subject of so many studies and so many publications (<i>ibid.</i>
+No. 1706). There is also a considerable number of lapidary inscriptions
+edited in vol. ii. of the epigraphic collection of the <i>Cat. del
+Mus. Naz. di Napoli</i>. The Villa Suburbana has given us a good
+number of marble busts, and the so-called statue of Aristides, but
+above all that splendid collection of bronze statues and busts mostly
+reproductions of famous Greek works now to be found in the Naples
+Museum. It is thence that we have obtained the reposing Hermes,
+the drunken Silenus, the sleeping Faunus, the dancing girls, the
+bust called Plato&rsquo;s, that believed to be Seneca&rsquo;s, the two quoit-throwers
+or discoboli, and so many masterpieces more, figured by
+the academicians in their volume on the bronzes. But a still further
+discovery made in the Villa Suburbana contributed to magnify the
+greatness of Herculaneum; within its walls was found the famous
+library, of which, counting both entire and fragmentary volumes, 1803
+papyri are preserved. Among the nations which took the greatest
+interest in the discovery of the Herculaneum library, the most
+honourable rank belongs to England, which sent Hayter and other
+scholars to Naples to solicit the publication of the volumes. Of the
+341 papyri which have been unrolled, 195 have been published
+(<i>Herculanensium voluminum quae supersunt</i> (Naples, 1793-1809);
+<i>Collectio altera</i>, 1862-1876). They contain works by Epicurus,
+Demetrius, Polystratus, Colotes, Chrysippus, Carniscus and Philodemus.
+The names of the authors are in themselves sufficient to
+show that the library belonged to a person whose principal study
+was the Epicurean philosophy. But of the great master of this
+school only a few works have been found. Of his treatise <span class="grk" title="Peri physeôs">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#966;&#973;&#963;&#949;&#969;&#962;</span>,
+divided into 37 books, it is known that there were three copies in the
+library (<i>Coll. alt.</i> vi.). Professor Comparetti, studying the first
+fasciculus of volume xi. of the same new collection, recognized most
+important fragments of the <i>Ethics</i> of Epicurus, and these he published
+in 1879 in Nos. ix. and xi. of the <i>Rivista di filologia e d&rsquo; istruzione
+classica</i> (Turin). Even the other authors above mentioned are but
+poorly represented, with the exception of Philodemus, of whom
+26 different treatises have been recognized. But all these philosophic
+discussions, belonging for the most part to an author less than
+secondary among the Epicureans, fall short of the high expectations
+excited by the first discovery of the library. Among the many
+volumes unrolled only a few are of historical importance&mdash;that
+edited by Bücheler, which treats of the philosophers of the academy
+(<i>Acad. phil. index Hercul.</i>, Greifswald, 1859), and that edited by
+Comparetti, which deals with the Stoics (&ldquo;Papiro ercolanese inedito,&rdquo;
+in <i>Rivista di fil. e d&rsquo; ist. class.</i> anno iii. fasc. x.-xii.). To appreciate the
+value of the volumes unrolled but not yet published (for 146 vols.
+were only copied and not printed) the student must read Comparetti&rsquo;s
+paper, &ldquo;Relazione sui papiri ercolanesi.&rdquo; Contributions
+of some value have been made to the study of Herculaneum fragments
+by Spengel (&ldquo;Die hercul. Rollen,&rdquo; in <i>Philologus</i>, 1863, suppl.
+vol.), and Gomperz (<i>Hercul. Studien</i>, Leipzig, 1865-1866, cf. <i>Zeitschr.
+f. österr. Gymn.</i>, 1867-1872). There are in the library some volumes
+written in Latin, which, according to Boot (<i>Notice sur les manuscrits
+trouvés à Herculaneum</i>, Amsterdam, 1845), were found tied up in a
+bundle apart. Of these we know 18, but they are all so damaged
+that hardly any of them can be deciphered. One with verses
+relating to the battle of Actium is believed to belong to a poem of
+Rabirius. The numerical preponderance of the works of Philodemus
+led some people to believe that this had been the library of that
+philosopher. Professor Comparetti has thrown out a conjecture
+(cf. Comparetti and de Petra, <i>op. cit.</i>) that the library was collected
+by Lucius Piso Caesoninus (see <i>Regione sotterrata dal Vesuvio</i>,
+Naples, 1879, p. 159 sq.), but this conjecture has not found many
+supporters. Professor de Petra (in the same work) has also published
+the official notices upon the antiquities unearthed in the sumptuous
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page344" id="page344"></a>344</span>
+villa, giving the plan executed by Weber and recovered by chance
+by the director of excavations, Michele Ruggiero. This plan, which
+is here reproduced from de Petra<a name="fa4i" id="fa4i" href="#ft4i"><span class="sp">4</span></a> is the only satisfactory document
+for the topography of Herculaneum; for the plan of the theatre
+published in the <i>Bullettino archeologico italiano</i> (Naples, 1861, i.
+53, tab. iii.) was executed in 1747, when the excavations were not
+completed. And even for the history of the &ldquo;finds&rdquo; made in the
+Villa Suburbana the necessity for further studies makes itself felt,
+since there is a lack of agreement between the accounts given by
+Alcubierre and Weber and those communicated to the <i>Philosophical
+Transactions</i> (London, vol. x.) by Camillo Paderni, conservator of
+the Portici Museum.</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:448px; height:1482px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img344.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p class="pt2">Among the older works relating to Herculaneum, in addition to
+those already quoted, may be mentioned de Brosses, <i>Lettre sur
+l&rsquo;état actuel de la ville souterraine d&rsquo;Héracléa</i> (Paris, 1750); Seigneux
+de Correvon, <i>Lettre sur la découverte de l&rsquo;ancienne ville d&rsquo;Herculane</i>
+(Yverdon, 1770); David, <i>Les Antiquités d&rsquo;Herculaneum</i> (Paris, 1780);
+D&rsquo; Ancora Gaetano, <i>Prospetto storico-fisico degli scavi d&rsquo; Ercolano e
+di Pompei</i> (Naples, 1803); Venuti, <i>Prime Scoverte di Ercolano</i> (Rome,
+1748); and Romanelli, <i>Viaggio ad Ercolano</i> (Naples, 1811). A full
+list will be found in vol. i. of <i>Museo Borbonico</i> (Naples, 1824), pp. 1-11.</p>
+
+<p>The most important reference work is C. Waldstein and L. Shoobridge,
+<i>Herculaneum, Past, Present and Future</i> (London, 1908); it
+contains full references to the history and the explorations, and to
+the buildings and objects found (with illustrations). Miss E. R.
+Barker&rsquo;s <i>Buried Herculaneum</i> (1908) is exceedingly useful.</p>
+
+<p>In 1904 Professor Waldstein expounded both in Europe and in
+America an international scheme for thorough investigation of the
+site. Negotiations of a highly complex character ensued with the
+Italian government, which ultimately in 1908 decided that the work
+should be undertaken by Italian scholars with Italian funds. The
+work was begun in the autumn of 1908, but financial difficulties with
+property owners in Resina immediately arose with the result that
+progress was practically stopped.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(F. B.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> A fragment of L. Sisenna calls it &ldquo;Oppidum tumulo in excelso
+loco propter mare, parvis moenibus, inter duas fluvias, infra Vesuvium
+collocatum&rdquo; (lib. iv., fragm. 53, Peters). Of one of these rivers this
+historian again makes mention in the passage where probably he
+related the capture of Herculaneum by Minatius Magius and T. Didius
+(Velleius Paterculus ii. 16). Further topographical details are supplied
+by Strabo, who, after speaking about Naples, continues&mdash;<span class="grk" title="hechomenon
+de phrourion estin Hrakleion ekkeimenên eis tên thalattan akran
+echon, katapneomenon Libi thaumastôs hoshth hugieinên poiein tên katoikian.">&#7952;&#967;&#972;&#956;&#949;&#957;&#959;&#957; &#948;&#8050; &#966;&#961;&#959;&#973;&#961;&#953;&#972;&#957; &#7952;&#963;&#964;&#953;&#957; &#7977;&#961;&#940;&#954;&#955;&#949;&#953;&#959;&#957; &#7952;&#954;&#954;&#949;&#953;&#956;&#941;&#957;&#951;&#957; &#949;&#7984;&#962; &#964;&#8052;&#957; &#952;&#940;&#955;&#945;&#964;&#964;&#945;&#957; &#7940;&#954;&#961;&#945;&#957; &#7956;&#967;&#959;&#957;,
+&#954;&#945;&#964;&#945;&#960;&#957;&#949;&#972;&#956;&#949;&#957;&#959;&#957; &#923;&#953;&#946;&#8054; &#952;&#945;&#965;&#956;&#945;&#963;&#964;&#8182;&#962; &#8036;&#963;&#952;&#8127; &#8017;&#947;&#953;&#949;&#953;&#957;&#8052;&#957; &#960;&#959;&#953;&#949;&#8150;&#957; &#964;&#8052;&#957; &#954;&#945;&#964;&#959;&#953;&#954;&#943;&#945;&#957;</span>.
+Dionysius of Halicarnassus relates that Heracles, in the place where
+he stopped with his fleet on the return voyage from Iberia, founded
+a little city (<span class="grk" title="polichnên">&#960;&#959;&#955;&#943;&#967;&#957;&#951;&#957;</span>), to which he gave his own name; and he adds
+that this city was in his time inhabited by the Romans, and that,
+situated between Neapolis and Pompeii, it had <span class="grk" title="limenas en panti
+kairô bebaious">&#955;&#953;&#956;&#941;&#957;&#945;&#962; &#7952;&#957; &#960;&#945;&#957;&#964;&#8054; &#954;&#945;&#953;&#961;&#8183; &#946;&#949;&#946;&#945;&#7984;&#959;&#965;&#962;</span> (i. 44).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2i" id="ft2i" href="#fa2i"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See also Niebuhr, <i>Hist. of Rome</i>, i. 76, and Mommsen, <i>Die
+unteritalischen Dialekte</i> (1850), p. 314; for later discussions see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Osca Lingua</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pelasgians</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3i" id="ft3i" href="#fa3i"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>C.I.L.</i> ii. No. 3866. This Spanish inscription refers to a Rectina
+who died at the age of 18 and was the wife of Voconius Romanus.
+It is quite possible that she was the Rectina whom Pliny the elder
+wished to assist during the disaster of Vesuvius, for her husband,
+Voconius Romanus, was an intimate friend of Pliny the younger.
+The latter addressed four letters to Voconius (i. 5, ii. 1, iii. 13, ix. 28),
+in another letter commended him to the emperor Trajan (x. 3),
+and in another (ii. 13) says of him: &ldquo;Hunc ego cum simul studere,
+mus arte familiariterque dilexi; ille meus in urbe, ille in secessu
+contubernalis; cum hoc seria et jocos miscui.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4i" id="ft4i" href="#fa4i"><span class="fn">4</span></a> The diagram shows the arrangement and proportions of the Villa
+Ercolanese. The dotted lines show the course taken by the excavations,
+which began at the lower part of the plan.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERCULANO DE CARVALHO E ARAUJO, ALEXANDRE<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span>
+(1810-1877), Portuguese historian, was born in Lisbon of humble
+stock, his grandfather having been a foreman stonemason in the
+royal employ. He received his early education, comprising
+Latin, logic and rhetoric, at the Necessidades Monastery, and
+spent a year at the Royal Marine Academy studying mathematics
+with the intention of entering on a commercial career. In 1828
+Portugal fell under the absolute rule of D. Miguel, and Herculano,
+becoming involved in the unsuccessful military <i>pronunciamento</i>
+of August 1831, had to leave Portugal clandestinely and take
+refuge in England and France. In 1832 he accompanied the
+Liberal expedition to Terceira as a volunteer, and was one of
+D. Pedro&rsquo;s famous army of 7500 men who landed at the Mindello
+and occupied Oporto. He took part in all the actions of the great
+siege, and at the same time served as a librarian in the city
+archives. He published his first volume of verses, <i>A Voz de
+Propheta</i>, in 1832, and two years later another entitled <i>A Harpa
+do Crente</i>. Privation had made a man of him, and in these
+little books he proves himself a poet of deep feeling and considerable
+power of expression. The stirring incidents in the political
+emancipation of Portugal inspired his muse, and he describes
+the bitterness of exile, the adventurous expedition to Terceira,
+the heroic defence of Oporto, and the final combats of liberty.
+In 1837 he founded the <i>Panorama</i> in imitation of the <i>English
+Penny Magazine</i>, and there and in <i>Illustração</i> he published the
+historical tales which were afterwards collected into <i>Lendas e
+Narratives</i>; in the same year he became royal librarian at the
+Ajuda Palace, which enabled him to continue his studies
+of the past. The <i>Panorama</i> had a large circulation and influence,
+and Herculano&rsquo;s biographical sketches of great men
+and his articles of literary and historical criticism did much to
+educate the middle class by acquainting them with the story
+of their nation, and with the progress of knowledge and the
+state of letters in foreign countries. On entering parliament
+in 1840 he resigned the editorship to devote himself to history,
+but he still remained its most important contributor.</p>
+
+<p>Up to the age of twenty-five Herculano had been a poet, but
+he then abandoned poetry to Garrett, and after several essays
+in that direction he definitely introduced the historical novel
+into Portugal in 1844 by a book written in imitation of Walter
+Scott. <i>Eurico</i> treats of the fall of the Visigothic monarchy
+and the beginnings of resistance in the Asturias which gave
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page345" id="page345"></a>345</span>
+birth to the Christian kingdoms of the Peninsula, while the
+<i>Monge de Cister</i>, published in 1848, describes the time of King
+John I., when the middle class and the municipalities first
+asserted their power and elected a king in opposition to the
+nobility. From an artistic standpoint, these stories are rather
+laboured productions, besides being ultra-romantic in tone;
+but it must be remembered that they were written mainly with
+an educational object, and, moreover, they deserve high praise
+for their style. Herculano had greater book learning than
+Scott, but lacked descriptive talent and skill in dialogue. His
+touch is heavy, and these novels show no dramatic power, which
+accounts for his failure as a playwright, but their influence was
+as great as their followers were many, and they still find readers.
+These and editions of two old chronicles, the <i>Chronica de D.
+Sebastião</i> (1839) and the <i>Annaes del rei D. João III</i> (1844),
+prepared Herculano for his life&rsquo;s work, and the year 1846 saw
+the first volume of his <i>History of Portugal from the Beginning
+of the Monarchy to the end of the Reign of Affonso III.</i>, a book
+written on critical lines and based on documents. The difficulties
+he encountered in producing it were very great, for the foundations
+had been ill-prepared by his predecessors, and he was
+obliged to be artisan and architect at the same time. He had to
+collect MSS. from all parts of Portugal, decipher, classify and
+weigh them before he could begin work, and then he found it
+necessary to break with precedents and destroy traditions.
+Serious students in Portugal and abroad welcomed the book
+as an historical work of the first rank, for its evidence of careful
+research, its able marshalling of facts, its learning and its painful
+accuracy, while the sculptural simplicity of the style and the
+correctness of the diction have made it a Portuguese classic.
+The first volume, however, gave rise to a celebrated controversy,
+because Herculano had reduced the famous battle of Ourique,
+which was supposed to have seen the birth of the Portuguese
+monarchy, to the dimensions of a mere skirmish, and denied the
+apparition of Christ to King Affonso, a fable first circulated in
+the 15th century. Herculano was denounced from the pulpit
+and the press for his lack of patriotism and piety, and after
+bearing the attack for some time his pride drove him to reply.
+In a letter to the cardinal patriarch of Lisbon entitled <i>Eu e o
+Clero</i> (1850), he denounced the fanaticism and ignorance of the
+clergy in plain terms, and this provoked a fierce pamphlet war
+marked by much personal abuse. The professor of Arabic in
+Lisbon intervened to sustain the accepted view of the battle,
+and charged Herculano and his supporter Gayangos with
+ignorance of the Arab historians and of their language. The
+conduct of the controversy, which lasted some years, did credit
+to none of the contending parties, but Herculano&rsquo;s statement
+of the facts is now universally accepted as correct. The second
+volume of his history appeared in 1847, the third in 1849 and the
+fourth in 1853. In his youth, the excesses of absolutism had
+made Herculano a Liberal, and the attacks on his history turned
+this man, full of sentiment and deep religious conviction, into an
+anti-clerical who began to distinguish between political Catholicism
+and Christianity. His <i>History of the Origin and Establishment
+of the Inquisition</i> (1854-1855), relating the thirty years&rsquo;
+struggle between King John III. and the Jews&mdash;he to establish
+the tribunal and they to prevent him&mdash;was compiled, as the
+preface showed, to stem the Ultramontane reaction, but none
+the less carried weight because it was a recital of events with
+little or no comment or evidence of passion in its author. Next
+to these two books his study, <i>Do Estado das classes servas na
+Peninsula desde o VII. até o XII. seculo</i>, is Herculano&rsquo;s most
+valuable contribution to history. In 1856 he began editing a
+series of <i>Portugalliae monumenta historica</i>, but personal differences
+between him and the keeper of the Archive office, which
+he was forced to frequent, caused him to interrupt his historical
+studies, and on the death of his friend King Pedro V. he left the
+Ajuda and retired to a country house near Santarem.</p>
+
+<p>Disillusioned with men and despairing of the future of his
+country, he spent the rest of his life devoted to agricultural
+pursuits, and rarely emerged from his retirement; when he
+did so, it was to fight political and religious reaction. Once he
+had defended the monastic orders, advocating their reform and
+not their suppression, supported the rural clergy and idealized
+the village priest in his <i>Parocho da Aldeia</i>, after the manner of
+Goldsmith in the <i>Vicar of Wakefield</i>. Unfortunately, however,
+the brilliant epoch of the alliance of Liberalism and Catholicism,
+represented on its literary side by Chateaubriand and by Lamartine,
+to whose poetic school Herculano had belonged, was past,
+and fanatical attacks and the progress of events drove this
+former champion of the Church into conflict with the ecclesiastical
+authorities. His protest against the Concordat of the 21st of
+February 1857 between Portugal and the Holy See, regulating
+the Portuguese Padroado in the East, his successful opposition
+to the entry of foreign religious orders, and his advocacy of civil
+marriage, were the chief landmarks in his battle with Ultra-montanism,
+and his <i>Estudos sobre o Casamento Civil</i> were put on
+the Index. Finally in 1871 he attacked the dogmas of the
+Immaculate Conception and papal infallibility, and fell into
+line with the Old Catholics. In the domain of letters he remained
+until his death a veritable pontiff, and an article or book of his
+was an event celebrated from one end of Portugal to the other.
+The nation continued to look up to him for mental leadership,
+but, in his later years, lacking hope himself, he could not stimulate
+others or use to advantage the powers conferred upon him. In
+politics he remained a constitutional Liberal of the old type,
+and for him the people were the middle classes in opposition to
+the lower, which he saw to have been the supporters of tyranny
+in all ages, while he considered Radicalism to mean a return via
+anarchy to absolutism. However, though he conducted a political
+propaganda in the newspaper press in his early days, Herculano
+never exercised much influence in politics. Grave as most of
+his writings are, they include a short description of a crossing
+from Jersey to Granville, in which he satirizes English character
+and customs, and reveals an unexpected sense of humour.
+A rare capacity for tedious work, a dour Catonian rectitude, a
+passion for truth, pride, irritability at criticism and independence
+of character, are the marks of Herculano as a man. He could
+be broken but never bent, and his rude frankness accorded
+with his hard, sombre face, and alienated men&rsquo;s sympathies
+though it did not lose him their respect. His lyrism is vigorous,
+feeling, austere and almost entirely subjective and personal,
+while his pamphlets are distinguished by energy of conviction,
+strength of affirmation, and contempt for weaker and more
+ignorant opponents. His <i>History of Portugal</i> is a great but
+incomplete monument. A lack of imagination and of the
+philosophic spirit prevented him from penetrating or drawing
+characters, but his analytical gift, joined to persevering toil
+and honesty of purpose enabled him to present a faithful account
+of ascertained facts and a satisfactory and lucid explanation
+of political and economic events. His remains lie in a majestic
+tomb in the Jeronymos at Belem, near Lisbon, which was raised
+by public subscription to the greatest modern historian of
+Portugal and of the Peninsula. His more important works have
+gone through many editions and his name is still one to conjure
+with.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;Antonio de Serpa Pimentel, <i>Alexandre Herculano
+e o seu tempo</i> (Lisbon, 1881); A. Romero Ortiz, <i>La Litteratura
+Portuguesa en el siglo XIX.</i> (Madrid, 1869); Moniz Barreto, <i>Revista
+de Portugal</i> (July 1889).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. Pr.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERCULES<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> (O. Lat. <i>Hercoles</i>, <i>Hercles</i>), the latinized form
+of the mythical Heracles, the chief national hero of Hellas.
+The name <span class="grk" title="Heraklês">&#7977;&#961;&#945;&#954;&#955;&#8134;&#962;</span> (<span class="grk" title="Hera">&#7981;&#961;&#945;</span>, and <span class="grk" title="kleos">&#954;&#955;&#941;&#959;&#962;</span> = glory) is explained as &ldquo;renowned
+through Hera&rdquo; (<i>i.e.</i> in consequence of her persecution)
+or &ldquo;the glory of Hera&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> of Argos. The thoroughly national
+character of Heracles is shown by his being the mythical ancestor
+of the Dorian dynastic tribe, while revered by Ionian Athens,
+Lelegian Opus and Aeolo-Phoenician Thebes, and closely
+associated with the Achaean heroes Peleus and Telamon. The
+Perseid Alcmena, wife of Amphitryon of Tiryns, was Hercules&rsquo;
+mother, Zeus his father. After his father he is often called
+Amphitryoniades, and also Alcides, after the Perseid Alcaeus,
+father of Amphitryon. His mother and her husband lived at
+Thebes in exile as guests of King Creon. By the craft of Hera,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page346" id="page346"></a>346</span>
+his foe through life, his birth was delayed, and that of Eurystheus,
+son of Sthenelus of Argos, hastened, Zeus having in effect sworn
+that the elder of the two should rule the realm of Perseus. Hera
+sent two serpents to <span class="correction" title="amended from destory">destroy</span> the new-born Hercules, but he
+strangled them. He was trained in all manly accomplishments
+by heroes of the highest renown in each, until in a transport
+of anger at a reprimand he slew Linus, his instructor in music,
+with the lyre. Thereupon he was sent to tend Amphitryon&rsquo;s
+oxen, and at this period slew the lion of Mount Cithaeron. By
+freeing Thebes from paying tribute to the Minyans of Orchomenus
+he won Creon&rsquo;s daughter, Megara, to wife. Her children by him
+he killed in a frenzy induced by Hera. After purification he
+was sent by the Pythia to serve Eurystheus. Thus began the
+cycle of the twelve labours.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>1. Wrestling with the Nemean lion.</p>
+
+<p>2. Destruction of the Lernean hydra.</p>
+
+<p>3. Capture of the Arcadian hind (a <i>stag</i> in art).</p>
+
+<p>4. Capture of the boar of Erymanthus, while chasing which he
+fought the Centaurs and killed his friends Chiron and Pholus, this
+homicide leading to Demeter&rsquo;s institution of <i>mysteries</i>.</p>
+
+<p>5. Cleansing of the stables of Augeas.</p>
+
+<p>6. Shooting the Stymphalian birds.</p>
+
+<p>7. Capture of the Cretan bull subsequently slain by Theseus at
+Marathon.</p>
+
+<p>8. Capture of the man-eating mares of the Thracian Diomedes.</p>
+
+<p>9. Seizure of the girdle of Hippolyte, queen of the Amazons.</p>
+
+<p>10. Bringing the oxen of Geryones from Erythia in the far west,
+which errand involved many adventures in the coast lands of the
+Mediterranean, and the setting up of the &ldquo;Pillars of Hercules&rdquo; at
+the Straits of Gibraltar.</p>
+
+<p>11. Bringing the golden apples from the garden of the Hesperides.</p>
+
+<p>12. Carrying Cerberus from Hades to the upper world.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Most of the labours lead to various adventures called <span class="grk" title="parerga">&#960;&#940;&#961;&#949;&#961;&#947;&#945;</span>.
+On Hercules&rsquo; return to Thebes he gave his wife Megara to his
+friend and charioteer Iolaus, son of Iphicles, and by beating
+Eurytus of Oechalia and his sons in a shooting match won a
+claim to the hand of his daughter Iole, whose family, however,
+except her brother Iphitus, withheld their consent to the union.
+Iphitus persuaded Hercules to search for Eurytus&rsquo; lost oxen,
+but was killed by him at Tiryns in a frenzy. He consulted the
+Pythia about a cure for the consequent madness, but she declined
+to answer him. Whereupon he seized the oracular tripod,
+and so entered upon a contest with Apollo, which Zeus stopped
+by sending a flash of lightning between the combatants. The
+Pythia then sent him to serve the Lydian queen Omphale. He
+then, with Telamon, Peleus and Theseus, took Troy. He next
+helped the gods in the great battle against the giants. He
+destroyed sundry sea-monsters, set free the bound Prometheus,
+took part in the Argonautic voyage and the Calydonian boar
+hunt, made war against Augeas, and against Nestor and the
+Pylians, and restored Tyndareus to the sovereignty of Lacedaemon.
+He sustained many single combats, one very famous
+struggle being the wrestling with the Libyan Antaeus, son of
+Poseidon and Ge (Earth), who had to be held in the air, as he
+grew stronger every time he touched his mother, Earth.
+Hercules withstood Ares, Poseidon and Hera, as well as Apollo.
+The close of his career is assigned to Aetolia and Trachis. He
+wrestles with Achelous for Deianeira (&ldquo;destructive to husband&rdquo;),
+daughter of Oeneus, king of Calydon, vanquishes the river
+god, and breaks off one of his horns, which as a horn of plenty
+is found as an attribute of Hercules in art. Driven from Calydon
+for homicide, he goes with Deianeira to Trachis. On the way
+he slays the centaur Nessus, who persuades Deianeira that
+his blood is a love-charm. From Trachis he wages successful
+war against the Dryopes and Lapithae as ally of Aegimius, king
+of the Dorians, who promised him a third of his realm, and after
+his death adopted Hyllus, his son by Deianeira. Finally Hercules
+attacks Eurytus, takes Oechalia and carries off Iola. Thereupon
+Deianeira, prompted by love and jealousy, sends him a tunic
+dipped in the blood of Nessus, and the unsuspecting hero puts
+it on just before sacrificing at the headland of Cenaeum in
+Euboea. (So far the dithyramb of Bacchylides xv. [xvi.],
+agrees with Sophocles&rsquo; <i>Trachiniae</i> as to the hero&rsquo;s end.) Mad
+with pain, he seizes Lichas, the messenger who had brought
+the fatal garment, and hurls him on the rocks; and then he
+wanders in agony to Mount Oeta, where he mounts a pyre, which,
+however, no one will kindle. At last Poeas, father of Philoctetes,
+takes pity on him, and is rewarded with the gift of his bow and
+arrows. The immortal part of Hercules passes to Olympus,
+where he is reconciled to Hera and weds her daughter Hebe.
+This account of the hero&rsquo;s principal labours, exploits and crimes
+is derived from the mythologists Apollodorus and Diodorus,
+who probably followed the <i>Heracleia</i> by Peisander of Rhodes
+as to the twelve labours or that of Panyasis of Halicarnassus,
+but sundry variations of order and incident are found in classical
+literature.</p>
+
+<p>In one aspect Hercules is clearly a sun-god, being identified,
+especially in Cyprus and in Thasos (as Makar), with the Tyrian
+Melkarth. The third and twelfth labours may be solar, the horned
+hind representing the moon, and the carrying of Cerberus to the
+upper world an eclipse, while the last episode of the hero&rsquo;s tragedy
+is possibly a complete solar myth developed at Trachis. The
+winter sun is seen rising over the Cenaean promontory to toil
+across to Mount Oeta and disappear over it in a bank of fiery
+cloud. But more important and less speculative is the hero&rsquo;s aspect
+as a national type or an amalgamation of tribal types of physical
+force, of dauntless effort and endurance, of militant civilization,
+and of Hellenic enterprise, &ldquo;stronger than everything except
+his own passions,&rdquo; and &ldquo;at once above and below the noblest
+type of man&rdquo; (Jebb). The fifth labour seems to symbolize
+some great improvement in the drainage of Elis. Strenuous
+devotion to the deliverance of mankind from dangers and
+pests is the &ldquo;virtue&rdquo; which, in Prodicus&rsquo; famous apologue on
+the <i>Choice of Hercules</i>, the hero preferred to an easy and happy
+life. Ethically, Hercules symbolizes the attainment of glory
+and immortality by toil and suffering.</p>
+
+<p>The Old-Dorian Hercules is represented in three cycles of
+myth, the Argive, the Boeotian and the Thessalian; the legends
+of Arcadia, Aetolia, Lydia, &amp;c., and Italy are either local or
+symbolical and comparatively late. The fatality by which
+Hercules kills so many friends as well as foes recalls the destroying
+Apollo; while his career frequently illustrates the Delphic views
+on blood-guiltiness and expiation. As Apollo&rsquo;s champion
+Hercules is Daphnephoros, and fights Cycnus and Amyntor
+to keep open the sacred way from Tempe to Delphi. As the
+Dorian tutelar he aids Tyndareus and Aegimius. As patron
+of maritime adventure (<span class="grk" title="hêgemonios">&#7969;&#947;&#949;&#956;&#972;&#957;&#953;&#959;&#962;</span>) he struggles with Nereus
+and Triton, slays Eryx and Busiris, and perhaps captures the
+wild horses and oxen, which may stand for pirates. As a god of
+athletes he is often a wrestler (<span class="grk" title="palaimôn">&#960;&#945;&#955;&#945;&#943;&#956;&#969;&#957;</span>), and founds the Olympian
+games. In comedy and occasionally in myths he is depicted
+as voracious (<span class="grk" title="bouphagos">&#946;&#959;&#965;&#966;&#940;&#947;&#959;&#962;</span>). He is also represented as the companion
+of Dionysus, especially in Asia Minor. The &ldquo;Resting&rdquo;
+(<span class="grk" title="anapauomenos">&#7936;&#957;&#945;&#960;&#945;&#965;&#972;&#956;&#949;&#957;&#959;&#962;</span>) Hercules is, as at Thermopylae and near Himera,
+the natural tutelar of hot springs in conjunction with his
+protectress Athena, who is usually depicted attending him on
+ancient vases. The glorified Hercules was worshipped both
+as a god and a hero. In the Attic deme Melita he was invoked
+as <span class="grk" title="alexikakos">&#7936;&#955;&#949;&#958;&#943;&#954;&#945;&#954;&#959;&#962;</span> (&ldquo;Helper in ills&rdquo;), at Olympia as <span class="grk" title="kallinikos">&#954;&#945;&#955;&#955;&#943;&#957;&#953;&#954;&#959;&#962;</span>
+(&ldquo;Nobly-victorious&rdquo;), in the rustic worship of the Oetaeans
+as <span class="grk" title="kornopiôn">&#954;&#959;&#961;&#957;&#959;&#960;&#943;&#969;&#957;</span> (<span class="grk" title="kornopes">&#954;&#972;&#961;&#957;&#959;&#960;&#949;&#962;</span>, &ldquo;locusts&rdquo;), by the Erythraeans of
+Ionia as <span class="grk" title="ipoktonos">&#7984;&#960;&#959;&#954;&#964;&#972;&#957;&#959;&#962;</span> (&ldquo;Canker-worm-slayer&rdquo;). He was <span class="grk" title="sôtêr">&#963;&#969;&#964;&#942;&#961;</span>
+(&ldquo;Saviour&rdquo;), <i>i.e.</i> a protector of voyagers, at Thasos and
+Smyrna. Games in his honour were held at Thebes and Marathon
+and annual festivals in every deme of Attica, in Sicyon and
+Agyrium (Sicily). His guardian goddess was Athena (Homer,
+<i>Il.</i> viii. 638; Bacchylides v. 91 f.). In early poetry, as often
+in art, he is an archer, afterwards a club-wielder and fully-armed
+warrior. In early art the adult Hercules is bearded,
+but not long-haired. Later he is sometimes youthful and beardless,
+always with short curly hair and thick neck, the lower
+part of the brow prominent. A lion&rsquo;s skin is generally worn
+or carried. Lysippus worked out the finest type of sculptured
+Hercules, of which the Farnese by Glycon is a grand specimen.
+The infantine struggle with serpents was a favourite subject.</p>
+
+<p>Quite distinct was the Idaean Hercules, a Cretan Dactyl connected
+with the cult of Rhea or Cybele. The Greeks recognized
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page347" id="page347"></a>347</span>
+Hercules in an Egyptian deity <i>Chons</i> and an Indian <i>Dorsanes</i>,
+not to mention personages of other mythologies.</p>
+
+<p>Hercules is supposed to have visited Italy on his return from
+Erythia, when he slew Cacus, son of Vulcan, the giant of the
+Aventine mount of Rome, who had stolen his oxen. To this
+victory was assigned the founding of the <i>Ara maxima</i> by Evander.
+His worship, introduced from the Greek colonies in Etruria
+and in the south of Italy, seems to have been established in Rome
+from the earliest times, as two old Patrician <i>gentes</i> were associated
+with his cult and the Fabii claimed him as their ancestor. The
+tithes vowed to him by Romans and men of Sora and Reate,
+for safety on journeys and voyages, furnished sacrifices and (in
+Rome) public entertainment (<i>polluctum</i>). Tibur was a special
+seat of his cult. In Rome he was patron of gladiators, as of
+athletes in Greece. With respect to the Roman relations of
+the hero, it is manifest that the native myths of Recaranus,
+or Sancus, or Dius Fidius, were transferred to the Hellenic
+Hercules.</p>
+<div class="author">(C. A. M. F.)</div>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See L. Preller, <i>Griechische Mythologie</i> (4th ed., Berlin, 1900);
+W. H. Roscher, <i>Ausführliches Lexikon der griechischen und römischen
+Mythologie</i> (1884); Sir R. C. Jebb, <i>Trachiniae</i> of Sophocles (Introd.),
+(1892); Ch. Daremberg and E. Saglio, <i>Dictionnaire des antiquités
+grecques et romaines</i>; Bréal, <i>Hercule et Cacus</i>, 1863; J. G. Winter,
+<i>Myth of Hercules at Rome</i> (New York, 1910).</p>
+
+<p>In the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek Art</a></span>, fig. 16 represents Heracles wrestling
+with the river-god Achelous; fig. 20 (from a small pediment, possibly
+of a shrine of the hero) the slaying of the Hydra; fig. 35 Heracles
+holding up the sky on a cushion.</p>
+
+<p>Hercules was a favourite figure in French medieval literature.
+In the romance of Alexander the tent of the hero is decorated with
+incidents from his adventures. In the prose romance <i>Les Prouesses
+et vaillances du preux Hercule</i> (Paris, 1500), the hero&rsquo;s labours are
+represented as having been performed in honour of a Boeotian
+princess; Pluto is a king dwelling in a dismal castle; the Fates are
+duennas watching Proserpine; the entrance to Pluto&rsquo;s castle is
+watched by the giant Cerberus. Hercules conquers Spain and takes
+Merida from Geryon. The book is translated into English as <i>Hercules
+of Greece</i> (n. d.). Fragments of a French poem on the subject will
+be found in the <i>Bulletin de la soc. des anciens textes français</i> (1877).
+Don Enrique de Villena took from <i>Les Prouesses</i> his prose <i>Los Doze
+Trabajos de Hercules</i> (Zamora, 1483 and 1499), and Fernandez de
+Heredia wrote <i>Trabajos y afanes de Hercules</i> (Madrid, 1682), which
+belies its title, being a collection of adages and allegories. <i>Le Fatiche
+d&rsquo;Ercole</i> (1475) is a romance in poetic prose by Pietro Bassi, and the
+<i>Dodeci Travagli di Ercole</i> (1544) a poem by J. Perillos.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERCULES,<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> in astronomy, a constellation of the northern
+hemisphere, mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) and
+Aratus (3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) and catalogued by Ptolemy (29 stars)
+and Tycho Brahe (28 stars). Represented by a man kneeling,
+this constellation was first known as &ldquo;the man on his knees,&rdquo;
+and was afterwards called Cetheus, Theseus and Hercules
+by the ancient Greeks. Interesting objects in this constellation
+are: &alpha; <i>Herculis</i>, a fine coloured double star, composed of an
+orange star of magnitude 2½, and a blue star of magnitude 6;
+&zeta; <i>Herculis</i>, a binary star, discovered by Sir William Herschel
+in 1782; one component is a yellow star of the third magnitude,
+the other a bluish, which appears to vary from red to blue, of
+magnitude 6; <i>g</i> and <i>u</i> <i>Herculis</i>, irregularly variable stars;
+and the cluster <i>M. 13 Herculis</i>, the finest globular cluster in the
+northern hemisphere, containing at least 5000 stars and of the
+1000 determined only 2 are variable.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERD<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> (a word common to Teutonic languages; the O. Eng.
+form was <i>heord</i>; cf. Ger. <i>Herde</i>, Swed. and Dan. <i>hjord</i>; the
+Sans. <i>ca&lsquo;rdhas</i>, which shows the pre-Teutonic form, means
+a troop), a number of animals of one kind driven or fed together,
+usually applied to cattle as &ldquo;flock&rdquo; is to sheep, but used also
+of whales, porpoises, &amp;c., and of birds, as swans, cranes and
+curlews. A &ldquo;herd-book&rdquo; is a book containing the pedigree
+and other information of any breed of cattle or pigs, like the
+&ldquo;flock-book&rdquo; for sheep or &ldquo;stud-book&rdquo; for horses. Formerly
+the word &ldquo;herdwick&rdquo; was applied to the pasture ground under
+the care of a shepherd, and it is now used of a special hardy
+breed of sheep in Cumberland and Westmorland. The word
+&ldquo;herd&rdquo; is also applied in a disparaging sense to a company of
+people, a mob or rabble, as &ldquo;the vulgar herd.&rdquo; As the name
+for a keeper of a herd or flock of domestic animals, the herdsman,
+it is usually qualified to denote the kind of animal under his
+protection, as swine-herd, shepherd, &amp;c., but in Ireland, Scotland
+and the north of England, &ldquo;herd&rdquo; alone is commonly used.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERDER, JOHANN GOTTFRIED VON<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> (1744-1803), one of
+the most prolific and influential writers that Germany has produced,
+was born in Mohrungen, a small town in East Prussia,
+on the 25th of August 1744. Like his contemporary Lessing,
+Herder had throughout his life to struggle against adverse
+circumstances. His father was poor, having to put together a
+subsistence by uniting the humble offices of sexton, choir-singer
+and petty schoolmaster. After receiving some rudimentary
+instruction from his father, the boy was sent to the grammar
+school of his native town. The mode of discipline practised
+by the pedantic and irritable old man who stood at the head of
+this institution was not at all to the young student&rsquo;s liking,
+and the impression made upon him stimulated him later on to
+work out his projects of school reform. The hardships of his
+early years drove him to introspection and to solitary communion
+with nature, and thus favoured a more than proportionate
+development of the sentimental and poetic side of his mind.
+When quite young he expressed a wish to become a minister
+of the gospel, but his aspirations were discouraged by the
+local clergyman. In 1762, at the age of eighteen, he went up
+to Königsberg with the intention of studying medicine, but
+finding himself unequal to the operations of the dissecting-room,
+he abandoned this object, and, by the help of one or two friends
+and his own self-supporting labours, followed out his earlier
+idea of the clerical profession by joining the university. There
+he came under the influence of Kant, who was just then passing
+from physical to metaphysical problems. Without becoming
+a disciple of Kant, young Herder was deeply stimulated to fresh
+critical inquiry by that thinker&rsquo;s revolutionary ideas in philosophy.
+To Kant&rsquo;s lectures and conversations he further owed
+something of his large interest in cosmological and anthropological
+problems. Among the writers whom he most carefully read
+were Plato, Hume, Shaftesbury, Leibnitz, Diderot and Rousseau.
+Another personal influence under which he fell at Königsberg,
+and which was destined to be far more permanent, was that of
+J. G. Hamann, &ldquo;the northern Mage.&rdquo; This writer had already
+won a name, and in young Herder he found a mind well fitted
+to be the receptacle and vehicle of his new ideas on literature.
+From this vague, incoherent, yet gifted writer our author acquired
+some of his strong feeling for the naïve element in poetry, and for
+the earliest developments of national literature. Even before
+he went to Königsberg he had begun to compose verses, and at
+the age of twenty he took up the pen as a chief occupation.
+His first published writings were occasional poems and reviews
+contributed to the <i>Königsbergische Zeitung</i>. Soon after this he
+got an appointment at Riga, as assistant master at the cathedral
+school, and a few years later, became assistant pastor. In
+this busy commercial town, in somewhat improved pecuniary
+and social circumstances, he developed the main ideas
+of his writings. In the year 1767 he published his first
+considerable work <i>Fragmente über die neuere deutsche Literatur</i>,
+which at once made him widely known and secured for him the
+favourable interest of Lessing. From this time he continued
+to pour forth a number of critical writings on literature, art, &amp;c.
+His bold ideas on these subjects, which were a great advance
+even on Lessing&rsquo;s doctrines, naturally excited hostile criticism,
+and in consequence of this opposition, which took the form of
+aspersions on his religious orthodoxy, he resolved to leave
+Riga. He was much carried away at this time by the idea of
+a radical reform of social life in Livonia, which (after the example
+of Rousseau) he thought to effect by means of a better method
+of school-training. With this plan in view he began (1769) a
+tour through France, England, Holland, &amp;c., for the purpose of
+collecting information respecting their systems of education.
+It was during the solitude of his voyage to France, when on deck
+at night, that he first shaped his idea of the genesis of primitive
+poetry, and of the gradual evolution of humanity. Having
+received an offer of an appointment as travelling tutor and chaplain
+to the young prince of Eutin-Holstein, he abandoned his
+somewhat visionary scheme of a social reconstruction of a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page348" id="page348"></a>348</span>
+Russian province. He has, however, left a curious sketch of
+his projected school reforms. His new duties led him to Strassburg,
+where he met the young Goethe, on whose poetical development
+he exercised so potent an influence. At Darmstadt he
+made the acquaintance of Caroline Flachsland, to whom he soon
+became betrothed, and who for the rest of his life supplied him
+with that abundance of consolatory sympathy which his sensitive
+and rather querulous nature appeared to require. The engagement
+as tutor did not prove an agreeable one, and he soon threw
+it up (1771) in favour of an appointment as court preacher
+and member of the consistory at Bückeburg. Here he had to
+encounter bitter opposition from the orthodox clergy and their
+followers, among whom he was regarded as a freethinker. His
+health continued poor, and a fistula in the eye, from which he
+had suffered from early childhood, and to cure which he had
+undergone a number of painful operations, continued to trouble
+him. Further, pecuniary difficulties, from which he never
+long managed to keep himself free, by delaying his marriage,
+added to his depression. Notwithstanding these trying circumstances
+he resumed literary work, which his travels had interrupted.
+For some time he had been greatly interested by the
+poetry of the north, more particularly Percy&rsquo;s <i>Reliques</i>, the
+poems of &ldquo;Ossian&rdquo; (in the genuineness of which he like many
+others believed) and the works of Shakespeare. Under the
+influence of this reading he now finally broke with classicism
+and became one of the leaders of the new <i>Sturm und Drang</i>
+movement. He co-operated with a band of young writers at
+Darmstadt and Frankfort, including Goethe, who in a journal
+of their own sought to diffuse the new ideas. His marriage took
+place in 1773. In 1776 he obtained through Goethe&rsquo;s influence
+the post of general superintendent and court preacher at Weimar,
+where he passed the rest of his life. There he enjoyed the society
+of Goethe, Wieland, Jean Paul (who came to Weimar in order
+to be near Herder), and others, the patronage of the court, with
+whom as a preacher he was very popular, and an opportunity
+of carrying out some of his ideas of school reform. Yet the social
+atmosphere of the place did not suit him. His personal relations
+with Goethe again and again became embittered. This, added
+to ill-health, served to intensify a natural irritability of temperament,
+and the history of his later Weimar days is a rather
+dreary page in the chronicles of literary life. He had valued
+more than anything else a teacher&rsquo;s influence over other minds,
+and as he began to feel that he was losing it he grew jealous of
+the success of those who had outgrown this influence. Yet
+while presenting these unlovely traits, Herder&rsquo;s character was
+on the whole a worthy and attractive one. This seems to be
+sufficiently attested by the fact that he was greatly liked and
+esteemed, not only in the pulpit but in private intercourse,
+by cultivated women like the countess of Bückeburg, the duchess
+of Weimar and Frau von Stein, and, what perhaps is more,
+was exceedingly popular among the gymnasium pupils, in whose
+education he took so lively an interest. While much that Herder
+produced after settling in Weimar has little value, he wrote
+also some of his best works, among others his collection of popular
+poetry on which he had been engaged for many years, <i>Stimmen
+der Völker in Liedern</i> (1778-1779); his translation of the Spanish
+romances of the <i>Cid</i> (1805); his celebrated work on Hebrew
+poetry, <i>Vom Geist der hebräischen Poesie</i> (1782-1783); and his
+<i>opus magnum</i>, the <i>Ideen zur Philosophie der Geschichte der
+Menschheit</i> (1784-1791). Towards the close of his life he occupied
+himself, like Lessing, with speculative questions in philosophy
+and theology. The boldness of some of his ideas cost him some
+valuable friendships, as that of Jacobi, Lavater and even of
+his early teacher Hamann. He died on the 18th of December
+1803, full of new literary plans up to the very last.</p>
+
+<p>Herder&rsquo;s writings were for a long time regarded as of temporary
+value only, and fell into neglect. Recent criticism, however,
+has tended very much to raise their value by tracing out their
+wide and far-reaching influence. His works are very voluminous,
+and to a large extent fragmentary and devoid of artistic finish;
+nevertheless they are nearly always worth investigating for the
+brilliant suggestions in which they abound. His place in German
+literature has already been indicated in tracing his mental
+development. Like Lessing, whose work he immediately
+continued, he was a pioneer of the golden age of this literature.
+Lessing had given the first impetus to the formation of a national
+literature by exposing the folly of the current imitation of
+French writers. But in doing this he did not so much call his
+fellow-countrymen to develop freely their own national sentiments
+and ideas as send them back to classical example and
+principle. Lessing was the exponent of German classicism;
+Herder, on the contrary, was a pioneer of the romantic movement.
+He fought against all imitation as such, and bade German
+writers be true to themselves and their national antecedents.
+As a sort of theoretic basis for this adhesion to national type
+in literature, he conceived the idea that literature and art,
+together with language and national culture as a whole, are
+evolved by a natural process, and that the intellectual and
+emotional life of each people is correlated with peculiarities of
+physical temperament and of material environment. In this
+way he became the originator of that genetic or historical
+method which has since been applied to all human ideas and
+institutions. Herder was thus an evolutionist, but an evolutionist
+still under the influence of Rousseau. That is to say, in tracing
+back the later acquisitions of civilization to impulses which are
+as old as the dawn of primitive culture, he did not, as the modern
+evolutionist does, lay stress on the superiority of the later to
+the earlier stages of human development, but rather became
+enamoured of the simplicity and spontaneity of those early
+impulses which, since they are the oldest, easily come to look
+like the most real and precious. Yet even in this way he helped
+to found the historical school in literature and science, for it was
+only after an excessive and sentimental interest in primitive
+human culture had been awakened that this subject would
+receive the amount of attention which was requisite for the
+genetic explanation of later developments. This historical idea
+was carried by Herder into the regions of poetry, art, religion,
+language, and finally into human culture as a whole. It colours
+all his writings, and is intimately connected with some of the
+most characteristic attributes of his mind, a quick sympathetic
+imagination, a fine feeling for local differences, and a scientific
+instinct for seizing the sequences of cause and effect.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Herder&rsquo;s works may be arranged in an ascending series, corresponding
+to the way in which the genetic or historical idea was
+developed and extended. First come the works on poetic literature,
+art, language and religion as special regions of development.
+Secondly, we have in the <i>Ideen</i> a general account of the process of
+human evolution. Thirdly, there are a number of writings which,
+though inferior in interest to the others, may be said to supply the
+philosophic basis of his leading ideas.</p>
+
+<p>1. In the region of poetry Herder sought to persuade his countrymen,
+both by example and precept, to return to a natural and
+spontaneous form of utterance. His own poetry has but little value;
+Herder was a skilful verse-maker but hardly a creative poet. He
+was most successful in his translation of popular song, in which he
+shows a rare sympathetic insight into the various feelings and ideas
+of peoples as unlike as Greenlanders and Spaniards, Indians and
+Scots. In the <i>Fragmente</i> he aims at nationalizing German poetry
+and freeing it from all extraneous influence. He ridicules the ambition
+of German writers to be classic, as Lessing had ridiculed their
+eagerness to be French. He looked at poetry as a kind of &ldquo;proteus
+among the people, which changes its form according to language,
+manners, habits, according to temperament and climate, nay, even
+according to the accent of different nations.&rdquo; This fact of the
+idiosyncrasy of national poetry he illustrated with great fulness and
+richness in the case of Homer, the nature of whose works he was one
+of the first to elucidate, the Hebrew poets, and the poetry of the
+north as typified in &ldquo;Ossian.&rdquo; This same idea of necessary relation
+to national character and circumstance is also applied to dramatic
+poetry, and more especially to Shakespeare. Lessing had done much
+to make Shakespeare known to Germany, but he had regarded him
+in contrast to the French dramatists with whom he also contrasted
+the Greek dramatic poets, and accordingly did not bring out his
+essentially modern and Teutonic character. Herder does this, and
+in doing so shows a far deeper understanding of Shakespeare&rsquo;s
+genius than his predecessor had shown.</p>
+
+<p>2. The views on art contained in Herder&rsquo;s <i>Kritische Wälder</i> (1769),
+<i>Plastik</i> (1778), &amp;c., are chiefly valuable as a correction of the excesses
+into which reverence for Greek art had betrayed Winckelmann and
+Lessing, by help of his fundamental idea of national idiosyncrasy.
+He argues against the setting up of classic art as an unchanging type,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page349" id="page349"></a>349</span>
+valid for all peoples and all times. He was one of the first to bring to
+light the characteristic excellences of Gothic art. Beyond this, he
+eloquently pleaded the cause of painting as a distinct art, which
+Lessing in his desire to mark off the formative arts from poetry and
+music had confounded with sculpture. He regarded this as the art
+of the eye, while sculpture was rather the art of the organ of touch.
+Painting being less real than sculpture, because lacking the third
+dimension of space, and a kind of dream, admitted of much greater
+freedom of treatment than this last. Herder had a genuine appreciation
+for early German painters, and helped to awaken the modern
+interest in Albrecht Dürer.</p>
+
+<p>3. By his work on language <i>Über den Ursprung der Sprache</i> (1772),
+Herder may be said to have laid the first rude foundations of the
+science of comparative philology and that deeper science of the ultimate
+nature and origin of language. It was specially directed against
+the supposition of a divine communication of language to man.
+Its main argument is that speech is a necessary outcome of that
+special arrangement of mental forces which distinguishes man, and
+more particularly from his habits of reflection. &ldquo;If,&rdquo; Herder says,
+&ldquo;it is incomprehensible to others how a human mind could invent
+language, it is as incomprehensible to me how a human mind could
+be what it is without discovering language for itself.&rdquo; The writer
+does not make that use of the fact of man&rsquo;s superior organic endowments
+which one might expect from his general conception of the
+relation of the physical and the mental in human development.</p>
+
+<p>4. Herder&rsquo;s services in laying the foundations of a comparative
+science of religion and mythology are even of greater value than his
+somewhat crude philological speculations. In opposition to the
+general spirit of the 18th century he saw, by means of his historic
+sense, the naturalness of religion, its relation to man&rsquo;s wants and
+impulses. Thus with respect to early religious beliefs he rejected
+Hume&rsquo;s notion that religion sprang out of the fears of primitive
+men, in favour of the theory that it represents the first attempts of
+our species to explain phenomena. He thus intimately associated
+religion with mythology and primitive poetry. As to later forms of
+religion, he appears to have held that they owe their vitality to their
+embodiment of the deep-seated moral feelings of our common
+humanity. His high appreciation of Christianity, which contrasts
+with the contemptuous estimate of the contemporary rationalists,
+rested on a firm belief in its essential humanity, to which fact, and
+not to conscious deception, he attributes its success. His exposition
+of this religion in his sermons and writings was simply an unfolding
+of its moral side. In his later life, as we shall presently see, he found
+his way to a speculative basis for his religious beliefs.</p>
+
+<p>5. Herder&rsquo;s masterpiece, the <i>Ideen zur Philosophie der Geschichte</i>,
+has the ambitious aim of explaining the whole of human development
+in close connexion with the nature of man&rsquo;s physical environment.
+Man is viewed as a part of nature, and all his widely differing forms
+of development as strictly natural processes. It thus stands in sharp
+contrast to the anthropology of Kant, which opposes human development
+conceived as the gradual manifestation of a growing faculty
+of rational free will to the operations of physical nature. Herder
+defines human history as &ldquo;a pure natural history of human powers,
+actions and propensities, modified by time and place.&rdquo; The <i>Ideen</i>
+shows us that Herder is an evolutionist after the manner of Leibnitz,
+and not after that of more modern evolutionists. The lower forms
+of life prefigure man in unequal degrees of imperfection; they exist
+for his sake, but they are not regarded as representing necessary
+antecedent conditions of human existence. The genetic method is
+applied to varieties of man, not to man as a whole. It is worth
+noting, however, that Herder in his provokingly tentative way of
+thinking comes now and again very near ideas made familiar to us by
+Spencer and Darwin. Thus in a passage in book xv. chap, ii., which
+unmistakably foreshadows Darwin&rsquo;s idea of a struggle for existence,
+we read: &ldquo;Among millions of creatures whatever could preserve
+itself abides, and still after the lapse of thousands of years remains
+in the great harmonious order. Wild animals and tame, carnivorous
+and graminivorous, insects, birds, fishes and man are adapted to each
+other.&rdquo; With this may be compared a passage in the <i>Ursprung der
+Sprache</i>, where there is a curious adumbration of Spencer&rsquo;s idea that
+intelligence, as distinguished from instinct, arises from a growing
+complexity of action, or, to use Herder&rsquo;s words, from the substitution
+of a more for a less contracted sphere. Herder is more successful
+in tracing the early developments of particular peoples than in constructing
+a scientific theory of evolution. Here he may be said to have
+laid the foundations of the science of primitive culture as a whole.
+His account of the first dawnings of culture, and of the ruder Oriental
+civilizations, is marked by genuine insight. On the other hand the
+development of classic culture is traced with a less skilful hand.
+Altogether this work is rich in suggestion to the philosophic historian
+and the anthropologist, though marked by much vagueness of conception
+and hastiness of generalization.</p>
+
+<p>6. Of Herder&rsquo;s properly metaphysical speculations little needs to
+be said. He was too much under the sway of feeling and concrete
+imagination to be capable of great things in abstract thought. It is
+generally admitted that he had no accurate knowledge either of
+Spinoza, whose monism he advocated, or of Kant, whose critical
+philosophy he so fiercely attacked. Herder&rsquo;s Spinozism, which is
+set forth in his little work, <i>Vom Erkennen und Empfinden der
+menschlichen Seele</i> (1778), is much less logically conceived than
+Lessing&rsquo;s. It is the religious aspect of it which attracts him, the
+presentation in God of an object which at once satisfies the feelings
+and the intellect. With respect to his attacks on the critical philosophy
+in the <i>Metakritik</i> (1799), it is easy to understand how his
+concrete mind, ever alive to the unity of things, instinctively rebelled
+against that analytic separation of the mental processes which Kant
+attempted. However crude and hasty this critical investigation, it
+helped to direct philosophic reflection to the unity of mind, and so
+to develop the post-Kantian line of speculation. Herder was much
+attracted by Schelling&rsquo;s early writings, but appears to have disliked
+Hegelianism because of the atheism it seemed to him to involve.
+In the <i>Kalligone</i> (1800), work directed against Kant&rsquo;s <i>Kritik der
+Urteilskraft</i>, Herder argues for the close connexion of the beautiful
+and the good. To his mind the content of art, which he conceived
+as human feeling and human life in its completeness, was much more
+valuable than the form, and so he was naturally led to emphasize
+the moral element in art. Thus his theoretic opposition to the
+Kantian aesthetics is but the reflection of his practical opposition
+to the form-idolatry of the Weimar poets.</p>
+<div class="author">(J. S.)</div>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;An edition of Herder&rsquo;s <i>Sämtliche Werke</i> in 45
+vols. was published after his death by his widow (1805-1820); a
+second in 60 vols. followed in 1827-1830; a third in 40 vols. in 1852-1854.
+There is also an edition by H. Düntzer (24 vols., 1869-1879).
+But these have all been superseded by the monumental critical
+edition by B. Suphan (32 vols., 1877 <i>sqq.</i>). Of the many &ldquo;selected
+works,&rdquo; mention may be made of those by B. Suphan (4 vols.,
+1884-1887); by H. Lambel, H. Meyer and E. Kühnemann in
+Kürschner&rsquo;s <i>Deutsche Nationalliteratur</i> (10 vols., 1885-1894).
+For Herder&rsquo;s correspondence, see <i>Aus Herders Nachlass</i> (3 vols.,
+1856-1857), <i>Herders Reise nach Italien</i> (1859), <i>Von und an Herder:
+Ungedruckte Briefe</i> (3 vols., 1861-1862)&mdash;all three works edited by
+H. Düntzer and F. G. von Herder. Herder&rsquo;s <i>Briefwechsel mit Nicolai</i>
+and his <i>Briefe an Hamann</i> have been edited by O. Hoffmann (1887
+and 1889). For biography and criticism, see <i>Erinnerungen aus
+dem Leben Herders</i>, by his wife, edited by J. G. Müller (2 vols., 1820);
+<i>J. G. von Herders Lebensbild</i> (with his correspondence), by his son,
+E. G. von Herder (6 vols., 1846); C. Joret, <i>Herder et la renaissance
+littéraire en Allemagne au XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (1875); F. von Bärenbach,
+<i>Herder als Vorgänger Darwins</i> (1877); R. Haym, <i>Herder nach seinem
+Leben und seinen Werken</i> (2 vols., 1880-1885); H. Nevinson, <i>A
+Sketch of Herder and his Times</i> (1884); M. Kronenberg, <i>Herders
+Philosophie nach ihrem Entwicklungsgang</i> (1889); E. Kühnemann, <i>Herders
+Leben</i> (1895); R. Bürkner, <i>Herder, sein Leben und Wirken</i> (1904).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEREDIA, JOSÉ MARIA DE<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> (1842-1905), French poet, the
+modern master of the French sonnet, was born at Fortuna
+Cafeyere, near Santiago de Cuba, on the 22nd of November 1842,
+being in blood part Spanish Creole and part French. At the
+age of eight he came from the West Indies to France, returning
+thence to Havana at seventeen, and finally making France his
+home not long afterwards. He received his classical education
+with the priests of Saint Vincent at Senlis, and after a visit to
+Havana he studied at the École des Chartes at Paris. In the
+later &rsquo;sixties, with François Coppée, Sully-Prudhomme, Paul
+Verlaine and others less distinguished, he made one of the band
+of poets who gathered round Leconte de Lisle, and received the
+name of Parnassiens. To this new school, form&mdash;the technical
+side of their art&mdash;was of supreme importance, and, in reaction
+against the influence of Musset, they rigorously repressed in their
+work the expression of personal feeling and emotion. &ldquo;True
+poetry,&rdquo; said M. de Heredia in his discourse on entering the
+Academy&mdash;&ldquo;true poetry dwells in nature and in humanity,
+which are eternal, and not in the heart of the creature of a day,
+however great.&rdquo; M. de Heredia&rsquo;s place in the movement was
+soon assured. He wrote very little, and published even less,
+but his sonnets circulated in MS., and gave him a reputation
+before they appeared in 1893, together with a few longer poems,
+as a volume, under the title of <i>Les Trophées</i>. He was elected
+to the Academy on the 22nd of February 1894, in the place of
+Louis de Mazade-Percin the publicist. Few purely literary
+men can have entered the Academy with credentials so small in
+quantity. A small volume of verse&mdash;a translation, with introduction,
+of Diaz del Castillo&rsquo;s <i>History of the Conquest of New
+Spain</i> (1878-1881)&mdash;a translation of the life of the nun Alferez
+(1894), de Quincey&rsquo;s &ldquo;Spanish Military Nun&rdquo;&mdash;and one or two
+short pieces of occasional verse, and an introduction or so&mdash;this
+is but small literary baggage, to use the French expression.
+But the sonnets are of their kind among the most superb in
+modern literature. &ldquo;A <i>Légende des siècles</i> in sonnets&rdquo; M.
+François Coppée called them. Each presents a picture, striking,
+brilliant, drawn with unfaltering hand&mdash;the picture of some
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page350" id="page350"></a>350</span>
+characteristic scene in man&rsquo;s long history. The verse is flawless,
+polished like a gem; and its sound has distinction and fine
+harmony. If one may suggest a fault, it is that each picture
+is sometimes too much of a picture only, and that the poetical
+line, like that of M. de Heredia&rsquo;s master, Leconte de Lisle
+himself, is occasionally overcrowded. M. de Heredia was none
+the less one of the most skilful craftsmen who ever practised
+the art of verse. In 1901 he became librarian of the Bibliothèque
+de l&rsquo;Arsénal at Paris. He died at the Château de Bourdonné
+(Seine-et-Oise) on the 3rd of October 1905, having completed
+his critical edition of André Chénier&rsquo;s works.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEREDIA Y CAMPUZANO, JOSÉ MARIA<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> (1803-1839),
+Cuban poet, was born at Santiago de Cuba on the 31st of
+December 1803, studied at the university of Havana, and was
+called to the bar in 1823. In the autumn of 1823 he was arrested
+on a charge of conspiracy against the Spanish government, and
+was sentenced to banishment for life. He took refuge in the
+United States, published a volume of verses at New York in
+1825, and then went to Mexico, where, becoming naturalized, he
+obtained a post as magistrate. In 1832 a collection of his poems
+was issued at Toluca, and in 1836 he obtained permission to visit
+Cuba for two months. Disappointed in his political ambitions,
+and broken in health, Heredia returned to Mexico in January
+1837, and died at Toluca on the 21st of May 1839. Many of his
+earlier pieces are merely clever translations from French, English
+and Italian; but his originality is placed beyond doubt by such
+poems as the <i>Himno del desterrado</i>, the epistle to Emilia, <i>Desengaños</i>,
+and the celebrated ode to Niagara. Bello may be thought
+to excel Heredia in execution, and a few lines of Olmedo&rsquo;s <i>Canto
+á Junín</i> vibrate with a virile passion to which the Cuban poet
+rarely attained; but the sincerity of his patriotism and the
+sublimity of his imagination have secured for Heredia a real
+supremacy among Spanish-American poets.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The best edition of his works is that published at Paris in 1893
+with a preface by Elias Zerolo.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEREDITAMENT<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>hereditare</i>, to inherit, <i>heres</i>,
+heir), in law, every kind of property that can be <i>inherited</i>.
+Hereditaments are divided into corporeal and incorporeal;
+corporeal hereditaments are &ldquo;such as affect the senses, and may
+be seen and handled by the body; incorporeal are not the
+subject of sensation, can neither be seen nor handled, are creatures
+of the mind, and exist only in contemplation&rdquo; (Blackstone,
+<i>Commentaries</i>). An example of a corporeal hereditament is land
+held in freehold, of incorporeal <span class="correction" title="amended from herditaments">hereditaments</span>, tithes, advowsons,
+pensions, annuities, rents, franchises, &amp;c. It is still used in the
+phrase &ldquo;lands, tenements and hereditaments&rdquo; to describe
+property in land, as distinguished from goods and chattels or
+movable property.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEREDITY,<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> in biological science, the name given to the
+generalization, drawn from the observed facts, that animals
+and plants closely resemble their progenitors. (That the
+resemblance is not complete involves in the first place the
+subject of variation (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Variation and Selection</a></span>); but it
+must be clearly stated that there is no adequate ground for the
+current loose statements as to the existence of opposing &ldquo;laws&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;forces&rdquo; of heredity and variation.) In the simplest cases
+there seems to be no separate problem of heredity. When a
+creeping plant propagates itself by runners, when a <i>Nais</i> or
+<i>Myrianida</i> breaks up into a series of similar segments, each of
+which becomes a worm like the parent, we have to do with the
+general fact that growing organisms tend to display a symmetrical
+repetition of equivalent parts, and that reproduction by fission
+is simply a special case of metamerism. When we try to answer
+the question why the segments of an organism resemble one
+another, whether they remain in association to form a segmented
+animal, or break into different animals, we come to the conclusion,
+which at least is on the way to an answer, that it is because they
+are formed from pieces of the same protoplasm, growing under
+similar conditions. It is apparently a fundamental property
+of protoplasm to be able to multiply by division into parts,
+the properties of which are similar to each other and to those
+of the parent.</p>
+
+<p>This leads us directly to the cases of reproduction where there
+is an obvious problem of heredity. In the majority of cases
+among animals and plants the new organisms arise from portions
+of living matter, separated from the parents, but different from
+the parents in size and structure. These germs of the new
+organisms may be spores, reproductive cells, fused reproductive
+cells or multicellular masses (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Reproduction</a></span>). For the
+present purpose it is enough to state that they consist of portions
+of the parental protoplasm. These pass through an embryological
+history, in which by growth, multiplication and specialization
+they form structures closely resembling the parents. Now,
+if it could be shown that these reproductive masses arose directly
+from the reproductive masses which formed the parent body,
+the problems of heredity would be extremely simplified. If the
+first division of a reproductive cell set apart one mass to lie
+dormant for a time and ultimately to form the reproductive
+cells of the new generation, while the other mass, exactly of the
+same kind, developed directly into the new organism, then
+heredity would simply be a delayed case of what is called organic
+symmetry, the tendency of similar living material to develop
+in similar ways under the stimulus of similar external conditions.
+The cases in which this happens are very rare. In the Diptera
+the first division of the egg-cell separates the nuclear material
+of the subsequent reproductive cells from the material that is
+elaborated into the new organism to contain these cells. In the
+<i>Daphnidae</i> and in <i>Sagitta</i> a similar separation occurs at slightly
+later stages; in vertebrates it occurs much later; while in some
+hydroids the germ-cells do not arise in the individual which is
+developed from the egg-cell at all, but in a much later generation,
+which is produced from the first by budding. However, it is not
+necessary to dismiss the fertile idea of what Moritz Nussbaum
+and August Weismann, who drew attention to it, called &ldquo;continuity
+of the germ-plasm.&rdquo; Weismann has shown that an
+actual series of organic forms might be drawn up in which the
+formation of germ-cells begins at stages successively more remote
+from the first division of the egg-cell. He has also shown
+evidence, singularly complete in the case of the hydroids, for
+the existence of an actual migration of the place of formation
+of the germ-cells, the migration reaching farther and farther
+from the egg-cell. He has elaborated the conception of the
+germ-track, a chain of cell generations in the development
+of any creature along which the reproductive material saved
+over from the development of one generation for the germ-cells
+of the next generation is handed on in a latent condition to its
+ultimate position. And thus he supposes a real continuity of
+the germ-plasm, extending from generation to generation in
+spite of the apparent discontinuity in the observed cases. The
+conception certainly ranks among the most luminous and most
+fertile contributions of the 19th century to biological thought,
+and it is necessary to examine at greater length the superstructure
+which Weismann has raised upon it.</p>
+
+<p><i>Weismann&rsquo;s Theory of the Germ-plasm.</i>&mdash;A living being takes
+its individual origin only where there is separated from the stock
+of the parent a little piece of the peculiar reproductive plasm,
+the so-called germ-plasm. In sexless reproduction one parent
+is enough; in sexual reproduction equivalent masses of germ-plasm
+from each parent combine to form the new individual.
+The germ-plasm resides in the nucleus of cells, and Weismann
+identifies it with the nuclear material named chromatin. Like
+ordinary protoplasm, of which the bulk of cell bodies is composed,
+germ-plasm is a living material, capable of growing in bulk
+without alteration of structure when it is supplied with appropriate
+food. But it is a living material much more complex
+than protoplasm. In the first place, the mass of germ-plasm
+which is the starting-point of a new individual consists of several,
+sometimes of many, pieces named &ldquo;idants,&rdquo; which are either
+the chromosomes into a definite number of which the nuclear
+material of a dividing cell breaks up, or possibly smaller units
+named chromomeres. These idants are a collection of &ldquo;ids,&rdquo;
+which Weismann tentatively identifies with the microsomata
+contained in the chromosomes, which are visible after treatment
+with certain reagents. Each id contains all the possibilities&mdash;generic,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page351" id="page351"></a>351</span>
+specific, individual&mdash;of a new organism, or rather
+the directing substance which in appropriate surroundings of
+food, &amp;c., forms a new organism. Each id is a veritable microcosm,
+possessed of an historic architecture that has been elaborated
+slowly through the multitudinous series of generations that
+stretch backwards in time from every living individual. This
+microcosm, again, consists of a number of minor vital units
+called &ldquo;determinants,&rdquo; which cohere according to the architecture
+of the whole id. The determinants are hypothetical units
+corresponding to the number of parts of the organism independently
+variable. Lastly, each determinant consists of a
+number of small hypothetical units, the &ldquo;biophores.&rdquo; These
+are adaptations of a conception of H. de Vries, and are supposed
+to become active by leaving the nucleus of the cell in which they
+lie, passing out into the general protoplasm of the cell and ruling
+its activities. Each new individual begins life as a nucleated
+cell, the nucleus of which contains germ-plasm of this complex
+structure derived from the parent. The reproductive cell gives
+rise to the new individual by continued absorption of food, by
+growth, cell-divisions and cell-specializations. The theory
+supposes that the first divisions of the nucleus are &ldquo;doubling,&rdquo;
+or homogeneous divisions. The germ-plasm has grown in
+bulk without altering its character in any respect, and, when it
+divides, each resulting mass is precisely alike. From these
+first divisions a chain of similar doubling divisions stretches
+along the &ldquo;germ-tracks,&rdquo; so marshalling unaltered germ-plasm
+to the generative organs of the new individual, to be ready to
+form the germ-cells of the next generation. In this mode the
+continuity of the germ-plasm from individual to individual is
+maintained. This also is the immortality of the germ-cells,
+or rather of the germ-plasm, the part of the theory which has
+laid so large a hold on the popular imagination, although it is
+really no more than a reassertion in new terms of biogenesis.
+With this also is connected the celebrated denial of the inheritance
+of acquired characters. It seemed a clear inference that, if the
+hereditary mass for the daughters were separated off from the
+hereditary mass that was to form the mother, at the very first,
+before the body of the mother was formed, the daughters were
+in all essentials the sisters of their mother, and could take from
+her nothing of any characters that might be impressed on her
+body in subsequent development. In the later elaboration of his
+theory Weismann has admitted the possibility of some direct
+modification of the germ-plasm within the body of the individual
+acting as its host.</p>
+
+<p>The mass of germ-plasm which is not retained in unaltered
+form to provide for the generative cells is supposed to be employed
+for the elaboration of the individual body. It grows, dividing
+and multiplying, and forms the nuclear matter of the tissues of
+the individual, but the theory supposes this process to occur in
+a peculiar fashion. The nuclear divisions are what Weismann
+calls &ldquo;differentiating&rdquo; or heterogeneous divisions. In them
+the microcosms of the germ-plasm are not doubled, but slowly
+disintegrated in accordance with the historical architecture
+of the plasm, each division differentiating among the determinants
+and marshalling one set into one portion, another into another
+portion. There are differences in the observed facts of nuclear
+division which tend to support the theoretical possibility of two
+sorts of division, but as yet these have not been correlated
+definitely with the divisions along the germ-tracks and the
+ordinary divisions of embryological organogeny. The theoretical
+conception is, that when the whole body is formed, the cells
+contain only their own kind of determinants, and it would follow
+from this that the cells of the tissues cannot give rise to structures
+containing germ-plasm less disintegrated than their own nuclear
+material, and least of all to reproductive cells which must contain
+the undisintegrated microcosms of the germ-plasm. Cases of
+bud-formation and of reconstructions of lost parts (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Regeneration
+Of Lost Parts</a></span>) are regarded as special adaptations
+made possible by the provision of latent groups of accessory
+determinants, to become active only on emergency.</p>
+
+<p>It is to be noticed that Weismann&rsquo;s conception of the processes
+of ontogeny is strictly evolutionary, and in so far is a reversion
+to the general opinion of biologists of the 17th and 18th centuries.
+These supposed that the germ-cell contained an image-in-little
+of the adult, and that the process of development was a mere
+unfolding or evolution of this, under the influence of favouring
+and nutrient forces. Hartsoeker, indeed, went so far as to
+figure the human spermatozoon with a mannikin seated within
+the &ldquo;head,&rdquo; and similar extremes of imagination were indulged
+in by other writers for the spermatozoon or ovum, according
+to the view they took of the relative importance of these two
+bodies. C. F. Wolff, in his <i>Theoria generationis</i> (1759), was
+the first distinguished anatomist to make assault on these
+evolutionary views, but his direct observations on the process
+of development were not sufficient in bulk nor in clarity of
+interpretation to convince his contemporaries. Naturally the
+improved methods and vastly greater knowledge of modern
+days have made evolution in the old sense an impossible conception;
+we know that the egg is morphologically unlike the
+adult, that various external conditions are necessary for its
+subsequent progress through a slow series of stages, each of
+which is unlike the adult, but gradually approaching it until
+the final condition is reached. None the less, Weismann&rsquo;s
+theory supposes that the important determining factor in these
+gradual changes lies in the historical architecture of the germ-plasm,
+and from the theoretical point of view his theory remains
+strictly an unfolding, a becoming manifest of hidden complexity.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hertwig&rsquo;s View.</i>&mdash;The chief modern holder of the rival view,
+and the writer who has put together in most cogent form the
+objections to Weismann&rsquo;s theory, is Oscar Hertwig. He points
+out that there is no direct evidence for the existence of differentiating
+as opposed to doubling divisions of the nuclear matter,
+and, moreover, he thinks that there is very generally diffused
+evidence as to the universality of doubling division. In the first
+place, there is the fundamental fact that single-celled organisms
+exhibit only doubling division, as by that the persistence of
+species which actually occurs alone is possible. In the case of
+higher plants, the widespread occurrence of tissues with power
+of reproduction, the occurrence of budding in almost any part
+of the body in lower animals and in plants, and the widespread
+powers of regeneration of lost parts, are easily intelligible if
+every cell like the egg-cell has been formed by doubling division,
+and so contains the germinal material for every part of the
+organism, and thus, on the call of special conditions, can become
+a germ-cell again. He lays special stress on those experiments in
+which the process of development has been interfered with in
+various ways at various stages, as showing that the cells which
+arise from the division of the egg-cell were not predestined
+unalterably for a particular rôle, according to a predetermined
+plan. He dismisses Weismann&rsquo;s suggestion of the presence of
+accessory determinants which remain latent unless they happen
+to be required, as being too complicated a supposition to be
+supported without exact evidence, a view in which he has
+received strong support from those who have worked most at
+the experimental side of the question. From consideration of a
+large number of physiological facts, such as the results of grafting,
+transplantations of tissues and transfusions of blood, he concludes
+that the cells of an organism possess, in addition to their
+patent microscopical characters, latent characters peculiar to
+the species, and pointing towards a fundamental identity of the
+germinal substance in every cell.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Nuclear Matter.</i>&mdash;Apart from these two characteristic
+protagonists of extreme and opposing views, the general consensus
+of biological opinion does not take us very far beyond the plainest
+facts of observation. The resemblances of heredity are due to
+the fact that the new organism takes its origin from a definite
+piece of the substance of its parent or parents. This piece always
+contains protoplasm, and as the protoplasm of every animal
+and plant appears to have its own specific reactions, we cannot
+exclude this factor; indeed many, following the views of
+M. Verworn, and seeing in the specific metabolisms of protoplasm
+a large part of the meaning of life, attach an increasing
+importance to the protoplasm in the hereditary mass. Next,
+it always contains nuclear matter, and, in view of the extreme
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page352" id="page352"></a>352</span>
+specialization of the nuclear changes in the process of maturation
+and fertilization of the generative cells, there is more than
+sufficient reason for believing that the nuclear substance, if not
+actually the specific germ-plasm, is of vast importance in heredity.
+The theory of its absolute dominance depends on a number of
+experiments, the interpretation of which is doubtful. Moritz
+Nussbaum showed that in Infusoria non-nucleated fragments
+of a cell always died, while nucleated fragments were able to
+complete themselves; but it may be said with almost equal
+confidence that nuclei separated from protoplasm also invariably
+die&mdash;at least, all attempts to preserve them have failed. Hertwig
+and others, in their brilliant work on the nature of fertilization,
+showed that the process always involved the entrance into the
+female cell of the nucleus of the male cell, but we now know
+that part of the protoplasm of the spermatozoon also enters.
+T. Boveri made experiments on the cross-fertilization of non-nucleated
+fragments of the eggs of <i>Sphaerechinus granularis</i>
+with spermatozoa of <i>Echinus microtuberculatus</i>, and obtained
+dwarf larvae with only the paternal characters; but the nature
+of his experiments was not such as absolutely to exclude doubt.
+Finally, in addition to the nucleus and the protoplasm, another
+organism of the cell, the centrosome, is part of the hereditary
+mass. In sum, while most of the evidence points to a preponderating
+importance of the nuclear matter, it cannot be said
+to be an established proposition that the nuclear matter is the
+germ-plasm. Nor are we yet definitely in a position to say that
+the germinal mass (nuclear matter, protoplasm, &amp;c., of the reproductive
+cells) differs essentially from the general substance of
+the organism&mdash;whether, in fact, there is continuity of <i>germ-plasm</i>
+as opposed to continuity of living material from individual
+to individual. The origin of sexual cells from only definite places,
+in the vast majority of cases, and such phenomena as the phylo-genetic
+migration of their place of origin among the Hydro-medusae,
+tell strongly in favour of Weismann&rsquo;s conception.
+Early experiments on dividing eggs, in which, by separation or
+transposition, cells were made to give rise to tissues and parts
+of the organism which in the natural order they would not have
+produced, tell strongly against any profound separation between
+germ-plasm and body-plasm. It is also to be noticed that the
+failure of germ-cells to arise except in specific places may be
+only part of the specialized ordering of the whole body, and does
+not necessarily involve the interpretation that reproductive
+material is absolutely different in kind.</p>
+
+<p><i>Amphimixis.</i>&mdash;Hitherto we have considered the material
+bearer of heredity apart from the question of sexual union, and
+we find that the new organism takes origin from a portion of
+living matter, forming a material which may be called germ-plasm,
+in which resides the capacity to correspond to the same
+kind of surrounding forces as stimulated the parent germ-plasm
+by growth of the same fashion. In many cases (<i>e.g.</i> asexual
+spores) the piece of germ-plasm comes from one parent, and
+from an organ or tissue not associated with sexual reproduction;
+in other cases (parthenogenetic eggs) it comes from the ovary
+of a female, and may have the apparent characters of a sexual
+egg, except that it develops without fertilization; here also are
+to be included the cases where normal female ova have been
+induced to develop, not by the entrance of a spermatozoon, but
+by artificial chemical stimulation. In such cases the problem
+of heredity does not differ fundamentally from the symmetrical
+repetition of parts. In most of the higher plants and animals,
+however, sexual reproduction is the normal process, and from
+our present point of view the essential feature of this is that the
+germ-plasm which starts the new individual (the fertilized egg)
+is derived from the male (the spermatozoon) and from the female
+parent (the ovum). Although it cannot yet be set down sharply
+as a general proposition, there is considerable evidence to show
+that in the preparation of the ovum and spermatozoon for
+fertilization the nuclear matter of each is reduced by half (reducing
+division of the chromosomes), and that fertilization means
+the restoration of the normal bulk in the fertilized cell by equal
+contributions from male and female. So far as the known facts
+of this process of union of germ-plasms go, they take us no
+farther than to establish such a relation between the offspring
+and two parents as exists between the offspring and one parent
+in the other cases. Amphimixis has a vast importance in the
+theory of evolution (Weismann, for instance, regards it as the
+chief factor in the production of variations); for its relation to
+heredity we are as yet dependent on empirical observations.</p>
+
+<p><i>Heredity and Development.</i>&mdash;The actual process by which the
+germinal mass slowly assumes the characters of the adult&mdash;that
+is, becomes like the parent&mdash;depends on the interaction of two
+sets of factors: the properties of the germinal material itself,
+and the influences of substances and conditions external to the
+germinal material. Naturally, as K. W. von Nägeli and Hertwig
+in particular have pointed out, there is no perpetual sharp
+contrast between the two sets of factors, for, as growth proceeds,
+the external is constantly becoming the internal; the results
+of influences, which were in one stage part of the environment,
+are in the next and subsequent stages part of the embryo. The
+differences between the exponents of evolution and epigenesis
+offer practical problems to be decided by experiment. Every
+phenomenon in development that is proved the direct result of
+epigenetic factors can be discounted from the complexity of the
+germinal mass. If, for instance, as H. Driesch and Hertwig have
+argued, much of the differentiation of cells and tissues is a
+function of locality and is due to the action of different external
+forces on similar material, then just so much burden is removed
+from what evolutionists have to explain. That much remains
+cannot be doubted. Two eggs similar in appearance develop
+side by side in the same sea-water, one becoming a mollusc, the
+other an <i>Amphioxus</i>. Hertwig would say that the slight differences
+in the original eggs would determine slight differences in
+metabolism and so forth, with the result that the segmentation
+of the two is slightly different; in the next stage the differences
+in metabolisms and other relations will be increased, and so on
+indefinitely. But in such cases <i>c&rsquo;est le premier pas qui coûte</i>, and
+the absolute cost in theoretical complexity of the germinal
+material can be estimated only after a prolonged course of
+experimental work in a field which is as yet hardly touched.</p>
+
+<p><i>Empirical Study of Heredity.</i>&mdash;The fundamental basis of
+heredity is the separation of a mass from the parent (germ-plasm)
+which under certain conditions grows into an individual resembling
+the parent. The goal of the study of heredity will be
+reached only when all the phenomena can be referred to the
+nature of the germ-plasm and of its relations to the conditions
+under which it grows, but we have seen how far our knowledge
+is from any attempt at such references. In the meantime, the
+empirical facts, the actual relations of the characters in the
+offspring to the characters of the parents and ancestors, are
+being collected and grouped. In this inquiry it at once becomes
+obvious that every character found in a parent may or may not
+be present in the offspring. When any character occurs in both,
+it is generally spoken of as transmissible and of having been
+transmitted. In this broad sense there is no character that is
+not transmissible. In all kinds of reproduction, the characters
+of the class, family, genus, species, variety or race, and of the
+actual individual, are transmissible, the certainty with which
+any character appears being almost in direct proportion to its
+rank in the descending scale from order to individual. The
+transmitted characters are anatomical, down to the most minute
+detail; physiological, including such phenomena as diatheses,
+timbre of voice and even compound phenomena, such as <i>gaucherie</i>
+and peculiarity of handwriting; psychological; pathological;
+teratological, such as syndactylism and all kinds of
+individual variations. Either sex may transmit characters
+which in themselves are necessarily latent, as, for instance, a
+bull may transmit a good milking strain. In forms of asexual
+reproduction, such as division, budding, propagation by slips and
+so forth, every character of the parent may appear in the
+descendant, and apparently even in the descendants produced
+from that descendant by the ordinary sexual processes. In
+reproduction by spore formation, in parthenogenesis and in
+ordinary sexual modes, where there is an embryological history
+between the separated mass and the new adult, it is necessary
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page353" id="page353"></a>353</span>
+to attempt a difficult discrimination between acquired and innate
+characters.</p>
+
+<p><i>Acquired Characters.</i>&mdash;Every character is the result of two
+sets of factors, those resident in the germinal material and those
+imposed from without. Our knowledge has taken us far beyond
+any such idea as the formation of a germinal material by the
+collection of particles from the adult organs and tissues (gemmules
+of C. Darwin). The inheritance of any character means
+the transmission in the germinal material of matter which,
+brought under the necessary external conditions, develops into
+the character of the parent. There is necessarily an acquired
+or epigenetic side to every character; but there is nothing in
+our knowledge of the actual processes to make necessary or
+even probable the supposition that the result of that factor in
+one generation appears in the germ-plasm of the subsequent
+generations, in those cases where an embryological development
+separates parent and offspring. The development of any normal,
+so-called &ldquo;innate,&rdquo; character, such as, say, the assumption of
+the normal human shape and relations of the frontal bone,
+requires the co-operation of many factors external to the developing
+embryo, and the absence of abnormal distorting factors.
+When we say that such an innate character is transmitted, we
+mean only that the germ-plasm has such a constitution that,
+in the presence of the epigenetic factors and the absence of
+abnormal epigenetic factors, the bone will appear in due course
+and in due form. If an abnormal epigenetic factor be applied
+during development, whether to the embryo <i>in utero</i>, to the
+developing child, or in after life, abnormality of some kind will
+appear in the bone, and such an abnormality is a good type of
+what is spoken of as an &ldquo;acquired&rdquo; character. Naturally such
+a character varies with the external stimulus and the nature of
+the material to which the stimulus is applied, and probability
+and observation lead us to suppose that as the germ-plasm of
+the offspring is similar to that of the parent, being a mass
+separated from the parent, abnormal epigenetic influences
+would produce results on the offspring similar to those which
+they produced on the parent. Scrutiny of very many cases
+of the supposed inheritance of acquired characters shows that
+they may be explained in this fashion&mdash;that is to say, that they
+do not necessarily involve any feature different in kind from
+what we understand to occur in normal development. The
+effects of increased use or of disuse on organs or tissues, the
+reactions of living tissues to various external influences, to
+bacteria, to bacterial or other toxins, or to different conditions
+of respiration, nutrition and so forth, we know empirically to
+be different in the case of different individuals, and we may
+expect that when the living matter of a parent responds in a
+certain way to a certain external stimulus, the living matter of
+the descendant will respond to similar circumstances in a similar
+fashion. The operation of similar influences on similar material
+accounts for a large proportion of the facts. In the important
+case of the transmission of disease from parent to offspring it is
+plain that three sets of normal factors may operate, and other
+cases of transmission must be subjected to similar scrutiny:
+(1) a child may inherit the anatomical and physiological constitution
+of either parent, and with that a special liability of
+failure to resist the attacks of a widespread disease; (2) the
+actual bacteria may be contained in the ovum or possibly in the
+spermatozoon; (3) the toxins of the disease may have affected
+the ovum, or the spermatozoon, or through the placenta the
+growing embryo. Obviously in the first two cases the offspring
+cannot be said in any strict sense to have inherited the disease;
+in the last case, the theoretical nomenclature is more doubtful,
+but it is at least plain that no inexplicable factor is involved.</p>
+
+<p>It is to be noticed, however, that &ldquo;Lamarckians&rdquo; and &ldquo;Neo-Lamarckians&rdquo;
+in their advocacy of an inheritance of &ldquo;acquired
+characters&rdquo; make a theoretical assumption of a different kind,
+which applies equally to &ldquo;acquired&rdquo; and to &ldquo;innate&rdquo; characters.
+They suppose that the result of the epigenetic factors
+is reflected on the germ-plasm in such a mode that in development
+the products would display the same or a similar character
+without the co-operation of the epigenetic factors on the new
+individual, or would display the result in an accentuated form
+if with the renewed co-operation of the external factors. Such
+an assumption presents its greatest theoretical difficulty if, with
+Weismann, we suppose the germ-plasm to be different in kind
+from the general soma-plasm, and its least theoretical difficulty
+if, with Hertwig, we suppose the essential matter of the reproductive
+cells to be similar in kind to the essential substance of
+the general body cells. But, apart from the differences between
+such theories, it supposes, in all cases where an embryological
+development lies between parent and descendant, the existence
+of a factor towards which our present knowledge of the actual
+processes gives us no assistance. The separated hereditary
+mass does not contain the organs of the adult; the Lamarckian
+factor would involve the translation of the characters of the adult
+back into the characters of the germ-cell in such a fashion that
+when the germ-cell developed these characters would be re-translated
+again into those which originally had been produced
+by co-operation between germ-plasm characters and epigenetic
+factors. In the present state of our knowledge the theoretical
+difficulty is not fatal to the Lamarckian supposition; it does
+no more than demand a much more careful scrutiny of the
+supposed cases. Such a scrutiny has been going on since Weismann
+first raised the difficulty, and the present result is that no known
+case has appeared which cannot be explained without the
+Lamarckian factor, and the vast majority of cases have been
+resolved without any difficulty into the ordinary events of which
+we have full experience. Taking the empirical data in detail,
+it would appear first that the effects of single mutilations are
+not inherited. The effects of long-continued mutilations are
+not inherited, but Darwin cites as a possible case the Mahommedans
+of Celebes, in whom the prepuce is very small. C. E.
+Brown-Séquard thought that he had shown in the case of guinea-pigs
+the inheritance of the results of nervous lesions, but analyses
+of his results leave the question extremely doubtful. The
+inheritance of the effects of use and disuse is not proved. The
+inheritance of the effects of changed conditions of life is quite
+uncertain. Nägeli grew Alpine plants at Munich, but found
+that the change was produced at once and was not increased
+in a period of thirteen years. Alphonse de Candolle starved
+plants, with the result of producing better blooms, and found
+that seedlings from these were also above the average in luxuriance
+of blossom, but in these experiments the effects of selection
+during the starvation, and of direct effect on the nutrition of the
+seeds, were not eliminated. Such results are typical of the
+vast number of experiments and observations recorded. The
+empirical issue is doubtful, with a considerable balance against
+the supposed inheritance of acquired characters.</p>
+
+<p><i>Empirical Study of Effects of Amphimixis.</i>&mdash;Inheritance is
+theoretically possible from each parent and from the ancestry
+of each. In considering the total effect it is becoming customary
+to distinguish between &ldquo;blended&rdquo; inheritance, where the offspring
+appears in respect of any character to be intermediate
+between the conditions in the parents; &ldquo;prepotent&rdquo; inheritance,
+where one parent is supposed to be more effective than the other
+in stamping the offspring (thus, for instance, Negroes, Jews
+and Chinese are stated to be prepotent in crosses); &ldquo;exclusive&rdquo;
+inheritance, where the character of the offspring is definitely
+that of one of the parents. Such a classification depends on the
+interpretation of the word character, and rests on no certain
+grounds. An apparently blended character or a prepotent
+character may on analysis turn out to be due to the inheritance
+of a certain proportion of minuter characters derived exclusively
+from either parent. H. de Vries and later on a number of other
+biologists have advanced the knowledge of heredity in crosses
+by carrying out further the experimental and theoretical work
+of Gregor Mendel (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mendelism</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hybridism</a></span>), and results
+of great practical importance to breeders have already been
+obtained. These experiments and results, however, appear
+to relate exclusively to sexual reproduction and almost entirely
+to the crossing of artificial varieties of animals and plants. So
+far as they go, they point strongly to the occurrence of alternate
+inheritance instead of blended inheritance in the case of artificial
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page354" id="page354"></a>354</span>
+varieties. On the other hand, in the case of natural varieties
+it appears that blended inheritance predominates. The difficulty
+of the interpretation of the word &ldquo;character&rdquo; still remains
+and the Mendelian interpretation cannot be dismissed with regard
+to the behaviour of any &ldquo;character&rdquo; in inheritance until it is
+certain that it is a unit and not a composite. There is another
+fundamental difficulty in making empirical comparisons between
+the characters of parents and offspring. At first sight it seems
+as if this mode of work were sufficiently direct and simple, and
+involved no more than a mere collection of sufficient data. The
+cranial index, or the height of a human being and of so many
+of his ancestors being given, it would seem easy to draw an
+inference as to whether or no in these cases brachycephaly or
+stature were inherited. But our modern conceptions of the
+individual and the race make it plain that the problems are not
+so simple. With regard to any character, the race type is not a
+particular measurement, but a curve of variations derived from
+statistics, and any individual with regard to the particular
+character may be referable to any point of the curve. A tall
+race like the modern Scots may contain individuals of any height
+within the human limits; a dolichocephalic race like the modern
+Spaniards may contain extremely round-headed individuals.
+What is meant by saying that one race is tall or the other dolichocephalic,
+is merely that if a sufficiently large number be chosen
+at random, the average height of the one race will be great,
+the cranial index of the other low. It follows that the study
+of variation must be associated with, or rather must precede,
+the empirical study of heredity, and we are beginning to know
+enough now to be certain that in both cases the results to be
+obtained are practically useless for the individual case, and of
+value only when large masses of statistics are collected. No
+doubt, when general conclusions have been established, they must
+be acted on for individual cases, but the results can be predicted
+not for the individual case, but only for the average of a mass
+of individual cases. It is impossible within the limits of this
+article to discuss the mathematical conceptions involved in the
+formation and applications of the method, but it is necessary
+to insist on the fact that these form an indispensable part of any
+valuable study of empirical data. One interesting conclusion,
+which may be called the &ldquo;ancestral law&rdquo; of heredity, with regard
+to any character, such as height, which appears to be a blend
+of the male and female characters, whether or no the apparent
+blend is really due to an exclusive inheritance of separate components,
+may be given from the work of F. Galton and K. Pearson.
+Each parent, on the average, contributes ¼ or (0.5)², each grandparent
+<span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">16</span> or (0.5)<span class="sp">4</span>, and each ancestor of n<span class="sp">th</span> place (0.5)<span class="sp">2n</span>. But
+this, like all other deductions, is applicable only to the mass
+of cases and not to any individual case.</p>
+
+<p><i>Regression.</i>&mdash;An important result of quantitative work brings
+into prominence the steady tendency to maintain the type
+which appears to be one of the most important results of amphimixis.
+In the tenth generation a man has 1024 tenth grandparents,
+and is thus the product of an enormous population,
+the mean of which can hardly differ from that of the general
+population. Hence this heavy weight of mediocrity produces
+regression or progression to type. Thus in the case of height,
+a large number of cases being examined, it was found that
+fathers of a stature of 72 in. had sons with a mean stature of
+70.8 in., a regression towards the normal stature of the race.
+Fathers with a stature of 66 in. had sons with a mean of 68.3 in.,
+a progression towards the normal. It follows from this that where
+there is much in-and-in breeding the weight of mediocrity will
+be less, and the peculiarities of the breed will be accentuated.</p>
+
+<p><i>Atavism.</i>&mdash;Under this name a large number of ordinary cases
+of variation are included. A tall man with very short parents
+would probably be set down as a case of atavism if the existence
+of a very tall ancestor were known. He would, however, simply
+be a case of normal variation, the probability of which may be
+calculated from a table of stature variations in his race. Less
+marked cases set down to atavism may be instances merely
+of normal regression. Many cases of more abnormal structure,
+which are really due to abnormal embryonic or post-embryonic
+development, are set down to atavism, as, for instance, the
+cervical fistulae, which have been regarded as atavistic persistences
+of the gill clefts. It is also used to imply the reversion
+that takes place when domestic varieties are set free and when
+species or varieties are crossed (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hybridism</a></span>). Atavism is,
+in fact, a misleading name covering a number of very different
+phenomena.</p>
+
+<p><i>Telegony</i> is the name given to the supposed fact that offspring
+of a mother to one sire may inherit characters from a sire with
+which the mother had previously bred. Although breeders
+of stock have a strong belief in the existence of this, there are
+no certain facts to support it, the supposed cases being more
+readily explained as individual variations of the kind generally
+referred to as &ldquo;atavism.&rdquo; None the less, two theoretical
+explanations have been suggested: (1) that spermatozoa, or
+portions of spermatozoa, from the first sire may occasionally
+survive within the mother for an abnormally long period; (2)
+that the body, or the reproductive cells of the mother, may be
+influenced by the growth of the embryo within her, so that
+she acquires something of the character of the sire. The first
+supposition has no direct evidence to support it, and is made
+highly improbable from the fact that a second impregnation is
+always necessary. Against the second supposition Pearson
+brings the cogent empirical evidence that the younger children
+of the same sire show no increased tendency to resemble him.
+(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Telegony</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;The following books contain a fair proportion
+of the new and old knowledge on this subject:&mdash;W. Bateson, <i>Materials
+for the Study of Variation</i> (1894); Y. Delage, <i>La Structure du protoplasma
+et les théories sur l&rsquo;hérédité</i> (a very full discussion and list of
+literature); G. H. T. Eimer, <i>Organic Evolution</i>, Eng. trans. by
+Cunningham (1890); J. C. Ewart, <i>The Penycuik Experiments</i> (1899);
+F. Galton, <i>Natural Inheritance</i> (1887); O. Hertwig, <i>Evolution or
+Epigenesis?</i> Eng. trans. by P. C. Mitchell (1896); K. Pearson, <i>The
+Grammar of Science</i> (1900); Verworn, <i>General Physiology</i>, Eng. trans.
+(1899); A. Weismann, <i>The Germ Plasm</i>, Eng. trans. by Parker
+(1893). Lists of separate papers are given in the annual volumes of
+the <i>Zoological Record</i> under heading &ldquo;General Subject.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(P. C. M.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEREFORD,<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> a city and municipal and parliamentary borough,
+and the county town of Herefordshire, England, on the river
+Wye, 144 m. W.N.W. of London, on the Worcester-Cardiff line
+of the Great Western railway and on the west-and-north joint
+line of that company and the North-Western. It is connected
+with Ross and Gloucester by a branch of the Great Western,
+and is the terminus of a line from the west worked by the Midland
+and Neath &amp; Brecon companies. Pop. (1901) 21,382. It is
+mainly on the left bank of the river, which here traverses a
+broad valley, well wooded and pleasant. The cathedral of St
+Ethelbert exemplifies all styles from Norman to Perpendicular.
+The see was detached from Lichfield in 676, Putta being its first
+bishop; and the modern diocese covers most of Herefordshire, a
+considerable part of Shropshire, and small portions of Worcestershire,
+Staffordshire and Monmouthshire; extending also a short
+distance across the Welsh border. The removal of murdered
+Aethelbert&rsquo;s body from Marden to Hereford led to the foundation
+of a superior church, reconstructed by Bishop Athelstane, and
+burnt by the Welsh in 1055. Begun again in 1079 by Bishop
+Robert Losinga, it was carried on by Bishop Reynelm and
+completed in 1148 by Bishop R. de Betun. In 1786 the great
+western tower fell and carried with it the west front and the first
+bay of the nave, when the church suffered much from unhappy
+restoration by James Wyatt, but his errors were partly corrected
+by the further work of Lewis Cottingham and Sir Gilbert Scott
+in 1841 and 1863 respectively, while the present west front is
+a reconstruction completed in 1905. The total length of the
+cathedral outside is 342 ft., inside 327 ft. 5 in., the nave being
+158 ft. 6 in., the choir from screen to reredos 75 ft. 6 in. and
+the lady chapel 93 ft. 5 in. Without, the principal features are
+the central tower, of Decorated work with ball-flower ornament,
+formerly surmounted by a timber spire; and the north porch,
+rich Perpendicular with parvise. The lady chapel has a bold
+east end with five narrow lancet windows. The bishop&rsquo;s cloisters,
+of which only two walks remain, are Perpendicular of curious
+design, with heavy tracery in the bays. A picturesque tower
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page355" id="page355"></a>355</span>
+at the south-east corner, in the same style, is called the &ldquo;Lady
+Arbour,&rdquo; but the origin of the name is unknown. Of the former
+fine decagonal Decorated chapter-house, only the doorway and
+slight traces remain. Within, the nave has Norman arcades,
+showing the wealth of ornament common to the work of this
+period in the church. Wyatt shortened it by one bay, and the
+clerestory is his work. There is a fine late Norman font, springing
+from a base with the rare design of four lions at the corners.
+The south transept is also Norman, but largely altered by the
+introduction of Perpendicular work. The north transept was
+wholly rebuilt in 1287 to contain the shrine of St Thomas de
+Cantilupe, bishop of Hereford, of which there remains the
+magnificent marble pedestal surmounted by an ornate arcade.
+The fine lantern, with its many shafts and vaulting, was thrown
+open to the floor of the bell-chamber by Cottingham. The choir
+screen is a florid design by Sir Gilbert Scott, in light wrought
+iron, with a wealth of ornament in copper, brass, mosaic and
+polished stones. The dark choir is Norman in the arcades and
+the stage above, with Early English clerestory and vaulting.
+At the east end is a fine Norman arch, blocked until 1841 by
+a Grecian screen erected in 1717. The choir stalls are largely
+Decorated. The organ contains original work by the famous
+builder Renatus Harris, and was the gift of Charles II. to the
+cathedral. The small north-east and south-east transepts are
+Decorated but retain traces of the Norman apsidal terminations
+eastward. The eastern lady chapel, dated about 1220, shows
+elaborate Early English work. On the south side opens the
+little Perpendicular chantry of Bishop Audley (1492-1502).
+In the north choir aisle is the beautiful fan-vaulted chantry
+of Bishop Stanbury (1470). The crypt is remarkable as being,
+like the lady chapel, Early English, and is thus the only cathedral
+crypt in England of a later date than the 11th century. The
+ancient monastic library remains in the archive room, with its
+heavy oak cupboards. Deeds, documents and several rare
+manuscripts and relics are preserved, and several of the precious
+books are still secured by chains. But the most celebrated relic
+is in the south choir aisle. This is the Map of the World, dating
+from about 1314, the work of a Lincolnshire monk, Richard of
+Haldingham. It represents the world as surrounded by ocean,
+and embodies many ideas taken from Herodotus, Pliny and other
+writers, being filled with grotesque figures of men, beasts, birds
+and fishes, together with representations of famous cities and
+scenes of scriptural classical story, such as the Labyrinth of
+Crete, the Egyptian pyramids, Mount Sinai and the journeyings
+of the Israelites. The map is surmounted by representations of
+Paradise and the Day of Judgment.</p>
+
+<p>From the south-east transept of the cathedral a cloister leads
+to the quadrangular college of the Vicars-Choral, a beautiful
+Perpendicular building. On this side of the cathedral, too,
+the bishop&rsquo;s palace, originally a Norman hall, overlooks the Wye,
+and near it lies the castle green, the site of the historic castle,
+which is utterly effaced. There is here a column (1809) commemorating
+the victories of Nelson. The church of All Saints
+is Early English and Decorated, and has a lofty spire. Both
+this and St Peter&rsquo;s (originally Norman) have good carved stalls,
+but the fabric of both churches is greatly restored. One only of
+the six gates and a few fragments of the old walls are still to be
+seen, but there are ruins of the Black Friars&rsquo; Monastery in
+Widemarsh, and a mile out of Hereford on the Brecon Road,
+the White Cross, erected in 1347 by Bishop Louis Charlton, and
+restored by Archdeacon Lord Saye and Sele, commemorates
+the departure of the Black Plague. Of domestic buildings the
+&ldquo;Old House&rdquo; is a good example of the picturesque half-timbered
+style, dating from 1621, and the Coningsby Hospital (almshouses)
+date from 1614. The inmates wear a remarkable uniform of
+red, designed by the founder, Sir T. Coningsby. St Ethelbert&rsquo;s
+hospital is an Early English foundation. Old-established schools
+are the Cathedral school (1384) and the Blue Coat school (1710);
+there is also the County College (1880). The public buildings
+are the shire hall in St Peter&rsquo;s Street, in the Grecian Doric style,
+with a statue in front of it of Sir George Cornewall Lewis, who
+represented the county in parliament from 1847 to 1852, the
+town hall (1904), the corn-exchange (1858), the free library and
+museum in Broad Street; the guildhall and mansion house.
+A musical festival of the choirs of Hereford, Gloucester and
+Worcester cathedrals is held annually in rotation at these cities.</p>
+
+<p>The government is in the hands of a municipal council consisting
+of a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area,
+5031 acres.</p>
+
+<p>Hereford (<i>Herefortuna</i>), founded after the crossing of the
+Severn by the West Saxons early in the 7th century, had a
+strategic importance due to its proximity to the Welsh March.
+The foundation of the castle is ascribed to Earl Harold, afterwards
+Harold II. The castle was successfully besieged by Stephen,
+and was the prison of Prince Edward during the Barons&rsquo; Wars.
+The pacification of Wales deprived Hereford of military significance
+until it became a Royalist stronghold during the Civil Wars.
+It surrendered easily to Waller in 1643; but was reoccupied
+by the king&rsquo;s troops and received Rupert on his march to Wales
+after Naseby. It was besieged by the Scots during August
+1645 and relieved by the king. It fell to the Parliamentarians
+in this year. In 1086 the town included fees of the bishop, the
+dean and chapter, and the Knights Hospitallers, but was otherwise
+royal demesne. Richard I. in 1189 sold their town to
+the citizens at a fee farm rent, which grant was confirmed by
+John, Henry III., Edward II., Edward III., Richard II., Henry
+IV. and Edward IV. Incorporation was granted to the mayor,
+aldermen and citizens in 1597, and confirmed in 1620 and
+1697-1698. Hereford returned two members to parliament
+from 1295 until 1885, when the Redistribution Act deprived it of
+one representative. In 1116-1117 a fair beginning on St Ethelberta&rsquo;s
+day was conferred on the bishop, the antecedent of the
+modern fair in the beginning of May. A fair beginning on St
+Denis&rsquo; day, granted to the citizens in 1226-1227, is represented
+by that held in October. The fair of Easter Wednesday was
+granted in 1682. In 1792 the existing fairs of Candlemas week
+and the beginning of July were held. Market days were, under
+Henry VIII. and in 1792, Wednesday, Friday and Saturday;
+the Friday market was discontinued before 1835. Hereford was
+the site of a provincial mint in 1086 and later. A grant of an
+exclusive merchant gild, in 1215-1216, was several times confirmed.
+The trade in wool was important in 1202, and eventually
+responsible for gilds of tailors, drapers, mercers, dyers, fullers,
+cloth workers, weavers and haberdashers; it brought into the
+market Welsh friezes and white cloth; but declined in the 16th
+century, although it existed in 1835. The leather trade was
+considerable in the 13th century. In 1835 the glove trade had
+declined. The city anciently had an extensive trade in bread
+with Wales. It was the birthplace of David Garrick, the actor,
+in 1716, and probably of Nell Gwyn, mistress of Charles II., to
+whose memory a tablet was erected in 1883, marking the supposed
+site of her house.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See R. Johnson, <i>Ancient Customs of Hereford</i> (London, 1882);
+J. Duncumbe, <i>History of Hereford</i> (Hereford, 1882); <i>Journal</i> of
+Brit. Arch. Assoc. xxvi.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEREFORDSHIRE,<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> an inland county of England on the
+south Welsh border, bounded N. by Shropshire, E. by Worcestershire,
+S. by Monmouthshire and Gloucestershire, and W. by
+Radnorshire and Brecknockshire. The area is 839.6 sq. m.
+The county is almost wholly drained by the Wye and its tributaries,
+but on the north and east includes a small portion of the
+Severn basin. The Wye enters Herefordshire from Wales at Hay,
+and with a sinuous and very beautiful course crosses the south-western
+part of the county, leaving it close above the town of
+Monmouth. Of its tributaries, the Lugg enters in the north-west
+near Presteign, and has a course generally easterly to Leominster,
+where it turns south, receives the Arrow from the west, and
+joins the Wye 6 m. below Hereford, the Frome flowing in from
+the east immediately above the junction. The Monnow rising
+in the mountains of Brecknockshire forms the boundary between
+Herefordshire and Monmouthshire over one-half of its course
+(about 20 m.), but it joins the main river at Monmouth. Its
+principal tributary in Herefordshire is the Dore, which traverses
+the picturesque Golden Valley. The Wye is celebrated for its
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page356" id="page356"></a>356</span>
+salmon fishing, which is carefully preserved, while the Lugg,
+Arrow and Frome abound in trout and grayling, as does the
+Teme. This last is a tributary of the Severn, and only two short
+reaches lie within this county in the north, while it also forms
+parts of the northern and eastern boundary. The Leddon, also
+flowing to the Severn, rises in the east of the county and leaves
+it in the south-east, passing the town of Ledbury. High ground,
+of an elevation from 500 to 800 ft., separates the various valleys,
+while on the eastern boundary rise the Malvern Hills, reaching
+1194 ft. in the Herefordshire Beacon, and 1395 ft. in the
+Worcestershire Beacon, and on the boundary with Brecknockshire
+the Black Mountains exceed 2000 ft. The scenery of the
+Wye, with its wooded and often precipitous banks, is famous,
+the most noteworthy point in this county being about Symond&rsquo;s
+Yat, on the Gloucestershire border below Ross.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Geology.</i>&mdash;The Archean or Pre-Cambrian rocks, the most ancient
+in the county, emerge from beneath the newer deposits in three small
+isolated areas. On the western border, Stanner Rock, a picturesque
+craggy hill near Kington, consists of igneous materials (granitoid
+rock, felstone, dolerite and gabbro), apparently of intrusive origin
+and possibly of Uriconian age. In Brampton Bryan Park, a few
+miles to the north-east, some ancient conglomerates emerge and may
+be of Longmyndian age. On the east of the county the Herefordshire
+Beacon in the Malvern chain consists of gneisses and schists and
+Uriconian volcanic rocks; these have been thrust over various
+members of the Cambrian and Silurian systems, and owing to their
+hard and durable nature they form the highest ground in the county.
+The Cambrian rocks (Tremadoc Beds) come next in order of age and
+consist of quartzites, sandstones and shales, well exposed at the
+southern end of the Malvern chain and also at Pedwardine near
+Brampton Bryan. The Silurian rocks are well developed in the
+north-west part of the county, between Presteign and Ludlow; also
+along the western flanks of the Malvern Hills and in the eroded dome
+of Woolhope. Smaller patches come to light at Westhide east of
+Hereford and at May Hill near Newent. They consist of highly
+fossiliferous sandstones, mudstones, shales and limestones, known
+as the Llandovery, Wenlock and Ludlow Series; the Woolhope,
+Wenlock and Aymestry Limestones are famed for their rich fossil
+contents. The remainder and by far the greater part of the county
+is occupied by the Old Red Sandstone, through which the rocks
+above described project in detached areas. The Old Red Sandstone
+consists of a great thickness of red sandstones and marls, with
+impersistent bands of impure concretionary limestone known as
+cornstones, which by their superior hardness give rise to scarps and
+rounded ridges; they have yielded remains of fishes and crustaceans.
+Some of the upper beds are conglomeratic. On its south-eastern
+margin the county just reaches the Carboniferous Limestone cliffs
+of the Wye Valley near Ross. Glacial deposits, chiefly sand and
+gravel, are found in the lower ground along the river-courses, while
+caves in the Carboniferous Limestone have yielded remains of the
+hyena, cave-lion, rhinoceros, mammoth and reindeer.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Agriculture and Industries.</i>&mdash;The soil is generally marl and
+clay, but in various parts contains calcareous earth in mixed
+proportions. Westward the soil is tenacious and retentive of
+water; on the east it is a stiff and often reddish clay. In the
+south is found a light sandy loam. More than four-fifths of the
+total area of the county is under cultivation and about two-thirds
+of this is in permanent pasture. Ash and oak coppices and
+larch plantations clothe its hillsides and crests. The rich red
+soil of the Old Red Sandstone formation is famous for its pear
+and apple orchards, the county, notwithstanding its much
+smaller area, ranking in this respect next to Devonshire. The
+apple crop, generally large, is enormous one year out of four.
+Twenty hogsheads of cider have been made from an acre of
+orchard, twelve being the ordinary yield. Cider is the staple
+beverage of the county, and the trade in cider and perry is large.
+Hops are another staple of the county, the vines of which are
+planted in rows on ploughed land. As early as Camden&rsquo;s day a
+Herefordshire adage coupled Weobley ale with Leominster
+bread, indicating the county&rsquo;s capacity to produce fine wheat
+and barley, as well as hops.</p>
+
+<p>Herefordshire is also famous as a breeding county for its
+cattle of bright red hue, with mottled or white faces and sleek
+silky coats. The Herefords are stalwart and healthy, and,
+though not good milkers, put on more meat and fat at an early
+age, in proportion to food consumed, than almost any other
+variety. They produce the finest beef, and are more cheaply
+fed than Devons or Durhams, with which they are advantageously
+crossed. As a dairy county Herefordshire does not rank high.
+Its small, white-faced, hornless, symmetrical breed of sheep
+known as &ldquo;the Ryelands,&rdquo; from the district near Ross, where
+it was bred in most perfection, made the county long famous
+both for the flavour of its meat and the merino-like texture of
+its wool. Fuller says of this that it was best known as &ldquo;Lempster
+ore,&rdquo; and the finest in all England. In its original form the
+breed is extinct, crossing with the Leicester having improved
+size and stamina at the cost of the fleece, and the chief breeds
+of sheep on Herefordshire farms at present are Shropshire
+Downs, Cotswolds and Radnors, with their crosses. Agricultural
+horses of good quality are bred in the north, and saddle and
+coach horses may be met with at the fairs. Breeders&rsquo; names
+from the county are famous at the national cattle shows, and
+the number, size and quality of the stock are seen in their supply
+of the metropolitan and other markets. Prize Herefords are
+constantly exported to the colonies.</p>
+
+<p>Manufacturing enterprise is small. There are some iron
+foundries and factories for agricultural implements, and some
+paper is made. There are considerable limestone quarries, as
+near Ledbury.</p>
+
+<p><i>Communications.</i>&mdash;Hereford is an important railway centre.
+The Worcester and Cardiff line of the Great Western railway,
+entering on the east, runs to Hereford by Ledbury and then
+southward. The joint line of the Great Western and North-Western
+companies runs north from Hereford by Leominster,
+proceeding to Shrewsbury and Crewe. At Leominster a Great
+Western branch crosses, connecting Worcester, Bromyard and
+New Radnor. From Hereford a Great Western branch follows
+the Wye south to Ross, and thence to the Forest of Dean and
+to Gloucester; a branch connects Ledbury with Gloucester,
+and the Golden Valley is traversed by a branch from Pontrilas
+on the Worcester-Cardiff line. From Hereford the Midland and
+Neath and Brecon line follows the Wye valley westward. None
+of the rivers is commercially navigable and the canals are out
+of use.</p>
+
+<p><i>Population and Administration.</i>&mdash;The area of the ancient
+county is 537,363 acres, with a population in 1891 of 115,949
+and in 1901 of 114,380. The area of the administrative county
+is 538,921 acres. The county contains 12 hundreds. It is
+divided into two parliamentary divisions, Leominster (N.) and
+Ross (S.), and it also includes the parliamentary borough of
+Hereford, each returning one member. There are two municipal
+boroughs&mdash;Hereford (pop. 21,382) and Leominster (5826).
+The other urban districts are Bromyard (1663), Kington (1944),
+Ledbury (3259) and Ross (3303). The county is in the Oxford
+circuit, and assizes are held at Hereford. It has one court of
+quarter sessions and is divided into 11 petty sessional divisions.
+The boroughs of Hereford and Leominster have separate commissions
+of the peace, and the borough of Hereford has in
+addition a separate court of quarter sessions. There are 260
+civil parishes. The ancient county, which is almost entirely
+in the diocese of Hereford, with small parts in those of Gloucester,
+Worcester and Llandaff, contains 222 ecclesiastical parishes or
+districts, wholly or in part.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;At some time in the 7th century the West Saxons
+pushed their way across the Severn and established themselves
+in the territory between Wales and Mercia, with which kingdom
+they soon became incorporated. The district which is now
+Herefordshire was occupied by a tribe the Hecanas, who congregated
+chiefly in the fertile area about Hereford and in the
+mining districts round Ross. In the 8th century Offa extended
+the Mercian frontier to the Wye, securing it by the earthwork
+known as Offa&rsquo;s dike, portions of which are visible at Knighton
+and Moorhampton in this county. In 915 the Danes made their
+way up the Severn to the district of Archenfield, where they
+took prisoner Cyfeiliawg bishop of Llandaff, and in 921 they
+besieged Wigmore, which had been rebuilt in that year by Edward.
+From the time of its first settlement the district was the scene
+of constant border warfare with the Welsh, and Harold, whose
+earldom included this county, ordered that any Welshman
+caught trespassing over the border should lose his right hand.
+In the period preceding the Conquest much disturbance was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page357" id="page357"></a>357</span>
+caused by the outrages of the Norman colony planted in this
+county by Edward the Confessor. Richard&rsquo;s castle in the north
+of the county was the first Norman fortress erected on English
+soil, and Wigmore, Ewyas Harold, Clifford, Weobley, Hereford,
+Donnington and Caldecot were all the sites of Norman strongholds.
+The conqueror entrusted the subjugation of Herefordshire
+to William FitzOsbern, but Edric the Wild in conjunction
+with the Welsh prolonged resistance against him for two years.</p>
+
+<p>In the wars of Stephen&rsquo;s reign Hereford and Weobley castles
+were held against the king, but were captured in 1138. Edward,
+afterwards Edward I., was imprisoned in Hereford Castle, and
+made his famous escape thence in 1265. In 1326 the parliament
+assembled at Hereford which deposed Edward II. In the 14th
+and 15th centuries the forest of Deerfold gave refuge to some
+of the most noted followers of Wycliffe. During the Wars of
+the Roses the influence of the Mortimers led the county to
+support the Yorkist cause, and Edward, afterwards Edward
+IV., raised 23,000 men in this neighbourhood. The battle
+of Mortimer&rsquo;s Cross was fought in 1461 near Wigmore. Before
+the outbreak of the civil war of the 17th century, complaints
+of illegal taxation were rife in Herefordshire, but a strong anti-puritan
+feeling induced the county to favour the royalist cause.
+Hereford, Goodrich and Ledbury all endured sieges.</p>
+
+<p>The earldom of Hereford was granted by William I. to William
+FitzOsbern, about 1067, but on the outlawry of his son Roger
+in 1074 the title lapsed until conferred on Henry de Bohun
+about 1199. It remained in the possession of the Bohuns until
+the death of Humphrey de Bohun in 1373; in 1397 Henry,
+earl of Derby, afterwards King Henry IV., who had married
+Mary Bohun, was created duke of Hereford. Edward VI.
+created Walter Devereux, a descendant of the Bohun family,
+Viscount Hereford, in 1550, and his grandson, the famous earl
+of Essex, was born in this county. Since this date the viscounty
+has been held by the Devereux family, and the holder ranks
+as the premier viscount of England. The families of Clifford,
+Giffard and Mortimer figured prominently in the warfare on
+the Welsh border, and the Talbots, Lacys, Crofts and Scudamores
+also had important seats in the county, Sir James Scudamore
+of Holme Lacy being the original of the Sir Scudamore of
+Spenser&rsquo;s <i>Faery Queen</i>. Sir John Oldcastle, the leader of the
+Lollards, was sheriff of Herefordshire in 1406.</p>
+
+<p>Herefordshire probably originated as a shire in the time of
+Æthelstan, and is mentioned in the Saxon <span class="correction" title="amended from Chroncile">Chronicle</span> in 1051.
+In the Domesday Survey parts of Monmouthshire and Radnorshire
+are assessed under Herefordshire, and the western and
+southern borders remained debatable ground until with the
+incorporation of the Welsh marches in 1535 considerable territory
+was restored to Herefordshire and formed into the hundreds of
+Wigmore, Ewyas Lacy and Huntingdon, while Ewyas Harold
+was united to Webtree. At the time of the Domesday Survey
+the divisions of the county were very unsettled. As many as
+nineteen hundreds are mentioned, but these were of varying
+extent, some containing only one manor, some from twenty
+to thirty. Of the twelve modern hundreds, only Greytree,
+Radlow, Stretford, Wolphy and Wormelow retain Domesday
+names. Herefordshire has been included in the diocese of
+Hereford since its foundation in 676. In 1291 it comprised the
+deaneries of Hereford, Weston, Leominster, Weobley, Frome,
+Archenfield and Ross in the archdeaconry of Hereford, and the
+deaneries of Burford, Stottesdon, Ludlow, Pontesbury, Clun
+and Wenlock, in the archdeaconry of Shropshire. In 1877 the
+name of the archdeaconry of Shropshire was changed to Ludlow,
+and in 1899 the deaneries of Abbey Dore, Bromyard, Kingsland,
+Kington and Ledbury were created in the archdeaconry of
+Hereford.</p>
+
+<p>Herefordshire was governed by a sheriff as early as the reign
+of Edward the Confessor, the shire-court meeting at Hereford
+where later the assizes and quarter sessions were also held. In
+1606 an act was passed declaring Hereford free from the jurisdiction
+of the council of Wales, but the county was not finally
+relieved from the interference of the Lords Marchers until the
+reign of William and Mary.</p>
+
+<p>Herefordshire has always been esteemed an exceptionally
+rich agricultural area, the manufactures being unimportant,
+with the sole exception of the woollen and the cloth trade which
+flourished soon after the Conquest. Iron was worked in Wormelow
+hundred in Roman times, and the Domesday Survey mentions
+iron workers in Marcle. At the time of Henry VIII. the towns
+had become much impoverished, and Elizabeth in order to
+encourage local industries, insisted on her subjects wearing
+English-made caps from the factory of Hereford. Hops were
+grown in the county soon after their introduction into England
+in 1524. In 1580 and again in 1637 the county was severely
+visited by the plague, but in the 17th century it had a flourishing
+timber trade and was noted for its orchards and cider.</p>
+
+<p>Herefordshire was first represented in parliament in 1295,
+when it returned two members, the boroughs of Ledbury, Hereford,
+Leominster and Weobley being also represented. Hereford
+was again represented in 1299, and Bromyard and Ross in 1304,
+but the boroughs made very irregular returns, and from 1306
+until Weobley regained representation in 1627, only Hereford
+and Leominster were represented. Under the act of 1832 the
+county returned three members and Weobley was disfranchised.
+The act of 1868 deprived Leominster of one member, and under
+the act of 1885 Leominster was disfranchised, and Hereford
+lost one member.</p>
+
+<p><i>Antiquities.</i>&mdash;There are remains of several of the strongholds
+which Herefordshire possessed as a march county, some of which
+were maintained and enlarged, after the settlement of the border,
+to serve in later wars. To the south of Ross are those of Wilton
+and Goodrich, commanding the Wye on the right bank, the
+latter a ruin of peculiar magnificence, and both gaining picturesqueness
+from their beautiful situations. Of the several castles
+in the valleys of the boundary-river Monnow and its tributaries,
+those in this county include Pembridge, Kilpeck and Longtown;
+of which the last shows extensive remains of the strong keep and
+thick walls. In the north the finest example is Wigmore,
+consisting of a keep on an artificial mound within outer walls,
+the seat of the powerful family of Mortimer.</p>
+
+<p>Beside the cathedral of Hereford, and the fine churches of
+Ledbury, Leominster and Ross, described under separate
+headings, the county contains some churches of almost unique
+interest. In that of Kilpeck remarkable and unusual Norman
+work is seen. It consists of the three divisions of nave, choir
+and chancel, divided by ornate arches, the chancel ending in
+an apse, with a beautiful and elaborate west end and south
+doorway. The columns of the choir arch are composed of
+figures. A similar plan is seen in Peterchurch in the Golden
+Valley, and in Moccas church, on the Wye above Hereford.
+Among the large number of churches exhibiting Norman details
+that at Bromyard is noteworthy. At Abbey Dore, the Cistercian
+abbey church, still in use, is a large and beautiful specimen of
+Early English work, and there are slight remains of the monastic
+buildings. At Madley, south of the Wye 5 m. W. of Hereford,
+is a fine Decorated church (with earlier portions), with the
+rare feature of a Decorated apsidal chancel over an octagonal
+crypt. Of the churches in mixed styles those in the larger
+towns are the most noteworthy, together with that of Weobley.</p>
+
+<p>The half-timbered style of domestic architecture, common in
+the west and midlands of England in the 16th and 17th centuries,
+beautifies many of the towns and villages. Among country
+houses, that of Treago, 9 m. W. of Ross, is a remarkable example
+of a fortified mansion of the 13th century, in a condition little
+altered. Rudhall and Sufton Court, between Ross and Hereford,
+are good specimens of 15th-century work, and portions of
+Hampton Court, 8 m. N. of Hereford, are of the same period,
+built by Sir Rowland Lenthall, a favourite of Henry IV. Holme
+Lacy, 5 m. S.E. of Hereford, is a fine mansion of the latter part
+of the 17th century, with picturesque Dutch gardens, and much
+wood-carving by Grinling Gibbons within. This was formerly
+the seat of the Scudamores, from whom it was inherited by
+the Stanhopes, earls of Chesterfield, the 9th earl of Chesterfield
+taking the name of Scudamore-Stanhope. His son, the
+10th earl, has recently (1909) sold Holme Lacy to Sir Robert
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page358" id="page358"></a>358</span>
+Lucas-Tooth, Bart. Downton Castle possesses historical interest
+in having been designed in 1774, in a strange mixture of Gothic
+and Greek styles, by Richard Payne Knight (1750-1824), a
+famous scholar, numismatist and member of parliament for Leominster
+and Ludlow; while Eaton Hall, now a farm, was the
+seat of the family of the famous geographer Richard Hakluyt.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Victoria County History, Herefordshire</i>; J. Duncomb, <i>Collections
+towards the History and Antiquities of the County of Hereford</i>
+(Hereford, 1804-1812); John Allen, <i>Bibliotheca Herefordiensis</i> (Hereford,
+1821); John Webb, <i>Memorials of the Civil War between Charles
+I. and the Parliament of England as it affected Herefordshire and the
+adjacent Counties</i> (London, 1879); R. Cooke, <i>Visitation of Herefordshire,
+1569</i> (Exeter, 1886); F. T. Havergal, <i>Herefordshire Words
+and Phrases</i> (Walsall, 1887); J. Hutchinson, <i>Herefordshire Biographies</i>
+(Hereford, 1890).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERERO,<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Ovaherero</span> (&ldquo;merry people&rdquo;), a Bantu people
+of German South-West Africa, living in the region known as
+Damaraland or Hereroland. They call themselves Ovaherero
+and their language Otshi-herero. Sometimes they are described
+as Cattle Damara or &ldquo;Damara of the Plains&rdquo; in distinction
+from the Hill Damara who are of mixed blood and Hottentots
+in language. The Herero, whose main occupation is that of
+cattle-rearing, are a warlike race, possessed of considerable military
+skill, as was shown in their campaigns of 1904-5 against
+the Germans. (See further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">German South-West Africa</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERESY,<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> the English equivalent of the Greek word <span class="grk" title="hairesis">&#945;&#7989;&#961;&#949;&#963;&#953;&#962;</span>
+which is used in the Septuagint for &ldquo;free choice,&rdquo; in later
+classical literature for a philosophical school or sect as &ldquo;chosen&rdquo;
+by those who belong to it, in Philo for religion, in Josephus for
+a religious party (the Sadducees, the Pharisees and the Essenes).</p>
+
+<p>It is in this last sense that the term is used in the New Testament,
+usually with an implicit censure of the factious spirit to
+which such divisions are due. The term is applied
+to the Sadducees (Acts v. 17) and Pharisees (Acts xv.
+<span class="sidenote">New Testament.</span>
+5, xxvi. 5). From the standpoint of opponents,
+Christianity is itself so described (Acts xxiv. 14, xxviii.
+22). In the Pauline Epistles it is used with severe condemnation
+of the divisions within the Christian Church itself. Heresies
+with &ldquo;enmities, strife, jealousies, wraths, factions, divisions,
+envyings&rdquo; are reckoned among &ldquo;the works of the flesh&rdquo;
+(Gal. v. 20). Such divisions, proofs of a carnal mind, are censured
+in the church of Corinth (1 Cor. iii. 3, 4); and the church of
+Rome is warned against those who cause them (Rom. xvi. 17).
+The term &ldquo;schism,&rdquo; afterwards distinguished from &ldquo;heresy,&rdquo;
+is also used of these divisions (1 Cor. i. 10). The estrangements
+of the rich and the poor in the church at Corinth, leading to
+a lack of Christian fellowship even at the Lord&rsquo;s Supper, is
+described as &ldquo;heresy&rdquo; (1 Cor. xi. 19). Breaches of the law of
+love, not errors about the truth of the Gospel, are referred to in
+these passages. But the first step towards the ecclesiastical
+use of the term is found already in 2 Peter ii. 1, &ldquo;Among you
+also there shall be false teachers who shall privily bring in
+destructive heresies (R.V. margin &ldquo;sects of perdition&rdquo;), denying
+even the Master that bought them, bringing upon themselves
+swift destruction.&rdquo; The meaning here suggested is &ldquo;falsely
+chosen or erroneous tenets. Already the emphasis is moving
+from persons and their temper to mental products&mdash;from the
+sphere of sympathetic love to that of objective truth&rdquo; (Bartlet,
+art. &ldquo;Heresy,&rdquo; Hastings&rsquo;s <i>Bible Dictionary</i>). As the parallel
+passage in Jude, verse 4, shows, however, that these errors had
+immoral consequences, the moral reference is not absent even
+from this passage. The first employment of the term outside
+the New Testament is also its first use for theological error.
+Ignatius applies it to Docetism (<i>Ad Trall.</i> 6). As doctrine came
+to be made more important, heresy was restricted to any departure
+from the recognized creed. Even Constantine the Great
+describes the Christian Church as &ldquo;the Catholic heresy,&rdquo; &ldquo;the
+most sacred heresy&rdquo; (Eusebius, <i>Ecclesiastical History</i>, x. c. 5,
+the letter to Chrestus, bishop of Syracuse); but this use was
+very soon abandoned, and the Catholic Church distinguished
+itself from the dissenting minorities, which it condemned as
+&ldquo;heresies.&rdquo; The use of the term heresy in the New Testament
+cannot be regarded as defining the attitude of the Christian
+Church, even in the Apostolic age, towards errors in belief.
+The Apostolic writings show a vehement antagonism towards all
+teaching opposed to the Gospel. Paul declares <i>anathema</i> the
+Judaizer, who required the circumcision of the Gentiles (Gal. i. 8),
+and even calls them the &ldquo;dogs of the concision&rdquo; and &ldquo;evil
+workers&rdquo; (Phil. iii. 2). The elders of Ephesus are warned
+against the false teachers who would appear in the church after
+the apostle&rsquo;s death as &ldquo;grievous wolves not sparing the flock&rdquo;
+(Acts xx. 29); and the speculations of the Gnostics are denounced
+as &ldquo;seducing spirits and doctrines of devils&rdquo; (1 Tim. iv. 1), as
+&ldquo;profane babblings and oppositions of the knowledge which is
+falsely so called&rdquo; (vi. 20). John&rsquo;s warnings are as earnest and
+severe. Those who deny the fact of the Incarnation are described
+as &ldquo;antichrist,&rdquo; and as &ldquo;deceivers&rdquo; (1 John iv. 3; 2 John 7).
+The references to heretics in 2 Peter and Jude have already been
+dealt with. This antagonism is explicable by the character of
+the heresies that threatened the Christian Church in the Apostolic
+age. Each of these heresies involved such a blending of the
+Gospel with either Jewish or pagan elements, as would not only
+pollute its purity, but destroy its power. In each of these the
+Gospel was in danger of being made of none effect by the environment,
+which it must resist in order that it might transform (see
+Burton&rsquo;s Bampton Lectures on <i>The Heresies of the Apostolic Age</i>).</p>
+
+<p>These Gnostic heresies, which threatened to paganize the
+Christian Church, were condemned in no measured terms by the
+fathers. These false teachers are denounced as
+&ldquo;servants of Satan, beasts in human shape, dealers
+<span class="sidenote">Gnosticism.</span>
+in deadly poison, robbers and pirates.&rdquo; Polycarp,
+Ignatius, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Hippolytus, Tertullian and
+even Clement of Alexandria and Origen are as severe in condemnation
+as the later fathers (cf. Matt. xiii. 35-43; Tertullian,
+<i>Praescr.</i> 31). While the necessity of the heresies is admitted in
+accordance with 1 Cor. xi. 19, yet woe is pronounced on those
+who have introduced them, according to Matt. xviii. 7. (This
+application of these passages, however, is of altogether doubtful
+validity.) &ldquo;It was necessary,&rdquo; says Tertullian (<i>ibid.</i> 30), &ldquo;that
+the Lord should be betrayed; but woe to the traitor.&rdquo; The
+very worst motives, &ldquo;pride, disappointed ambition, sensual
+lust, and avarice,&rdquo; are recklessly imputed to the heretics; and
+no possibility of morally innocent doubt, difficulty or difference
+in thought is admitted. Origen and Augustine do, however,
+recognize that even false teachers may have good motives.
+While we must admit that there was a very serious peril to the
+thought and life of the Christian Church in the teaching thus
+denounced, yet we must not forget that for the most part these
+teachers are known to us only in the <i>ex parte</i> representation that
+their opponents have given of them; and we must not assume
+that even their doctrines, still less their characters, were so bad
+as they are described.</p>
+
+<p>The attitude of the church in the post-Nicene period differs
+from that in the ante-Nicene in two important respects. (1)
+As has already been indicated, the earlier heresies threatened to
+introduce Jewish or pagan elements into the faith of the church,
+and it was necessary that they should be vigorously resisted
+if the church was to retain its distinctive character. Many of
+the later heresies were differences in the interpretation of Christian
+truth, which did not in the same way threaten the very life of
+the church. No vital interest of Christian faith justified the
+extravagant denunciations in which theological partisanship
+so recklessly and ruthlessly indulged. (2) In the ante-Nicene
+period only ecclesiastical penalties, such as reproof, deposition
+or excommunication, could be imposed. In the post-Nicene the
+union of church and state transformed theological error into
+legal offence (see below).</p>
+
+<p>We must now consider the definition of heresy which was
+gradually reached in the Christian Church. It is &ldquo;a religious
+error held in wilful and persistent opposition to the
+truth after it has been defined and declared by the
+<span class="sidenote">Christian definition.</span>
+church in an authoritative manner,&rdquo; or &ldquo;pertinax
+defensio dogmatis ecclesiae universalis judicio condemnati&rdquo;
+(Schaff&rsquo;s <i>Ante-Nicene</i> Christianity, ii. 512-516).
+(i.) It &ldquo;denotes an opinion antagonistic to a fundamental
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page359" id="page359"></a>359</span>
+article of the Christian faith,&rdquo; due to the introduction of &ldquo;foreign
+elements&rdquo; and resulting in a perversion of Christianity, and an
+amalgamation with it of ideas discordant with its nature (Fisher&rsquo;s
+<i>History of Christian Doctrine</i>, p. 9). It has been generally
+assumed that the ecclesiastical authority was always competent
+to determine what are the fundamental articles of the Christian
+faith, and to detect any departures from them; but it is necessary
+to admit the possibility that the error was in the church, and the
+truth was with the heresy. (ii.) There cannot be any heresy
+where there is no orthodoxy, and, therefore, in the definition
+it is assumed that the church has declared what is the truth
+or the error in any matter. Accordingly &ldquo;heresy is to be
+distinguished from defective stages of Christian knowledge.
+For example, the Jewish believers, including the Apostles
+themselves, at the outset required the Gentile believers to be
+circumcised. They were not on this account chargeable with
+heresy. Additional light must first come in, and be rejected,
+before that earlier opinion could be thus stigmatized. Moreover,
+heresies are not to be confounded with tentative and faulty
+hypotheses broached in a period prior to the scrutiny of a topic
+of Christian doctrine, and before that scrutiny has led the general
+mind to an assured conclusion. Such hypotheses&mdash;for example,
+the idea that in the person of Christ the Logos is substituted
+for a rational human spirit&mdash;are to be met with in certain early
+fathers&rdquo; (<i>ibid.</i> p. 10). Origen indulged in many speculations
+which were afterwards condemned, but, as these matters were
+still open questions in his day, he was not reckoned a heretic.
+(iii.) In accordance with the New Testament use of the term
+heresy, it is assumed that moral defect accompanies the intellectual
+error, that the false view is held pertinaciously, in spite
+of warning, remonstrance and rebuke; aggressively to win
+over others, and so factiously, to cause division in the church,
+a breach in its unity.</p>
+
+<p>A distinction is made between &ldquo;heresy&rdquo; and &ldquo;schism&rdquo;
+(from Gr. <span class="grk" title="schizein">&#963;&#967;&#943;&#950;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, rend asunder, divide). &ldquo;The fathers
+commonly use &lsquo;heresy&rsquo; of false teaching in opposition
+to Catholic doctrine, and &lsquo;schism&rsquo; of a breach of
+<span class="sidenote">Schism.</span>
+discipline, in opposition to Catholic government&rdquo; (Schaff). But
+as the claims of the church to be the guardian through its
+episcopate of the apostolic tradition, of the Christian faith
+itself, were magnified, and unity in practice as well as in doctrine
+came to be regarded as essential, this distinction became a
+theoretical rather than a practical one. While severely condemning,
+both Irenaeus and Tertullian distinguished schismatics
+from heretics. &ldquo;Though we are by no means entitled to say
+that they acknowledged orthodox schismatics they did not yet
+venture to reckon them simply as heretics. If it was desired
+to get rid of these, an effort was made to impute to them some
+deviation from the rule of faith; and under this pretext the
+church freed herself from the Montanists and the Monarchians.
+Cyprian was the first to proclaim the identity of heretics and
+schismatics by making a man&rsquo;s Christianity depend on his
+belonging to the great episcopal church confederation. But
+in both East and West, this theory of his became established
+only by very imperceptible degrees, and indeed, strictly speaking,
+the process was never completed. The distinction between
+heretics and schismatics was preserved because it prevented a
+public denial of the old principles, because it was advisable
+on political grounds to treat certain schismatic communities
+with indulgence, and because it was always possible in case of
+need to prove heresy against the schismatics.&rdquo; (Harnack&rsquo;s
+<i>History of Dogma</i>, ii. 92-93).</p>
+
+<p>There was considerable controversy in the early church as
+to the validity of heretical baptism. As even &ldquo;the Christian
+virtues of the heretics were described as hypocrisy
+and love of ostentation,&rdquo; so no value whatever was
+<span class="sidenote">Heretical baptism.</span>
+attached by the orthodox party to the sacraments
+performed by heretics. Tertullian declares that the church
+can have no communion with the heretics, for there is nothing
+common; as they have not the same God, and the same Christ,
+so they have not the same baptism (<i>De bapt.</i> 15). Cyprian
+agreed with him. The validity of heretical baptism was denied
+by the church of Asia Minor as well as of Africa; but the practice
+of the Roman Church was to admit without second baptism
+heretics who had been baptized with the name of Christ, or of
+the Holy Trinity. Stephen of Rome attempted to force the
+Roman practice on the whole church in 253. The controversy
+his intolerance provoked was closed by Augustine&rsquo;s controversial
+treatise <i>De Baptismo</i>, in which the validity of baptism administered
+by heretics is based on the objectivity of the sacrament.
+Whenever the name of the three-one God is used, the
+sacrament is declared valid by whomsoever it may be performed.
+This was a triumph of sacramentarianism, not of charity.</p>
+
+<p>Three types of heresy have appeared in the history of the
+Christian Church.<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The earliest may be called the <i>syncretic</i>;
+it is the fusion of Jewish or pagan with Christian
+elements. <i>Ebionitism</i> asserted &ldquo;the continual obligation
+<span class="sidenote">Types of heresy.</span>
+to observe the whole of the Mosaic law,&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;outran the Old Testament monotheism by a barren monarchianism
+that denied the divinity of Christ&rdquo; (Kurtz, <i>Church History</i>,
+i. 120). &ldquo;<i>Gnosticism</i> was the result of the attempt to blend
+with Christianity the religious notions of pagan mythology,
+mysterology, theosophy and philosophy&rdquo; (p. 98). The Judaizing
+and the paganizing tendency were combined in <i>Gnostic Ebionitism</i>
+which was prepared for in <i>Jewish Essenism</i>. In the later heresy
+of <i>Manichaeism</i> there were affinities to Gnosticism, but it was
+a mixture of many elements, Babylonian-Chaldaic theosophy,
+Persian dualism and even Buddhist ethics (p. 126).</p>
+
+<p>The next type of heresy may be called <i>evolutionary</i> or <i>formatory</i>.
+When the Christian faith is being formulated, undue emphasis
+may be put on one aspect, and thus so partial a statement of
+truth may result in error. Thus when in the ante-Nicene age
+the doctrine of the Trinity was under discussion, dynamic
+<i>Monarchianism</i> &ldquo;regarded Christ as a mere man, who, like the
+prophets, though in a much higher measure, had been endued
+with divine wisdom and power&rdquo;; modal <i>Monarchianism</i> saw
+in the Logos dwelling in Christ &ldquo;only a mode of the activity of
+the Father&rdquo;; <i>Patripassianism</i> identified the Logos with the
+Father; and <i>Sabellianism</i> regarded Father, Son and Spirit
+as &ldquo;the <i>rôles</i> which the God who manifests Himself in the world
+assumes in succession&rdquo; (Kurtz, <i>Church History</i>, i. 175-181).
+When Arius asserted the subordination of the Son to the Father,
+and denied the eternal generation, Athanasius and his party
+asserted the <i>Homoousia</i>, the cosubstantiality of the Father and
+the Son. This assertion of the divinity of Christ triumphed,
+but other problems at once emerged. How was the relation
+of the humanity to the divinity in Christ to be conceived?
+Apollinaris denied the completeness of the human nature, and
+substituted the divine Logos for the reasonable soul of man.
+Nestorius held the two natures so far apart as to appear to sacrifice
+the unity of the person of Christ. Eutyches on the contrary
+&ldquo;taught not only that after His incarnation Christ had only
+one nature, but also that the body of Christ as the body of God
+is not of like substance with our own&rdquo; (Kurtz, <i>Church History</i>,
+i, 330-334). The Church in the Creed of Chalcedon in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 451
+affirmed &ldquo;that Christ is true God and true man, according to
+His Godhead begotten from eternity and like the Father in
+everything, only without sin; and that after His incarnation
+the unity of the person consists in two natures which are conjoined
+without confusion, and without change, but also without
+rending and without separation.&rdquo; The problem was not solved,
+but the inadequate solutions were excluded, and the data to be
+considered in any adequate solution were affirmed. After this
+decision the controversies about the Person of Christ degenerated
+into mere hair-splitting; and the interference of the imperial
+authority from time to time in the dispute was not conducive
+to the settlement of the questions in the interests of truth alone.
+This problem interested the East for the most part; in the
+West there was waged a theological warfare around the nature
+of man and the work of Christ. To Augustine&rsquo;s doctrine of man&rsquo;s
+total depravity, his incapacity for any good, and the absolute
+sovereignty of the divine grace in salvation according to the
+divine election, Pelagius opposed the view that &ldquo;God&rsquo;s grace
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page360" id="page360"></a>360</span>
+is destined for all men, but man must make himself worthy
+of it by honest striving after virtue&rdquo; (Kurtz, <i>Church History</i>,
+i. 348). While Pelagius was condemned, it was only a modified
+Augustinianism which became the doctrine of the church. It is
+not necessary in illustration of the second type of heresy&mdash;that
+which arises when the contents of the Christian faith are being
+defined&mdash;to refer to the doctrinal controversies of the middle
+ages. It may be added that after the Reformation Arianism
+was revived in Socinianism, and Pelagianism in Arminianism;
+but the conception of heresy in Protestantism demands subsequent
+notice.</p>
+
+<p>The third type of heresy is the <i>revolutionary</i> or <i>reformatory</i>.
+This is not directed against doctrine as such, but against the
+church, its theory and its practice. Such movements of antagonism
+to the errors or abuses of ecclesiastical authority may be
+so permeated by defective conceptions and injurious influences
+as by their own character to deserve condemnation. But on
+the other hand the church in maintaining its place and power
+may condemn as heretical genuine efforts at reform by a return,
+though partial, to the standard set by the Holy Scriptures or the
+Apostolic Church. On the one hand there were during the
+middle ages sects, like the Catharists and Albigenses, whose
+&ldquo;opposition as a rule developed itself from dualistic or pantheistic
+premises (surviving effects of old Gnostic or Manichaean
+views)&rdquo; and who &ldquo;stood outside of ordinary Christendom,
+and while no doubt affecting many individual members within
+it, had no influence on church doctrine.&rdquo; On the other hand
+there were movements, such as the Waldensian, the Wycliffite
+and Hussite, which are often described as &ldquo;reformations anticipating
+the Reformation&rdquo; which &ldquo;set out from the Augustinian
+conception of the Church, but took exception to the development
+of the conception,&rdquo; and were pronounced by the medieval
+church as heretical for (1) &ldquo;contesting the hierarchical gradation
+of the priestly order; or (2) giving to the religious idea of the
+Church implied in the thought of predestination a place superior
+to the conception of the empirical Church; or (3) applying to
+the priests, and thereby to the authorities of the Church, the
+test of the law of God, before admitting their right to exercise,
+as holding the keys, the power of binding and loosing&rdquo; (Harnack&rsquo;s
+<i>History of Dogma</i>, vi. 136-137). The Reformation itself was
+from the standpoint of the Roman Catholic Church heresy and
+schism.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;In the present divided state of Christendom,&rdquo; says Schaff
+(<i>Ante-Nicene Christianity</i>, ii. 513-514), &ldquo;there are different
+kinds of orthodoxy and heresy. Orthodoxy is conformity
+to the recognized creed or standard of public
+<span class="sidenote">Modern use of the term.</span>
+doctrine; heresy is a wilful departure from it. The
+Greek Church rejects as heretical, because contrary
+to the teaching of the first seven ecumenical councils, the Roman
+dogmas of the papacy, of the double procession of the Holy
+Ghost, the immaculate conception of the Virgin Mary, and the
+infallibility of the Pope. The Roman Church anathematized,
+in the council of Trent, all the distinctive doctrines of the Protestant
+Reformation. Among Protestant churches again there
+are minor doctrinal differences, which are held with various
+degrees of exclusiveness or liberality according to the degree
+of departure from the Roman Catholic Church. Luther, for
+instance, would not tolerate Zwingli&rsquo;s view on the Lord&rsquo;s Supper,
+while Zwingli was willing to fraternize with him notwithstanding
+this difference.&rdquo; At the colloquy of Marburg &ldquo;Zwingli offered
+his hand to Luther with the entreaty that they be at least
+Christian brethren, but Luther refused it and declared that the
+Swiss were of another spirit. He expressed surprise that a man
+of such views as Zwingli should wish brotherly relations with the
+Wittenberg reformers&rdquo; (Walker, <i>The Reformation</i>, p. 174).
+A difference of opinion on the question of the presence of Christ
+in the elements at the Lord&rsquo;s Supper was thus allowed to divide
+and to weaken the forces of the Reformation. On the problem
+of divine election Lutheranism and Calvinism remained divided.
+The Formula of Concord (1577), which gave to the whole Lutheran
+Church of Germany a common doctrinal system, declined to
+accept the Calvinistic position that man&rsquo;s condemnation as well
+as his salvation is an object of divine predestination. Within
+Calvinism itself Pelagianism was revived in Arminianism,
+which denied the irresistibility, and affirmed the universality
+of grace. This heresy was condemned by the synod of Dort
+(1619). The standpoint of the Reformed churches was the
+substitution of the authority of the Scriptures for the authority
+of the church. Whatever was conceived as contrary to the
+teaching of the Bible was regarded as heresy. The position is
+well expressed in the <i>Scotch Confession</i> (1559). &ldquo;Protesting,
+that if any man will note in this our Confession any article or
+sentence repugning to God&rsquo;s Holy Word, that it would please
+him, of his gentleness, and for Christian charity&rsquo;s sake, to admonish
+us of the same in writ, and we of our honour and fidelity
+do promise unto him satisfaction from the mouth of God; that
+is, from His Holy Scripture, or else reformation of that which
+he shall prove to be amiss. In God we take to record in our
+consciences that from our hearts we abhor all sects of heresy,
+and all teachers of erroneous doctrines; and that with all
+humility we embrace purity of Christ&rsquo;s evangel, which is the only
+food of our souls&rdquo; (Preface).</p>
+
+<p>Although subsequently to the Reformation period the Protestant
+churches for the most part relapsed into the dogmatism
+of the Roman Catholic Church, and were ever ready with
+censure for every departure from orthodoxy&mdash;yet to-day a spirit
+of diffidence in regard to one&rsquo;s own beliefs, and of tolerance
+towards the beliefs of others, is abroad. The enlargement of
+the horizon of knowledge by the advance of science, the recognition
+of the only relative validity of human opinions and beliefs as
+determined by and adapted to each stage of human development,
+which is due to the growing historical sense, the alteration of
+view regarding the nature of inspiration, and the purpose of the
+Holy Scriptures, the revolt against all ecclesiastical authority,
+and the acceptance of reason and conscience as alone authoritative,
+the growth of the spirit of Christian charity, the clamorous
+demand of the social problem for immediate attention, all combine
+in making the Christian churches less anxious about the
+danger, and less zealous in the discovery and condemnation
+of heresy.</p>
+
+<p>Having traced the history of opinion in the Christian churches
+on the subject of heresy, we must now return to resume a subject
+already mentioned, the persecution of heretics.
+According to the Canon Law, which &ldquo;was the ecclesiastical
+<span class="sidenote">Persecution of heretics.</span>
+law of medieval Europe, and is still the law of
+the Roman Catholic Church,&rdquo; heresy was defined as
+&ldquo;error which is voluntarily held in contradiction to a doctrine
+which has been clearly stated in the creed, and has become part
+of the defined faith of the church,&rdquo; and which is &ldquo;persisted in by
+a member of the church.&rdquo; It was regarded not only as an error,
+but also as a crime to be detected and punished. As it belongs,
+however, to a man&rsquo;s thoughts and not his deeds, it often can be
+proved only from suspicions. The canonists define the degrees
+of suspicion as &ldquo;light&rdquo; calling for vigilance, &ldquo;vehement&rdquo;
+demanding denunciation, and &ldquo;violent&rdquo; requiring punishment.
+The grounds of suspicion have been formulated &ldquo;Pope Innocent
+III. declared that to lead a solitary life, to refuse to accommodate
+oneself to the prevailing manners of society and to frequent
+unauthorized religious meetings were abundant grounds of
+suspicion; while later canonists were accustomed to give lists
+of deeds which made the doers suspect: a priest who did not
+celebrate mass, a layman who was seen in clerical robes, those
+who favoured heretics, received them as guests, gave them safe
+conduct, tolerated them, trusted them, defended them, fought
+under them or read their books were all to be suspect&rdquo; (T. M.
+Lindsay in article &ldquo;Heresy,&rdquo; <i>Ency. Brit.</i> 9th edition). That
+the dangers of heresy might be avoided, laymen were forbidden
+to argue about matters of faith by Pope Alexander IV., an oath
+&ldquo;to abjure every heresy and to maintain in its completeness
+the Catholic faith&rdquo; was required by the council of Toledo (1129),
+the reading of the Scriptures in the vulgar tongue was not allowed
+to the laity by Pope Pius IV. The reading of books was restricted
+and certain books were prohibited. Regarding heresy as a crime,
+the church was not content with inflicting its spiritual penalties,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page361" id="page361"></a>361</span>
+such as excommunication and such civil disabilities as its own
+organization allowed it to impose (<i>e.g.</i> the heretics were forbidden
+to give evidence in ecclesiastical courts, fathers were forbidden
+to allow a son or a daughter to marry a heretic, and to hold
+social intercourse with a heretic was an offence). It regarded
+itself as justified in invoking the power of the state to suppress
+heresy by civil pains and penalties, including even torture and
+death.</p>
+
+<p>The story of the persecution of heretics by the state must be
+briefly sketched.</p>
+
+<p>As long as the Christian Church was itself persecuted by the
+pagan empire, it advocated freedom of conscience, and insisted
+that religion could be promoted only by instruction and persuasion
+(Justin Martyr, Tertullian, Lactantius); but almost
+immediately after Christianity was adopted as the religion of
+the Roman empire the persecution of men for religious opinions
+began. While Constantine at the beginning of his reign (313)
+declared complete religious liberty, and kept on the whole to
+this declaration, yet he confined his favours to the orthodox
+hierarchical church, and even by an edict of the year 326 formally
+asserted the exclusion from these of heretics and schismatics.
+Arianism, when favoured by the reigning emperor, showed itself
+even more intolerant than Catholic Orthodoxy. Theodosius
+the Great, in 380, soon after his baptism, issued, with his co-emperors,
+the following edict: &ldquo;We, the three emperors, will
+that all our subjects steadfastly adhere to the religion which was
+taught by St Peter to the Romans, which has been faithfully
+preserved by tradition, and which is now professed by the pontiff
+Damasus of Rome, and Peter, bishop of Alexandria, a man of
+apostolic holiness. According to the institution of the Apostles,
+and the doctrine of the Gospel, let us believe in the one Godhead
+of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost, of equal majesty
+in the Holy Trinity. We order that the adherents of this faith
+be called <i>Catholic Christians</i>; we brand all the senseless followers
+of the other religions with the infamous name of <i>heretics</i>, and
+forbid their conventicles assuming the name of churches. Besides
+the condemnation of divine justice, they must expect the heavy
+penalties which our authority, guided by heavenly wisdom,
+shall think proper to inflict&rdquo; (Schaff&rsquo;s <i>Nicene and Post-Nicene
+Christianity</i>, i. 142). The fifteen penal laws which this emperor
+issued in as many years deprived them of all right to the exercise
+of their religion, &ldquo;excluded them from all civil offices, and
+threatened them with fines, confiscation, banishment and even
+in some cases with death.&rdquo; In 385 Maximus, his rival and
+colleague, caused seven heretics to be put to death at Treves
+(Trier). Many bishops approved the act, but Ambrose of Milan
+and Martin of Tours condemned it. While Chrysostom disapproved
+of the execution of heretics, he approved &ldquo;the prohibition
+of their assemblies and the confiscation of their churches.&rdquo;
+Jerome by an appeal to Deut. xiii. 6-10 appears to defend even
+the execution of heretics. Augustine found a justification for
+these penal measures in the &ldquo;compel them to come in&rdquo; of
+Luke xiv. 23, although his personal leanings were towards
+clemency. Only the persecuted themselves insisted on toleration
+as a Christian duty. In the middle ages the church showed no
+hesitation about persecuting unto death all who dared to contradict
+her doctrine, or challenge her practice, or question her
+authority. The instruction and persuasion which St Bernard
+favoured found little imitation. Even the Dominicans, who
+began as a preaching order to convert heretics, soon became
+persecutors. In the Albigensian Crusade (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1209-1229)
+thousands were slaughtered. As the bishops were not zealous
+enough in enforcing penal laws against heretics, the Tribunal of
+the Inquisition was founded in 1232 by Gregory IX., and was
+entrusted to the Dominicans who &ldquo;as <i>Domini canes</i> subjected
+to the most cruel tortures all on whom the suspicion of heresy
+fell, and all the resolute were handed over to the civil authorities,
+who readily undertook their execution&rdquo; (Kurtz, <i>Church History</i>,
+ii. 137-138).</p>
+
+<p>At the Reformation Luther laid down the principle that the
+civil government is concerned with the province of the external
+and temporal life, and has nothing to do with faith and conscience.
+&ldquo;How could the emperor gain the right,&rdquo; he asks, &ldquo;to rule my
+faith?&rdquo; With that only the Word of God is concerned.
+&ldquo;Heresy is a spiritual thing,&rdquo; he says, &ldquo;which one cannot hew
+with any iron, burn with any fire, drown with any water. The
+Word of God alone is there to do it.&rdquo; Nevertheless Luther
+assigned to the state, which he assumes to be Christian, the
+function of maintaining the Gospel and the Word of God in
+public life. He was not quite consistent in carrying out his
+principle (see Luthard&rsquo;s <i>Geschichte der christlichen Ethik</i>, ii.
+33). In the Religious Peace of Augsburg the principle &ldquo;cujus
+regio ejus religio&rdquo; was accepted; by it a ruler&rsquo;s choice between
+Catholicism and Lutheranism bound his subjects, but any
+subject unwilling to accept the decision might emigrate without
+hindrance.</p>
+
+<p>In Geneva under Calvin, while the <i>Consistoire</i>, or ecclesiastical
+court, could inflict only spiritual penalties, yet the medieval
+idea of the duty of the state to co-operate with the church to
+maintain the religious purity of the community in matters of
+belief as well as of conduct so far survived that the civil authority
+was sure to punish those whom the ecclesiastical had censured.
+Calvin consented to the death of Servetus, whose views on the
+Trinity he regarded as most dangerous heresy, and whose denial
+of the full authority of the Scriptures he dreaded as overthrowing
+the foundations of all religious authority. Protestantism
+generally, it is to be observed, quite approved the execution of
+the heretic. The Synod of Dort (1619) not only condemned
+Arminianism, but its defenders were expelled from the Netherlands;
+only in 1625 did they venture to return, and not till 1630
+were they allowed to erect schools and churches. In modern
+Protestantism there is a growing disinclination to deal even with
+errors of belief by ecclesiastical censure; the appeal to the civil
+authority to inflict any penalty is abandoned. During the
+course of the 19th century in Scottish Presbyterianism the
+affirmation of Christ&rsquo;s atoning death for <i>all</i> men, the denial of
+eternal punishment, the modification of the doctrine of the
+inspiration of the Scriptures by acceptance of the results of the
+Higher Criticism, were all censured as perilous errors.</p>
+
+<p>The subject cannot be left without a brief reference to the
+persecution of witches. To the beginning of the 13th century
+the popular superstitions regarding sorcery, witchcraft and
+compacts with the devil were condemned by the ecclesiastical
+authorities as heathenish, sinful and heretical. But after the
+establishment of the Inquisition &ldquo;heresy and sorcery were
+regarded as correlates, like two agencies resting on and serviceable
+to the demoniacal powers, and were therefore treated in
+the same way as offences to be punished with torture and the
+stake&rdquo; (Kurtz, <i>Church History</i>, ii. 195). While the Franciscans
+rejected the belief in witchcraft, the Dominicans were most
+zealous in persecuting witches. In the 15th century this delusion,
+fostered by the ecclesiastical authorities, took possession of the
+mind of the people, and thousands, mostly old women, but also
+a number of girls, were tortured and burned as witches. Protestantism
+took over the superstition from Catholicism. It
+was defended by James I. of England. As late as the 18th
+century death was inflicted in Germany and Switzerland on men,
+women and even children accused of this crime. This superstition
+dominated Scotland. Not till 1736 were the statutes against
+witchcraft repealed; an act which the Associate Presbytery
+at Edinburgh in 1743 declared to be &ldquo;contrary to the express
+law of God, for which a holy God may be provoked in a way of
+righteous judgment.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The recognition and condemnation of errors in religious
+belief is by no means confined to the Christian Church. Only
+a few instances of heresy in other religions can be
+given. In regard to the fetishism of the Gold Coast
+<span class="sidenote">Non-Christian religions.</span>
+of Africa, Jevons (<i>Introduction to the History of
+Religion</i>, pp. 165-166) maintains that &ldquo;public opinion
+does not approve of the worship by an individual of a <i>suhman</i>,
+or private tutelary deity, and that his dealings with it are
+regarded in the nature of &lsquo;black art&rsquo; as it is not a god of
+the community.&rdquo; In China there is a &ldquo;classical or canonical,
+primitive and therefore alone orthodox (<i>tsching</i>) and true
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page362" id="page362"></a>362</span>
+religion,&rdquo; Confucianism and Taoism, while the &ldquo;heterodox
+(<i>sic</i>),&rdquo; Buddhism especially, is &ldquo;partly tolerated, but generally
+forbidden, and even cruelly persecuted&rdquo; (Chantepie de la
+Saussaye, <i>Religionsgeschichte</i>, i. 57). In Islam &ldquo;according
+to an unconfirmed tradition Mahomet is said to have foretold
+that his community would split into seventy-three sects (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mahommedan Religion</a></span>, § <i>Sects</i>), of which only one would
+escape the flames of hell.&rdquo; The first split was due to uncertainty
+regarding the principle which should rule the succession to the
+Caliphate. The Arabic and orthodox party (<i>i.e.</i> the Sunnites,
+who held by the Koran and tradition) maintained that this
+should be determined by the choice of the community. The
+Persian and heterodox party (the Shiites) insisted on heredity.
+But this political difference was connected with theological
+differences. The sect of the Mu&rsquo;tazilites which affirmed that the
+Koran had been created, and denied predestination, began to
+be persecuted by the government in the 9th century, and
+discussion of religious questions was forbidden (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Caliphate</a></span>,
+sections B and C). The mystical tendency in Islam, Sufism, is
+also regarded as heretical (see Kuenen&rsquo;s Hibbert Lecture, pp.
+45-50). Buddhism is a wide departure in doctrine and practice
+from Brahmanism, and hence after a swift unfolding and quick
+spread it was driven out of India and had to find a home in
+other lands. Essenism from the standpoint of Judaism was
+heterodox in two respects, the abandonment of animal sacrifices
+and the adoration of the sun.</p>
+
+<p>Although in Greece there was generally wide tolerance, yet
+in 399 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Socrates &ldquo;was indicted as an irreligious man, a
+corrupter of youth, and an innovator in worship.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Besides the works quoted above, see Gottfried Arnold&rsquo;s <i>Unparteiische
+Kirchen- und Ketzer-Historie</i> (1699-1700; ed. Schaffhausen,
+1740). A very good list of writers on heresy, ancient and medieval,
+is given in Burton&rsquo;s <i>Bampton Lectures on Heresies of the Apostolic Age</i>
+(1829). The various Trinitarian and Christological heresies may be
+studied in Dorner&rsquo;s <i>History of the Doctrine of the Person of Christ</i> (1845-1856;
+Eng. trans., 1861-1862); the Gnostic and Manichaean heresies
+in the works of Mansel, Matter and Beausobre; the medieval heresies
+in Hahn&rsquo;s <i>Geschichte der Ketzer im Mittelalter</i> (1846-1850), and
+Preger&rsquo;s <i>Geschichte der deutschen Mystik</i> (1875); Quietism in Heppe&rsquo;s
+<i>Geschichte der quietistischen Mystik</i> (1875); the Pietist sects in
+Palmer&rsquo;s <i>Gemeinschaften und Secten Württembergs</i> (1875); the
+Reformation and 17th-century heresies and sects in the <i>Anabaptisticum
+et enthusiasticum Pantheon und geistliches Rüst-Haus</i> (1702).
+Böhmer&rsquo;s <i>Jus ecclesiasticum Protestantium</i> (1714-1723), and van
+Espen&rsquo;s <i>Jus ecclesiasticum</i> (1702) detail at great length the relations
+of heresy to canon and civil law. On the question of the baptism
+of heretics see Smith and Cheetham&rsquo;s <i>Dict. of Eccl. Antiquities</i>,
+&ldquo;Baptism, Iteration of&rdquo;; and on that of the readmission of heretics
+into the church, compare Martene, <i>De ritibus</i>, and Morinus, <i>De
+poenitentia</i>.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. E. G.*)</div>
+
+<p><i>Heresy according to the Law of England.</i>&mdash;The highest point reached
+by the ecclesiastical power in England was in the Act <i>De Haeretico
+comburendo</i> (2 Henry IV. c. 15). Some have supposed that a writ
+of that name is as old as the common law, but its execution might
+be arrested by a pardon from the crown. The Act of Henry IV.
+enabled the diocesan alone, without the co-operation of a synod,
+to pronounce sentence of heresy, and required the sheriff to execute
+it by burning the offender, without waiting for the consent of the
+crown.<a name="fa2j" id="fa2j" href="#ft2j"><span class="sp">2</span></a> A large number of penal statutes were enacted in the
+following reigns, and the statute 1 Eliz. c. 1 is regarded by lawyers as
+limiting for the first time the description of heresy to tenets declared
+heretical either by the canonical Scripture or by the first four general
+councils, or such as should thereafter be so declared by parliament
+with the assent of Convocation. The writ was abolished by 29 Car. II.
+c. 9, which reserved to the ecclesiastical courts their jurisdiction over
+heresy and similar offences, and their power of awarding punishments
+not extending to death. Heresy became henceforward a purely
+ecclesiastical offence, although disabling laws of various kinds
+continued to be enforced against Jews, Catholics and other dissenters.
+The temporal courts have no knowledge of any offence known as
+heresy, although incidentally (<i>e.g.</i> in questions of copyright) they
+have refused protection to persons promulgating irreligious or
+blasphemous opinions. As an ecclesiastical offence it would at this
+moment be almost impossible to say what opinion, in the case of a
+layman at least, would be deemed heretical. Apparently, if a proper
+case could be made out, an ecclesiastical court might still sentence
+a layman to excommunication for heresy, but by no other means
+could his opinions be brought under censure. The last case on the
+subject (Jenkins <i>v.</i> Cook, <i>L.R.</i> 1 P.D. 80) leaves the matter in the
+same uncertainty. In that case a clergyman refused the communion
+to a parishioner who denied the personality of the devil. The judicial
+committee held that the rights of the parishioners are expressly
+defined in the statute of I Edw. VI. c. i, and, without admitting that
+the canons of the church, which are not binding on the laity, could
+specify a lawful cause for rejection, held that no lawful cause within
+the meaning of either the canons or the rubric had been shown.
+It was maintained at the bar that the denial of the most fundamental
+doctrines of Christianity would not be a lawful cause for such
+rejection, but the judgment only queries whether a denial of the
+personality of the devil or eternal punishment is consistent with
+membership of the church. The right of every layman to the offices
+of the church is established by statute without reference to opinions,
+and it is not possible to say what opinions, if any, would operate to
+disqualify him.</p>
+
+<p>The case of clergymen is entirely different. The statute 13 Eliz.
+c. 12, § 2, enacts that &ldquo;if any person ecclesiastical, or which shall
+have an ecclesiastical living, shall advisedly maintain or affirm any
+doctrine directly contrary or repugnant to any of the said articles,
+and by conventicle before the bishop of the diocese, or the ordinary,
+or before the queen&rsquo;s highness&rsquo;s commissioners in matters ecclesiastical,
+shall persist therein or not revoke his error, or after such revocation
+eftsoons affirm such untrue doctrine,&rdquo; he shall be deprived of
+his ecclesiastical promotions. The act it will be observed applies
+only to clergymen, and the punishment is strictly limited to deprivation
+of benefice. The judicial committee of the privy council, as
+the last court of appeal, has on several occasions pronounced judgments
+by which the scope of the act has been confined to its narrowest
+legal effect. The court will construe the Articles of Religion and
+formularies according to the <i>legal rules for the interpretation of statutes
+and written instruments</i>. No rule of doctrine is to be ascribed to the
+church which is not distinctly and expressly stated or plainly involved
+in the <i>written law of the Church</i>, and where there is no rule, a clergyman
+may express his opinion without fear of penal consequences.
+In the <i>Essays and Reviews</i> cases (Williams <i>v.</i> the Bishop of Salisbury,
+and Wilson <i>v.</i> Fendall, 2 <i>Moo.</i> P.C.C., N.S. 375) it was held to be
+not penal for a clergyman to speak of merit by transfer as a &ldquo;fiction,&rdquo;
+or to express a hope of the ultimate pardon of the wicked, or to
+affirm that any part of the Old or New Testament, however unconnected
+with religious faith or moral duty, was not written under
+the inspiration of the Holy Spirit. In the case of Noble <i>v.</i> Voysey
+(<i>L.R.</i> 3 P.C. 357) in 1871 the committee held that it was not bound
+to affix a meaning to articles of really dubious import, as it
+would have been in cases affecting property. At the same time
+any manifest contradiction of the Articles, or any obvious evasion
+of them, would subject the offender to the penalties of deprivation.
+In some of the cases the question has been raised how far the doctrine
+of the church could be ascertained by reference to the opinions
+generally expressed by divines belonging to its communion. Such
+opinions, it would seem, might be taken into account as showing the
+extent of liberty which had been in practice, claimed and exercised
+on the interpretation of the articles, but would certainly not be
+allowed to increase their stringency. It is not the business of the
+court to pronounce upon the absolute truth or falsehood of any given
+opinion, but simply to say whether it is formally consistent with the
+legal doctrines of the Church of England. Whether Convocation
+has any jurisdiction in cases of heresy is a question which has
+occasioned some difference of opinion among lawyers. Hale, as
+quoted by Phillimore (<i>Ecc. Law</i>), says that before the time of Richard
+II., that is, before any acts of Parliament were made about heretics,
+it is without question that in a convocation of the clergy or provincial
+synod &ldquo;they might and frequently did here in England proceed to
+the sentencing of heretics.&rdquo; But later writers, while adhering to the
+statement that Convocation might declare opinions to be heretical,
+doubted whether it could proceed to punish the offender, even when
+he was a clerk in orders. Phillimore states that there is no longer
+any doubt, even apart from the effect of the Church Discipline Act
+1840, that Convocation has no power to condemn clergymen for
+heresy. The supposed right of Convocation to stamp heretical
+opinions with its disapproval was exercised on a somewhat memorable
+occasion. In 1864 the Convocation of the province of Canterbury,
+having taken the opinion of two of the most eminent lawyers of the
+day (Sir Hugh Cairns and Sir John Rolt), passed judgment upon
+the volume entitled <i>Essays and Reviews</i>. The judgment purported
+to &ldquo;synodically condemn the said volume as containing teaching
+contrary to the doctrine received by the United Church of England
+and Ireland, in common with the whole Catholic Church of Christ.&rdquo;
+These proceedings were challenged in the House of Lords by Lord
+Houghton, and the lord chancellor (Westbury), speaking on behalf
+of the government, stated that if there was any &ldquo;synodical judgment&rdquo;
+it would be a violation of the law, subjecting those concerned in it
+to the penalties of a <i>praemunire</i>, but that the sentence in question,
+was &ldquo;simply nothing, literally no sentence at all.&rdquo; It is thus at
+least doubtful whether Convocation has a right even to express an
+opinion unless specially authorized to do so by the crown, and it is
+certain that it cannot do anything more. Heresy or no heresy, in
+the last resort, like all other ecclesiastical questions, is decided by
+the judicial committee of the council.</p>
+
+<p>The English lawyers, following the Roman law, distinguish
+between heresy and apostasy. The latter offence is dealt with by an
+act which still stands on the statute book, although it has long been
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page363" id="page363"></a>363</span>
+virtually obsolete&mdash;the 9 &amp; 10 Will. III. c. 35. If any person <i>who has
+been educated in or has professed the Christian religion</i> shall, by writing,
+printing, teaching, or advised speaking, assert or maintain that there
+are more Gods than one, or shall deny any of the persons of the Holy
+Trinity to be God, or shall deny the Christian religion to be true or the
+Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testament to be of divine
+authority, he shall for the first offence be declared incapable of
+holding any ecclesiastical, civil, or military office or employment,
+and for the second incapable of bringing any action, or of being
+guardian, executor, legatee, or grantee, and shall suffer three years&rsquo;
+imprisonment without bail. Unitarians were saved from these
+atrocious penalties by a later act (53 Geo. III. c. 160), which permits
+Christians to deny any of the persons in the Trinity without penal
+consequences.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For fuller details see separate articles.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2j" id="ft2j" href="#fa2j"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Stephen&rsquo;s <i>Commentaries</i>, bk. iv. ch. 7.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HEREWARD,<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> usually but erroneously styled &ldquo;the Wake&rdquo;
+(an addition of later days), an Englishman famous for his resistance
+to William the Conqueror. It is now established that
+he was a tenant of Peterborough Abbey, from which he held
+lands at Witham-on-the-Hill and Barholme with Stow in the
+south-western corner of Lincolnshire, and of Crowland Abbey
+at Rippingale in the neighbouring fenland. His first authentic
+act is the storm and sacking of Peterborough in 1070, in company
+with outlaws and Danish invaders. The next year he took part
+in the desperate stand against the Conqueror&rsquo;s rule made in
+the isle of Ely, and, on its capture by the Normans, escaped
+with his followers through the fens. That his exploits made
+an exceptional impression on the popular mind is certain from
+the mass of legendary history that clustered round his name;
+he became, says Mr Davis, &ldquo;in popular eyes the champion of
+the English national cause.&rdquo; The Hereward legend has been
+fully dealt with by him and by Professor Freeman, who observed
+that &ldquo;with no name has fiction been more busy.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See E. A. Freeman, <i>History of the Norman Conquest</i>, vol. iv.;
+J. H. Round, <i>Feudal England</i>; H. W. C. Davis, <i>England under the
+Normans and Angevins</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. H. R.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERFORD,<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> a town in the Prussian province of Westphalia,
+situated at the confluence of the Werre and Aa, on the Minden
+&amp; Cologne railway, 9 m. N.E. of Bielefeld, and at the junction
+of the railway to Detmold and Altenbeken. Pop. (1885) 15,902;
+(1905) 24,821. It possesses six Evangelical churches, notably the
+Münsterkirche, a Romanesque building with a Gothic apse of the
+15th century; the Marienkirche, in the Gothic style; and the
+Johanniskirche, with a steeple 280 ft. high. The other principal
+buildings are the Roman Catholic church, the synagogue, the
+gymnasium founded in 1540, the agricultural school and the
+theatre. There is a statue of Frederick William of Brandenburg.
+The industries include cotton and flax-spinning, and the manufacture
+of linen cloth, carpets, furniture, machinery, sugar,
+tobacco and leather.</p>
+
+<p>Herford owes its origin to a Benedictine nunnery which is
+said to have been founded in 832, and was confirmed by the
+emperor Louis the Pious in 839. From the emperor Frederick
+I. the abbess obtained princely rank and a seat in the imperial
+diet. Among the abbesses was the celebrated Elizabeth (1618-1680),
+eldest daughter of the elector palatine Frederick V., who
+was a philosophical princess, and a pupil of Descartes. Under
+her rule the sect of the Labadists settled for some time in Herford.
+The foundation was secularized in 1803. Herford was a member
+of the Hanseatic League, and its suzerainty passed in 1547 from
+the abbesses to the dukes of Juliers. In 1631 it became a free
+imperial town, but in 1647 it was subjugated by the elector of
+Brandenburg. It came into the possession of Westphalia in
+1807, and in 1813 into that of Prussia.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See L. Hölscher, <i>Reformationsgeschichte der Stadt Herford</i> (Gütersloh,
+1888).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERGENRÖTHER, JOSEPH VON<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> (1824-1890), German
+theologian, was born at Würzburg in Bavaria on the 15th of
+September 1824. He studied at Würzburg and at Rome.
+After spending a year as parish priest at Zellingen, near his
+native city, he went, in 1850, at his bishop&rsquo;s command, to the
+university of Munich, where he took his degree of doctor of
+theology the same year, becoming in 1851 <i>Privatdozent</i>, and in
+1855 professor of ecclesiastical law and history. At Munich
+he gained the reputation of being one of the most learned
+theologians on the Ultramontane side of the Infallibility question,
+which had begun to be discussed; and in 1868 he was sent to
+Rome to arrange the proceedings of the Vatican Council. He
+was a stanch supporter of the infallibility dogma; and in 1870
+he wrote <i>Anti-Janus</i>, an answer to <i>The Pope and the Council</i>,
+by &ldquo;Janus&rdquo; (Döllinger and J. Friedrich), which made a great
+sensation at the time. In 1877 he was made prelate of the
+papal household; he became cardinal deacon in 1879, and was
+afterwards made curator of the Vatican archives. He died in
+Rome on the 3rd of October 1890.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Hergenröther&rsquo;s first published work was a dissertation on the
+doctrine of the Trinity according to Gregory Nazianzen (Regensburg,
+1850), and from this time onward his literary activity was immense.
+After several articles and brochures on Hippolytus and the question
+of the authorship of the <i>Philosophumena</i>, he turned to the study of
+Photius, patriarch of Constantinople, and the history of the Greek
+schism. For twelve years he was engaged upon this work, the
+result being his monumental <i>Photius, Patriarch von Constantinopel.
+Sein Leben, seine Schriften und das griechische Schisma</i> (3 vols.,
+Regensburg, 1867-1869); an additional volume (1869) gave, under
+the title <i>Monumenta Graeca ad Photium ... pertinentia</i>, a collection
+of the unpublished documents on which the work was largely based.
+Of Hergenröther&rsquo;s other works, the most important are his history
+of the Papal States since the Revolution (<i>Der Kirchenstaat seit der
+französischen Revolution</i>, Freiburg i. B., 1860; Fr. trans., Leipzig,
+1860), his great work on the relations of church and state (<i>Katholische
+Kirche und christlicher Staat in ihrer geschichtlichen Entwickelung
+und in Beziehung auf Fragen der Gegenwart</i>, 2 parts, Freiburg i. B.,
+1872; 2nd ed. expanded, 1876; Eng. trans., London, 1876, Baltimore,
+1889), and his universal church history (<i>Handbuch der allgemeinen
+Kirchengeschichte</i>, 3 vols., Freiburg i. B., 1876-1880; 2nd
+ed., 1879, &amp;c.; 3rd ed., 1884-1886; 4th ed., by Peter Kirsch,
+1902, &amp;c.; French trans., Paris, 1880, &amp;c.). He also found time
+for a while to edit the new edition of Wetzer and Welte&rsquo;s <i>Kirchenlexikon</i>
+(1877), to superintend the publication of part of the <i>Regesta</i>
+of Pope Leo X. (Freiburg i. B., 1884-1885), and to add two volumes to
+Hefele&rsquo;s <i>Conciliengeschichte</i> (<i>ib.</i>, 1887 and 1890).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERINGSDORF,<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span> a seaside resort of Germany, in the Prussian
+province of Pomerania, on the north coast of the island of
+Usedom, 5 m. by rail N.W. of Swinemünde. It is surrounded by
+beech woods, and is perhaps the most popular seaside resort
+on the German shore of the Baltic, being frequented by some
+12,000 visitors annually.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERIOT, GEORGE<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> (1563-1623), the founder of Heriot&rsquo;s
+Hospital, Edinburgh, was descended from an old Haddington
+family; his father, a goldsmith in Edinburgh, represented
+the city in the Scottish parliament. George was born in 1563,
+and after receiving a good education was apprenticed to his
+father&rsquo;s trade. In 1586 he married the daughter of a deceased
+Edinburgh merchant, and with the assistance of her patrimony
+set up in business on his own account. At first he occupied a
+small &ldquo;buith&rdquo; at the north-east corner of St Giles&rsquo;s church,
+and afterwards a more pretentious shop at the west end of the
+building. To the business of a goldsmith he joined that of a
+money-lender, and in 1597 he had acquired such a reputation
+that he was appointed goldsmith to Queen Anne, consort of
+James VI. In 1601 he became jeweller to the king, and followed
+him to London, occupying a shop opposite the Exchange. Heriot
+was largely indebted for his fortune to the extravagance of the
+queen, and the imitation of this extravagance by the nobility.
+Latterly he had such an extensive business as a jeweller that
+on one occasion a government proclamation was issued calling
+upon all the magistrates of the kingdom to aid him in securing
+the workmen he required. He died in London on the 10th of
+February 1623. In 1608, having some time previously lost his
+first wife, he married Alison Primrose, daughter of James
+Primrose, grandfather of the first earl of Rosebery, but she died
+in 1612; by neither marriage had he any issue. The surplus
+of his estate, after deducting legacies to his nearest relations
+and some of his more intimate friends, was bequeathed to found
+a hospital for the education of freemen&rsquo;s sons of the town of
+Edinburgh; and its value afterwards increased so greatly as to
+supply funds for the erection of several Heriot foundation
+schools in different parts of the city.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Heriot takes a leading part in Scott&rsquo;s novel, <i>The Fortunes of Nigel</i>
+(see also the Introduction). A <i>History of Heriot&rsquo;s Hospital, with
+a Memoir of the Founder</i>, by William Steven, D.D., appeared in
+1827; 2nd ed. 1859.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page364" id="page364"></a>364</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERIOT,<a name="ar160" id="ar160"></a></span> by derivation the arms and equipment (<i>geatwa</i>) of a
+soldier or army (<i>here</i>); the O. Eng. word is thus here-geatwa.
+The lord of a fee provided his tenant with arms and a horse,
+either as a gift or loan, which he was to use in the military
+service paid by him. On the death of the tenant the lord claimed
+the return of the equipment. When by the 10th century land
+was being given instead of arms, the heriot was still paid, but
+more in the nature of a &ldquo;relief&rdquo; (<i>q.v.</i>). There seems to have
+been some connexion between the payment of the heriot and
+the power of making a will (F. W. Maitland, <i>Domesday Book
+and Beyond</i>, p. 298). By the 13th century the payment was
+made either in money or in kind by the handing over of the best
+beast or of the best other chattel of the tenant (see Pollock and
+Maitland, <i>History of English Law</i>, i. 270 sq.). For the
+manorial law relating to heriots, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Copyhold</a></span>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERISAU,<a name="ar161" id="ar161"></a></span> the largest town in the entire Swiss canton of
+Appenzell, built on the Glatt torrent, and by light railway
+7 m. south-west of St Gall or 13½ m. north of Appenzell. In
+1900 it had 13,497 inhabitants, mainly Protestant and German-speaking.
+The lower portion of the massive tower of the parish
+church (Protestant) dates from the 11th century or even earlier.
+It is a prosperous little industrial town in the Ausser Rhoden
+half of the canton, especially busied with the manufacture of
+embroidery by machinery, and of muslins. Near it is the
+goats&rsquo; whey cure establishment of Heinrichsbad, and the two
+castles of Rosenberg and Rosenburg, ruined in 1403 when the
+land rose against its lord, the abbot of St Gall. About 5 m.
+to the south-east is Hundwil, a village of 1523 inhabitants,
+where the <i>Landsgemeinde</i> of Ausser Rhoden meets In the odd
+years (in other years at Trogen) on the last Sunday in April.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERITABLE JURISDICTIONS,<a name="ar162" id="ar162"></a></span> in the law of Scotland, grants
+of jurisdiction made to a man and his heirs. They were a usual
+accompaniment to feudal tenures, and the power which they
+conferred on great families, being recognized as a source of
+danger to the state, led to frequent attempts being made by
+statute to restrict them, both before and after the Union. They
+were all abolished in 1746.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERKIMER,<a name="ar163" id="ar163"></a></span> a village and the county-seat of Herkimer
+county, New York, U.S.A., in the township of the same name,
+on the Mohawk river, about 15 m. S.E. of Utica. Pop. (1900)
+5555 (724 being foreign-born); (1905, state census) 6596; (1910)
+7520. It is served by the New York Central &amp; Hudson River
+railway, a branch of which (the Mohawk &amp; Malone railway)
+extends through the Adirondacks to Malone, N.Y.; by inter-urban
+electric railway to Little Falls, Syracuse, Richfield Springs,
+Cooperstown and Oneonta, and by the Erie canal. The village
+has a public library, and is the seat of the Folts Mission Institute
+(opened 1893), a training school for young women, controlled
+by the Women&rsquo;s Foreign Missionary Society of the Methodist
+Episcopal Church. Herkimer is situated in a rich dairying
+region, and has various manufactures. The municipality owns
+and operates its water-supply system and electric-lighting
+plant. Herkimer, named in honour of General Nicholas Herkimer
+(<i>c.</i> 1728-1777), who was mortally wounded in the Battle of
+Oriskany, and in whose memory there is a monument (unveiled
+on the 6th of August 1907) in the village, was settled about 1725
+by Palatine Germans, who bought from the Mohawk Indians
+a large tract of land including the present site of the village
+and established thereon several settlements which became
+known collectively as the &ldquo;German Flats.&rdquo; In 1756 a stone
+house, built in 1740 by General Herkimer&rsquo;s father, John Jost
+Herkimer (d. 1775)&mdash;apparently one of the original group of
+settlers&mdash;a stone church, and other buildings, standing within
+what is now Herkimer village, were enclosed in a stockade and
+ditch fortifications by Sir William Johnson, and this post, at
+first known as Fort Kouari (the Indian name), was subsequently
+called Fort Herkimer. Another fort (Ft. Dayton) was built
+within the limits of the present village in 1776 by Colonel Elias
+Dayton (1737-1807), who later became a brigadier-general
+(1783) and served in the Confederation Congress in 1787-1788.
+During the French and Indian War the settlement was attacked
+(12th November 1757) and practically destroyed, many of the
+settlers being killed or taken prisoners; and it was again attacked
+on the 30th of April 1758. In the War of Independence General
+Herkimer assembled here the force which on the 6th of August
+1777 was ambushed near Oriskany on its march from Ft. Dayton
+to the relief of Ft. Schuyler (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Oriskany</a></span>); and the settlement
+was attacked by Indians and &ldquo;Tories&rdquo; in September 1778 and
+in June 1782. The township of Herkimer was organized in 1788,
+and in 1807 the village was incorporated.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Nathaniel I. Benton, <i>History of Herkimer County</i> (Albany,
+1856); and Phoebe S. Cowen, <i>The Herkimers and Schuylers</i>, (1903).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERKOMER, SIR HUBERT VON<a name="ar164" id="ar164"></a></span> (1849-&emsp;&emsp;), British painter,
+was born at Waal, in Bavaria, and eight years later was brought
+to England by his father, a wood-carver of great ability. He
+lived for some time at Southampton and in the school of art
+there began his art training; but in 1866 he entered upon a
+more serious course of study at the South Kensington Schools,
+and in 1869 exhibited for the first time at the Royal Academy.
+By his picture, &ldquo;The Last Muster,&rdquo; at the Academy in 1875, he
+definitely established his position as an artist of high distinction.
+He was elected an associate of the Academy in 1879, and academician
+in 1890; an associate of the Royal Society of Painters in
+Water Colours in 1893, and a full member in 1894; and in 1885
+he was appointed Slade professor at Oxford. He exhibited a
+very large number of memorable portraits, figure subjects and
+landscapes, in oil and water colour; he achieved marked success
+as a worker in enamel, as an etcher, mezzotint engraver and
+illustrative draughtsman; and he exercised wide influence upon
+art education by means of the Herkomer School (Incorporated),
+at Bushey, which he founded in 1883 and directed gratuitously
+until 1904, when he retired. It was then voluntarily wound up, and
+is now conducted privately. Two of his pictures, &ldquo;Found&rdquo; (1885)
+and &ldquo;The Chapel of the Charterhouse&rdquo; (1889), are in the National
+Gallery of British Art. In the year 1907 he received the honorary
+degree of D.C.L. at Oxford, and a knighthood was conferred upon
+him by the king in addition to the commandership of the Royal
+Victorian Order with which he was already decorated.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Hubert von Herkomer, R.A., a Study and a Biography</i>, by
+A. L. Baldry (London, 1901); <i>Professor Hubert Herkomer, Royal
+Academician, His Life and Work</i>, by W. L. Courtney (London, 1892).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERLEN<a name="ar165" id="ar165"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Herlin</span>), <b>FRITZ,</b> of Nördlingen, German artist of
+the early Swabian school, in the 15th century. The date and
+place of his birth are unknown, but his name is on the roll of the
+tax-gatherers of Ulm in 1449; and in 1467 he was made citizen
+and town painter at Nördlingen, &ldquo;because of his acquaintance
+with Flemish methods of painting.&rdquo; One of the first of his
+acknowledged productions is a shrine on one of the altars of
+the church of Rothenburg on the Tauber, the wings of which
+were finished in 1466, with seven scenes from the lives of
+Christ and the Virgin Mary. In the town-hall of Rothenburg is a
+Madonna and St Catherine of 1467; and in the choir of Nördlingen
+cathedral a triptych of 1488, representing the &ldquo;Nativity&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;Christ amidst the Doctors,&rdquo; at the side of a votive Madonna
+attended by St Joseph and St Margaret as patrons of a family.
+In each of these works the painter&rsquo;s name certifies the picture,
+and the manner is truly that of an artist &ldquo;acquainted with
+Flemish methods.&rdquo; We are not told under whom Herlen
+laboured in the Netherlands, but he probably took the same
+course as Schongauer and Hans Holbein the elder, who studied in
+the school of van der Weyden. His altarpiece at Rothenburg
+contains groups and figures, as well as forms of action and drapery,
+which seem copied from those of van der Weyden&rsquo;s or Memlinc&rsquo;s
+disciples, and the votive Madonna of 1488, whilst characterized
+by similar features, only displays such further changes as may
+be accounted for by the master&rsquo;s constant later contact with
+contemporaries in Swabia. Herlen had none of the genius of
+Schongauer. He failed to acquire the delicacy even of the
+second-rate men who handed down to Matsys the traditions of the
+15th century; but his example was certainly favourable to the
+development of art in Swabia. By general consent critics have
+assigned to him a large altar-piece, with scenes from the gospels
+and figures of St Florian and St Floriana, and a Crucifixion, the
+principal figure of which is carved in high relief on the surface of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page365" id="page365"></a>365</span>
+a large panel in the church of Dinkelsbühl. A Crucifixion, with
+eight scenes from the New Testament, is shown as his in the
+cathedral, a &ldquo;Christ in Judgment, with Mary and John,&rdquo; and the
+&ldquo;Resurrection of Souls&rdquo; in the town-hall of Nördlingen. A small
+Epiphany, once in the convent of the Minorites of Ulm, is in
+the Holzschuher collection at Augsburg, a Madonna and Circumcision
+in the National Museum at Munich. Herlen&rsquo;s epitaph,
+preserved by Rathgeber, states that he died on the 12th of
+October 1491, and was buried at Nördlingen.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERMAE,<a name="ar166" id="ar166"></a></span> in Greek antiquities, quadrangular pillars, broader
+above than at the base, surmounted by a head or bust, so called
+either because the head of Hermes was most common or from
+their etymological connexion with the Greek word <span class="grk" title="hermata">&#7957;&#961;&#956;&#945;&#964;&#945;</span> (blocks
+of stone), which originally had no reference to Hermes at all. In
+the oldest times Hermes, like other divinities, was worshipped in
+the form of a heap of stones or of an amorphous block of wood or
+stone, which afterwards took the shape of a phallus, the symbol
+of productivity. The next step was the addition of a head to this
+phallic column which became quadrangular (the number 4 was
+sacred to Hermes, who was born on the fourth day of the month),
+with the significant indication of sex still prominent. In this
+shape the number of herms rapidly increased, especially those of
+Hermes, for which the distinctive name of Hermhermae has been
+suggested. In Athens they were found at the corners of streets;
+before the gates and in the courtyards of houses, where they
+were worshipped by women as having the power to make them
+prolific; before the temples; in the gymnasia and palaestrae. On
+each side of the road leading from the Stoa Poikile to the Stoa
+Basileios, rows of Hermae were set up in such numbers by the
+piety of private individuals or public corporations, that the Stoa
+Basileios was called the Stoa of the Hermae. The function of
+Hermes as protector of the roads, of merchants and of commerce,
+explains the number of Hermae that served the purpose of signposts
+on the roads outside the city. It is stated in the pseudo-Platonic
+<i>Hipparchus</i> that the son of Peisistratus had set up
+marble pillars at suitable places on the roads leading from the
+different country districts to Athens, having the places connected
+with the roads inscribed on the one side in a hexameter verse,
+and on the other a pentameter containing a short proverb or
+moral precept for the edification of travellers. Sometimes they
+bore inscriptions celebrating the valour of those who had fought
+for their country. Just as it was customary for the passer-by to
+show respect to the rudest form of the god (the heap of stones) by
+contributing a stone to the heap or anointing it with oil, in like
+manner small offerings, generally of dried figs, were deposited
+near the Hermae, to appease the hunger of the necessitous wayfarer.
+Garlands of flowers were also suspended on the two arm-like
+tenons projecting from either side of the column at the top
+(for the oracle at Pharae see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hermes</a></span>). These pillars were also
+used to mark the frontier boundaries or the limits of different
+estates. The great respect attaching to them is shown by the
+excitement caused in Athens by the &ldquo;Mutilation of the Hermae&rdquo;
+just before the departure of the Sicilian expedition (May 415 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).
+They formed the object of a special industry, the makers of them
+being called Hermoglyphi. The surmounting heads were not,
+however, confined to those of Hermes; those of other gods and
+heroes, and even of distinguished mortals, were of frequent
+occurrence. In this case a compound was formed: Hermathena
+(a herm of Athena), Hermares, Hermaphroditus, Hermanubis,
+Hermalcibiades, and so on. In the case of these compounds it is
+disputed whether they indicated a herm with the head of Athena,
+or with a Janus-like head of both Hermes and Athena, or a
+figure compounded of both deities. The Romans not only
+borrowed the Hermes pillars for their deities which at an early
+period they assimilated to those of the Greeks (as Heracles&mdash;Hercules)
+but also for the indigenous gods who preserved their
+individuality. Thus herms of Jupiter Terminalis (the hermae
+being identified with the Roman termini) and of Silvanus occur.
+Under the empire, the function of the hermae was rather architectural
+than religious. They were used to keep up the draperies
+in the interior of a house, and in the Circus Maximus they were
+used to support the barriers.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the article with bibliography by Pierre Paris in Daremberg
+and Saglio&rsquo;s <i>Dictionnaire des antiquités</i>; for the mutilation of the
+Hermae, Thucydides vi. 27; Andocides, <i>De mysteriis</i>; Grote,
+<i>Hist. of Greece</i>, ch. 58; H. Weil, <i>Études sur l&rsquo;antiquité grecque</i> (1900);
+Burolt, <i>Griech. Gesch.</i> (ed. 1904), III. ii. p. 1287.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERMAGORAS,<a name="ar167" id="ar167"></a></span> of Temnos, Greek rhetorician of the Rhodian
+school and teacher of oratory in Rome, flourished during the
+first half of the 1st century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He obtained a great reputation
+among a certain section and founded a special school, the members
+of which called themselves Hermagorei. His chief opponent
+was Posidonius of Rhodes, who is said to have contended with
+him in argument in the presence of Pompey (Plutarch, <i>Pompey</i>,
+42). Hermagoras devoted himself particularly to the branch of
+rhetoric known as <span class="grk" title="oikonomia">&#959;&#7984;&#954;&#959;&#957;&#959;&#956;&#943;&#945;</span> (<i>inventio</i>), and is said to have
+invented the doctrine of the four <span class="grk" title="staseis">&#963;&#964;&#940;&#963;&#949;&#953;&#962;</span> (<i>status</i>) and to have
+arranged the parts of an oration differently from his predecessors.
+Cicero held an unfavourable opinion of his methods, which were
+approved by Quintilian, although he considers that Hermagoras
+neglected the practical side of rhetoric for the theoretical.
+According to Suidas and Strabo, he was the author of <span class="grk" title="technai
+rhêtorikai">&#964;&#941;&#967;&#957;&#945;&#953; &#8165;&#951;&#964;&#959;&#961;&#953;&#954;&#945;&#943;</span> (rhetorical manuals) and of other works, which should
+perhaps be attributed to his younger namesake, surnamed
+Carion, the pupil of Theodorus of Gadara.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Strabo xiii. p. 621; Cicero, <i>De inventione</i>, i. 6. 8, <i>Brutus</i>,
+76, 263. 78, 271; Quintilian, <i>Instit.</i> iii. 1. 16, 3. 9, 11. 22;
+C. W. Piderit, <i>De Hermagora rhetore</i> (1839); G. Thiele, <i>Hermagoras
+Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Rhetorik</i> (1893).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERMANDAD<a name="ar168" id="ar168"></a></span> (from <i>hermano</i>, Lat. <i>germanus</i>, a brother), a
+Castilian word meaning, strictly speaking, a brotherhood. In
+the Romance language spoken on the east coast of Spain in
+Catalonia it is written <i>germandat</i> or <i>germania</i>. In the form
+<i>germania</i> it has acquired the significance of &ldquo;thieves&rsquo; Latin&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;thieves&rsquo; cant,&rdquo; and is applied to any jargon supposed to be
+understood only by the Initiated. But the typical &ldquo;germania&rdquo;
+is a mixture of slang and of the gipsy language. The hermandades
+have played a conspicuous part in the history of Spain.
+The first recorded case of the formation of an hermandad
+occurred in the 12th century when the towns and the peasantry
+of the north united to police the pilgrim road to Santiago in
+Galicia, and protect the pilgrims against robber knights.
+Throughout the middle ages such alliances were frequently
+formed by combinations of towns to protect the roads connecting
+them, and were occasionally extended to political purposes.
+They acted to some extent like the Fehmic courts of Germany.
+The Catholic sovereigns, Ferdinand and Isabella, adapted an
+existing hermandad to the purpose of a general police acting
+under officials appointed by themselves, and endowed with
+large powers of summary jurisdiction even in capital cases.
+The hermandad became, in fact, a constabulary, which, however,
+fell gradually into neglect. In Catalonia and Valencia the
+&ldquo;germanias&rdquo; were combinations of the peasantry to resist
+the exactions of the feudal lords.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERMAN DE VALENCIENNES,<a name="ar169" id="ar169"></a></span> 12th-century French poet,
+was born at Valenciennes, of good parentage. His father and
+mother, Robert and Hérembourg, belonged to Hainault, and
+gave him for god-parents Count Baldwin and Countess Yoland&mdash;doubtless
+Baldwin IV. of Hainault and his mother Yoland.
+Herman was a priest and the author of a verse <i>Histoire de la
+Bible</i>, which includes a separate poem on the Assumption of the
+Virgin. The work is generally known as <i>Le Roman de sapience</i>,
+the name arising from a copyist&rsquo;s error in the first line of the
+poem:</p>
+
+<p class="center f90">&ldquo;Comens de sapiense, ce est la cremors de Deu&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p class="noind">the first word being miswritten in one MS. <i>Romens</i>, and In
+another <i>Romanz</i>. His work has, indeed, the form of an ordinary
+romance, and cannot be regarded as a translation. He selects
+such stories from the Bible as suit his purpose, and adds freely
+from legendary sources, displaying considerable art in the
+selection and use of his materials. This scriptural poem, very
+popular in its day, mentions Henry II. of England as already
+dead, and must therefore be assigned to a date posterior to 1189.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Notices et extraits des manuscrits</i> (Paris, vol. 34), and Jean
+Bonnard, <i>Les Traductions de la Bible en vers français au moyen âge</i>
+(1884).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page366" id="page366"></a>366</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">HERMANN I.<a name="ar170" id="ar170"></a></span> (d. 1217), landgrave of Thuringia and count
+palatine of Saxony, was the second son of Louis II. the Hard,
+landgrave of Thuringia, and Judith of Hohenstaufen, sister of
+the emperor Frederick I. Little is known of his early years,
+but in 1180 he joined a coalition against Henry the Lion, duke
+of Saxony, and with his brother, the landgrave Louis III.,
+suffered a short imprisonment after his defeat at Weissensee by
+Henry. About this time he received from his brother Louis the
+Saxon palatinate, over which he strengthened his authority by
+marrying Sophia, sister of Adalbert, count of Sommerschenburg,
+a former count palatine. In 1190 Louis died and Hermann
+by his energetic measures frustrated the attempt of the emperor
+Henry VI. to seize Thuringia as a vacant fief of the Empire,
+and established himself as landgrave. Having joined a league
+against the emperor he was accused, probably wrongly, of an
+attempt to murder him. Henry was not only successful in
+detaching Hermann from the hostile combination, but gained
+his support for the scheme to unite Sicily with the Empire. In
+1197 Hermann went on crusade. When Henry VI. died in 1198
+Hermann&rsquo;s support was purchased by the late emperor&rsquo;s brother
+Philip, duke of Swabia, but as soon as Philip&rsquo;s cause appeared
+to be weakening he transferred his allegiance to Otto of Brunswick,
+afterwards the emperor Otto IV. Philip accordingly
+invaded Thuringia in 1204 and compelled Hermann to come to
+terms by which he surrendered the lands he had obtained in 1198.
+After the death of Philip and the recognition of Otto he was
+among the princes who invited Frederick of Hohenstaufen,
+afterwards the emperor Frederick II., to come to Germany and
+assume the crown. In consequence of this step the Saxons
+attacked Thuringia, but the landgrave was saved by Frederick&rsquo;s
+arrival in Germany in 1212. After the death of his first wife in
+1195 Hermann married Sophia, daughter of Otto I., duke of
+Bavaria. By her he had four sons, two of whom, Louis and
+Henry Raspe, succeeded their father in turn as landgrave.
+Hermann died at Gotha on the 25th of April 1217, and was
+buried at Reinhardsbrunn. He was fond of the society of men
+of letters, and Walther von der Vogelweide and other Minnesingers
+were welcomed to his castle of the Wartburg. In this
+connexion he figures in Wagner&rsquo;s <i>Tannhäuser</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See E. Winkelmann, <i>Philipp von Schwaben und Otto IV. von
+Braunschweig</i> (Leipzig, 1873-1878); T. Knochenhauer, <i>Geschichte
+Thüringens</i> (Gotha, 1871); and F. Wachter, <i>Thüringische und obersächsische
+Geschichte</i> (Leipzig, 1826).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERMANN OF REICHENAU<a name="ar171" id="ar171"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Herimannus Augiensis</span>),
+commonly distinguished as Hermannus Contractus, <i>i.e.</i> the Lame
+(1013-1054), German scholar and chronicler, was the son of
+Count Wolferad of Alshausen in Swabia. Hermann, who
+became a monk of the famous abbey of Reichenau, is at once one
+of the most attractive and one of the most pathetic figures of
+medieval monasticism. Crippled and distorted by gout from
+his childhood, he was deprived of the use of his legs; but, in
+spite of this, he became one of the most learned men of his time,
+and exercised a great personal and intellectual influence on the
+numerous band of scholars he gathered round him. He died on
+the 24th of September 1054, at the family castle of Alshausen near
+Biberach. Besides the ordinary studies of the monastic scholar,
+he devoted himself to mathematics, astronomy and music,
+and constructed watches and instruments of various kinds.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His chief work is a <i>Chronicon ad annum</i> 1054, which furnishes
+important and original material for the history of the emperor Henry
+III. The first edition, from a MS. no longer extant, was printed by
+J. Sichard at Basel in 1529, and reissued by Heinrich Peter in 1549;
+another edition appeared at St Blaise in 1790 under the supervision
+of Ussermann; and a third, as a result of the collation of numerous
+MSS., forms part of vol. v. of Pertz&rsquo;s <i>Monumenta Germaniae historica</i>.
+A German translation of the last is contributed by K. F. A. Nobbe
+to <i>Die Geschichtsschreiber der deutschen Vorzeit</i> (1st ed., Berlin,
+1851; 2nd ed., Leipzig, 1893). The separate lives of Conrad II.
+and Henry III., often ascribed to Hermann, appear to have perished.
+His treatises <i>De mensura astrolabii</i> and <i>De utilitatibus astrolabii</i>
+(to be found, on the authority of Salzburg MSS., in Pez, <i>Thesaurus
+anecdotorum novissimus</i>, iii.) being the first contributions of moment
+furnished by a European to this subject, Hermann was for a time
+considered the inventor of the astrolabe. A didactic poem from his
+pen, <i>De octo vitiis principalibus</i>, is printed in Haupt&rsquo;s <i>Zeitschrift
+für deutsches Alterthum</i> (vol. xiii.); and he is sometimes credited
+with the composition of the Latin hymns <i>Veni Sancte Spiritus, Salve
+Regina</i>, and <i>Alma Redemptoris</i>. A <i>martyrologium</i> by Hermann was
+discovered by E. Dümmler in a MS. at Stuttgart, and was published
+by him in &ldquo;Das Martyrologium Notkers und seine Verwandten&rdquo;
+in <i>Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte</i>, xxv. (Göttingen, 1885).</p>
+
+<p>See H. Hansjakob, <i>Herimann der Lahme</i> (Mainz, 1875); Potthast,
+<i>Bibliotheca med. aev.</i> s. &ldquo;Herimannus Augiensis.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERMANN OF WIED<a name="ar172" id="ar172"></a></span> (1477-1552), elector and archbishop
+of Cologne, was the fourth son of Frederick, count of Wied
+(d. 1487), and was born on the 14th of January 1477. Educated
+for the Church, he became elector and archbishop in 1515, and
+ruled his electorate with vigour and intelligence, taking up at
+first an attitude of hostility towards the reformers and their
+teaching. A quarrel with the papacy turned, or helped to turn,
+his thoughts in the direction of Church reform, but he hoped
+this would come from within rather than from without, and with
+the aid of his friend John Gropper (1503-1559), began, about
+1536, to institute certain reforms in his own diocese. One step led
+to another, and as all efforts at union failed the elector invited
+Martin Bucer to Cologne in 1542. Supported by the estates
+of the electorate, and relying upon the recess of the diet of
+Regensburg in 1541, he encouraged Bucer to press on with
+the work of reform, and in 1543 invited Melanchthon to his
+assistance. His conversion was hailed with great joy by the
+Protestants, and the league of Schmalkalden declared they were
+resolved to defend him; but the Reformation in the electorate
+received checks from the victory of Charles V. over William,
+duke of Cleves, and the hostility of the citizens of Cologne.
+Summoned both before the emperor and the pope, the elector
+was deposed and excommunicated by Paul III. in 1546. He
+resigned his office in February 1547, and retired to Wied.
+Hermann, who was also a bishop of Paderborn from 1532 to
+1547, died on the 15th of August 1552.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See C. Varrentrapp, <i>Hermann von Wied</i> (Leipzig, 1878).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERMANN, FRIEDRICH BENEDICT WILHELM VON<a name="ar173" id="ar173"></a></span> (1795-1868),
+German economist, was born on the 5th of December
+1795, at Dinkelsbühl in Bavaria. After finishing his primary
+education he was for some time employed in a draughtsman&rsquo;s
+office. He then resumed his studies, partly at the gymnasium
+in his native town, partly at the universities of Erlangen and
+Würzburg. In 1817 he took up a private school at Nuremberg,
+where he remained for four years. After filling an appointment
+as teacher of mathematics at the gymnasium of Erlangen, he
+became in 1823 <i>Privatdozent</i> at the university in that town.
+His inaugural dissertation was on the notions of political economy
+among the Romans (<i>Dissertatio exhibens sententias Romanorum
+ad oeconomiam politicam pertinentes</i>, Erlangen, 1823). He afterwards
+acted as professor of mathematics at the gymnasium
+and polytechnic school in Nuremberg, where he continued till
+1827. During his stay there he published an elementary
+treatise on arithmetic and algebra (<i>Lehrbuch der Arith. u. Algeb.</i>,
+1826), and made a journey to France to inspect the organization
+and conduct of technical schools in that country. The results
+of his investigation were published in 1826 and 1828 (<i>Über
+technische Unterrichts-Anstalten</i>). Soon after his return from
+France he was made <i>professor extraordinarius</i> of political
+science of the university of Munich, and in 1833 he was advanced
+to the rank of ordinary professor. In 1832 appeared the first
+edition of his great work on political economy, <i>Staatswirthschaftliche
+Untersuchungen</i>. In 1835 he was made member of the
+Royal Bavarian Academy of Sciences. From the year 1836 he
+acted as inspector of technical instruction in Bavaria, and made
+frequent journeys to Berlin and Paris in order to study the
+methods there pursued. In the state service of Bavaria, to which
+he devoted himself, he rose rapidly. In 1837 he was placed on
+the council for superintendence of church and school work; in
+1839 he was entrusted with the direction of the bureau of
+statistics; in 1845 he was one of the councillors for the interior;
+in 1848 he sat as member for Munich in the national assembly
+at Frankfort. In this assembly Hermann, with Johann Heckscher
+and others, was mainly instrumental in organizing the so-called
+&ldquo;Great German&rdquo; party, and was selected as one of the representatives
+of their views at Vienna. Warmly supporting the customs
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page367" id="page367"></a>367</span>
+union (Zollverein), he acted in 1851 as one of its commissioners
+at the great industrial exhibition at London, and published
+an elaborate report on the woollen goods. Three years later
+he was president of the committee of judges at the similar
+exhibition at Munich, and the report of its proceedings was
+drawn up by him. In 1855 he became councillor of state, the
+highest honour in the service. From 1835 to 1847 he contributed
+a long series of reviews, mainly of works on economical subjects,
+to the <i>Münchener gelehrte Anzeigen</i> and also wrote for Rau&rsquo;s
+<i>Archiv der politischen Ökonomie</i> and the <i>Augsburger allgemeine
+Zeitung</i>. As head of the bureau of statistics he published a
+series of valuable annual reports (<i>Beiträge zur Statistik des
+Königreichs Bayern</i>, Hefte 1-17, 1850-1867). He was engaged
+at the time of his death, on the 23rd of November 1868, upon
+a second edition of his <i>Staatswirthschaftliche Untersuchungen</i>,
+which was published in 1870.</p>
+
+<p>Hermann&rsquo;s rare technological knowledge gave him a great
+advantage in dealing with some economic questions. He
+reviewed the principal fundamental ideas of the science with
+great thoroughness and acuteness. &ldquo;His strength,&rdquo; says
+Roscher, &ldquo;lies in his clear, sharp, exhaustive distinction between
+the several elements of a complex conception, or the several
+steps comprehended in a complex act.&rdquo; For keen analytical
+power his German brethren compare him with Ricardo. But
+he avoids several one-sided views of the English economist.
+Thus he places public spirit beside egoism as an economic motor,
+regards price as not measured by labour only but as a product
+of several factors, and habitually contemplates the consumption
+of the labourer, not as a part of the cost of production to the
+capitalist, but as the main practical end of economics.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Kautz, <i>Gesch. Entwicklung d. National-Ökonomik</i>, pp. 633-638;
+Roscher, <i>Gesch. d. Nat.-Ökon. in Deutschland</i>, pp. 860-879.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERMANN, JOHANN GOTTFRIED JAKOB<a name="ar174" id="ar174"></a></span> (1772-1848),
+German classical scholar and philologist, was born at Leipzig on
+the 28th of November 1772. Entering the university of his
+native city at the age of fourteen, Hermann at first studied law,
+which he soon abandoned for the classics. After a session at
+Jena in 1793-1794, he became a lecturer on classical literature in
+Leipzig, in 1798 <i>professor extraordinarius</i> of philosophy in the
+university, and in 1803 professor of eloquence (and poetry, 1809).
+He died on the 31st of December 1848. Hermann maintained
+that an accurate knowledge of the Greek and Latin languages was
+the only road to a clear understanding of the intellectual life of the
+ancient world, and the chief, if not the only, aim of philology.
+As the leader of this grammatico-critical school, he came into
+collision with A. Böckh and Otfried Müller, the representatives of
+the historico-antiquarian school, which regarded Hermann&rsquo;s view
+of philology as inadequate and one-sided.</p>
+
+<p>Hermann devoted his early attention to the classical poetical
+metres, and published several works on that subject, the most
+important being <i>Elementa doctrinae metricae</i> (1816), in which he
+set forth a scientific theory based on the Kantian categories.
+His writings on Greek grammar are also valuable, especially <i>De
+emendanda ratione Graecae grammaticae</i> (1801), and notes and
+excursus on Viger&rsquo;s treatise on Greek idioms. His editions of
+the classics include several of the plays of Euripides; the <i>Clouds</i>
+of Aristophanes (1799); <i>Trinummus</i> of Plautus (1800); <i>Poëtica</i>
+of Aristotle (1802); <i>Orphica</i> (1805); the Homeric <i>Hymns</i>
+(1806); and the <i>Lexicon</i> of Photius (1808). In 1825 Hermann
+finished the edition of Sophocles begun by Erfurdt. His edition
+of Aeschylus was published after his death in 1852. The <i>Opuscula</i>,
+a collection of his smaller writings in Latin, appeared in seven
+volumes between 1827 and 1839.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See monographs by O. Jahn (1849) and H. Köchly (1874); C.
+Bursian, <i>Geschichte der klassischen Philologie in Deutschland</i> (1883);
+art. in <i>Allgem. deutsche Biog.</i>; Sandys, <i>Hist. Class. Schol.</i> iii.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERMANN, KARL FRIEDRICH<a name="ar175" id="ar175"></a></span> (1804-1855), German classical
+scholar and antiquary, was born on the 4th of August 1804, at
+Frankfort-on-Main. Having studied at the universities of
+Heidelberg and Leipzig, he went for a tour in Italy, on his return
+from which he lectured as <i>Privatdozent</i> in Heidelberg. In 1832
+he was called to Marburg as <i>professor ordinarius</i> of classical
+literature; and in 1842 he was transferred to Göttingen to the
+chair of philology and archaeology, vacant by the death of
+Otfried Müller. He died at Göttingen on the 31st of December
+1855. His knowledge of all branches of classical learning was
+profound, but he was chiefly distinguished for his works on Greek
+antiquities and ancient philosophy. Among these may be
+mentioned the <i>Lehrbuch der griechischen Antiquitäten</i> (new ed.,
+1889) dealing with political, religious and domestic antiquities;
+the <i>Geschichte und System der Platonischen Philosophie</i> (1839),
+unfinished; an edition of the Platonic Dialogues (6 vols., 1851-1853);
+and <i>Culturgeschickte der Griechen und Römer</i> (1857-1858),
+published after his death by C. G. Schmidt. He also
+edited the text of Juvenal and Persius (1854) and Lucian&rsquo;s
+<i>De conscribenda historia</i> (1828). A collection of <i>Abhandlungen
+und Beiträge</i> appeared in 1849.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See M. Lechner, <i>Zur Erinnerung an K. F. Hermann</i> (1864), and
+article by C. Halm in <i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i>, xii. (1880).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERMAPHRODITUS,<a name="ar176" id="ar176"></a></span> in Greek mythology, a being, partly male,
+partly female, originally worshipped as a divinity. The conception
+undoubtedly had its origin in the East, where deities of a similar
+dual nature frequently occur. The oldest traces of the cult in
+Greek countries are found in Cyprus. Here, according to
+Macrobius (<i>Saturnalia</i>, iii. 8) there was a bearded statue of a
+male aphrodite, called Aphroditos by Aristophanes (probably in
+his <span class="grk" title="Niobos">&#925;&#943;&#959;&#946;&#959;&#962;</span>, a similar variant). Philochorus in his <i>Atthis</i> (<i>ap.</i>
+Macrobius <i>loc. cit.</i>) further identified this divinity, at whose
+sacrifices men and women exchanged garments, with the moon.
+This double sex also attributed to Dionysus and Priapus&mdash;the
+union in one being of the two principles of generation and conception&mdash;denotes
+extensive fertilizing and productive powers.
+This Cyprian Aphrodite is the same as the later Hermaphroditos,
+which simply means Aphroditos in the form of a herm
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hermae</a></span>), and first occurs in the <i>Characteres</i> (16) of
+Theophrastus. After its introduction at Athens (probably in the
+5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), the importance of this being seems to have
+declined. It appears no longer as the object of a special cult, but
+limited to the homage of certain sects, expressed by superstitious
+rites of obscure significance. The still later form of the legend, a
+product of the Hellenistic period, is due to a mistaken etymology
+of the name. In accordance with this, Hermaphroditus is the son
+of Hermes and Aphrodite, of whom the nymph of the fountain of
+Salmacis in Caria became enamoured while he was bathing. When
+her overtures were rejected, she embraced him and entreated
+the gods that she might be for ever united with him. The result
+was the formation of a being, half man, half woman. This story
+is told by Ovid (<i>Metam.</i> iv. 285) to explain the peculiarly enervating
+qualities of the water of the fountain. Strabo (xiv. p. 656)
+attributes its bad reputation to the attempt of the inhabitants of
+the country to find some excuse for the demoralization caused by
+their own luxurious and effeminate habits of life. There was a
+famous statue of Hermaphroditus by Polycles of Athens, probably
+the younger of the two statuaries of that name. In later Greek
+art he was a favourite subject.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See articles in Daremberg and Saglio, <i>Dictionnaire des antiquités</i>,
+and Roscher&rsquo;s <i>Lexikon der Mythologie</i>; and for art, A. Baumeister,
+<i>Denkmäler des klassischen Altertums</i> (1884-1888).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERMAS, SHEPHERD OF,<a name="ar177" id="ar177"></a></span> one of the works representing the
+Apostolic Fathers (<i>q.v.</i>), a hortatory writing which &ldquo;holds the
+mirror up&rdquo; to the Church in Rome during the 3rd Christian
+generation. This is the period indicated by the evidence of the
+Muratorian Canon, which assigns it to the brother of Pius,
+Roman bishop <i>c.</i> 139-154. Probably it was not the fruit of a
+single effort of its author. Rather its contents came to him
+piecemeal and at various stages in his ministry as a Christian
+&ldquo;prophet,&rdquo; extending over a period of years; and, like certain
+Old Testament prophets, he shows us how by his own experiences
+he became the medium of a divine message to his church and to
+God&rsquo;s &ldquo;elect&rdquo; people at large.</p>
+
+<p>In its present form it falls under three heads: <i>Visions</i>, <i>Mandates</i>,
+<i>Similitudes</i>. But these divisions are misleading. The personal
+and preliminary revelation embodied in <i>Vision</i> i. brings the
+prophet a new sense of sin as essentially a matter of the heart,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page368" id="page368"></a>368</span>
+and an awakened conscience as before the &ldquo;glory of God,&rdquo; the
+Creator and Upholder of all things. His responsibility also for the
+sad state of religion at home is emphasized, and he is given a
+mission of repentance to his erring children. How far in all this
+and in the next vision the author is describing facts, and how far
+transforming his personal history into a type (after the manner of
+Bunyan&rsquo;s <i>Pilgrim&rsquo;s Progress</i>), the better to impress his moral
+upon his readers, is uncertain. But the whole style of the work,
+with its use of conventional apocalyptic forms, favours the more
+symbolic view. <i>Vision</i> ii. records his call proper, through revelation
+of his essential message, to be delivered both to his wife and
+children and to &ldquo;all the saints who have sinned unto this day&rdquo;
+(2. 4). It contains the assurances of forgiveness even for the
+gravest sins after baptism (save blasphemy of the Name and
+betrayal of the brethren, <i>Sim.</i> ix. 19), &ldquo;if they repent with their
+whole heart and remove doubts from their minds. For the Master
+hath sworn by His glory (&lsquo;His Son,&rsquo; below) touching His elect,
+that if there be more sinning after this day which He hath
+limited, they shall not obtain salvation. For the repentance of
+the righteous hath an end; the days of repentance for all saints
+are fulfilled.... Stand fast, then, ye that work righteousness and
+be not of doubtful mind.... Happy are all ye that endure the
+great tribulation which is to come.... <i>The Lord is nigh unto
+them that turn to Him</i>, as it is written in the book of Eldad and
+Modad, who prophesied to the people in the wilderness.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Here, in the gist of the &ldquo;booklet&rdquo; received from the hand of
+a female figure representing the Church, we have in germ the
+message of <i>The Shepherd</i>. But before Hermas announces it to the
+Roman Church, and through &ldquo;Clement&rdquo;<a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a> to the churches
+abroad, there are added two <i>Visions</i> (iii. iv.) tending to heighten
+its impressiveness. He is shown the &ldquo;holy church&rdquo; under the
+similitude of a tower in building, and the great and final tribulation
+(already alluded to as near at hand) under that of a
+devouring beast, which yet is innocuous to undoubting faith.</p>
+
+<p>Hermas begins to deliver the message of <i>Vis.</i> i.-iv., as bidden.
+But as he does so, it is added to, in the way of detail and illustration,
+by a fresh series of revelations through an angel in the
+guise of a Shepherd, who in a preliminary interview announces
+himself as the Angel of Repentance, sent to administer the
+special &ldquo;repentance&rdquo; which it was Hermas&rsquo;s mission to declare.
+This interview appears in our MSS. as <i>Vis.</i> v.,<a name="fa2k" id="fa2k" href="#ft2k"><span class="sp">2</span></a> but is really a
+prelude to the <i>Mandates</i> and <i>Similitudes</i> which form the bulk of
+the whole work, hence known as &ldquo;The Shepherd.&rdquo; The relation of
+this second part to <i>Vis.</i> i.-iv. is set forth by the Shepherd himself.
+&ldquo;I was sent, quoth he, to show thee <i>again</i> all that thou sawest
+before, to wit the sum of the things profitable for thee. First of
+all write thou my mandates and similitudes; and <i>the rest</i>, as I
+will show thee, so shalt thou write.&rdquo; This programme is fulfilled
+in the xii. <i>Mandates</i>&mdash;perhaps suggested by the <i>Teaching of the
+Twelve Apostles</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Didache</a></span>), which Hermas knows&mdash;and
+<i>Similitudes</i> i.-viii., while <i>Simil.</i> ix. is &ldquo;the rest&rdquo; and constitutes
+a distinct &ldquo;book&rdquo; (<i>Sim.</i> ix. 1. 1, x. 1. 1). In this latter the
+building of the Tower, already shown in outline in <i>Vis.</i> iii., is
+shown &ldquo;more carefully&rdquo; in an elaborate section dealing with the
+same themes. One may infer that <i>Sim.</i> ix. represents a distinctly
+later stage in Hermas&rsquo;s ministry&mdash;during the whole of which he
+seems to have committed to writing what he received on each
+occasion,<a name="fa3k" id="fa3k" href="#ft3k"><span class="sp">3</span></a> possibly for recital to the church (cf. <i>Vis.</i> ii. <i>fin.</i>).
+Finally came <i>Sim.</i> x., really an epilogue in which Hermas is
+&ldquo;delivered&rdquo; afresh to the Shepherd, for the rest of his days.
+He is &ldquo;to continue in this ministry&rdquo; of proclaiming the Shepherd&rsquo;s
+teaching, &ldquo;so that they who have repented or are about to repent
+may have the same mind with thee,&rdquo; and so receive a good report
+before God (<i>Sim.</i> x. 2 2-4). Only they must &ldquo;make haste to do
+aright,&rdquo; lest while they delay the tower be finished (4. 4), and the
+new aeon dawn (after the final tribulation: cf. <i>Vis.</i> iv. 3. 5).</p>
+
+<p>The relation here indicated between the Shepherd&rsquo;s instruction
+and the initial message of one definitive repentance, open to those
+believers who have already &ldquo;broken&rdquo; their &ldquo;seal&rdquo; of baptism by
+deadly sins, as announced in <i>Visions</i> i.-iv. is made yet plainer by
+<i>Sim.</i> vi. 1. 3 f. &ldquo;These mandates are profitable to such as are
+about to repent; for except they walk in them their repentance
+is in vain.&rdquo; Hermas sees that mere repentance is not enough to
+meet the backsliding condition in which so many Christians then
+were, owing to the recoil of inveterate habits of worldliness<a name="fa4k" id="fa4k" href="#ft4k"><span class="sp">4</span></a>
+entrenched in society around and within. It is, after all, too
+negative a thing to stand by itself or to satisfy God. &ldquo;Cease,
+Hermas,&rdquo; says the Church, &ldquo;to pray all about thy sins. Ask for
+righteousness also&rdquo; (<i>Vis.</i> iii. 1. 6). The positive Christian ideal
+which &ldquo;the saints&rdquo; should attain, &ldquo;the Lord enabling,&rdquo; it is the
+business of the Shepherd to set forth.</p>
+
+<p>Here lies a great merit of Hermas&rsquo;s book, his insight into
+experimental religion and the secret of failure in Christians about
+him, to many of whom Christianity had come by birth rather than
+personal conviction. They shared the worldly spirit in its various
+forms, particularly the desire for wealth and the luxuries it
+affords, and for a place in &ldquo;good society&rdquo;&mdash;which meant a pagan
+atmosphere. Thus they were divided in soul between spiritual
+goods and worldly pleasures, and were apt to doubt whether the
+rewards promised by God to the life of &ldquo;simplicity&rdquo; (all Christ
+meant by the childlike spirit, including generosity in giving and
+forgiving) and self-restraint, were real or not. For while the
+expected &ldquo;end of the age&rdquo; delayed, persecutions abounded.
+Such &ldquo;doubled-souled&rdquo; persons, like Mr Facing-both-ways,
+inclined to say, &ldquo;The Christian ideal may be glorious, but is it
+practicable?&rdquo; It is this most fatal doubt which evokes the
+Shepherd&rsquo;s sternest rebuke; and he meets it with the ultimate
+religious appeal, viz. to &ldquo;the glory of God.&rdquo; He who made man
+&ldquo;to rule over all things under heaven,&rdquo; could He have given
+behests beyond man&rsquo;s ability? If only a man &ldquo;hath the Lord in
+his heart,&rdquo; he &ldquo;shall know that there is nothing easier nor
+sweeter nor gentler than these mandates&rdquo; (<i>Mand.</i> xii. 3-4).
+So in the forefront of the <i>Mandates</i> stands the secret of all:
+&ldquo;First of all believe that there is one God.... Believe therefore
+in Him, and fear Him, and fearing Him have self-mastery. For
+the fear of the Lord dwelleth in the good desire,&rdquo; and to &ldquo;put on&rdquo;
+this master-desire is to possess power to curb &ldquo;evil desire&rdquo; in all
+its shapes (<i>Mand.</i> xii. 1-2). Elsewhere &ldquo;good desire&rdquo; is analysed
+into the &ldquo;spirits&rdquo; of the several virtues, which yet are organically
+related, Faith being mother, and Self-mastery her daughter, and
+so on (<i>Vis.</i> iii. 8. 3 seq.; cf. <i>Sim.</i> ix. 15). These are the specific
+forms of the Holy Spirit power, without whose indwelling the
+mandates cannot be kept (<i>Sim.</i> x. 3; cf. ix. 13. 2, 24. 2).</p>
+
+<p>Thus the &ldquo;moralism&rdquo; sometimes traced in Hermas is apparent
+rather than real, for he has a deep sense of the enabling grace of
+God. His defect lies rather in not presenting the historic Christ
+as the Christian&rsquo;s chief inspiration, a fact which connects itself
+with the strange absence of the names &ldquo;Jesus&rdquo; and &ldquo;Christ.&rdquo;
+He uses rather &ldquo;the Son of God,&rdquo; in a peculiar Adoptianist
+sense, which, as taken for granted in a work by the bishop&rsquo;s own
+brother, must be held typical of the Roman Church of his day.
+But as it is implicit and not part of his distinctive message, it did
+not hinder his book from enjoying wide quasi-canonical honour
+during most of the Ante-Nicene period.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The absence of the historic names, &ldquo;Jesus&rdquo; and &ldquo;Christ,&rdquo; may
+be due to the form of the book as purporting to quote angelic communications.
+This would also explain the absence of explicit
+scriptural citations generally, though knowledge both of the Old
+Testament and of several New Testament books&mdash;including the
+congenially symbolic Gospel of John&mdash;is clear (cf. <i>The New Testament
+in the Apostolic Fathers</i>, Oxford, 1905, 105 seq.). The one exception
+is a prophetic writing, the apocryphal <i>Book of Eldad and Modad</i>,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page369" id="page369"></a>369</span>
+which is cited apparently as being similar in the scope of its message.
+Among its non-scriptural sources may be named the allegoric picture
+of human life known as <i>Tabula Cebetis</i> (cf. C. Taylor, as below), the
+<i>Didache</i>, and perhaps certain &ldquo;Sibylline Oracles.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Hermas regarded Christians as &ldquo;justified by the most reverend
+Angel&rdquo; (<i>i.e.</i> the pre-existent Holy Spirit or Son, who dwelt in
+Christ&rsquo;s &ldquo;flesh&rdquo;), in baptism, the &ldquo;seal&rdquo; which even Old Testament
+saints had to receive in Hades (<i>Sim.</i> ix. 16. 3-7) and so attain to
+&ldquo;life.&rdquo; Yet the degree of &ldquo;honour&rdquo; (<i>e.g.</i> that of martyrs, <i>Vis.</i>
+iii. 2; <i>Sim.</i> ix. 28), the exact place in the kingdom or consummated
+church (the Tower), is given as reward for zeal in doing God&rsquo;s will
+beyond the minimum requisite in all. Here comes in Hermas&rsquo;s
+doctrine of works of supererogation, in fulfilment of counsels of
+perfection, on lines already seen in <i>Did.</i> vi. 2, cf. i. 4, and reappearing
+in the two types of Christian recognized by Clement and Origen and
+in later Catholicism. Again his doctrine of fasting is a spiritualizing
+of a current <i>opus operatum</i> conception on Jewish lines as though
+&ldquo;keeping a watch&rdquo; (<i>statio</i>) in that way atoned for sins (<i>Sim.</i> v.).
+The Shepherd enjoins instead, first, as &ldquo;a perfect fast,&rdquo; a fast
+&ldquo;from every evil word and every evil desire, ... from all the
+vanities of this world-age&rdquo; (3. 6; cf. <i>Barn.</i> iii. and the Oxyrhynchus
+Saying, &ldquo;except ye fast from the world&rdquo;); and next, as a counsel
+of perfection, a fast to yield somewhat for the relief of the widow
+and orphan, that this extra &ldquo;service&rdquo; may be to God for a
+&ldquo;sacrifice.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Generally speaking, Hermas&rsquo;s piety, especially in its language,
+adheres closely to Old Testament forms. But it is doubtful (<i>pace</i>
+Spina and Völter, who assume a Jewish or a proselyte basis) whether
+this means more than that the Old Testament was still <i>the</i> Scriptures
+of the Church. In this respect, too, Hermas faithfully reflects the
+Roman Church of the early 2nd century (cf. the language of 1 Clem.,
+esp. the liturgical parts, and even the Roman Mass). Indeed the
+prime value of the <i>Shepherd</i> is the light it casts on Christianity at
+Rome in the otherwise obscure period <i>c.</i> 110-140, when it had as
+yet hardly felt the influences converging on it from other centres
+of tradition and thought. Thus Hermas&rsquo;s comparatively mild
+censures on Gnostic teachers in <i>Sim.</i> ix. suggest that the greater
+systems, like the Valentinian and Marcionite, had not yet made an
+impression there, as Harnack argues that they must have done by
+<i>c.</i> 145. This date, then, is a likely lower limit for Hermas&rsquo;s revision
+of his earlier prophetic memoranda, and their publication in a single
+homogeneous work, such as the <i>Shepherd</i> appears to be. Its wider
+historic significance&mdash;it was felt by its author to be adapted to the
+needs of the Church at large, and was generally welcomed as such&mdash;is
+great but hard to determine in detail.<a name="fa5k" id="fa5k" href="#ft5k"><span class="sp">5</span></a> What is certain is its
+influence on the development of the Church&rsquo;s policy as to discipline
+in grave cases, like apostasy and adultery&mdash;a burning question for
+some generations from the end of the 2nd century, particularly in
+Rome and North Africa. Indirectly, too, Hermas tended to keep
+alive the idea of the Christian prophet, even after Montanism had
+helped to discredit it.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Literature.</span>&mdash;The chief modern edition is by O. von Gebhardt
+and A. Harnack, in Fasc. iii. of their <i>Patr. apost. opera</i> (Leipzig,
+1877); it is edited less fully by F. X. Funk, <i>Patr. apost.</i> (Tübingen,
+1901), and in an English trans., with Introduction and occasional
+notes, by Dr C. Taylor (S.P.C.K., 2 vols., 1903-1906). For the wide
+literature of the subject, see the two former editions, also Harnack&rsquo;s
+<i>Chronologie der altchr. Lit.</i> i. 257 seq., and O. Bardenhewer, <i>Gesch.
+der altkirchl. Lit.</i> i. 557 seq. For the authorship see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Apocalyptic
+Literature</a></span>, sect. III.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. V. B.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> More than one interpretation, typical or otherwise, of this
+&ldquo;Clement&rdquo; is possible; but none justifies us in assigning even to
+this <i>Vision</i> a date consistent with that usually given to the traditional
+bishop of this name (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Clement I.</a></span>). Yet we may have to
+correct the dubious chronology of the first Roman bishops by this
+datum, and prolong his life to about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 110. This is Harnack&rsquo;s
+date for the nucleus of <i>Vis.</i> ii., though he places our <i>Vis.</i> i.-iii. later
+in Trajan&rsquo;s reign, and thinks <i>Vis.</i> iv. later still.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2k" id="ft2k" href="#fa2k"><span class="fn">2</span></a> That a prior vision in which Hermas was &ldquo;delivered&rdquo; to the
+Shepherd&rsquo;s charge, has dropped out, seems implied by <i>Vis.</i> v. 3 f.,
+<i>Sim.</i> x. 1. 1.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3k" id="ft3k" href="#fa3k"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Harnack places &ldquo;The Shepherd&rdquo; proper mostly under Hadrian
+(117-138), and the completed work <i>c.</i> 140-145.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4k" id="ft4k" href="#fa4k"><span class="fn">4</span></a> A careful study of practical Christian ethics at Rome as implied
+in the <i>Shepherd</i>, will be found in E. von Dobschütz, <i>Christian Life
+in the Primitive Church</i> (1904).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5k" id="ft5k" href="#fa5k"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Note the prestige of martyrs and confessors, the ways of true and
+false prophets in <i>Mand.</i> xi., and the different types of evil and good
+&ldquo;walk&rdquo; among Christians, <i>e.g.</i> in <i>Vis.</i> iii. 5-7; <i>Mand.</i> viii.; <i>Sim.</i> viii.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERMENEUTICS<a name="ar178" id="ar178"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="hermêneutikê">&#7953;&#961;&#956;&#951;&#957;&#949;&#965;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#942;</span>, <i>sc.</i> <span class="grk" title="technê">&#964;&#941;&#967;&#957;&#951;</span>, Lat. <i>ars
+hermeneutica</i>, from <span class="grk" title="hermêneuein">&#7953;&#961;&#956;&#951;&#957;&#949;&#973;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to interpret, from Hermes, the
+messenger of the gods), the science or art of interpretation or
+explanation, especially of the Holy Scriptures (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Theology</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERMES,<a name="ar179" id="ar179"></a></span> a Greek god, identified by the Romans with
+Mercury. The derivation of his name and his primitive character
+are very uncertain. The earliest centres of his cult were Arcadia,
+where Mt. Cyllene was reputed to be his birthplace, the islands
+of Lemnos, Imbros and Samothrace, in which he was associated
+with the Cabeiri and Attica. In Arcadia he was specially
+worshipped as the god of fertility, and his images were ithyphallic,
+as also were the &ldquo;Hermae&rdquo; at Athens. Herodotus (ii. 51)
+states that the Athenians borrowed this type from the Pelasgians,
+thus testifying to the great antiquity of the phallic Hermes. At
+Cyllene in Elis a mere phallus served as his emblem, and was
+highly venerated in the time of Pausanias (vi. 26. 3). Both in
+literature and cult Hermes was constantly associated with the
+protection of cattle and sheep; at Tanagra and elsewhere his
+title was <span class="grk" title="kriophoros">&#954;&#961;&#953;&#959;&#966;&#972;&#961;&#959;&#962;</span>, the ram-bearer. As a pastoral god he was
+often closely connected with deities of vegetation, especially Pan
+and the nymphs. His pastoral character is recognized in the
+<i>Iliad</i> (xiv. 490) and the later epic hymn to Hermes; and his
+Homeric titles <span class="grk" title="akakêta, eriounios, dôtôr eaôn">&#7936;&#954;&#940;&#954;&#951;&#964;&#945;, &#7952;&#961;&#953;&#959;&#973;&#957;&#953;&#959;&#962;, &#948;&#974;&#964;&#969;&#961; &#7952;&#940;&#969;&#957;</span>, probably refer to
+him as the giver of fertility. In the <i>Odyssey</i>, however, he appears
+mainly as the messenger of the gods, and the conductor of the
+dead to Hades. Hence in later times he is often represented in
+art and mythology as a herald. The conductor of souls was
+naturally a chthonian god; at Athens there was a festival in
+honour of Hermes and the souls of the dead, and Aeschylus
+(<i>Persae</i>, 628) invokes Hermes, with Earth and Hades, in summoning
+a spirit from the underworld. The function of a messenger-god
+may have originated the conception of Hermes as a dream-god;
+he is called the &ldquo;conductor of dreams&rdquo; (<span class="grk" title="hêgêtôr oneirôn">&#7969;&#947;&#942;&#964;&#969;&#961; &#8000;&#957;&#949;&#943;&#961;&#969;&#957;</span>),
+and the Greeks offered to him the last libation before sleep. As a
+messenger he may also have become the god of roads and doorways;
+he was the protector of travellers and his images were
+used for boundary-marks (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hermae</a></span>). It was a custom to
+make a cairn of stones near the wayside statues of Hermes, each
+passer-by adding a stone; the significance of the practice,
+which is found in many countries, is discussed by Frazer (<i>Golden
+Bough</i>, 2nd ed., iii. 10 f.) and Hartland (<i>Legend of Perseus</i>, ii. 228).
+Treasure found in the road (<span class="grk" title="hermaion">&#7957;&#961;&#956;&#945;&#953;&#959;&#957;</span>) was the gift of Hermes, and
+any stroke of good luck was attributed to him; but it may be
+doubted whether his patronage of luck in general was developed
+from his function as a god of roads. As the giver of luck he
+became a deity of gain and commerce (<span class="grk" title="kerdôos, agoraios">&#954;&#949;&#961;&#948;&#8183;&#959;&#962;, &#7936;&#947;&#959;&#961;&#945;&#8150;&#959;&#962;</span>), an
+aspect which caused his identification with Mercury, the Roman
+god of trade. From this conception his thievish character may
+have been evolved. The trickery and cunning of Hermes is a
+prominent theme in literature from Homer downwards, although
+it is very rarely recognized in official cult.<a name="fa1l" id="fa1l" href="#ft1l"><span class="sp">1</span></a> In the hymn to
+Hermes the god figures as a precocious child (a type familiar in
+folk-lore), who when a new-born babe steals the cows of Apollo.
+In addition to these characteristics various other functions were
+assigned to Hermes, who developed, perhaps, into the most
+complete type of the versatile Greek. In many respects he was a
+counterpart of Apollo, less dignified and powerful, but more
+human than his greater brother. Hermes was a patron of music,
+like Apollo, and invented the cithara; he presided over the
+games, with Apollo and Heracles, and his statues were common in
+the stadia and gymnasia. He became, in fact, the ideal Greek
+youth, equally proficient in the &ldquo;musical&rdquo; and &ldquo;gymnastic&rdquo;
+branches of Greek education. On the &ldquo;musical&rdquo; side he was
+the special patron of eloquence (<span class="grk" title="logios">&#955;&#972;&#947;&#953;&#959;&#962;</span>); in gymnastic, he was
+the giver of grace rather than of strength, which was the province
+of Heracles. Though athletic, he was one of the least militant of
+the gods; a title <span class="grk" title="promachos">&#960;&#961;&#972;&#956;&#945;&#967;&#959;&#962;</span>, the Defender, is found only in connexion
+with a victory of young men (&ldquo;ephebes&rdquo;) in a battle at
+Tanagra. A further point of contact between Hermes and Apollo
+may here be noted: both had prophetic powers, although
+Hermes held a place far inferior to that of the Pythian god, and
+possessed no famous oracle. Certain forms of popular divination
+were, however, under his patronage, notably the world-wide
+process of divination by pebbles (<span class="grk" title="thriai">&#952;&#961;&#953;&#945;&#943;</span>). The &ldquo;Homeric&rdquo; Hymn
+to Hermes explains these minor gifts of prophecy as delegated by
+Apollo, who alone knew the mind of Zeus. Only a single oracle is
+recorded for Hermes, in the market-place of Pharae in Achaea,
+and here the procedure was akin to popular divination. An altar,
+furnished with lamps, was placed before the statue; the inquirer,
+after lighting the lamps and offering incense, placed a coin in the
+right hand of the god; he then whispered his question into the
+ear of the statue, and, stopping his own ears, left the market
+place. The first sound which he heard outside was an omen.</p>
+
+<p>From the foregoing account it will be seen that it is difficult to
+derive the many-sided character of Hermes from a single elemental
+conception. The various theories which identified him
+with the sun, the moon or the dawn, may be dismissed, as they do
+not rest on evidence to which value would now be attached. The
+Arcadian or &ldquo;Pelasgic&rdquo; Hermes may have been an earth-deity,
+as his connexion with fertility suggests; but his symbol at Cyllene
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page370" id="page370"></a>370</span>
+rather points to a mere personification of reproductive powers.
+According to Plutarch the ancients &ldquo;set Hermes by the side of
+Aphrodite,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> the male and female principles of generation;
+and the two deities were worshipped together in Argos and elsewhere.
+But this phallic character does not explain other aspects
+of Hermes, as the messenger-god, the master-thief or the ideal
+Greek ephebe. It is impossible to adopt the view that the
+Homeric poets turned the rude shepherd-god of Arcadia into a
+messenger, in order to provide him with a place in the Olympian
+circle. To their Achaean audience Hermes must have been more
+than a phallic god. It is more probable that the Olympian
+Hermes represents the fusion of several distinct deities. Some
+scholars hold that the various functions of Hermes may have
+originated from the idea of good luck which is so closely bound up
+with his character. As a pastoral god he would give luck to the
+flocks and herds; when worshipped by townspeople, he would
+give luck to the merchant, the orator, the traveller and the
+athlete. But though the notion of luck plays an important part
+in early thought, it seems improbable that the primitive Greeks
+would have personified a mere abstraction. Another theory,
+which has much to commend it, has been advanced by Roscher,
+who sees in Hermes a wind-god. His strongest arguments are
+that the wind would easily develop into the messenger of the
+gods (<span class="grk" title="Dios ouros">&#916;&#953;&#8056;&#962; &#959;&#8022;&#961;&#959;&#962;</span>), and that it was often thought to promote
+fertility in crops and cattle. Thus the two aspects of Hermes
+which seem most discordant are referred to a single origin. The
+Homeric epithet <span class="grk" title="Argeiphontês">&#7944;&#961;&#947;&#949;&#953;&#966;&#972;&#957;&#964;&#951;&#962;</span>, which the Greeks interpreted as
+&ldquo;the slayer of Argus,&rdquo; inventing a myth to account for Argus, is
+explained as originally an epithet of the wind (<span class="grk" title="argestês">&#7936;&#961;&#947;&#949;&#963;&#964;&#942;&#962;</span>), which
+clears away the mists (<span class="grk" title="argos, phainô">&#7936;&#961;&#947;&#972;&#962;, &#966;&#945;&#943;&#957;&#969;</span>). The uncertainty of the
+wind might well suggest the trickery of a thief, and its whistling
+might contain the germ from which a god of music should be
+developed. But many of Roscher&rsquo;s arguments are forced, and
+his method of interpretation is not altogether sound. For
+example, the last argument would equally apply to Apollo, and
+would lead to the improbable conclusion that Apollo was a
+wind-god. It must, in fact, be remembered that men make
+their gods after their own likeness; and, whatever his origin,
+Hermes in particular was endowed with many of the qualities and
+habits of the Greek race. If he was evolved from the wind, his
+character had become so anthropomorphic that the Greeks
+had practically lost the knowledge of his primitive significance;
+nor did Greek cult ever associate him with the wind.</p>
+
+<p>The oldest form under which Hermes was represented was that
+of the Hermae mentioned above. Alcamenes, the rival or pupil
+of Pheidias, was the sculptor of a herm at Athens, a copy of which,
+dating from Roman times, was discovered at Pergamum in 1903.
+But side by side with the Hermae there grew up a more anthropomorphic
+conception of the god. In archaic art he was portrayed
+as a full-grown and bearded man, clothed in a long chiton, and
+often wearing a cap (<span class="grk" title="kynê">&#954;&#965;&#957;&#8134;</span>) or a broad-brimmed hat (<span class="grk" title="petasos">&#960;&#941;&#964;&#945;&#963;&#959;&#962;</span>),
+and winged boots. Sometimes he was represented in his pastoral
+character, as when he bears a sheep on his shoulders; at other
+times he appears as the messenger or herald of the gods with the
+<span class="grk" title="kêrykeion">&#954;&#951;&#961;&#965;&#954;&#949;&#8150;&#959;&#957;</span>, or herald&rsquo;s staff, which is his most frequent attribute.
+From the latter part of the 5th century his art-type was changed
+in conformity with the general development of Greek sculpture.
+He now became a nude and beardless youth, the type of the
+young athlete. In the 4th century this type was probably fixed
+by Praxiteles in his statue of Hermes at Olympia.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;F. G. Welcker, <i>Griech. Götterl.</i> i. 342 f. (Göttingen,
+1857-1863); L. Preller, ed. C. Robert, <i>Griech. Mythologie</i>, ii. 385 seq.
+(Berlin, 1894); W. H. Roscher, <i>Lex. der griech. u. röm. Mythologie</i>,
+s.v. (Leipzig, 1884-1886); A. Lang, <i>Myth, Ritual and Religion</i>,
+ii. 225 seq. (London, 1887); C. Daremberg and E. Saglio, <i>Dict. des
+ant. grecques et rom.</i>; Farnell, <i>Cults</i> v. (1909); O. Gruppe, <i>Griech.
+Mythologie u. Religionsgesch.</i> p. 1318 seq. (Munich, 1906). In the
+article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek Art</a></span>, figs. 43 and 82 (Plate VI.) represent the Hermes
+of Praxiteles; fig. 57 (Plate II.), a professed copy of the Hermes of
+Alcamenes.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. E. S.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1l" id="ft1l" href="#fa1l"><span class="fn">1</span></a> We only hear of a Hermes <span class="grk" title="dolios">&#948;&#972;&#955;&#953;&#959;&#962;</span> at Pellene (Paus. vii. 27. 1)
+and of the custom of allowing promiscuous thieving during the
+festival of Hermes at Samos (Plut. <i>Quaest. Graec.</i> 55).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERMES, GEORG<a name="ar180" id="ar180"></a></span> (1775-1831), German Roman Catholic
+theologian, was born on the 22nd of April 1775, at Dreyerwalde,
+in Westphalia, and was educated at the gymnasium and university
+of Münster, in both of which institutions he afterwards
+taught. In 1820 he was appointed professor of theology at
+Bonn, where he died on the 26th of May 1831. Hermes had
+a devoted band of adherents, of whom the most notable was
+Peter Josef Elvenich (1796-1886), who became professor at
+Breslau in 1829, and in 1870 threw in his lot with the Old Catholic
+movement. His works were <i>Untersuchungen über die innere
+Wahrheit des Christenthums</i> (Münster, 1805), and <i>Einleitung in
+die christkatholische Theologie</i>, of which the first part, a philosophical
+introduction, was published in 1819, the second part,
+on positive theology, in 1829. The <i>Einleitung</i> was never completed.
+His <i>Christkatholische Dogmatik</i> was published, from
+his lectures, after his death by two of his students, Achterfeld
+and Braun (3 vols., 1831-1834).</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Einleitung</i> is a remarkable work, both in itself and in its
+effect upon Catholic theology in Germany. Few works of modern
+times have excited a more keen and bitter controversy. Hermes
+himself was very largely under the influence of the Kantian and
+Fichtean ideas, and though in the philosophical portion of his
+<i>Einleitung</i> he criticizes both these thinkers severely, rejects
+their doctrine of the moral law as the sole guarantee for the
+existence of God, and condemns their restricted view of the
+possibility and nature of revelation, enough remained of purely
+speculative material to render his system obnoxious to his church.
+After his death, the contests between his followers and their
+opponents grew so bitter that the dispute was referred to the
+papal see. The judgment was adverse, and on the 25th of
+September 1835 a papal bull condemned both parts of the
+<i>Einleitung</i> and the first volume of the <i>Dogmatik</i>. Two months
+later the remaining volumes of the <i>Dogmatik</i> were likewise
+condemned. The controversy did not cease, and in 1845 a
+systematic attempt was made anonymously by F. X. Werner to
+examine and refute the Hermesian doctrines, as contrasted with
+the orthodox Catholic faith (<i>Der Hermesianismus</i>, 1845). In
+1847 the condemnation of 1835 was confirmed by Pius IX.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See K. Werner, <i>Geschichte der katholischen Theologie</i> (1866),
+pp. 405 sqq.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERMES TRISMEGISTUS<a name="ar181" id="ar181"></a></span> (&ldquo;the thrice greatest Hermes&rdquo;),
+an honorific designation of the Egyptian Hermes, <i>i.e.</i> Thoth
+(<i>q.v.</i>), the god of wisdom. In late hieroglyphic the name of
+Thoth often has the epithet &ldquo;the twice very great,&rdquo; sometimes
+&ldquo;the thrice very great&rdquo;; in the popular language (demotic)
+the corresponding epithet is &ldquo;the five times very great,&rdquo; found
+as early as the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Greek translations give <span class="grk" title="ho megas
+kai megas">&#8001; &#956;&#941;&#947;&#945;&#962; &#954;&#945;&#8054; &#956;&#941;&#947;&#945;&#962;</span> and <span class="grk" title="megistos: trismegas">&#956;&#941;&#947;&#953;&#963;&#964;&#959;&#962;: &#964;&#961;&#943;&#963;&#956;&#949;&#947;&#945;&#962;</span> occurs in a late magical
+text. <span class="grk" title="ho trismegistos">&#8001; &#964;&#961;&#953;&#963;&#956;&#941;&#947;&#953;&#963;&#964;&#959;&#962;</span> has not yet been found earlier than the
+2nd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, but there can now be no doubt of its origin in
+the above Egyptian epithets.</p>
+
+<p>Thoth was &ldquo;the scribe of the gods,&rdquo; &ldquo;Lord of divine words,&rdquo;
+and to Hermes was attributed the authorship of all the strictly
+sacred books generally called by Greek authors Hermetic.
+These, according to Clemens Alexandrinus, our sole ancient
+authority (<i>Strom.</i> vi. p. 268 et seq.), were forty-two in number,
+and were subdivided into six divisions, of which the first, containing
+ten books, was in charge of the &ldquo;prophet&rdquo; and dealt
+with laws, deities and the education of priests; the second,
+consisting of the ten books of the <i>stolistes</i>, the official whose
+duty it was to dress and ornament the statues of the gods,
+treated of sacrifices and offerings, prayers, hymns, festive
+processions; the third, of the &ldquo;hierogrammatist,&rdquo; also in ten
+books, was called &ldquo;hieroglyphics,&rdquo; and was a repertory of
+cosmographical, geographical and topographical information;
+the four books of the &ldquo;horoscopus&rdquo; were devoted to astronomy
+and astrology; the two books of the &ldquo;chanter&rdquo; contained
+respectively a collection of songs in honour of the gods and a
+description of the royal life and its duties; while the sixth and
+last division, consisting of the six books of the &ldquo;pastophorus,&rdquo;
+was medical. Clemens&rsquo;s statement cannot be contradicted.
+Works are extant in papyri and on temple walls, treating of
+geography, astronomy, ritual, myths, medicine, &amp;c. It is
+probable that the native priests would have been ready to
+ascribe the authorship or inspiration, as well as the care and
+protection of all their books of sacred lore to Thoth, although
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page371" id="page371"></a>371</span>
+there were a goddess of writing (Seshit), and the ancient deified
+scribes Imuthes and Amenophis, and later inspired doctors
+Petosiris, Nechepso, &amp;c., to be reckoned with; there are indeed
+some definite traces of such an attribution extant in individual
+cases. Whether a canon of such books was ever established,
+even in the latest times, may be seriously doubted. We know,
+however, that the vizier of Upper Egypt (at Thebes) in the
+eighteenth dynasty, had 40 (not 42) parchment rolls laid before
+him as he sat in the hall of audience. Unfortunately we have
+no hint of their contents. Forty-two was the number of divine
+assessors at the judgment of the dead before Osiris, and was
+the standard number of the nomes or counties in Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>The name of Hermes seems during the 3rd and following
+centuries to have been regarded as a convenient pseudonym
+to place at the head of the numerous syncretistic writings in
+which it was sought to combine Neo-Platonic philosophy,
+Philonic Judaism and cabalistic theosophy, and so provide the
+world with some acceptable substitute for the Christianity
+which had even at that time begun to give indications of the
+ascendancy it was destined afterwards to attain. Of these
+pseudepigraphic Hermetic writings some have come down to
+us in the original Greek; others survive in Latin or Arabic
+translations; but the majority appear to have perished. That
+which is best known and has been most frequently edited is the
+<span class="grk" title="Poimandrês">&#928;&#959;&#953;&#956;&#940;&#957;&#948;&#961;&#951;&#962;</span> <i>sive De potestate et sapientia divina</i> (<span class="grk" title="Poimandrês">&#928;&#959;&#953;&#956;&#940;&#957;&#948;&#961;&#951;&#962;</span>
+being the Divine Intelligence, <span class="grk" title="poimên andrôn">&#960;&#959;&#953;&#956;&#8052;&#957; &#7936;&#957;&#948;&#961;&#8182;&#957;</span>), which consists
+of fifteen chapters treating of such subjects as the nature of God,
+the origin of the world, the creation and fall of man, and the
+divine illumination which is the sole means of his deliverance.
+The <i>editio princeps</i> appeared in Paris in 1554; there is also
+an edition by G. Parthey (1854); the work has also been translated
+into German by D. Tiedemann (1781). Other Hermetic
+writings which have been preserved, and which have been
+for the most part collected by Patricius in the <i>Nova de universis
+philosophia</i> (1593), are (in Greek) <span class="grk" title="Iatromathêmatika pros
+Ammôna Aiguption, Peri katakliseôs nosountôn perignôstika,
+Ek tês mathêmatikês epistêmês pros Ammôna">&#7992;&#945;&#964;&#961;&#959;&#956;&#945;&#952;&#951;&#956;&#945;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#940; &#960;&#961;&#8056;&#962;
+&#7948;&#956;&#956;&#969;&#957;&#945; &#913;&#7984;&#947;&#973;&#960;&#964;&#953;&#959;&#957;, &#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#954;&#945;&#964;&#945;&#954;&#955;&#943;&#963;&#949;&#969;&#962; &#957;&#959;&#963;&#959;&#973;&#957;&#964;&#969;&#957; &#960;&#949;&#961;&#953;&#947;&#957;&#969;&#963;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#940;,
+&#7960;&#954; &#964;&#8134;&#962; &#956;&#945;&#952;&#951;&#956;&#945;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#8134;&#962; &#7952;&#960;&#953;&#963;&#964;&#942;&#956;&#951;&#962; &#960;&#961;&#8056;&#962; &#7948;&#956;&#956;&#969;&#957;&#945;</span>: (in Latin) <i>Aphorismi
+sive Centiloquium, Cyranides</i>; (in Arabic, but doubtless from a
+Greek original) an address to the human soul, which has been
+translated by H. L. Fleischer (<i>An die menschliche Seele</i>, 1870).</p>
+
+<p>The connexion of the name of Hermes with alchemy will
+explain what is meant by hermetic sealing, and will account for
+the use of the phrase &ldquo;hermetic medicine&rdquo; by Paracelsus, as
+also for the so-called &ldquo;hermetic freemasonry&rdquo; of the middle ages.</p>
+
+<p>Besides Thoth, Anubis (<i>q.v.</i>) was constantly identified with
+Hermes; see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Horus</a></span>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Ursinus, <i>De Zoroastre, Hermete</i>, &amp;c. (Nuremberg, 1661);
+Nicolas Lenglet-Dufresnoy, <i>L&rsquo;Histoire de la philosophie hermétique</i>
+(Paris, 1742); Baumgarten-Crusius, <i>De librorum hermeticorum
+origine atque indole</i> (Jena, 1827); B. J. Hilgers, <i>De Hermetis Trismegisti
+Poëmandro</i> (1855); R. Ménard, <i>Hermès Trismégiste, traduction
+complète, précédée d&rsquo;une étude sur l&rsquo;origine des livres hermétiques</i> (1866);
+R. Pietschmann, <i>Hermes Trismegistus, nach ägyptischen, griechischen,
+und orientalischen Überlieferungen</i> (1875); R. Reitzenstein,
+<i>Poimandres, Studien zur griechisch-ägyptischen und frühchristlichen
+Literatur</i> (Leipzig, 1904); G. R. S. Mead, <i>Thrice Greatest
+Hermes</i> (1907), introduction and translation.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(F. Ll. G.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERMESIANAX,<a name="ar182" id="ar182"></a></span> of Colophon, elegiac poet of the Alexandrian
+school, flourished about 330 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> His chief work was a poem
+in three books, dedicated to his mistress Leontion. Of this
+poem a fragment of about one hundred lines has been preserved
+by Athenaeus (xiii. 597). Plaintive in tone, it enumerates
+instances, mythological and historical, of the irresistible power
+of love. Hermesianax, whose style is characterized by alternate
+force and tenderness, was exceedingly popular in his own times,
+and was highly esteemed even in the Augustan period.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Many separate editions have been published of the fragment,
+the text of which is in a very unsatisfactory condition: by F. W.
+Schneidewin (1838), J. Bailey (1839, with notes, glossary, and
+Latin and English versions), and others; R. Schulze&rsquo;s <i>Quaestiones
+Hermesianacteae</i> (1858), contains an account of the life and writings
+of the poet and a section on the identity of Leontion.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERMIAS.<a name="ar183" id="ar183"></a></span> (1) A Greek philosopher of the Alexandrian
+school. A disciple of Proclus, he was known best for the lucidity
+of his method rather than for any original ideas. His chief works
+were a study of the <i>Isagoge</i> of Porphyry and a commentary on
+Plato&rsquo;s <i>Phaedrus</i>. Unlike the majority of logicians of the time, he
+admitted the absolute validity of the second and third figures of
+the syllogism.</p>
+
+<p>(2) A Christian apologist and philosopher who flourished
+probably in the 4th and 5th centuries. Nothing is known about
+his life, but there has been preserved of his writings a small thesis
+entitled <span class="grk" title="Diasyrmos tôn exôphilosophôn">&#916;&#953;&#945;&#963;&#965;&#961;&#956;&#8056;&#962; &#964;&#8182;&#957; &#7956;&#958;&#969; &#966;&#953;&#955;&#959;&#963;&#972;&#966;&#969;&#957;</span>. In this work he attacked
+pagan philosophy for its lack of logic in dealing with the root
+problems of life, the soul, the cosmos and the first cause or vital
+principle. There is an edition by von Otto published in the
+<i>Corpus apologetarum</i> (Jena, 1872). It is interesting, but without
+any claim to profundity of reasoning.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Two minor philosophers of the same name are known. Of these,
+one was a disciple of Plato and a friend of Aristotle; he became
+tyrant of Atarneus and invited Aristotle to his court. Aristotle
+subsequently married Pythias, who was either niece or sister of
+Hermias. Another Hermias was a Phoenician philosopher of the
+Alexandrian school; when Justinian closed the school of Athens,
+he was one of the five representatives of the school who took refuge
+at the Persian court.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERMIPPUS,<a name="ar184" id="ar184"></a></span> &ldquo;the one-eyed,&rdquo; Athenian writer of the Old
+Comedy, flourished during the Peloponnesian War. He is said
+to have written 40 plays, of which the titles and fragments
+of nine are preserved. He was a bitter opponent of Pericles,
+whom he accused (probably in the <span class="grk" title="Moirai">&#924;&#959;&#8150;&#961;&#945;&#953;</span>) of being a bully and a
+coward, and of carousing with his boon companions while the
+Lacedaemonians were invading Attica. He also accused Aspasia
+of impiety and offences against morality, and her acquittal was
+only secured by the tears of Pericles (Plutarch, <i>Pericles</i>, 32). In
+the <span class="grk" title="Artopôlides">&#7944;&#961;&#964;&#959;&#960;&#969;&#955;&#943;&#948;&#949;&#962;</span> (&ldquo;Bakeresses&rdquo;) he attacked the demagogue
+Hyperbolus. The <span class="grk" title="Phormophoroi">&#934;&#959;&#961;&#956;&#959;&#966;&#972;&#961;&#959;&#953;</span> (Mat-carriers) contains many
+parodies of Homer. Hermippus also appears to have written
+scurrilous iambic poems after the manner of Archilochus.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Fragments in T. Kock, <i>Comicorum Atticorum fragmenta</i>, i. (1880),
+and A. Meineke, <i>Poëtarum Graecorum comicorum fragmenta</i> (1855).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERMIT,<a name="ar185" id="ar185"></a></span> a solitary, one who withdraws from all intercourse
+with other human beings in order to live a life of religious contemplation,
+and so marked off from a &ldquo;coenobite&rdquo; (Gr. <span class="grk" title="koinos">&#954;&#959;&#953;&#957;&#972;&#962;</span>,
+common, and <span class="grk" title="bios">&#946;&#943;&#959;&#962;</span>, life), one who shares this life of withdrawal
+with others in a community (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Asceticism</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Monasticism</a></span>).
+The word &ldquo;hermit&rdquo; is an adaptation through the O. Fr. <i>ermite</i>
+or <i>hermite</i>, from the Lat. form, <i>eremite</i>, of the Gr. <span class="grk" title="eremitês">&#7952;&#961;&#949;&#956;&#943;&#964;&#951;&#962;</span>, a
+solitary, from <span class="grk" title="erêmia">&#7952;&#961;&#951;&#956;&#943;&#945;</span>, a desert. The English form &ldquo;eremite,&rdquo;
+which was used, according to the <i>New English Dictionary</i>, quite
+indiscriminately with &ldquo;hermit&rdquo; till the middle of the 17th
+century, is now chiefly used in poetry or rhetorically, except with
+reference to the early hermits of the Libyan desert, or sometimes
+to such particular orders as the eremites of St Augustine (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Augustinian Hermits</a></span>). Another synonym is &ldquo;anchoret&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;anchorite.&rdquo; This comes through the French and Latin forms
+from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="anachôrêtês">&#7936;&#957;&#945;&#967;&#969;&#961;&#951;&#964;&#942;&#962;</span>, from <span class="grk" title="anachôrein">&#7936;&#957;&#945;&#967;&#969;&#961;&#949;&#8150;&#957;</span>, to withdraw. A
+form nearer to the Greek original, &ldquo;anachoret,&rdquo; is sometimes
+used of the early Christian recluses in the East.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERMOGENES,<a name="ar186" id="ar186"></a></span> of Tarsus, Greek rhetorician, surnamed <span class="grk" title="Xustêr">&#926;&#965;&#963;&#964;&#942;&#961;</span>
+(the polisher), flourished in the reign of Marcus Aurelius (<span class="scs">A.D.</span>
+161-180). His precocious ability secured him a public appointment
+as teacher of his art while as yet he was only a boy; but
+at the age of twenty-five his faculties gave way, and he spent the
+remainder of his long life in a state of intellectual impotence.
+During his early years, however, he had composed a series of
+rhetorical treatises, which became popular text-books, and the
+subject of subsequent commentaries. Of his <span class="grk" title="Technê rhêtorikê">&#932;&#941;&#967;&#957;&#951; &#8165;&#951;&#964;&#959;&#961;&#953;&#954;&#942;</span> we
+still possess the sections <span class="grk" title="Peri tôn staseôn">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#964;&#8182;&#957; &#963;&#964;&#940;&#963;&#949;&#969;&#957;</span> (on legal issues),
+<span class="grk" title="Peri heureseôs">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#949;&#8017;&#961;&#941;&#963;&#949;&#969;&#962;</span> (on the invention of arguments), <span class="grk" title="Peri ideôn">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#7984;&#948;&#949;&#8182;&#957;</span> (on the
+various kinds of style), <span class="grk" title="Peri methodou deinotêtos">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#956;&#949;&#952;&#972;&#948;&#959;&#965; &#948;&#949;&#953;&#957;&#972;&#964;&#951;&#964;&#959;&#962;</span> (on the method of
+speaking effectively), and <span class="grk" title="Progymnasmata">&#928;&#961;&#959;&#947;&#965;&#956;&#957;&#940;&#963;&#956;&#945;&#964;&#945;</span> (rhetorical exercises).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Editions by C. Walz (1832), and by L. Spengel (1854), in their
+<i>Rhetores Graeci</i>; bibliographical note on the commentaries in
+W. Christ, <i>Geschichte der griechischen Literatur</i> (1898).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERMON,<a name="ar187" id="ar187"></a></span> the highest mountain in Syria (estimated at 9050
+to 9200 ft.), an outlier of the Anti-Lebanon. As the Hebrew name
+(<span title="Hermon">&#1495;&#1512;&#1502;&#1493;&#1503;</span>, &ldquo;belonging to a sanctuary,&rdquo; &ldquo;separate&rdquo;) shows, it was
+always a sacred mountain. The Sidonians called it <i>Sirion</i>, and the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page372" id="page372"></a>372</span>
+Amorites <i>Shenir</i> (Deut. iii. 9). According to one theory it is the
+&ldquo;high mountain&rdquo; near Caesarea Philippi, which was the scene of
+the Transfiguration (Mark ix. 2). A curious reference in Enoch
+vi. 6, says that in the days of Jared the wicked angels descended
+on the summit of the mountain and named it Hermon. The
+modern name is <i>Jebel es-Sheikh</i>, or &ldquo;mountain of the chief or
+elder.&rdquo; It is also called <i>Jebel eth-Thelj</i>, &ldquo;snowy mountain.&rdquo;
+The ridge of Hermon, rising into a dome-shaped summit, is 20 m.
+long, extending north-east and south-west. The formation of the
+lower part is Nubian sandstone, that of the upper part is a hard
+dark-grey crystalline limestone belonging to the Neocomian
+period, and full of fossils. The spurs consist in some cases of
+white chalk covering the limestone, and on the south there are
+several basaltic outbreaks. The view from Hermon is very extensive,
+embracing all Lebanon and the plains east of Damascus,
+with Palestine as far as Carmel and Tabor. On a clear day Jaffa
+also may be seen. The mountain in spring is covered with snow,
+but in autumn there is occasionally none left, even in the ravines.
+To the height of 500 ft. it is clothed with oaks, poplars and
+brush, while luxuriant vineyards abound. Foxes, wolves and
+Syrian bears are not infrequently met with, and there is a heavy
+dew or night mist. Above the snow-limit the mountain is bare
+and covered with fine limestone shingle. The summit is a
+plateau from which three rocky knolls rise up, that on the west
+being the lowest, that on the south-east the highest. On the
+south slope of the latter are remains of a small temple or <i>sacellum</i>
+described by St Jerome. A semicircular dwarf wall of good
+masonry runs round this peak, and a trench excavated in the
+rock may perhaps indicate the site of an altar. On the plateau
+is a cave about 25 ft. sq. with the entrance on the east. A rock
+column supports the roof, and a building (possibly a Mithraeum)
+once stood above. Other small temples are found on the sides of
+Hermon, of which twelve in all have been explored. They face
+the east and are dated by architects about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 200. The most
+remarkable are those of Deir el &lsquo;Ashaiyir, Hibbariyeh, Hosn
+Niha and Tell Thatha. At the ruined town called Rukleh on the
+northern slopes are remains of a temple, the stones of which have
+been built into a church. A large medallion, 5 ft. in diameter,
+with a head supposed to represent the sun-god, is built into the
+wall. Several Greek inscriptions occur among these ruins. In
+the 12th century Psalm lxxxix. 12 was supposed to indicate the
+proximity of Hermon to Tabor. The conical hill immediately
+south of Tabor was thus named Little Hermon, and is still so
+called by some of the inhabitants of the district.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERMSDORF,<a name="ar188" id="ar188"></a></span> a village of Germany, in the Prussian province
+of Silesia. Pop. (1900) 10,975. There are coal and iron mines
+and lime quarries in the vicinity, and in the town there are large
+iron-works. Hermsdorf is known as Niederhermsdorf to distinguish
+it from other places of the same name. Perhaps the
+most noteworthy of these is a village in Silesia at the foot of the
+Riesengebirge, chiefly famous for the ruins of the castle of Kynast.
+This castle, formerly the seat of the Schaffgotsch family, was
+destroyed by lightning in 1675. A third Hermsdorf is a village
+in Saxe-Altenburg, where porcelain is made.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERNE, JAMES A.<a name="ar189" id="ar189"></a></span> [originally <span class="sc">Aherne</span>] (1840-1901), American
+actor and playwright, was born in Troy, New York, and after
+theatrical experiences in various companies produced his own
+first play, <i>Hearts of Oak</i>, in 1878, and his great success <i>Shore
+Acres</i> in 1882. It was in rural drama that his humour and pathos
+found their proper setting, and <i>Shore Acres</i> was seen throughout
+the United States almost continuously for six seasons, being
+followed by the less successful <i>Sag Harbor</i>, 1900.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERNE,<a name="ar190" id="ar190"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
+Westphalia, 15 m. by rail N.W. of Dortmund. Pop. (1905)
+33,258. It has coal mines, boiler-works, gunpowder mills, &amp;c.
+Herne was made a town in 1897.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERNE BAY,<a name="ar191" id="ar191"></a></span> a seaside resort in the St Augustine&rsquo;s parliamentary
+division of Kent, England, 8 m. N. by E. of Canterbury,
+on the South Eastern and Chatham railway. Pop. of urban
+district (1901) 6726. It has grown up since 1830, above a
+sandy and pebbly shore, and has a pier ¾ m. long. The
+church of St Martin in the village of Herne, 1½ m. inland,
+is Early English and later; the living was held by Nicholas
+Ridley (1538), afterwards Bishop of London. At Reculver,
+3 m. E. of Herne Bay on the coast, is the site of the Roman
+station of <i>Regulbium</i>. The fortress occupied about 8 acres, but
+only traces of the south and east walls remain. In Saxon times
+it was converted into a palace by King Ethelbert, and in 669 a
+monastery was founded here by Egbert. The Early English
+church was taken down early in the 19th century owing to the
+encroachment of the sea, and parts of its fabric were preserved
+in the modern church of St Mary. But its twin towers, known
+as the Sisters from the tradition that they were built by a
+Benedictine abbess of Faversham in memory of her sister, were
+preserved by Trinity House as a conspicuous landmark.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERNE THE HUNTER,<a name="ar192" id="ar192"></a></span> a legendary huntsman who was alleged
+to haunt Windsor Great Park at night, especially around an
+aged tree, long known as Herne&rsquo;s oak, said to be nearly 700
+years old. This was blown down in 1863, and a young oak was
+planted by Queen Victoria on the spot. Herne has his French
+counterpart in the <i>Grand Veneur</i> of Fontainebleau. Mention
+is made of Herne in <i>The Merry Wives of Windsor</i> and in Harrison
+Ainsworth&rsquo;s <i>Windsor Castle</i>. Nothing definite is known of the
+Herne legend. It is suggested that it originated in the life-story
+of some keeper of the forest; but more probably it is only
+a variant of the &ldquo;Wild Huntsman&rdquo; myth common to folk-lore,
+which (E. B. Tylor, <i>Primitive Culture</i>, 4th ed. pp. 361-362) is
+almost certainly the modern form of a prehistoric storm-myth.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERNIA<a name="ar193" id="ar193"></a></span> (Lat. <i>hernia</i>, perhaps from Gr. <span class="grk" title="ernos">&#7956;&#961;&#957;&#959;&#962;</span>, a sprout), in
+surgery, the protrusion of a viscus, or part of a viscus, from its
+normal cavity; thus, <i>hernia cerebri</i> is a protrusion of brain-substance,
+<i>hernia pulmonum</i>, a protrusion of a portion of lung,
+and <i>hernia iridis</i>, a protrusion of some of the iris through an
+aperture in the cornea. But, used by itself, hernia implies a
+protrusion from the abdominal cavity, or, in common language,
+a &ldquo;rupture.&rdquo; A rupture may occur at any weak point in the
+abdominal wall. The common situations are the groin (<i>inguinal
+hernia</i>), the upper part of the thigh (<i>femoral hernia</i>), and the
+navel (<i>umbilical hernia</i>). The more movable the viscus the
+greater the liability to protrusion, and therefore one commonly
+finds some of the small intestine, or of the fatty apron (omentum),
+in the hernia. The tumour may contain intestine alone (enterocele),
+omentum alone (epiplocele), or both intestine and omentum
+(entero-epiplocele). The predisposing cause of rupture is
+abnormal length of the suspensory membrane of the bowel
+(the mesentery), or of the omentum, in conjunction with some
+weak spot in the abdominal wall, as in an inguinal hernia, which
+descends along the canal in which the spermatic cord lies in the
+male and the round ligament of the womb in the female. A
+femoral hernia comes through a weak spot in the abdomen to
+the inner side of the great femoral vessels; a ventral hernia takes
+place by the yielding of the scar tissue left after an operation
+for appendicitis or ovarian disease. The exciting cause of
+hernia is generally some over-exertion, as in lifting a heavy
+weight, jumping off a high wall, straining (as in difficult micturition),
+constipation or excessive coughing. The pressure of the
+diaphragm above and the abdominal wall in front acting on the
+abdominal viscera causes a protrusion at the weakest point.</p>
+
+<p>Rupture is either congenital or acquired. A child may be
+born with a hernia in the inguinal or umbilical region, the result
+of an arrest of development in these parts; or the rupture may
+be acquired, first appearing, perhaps, in adult life as the result
+of a strain or hurt. Men suffer more frequently than women,
+because of their physical labours, because they are more liable
+to accidents, and because of the passage for the spermatic cord
+out of the abdomen being more spacious than that for the round
+ligament of the womb.</p>
+
+<p>At first the rupture is small, and it gradually increases in bulk.
+It varies from the size of a marble to a child&rsquo;s head. The swelling
+consists of three parts&mdash;the coverings, sac and contents. The
+&ldquo;coverings&rdquo; are the structures which form the abdominal wall
+at the part where the rupture occurs. In femoral hernia the
+coverings are the structures at the upper part of the thigh which
+are stretched, thinned and matted together as the result of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page373" id="page373"></a>373</span>
+pressure; in other cases there is an increase in their thickness,
+the result of repeated attacks of inflammation. The &ldquo;sac&rdquo; is
+composed of the peritoneum or membrane lining the abdominal
+cavity; in some rare cases the sac is wanting. The neck of the
+sac is the narrowed portion where the peritoneum forming the
+sac becomes continuous with the general peritoneal cavity.
+The neck of the sac is often thickened, indurated and adherent
+to surrounding parts, the result of chronic inflammation. The
+&ldquo;contents&rdquo; are bowel, omental fat, or, in children, an ovary.</p>
+
+<p>The hernia may be reducible, irreducible or strangulated.
+A &ldquo;reducible&rdquo; hernia is one in which the contents can be
+pushed back into the abdomen. In some cases this reduction is
+effected with ease, in others it is a matter of great difficulty.
+At any moment a reducible hernia may become &ldquo;irreducible,&rdquo;
+that is to say, it cannot be pushed back into the abdominal
+cavity, perhaps because of inflammatory adhesions in and
+around the fatty contents, or because of extra fullness of the
+bowel in the sac. A &ldquo;strangulated&rdquo; hernia is one in which the
+circulation of the blood through the hernial contents is interfered
+with, by the pinching at the narrowest part of the passage.
+The interference is at first slight, but it quickly becomes more
+pronounced; the pinched bowel in the hernial sac swells as a
+finger does when a string is tightly wound round its base. At first
+there is congestion, and this may go on to inflammation, to
+infection by micro-organisms and to mortification. The rapidity
+with which the change from simple congestion to mortification
+takes place depends on the tightness of the constriction, and on
+the virulence of the bacterial infection from the bowel. As a
+rule, the more rapidly a hernia forms the greater the rapidity
+of serious change in the conditions of the bowel or omentum,
+and the more urgent are the symptoms. The constricting band
+may be one of the structures which form the boundaries of the
+openings through which the hernia has travelled, or it may be
+the neck of the sac, which has become thickened in consequence
+of inflammation&mdash;especially is this the case in an inguinal hernia.</p>
+
+<p><i>Reducible Hernia.</i>&mdash;With a reducible hernia there is a soft
+compressible tumour (elastic when it contains intestine, doughy
+when it contains omentum), its size increasing in the erect, and
+diminishing in the horizontal posture. As a rule, it causes no
+trouble during the night. It gives an impulse on coughing, and
+when the intestinal contents are pushed back into the abdomen
+a gurgling sensation is perceptible by the fingers. Such a tumour
+may be met with in any part of the abdominal wall, but the chief
+situations are as follows. The inguinal region, in which the neck
+of the tumour lies immediately above Poupart&rsquo;s ligament (a
+cord-like ligamentous structure which can be felt stretching
+from the front of the hip-bone to a ridge of bone immediately
+above the genital organs); the femoral region, in the upper part
+of the thigh, in which the neck of the sac lies immediately below
+the inner end of Poupart&rsquo;s ligament; the umbilical region,
+in which the tumour appears at or near the navel. As the
+inguinal hernia increases in size it passes into the scrotum in the
+male, into the labium in the female; while the femoral hernia
+gradually pushes upwards to the abdomen.</p>
+
+<p>The palliative treatment of a reducible hernia consists in
+pushing back the contents of the tumour into the abdomen
+and applying a truss or elastic bandage to prevent their again
+escaping. The younger the patient the more chance there is
+of the truss acting as a curative agent. The truss may generally
+be left off at night, but it should be put on in the morning
+before the patient leaves his bed. If, after the hernia has been
+once returned, it is not allowed again to come down, there is a
+probability of an actual cure taking place; but if it is allowed
+to come down occasionally, as it may do, even during the night,
+in consequence of a cough, or from the patient turning suddenly
+in bed, the weak spot is again opened out, and the improvement
+which might have been going on for weeks is undone. It is
+sometimes found impossible to keep up a hernia by means of a
+truss, and an operation becomes necessary. The operation is
+spoken of as &ldquo;the radical treatment of hernia,&rdquo; in contra-distinction
+to the so-called &ldquo;palliative treatment&rdquo; by means
+of a truss. It should not be spoken of as the radical cure, for
+skilfully as the operation may have been performed it is not
+always a cure. The principles involved in the operation are the
+emptying of the sac and its entire removal, and the closure of the
+opening into the abdomen by strong sutures; and, in this way,
+great advance has been made by modern surgery. Without
+tiresome delay, and the tedious and sometimes disappointing
+application of trusses, the weak spot in the abdominal wall is
+exposed, the sac of the hernia is tied and removed, and the canal
+by which the rupture descended is blockaded by buried sutures,
+and with no material risk to life. Thus the patient&rsquo;s worries
+become a thing of the past, and he is rendered a fit and normal
+member of society. Experience has shown that very few ruptures
+are unsuited for successful treatment by operation. No boy
+should now be sent to school compelled to wear a truss, and so
+hindered in his games and rendered an object of remark.</p>
+
+<p><i>Irreducible Hernia.</i>&mdash;The main symptom is a tumour in one
+of the situations already referred to, of long standing and
+perhaps of large size, in which the contents of the tumour, in
+whole or in part, cannot be pushed back into the abdomen.
+The irreducibility is due either to its large size or to changes
+which have taken place by indurations or adhesions. Such a
+tumour is a constant source of danger: its contents are liable,
+from their exposed situation, to injury from external violence;
+it has a constant risk of increase; it may at any time become
+strangulated, or the contents may inflame, and strangulation
+may occur secondarily to the inflammation. It gives rise to
+dragging sensations (referred to the abdomen), colic, dyspepsia
+and constipation, which may lead to obstruction, that is to say, a
+stoppage may occur of the passage of the contents of that portion
+of the intestinal canal which lies in the hernia. When an irreducible
+hernia becomes painful and tender, a local peritonitis
+has occurred, which resembles in many of its symptoms a case
+of strangulation, and must be regarded with suspicion and
+anxiety. Indeed, the only safe treatment is by operation.</p>
+
+<p>The treatment of irreducible hernia may be palliative; a
+&ldquo;bag truss&rdquo; may be worn in the hope of preventing the hernia
+getting larger; the bowels must be kept open, and all irregularities
+of diet avoided. A person with such a hernia is in constant
+danger, and if his general condition does not contra-indicate it
+he should be submitted to operative treatment. That is to say,
+the surgeon should cut down on the hernia, open the sac, divide
+any omental adhesions, tie and cut away indurated omentum,
+return the bowel, and complete the radical operation by closing
+the aperture by strong sutures.</p>
+
+<p>In <i>Strangulated Hernia</i> the bowel or omentum is being nipped
+at the neck of the sac, and the flow of blood into and from the
+delicate tissues is stopped. The symptoms are&mdash;nausea, vomiting
+of bilious matter, and after a time of faecal-smelling matter;
+a twisting, burning pain generally referred to the region of the
+navel, intestinal obstruction; a quick, wiry pulse and pain on
+pressure over the tumour; the expression grows anxious, the
+abdomen becomes tense and drum-like, and there is no impulse
+in the tumour on coughing, because its contents are practically
+pinched off from the general abdominal cavity. Sometimes there
+is complete absence of pain and tenderness in the hernia itself,
+and in an aged person all the symptoms may be very slight.
+Sooner or later, from eight hours to eight days, if the strangulation
+is unrelieved, the tumour becomes livid, crackling with gas,
+mortification of the bowel at the neck of the sac takes place,
+followed by extravasation of the intestinal contents into the
+abdominal cavity; the patient has hiccough; he becomes
+collapsed; and dies comatose from blood-poisoning.</p>
+
+<p>The treatment of a strangulated hernia admits of no delay;
+if the hernia does not &ldquo;go back&rdquo; on the surgeon trying to reduce
+it, it must be operated on at once, the constriction being relieved,
+the bowel returned and the opening closed. There should be
+no treatment by hot-bath or ice-bag: operation is urgently
+needed. An anaesthetic should be administered, and perhaps
+one gentle attempt to return the contents by pressure (termed
+&ldquo;taxis&rdquo;) may be made, but no prolonged attempts are justifiable,
+because the condition of the hernial contents may be
+such that they cannot bear the pressure of the fingers. &ldquo;Think
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page374" id="page374"></a>374</span>
+well of the hernia,&rdquo; says the aphorism, &ldquo;which has been little
+handled.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The taxis to be successful should be made in a direction
+opposite to the one in which the hernia has come down. The
+inguinal hernia should be pressed upwards, outwards and
+backwards, the femoral hernia downwards, backwards and
+upwards. The larger the hernia the greater is the chance of
+success by taxis, and the smaller the hernia the greater the risk
+of its being injured by manipulation and delay. In every case
+the handling must be absolutely gentle. If taxis does not succeed
+the surgeon must at once cut down on the tumour, carefully
+dividing the different coverings until he reaches the sac. The
+sac is then opened, the constriction divided, care being taken
+not to injure the bowel. The bowel must be examined before it
+is returned into the abdomen, and if its lustreless appearance,
+its dusky colour, or its smell, suggests that it is mortified, or is
+on the point of mortifying, it must not be put back or perforation
+would give rise to septic peritonitis which would probably have
+a fatal ending. In such a case the damaged piece of bowel must
+be resected and the healthy ends of the bowel joined together
+by fine suturing. Matted or diseased omentum must be tied off
+and removed. Should peritonitis supervene after the operation
+on account of bacillary infection, the bowels should be quickly
+made to act by repeated doses of Epsom salts in hot water.</p>
+
+<p>A person who is the subject of a reducible hernia should take
+great care to obtain an accurately fitting truss, and should
+remember that whenever symptoms resembling in any degree
+those of strangulation occur, delay in treatment may prove
+fatal. A surgeon should at once be communicated with, and he
+should come prepared to operate.</p>
+<div class="author">(E. O.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERNICI,<a name="ar194" id="ar194"></a></span> an ancient people of Italy, whose territory was
+in Latium between the Fucine Lake and the Trerus, bounded
+by the Volscian on the S., and by the Aequian and the Marsian
+on the N. They long maintained their independence, and in
+486 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> were still strong enough to conclude an equal treaty
+with the Latins (Dion. Hal. viii. 64 and 68). They broke away
+from Rome in 362 (Livy vii. 6 ff.) and in 306 (Livy ix. 42), when
+their chief town Anagnia (<i>q.v.</i>) was taken and reduced to a
+praefecture, but Ferentinum, Aletrium and Verulae were
+rewarded for their fidelity by being allowed to remain free
+<i>municipia</i>, a position which at that date they preferred to the
+<i>civitas</i>. The name of the Hernici, like that of the Volsci, is
+missing from the list of Italian peoples whom Polybius (ii. 24)
+describes as able to furnish troops in 225 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; by that date,
+therefore, their territory cannot have been distinguished from
+Latium generally, and it seems probable (Beloch, <i>Ital. Bund</i>,
+p. 123) that they had then received the full Roman citizenship.
+The oldest Latin inscriptions of the district (from Ferentinum,
+<i>C.I.L.</i> x. 5837-5840) are earlier than the Social War, and present
+no local characteristic.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For further details of their history see <i>C.I.L.</i> x. 572.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>There is no evidence to show that the Hernici ever spoke a
+really different dialect from the Latins; but one or two glosses
+indicate that they had certain peculiarities of vocabulary, such
+as might be expected among folk who clung to their local customs.
+Their name, however, with its <i>Co</i>-termination, classes them
+along with the <i>Co</i>-tribes, like the Volsci, who would seem to have
+been earlier inhabitants of the west coast of Italy, rather than
+with the tribes whose names were formed with the <i>No</i>-suffix.
+On this question see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Volsci</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sabini</a></span>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Conway&rsquo;s <i>Italic Dialects</i> (Camb. Univ. Press, 1897), p. 306 ff.,
+where the glosses and the local and personal names of the district
+will be found.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. S. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HERNÖSAND,<a name="ar195" id="ar195"></a></span> a seaport of Sweden, chief town of the district
+(<i>län</i>) of Vesternorrland on the Gulf of Bothnia. Pop. (1900)
+7890. It stands on the island of Hernö (which is connected
+with the mainland by bridges) near the mouth of the Ångerman
+river, 423 m. N. of Stockholm by rail. It is the seat of a bishop
+and possesses a fine cathedral. There are engine-works, timber-yards
+and saw-mills. The harbour is good, but generally ice-bound
+from December to May. Timber, iron and wood-pulp are
+exported. There are a school of navigation and an institute for
+pisciculture. Hernösand was founded in 1584, and received its
+first town-privileges from John III. in 1587. It was the first
+town in Europe to be lighted by electricity (1885). The poet
+Franzen (<i>q.v.</i>), Bishop of Hernösand, is buried here.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
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+</body>
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@@ -0,0 +1,18389 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 13, Slice 3, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 13, Slice 3
+       "Helmont, Jean" to "Hernosand"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: April 12, 2012 [EBook #39435]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 13 SLICE 3 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
+      letters.
+
+(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE HEMIMORPHITE: "Hemimorphite occurs with other ores of zinc
+      (calamine and blende), forming veins and beds in sedimentary
+      limestones." 'sedimentary' amended from 'sedimentry'.
+
+    ARTICLE HEMP: "But typically the drug is an intoxicant, resembling
+      alcohol in many features of its action, but differing in others."
+      'is' amended from 'in'.
+
+    ARTICLE HENLEY, WILLIAM ERNEST: "In 1890 Henley published Views and
+      Reviews, a volume of notable criticisms, described by himself as
+      'less a book than a mosaic of scraps and shreds recovered from the
+      shot rubbish of some fourteen years of journalism.'" 'mosaic'
+      amended from 'mosiac'.
+
+    ARTICLE HENRY VIII.: "... and the Councils of Wales and of the
+      North were given summary powers derived from the Roman civil law
+      similar to those exercised by the Star Chamber at Westminster and
+      the court of Castle Chamber at Dublin." 'similar' amended from
+      'similiar'.
+
+    ARTICLE HERBARIUM: "... some species being almost always found
+      parasitical on particular plants." Duplicated 'found'.
+
+    ARTICLE HERCULES: "Hera sent two serpents to destroy the new-born
+      Hercules, but he strangled them." 'destroy' amended from 'destory'.
+
+    ARTICLE HEREDITAMENT: "An example of a corporeal hereditament is
+      land held in freehold, of incorporeal hereditaments, tithes,
+      advowsons, pensions, annuities, rents, franchises, &c."
+      'hereditaments' amended from 'herditaments'.
+
+    ARTICLE HEREFORDSHIRE: "Herefordshire probably originated as a
+      shire in the time of Aethelstan, and is mentioned in the Saxon
+      Chronicle in 1051." 'Chronicle' amended from 'Chroncile'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+           VOLUME XIII, SLICE III
+
+         HELMONT, JEAN to HERNOSAND
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  HELMONT, JEAN BAPTISTE VAN        HENRY, ROBERT
+  HELMSTEDT                         HENRY, VICTOR
+  HELMUND                           HENRY, WILLIAM
+  HELM WIND                         HENRYSON, ROBERT
+  HELOTS                            HENSCHEL, GEORGE
+  HELPS, SIR ARTHUR                 HENSELT, ADOLF VON
+  HELSINGBORG                       HENSLOW, JOHN STEVENS
+  HELSINGFORS                       HENSLOWE, PHILIP
+  HELST, BARTHOLOMAEUS VAN DER      HENTY, GEORGE ALFRED
+  HELSTON                           HENWOOD, WILLIAM JORY
+  HELVETIC CONFESSIONS              HENZADA
+  HELVETII                          HEPBURN, SIR JOHN
+  HELVETIUS, CLAUDE ADRIEN          HEPHAESTION (Macedonian general)
+  HELVIDIUS PRISCUS                 HEPHAESTION (Alexandrian grammarian)
+  HELY-HUTCHINSON, JOHN             HEPHAESTUS
+  HELYOT, PIERRE                    HEPPENHEIM
+  HEMANS, FELICIA DOROTHEA          HEPPLEWHITE, GEORGE
+  HEMEL HEMPSTEAD                   HEPTARCHY
+  HEMEROBAPTISTS                    HERA
+  HEMICHORDA                        HERACLEA
+  HEMICYCLE                         HERACLEON
+  HEMIMERUS                         HERACLEONAS
+  HEMIMORPHITE                      HERACLIDAE
+  HEMINGBURGH, WALTER OF            HERACLIDES PONTICUS
+  HEMIPTERA                         HERACLITUS
+  HEMLOCK                           HERACLIUS
+  HEMP                              HERALD
+  HEMSTERHUIS, FRANCOIS             HERALDRY
+  HEMSTERHUIS, TIBERIUS             HERAT
+  HEMY, CHARLES NAPIER              HERAULT
+  HEN                               HERAULT DE SECHELLES, MARIE JEAN
+  HENAULT, CHARLES JEAN FRANCOIS    HERB
+  HENBANE                           HERBARIUM
+  HENCHMAN                          HERBART, JOHANN FRIEDRICH
+  HENDERSON, ALEXANDER              HERBELOT DE MOLAINVILLE, BARTHELEMY D'
+  HENDERSON, EBENEZER               HERBERAY DES ESSARTS, NICOLAS DE
+  HENDERSON, GEORGE FRANCIS ROBERT  HERBERT (Family)
+  HENDERSON, JOHN                   HERBERT, GEORGE
+  HENDERSON (Kentucky, U.S.A.)      HERBERT, HENRY WILLIAM
+  HENDIADYS                         HERBERT, SIR THOMAS
+  HENDON                            HERBERT OF CHERBURY, EDWARD HERBERT
+  HENDRICKS, THOMAS ANDREWS         HERBERT OF LEA, SIDNEY HERBERT
+  HENGELO                           HERBERTON
+  HENGEST and HORSA                 HERCULANEUM
+  HENGSTENBERG, ERNST WILHELM       HERCULANO DE CARVALHO, ALEXANDRE
+  HENKE, HEINRICH PHILIPP KONRAD    HERCULES (hero of Hellas)
+  HENLE, FRIEDRICH GUSTAV JAKOB     HERCULES (constellation)
+  HENLEY, JOHN                      HERD
+  HENLEY, WILLIAM ERNEST            HERDER, JOHANN GOTTFRIED VON
+  HENLEY-ON-THAMES                  HEREDIA, JOSE MARIA DE
+  HENNA                             HEREDIA Y CAMPUZANO, JOSE MARIA
+  HENNEBONT                         HEREDITAMENT
+  HENNEQUIN, PHILIPPE AUGUSTE       HEREDITY
+  HENNER, JEAN JACQUES              HEREFORD
+  HENRIETTA MARIA                   HEREFORDSHIRE
+  HENRY (name origin)               HERERO
+  HENRY I. (German king)            HERESY
+  HENRY II. (Roman emperor)         HEREWARD
+  HENRY III. (Roman emperor)        HERFORD
+  HENRY IV. (Roman emperor)         HERGENROTHER, JOSEPH VON
+  HENRY V. (Roman emperor)          HERINGSDORF
+  HENRY VI. (Roman emperor)         HERIOT, GEORGE
+  HENRY VII. (Roman emperor)        HERIOT
+  HENRY VII. (German king)          HERISAU
+  HENRY RASPE                       HERITABLE JURISDICTIONS
+  HENRY (emperor of Romania)        HERKIMER
+  HENRY I. (king of England)        HERKOMER, SIR HUBERT VON
+  HENRY II. (king of England)       HERLEN, FRITZ
+  HENRY III. (king of England)      HERMAE
+  HENRY IV. (king of England)       HERMAGORAS
+  HENRY V. (king of England)        HERMANDAD
+  HENRY VI. (king of England)       HERMAN DE VALENCIENNES
+  HENRY VII. (king of England)      HERMANN I.
+  HENRY VIII. (king of England)     HERMANN OF REICHENAU
+  HENRY I. (king of Castile)        HERMANN OF WIED
+  HENRY I. (king of France)         HERMANN, FRIEDRICH WILHELM VON
+  HENRY II. (king of France)        HERMANN, JOHANN GOTTFRIED JAKOB
+  HENRY III. (king of France)       HERMANN, KARL FRIEDRICH
+  HENRY IV. (king of France)        HERMAPHRODITUS
+  HENRY I. (king of Navarre)        HERMAS, SHEPHERD OF
+  HENRY II. (king of Navarre)       HERMENEUTICS
+  HENRY I. (king of Portugal)       HERMES (Greek god)
+  HENRY II. (duke of Brunswick-W.)  HERMES, GEORG
+  HENRY (the Proud, duke of Saxony) HERMES TRISMEGISTUS
+  HENRY (the Lion, duke of Saxony)  HERMESIANAX
+  HENRY (Prince of Battenberg)      HERMIAS
+  HENRY FITZ HENRY                  HERMIPPUS
+  HENRY (Cardinal York)             HERMIT
+  HENRY OF PORTUGAL                 HERMOGENES
+  HENRY OF ALMAIN                   HERMON
+  HENRY OF BLOIS                    HERMSDORF
+  HENRY OF GHENT                    HERNE, JAMES A.
+  HENRY OF HUNTINGDON               HERNE (town of Germany)
+  HENRY OF LAUSANNE                 HERNE BAY
+  HENRY, EDWARD LAMSON              HERNE THE HUNTER
+  HENRY, JAMES                      HERNIA
+  HENRY, JOSEPH                     HERNICI
+  HENRY, MATTHEW                    HERNOSAND
+  HENRY, PATRICK
+
+
+
+
+HELMONT, JEAN BAPTISTE VAN (1577-1644), Belgian chemist, physiologist
+and physician, a member of a noble family, was born at Brussels in
+1577.[1] He was educated at Louvain, and after ranging restlessly from
+one science to another and finding satisfaction in none, turned to
+medicine, in which he took his doctor's degree in 1599. The next few
+years he spent in travelling through Switzerland, Italy, France and
+England. Returning to his own country he was at Antwerp at the time of
+the great plague in 1605, and having contracted a rich marriage settled
+in 1609 at Vilvorde, near Brussels, where he occupied himself with
+chemical experiments and medical practice until his death on the 30th of
+December 1644. Van Helmont presents curious contradictions. On the one
+hand he was a disciple of Paracelsus (though he scornfully repudiates
+his errors was well as those of most other contemporary authorities), a
+mystic with strong leanings to the supernatural, an alchemist who
+believed that with a small piece of the philosopher's stone he had
+transmuted 2000 times as much mercury into gold; on the other hand he
+was touched with the new learning that was producing men like Harvey,
+Galileo and Bacon, a careful observer of nature, and an exact
+experimenter who in some cases realized that matter can neither be
+created nor destroyed. As a chemist he deserves to be regarded as the
+founder of pneumatic chemistry, even though it made no substantial
+progress for a century after his time, and he was the first to
+understand that there are gases distinct in kind from atmospheric air.
+The very word "gas" he claims as his own invention, and he perceived
+that his "gas sylvestre" (our carbon dioxide) given off by burning
+charcoal is the same as that produced by fermenting must and that which
+sometimes renders the air of caves irrespirable. For him air and water
+are the two primitive elements of things. Fire he explicitly denies to
+be an element, and earth is not one because it can be reduced to water.
+That plants, for instance, are composed of water he sought to show by
+the ingenious quantitative experiment of planting a willow weighing 5
+lb. in 200 lb. of dry soil and allowing it to grow for five years; at
+the end of that time it had become a tree weighing 169 lb., and since it
+had received nothing but water and the soil weighed practically the same
+as at the beginning, he argued that the increased weight of wood, bark
+and roots had been formed from water alone. It was an old idea that the
+processes of the living body are fermentative in character, but he
+applied it more elaborately than any of his predecessors. For him
+digestion, nutrition and even movement are due to ferments, which
+convert dead food into living flesh in six stages. But having got so far
+with the application of chemical principles to physiological problems,
+he introduces a complicated system of supernatural agencies like the
+_archei_ of Paracelsus, which preside over and direct the affairs of the
+body. A central _archeus_ controls a number of subsidiary _archei_ which
+move through the ferments, and just as diseases are primarily caused by
+some affection (_exorbitatio_) of the _archeus_, so remedies act by
+bringing it back to the normal. At the same time chemical principles
+guided him in the choice of medicines--undue acidity of the digestive
+juices, for example, was to be corrected by alkalies and _vice versa_;
+he was thus a forerunner of the iatrochemical school, and did good
+service to the art of medicine by applying chemical methods to the
+preparation of drugs. Over and above the _archeus_ he taught that there
+is the sensitive soul which is the husk or shell of the immortal mind.
+Before the Fall the _archeus_ obeyed the immortal mind and was directly
+controlled by it, but at the Fall men received also the sensitive soul
+and with it lost immortality, for when it perishes the immortal mind can
+no longer remain in the body. In addition to the _archeus_, which he
+described as "aura vitalis seminum, vitae directrix," Van Helmont had
+other governing agencies resembling the _archeus_ and not always clearly
+distinguished from it. From these he invented the term _blas_, defined
+as the "vis motus tam alterivi quam localis." Of _blas_ there were
+several kinds, e.g. _blas humanum_ and _blas meteoron_; the heavens he
+said "constare gas materia et blas efficiente." He was a faithful
+Catholic, but incurred the suspicion of the Church by his tract _De
+magnetica vulnerum curatione_ (1621), which was thought to derogate from
+some of the miracles. His works were collected and published at
+Amsterdam as _Ortus medicinae, vel opera et opuscula omnia_ in 1668 by
+his son Franz Mercurius (b. 1618 at Vilvorde, d. 1699 at Berlin), in
+whose own writings, e.g. _Cabbalah Denudata_ (1677) and _Opuscula
+philosophica_ (1690), mystical theosophy and alchemy appear in still
+wilder confusion.
+
+  See M. Foster, _Lectures on the History of Physiology_ (1901); also
+  Chevreul in _Journ. des savants_ (Feb. and March 1850), and Cap in
+  _Journ. pharm. chim._ (1852). Other authorities are Poultier d'Elmoth,
+  _Memoire sur J. B. van Helmont_ (1817); Rixner and Sieber, _Beitrage
+  zur Geschichte der Physiologie_ (1819-1826), vol. ii.; Spiers,
+  _Helmont's System der Medicin_ (1840); Melsens, _Lecons sur van
+  Helmont_ (1848); Rommelaere, _Etudes sur J. B. van Helmont_ (1860).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] An alternative date for his birth is 1579 and for his death 1635
+    (see _Bull. Roy. Acad. Belg._, 1907, 7, p. 732).
+
+
+
+
+HELMSTEDT, or more rarely Helmstadt, a town of Germany, in the duchy of
+Brunswick, 30 m. N.W. of Magdeburg on the main line of railway to
+Brunswick. Pop. (1905) 15,415. The principal buildings are the Juleum,
+the former university, built in the Renaissance style towards the close
+of the 16th century, and containing a library of 40,000 volumes; the
+fine Stephanskirche dating from the 12th century; the Walpurgiskirche
+restored in 1893-1894; the Marienberger Kirche, a beautiful church in
+the Roman style, and the Roman Catholic church. The Augustinian nunnery
+of Marienberg founded in 1176 is now a Lutheran school. The town
+contains the ruins of the Benedictine abbey of St Ludger, which was
+secularized in 1803. The educational institutions include several
+schools. The principal manufactures are furniture, yarn, soap, tobacco,
+sugar, vitriol and earthenware. Near the town is Bad Helmstedt, which
+has an iron mineral spring, and the Lubbensteine, two blocks of granite
+on which sacrifices to Woden are said to have been offered. Near Bad
+Helmstedt a monument has been erected to those who fell in the
+Franco-German War; in the town there is one to those killed at Waterloo.
+Helmstedt originated, according to legend, in connexion with the
+monastery founded by Ludger or Liudger (d. 809), the first bishop of
+Munster. There appears, however, little doubt that this tradition is
+mythical and that Helmstedt was not founded until about 900. It obtained
+civic rights in 1099 and, although destroyed by the archbishop of
+Magdeburg in 1199, it was soon rebuilt. In 1457 it joined the Hanseatic
+League, and in 1490 it came into the possession of Brunswick. In 1576
+Julius, duke of Brunswick, founded a university here, and throughout the
+17th century this was one of the chief seats of Protestant learning. It
+was closed by Jerome, king of Westphalia, in 1809.
+
+  See Ludewig, _Geschichte und Beschreibung der Stadt Helmstedt_
+  (Helmstedt, 1821).
+
+
+
+
+HELMUND, a river of Afghanistan, in length about 600 m. The Helmund,
+which is identical with the ancient Etymander, is the most important
+river in Afghanistan, next to the Kabul river, which it exceeds both in
+volume and length. It rises in the recesses of the Koh-i-Baba to the
+west of Kabul, its infant stream parting the Unai pass from the Irak,
+the two chief passes on the well-known road from Kabul to Bamian. For 50
+m. from its source its course is ascertained, but beyond that point for
+the next 50 no European has followed it. About the parallel of 33 deg.
+N. it enters the Zamindawar province which lies to the N.W. of Kandahar,
+and thenceforward it is a well-mapped river to its termination in the
+lake of Seistan. Till about 40 m. above Girishk the character of the
+Helmund is that of a mountain river, flowing through valleys which in
+summer are the resort of pastoral tribes. On leaving the hills it enters
+on a flat country, and extends over a gravelly bed. Here also it begins
+to be used in irrigation. At Girishk it is crossed by the principal
+route from Herat to Kandahar. Forty-five miles below Girishk the Helmund
+receives its greatest tributary, the Arghandab, from the high Ghilzai
+country beyond Kandahar, and becomes a very considerable river, with a
+width of 300 or 400 yds. and an occasional depth of 9 to 12 ft. Even in
+the dry season it is never without a plentiful supply of water. The
+course of the river is more or less south-west from its source till in
+Seistan it crosses meridian 62 deg., when it turns nearly north, and so
+flows for 70 or 80 m. till it falls into the Seistan hamuns, or swamps,
+by various mouths. In this latter part of its course it forms the
+boundary between Afghan and Persian Seistan, and owing to constant
+changes in its bed and the swampy nature of its borders it has been a
+fertile source of frontier squabbles. Persian Seistan was once highly
+cultivated by means of a great system of canal irrigation; but for
+centuries, since the country was devastated by Timur, it has been a
+barren, treeless waste of flat alluvial plain. In years of exceptional
+flood the Seistan lakes spread southwards into an overflow channel
+called the Shelag which, running parallel to the northern course of the
+Helmund in the opposite direction, finally loses its waters in the
+Gaod-i-Zirreh swamp, which thus becomes the final bourne of the river.
+Throughout its course from its confluence with the Arghandab to the ford
+of Chahar Burjak, where it bends northward, the Helmund valley is a
+narrow green belt of fertility sunk in the midst of a wide alluvial
+desert, with many thriving villages interspersed amongst the remains of
+ancient cities, relics of Kaiani rule. The recent political mission to
+Seistan under Sir Henry McMahon (1904-1905) added much information
+respecting the ancient and modern channels of the lower Helmund, proving
+that river to have been constantly shifting its bed over a vast area,
+changing the level of the country by silt deposits, and in conjunction
+with the terrific action of Seistan winds actually altering its
+configuration.     (T. H. H.*)
+
+
+
+
+HELM WIND, a wind that under certain conditions blows over the
+escarpment of the Pennines, near Cross Fell from the eastward, when a
+helm (helmet) cloud covers the summit. The helm bar is a roll of cloud
+that forms in front of it, to leeward.
+
+  See "Report on the Helm Wind Inquiry," by W. Marriott, _Quart. Journ.
+  Roy. Met. Soc._ xv. 103.
+
+
+
+
+HELOTS (Gr. [Greek: heilotes] or [Greek: heilotai]), the serfs of the
+ancient Spartans. The word was derived in antiquity from the town of
+Helos in Laconia, but is more probably connected with [Greek: helos], a
+fen, or with the root of [Greek: helein], to capture. Some scholars
+suppose them to have been of Achaean race, but they were more probably
+the aborigines of Laconia who had been enslaved by the Achaeans before
+the Dorian conquest. After the second Messenian war (see SPARTA) the
+conquered Messenians were reduced to the status of helots, from which
+Epaminondas liberated them three centuries later after the battle of
+Leuctra (371 B.C.). The helots were state slaves bound to the
+soil--_adscripti glebae_--and assigned to individual Spartiates to till
+their holdings ([Greek: kleroi]); their masters could neither emancipate
+them nor sell them off the land, and they were under an oath not to
+raise the rent payable yearly in kind by the helots. In time of war they
+served as light-armed troops or as rowers in the fleet; from the
+Peloponnesian War onwards they were occasionally employed as heavy
+infantry ([Greek: hoplitai]), distinguished bravery being rewarded by
+emancipation. That the general attitude of the Spartans towards them was
+one of distrust and cruelty cannot be doubted. Aristotle says that the
+ephors of each year on entering office declared war on the helots so
+that they might be put to death at any time without violating religious
+scruple (Plutarch, _Lycurgus_ 28), and we have a well-attested record of
+2000 helots being freed for service in war and then secretly
+assassinated (Thuc. iv. 80). But when we remember the value of the
+helots from a military and agricultural point of view we shall not
+readily believe that the _crypteia_ was really, as some authors
+represent it, an organized system of massacre; we shall see in it "a
+good police training, inculcating hardihood and vigour in the young,"
+while at the same time getting rid of any helots who were found to be
+plotting against the state (see further CRYPTEIA).
+
+Intermediate between Helots and Spartiates were the two classes of
+_Neodamodes_ and _Mothones_. The former were emancipated helots, or
+possibly their descendants, and were much used in war from the end of
+the 5th century; they served especially on foreign campaigns, as those
+of Thibron (400-399 B.C.) and Agesilaus (396-394 B.C.) in Asia Minor.
+The _mothones_ or _mothakes_ were usually the sons of Spartiates and
+helot mothers; they were free men sharing the Spartan training, but were
+not full citizens, though they might become such in recognition of
+special merit.
+
+  See C. O. Muller, _History and Antiquities of the Doric Race_ (Eng.
+  trans.), bk. iii. ch. 3.; G. Gilbert, _Greek Constitutional
+  Antiquities_ (Eng. trans.), pp. 30-35; A. H. J. Greenidge, _Handbook
+  of Greek Constitutional History_, pp. 83-85; G. Busolt, _Die griech.
+  Staats- u. Rechtsaltertumer_, S 84; _Griechische Geschichte_, i.[2]
+  525-528; G. F. Schomann, _Antiquities of Greece: The State_ (Eng.
+  trans.) pp. 194 ff.     (M. N. T.)
+
+
+
+
+HELPS, SIR ARTHUR (1813-1875), English writer and clerk of the Privy
+Council, youngest son of Thomas Helps, a London merchant, was born near
+London on the 10th of July 1813. He was educated at Eton and at Trinity
+College, Cambridge, coming out 31st wrangler in the mathematical tripos
+in 1835. He was recognized by the ablest of his contemporaries there as
+a man of superior gifts, and likely to make his mark in after life. As a
+member of the Conversazione Society, better known as the "Apostles," a
+society established in 1820 for the purposes of discussion on social and
+literary questions by a few young men attracted to each other by a
+common taste for literature and speculation, he was associated with
+Charles Buller, Frederick Maurice, Richard Chenevix Trench, Monckton
+Milnes, Arthur Hallam and Alfred Tennyson. His first literary effort,
+_Thoughts in the Cloister and the Crowd_ (1835), was a series of
+aphorisms upon life, character, politics and manners. Soon after leaving
+the university Arthur Helps became private secretary to Spring Rice
+(afterwards Lord Monteagle), then chancellor of the exchequer. This
+appointment he filled till 1839, when he went to Ireland as private
+secretary to Lord Morpeth (afterwards earl of Carlisle), chief secretary
+for Ireland. In the meanwhile (28th October 1836) Helps had married
+Bessy, daughter of Captain Edward Fuller. He was one of the
+commissioners for the settlement of certain Danish claims which dated so
+far back as the siege of Copenhagen; but with the fall of the Melbourne
+administration (1841) his official experience closed for a period of
+nearly twenty years. He was not, however, forgotten by his political
+friends. He possessed admirable tact and sagacity; his fitness for
+official life was unmistakable, and in 1860 he was appointed clerk of
+the Privy Council, on the recommendation of Lord Granville.
+
+His _Essays written in the Intervals of Business_ had appeared in 1841,
+and his _Claims of Labour, an Essay on the Duties of the Employers to
+the Employed_, in 1844. Two plays, _King Henry the Second, an Historical
+Drama_, and _Catherine Douglas, a Tragedy_, published in 1843, have no
+particular merit. Neither in these, nor in his only other dramatic
+effort, _Oulita the Serf_ (1858) did he show any real qualifications as
+a playwright.
+
+Helps possessed, however, enough dramatic power to give life and
+individuality to the dialogues with which he enlivened many of his other
+books. In his _Friends in Council, a Series of Readings and Discourse
+thereon_ (1847-1859), Helps varied his presentment of social and moral
+problems by dialogues between imaginary personages, who, under the names
+of Milverton, Ellesmere and Dunsford, grew to be almost as real to
+Helps's readers as they certainly became to himself. The book was very
+popular, and the same expedient was resorted to in _Conversations on War
+and General Culture_, published in 1871. The familiar speakers, with
+others added, also appeared in his _Realmah_ (1868) and in the best of
+its author's later works, _Talk about Animals and their Masters_ (1873).
+
+A long essay on slavery in the first series of _Friends in Council_ was
+subsequently elaborated into a work in two volumes published in 1848 and
+1852, called _The Conquerors of the New World and their Bondsmen_. Helps
+went to Spain in 1847 to examine the numerous MSS. bearing upon his
+subject at Madrid. The fruits of these researches were embodied in an
+historical work based upon his _Conquerors of the New World_, and called
+_The Spanish Conquest in America, and its Relation to the History of
+Slavery and the Government of Colonies_ (4 vols., 1855-1857-1861). But
+in spite of his scrupulous efforts after accuracy, the success of the
+book was marred by its obtrusively moral purpose and its discursive
+character.
+
+_The Life of Las Casas, the Apostle of the Indians_ (1868), _The Life of
+Columbus_ (1869), _The Life of Pizarro_ (1869), and _The Life of
+Hernando Cortes_ (1871), when extracted from the work and published
+separately, proved successful. Besides the books which have been already
+mentioned he wrote: _Organization in Daily Life, an Essay_ (1862),
+_Casimir Maremma_ (1870), _Brevia_, _Short Essays and Aphorisms_ (1871),
+_Thoughts upon Government_ (1872), _Life and Labours of Mr Thomas
+Brassey_ (1872), _Ivan de Biron_ (1874), _Social Pressure_ (1875).
+
+His appointment as clerk of the Council brought him into personal
+communication with Queen Victoria and the Prince Consort, both of whom
+came to regard him with confidence and respect. After the Prince's
+death, the Queen early turned to Helps to prepare an appreciation of her
+husband's life and character. In his introduction to the collection
+(1862) of the Prince Consort's speeches and addresses Helps adequately
+fulfilled his task. Some years afterwards he edited and wrote a preface
+to the Queen's _Leaves from a Journal of our Life in the Highlands_
+(1868). In 1864 he received the honorary degree of D.C.L. from the
+university of Oxford. He was made a C.B. in 1871 and K.C.B. in the
+following year. His later years were troubled by financial
+embarrassments, and he died on the 7th of March 1875.
+
+
+
+
+HELSINGBORG, a seaport of Sweden in the district (_lan_) of Malmohus, 35
+m. N. by E. of Copenhagen by rail and water. Pop. (1900), 24,670. It is
+beautifully situated at the narrowest part of Oresund, or the Sound,
+here only 3 m. wide, opposite Helsingor (Elsinore) in Denmark. Above the
+town the brick tower of a former castle crowns a hill, commanding a fine
+view over the Sound. On the outskirts are the Oresund Park, gardens
+containing iodide and bromide springs, and frequented sea-baths. On the
+coast to the north is the royal _chateau_ of Sofiero; to the south, the
+small spa of Ramlosa. A system of electric trams is maintained. North
+and east of Helsingborg lies the only coalfield in Sweden, extending
+into the lofty Kullen peninsula, which forms the northern part of the
+east shore of the Sound. Potter's clay is also found. Helsingborg ranks
+among the first manufacturing towns of Sweden, having copper works,
+using ore from Sulitelma in Norway, india-rubber works and breweries.
+The artificial harbour has a depth of 24 ft., and there are extensive
+docks. The chief exports are timber, butter and iron. The town is the
+headquarters of the first army division.
+
+The original site of the town is marked by the tower of the old
+fortress, which is first mentioned in 1135. In the 14th century it was
+several times besieged. From 1370 along with other towns in the province
+of Skane, it was united for fifteen years with the Hanseatic League. The
+fortress was destroyed by fire in 1418, and about 1425 Eric XIII. built
+another near the sea, and caused the town to be transported thither,
+bestowing upon it important privileges. Until 1658 it belonged to
+Denmark, and it was again occupied by the Danes in 1676 and 1677. In
+1684 its fortifications were dismantled. It was taken by Frederick IV.
+of Denmark in November 1709, but on the 28th of February 1710 the Danes
+were defeated in the neighbourhood, and the town came finally into the
+possession of Sweden, though in 1711 it was again bombarded by the
+Danes. A tablet on the quay commemorates the landing of Bernadotte after
+his election as successor to the throne in 1810.
+
+
+
+
+HELSINGFORS (Finnish _Helsinki_), a seaport and the capital of Finland
+and of the province of Nyland, centre of the administrative, scientific,
+educational and industrial life of Finland. The fine harbour is divided
+into two parts by a promontory, and is protected at its entrance by a
+group of small islands, on one of which stands the fortress of Sveaborg.
+A third harbour is situated on the west side of the promontory, and all
+three have granite quays. The city, which in 1810 had only 4065
+inhabitants, Abo the then capital having 10,224, has increased with
+great rapidity, having 22,228 inhabitants in 1860, 61,530 in 1890 and
+111,654 in 1904. It is the centre of an active shipping trade with the
+Baltic ports and with England, and of a railway system connecting it
+with all parts of the grand duchy and with St Petersburg. Helsingfors is
+handsome and well laid out with wide streets, parks, gardens and
+monuments. The principal square contains the cathedral of St Nicholas,
+the Senate House and the university, all striking buildings of
+considerable architectural distinction. In the centre is the statue of
+the Tsar Alexander II., who is looked upon as the protector of the
+liberties of Finland, the monument being annually decorated with wreaths
+and garlands. The university has a teaching staff of 141 with (1906)
+1921 students, of whom 328 were women. The university is well provided
+with museums and laboratories and has a library of over 250,000 volumes.
+Other public institutions are the Athenaeum, with picture gallery, a
+Swedish theatre and opera house, a Finnish theatre, the Archives, the
+Senate House, the Nobles' House (_Riddarhuset_) and the House of the
+Estates, the German (Lutheran) church and the Russian church. Some of
+the scientific societies of Helsingfors have a wide repute, such as the
+academy of sciences, the geographical, historical, Finno-Ugrian,
+biblical, medical, law, arts and forestry societies, as also societies
+for the spread of popular education and of arts and crafts. There are a
+polytechnic, ten high schools, navigation and trade schools, institutes
+for the blind and the mentally deficient, and numerous elementary
+schools. The general standard of education is high, the publication of
+books, reviews and newspapers being very active. The language of culture
+is Swedish, but owing to recent manufacturing developments the majority
+of the population is Finnish-speaking. Helsingfors displays great
+manufacturing and commercial activity, the imports being coal,
+machinery, sugar, grain and clothing. The manufactures of the city
+consist largely of tobacco, beer and spirits, carpets, machinery and
+sugar.
+
+
+
+
+HELST, BARTHOLOMAEUS VAN DER, Dutch painter, was born in Holland at the
+opening of the 17th century, and died at Amsterdam in 1670. The date and
+place of his birth are uncertain; and it is equally difficult to confirm
+or to deny the time-honoured statement that he was born in 1613 at
+Amsterdam. It has been urged indeed by competent authority that Van der
+Helst was not a native of Amsterdam, because a family of that name lived
+as early as 1607 at Haarlem, and pictures are shown as works of Van der
+Helst in the Haarlem Museum which might tend to prove that he was in
+practice there before he acquired repute at Amsterdam. Unhappily
+Bartholomew has not been traced amongst the children of Severijn van der
+Helst, who married at Haarlem in 1607, and there is no proof that the
+pictures at Haarlem are really his; though if they were so they would
+show that he learnt his art from Frans Hals and became a skilled master
+as early as 1631. Scheltema, a very competent judge in matters of Dutch
+art chronology, supposes that Van der Heist was a resident at Amsterdam
+in 1636. His first great picture, representing a gathering of civic
+guards at a brewery, is variously assigned to 1639 and 1643, and still
+adorns the town-hall of Amsterdam. His noble portraits of the
+burgomaster Bicker and Andreas Bicker the younger, in the gallery of
+Amsterdam, of the same date no doubt as Bicker's wife lately in the Ruhl
+collection at Cologne, were completed in 1642. From that time till his
+death there is no difficulty in tracing Van der Helst's career at
+Amsterdam. He acquired and kept the position of a distinguished
+portrait-painter, producing indeed little or nothing besides portraits
+at any time, but founding, in conjunction with Nicolaes de Helt Stokade,
+the painters' guild at Amsterdam in 1654. At some unknown date he
+married Constance Reynst, of a good patrician family in the Netherlands,
+bought himself a house in the Doelenstrasse and ended by earning a
+competence. His likeness of Paul Potter at the Hague, executed in 1654,
+and his partnership with Backhuysen, who laid in the backgrounds of some
+of his pictures in 1668, indicate a constant companionship with the best
+artists of the time. Wagen has said that his portrait of Admiral
+Kortenaar, in the gallery of Amsterdam, betrays the teaching of Frans
+Hals, and the statement need not be gainsaid; yet on the whole Van der
+Helst's career as a painter was mainly a protest against the systems of
+Hals and Rembrandt. It is needless to dwell on the pictures which
+preceded that of 1648, called the Peace of Munster, in the gallery of
+Amsterdam. The Peace challenges comparison at once with the so-called
+Night Watch by Rembrandt and the less important but not less
+characteristic portraits of Hals and his wife in a neighbouring room.
+Sir Joshua Reynolds was disappointed by Rembrandt, whilst Van der Helst
+surpassed his expectation. But Burger asked whether Reynolds had not
+already been struck with blindness when he ventured on this criticism.
+The question is still an open one. But certainly Van der Helst attracts
+by qualities entirely differing from those of Rembrandt and Frans Hals.
+Nothing can be more striking than the contrast between the strong
+concentrated light and the deep gloom of Rembrandt and the contempt of
+chiaroscuro peculiar to his rival, except the contrast between the
+rapid sketchy touch of Hals and the careful finish and rounding of van
+der Helst. "The Peace" is a meeting of guards to celebrate the signature
+of the treaty of Munster. The members of the Doele of St George meet to
+feast and congratulate each other not at a formal banquet but in a spot
+laid out for good cheer, where de Wit, the captain of his company, can
+shake hands with his lieutenant Waveren, yet hold in solemn state the
+great drinking-horn of St George. The rest of the company sit, stand or
+busy themselves around--some eating, others drinking, others carving or
+serving--an animated scene on a long canvas, with figures large as life.
+Well has Burger said, the heads are full of life and the hands
+admirable. The dresses and subordinate parts are finished to a nicety
+without sacrifice of detail or loss of breadth in touch or impast. But
+the eye glides from shape to shape, arrested here by expressive
+features, there by a bright stretch of colours, nowhere at perfect rest
+because of the lack of a central thought in light and shade, harmonies
+or composition. Great as the qualities of van der Helst undoubtedly are,
+he remains below the line of demarcation which separates the second from
+the first-rate masters of art.
+
+  His pictures are very numerous, and almost uniformly good; but in his
+  later creations he wants power, and though still amazingly careful, he
+  becomes grey and woolly in touch. At Amsterdam the four regents in the
+  Werkhuys (1650), four syndics in the gallery (1656), and four syndics
+  in the town-hall (1657) are masterpieces, to which may be added a
+  number of fine single portraits. Rotterdam, notwithstanding the fire
+  of 1864, still boasts of three of van der Helst's works. The Hague
+  owns but one. St Petersburg, on the other hand, possesses ten or
+  eleven, of various shades of excellence. The Louvre has three, Munich
+  four. Other pieces are in the galleries of Berlin, Brunswick,
+  Brussels, Carlsruhe, Cassel, Darmstadt, Dresden, Frankfort, Gotha,
+  Stuttgart and Vienna.
+
+
+
+
+HELSTON, a market town and municipal borough in the Truro parliamentary
+division of Cornwall, England, 11 m. by road W.S.W. of Falmouth, on a
+branch of the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 3088. It is pleasantly
+situated on rising ground above the small river Cober, which, a little
+below the town, expands into a picturesque estuary called Looe Pool, the
+water being banked up by the formation of Looe Bar at the mouth.
+Formerly, when floods resulted from this obstruction, the townsfolk of
+Helston acquired the right of clearing a passage through it by
+presenting leathern purses containing three halfpence to the lord of the
+manor. The mining industry on which the town formerly depended is
+extinct, but the district is agricultural and dairy farming is carried
+on, while the town has flour mills, tanneries and iron foundries. As
+Helston has the nearest railway station to the Lizard, with its
+magnificent coast-scenery, there is a considerable tourist traffic in
+summer. Some trade passes through the small port of Porthleven, 3 m.
+S.W., where the harbour admits vessels of 500 tons. On the 8th of May a
+holiday is still observed in Helston and known as Flora or Furry day. It
+has been regarded as a survival of the Roman _Floralia_, but its origin
+is believed by some to be Celtic. Flowers and branches were gathered,
+and dancing took place in the streets and through the houses, all being
+thrown open, while a pageant was also given and a special ancient
+folk-song chanted. This ceremony, after being almost forgotten, has been
+revived in modern times. The borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12
+councillors. Area, 309 acres.
+
+Helston (Henliston, Haliston, Helleston), the capital of the Meneage
+district of Cornwall, was held by Earl Harold in the time of the
+Confessor and by King William at the Domesday Survey. At the latter date
+besides seventy-three villeins, bordars and serfs there were forty
+_cervisarii_, a species of unfree tenants who rendered their custom in
+the form of beer. King John (1201) constituted Helleston a free borough,
+established a gild merchant, and granted the burgesses freedom from toll
+and other similar dues throughout the realm, and the cognizance of all
+pleas within the borough except crown pleas. Richard, king of the Romans
+(1260), extended the boundaries of the borough and granted permission
+for the erection of an additional mill. Edward I. (1304) granted the
+pesage of tin, and Edward III. a Saturday market and four fairs. Of
+these the Saturday market and a fair on the feast of SS. Simon and Jude
+are still held, also five other fairs of uncertain origin. In 1585
+Elizabeth granted a charter of incorporation under the name of the mayor
+and commonalty of Helston. This was confirmed in 1641, when it was also
+provided that the mayor and recorder should be _ipso facto_ justices of
+the peace. From 1294 to 1832 Helston returned two members to parliament.
+In 1774 the number of electors (which by usage had been restricted to
+the mayor, aldermen and freemen elected by them) had dwindled to six,
+and in 1790 to one person only, whose return of two members, however,
+was rejected and that of the general body of the freemen accepted. In
+1832 Helston lost one of its members, and in 1885 it lost the other and
+became merged in the county.
+
+
+
+
+HELVETIC CONFESSIONS, the name of two documents expressing the common
+belief of the reformed churches of Switzerland. The first, known also as
+the Second Confession of Basel, was drawn up at that city in 1536 by
+Bullinger and Leo Jud of Zurich, Megander of Bern, Oswald Myconius and
+Grynaeus of Basel, Bucer and Capito of Strassburg, with other
+representatives from Schaffhausen, St Gall, Muhlhausen and Biel. The
+first draft was in Latin and the Zurich delegates objected to its
+Lutheran phraseology.[1] Leo Jud's German translation was, however,
+accepted by all, and after Myconius and Grynaeus had modified the Latin
+form, both versions were agreed to and adopted on the 26th of February
+1536.
+
+The Second Helvetic Confession was written by Bullinger in 1562 and
+revised in 1564 as a private exercise. It came to the notice of the
+elector palatine Friedrich III., who had it translated into German and
+published. It gained a favourable hold on the Swiss churches, who had
+found the First Confession too short and too Lutheran. It was adopted by
+the Reformed Church not only throughout Switzerland but in Scotland
+(1566), Hungary (1567), France (1571), Poland (1578), and next to the
+Heidelberg Catechism is the most generally recognized Confession of the
+Reformed Church.
+
+  See L. Thomas, _La Confession helvetique_ (Geneva, 1853); P. Schaff,
+  _Creeds of Christendom_, i. 390-420, iii. 234-306; Muller, _Die
+  Bekenntnisschriften der reformierten Kirche_ (Leipzig, 1903).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Some of the delegates, especially Bucer, were anxious to effect a
+    union of the Reformed and Lutheran Churches. There was also a desire
+    to lay the Confession before the council summoned at Mantua by Pope
+    Paul III.
+
+
+
+
+HELVETII ([Greek: Helouetioi], [Greek: Helbettioi]), a Celtic people,
+whose original home was the country between the Hercynian forest
+(probably the Rauhe Alp), the Rhine and the Main (Tacitus, _Germania_,
+28). In Caesar's time they appear to have been driven farther west,
+since, according to him (_Bell. Gall._ i. 2. 3) their boundaries were on
+the W. the Jura, on the S. the Rhone and the Lake of Geneva, on the N.
+and E. the Rhine as far as Lake Constance. They thus inhabited the
+western part of modern Switzerland. They were divided into four cantons
+(_pagi_), common affairs being managed by the cantonal assemblies. They
+possessed the elements of a higher civilization (gold coinage, the Greek
+alphabet), and, according to Caesar, were the bravest people of Gaul.
+The reports of gold and plunder spread by the Cimbri and Teutones on
+their way to southern Gaul induced the Helvetii to follow their example.
+In 107, under Divico, two of their tribes, the Tougeni and Tigurini,
+crossed the Jura and made their way as far as Aginnum (Agen on the
+Garonne), where they utterly defeated the Romans under L. Cassius
+Longinus, and forced them to pass under the yoke (Livy, _Epit._ 65;
+according to a different reading, the battle took place near the Lake of
+Geneva). In 102 the Helvetii joined the Cimbri in the invasion of Italy,
+but after the defeat of the latter by Marius they returned home. In 58,
+hard pressed by the Germans and incited by one of their princes,
+Orgetorix, they resolved to found a hew home west of the Jura. Orgetorix
+was thrown into prison, being suspected of a design to make himself
+king, but the Helvetii themselves persisted in their plan. Joined by the
+Rauraci, Tulingi, Latobrigi and some of the Boii--according to their own
+reckoning 368,000 in all--they agreed to meet on the 28th of March at
+Geneva and to advance through the territory of the Allobroges. They were
+overtaken, however, by Caesar at Bibracte, defeated and forced to
+submit. Those who survived were sent back home to defend the frontier of
+the Rhine against German invaders. During the civil wars and for some
+time after the death of Caesar little is heard of the Helvetii.
+
+Under Augustus Helvetia (not so called till later times, earlier _ager
+Helvetiorum_) proper was included under Gallia Belgica. Two Roman
+colonies had previously been founded at Noviodunum (Colonia Julia
+Equestris, mod. _Nyon_) and at Colonia Rauracorum (afterwards Augusta
+Rauracorum, _Augst_ near Basel) to keep watch over the inhabitants, who
+were treated with generosity by their conquerors. Under the name of
+_foederati_ they retained their original constitution and division into
+four cantons. They were under an obligation to furnish a contingent to
+the Roman army for foreign service, but were allowed to maintain
+garrisons of their own, and their magistrates had the right to call out
+a militia. Their religion was not interfered with; they managed their
+own local affairs and kept their own language, although Latin was used
+officially. Their chief towns were Aventicum (_Avenches_) and Vindonissa
+(_Windisch_). Under Tiberius the Helvetii were separated from Gallia
+Belgica and made part of Germania Superior. After the death of Galba
+(A.D. 69), having refused submission to Vitellius, their land was
+devastated by Alienus Caecina, and only the eloquent appeal of one of
+their leaders named Claudius Cossus saved them from annihilation. Under
+Vespasian they attained the height of their prosperity. He greatly
+increased the importance of Aventicum, where his father had carried on
+business. Its inhabitants, with those of other towns, probably obtained
+the _ius Latinum_, had a senate, a council of _decuriones_, a prefect of
+public works and flamens of Augustus. After the extension of the eastern
+frontier, the troops were withdrawn from the garrisons and fortresses,
+and Helvetia, free from warlike disturbances, gradually became
+completely romanized. Aventicum had an amphitheatre, a public gymnasium
+and an academy with Roman professors. Roads were made wherever possible,
+and commerce rapidly developed. The old Celtic religion was also
+supplanted by the Roman. The west of the country, however, was more
+susceptible to Roman influence, and hence preserved its independence
+against barbarian invaders longer than its eastern portion. During the
+reign of Gallienus (260-268) the Alamanni overran the country; and
+although Probus, Constantius Chlorus, Julian, Valentinian I. and Gratian
+to some extent checked the inroads of the barbarians, it never regained
+its former prosperity. In the subdivision of Gaul in the 4th century,
+Helvetia, with the territory of the Sequani and Rauraci, formed the
+Provincia Maxima Sequanorum, the chief town of which was Vesontio
+(_Besancon_). Under Honorius (395-423) it was probably definitely
+occupied by the Alamanni, except in the west, where the small portion
+remaining to the Romans was ceded in 436 by Aetius to the Burgundians.
+
+  See L. von Haller, _Helvetien unter den Romern_ (Bern, 1811); T.
+  Mommsen, _Die Schweiz in romischer Zeit_ (Zurich, 1854); J. Brosi,
+  _Die Kelten und Althelvetier_ (Solothurn, 1851); L. Hug and R. Stead,
+  "Switzerland" in _Story of the Nations_, xxvi.; C. Dandliker,
+  _Geschichte der Schweiz_ (1892-1895), and English translation (of a
+  shorter history by the same) by E. Salisbury (1899); _Die Schweiz
+  unter den Romern_ (anonymous) published by the Historischer Verein of
+  St Gall (Scheitlin and Zollikofer, St Gall, 1862); and G. Wyss, "Uber
+  das romische Helvetien" in _Archiv fur schweizerische Geschichte_,
+  vii. (1851). For Caesar's campaign against the Helvetii, see T. R.
+  Holmes, _Caesar's Conquest of Gaul_ (1899) and Mommsen, _Hist. of
+  Rome_ (Eng. trans.), bk. v. ch. 7; ancient authorities in A. Holder,
+  _Altkeltischer Sprachschatz_ (1896), _s.v._ Elvetii.
+
+
+
+
+HELVETIUS, CLAUDE ADRIEN (1715-1771), French philosopher and
+litterateur, was born in Paris in January 1715. He was descended from a
+family of physicians, whose original name was Schweitzer (latinized as
+Helvetius). His grandfather introduced the use of ipecacuanha; his
+father was first physician to Queen Marie Leczinska of France. Claude
+Adrien was trained for a financial career, but he occupied his spare
+time with writing verses. At the age of twenty-three, at the queen's
+request, he was appointed farmer-general, a post of great responsibility
+and dignity worth a 100,000 crowns a year. Thus provided for, he
+proceeded to enjoy life to the utmost, with the help of his wealth and
+liberality, his literary and artistic tastes. As he grew older, however,
+his social successes ceased, and he began to dream of more lasting
+distinctions, stimulated by the success of Maupertuis as a
+mathematician, of Voltaire as a poet, of Montesquieu as a philosopher.
+The mathematical dream seems to have produced nothing; his poetical
+ambitions resulted in the poem called _Le Bonheur_ (published
+posthumously, with an account of Helvetius's life and works, by C. F. de
+Saint-Lambert, 1773), in which he develops the idea that true happiness
+is only to be found in making the interest of one that of all; his
+philosophical studies ended in the production of his famous book _De
+l'esprit_. It was characteristic of the man that, as soon as he thought
+his fortune sufficient, he gave up his post of farmer-general, and
+retired to an estate in the country, where he employed his large means
+in the relief of the poor, the encouragement of agriculture and the
+development of industries. _De l'esprit_ (Eng. trans. by W. Mudford,
+1807), intended to be the rival of Montesquieu's _L'Esprit des lois_,
+appeared in 1758. It attracted immediate attention and aroused the most
+formidable opposition, especially from the dauphin, son of Louis XV. The
+Sorbonne condemned the book, the priests persuaded the court that if was
+full of the most dangerous doctrines, and the author, terrified at the
+storm he had raised, wrote three separate retractations; yet, in spite
+of his protestations of orthodoxy, he had to give up his office at the
+court, and the book was publicly burned by the hangman. The virulence of
+the attacks upon the work, as much as its intrinsic merit, caused it to
+be widely read; it was translated into almost all the languages of
+Europe. Voltaire said that it was full of commonplaces, and that what
+was original was false or problematical; Rousseau declared that the very
+benevolence of the author gave the lie to his principles; Grimm thought
+that all the ideas in the book were borrowed from Diderot; according to
+Madame du Deffand, Helvetius had raised such a storm by saying openly
+what every one thought in secret; Madame de Graffigny averred that all
+the good things in the book had been picked up in her own _salon_. In
+1764 Helvetius visited England, and the next year, on the invitation of
+Frederick II., he went to Berlin, where the king paid him marked
+attention. He then returned to his country estate and passed the
+remainder of his life in perfect tranquillity. He died on the 26th of
+December 1771.
+
+His philosophy belongs to the utilitarian school. The four discussions
+of which his book consists have been thus summed up: (1) All man's
+faculties may be reduced to physical sensation, even memory, comparison,
+judgment; our only difference from the lower animals lies in our
+external organization. (2) Self-interest, founded on the love of
+pleasure and the fear of pain, is the sole spring of judgment, action,
+affection; self-sacrifice is prompted by the fact that the sensation of
+pleasure outweighs the accompanying pain; it is thus the result of
+deliberate calculation; we have no liberty of choice between good and
+evil; there is no such thing as absolute right--ideas of justice and
+injustice change according to customs. (3) All intellects are equal;
+their apparent inequalities do not depend on a more or less perfect
+organization, but have their cause in the unequal desire for
+instruction, and this desire springs from passions, of which all men
+commonly well organized are susceptible to the same degree; and we can,
+therefore, all love glory with the same enthusiasm and we owe all to
+education. (4) In this discourse the author treats of the ideas which
+are attached to such words as _genius_, _imagination_, _talent_,
+_taste_, _good sense_, &c. The only original ideas in his system are
+those of the natural equality of intelligences and the omnipotence of
+education, neither of which, however, is generally accepted, though both
+were prominent in the system of J. S. Mill. There is no doubt that his
+thinking was unsystematic; but many of his critics have entirely
+misrepresented him (e.g. Cairns in his _Unbelief in the Eighteenth
+Century_). As J. M. Robertson (_Short History of Free Thought_) points
+out, he had great influence upon Bentham, and C. Beccaria states that he
+himself was largely inspired by Helvetius in his attempt to modify penal
+laws. The keynote of his thought was that public ethics has a
+utilitarian basis, and he insisted strongly on the importance of culture
+in national development.
+
+  A sort of supplement to the _De l'esprit_, called _De l'homme, de ses
+  facultes intellectuelles et de son education_ (Eng. trans. by W.
+  Hooper, 1777), found among his manuscripts, was published after his
+  death, but created little interest. There is a complete edition of the
+  works of Helvetius, published at Paris, 1818. For an estimate of his
+  work and his place among the philosophers of the 18th century see
+  Victor Cousin's _Philosophie sensualiste_ (1863); P. L. Lezaud,
+  _Resumes philosophiques_ (1853); F. D. Maurice, in his _Modern
+  Philosophy_ (1862), pp. 537 seq.; J. Morley, _Diderot and the
+  Encyclopaedists_ (London, 1878); D. G. Mostratos, _Die Padagogik des
+  Helvetius_ (Berlin, 1891); A. Guillois, _Le Salon de Madame Helvetius_
+  (1894); A. Piazzi, _Le Idee filosofiche specialmente pedagogiche de C.
+  A. Helvetius_ (Milan, 1889); G. Plekhanov, _Beitrage zur Geschichte
+  des Materialismus_ (Stuttgart, 1896); L. Limentani, _Le Teorie
+  psicologiche di C. A. Helvetius_ (Verona, 1902); A. Keim, _Helvetius,
+  sa vie et son oeuvre_ (1907).
+
+
+
+
+HELVIDIUS PRISCUS, Stoic philosopher and statesman, lived during the
+reigns of Nero, Galba, Otho, Vitellius and Vespasian. Like his
+father-in-law, Thrasea Paetus, he was distinguished for his ardent and
+courageous republicanism. Although he repeatedly offended his rulers, he
+held several high offices. During Nero's reign he was quaestor of Achaea
+and tribune of the plebs (A.D. 56); he restored peace and order in
+Armenia, and gained the respect and confidence of the provincials. His
+declared sympathy with Brutus and Cassius occasioned his banishment in
+66. Having been recalled to Rome by Galba in 68, he at once impeached
+Eprius Marcellus, the accuser of Thrasea Paetus, but dropped the charge,
+as the condemnation of Marcellus would have involved a number of
+senators. As praetor elect he ventured to oppose Vitellius in the senate
+(Tacitus, _Hist._ ii. 91), and as praetor (70) he maintained, in
+opposition to Vespasian, that the management of the finances ought to be
+left to the discretion of the senate; he proposed that the capitol,
+which had been destroyed in the Neronian conflagration, should be
+restored at the public expense; he saluted Vespasian by his private
+name, and did not recognize him as emperor in his praetorian edicts. At
+length he was banished a second time, and shortly afterwards was
+executed by Vespasian's order. His life, in the form of a warm
+panegyric, written at his widow's request by Herennius Senecio, caused
+its author's death in the reign of Domitian.
+
+  Tacitus, _Hist._ iv. 5, _Dialogus_, 5; Dio Cassius lxvi. 12, lxvii.
+  13; Suetonius, _Vespasian_, 15; Pliny, _Epp._ vii. 19.
+
+
+
+
+HELY-HUTCHINSON, JOHN (1724-1794), Irish lawyer, statesman, and provost
+of Trinity College, Dublin, son of Francis Hely, a gentleman of County
+Cork, was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and was called to the
+Irish bar in 1748. He took the additional name of Hutchinson on his
+marriage in 1751 with Christiana Nixon, heiress of her uncle, Richard
+Hutchinson. He was elected member of the Irish House of Commons for the
+borough of Lanesborough in 1759, but after 1761 he represented the city
+of Cork. He at first attached himself to the "patriotic" party in
+opposition to the government, and although he afterwards joined the
+administration he never abandoned his advocacy of popular measures. He
+was a man of brilliant and versatile ability, whom Lord Townshend, the
+lord lieutenant, described as "by far the most powerful man in
+parliament." William Gerard Hamilton said of him that "Ireland never
+bred a more able, nor any country a more honest man." Hely-Hutchinson
+was, however, an inveterate place-hunter, and there was point in Lord
+North's witticism that "if you were to give him the whole of Great
+Britain and Ireland for an estate, he would ask the Isle of Man for a
+potato garden." After a session or two in parliament he was made a privy
+councillor and prime serjeant-at-law; and from this time he gave a
+general, though by no means invariable, support to the government. In
+1767 the ministry contemplated an increase of the army establishment in
+Ireland from 12,000 to 15,000 men, but the Augmentation Bill met with
+strenuous opposition, not only from Flood, Ponsonby and the habitual
+opponents of the government, but from the Undertakers, or proprietors of
+boroughs, on whom the government had hitherto relied to secure them a
+majority in the House of Commons. It therefore became necessary for
+Lord Townshend to turn to other methods for procuring support. Early In
+1768 an English act was passed for the increase of the army, and a
+message from the king setting forth the necessity for the measure was
+laid before the House of Commons in Dublin. An address favourable to the
+government policy was, however, rejected; and Hely-Hutchinson, together
+with the speaker and the attorney-general, did their utmost both in
+public and private to obstruct the bill. Parliament was dissolved in May
+1768, and the lord lieutenant set about the task of purchasing or
+otherwise securing a majority in the new parliament. Peerages, pensions
+and places were bestowed lavishly on those whose support could be thus
+secured; Hely-Hutchinson was won over by the concession that the Irish
+army should be established by the authority of an Irish act of
+parliament instead of an English one. The Augmentation Bill was carried
+in the session of 1769 by a large majority. Hely-Hutchinson's support
+had been so valuable that he received as reward an addition of L1000 a
+year to the salary of his sinecure of Alnagar, a major's commission in a
+cavalry regiment, and a promise of the secretaryship of state. He was at
+this time one of the most brilliant debaters in the Irish parliament,
+and he was enjoying an exceedingly lucrative practice at the bar. This
+income, however, together with his well-salaried sinecure, and his place
+as prime serjeant, he surrendered in 1774, to become provost of Trinity
+College, although the statute requiring the provost to be in holy orders
+had to be dispensed with in his favour.
+
+For this great academic position Hely-Hutchinson was in no way
+qualified, and his appointment to it for purely political service to the
+government was justly criticized with much asperity. His conduct in
+using his position as provost to secure the parliamentary representation
+of the university for his eldest son brought him into conflict with
+Duigenan, who attacked him in _Lacrymae academicae_, and involved him in
+a duel with a Mr Doyle; while a similar attempt on behalf of his second
+son in 1790 led to his being accused before a select committee of the
+House of Commons of impropriety as returning officer. But although
+without scholarship Hely-Hutchinson was an efficient provost, during
+whose rule material benefits were conferred on Trinity College. He
+continued to occupy a prominent place in parliament, where he advocated
+free trade, the relief of the Catholics from penal legislation, and the
+reform of parliament. He was one of the very earliest politicians to
+recognize the soundness of Adam Smith's views on trade; and he quoted
+from the _Wealth of Nations_, adopting some of its principles, in his
+_Commercial Restraints of Ireland_, published in 1779, which Lecky
+pronounces "one of the best specimens of political literature produced
+in Ireland in the latter half of the 18th century." In the same year,
+the economic condition of Ireland being the cause of great anxiety, the
+government solicited from several leading politicians their opinion on
+the state of the country with suggestions for a remedy.
+Hely-Hutchinson's response was a remarkably able state paper (MS. in the
+Record Office), which also showed clear traces of the influence of Adam
+Smith. The _Commercial Restraints_, condemned by the authorities as
+seditious, went far to restore Hely-Hutchinson's popularity which had
+been damaged by his greed of office. Not less enlightened were his views
+on the Catholic question. In a speech in parliament on Catholic
+education in 1782 the provost declared that Catholic students were in
+fact to be found at Trinity College, but that he desired their presence
+there to be legalized on the largest scale. "My opinion," he said, "is
+strongly against sending Roman Catholics abroad for education, nor would
+I establish Popish colleges at home. The advantage of being admitted
+into the university of Dublin will be very great to Catholics; they need
+not be obliged to attend the divinity professor, they may have one of
+their own; and I would have a part of the public money applied to their
+use, to the support of a number of poor lads as sizars, and to provide
+premiums for persons of merit, for I would have them go into
+examinations and make no distinction between them and the Protestants
+but such as merit might claim." And after sketching a scheme for
+increasing the number of diocesan schools where Roman Catholics might
+receive free education, he went on to urge that "it is certainly a
+matter of importance that the education of their priests should be as
+perfect as possible, and that if they have any prejudices they should be
+prejudices in favour of their own country. The Roman Catholics should
+receive the best education in the established university at the public
+expense; but by no means should Popish colleges be allowed, for by them
+we should again have the press groaning with themes of controversy, and
+subjects of religious disputation that have long slept in oblivion would
+again awake, and awaken with them all the worst passions of the human
+mind."[1]
+
+In 1777 Hely-Hutchinson became secretary of state. When Grattan in 1782
+moved an address to the king containing a declaration of Irish
+legislative independence, Hely-Hutchinson supported the
+attorney-general's motion postponing the question; but on the 16th of
+April, after the Easter recess, he read a message from the lord
+lieutenant, the duke of Portland, giving the king's permission for the
+House to take the matter into consideration, and he expressed his
+personal sympathy with the popular cause which Grattan on the same day
+brought to a triumphant issue (see GRATTAN, HENRY). Hely-Hutchinson
+supported the opposition on the regency question in 1788, and one of his
+last votes in the House was in favour of parliamentary reform. In 1790
+he exchanged the constituency of Cork for that of Taghmon in County
+Wexford, for which borough he remained member till his death at Buxton
+on the 4th of September 1794.
+
+In 1785 his wife had been created Baroness Donoughmore and on her death
+in 1788, his eldest son Richard (1756-1825) succeeded to the title. Lord
+Donoughmore was an ardent advocate of Catholic emancipation. In 1797 he
+was created Viscount Donoughmore,[2] and in 1800 (having voted for the
+Union, hoping to secure Catholic emancipation from the united
+parliament) he was further created earl of Donoughmore of Knocklofty,
+being succeeded first by his brother John Hely-Hutchinson (1757-1832)
+and then by his nephew John, 3rd earl (1787-1851), from whom the title
+descended.
+
+  See W. E. H. Lecky, _Hist. of Ireland in the Eighteenth Century_ (5
+  vols., London, 1892); J. A. Froude, _The English in Ireland in the
+  Eighteenth Century_ (3 vols., London, 1872-1874); H. Grattan, _Memoirs
+  of the Life and Times of Henry Grattan_ (8 vols., London, 1839-1846);
+  _Baratariana_, by various writers (Dublin, 1773).     (R. J. M.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _Irish Parl. Debates_, i. 309, 310.
+
+  [2] It is generally supposed that the title conferred by this patent
+    was that of Viscount Suirdale, and such is the courtesy title by
+    which the heir apparent of the earls of Donoughmore is usually
+    styled. This, however, appears to be an error. In all the three
+    creations (barony 1783, viscountcy 1797, earldom 1800) the title is
+    "Donoughmore of Knocklofty." In 1821 the 1st earl was further created
+    Viscount Hutchinson of Knocklofty in the peerage of the United
+    Kingdom. The courtesy title of the earl's eldest son should,
+    therefore, apparently be either "Viscount Hutchinson" or "Viscount
+    Knocklofty." See G. E. C. _Complete Peerage_ (London, 1890).
+
+
+
+
+HELYOT, PIERRE (1660-1716), Franciscan friar and historian, was born at
+Paris in January 1660, of supposed English ancestry. After spending his
+youth in study, he entered in his twenty-fourth year the convent of the
+third order of St Francis, founded at Picpus, near Paris, by his uncle
+Jerome Helyot, canon of St Sepulchre. There he took the name of Pere
+Hippolyte. Two journeys to Rome on monastic business afforded him the
+opportunity of travelling over most of Italy; and after his final return
+he saw much of France, while acting as secretary to various provincials
+of his order there. Both in Italy and France he was engaged in
+collecting materials for his great work, which occupied him about
+twenty-five years, _L'Histoire des ordres monastiques, religieux, et
+militaires, et des congregations seculieres, de l'un et de l'autre sexe,
+qui ont ete etablies jusqu'a present_, published in 8 volumes in
+1714-1721. Helyot died on the 5th of January 1716, before the fifth
+volume appeared, but his friend Maximilien Bullot completed the edition.
+Helyot's only other noteworthy work is _Le Chretien mourant_ (1695).
+
+  The _Histoire_ is a work of first importance, being the great
+  repertory of information for the general history of the religious
+  orders up to the end of the 17th century. It is profusely illustrated
+  by large plates exhibiting the dress of the various orders, and in
+  the edition of 1792 the plates are coloured. It was translated into
+  Italian (1737) and into German (1753). The material has been arranged
+  in dictionary form in Migne's _Encyclopedie theologique_, under the
+  title "Dictionnaire des orders religieux" (4 vols., 1858).
+
+
+
+
+HEMANS, FELICIA DOROTHEA (1793-1835), English poet, was born in Duke
+Street, Liverpool, on the 25th of September 1793. Her father, George
+Browne, of Irish extraction, was a merchant in Liverpool, and her
+mother, whose maiden name was Wagner, was the daughter of the Austrian
+and Tuscan consul at Liverpool. Felicia, the fifth of seven children,
+was scarcely seven years old when her father failed in business, and
+retired with his family to Gwrych, near Abergele, Denbighshire; and
+there the young poet and her brothers and sisters grew up in a romantic
+old house by the sea-shore, and in the very midst of the mountains and
+myths of Wales. Felicia's education was desultory. Books of chronicle
+and romance, and every kind of poetry, she read with avidity; and she
+also studied Italian, Spanish, Portuguese and German. She played both
+harp and piano, and cared especially for the simple national melodies of
+Wales and Spain. In 1808, when she was only fourteen, a quarto volume of
+her _Juvenile Poems_, was published by subscription, and was harshly
+criticized in the _Monthly Review_. Two of her brothers were fighting in
+Spain under Sir John Moore; and Felicia, fired with military enthusiasm,
+wrote _England and Spain, or Valour and Patriotism_, a poem afterwards
+translated into Spanish. Her second volume, _The Domestic Affections and
+other Poems_, appeared in 1812, on the eve of her marriage to Captain
+Alfred Hemans. She lived for some time at Daventry, where her husband
+was adjutant of the Northamptonshire militia. About this time her father
+went to Quebec on business and died there; and, after the birth of her
+first son, she and her husband went to live with her mother at
+Bronwylfa, a house near St Asaph. Here during the next six years four
+more children--all boys--were born; but in spite of domestic cares arid
+failing health she still read and wrote indefatigably. Her poem entitled
+_The Restoration of Works of Art to Italy_ was published in 1816, her
+_Modern Greece_ in 1817, and in 1818 _Translations from Camoens and
+other Poets_.
+
+In 1818 Captain Hemans went to Rome, leaving his wife, shortly before
+the birth of their fifth child, with her mother at Bronwylfa. There
+seems to have been a tacit agreement, perhaps on account of their
+limited means, that they should separate. Letters were interchanged, and
+Captain Hemans was often consulted about his children; but the husband
+and wife never met again. Many friends--among them the bishop of St
+Asaph and Bishop Heber--gathered round Mrs Hemans and her children. In
+1819 she published _Tales and Historic Scenes in Verse_, and gained a
+prize of L50 offered for the best poem on _The Meeting of Wallace and
+Bruce on the Banks of the Carron_. In 1820 appeared _The Sceptic and
+Stanzas to the Memory of the late King_. In June 1821 she won the prize
+awarded by the Royal Society of Literature for the best poem on the
+subject of _Dartmoor_, and began her play, _The Vespers of Palermo_. She
+now applied herself to a course of German reading. Korner was her
+favourite German poet, and her lines on the grave of Korner were one of
+the first English tributes to the genius of the young soldier-poet. In
+the summer of 1823 a volume of her poems was published by Murray,
+containing "The Siege of Valencia," "The Last Constantine" and
+"Belshazzar's Feast." _The Vespers of Palermo_ was acted at Covent
+Garden, December 12, 1823, and Mrs Hemans received L200 for the
+copyright; but, though the leading parts were taken by Young and Charles
+Kemble, the play was a failure, and was withdrawn after the first
+performance. It was acted again in Edinburgh in the following April with
+greater success, when an epilogue, written for it by Sir Walter Scott at
+Joanna Baillie's request, was spoken by Harriet Siddons. This was the
+beginning of a cordial friendship between Mrs Hemans and Scott. In the
+same year she wrote _De Chatillon, or the Crusaders_; but the manuscript
+was lost, and the poem was published after her death, from a rough copy.
+In 1824 she began "The Forest Sanctuary," which appeared a year later
+with the "Lays of Many Lands" and miscellaneous pieces collected from
+the _New Monthly Magazine_ and other periodicals.
+
+In the spring of 1825 Mrs Hemans removed from Bronwylfa, which had been
+purchased by her brother, to Rhyllon, a house on an opposite height
+across the river Clwyd. The contrast between the two houses suggested
+her _Dramatic Scene between Bronwylfa and Rhyllon_. The house itself was
+bare and unpicturesque, but the beauty of its surroundings has been
+celebrated in "The Hour of Romance," "To the River Clwyd in North
+Wales," "Our Lady's Well" and "To a Distant Scene." This time seems to
+have been the most tranquil in Mrs Hemans's life. But the death of her
+mother in January 1827 was a second great breaking-point in her life.
+Her heart was affected, and she was from this time an acknowledged
+invalid. In the summer of 1828 the _Records of Woman_ was published by
+Blackwood, and in the same year the home in Wales was finally broken up
+by the marriage of Mrs Hemans's sister and the departure of her two
+elder boys to their father in Rome. Mrs Hemans removed to Wavertree,
+near Liverpool. But, although she had a few intimate friends
+there--among them her two subsequent biographers, Henry F. Chorley and
+Mrs Lawrence of Wavertree Hall--she was disappointed in her new home.
+She thought the people of Liverpool stupid and provincial; and they, on
+the other hand, found her uncommunicative and eccentric. In the
+following summer she travelled by sea to Scotland with two of her boys,
+to visit the Hamiltons of Chiefswood.
+
+Here she enjoyed "constant, almost daily, intercourse" with Sir Walter
+Scott, with whom she and her boys afterwards stayed some time at
+Abbotsford. "There are some whom we meet, and should like ever after to
+claim as kith and kin; and you are one of those," was Scott's compliment
+to her at parting. One of the results of her Edinburgh visit was an
+article, full of praise, judiciously tempered with criticism, by Jeffrey
+himself for the _Edinburgh Review_. Mrs Hemans returned to Wavertree to
+write her _Songs of the Affections_, which were published early in 1830.
+In the following June, however, she again left home, this time to visit
+Wordsworth and the Lake country; and in August she paid a second visit
+to Scotland. In 1831 she removed to Dublin. Her poetry of this date is
+chiefly religious. Early in 1834 her _Hymns for Childhood_, which had
+appeared some years before in America, were published in Dublin. At the
+same time appeared her collection of _National Lyrics_, and shortly
+afterwards _Scenes and Hymns of Life_. She was planning also a series of
+German studies, one of which, on Goethe's _Tasso_, was completed and
+published in the _New Monthly Magazine_ for January 1834. In intervals
+of acute suffering she wrote the lyric _Despondency and Aspiration_, and
+dictated a series of sonnets called _Thoughts during Sickness_, the last
+of which, "Recovery," was written when she fancied she was getting well.
+After three months spent at Redesdale, Archbishop Whately's country
+seat, she was again brought into Dublin, where she lingered till spring.
+Her last poem, the _Sabbath Sonnet_, was dedicated to her brother on
+Sunday April 26th, and she died in Dublin on the 16th of May 1835 at the
+age of forty-one.
+
+Mrs Hemans's poetry is the production of a fine imaginative and
+enthusiastic temperament, but not of a commanding intellect or very
+complex or subtle nature. It is the outcome of a beautiful but
+singularly circumscribed life, a life spent in romantic seclusion,
+without much worldly experience, and warped and saddened by domestic
+unhappiness and physical suffering. An undue preponderance of the
+emotional is its prevailing characteristic. Scott complained that it was
+"too poetical," that it contained "too many flowers" and "too little
+fruit." Many of her short poems, such as "The Treasures of the Deep,"
+"The Better Land," "The Homes of England," "Casabianca," "The Palm
+Tree," "The Graves of a Household," "The Wreck," "The Dying
+Improvisatore," and "The Lost Pleiad," have become standard English
+lyrics. It is on the strength of these that her reputation must rest.
+
+  Mrs Hemans's _Poetical Works_ were collected in 1832; her _Memorials_
+  &c., by H. F. Chorley (1836).
+
+
+
+
+
+HEMEL HEMPSTEAD, a market-town and municipal borough in the Watford
+parliamentary division of Hertfordshire, England, 25 m. N.W. from
+London, with a station on a branch of the Midland railway from
+Harpenden, and near Boxmoor station on the London and North Western main
+line. Pop. (1891) 9678; (1901) 11,264. It is pleasantly situated in the
+steep-sided valley of the river Gade, immediately above its junction
+with the Bulbourne, near the Grand Junction canal. The church of St Mary
+is a very fine Norman building with Decorated additions. Industries
+include the manufacture of paper, iron founding, brewing and tanning.
+Boxmoor, within the parish, is a considerable township of modern growth.
+Hemel Hempstead is governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors.
+Area, 7184 acres.
+
+Settlements in the neighbourhood of Hemel Hempstead (_Hamalamstede_,
+_Hemel Hampsted_) date from pre-Roman times, and a Roman villa has been
+discovered at Boxmoor. The manor, royal demesne in 1086, was granted by
+Edmund Plantagenet in 1285 to the house of Ashridge, and the town
+developed under monastic protection. In 1539 a charter incorporated the
+bailiff and inhabitants. A mayor, aldermen and councillors received
+governing power by a charter of 1898. The town has never had
+parliamentary representation. A market on Thursday and a fair on the
+feast of Corpus Christi were conferred in 1539. A statute fair, for long
+a hiring fair, originated in 1803.
+
+
+
+
+HEMEROBAPTISTS, an ancient Jewish sect, so named from their observing a
+practice of daily ablution as an essential part of religion. Epiphanius
+(_Panarion_, i. 17), who mentions their doctrine as the fourth heresy
+among the Jews, classes the Hemerobaptists doctrinally with the
+Pharisees (q.v.) from whom they differed only in, like the Sadducees,
+denying the resurrection of the dead. The name has been sometimes given
+to the Mandaeans on account of their frequent ablutions; and in the
+_Clementine Homilies_ (ii. 23) St John the Baptist is spoken of as a
+Hemerobaptist. Mention of the sect is made by Hegesippus (see Euseb.
+_Hist. Eccl._ iv. 22) and by Justin Martyr in the _Dialogue with
+Trypho_, S 80. They were probably a division of the Essenes.
+
+
+
+
+HEMICHORDA, or HEMICHORDATA, a zoological term introduced by W. Bateson
+in 1884, without special definition, as equivalent to Enteropneusta,
+which then included the single genus _Balanoglossus_, and now generally
+employed to cover a group of marine worm-like animals believed by many
+zoologists to be related to the lower vertebrates and so to represent
+the invertebrate stock from which Vertebrates have been derived.
+Vertebrates, or as they are sometimes termed Chordates, are
+distinguished from other animals by several important features. The
+chief of these is the presence of an elastic rod, the notochord, which
+forms the longitudinal axis of the body, and which persists throughout
+life in some of the lowest forms, but which appears only in the embryo
+of the higher forms, being replaced by the jointed backbone or vertebral
+column. A second feature is the development of outgrowths of the pharynx
+which unite with the skin of the neck and form a series of perforations
+leading to the exterior. These structures are the gill-slits, which in
+fishes are lined with vascular tufts, but which in terrestrial breathing
+animals appear only in the embryo. The third feature of importance is
+the position of structure of the central nervous system, which in all
+the Chordates lies dorsally to the alimentary canal and is formed by the
+sinking in of a longitudinal media dorsal groove. Of these structures
+the Vertebrata or Craniata possess all three in a typical form; the
+Cephalochordata (see Amphioxus) also possess them, but the notochord
+extends throughout the whole length of the body to the extreme tip of
+the snout; the Urochordata (see TUNICATA) possess them in a larval
+condition, but the notochord is present only in the tail, whilst in the
+adult the notochord disappears and the nervous system becomes profoundly
+modified; in the Hemichorda, the respiratory organs very closely
+resemble gill-slits, and structures comparable with the notochord and
+the tubular dorsal nervous system are present.
+
+The Hemichorda include three orders, the Phoronidea (q.v.), the
+Pterobranchia (q.v.) and the Enteropneusta (see BALANOGLOSSUS), but the
+relationship to the Chordata expressed in the designation Hemichordata
+cannot be regarded as more than an attractive theory with certain
+arguments in its favour.     (P. C. M.)
+
+
+
+
+HEMICYCLE (Gr. [Greek: hemi-], half, and [Greek: kyklos], circle), a
+semicircular recess of considerable size which formed one of the most
+conspicuous features in the Roman Thermae, where it was always covered
+with a hemispherical vault. A small example exists in Pompeii, in the
+street of tombs, with a seat round inside, where those who came to pay
+their respects to the departed could rest. An immense hemicycle was
+designed by Bramante for the Vatican, where it constitutes a fine
+architectural effect at the end of the great court.
+
+
+
+
+HEMIMERUS, an Orthopterous or Dermapterous insect, the sole
+representative of the family _Hemimeridae_, which has affinities with
+both the _Forficulidae_ (earwigs) and the _Blattidae_ (cockroaches).
+Only two species have been discovered, both from West Africa. The better
+known of these (_H. hanseni_) lives upon a large rat-like rodent
+(_Cricetomys gambianus_) feeding perhaps upon its external parasites,
+perhaps upon scurf and other dermal products. Like many epizoic or
+parasitic insects, _Hemimerus_ is wingless, eyeless and has relatively
+short and strong legs. Correlated also with its mode of life is the
+curious fact that it is viviparous, the young being born in an advanced
+stage of growth.
+
+
+
+
+HEMIMORPHITE, a mineral consisting of hydrous zinc silicate, H2Zn2SiO5,
+of importance as an ore of the metal, of which it contains 54.4%. It is
+interesting crystallographically by reason of the hemimorphic
+development of its orthorhombic crystals; these are prismatic in habit
+and are differently terminated at the two ends. In the figure, the faces
+at the upper end of the crystal are the basal plane k and the domes o,
+p, l, m, whilst at the lower end there are only the four faces of the
+pyramid P. Connected with this polarity of the crystals is their
+pyroelectric character--when a crystal is subjected to changes of
+temperature it becomes positively electrified at one end and negatively
+at the opposite end. There are perfect cleavages parallel to the prism
+faces (d in the figure). Crystals are usually colourless, sometimes
+yellowish or greenish, and transparent; they have vitreous lustre. The
+hardness is 5, and the specific gravity 3.45. The mineral also occurs as
+stalactitic or botryoidal masses with a fibrous structure, or in a
+massive, cellular or granular condition intermixed with calamine and
+clay. It is decomposed by hydrochloric acid with gelatinization; this
+property affords a ready means of distinguishing hemimorphite from
+calamine (zinc carbonate), these two minerals being, when not
+crystallized, very like each other in appearance. The water contained in
+hemimorphite is expelled only at a red heat, and the mineral must
+therefore be considered as a basic metasilicate, (ZnOH)2SiO3.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The name hemimorphite was given by G. A. Kenngott in 1853 because of the
+typical hemimorphic development of the crystals. The mineral had long
+been confused with _calamine_ (q.v.) and even now this name is often
+applied to it. On account of its pyroelectric properties, it was called
+_electric calamine_ by J. Smithson in 1803.
+
+Hemimorphite occurs with other ores of zinc (calamine and blende),
+forming veins and beds in sedimentary limestones. British localities are
+Matlock, Alston, Mendip Hills and Leadhills; at Roughten Gill, Caldbeck
+Fells, Cumberland, it occurs as mammillated incrustations of a sky-blue
+colour. Well-crystallized specimens have been found in the zinc mines at
+Altenberg near Aachen in Rhenish Prussia, Nerchinsk mining district in
+Siberia, and Elkhorn in Montana.     (L. J. S.)
+
+
+
+
+HEMINGBURGH, WALTER OF, also commonly, but erroneously, called WALTER
+HEMINGFORD, a Latin chronicler of the 14th century, was a canon regular
+of the Austin priory of Gisburn in Yorkshire. Hence he is sometimes
+known as Walter of Gisburn (Walterus Gisburnensis). Bale seems to have
+been the first to give him the name by which he became more commonly
+known. His chronicle embraces the period of English history from the
+Conquest (1066) to the nineteenth year of Edward III., with the
+exception of the years 1316-1326. It ends with the title of a chapter in
+which it was proposed to describe the battle of Crecy (1346); but the
+chronicler seems to have died before the required information reached
+him. There is, however, some controversy as to whether the later
+portions which are lacking in some of the MSS. are by him. In compiling
+the first part, Hemingburgh apparently used the histories of Eadmer,
+Hoveden, Henry of Huntingdon, and William of Newburgh; but the reigns of
+the three Edwards are original, composed from personal observation and
+information. There are several manuscripts of the history extant--the
+best perhaps being that presented to the College of Arms by the earl of
+Arundel. The work is correct and judicious, and written in a pleasing
+style. One of its special features is the preservation in its pages of
+copies of the great charters, and Hemingburgh's versions have more than
+once supplied deficiencies and cleared up obscurities in copies from
+other sources.
+
+  The first three books were published by Thomas Gale in 1687, in his
+  _Historiae Anglicanae scriptores quinque_, and the remainder by Thomas
+  Hearne in 1731. The first portion was again published in 1848 by the
+  English Historical Society, under the title _Chronicon Walteri de
+  Hemingburgh, vulgo Hemingford nuncupati, de gestis regum Angliae_,
+  edited by H. C. Hamilton.
+
+
+
+
+HEMIPTERA (Gr. [Greek: hemi-], half and [Greek: pteron], a wing), the
+name applied in zoological classification to that order of the class
+Hexapoda (q.v.) which includes bugs, cicads, aphids and scale-insects.
+The name was first used by Linnaeus (1735), who derived it from the
+half-coriaceous and half-membranous condition of the forewing in many
+members of the order. But the wings vary considerably in different
+families, and the most distinctive feature is the structure of the jaws,
+which form a beak-like organ with stylets adapted for piercing and
+sucking. Hence the name _Rhyngota_ (or _Rhynchota_), proposed by J. C.
+Fabricius (1775), is used by many writers in preference to Hemiptera.
+
+[Illustration: After Marlatt, _Bull._ 14 (N.S.) _Div. Ent. U.S. Dept.
+Agr._
+
+FIG. 1.--Head and Prothorax of Cicad from side.
+
+    I., Frons.
+   II., Base of mandible.
+  III., Base of first maxillae.
+   IV., Second maxillae forming rostrum.
+    V., Pronotum.]
+
+_Structure._--The head varies greatly in shape, and the feelers have
+usually but few segments--often only four or five. The arrangement of
+the jaws is remarkably constant throughout the order, if we exclude from
+it the lice (_Anoplura_). Taking as our type the head of a cicad, we
+find a jointed rostrum or beak (figs. 1 and 2, IV. b, c) with a deep
+groove on its anterior face; this organ is formed by the second pair of
+maxillae and corresponds therefore to the labium or "lower lip" of
+biting insects. Within the groove of the rostrum two pairs of slender
+piercers--often barbed at the tip--work to and fro. One of these pairs
+(fig. 2, II. a, b, c) represents the mandibles, the other (fig. 2, III.
+a, b, c) the first maxillae. The piercing portions of the
+latter--representing their inner lobes or laciniae--lie median to the
+mandibular piercers in the natural position of the organs. These
+homologies of the hemipterous jaws were determined by J. C. Savigny in
+1816, and though disputed by various subsequent writers, they have been
+lately confirmed by the embryological researches of R. Heymons (1899).
+Vestigial palps have been described in various species of Hemiptera, but
+the true nature of these structures is doubtful. In front of the rostrum
+and the piercers lies the pointed flexible labrum and within its base a
+small hypopharynx (fig. 2, IV. d) consisting of paired conical
+processes which lie dorsal to the "syringe" of the salivary glands. This
+latter organ injects a secretion into the plant or animal tissue from
+which the insect is sucking. The point of the rostrum is pressed against
+the surface to be pierced; then the stylets come into play and the fluid
+food is believed to pass into the mouth by capillary attraction.
+
+[Illustration: After Marlatt, _Bull. 14_ (N.S.) _Div. Ent. U.S. Dept.
+Agr._
+
+FIG. 2.--Head and Prothorax of Cicad, parts separated.
+
+    I., a, frons; b, clypeus; c, labrum; d, epipharynx.
+   I'., Same from behind.
+   II., Mandible.
+  III., 1st maxillae, a, base; b, sheath; c, stylet; c', muscle.
+   IV., 2nd maxillae, a, sub-mentum; b, mentum; c, ligula, forming beak;
+          d, hypopharynx (shown also from front d', and behind d").
+    V., Prothorax, b, haunch; a, trochanter.]
+
+The prothorax (figs. 1 and 2, V.) in Hemiptera is large and free, and
+the mesothoracic scutellum is usually extensive. The number of tarsal
+segments is reduced; often three, two or only one may be present instead
+of the typical insectan number five. The wings will be described in
+connexion with the various sub-orders, but an interesting peculiarity of
+the Hemiptera is the occasional presence of winged and wingless races of
+the same species. Eleven abdominal segments can be recognized, at least
+in the early stages; as the adult condition is reached, the hinder
+segments become reduced or modified in connexion with the external
+reproductive organs, and show, in some male Hemiptera, a marked
+asymmetry. The typical insectan ovipositor with its three pairs of
+processes, one pair belonging to the eighth and two pairs to the ninth
+abdominal segment, can be distinguished in the female.
+
+[Illustration: After Marlatt, _Bull. 4_ (N.S.) _Div. Ent. U.S. Dept.
+Agr._
+
+FIG. 3.--a, Cast-off nymphal skin of Bed-bug (_Cimex lectularius_); b,
+Second instar after emergence from a; c, The same after a meal.]
+
+In the nervous system the concentration of the trunk ganglia into a
+single nerve-centre situated in the thorax is remarkable. The digestive
+system has a slender gullet, a large crop and no gizzard; in some
+Hemiptera the hinder region of the mid-gut forms a twisted loop with the
+gullet. Usually there are four excretory (Malpighian) tubes; but there
+are only two in the _Coccidae_ and none in the _Aphidae_. "Stink
+glands," which secrete a nauseous fluid with a defensive function, are
+present in many Hemiptera. In the adult there is a pair of such glands
+opening ventrally on the hindmost thoracic segment, or at the base of
+the abdomen; but in the young insect the glands are situated dorsally
+and open to the exterior on a variable number of the abdominal terga.
+
+_Development._--In most Hemiptera the young insect (fig. 3) resembles
+its parents except for the absence of wings, and is active through all
+stages of its growth. In all Hemiptera the wing-rudiments develop
+externally on the nymphal cuticle, but in some families--the cicads for
+example--the young insect (fig. 10) is a larva differing markedly in
+form from its parent, and adapted for a different mode of life, while
+the nymph before the final moult is sluggish and inactive. In the male
+_Coccidae_ (Scale-insects) the nymph (fig. 4) remains passive and takes
+no food. The order of the Hemiptera affords, therefore, some interesting
+transition stages towards the complete metamorphosis of the higher
+insects.
+
+[Illustration: After Riley and Howard, _Insect Life_, vol. i. (U.S.
+Dept. Agr.).
+
+FIG. 4.--Passive Nymph or "Pupa" of male scale-insect (_Icerya_).]
+
+_Distribution and Habits._--Hemiptera are widely distributed, and are
+plentiful in most quarters of the globe, though they probably have not
+penetrated as far into remote and inhospitable regions as have the
+Coleoptera, Diptera and Aptera. They feed entirely by suction, and the
+majority of the species pierce plant tissues and suck sap. The leaves of
+plants are for the most part the objects of attack, but many aphids and
+scale-insects pierce stems, and some go underground and feed on roots.
+The enormous rate at which aphids multiply under favourable conditions
+makes them of the greatest economic importance, since the growth of
+immense numbers of the same kind of plant in close proximity--as in
+ordinary farm-crops--is especially advantageous to the insects that feed
+on them. Several families of bugs are predaceous in habit, attacking
+other insects--often members of their own order--and sucking their
+juices. Others are scavengers feeding on decaying organic matter; the
+pond skaters, for example, live mostly on the juices of dead floating
+insects. And some, like the bed-bugs, are parasites of vertebrate
+animals, on whose bodies they live temporarily or permanently, and whose
+blood they suck.
+
+The Hemiptera are especially interesting as an order from the variety of
+aquatic insects included therein. Some of these--the _Hydrometridae_ or
+pond-skaters, for example--move over the surface-film, on which they are
+supported by their elongated, slender legs, the body of the insect being
+raised clear of the water. They are covered with short hairs which form
+a velvet-like pile, so dense that water cannot penetrate. Consequently
+when the insect dives, an air-bubble forms around it, a supply of oxygen
+is thus secured for breathing and the water is kept away from the
+spiracles. In many of these insects, while most individuals of the
+species are wingless, winged specimens are now and then met with. The
+occasional development of wings is probably of service to the species in
+enabling the insects to reach new fresh-water breeding-grounds. This
+family of Hemiptera (the _Hydrometridae_) and the _Saldidae_ contain
+several insects that are marine, haunting the tidal margin. One genus of
+_Hydrometridae_ (_Halobates_) is even oceanic in its habit, the species
+being met with skimming over the surface of the sea hundreds of miles
+from land. Probably they dive when the surface becomes ruffled. In these
+marine genera the abdomen often undergoes excessive reduction (fig. 5).
+
+Other families of Hemiptera--such as the "Boatmen" (_Notonectidae_) and
+the "Water-scorpions" (fig. 6) and their allies (_Nepidae_) dive and
+swim through the water. They obtain their supply of air from the
+surface. The _Nepidae_ breathe by means of a pair of long, grooved tail
+processes (really outgrowths of the abdominal pleura) which when
+pressed together form a tube whose point can pierce the surface film and
+convey air to the hindmost spiracles which are alone functional in the
+adult. The _Notonectidae_ breathe mostly through the thoracic spiracles;
+the air is conveyed to these from the tail-end, which is brought to the
+surface, along a kind of tunnel formed by overlapping hairs.
+
+[Illustration: After Carpenter, _Proc. R. Dublin Soc._, vol. viii.
+
+FIG. 5.--A reef-haunting hemipteron (_Hermatobates haddonii_) with
+excessively reduced abdomen. Magnified.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Water-scorpion (_Nepa cinerea_) with raptorial
+fore-legs, heteropterous wings, and long siphon for conveying air to
+spiracles. Somewhat magnified. sc, scutellum; co, cl, m, corium, clavus
+and membrane of forewing.]
+
+[Illustration: From Marlatt, _Bull._ 14 (N.S.) _Div. Ent. U.S. Dept.
+Agr._
+
+FIG. 7.
+
+  a, Body of male Cicad from below, showing cover-plates of musical
+       organs;
+  b, From above showing drums, natural size;
+  c, Section showing muscles which vibrate drum (magnified);
+  d, A drum at rest;
+  e, Thrown into vibration, more highly magnified.]
+
+_Sound-producing Organs._--The Hemiptera are remarkable for the variety
+of their stridulating organs. In many genera of the _Pentatomidae_,
+bristle-bearing tubercles on the legs are scraped across a set of fine
+striations on the abdominal sterna. In _Halobates_ a comb-like series of
+sharp spines on the fore-shin can be drawn across a set of blunt
+processes on the shin of the opposite leg. Males of the little
+water-bugs of the genus _Corixa_ make a shrill chirping note by drawing
+a row of teeth on the flattened fore-foot across a group of spines on
+the haunch of the opposite leg. But the loudest and most remarkable
+vocal organs of all insects are those of the male cicads, which "sing"
+by the rapid vibration of a pair of "drums" or membranes within the
+metathorax. These drums are worked by special muscles, and the cavities
+in which they lie are protected by conspicuous plates visible beneath
+the base of the abdomen (see fig. 7).
+
+_Fossil History._--The Heteroptera can be traced back farther than any
+other winged insects if the fossil _Protocimex silurica_ Moberg, from
+the Ordovician slates of Sweden is rightly regarded as the wing of a
+bug. But according to the recent researches of A. Handlirsch it is not
+insectan at all. Both Heteropterous and Homopterous genera have been
+described from the Carboniferous, but the true nature of some of these
+is doubtful. _Eugereon_ is a remarkable Permian fossil, with jaws that
+are typically hemipterous except that the second maxillae are not fused
+and with cockroach-like wings. In the Jurassic period many of the
+existing families, such as the _Cicadidae_, _Fulgoridae_, _Aphidae_,
+_Nepidae_, _Reduviidae_, _Hydrometridae_, _Lygaeidae_ and _Coreidae_,
+had already become differentiated.
+
+  _Classification._--The number of described species of Hemiptera must
+  now be nearly 20,000. The order is divided into two sub-orders, the
+  Heteroptera and the Homoptera. The Anoplura or lice should not be
+  included among the Hemiptera, but it has been thought convenient to
+  refer briefly to them at the close of this article.
+
+
+    HETEROPTERA
+
+  In this sub-order are included the various families of bugs and their
+  aquatic relations. The front of the head is not in contact with the
+  haunches of the fore-legs. There is usually a marked difference
+  between the wings of the two pairs. The fore-wing is generally divided
+  into a firm coriaceous basal region, occupying most of the area, and a
+  membranous terminal portion, while the hind-wing is delicate and
+  entirely membranous (see fig. 6). In the firm portion of the fore-wing
+  two distinct regions can usually be distinguished; most of the area is
+  formed by the _corium_ (fig. 6, co), which is separated by a
+  longitudinal suture from the _clavus_ (fig. 6, cl) on its hinder edge,
+  and in some families there is also a _cuneus_ (fig. 9 cu) external to
+  and an _embolium_ in front of the _corium_.
+
+  [Illustration: After Marlatt, _Bull._ 4 (N.S.) _Div. Ent. U.S. Dept.
+  Agr._
+
+  FIG. 8.--Bed-bug (_Cimex lectularius_, Linn.).
+
+    a, Female from above;
+    b, From beneath;
+    c, Vestigial wing;
+    d, Jaws, very highly magnified (tips of mandibles and 1st maxillae
+         still more highly magnified).]
+
+  Most Heteroptera are flattened in form, and the wings lie flat, or
+  nearly so, when closed. The young Heteropteron is hatched from the egg
+  in a form not markedly different from that of its parent; it is active
+  and takes food through all the stages of its growth. It is usual to
+  divide the Heteroptera into two tribes--the Gymnocerata and the
+  Cryptocerata.
+
+  _Gymnocerata._--This tribe includes some eighteen families of
+  terrestrial, arboreal and marsh-haunting bugs, as well as those
+  aquatic Heteroptera that live on the surface-film of water. The
+  feelers are elongate and conspicuous. The _Pentatomidae_
+  (shield-bugs), some of which are metallic or otherwise brightly
+  coloured, are easily recognized by the great development of the
+  scutellum, which reaches at least half-way back towards the tip of the
+  abdomen, and in some genera covers the whole of the hind body, and
+  also the wings when these are closed. The _Coreidae_ have a smaller
+  scutellum, and the feelers are inserted high on the head, while in the
+  _Lygaeidae_ they are inserted lower down. These three families have
+  the foot with three segments. In the curious little _Tingidae_, whose
+  integuments exhibit a pattern of network-like ridges, the feet are
+  two-segmented and the scutellum is hidden by the pronotum. The
+  _Aradidae_ have two segmented feet, and a large visible scutellum. The
+  _Hydrometridae_ are a large family including the pond-skaters and
+  other dwellers on the surface-film of fresh water, as well as the
+  remarkable oceanic genus _Halobates_ already referred to. The
+  _Reduviidae_ are a family of predaceous bugs that attack other
+  insects and suck their juices; the beak is short, and carried under
+  the head in a hook-like curve, not--as in the preceding
+  families--lying close against the breast. The _Cimicidae_ have the
+  feet three-segmented and the forewings greatly reduced; most of the
+  species are parasites on birds and bats, but one--_Cimex lectidarius_
+  (figs. 3, 8)--is the well-known "bed-bug" which abounds in unclean
+  dwellings and sucks human blood (see BUG). The _Anthocoridae_ are
+  nearly related to the _Cimicidae_, but the wings are usually well
+  developed and the forewing possesses cuneus and embolium as well as
+  corium and clavus. The _Capsidae_ are a large family of rather
+  soft-skinned bugs mostly elongate in form with the two basal segments
+  of the feelers stouter than the two terminal. The forewing in this
+  family has a cuneus (fig. 9 cu), but not an embolium. These insects
+  are often found in large numbers on plants whose juices they suck.
+
+  [Illustration: After M. V. Slingerland, _Cornell Univ. Ent. Bull._ 58.
+
+  FIG. 9.--Capsid Leaf-bug (_Poecilocapsus lineatus_) N. America.
+  Magnified--, cu cuneus.]
+
+  [Illustration: From Mariatt, _Bull._ 14 (N. S.), _Div. Ent. U.S. Dept.
+  Agr._
+
+  FIG. 10.--a, Nymph (4th stage) of Cicad, magnified; c, d, inner and
+  outer faces of front leg, magnified--; b, teeth on thigh, more highly
+  magnified.]
+
+  _Cryptocerata._--In this tribe are included five or six families of
+  aquatic Heteroptera which spend the greater part of their lives
+  submerged, diving and swimming through the water. The feelers are very
+  small and are often hidden in cavities beneath the head. The
+  _Naucoridae_ and _Belostomatidae_ are flattened insects, with
+  four-segmented feelers and fore-legs inserted at the front of the
+  prosternum. Two species of the former family inhabit our islands, but
+  the _Belostomatidae_ are found only in the warmer regions of the
+  globe; some of them, attaining a length of 4 to 5 in., are giants
+  among insects. The _Nepidae_ (fig. 6) or water-scorpions (q.v.)--two
+  British species--are distinguished by their three-segmented feelers,
+  their raptorial fore-legs (in which the shin and foot, fused together,
+  work like a sharp knife-blade on the grooved thigh), and their
+  elongate tail-processes formed of the abdominal pleura and used for
+  respiration. The _Notonectidae_, or "water-boatmen" (q.v.) have convex
+  ovoid bodies admirably adapted for aquatic life. By means of the
+  oar-like hind-legs they swim actively through the water with the
+  ventral surface upwards; the fore-legs are inserted at the hinder edge
+  of the prosternum. The _Corixidae_ are small flattened water-bugs,
+  with very short unjointed beak, the labrum being enclosed within the
+  second maxillae, and the foot in the fore and intermediate leg having
+  but a single segment. The hinder abdominal segments in the male show a
+  curious asymmetrical arrangement, the sixth segment bearing on its
+  upper side a small stalked plate (_strigil_) of unknown function,
+  furnished with rows of teeth. On account of the reduction and
+  modification of the jaws in the _Corixidae_, C. Borner has lately
+  suggested that they should form a special sub-order of Hemiptera--the
+  Sandaliorrhyncha.
+
+
+    HOMOPTERA
+
+  This sub-order includes the cicads, lantern-flies, frog-hoppers,
+  aphids and scale-insects. The face has such a marked backward slope
+  (see fig. 1) as to bring the beak into close contact with the haunches
+  of the fore-legs. The feelers have one or more thickened basal
+  segments, while the remaining segments are slender and thread-like.
+  The fore-wings are sometimes membranous like the hind-wings, usually
+  they are firmer in texture, but they never show the distinct areas
+  that characterize the wings of Heteroptera. When at rest the wings of
+  Homoptera slope roofwise across the back of the insect. In their
+  life-history the Homoptera are more specialized than the Heteroptera;
+  the young insect often differs markedly from its parent and does not
+  live in the same situations; while in some families there is a passive
+  stage before the last moult.
+
+  [Illustration: After Weed, Riley and Howard, _Insect Life_, vol iii.
+
+  FIG. 11.--Cabbage Aphid (_Aphisbrassicae_). a, Male; c, female
+  (wingless). Magnified. b and d, Head and feelers of male and female,
+  more highly magnified.]
+
+  [Illustration: After Howard, _Year Book U.S. Dept. Agr._, 1894.
+
+  FIG. 12.--Apple Scale Insect (_Mytilaspis pomorum_). a, Male; e,
+  female; c, larva magnified--; b, foot of male; d, feeler of larva,
+  more highly magnified.]
+
+  The _Cicadidae_ are for the most part large insects with ample wings;
+  they are distinguished from other Homoptera by the front thighs being
+  thickened and toothed beneath. The broad head carries, in addition to
+  the prominent compound eyes, three simple eyes (ocelli) on the crown,
+  while the feeler consists of a stout basal segment, followed by five
+  slender segments. The female, by means of her serrated ovipositor,
+  lays her eggs in slits cut in the twigs of plants. The young have
+  simple feelers and stout fore-legs (fig. 10) adapted for digging; they
+  live underground and feed on the roots of plants. In the case of a
+  North American species it is known that this larval life lasts for
+  seventeen years. The "song" of the male cicads is notorious and the
+  structures by which it is produced have already been described (see
+  also CICADA). There are about 900 known species, but the family is
+  mostly confined to warm countries; only a single cicad is found in
+  England, and that is restricted to the south.
+
+  The _Fulgoridae_ and _Membracidae_ are two allied families most of
+  whose members are also natives of hot regions. The _Fulgoridae_ have
+  the head with two ocelli and three-segmented feelers; frequently as in
+  the tropical "lantern-flies" (q.v.) the head is prolonged into a
+  conspicuous bladder, or trunk-like process. The _Membracidae_ are
+  remarkable on account of the backward prolongation of the pronotum
+  into a process or hood-like structure which may extend far behind the
+  tail-end of the abdomen. Two other allied families, the _Cercopidae_
+  and _Jassidae_, are more numerously represented in our islands. The
+  young of many of these insects are green and soft-skinned, protecting
+  themselves by the well-known frothy secretion that is called
+  "cuckoo-spit."
+
+  [Illustration: After Howard, _Year Book U.S. Dept. Agr._, 1894.
+
+  FIG. 13.--Apple Scale Insect (_Mytilaspis pomorum_). a, Scale from
+  beneath showing female and eggs; b, from above, magnified--; c and e,
+  female and male scales on twigs, natural size; d, male scale
+  magnified.]
+
+  [Illustration: From Osborn (after Denny), _Bull._ 5 (N.S.), _Div. Ent.
+  U.S. Dept. Agr._
+
+  FIG. 14.--Louse (_Pediculus vestimenti_). Magnified.]
+
+  [Illustration: From Osborn (after Schiodte), _Bull._ 5; (N.S.), _Div.
+  Ent. U.S. Dept. Agr._
+
+  FIG. 15.--Proboscis of Pediculus. Highly magnified.]
+
+  In all the above-mentioned families of Homoptera there are three
+  segments in each foot. The remaining four families have feet with only
+  two segments. They are of very great zoological interest on account of
+  the peculiarities of their life-history--parthenogenesis being of
+  normal occurrence among most of them. The families _Psyllidae_ (or
+  "jumpers") with eight or ten segments in the feeler and the
+  _Aleyrodidae_ (or "snowy-flies") distinguished by their white mealy
+  wings, are of comparatively slight importance. The two families to
+  which special attention has been paid are the _Aphidae_ or plant-lice
+  ("green fly") and the _Coccidae_ or scale-insects. The aphids (fig.
+  11) have feelers with seven or fewer distinct segments, and the fifth
+  abdominal segment usually carries a pair of tubular processes through
+  which a waxy secretion is discharged. The sweet "honey-dew," often
+  sought as a food by ants, is secreted from the intestines of aphids.
+  The peculiar life-cycle in which successive generations are produced
+  through the summer months by virgin females--the egg developing within
+  the body of the mother--is described at length in the articles APHIDES
+  and PHYLLOXERA. The _Coccidae_ have only a single claw to the foot;
+  the males (fig. 12 _a_) have the fore-wings developed and the
+  hind-wings greatly reduced, while in the female wings are totally
+  absent and the body undergoes marked degradation (figs. 12, _e_, 13,
+  _a_, _b_). In the Coccids the formation of a protective waxy
+  secretion--present in many genera of Homoptera--reaches its most
+  extreme development. In some coccids--the "mealy-bugs" (_Dactylopius_,
+  &c.) for example--the secretion forms a white thread-like or
+  plate-like covering which the insect carries about. But in most
+  members of the family, the secretion, united with cast cuticles and
+  excrement, forms a firm "scale," closely attached by its edges to the
+  surface of the plant on which the insect lives, and serving as a
+  shield beneath which the female coccid, with her eggs (fig. 13 _a_)
+  and brood, finds shelter. The male coccid passes through a passive
+  stage (fig. 4) before attaining the perfect condition. Many
+  scale-insects are among the most serious of pests, but various species
+  have been utilized by man for the production of wax (lac) and red dye
+  (cochineal). See ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY, SCALE-INSECT.
+
+
+    ANOPLURA
+
+  The Anoplura or lice (see LOUSE) are wingless parasitic insects (fig.
+  14) forming an order distinct from the Hemiptera, their sucking and
+  piercing mouth-organs being apparently formed on quite a different
+  plan from those of the Heteroptera and Homoptera. In front of the head
+  is a short tube armed with strong recurved hooks which can be fixed
+  into the skin of the host, and from the tube an elongate more slender
+  sucking-trunk can be protruded (fig. 15). Each foot is provided with a
+  single strong claw which, opposed to a process on the shin, serves to
+  grasp a hair of the host, all the lice being parasites on different
+  mammals. Although G. Enderlein has recently shown that the jaws of the
+  Hemiptera can be recognized in a reduced condition in connexion with
+  the louse's proboscis, the modification is so excessive that the group
+  certainly deserves ordinal separation.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--A recent standard work on the morphology of the
+  Hemiptera by R. Heymons (_Nova Acta Acad. Leop. Carol._ lxxiv. 3,
+  1899) contains numerous references to older literature. An excellent
+  survey of the order is given by D. Sharp (_Cambridge Nat. Hist._ vol.
+  vi., 1898). For internal structure of Heteroptera see R. Dufour, _Mem.
+  savans etrangers_ (Paris, iv., 1833); of Homoptera, E. Witlaczil
+  (_Arb. Zool. Inst. Wien_, iv., 1882, _Zeits. f. wiss. Zool._ xliii.,
+  1885). The development of Aphids has been dealt with by T. H. Huxley
+  (_Trans. Linn. Soc._ xxii., 1858) and E. Witlaczil (_Zeits. f. wiss.
+  Zool._ xl., 1884). Fossil Hemiptera are described by S. H. Scudder in
+  K. Zittel's _Paleontologie_ (French translation, vol. ii. Paris, 1887,
+  and English edition, vol. i., London, 1900), and by A. Handlirsch
+  (_Verh. zool. bot. Gesell. Wien_, lii., 1902). Among general
+  systematic works on Heteroptera may be mentioned J. C. Schiodte (_Ann.
+  Mag. Nat. Hist._ (4) vi., 1870); C. Stal's _Enumeratio Hemipterorum_
+  (_K. Svensk. Vet. Akad. Handl._ ix.-xiv., 1870-1876); L. Lethierry and
+  G. Severin's _Catalogue generale des hemipteres_ (Brussels 1893, &c.);
+  G. C. Champion's volumes in the _Biologia Centrali-Americana_; W. L.
+  Distant's Oriental Cicadidae (London, 1889-1892), and many other
+  papers; M. E. Fernald's _Catalogue of the Coccidae_ (Amherst, U.S.A.,
+  1903). European Hemiptera have been dealt with in numerous papers by
+  A. Puton. For British species we have E. Saunders's
+  _Hemiptera-Heteroptera of the British Isles_ (London, 1892); J.
+  Edwards's Hemiptera-Homoptera of the British Isles (London, 1896); J.
+  B. Buckton's _British Aphidae_ (London, Ray Society, 1875-1882); and
+  R. Newstead's _British Coccidae_ (London, Ray Society, 1901-1903).
+  Aquatic Hemiptera are described by L. C. Miall (_Nat. History Aquatic
+  Insects_; London, 1895), and by G. W. Kirkaldy in numerous recent
+  papers (_Entomologist_, &c.). For marine Hemiptera (_Halobates_) see
+  F. B. White (_Challenger Reports_, vii., 1883); J. J. Walker (_Ent.
+  Mo. Mag._, 1893); N. Nassonov (Warsaw, 1893), and G. H. Carpenter
+  (_Knowledge_, 1901, and _Report, Pearl Oyster Fisheries, Royal
+  Society_, 1906). Sound-producing organs of Heteroptera are described
+  by A. Handlirsch (_Ann. Hofmus. Wien_, xv. 1900), and G. W. Kirkaldy
+  (_Journ. Quekett Club_ (2) viii. 1901); of Cicads by G. Carlet (_Ann.
+  Sci. Nat. Zool._ (6) v. 1877). For the Anoplura see E. Piaget's
+  _Pediculines_ (Leiden, 1880-1905), and G. Enderlein (_Zool. Anz._
+  xxviii., 1904).     (G. H. C.)
+
+
+
+
+HEMLOCK (in O. Eng. _hemlic_ or _hymlice_; no cognate is found in any
+other language, and the origin is unknown), the _Conium maculatum_ of
+botanists, a biennial umbelliferous plant, found wild in many parts of
+Great Britain and Ireland, where it occurs in waste places on
+hedge-banks, and by the borders of fields, and also widely spread over
+Europe and temperate Asia, and naturalized in the cultivated districts
+of North and South America. It is an erect branching plant, growing from
+3 to 6 ft. high, and emitting a disagreeable smell, like that of mice.
+The stems are hollow, smooth, somewhat glaucous green, spotted with dull
+dark purple, as alluded to in the specific name, _maculatum_. The
+root-leaves have long furrowed footstalks, sheathing the stem at the
+base, and are large, triangular in outline, and repeatedly divided or
+compound, the ultimate and very numerous segments being small, ovate,
+and deeply incised at the edge. These leaves generally perish after the
+growth of the flowering stem, which takes place in the second year,
+while the leaves produced on the stem became gradually smaller upwards.
+The branches are all terminated by compound many-rayed umbels of small
+white flowers, the general involucres consisting of several, the partial
+ones of about three short lanceolate bracts, the latter being usually
+turned towards the outside of the umbel. The flowers are succeeded by
+broadly ovate fruits, the mericarps (half-fruits) having five ribs
+which, when mature, are waved or crenated; and when cut across the
+albumen is seen to be deeply furrowed on the inner face, so as to
+exhibit in section a reniform outline. The fruits when triturated with a
+solution of caustic potash evolve a most unpleasant odour.
+
+Hemlock is a virulent poison, but it varies much in potency according to
+the conditions under which it has grown, and the season or stage of
+growth at which it is gathered. In the first year the leaves have little
+power, nor in the second are their properties developed until the
+flowering period, at which time, or later on when the fruits are fully
+grown, the plant should be gathered. The wild plant growing in exposed
+situations is to be preferred to garden-grown samples, and is more
+potent in dry warm summers than in those which are dull and moist.
+
+The poisonous property of hemlock resides chiefly in the alkaloid
+_conine_ or _conia_ which is found in both the fruits and the leaves,
+though in exceedingly small proportions in the latter. Conine resembles
+nicotine in its deleterious action, but is much less powerful. No
+chemical antidote for it is known. The plant also yields a second less
+poisonous crystallizable base called _conhydrine_, which may be
+converted into conine by the abstraction of the elements of water. When
+collected for medicinal purposes, for which both leaves and fruits are
+used, the former should be gathered at the time the plant is in full
+blossom, while the latter are said to possess the greatest degree of
+energy just before they ripen. The fruits are the chief source whence
+conine is prepared. The principal forms in which hemlock is employed are
+the extract and juice of hemlock, hemlock poultice, and the tincture of
+hemlock fruits. Large doses produce vertigo, nausea and paralysis; but
+in smaller quantities, administered by skilful hands, it has a sedative
+action on the nerves. It has also some reputation as an alterative and
+resolvent, and as an anodyne.
+
+The acrid narcotic properties of the plant render it of some importance
+that one should be able to identify it, the more so as some of the
+compound-leaved umbellifers, which have a general similarity of
+appearance to it, form wholesome food for man and animals. Not only is
+this knowledge desirable to prevent the poisonous plant being
+detrimentally used in place of the wholesome one; it is equally
+important in the opposite case, namely, to prevent the inert being
+substituted for the remedial agent. The plant with which hemlock is most
+likely to be confounded is _Anthriscus sylvestris_, or cow-parsley, the
+leaves of which are freely eaten by cattle and rabbits; this plant, like
+the hemlock, has spotted stems but they are hairy, not hairless; it has
+much-divided leaves of the same general form, but they are downy and
+aromatic, not smooth and nauseous when bruised; and the fruit of
+_Anthriscus_ is linear-oblong and not ovate.
+
+
+
+
+HEMP (in O. Eng. _henep_, cf. Dutch _hennep_, Ger. _Hanf_, cognate with
+Gr. [Greek: kannabis], Lat. _cannabis_), an annual herb (_Cannabis
+sativa_) having angular rough stems and alternate deeply lobed leaves.
+The bast fibres of _Cannabis_ are the hemp of commerce, but,
+unfortunately, the products from many totally different plants are often
+included under the general name of hemp. In some cases the fibre is
+obtained from the stem, while in others it comes from the leaf. Sunn
+hemp, Manila hemp, Sisal hemp, and Phormium (New Zealand flax, which is
+neither flax nor hemp) are treated separately. All these, however, are
+often classed under the above general name, and so are the
+following:--Deccan or Ambari hemp, _Hibiscus cannabinus_, an Indian and
+East Indian malvaceous plant, the fibre from which is often known as
+brown hemp or Bombay hemp; Pite hemp, which is obtained from the
+American aloe, _Agave americana_; and Moorva or bowstring-hemp,
+_Sansevieria zeylanica_, which is obtained from an aloe-like plant, and
+is a native of India and Ceylon. Then there are Canada hemp, _Apocynum
+cannabinum_, Kentucky hemp, _Urtica cannabina_, and others.
+
+The hemp plant, like the hop, which is of the same natural order,
+Cannabinaceae, is dioecious, i.e. the male and female flowers are borne
+on separate plants. The female plant grows to a greater height than the
+male, and its foliage is darker and more luxuriant, but the plant takes
+from five to six weeks longer to ripen. When the male plants are ripe
+they are pulled, put up into bundles, and steeped in a similar manner to
+flax, but the female plants are allowed to remain until the seed is
+perfectly ripe. They are then pulled, and after the seed has been
+removed are retted in the ordinary way. The seed is also a valuable
+product; the finest is kept for sowing, a large quantity is sold for the
+food of cage birds, while the remainder is sent to the oil mills to be
+crushed. The extracted oil is used in the manufacture of soap, while the
+solid remains, known as oil-cake, are valuable as a food for cattle. The
+leaves of hemp have five to seven leaflets, the form of which is
+lanceolate-acuminate, with a serrate margin. The loose panicles of male
+flowers, and the short spikes of female flowers, arise from the axils of
+the upper leaves. The height of the plant varies greatly with season,
+soil and manuring; in some districts it varies from 3 to 8 ft., but in
+the Piedmont province it is not unusual to see them from 8 to 16 ft. in
+height, whilst a variety (_Cannabis sativa_, variety gigantea) has
+produced specimens over 17 ft. in height.
+
+All cultivated hemp belongs to the same species, _Cannabis sativa_; the
+special varieties such as _Cannabis indica_, _Cannabis chinensis_, &c.,
+owe their differences to climate and soil, and they lose many of their
+peculiarities when cultivated in temperate regions. Rumphius (in the
+17th century) had noticed these differences between Indian and European
+hemp.
+
+Wild hemp still grows on the banks of the lower Ural, and the Volga,
+near the Caspian Sea. It extends to Persia, the Altai range and northern
+and western China. The authors of the _Pharmacographia_ say:--"It is
+found in Kashmir and in the Himalaya, growing 10 to 12 ft. high, and
+thriving vigorously at an elevation of 6000 to 10,000 ft." Wild hemp is,
+however, of very little use as a fibre producer, although a drug is
+obtained from it.
+
+It would appear that the native country of the hemp plant is in some
+part of temperate Asia, probably near the Caspian Sea. It spread
+westward throughout Europe, and southward through the Indian peninsula.
+
+The names given to the plant and to its products in different countries
+are of interest in connexion with the utilization of the fibre and
+resin. In Sans. it is called _goni_, _sana_, _shanapu_, _banga_ and
+_ganjika_; in Bengali, _ganga_; Pers. _bang_ and _canna_; Arab. _kinnub_
+or _cannub_; Gr. _kannabis_; Lat. _cannabis_; Ital. _canappa_; Fr.
+_chanvre_; Span. _canamo_; Portuguese, _canamo_; Russ. _konopel_;
+Lettish and Lithuanian, _kannapes_; Slav. _konopi_; Erse, _canaib_ and
+_canab_; A. Sax. _hoenep_; Dutch, _hennep_; Ger. _Hanf_; Eng. _hemp_;
+Danish and Norwegian, _hamp_; Icelandic, _hampr_; and in Swed. _hampa_.
+The English word _canvas_ sufficiently reveals its derivation from
+_cannabis_.
+
+Very little hemp is now grown in the British Isles, although this
+variety was considered to be of very good quality, and to possess great
+strength. The chief continental hemp-producing countries are Italy,
+Russia and France; it is also grown in several parts of Canada and the
+United States and India. The Central Provinces, Bengal and Bombay are
+the chief centres of hemp cultivation in India, where the plant is of
+most use for narcotics. The satisfactory growth of hemp demands a light,
+rich and fertile soil, but, unlike most substances, it may be reared for
+a few years in succession. The time of sowing, the quantity of seed per
+acre (about three bushels) and the method of gathering and retting are
+very similar to those of flax; but, as a rule, it is a hardier plant
+than flax, does not possess the same pliability, is much coarser and
+more brittle, and does not require the same amount of attention during
+the first few weeks of its growth.
+
+The very finest hemp, that grown in the province of Piedmont, Italy,
+is, however, very similar to flax, and in many cases the two fibres are
+mixed in the same material. The hemp fibre has always been valuable for
+the rope industry, and it was at one time very extensively used in the
+production of yarns for the manufacture of sail cloth, sheeting, covers,
+bagging, sacking, &c. Much of the finer quality is still made into
+cloth, but almost all the coarser quality finds its way into ropes and
+similar material.
+
+A large quantity of hemp cloth is still made for the British navy. The
+cloth, when finished, is cut up into lengths, made into bags and tarred.
+They are then used as coal sacks. There is also a quantity made into
+sacks which are intended to hold very heavy material. Hemp yarns are
+also used in certain classes of carpets, for special bags for use in cop
+dyeing and for similar special purposes, but for the ordinary bagging
+and sacking the employment of hemp yarns has been almost entirely
+supplanted by yarns made from the jute fibre.
+
+Hemp is grown for three products--(1) the fibre of its stem; (2) the
+resinous secretion which is developed in hot countries upon its leaves
+and flowering heads; (3) its oily seeds.
+
+Hemp has been employed for its fibre from ancient times. Herodotus (iv.
+74) mentions the wild and cultivated hemp of Scythia, and describes the
+hempen garments made by the Thracians as equal to linen in fineness.
+Hesychius says the Thracian women made sheets of hemp. Moschion (about
+200 B.C.) records the use of hempen ropes for rigging the ship
+"Syracusia" built for Hiero II. The hemp plant has been cultivated in
+northern India from a considerable antiquity, not only as a drug but for
+its fibre. The Anglo-Saxons were well acquainted with the mode of
+preparing hemp. Hempen cloth became common in central and southern
+Europe in the 13th century.
+
+_Hemp-resin._--Hemp as a drug or intoxicant for smoking and chewing
+occurs in the three forms of bhang, ganja and charas.
+
+1. _Bhang_, the Hindustani _siddhi_ or _sabzi_, consists of the dried
+leaves and small stalks of the hemp; a few fruits occur in it. It is of
+a dark brownish-green colour, and has a faint peculiar odour and but a
+slight taste. It is smoked with or without tobacco; or it is made into a
+sweetmeat with honey, sugar and aromatic spices; or it is powdered and
+infused in cold water, yielding a turbid drink, _subdschi_. _Hashish_ is
+one of the Arabic names given to the Syrian and Turkish preparations of
+the resinous hemp leaves. One of the commonest of these preparations is
+made by heating the bhang with water and butter, the butter becoming
+thus charged with the resinous and active substances of the plant.
+
+2. _Ganja_, the guaza of the London brokers, consists of the flowering
+and fruiting heads of the female plant. It is brownish-green, and
+otherwise resembles bhang, as in odour and taste. Some of the more
+esteemed kinds of hashish are prepared from this ganja. Ganja is met
+with in the Indian bazaars in dense bundles of 24 plants or heads
+apiece. The hashish in such extensive use in Central Asia is often seen
+in the bazaars of large cities in the form of cakes, 1 to 3 in. thick, 5
+to 10 in. broad and 10 to 15 in. long.
+
+3. _Charas_, or churrus, is the resin itself collected, as it exudes
+naturally from the plant, in different ways. The best sort is gathered
+by the hand like opium; sometimes the resinous exudation of the plant is
+made to stick first of all to cloths, or to the leather garments of men,
+or even to their skin, and is then removed by scraping, and afterwards
+consolidated by kneading, pressing and rolling. It contains about
+one-third or one-fourth its weight of the resin. But the churrus
+prepared by different methods and in different countries differs greatly
+in appearance and purity. Sometimes it takes the form of egg-like masses
+of greyish-brown colour, having when of high quality a shining resinous
+fracture. Often it occurs in the form of irregular friable lumps, like
+pieces of impure linseed oil-cake.
+
+The medicinal and intoxicating properties of hemp have probably been
+known in Oriental countries from a very early period. An ancient Chinese
+herbal, part of which was written about the 5th century B.C., while the
+remainder is of still earlier date, notices the seed and flower-bearing
+kinds of hemp. Other early writers refer to hemp as a remedy. The
+medicinal and dietetic use of hemp spread through India, Persia and
+Arabia in the early middle ages. The use of hemp (bhang) in India was
+noticed by Garcia d'Orta in 1563. Berlu in his _Treasury of Drugs_
+(1690) describes it as of "an infatuating quality and pernicious use."
+Attention was recalled to this drug, in consequence of Napoleon's
+Egyptian expedition, by de Sacy (1809) and Rouger (1810). Its modern
+medicinal use is chiefly due to trials by Dr O'Shaughnessy in Calcutta
+(1838-1842). The plant is grown partly and often mainly for the sake of
+its resin in Persia, northern India and Arabia, in many parts of Africa
+and in Brazil.
+
+_Pharmacology and Therapeutics._--The composition of this drug is still
+extremely obscure; partly, perhaps, because it varies so much in
+individual specimens. It appears to contain at least two
+alkaloids--cannabinine and tetano-cannabine--of which the former is
+volatile. The chief active principle may possibly be neither of these,
+but the substance cannabinon. There are also resins, a volatile oil and
+several other constituents. Cannabis indica--as the drug is termed in
+the pharmacopoeias--may be given as an extract (dose (1/4)-1 gr.) or
+tincture (dose 5-15 minims).
+
+The drug has no external action. The effects of its absorption, whether
+it be swallowed or smoked, vary within wide limits in different
+individuals and races. So great is this variation as to be inexplicable
+except on the view that the nature and proportions of the active
+principles vary greatly in different specimens. But typically the drug
+is an intoxicant, resembling alcohol in many features of its action, but
+differing in others. The early symptoms are highly pleasurable, and it
+is for these, as in the case of other stimulants, that the drug is so
+largely consumed in the East. There is a subjective sensation of mental
+brilliance, but, as in other cases, this is not borne out by the
+objective results. It has been suggested that the incoordination of
+nervous action under the influence of Indian hemp may be due to
+independent and non-concerted action on the part of the two halves of
+the cerebrum. Following on a decided lowering of the pain and touch
+senses, which may even lead to complete loss of cutaneous sensation,
+there comes a sleep which is often accompanied by pleasant dreams. There
+appears to be no evidence in the case of either the lower animals or the
+human subject that the drug is an aphrodisiac. Excessive indulgence in
+cannabis indica is very rare, but may lead to general ill-health and
+occasionally to insanity. The apparent impossibility of obtaining pure
+and trustworthy samples of the drug has led to its entire abandonment in
+therapeutics. When a good sample is obtained it is a safe and efficient
+hypnotic, at any rate in the case of a European. The tincture should not
+be prescribed unless precautions are taken to avoid the precipitation of
+the resin which follows its dilution with water.
+
+  See Watt, _Dictionary of the Economic Products of India_.
+
+
+
+
+HEMSTERHUIS, FRANCOIS (1721-1790), Dutch writer on aesthetics and moral
+philosophy, son of Tiberius Hemsterhuis, was born at Franeker in
+Holland, on the 27th of December 1721. He was educated at the university
+of Leiden, where he studied Plato. Failing to obtain a professorship, he
+entered the service of the state, and for many years acted as secretary
+to the state council of the United Provinces. He died at the Hague on
+the 7th of July 1790. Through his philosophical writings he became
+acquainted with many distinguished persons--Goethe, Herder, Princess
+Amalia of Gallitzin, and especially Jacobi, with whom he had much in
+common. Both were idealists, and their works suffer from a similar lack
+of arrangement, although distinguished by elegance of form and refined
+sentiment. His most valuable contributions are in the department of
+aesthetics or the general analysis of feeling. His philosophy has been
+characterized as Socratic in content and Platonic in form. Its
+foundation was the desire for self-knowledge and truth, untrammelled by
+the rigid bonds of any particular system.
+
+  His most important works, all of which were written in French, are:
+  _Lettre sur la sculpture_ (1769), in which occurs the well-known
+  definition of the Beautiful as "that which gives us the greatest
+  number of ideas in the shortest space of time"; its continuation,
+  _Lettre sur les desirs_ (1770); _Lettre sur l'homme et ses rapports_
+  (1772), in which the "moral organ" and the theory of knowledge are
+  discussed; _Sopyle_ (1778), a dialogue on the relation between the
+  soul and the body, and also an attack on materialism; _Aristee_
+  (1779), the "theodicy" of Hemsterhuis, discussing the existence of God
+  and his relation to man; _Simon_ (1787), on the four faculties of the
+  soul, which are the will, the imagination, the moral principle (which
+  is both passive and active); _Alexis_ (1787), an attempt to prove that
+  there are three golden ages, the last being the life beyond the grave;
+  _Lettre sur l'atheisme_ (1787).
+
+  The best collected edition of his works is by P. S. Meijboom
+  (1846-1850); see also S. A. Gronemann, _F. Hemsterhuis, de
+  Nederlandische Wijsgeer_ (Utrecht, 1867); E. Grucker, _Francois
+  Hemsterhuis, sa vie et ses oeuvres_ (Paris, 1866); E. Meyer, _Der
+  Philosoph Franz Hemsterhuis_ (Breslau, 1893), with bibliographical
+  notice.
+
+
+
+
+HEMSTERHUIS, TIBERIUS (1685-1766), Dutch philologist and critic, was
+born on the 9th of January 1685 at Groningen in Holland. His father, a
+learned physician, gave him so good an early education that, when he
+entered the university of his native town in his fifteenth year, he
+speedily proved himself to be the best student of mathematics. After a
+year or two at Groningen, he was attracted to the university of Leiden
+by the fame of Perizonius; and while there he was entrusted with the
+duty of arranging the manuscripts in the library. Though he accepted an
+appointment as professor of mathematics and philosophy at Amsterdam in
+his twentieth year, he had already directed his attention to the study
+of the ancient languages. In 1706 he completed the edition of Pollux's
+_Onomasticon_ begun by Lederlin; but the praise he received from his
+countrymen was more than counterbalanced by two letters of criticism
+from Bentley, which mortified him so keenly that for two months he
+refused to open a Greek book. In 1717 Hemsterhuis was appointed
+professor of Greek at Franeker, but he did not enter on his duties there
+till 1720. In 1738 he became professor of national history also. Two
+years afterwards he was called to teach the same subjects at Leiden,
+where he died on the 7th of April 1766. Hemsterhuis was the founder of a
+laborious and useful Dutch school of criticism, which had famous
+disciples in Valckenaer, Lennep and Ruhnken.
+
+  His chief writings are the following: _Luciani colloquia et Timon_
+  (1708); _Aristophanis Plutus_ (1744); _Notae, &c., ad Xenophontem
+  Ephesium in the Miscellanea critica_ of Amsterdam, vols. iii. and iv.;
+  _Observationes ad Chrysostomi homilias; Orationes_ (1784); a Latin
+  translation of the _Birds_ of Aristophanes, in Kuster's edition; notes
+  to Bernard's _Thomas Magister_, to Alberti's _Hesychius_, to Ernesti's
+  _Callimachus_ and to Burmann's _Propertius_. See _Elogium T.
+  Hemsterhusii_ (with Bentley's letters) by Ruhnken (1789), and
+  _Supplementa annotationis ad elogium T. Hemsterhusii, &c._ (Leiden,
+  1874); also J. E. Sandys' _Hist. Class. Scholarship_, ii. (1908).
+
+
+
+
+HEMY, CHARLES NAPIER (1841-   ), British painter, born at
+Newcastle-on-Tyne, was trained in the Newcastle school of art, in the
+Antwerp academy and in the studio of Baron Leys. He has produced some
+figure subjects and landscapes, but is best known by his admirable
+marine paintings. He was elected an associate of the Royal Academy in
+1898, associate of the Royal Society of Painters in Water Colours in
+1890 and member in 1897. Two of his paintings, "Pilchards" (1897) and
+"London River" (1904), are in the National Gallery of British Art.
+
+
+
+
+HEN, a female bird, especially the female of the common fowl (q.v.). The
+O. Eng. _haen_ is the feminine form of _hana_, the male bird, a
+correlation of words which is represented in other Teutonic languages,
+cf. Ger. _Hahn_, _Henne_, Dutch _haan_, _hen_, Swed. _hane_, _honne_,
+&c. The O. Eng. name for the male bird has disappeared, its place being
+taken by "cock," a word probably of onomatopoeic origin, being from a
+base _kuk_- or _kik_-, seen also in "chicken." This word also appears in
+Fr. _coq_, and medieval Lat. _coccus_.
+
+
+
+
+HENAULT, CHARLES JEAN FRANCOIS (1685-1770), French historian, was born
+in Paris on the 8th of February 1685. His father, a farmer-general of
+taxes, was a man of literary tastes, and young Henault obtained a good
+education at the Jesuit college. Captivated by the eloquence of
+Massillon, in his fifteenth year he entered the Oratory with the view of
+becoming a preacher, but after two years' residence he changed his
+intention, and, inheriting a position which secured him access to the
+most select society of Paris, he achieved distinction at an early period
+by his gay, witty and graceful manners. His literary talent, manifested
+in the composition of various light poetical pieces, an opera, a tragedy
+(_Cornelie vestale_, 1710), &c., obtained his entrance to the Academy
+(1723). _Petit-maitre_ as he was, he had also serious capacity, for he
+became councillor of the _parlement_ of Paris (1705), and in 1710 he was
+chosen president of the court of _enquetes_. After the death of the
+count de Rieux (son of the famous financier, Samuel Bernard) he became
+(1753) superintendent of the household of Queen Marie Leszczynska, whose
+intimate friendship he had previously enjoyed. On his recovery in his
+eightieth year from a dangerous malady (1765) he professed to have
+undergone religious conversion and retired into private life, devoting
+the remainder of his days to study and devotion. His religion was,
+however, according to the marquis d'Argenson, "exempt from fanaticism,
+persecution, bitterness and intrigue"; and it did not prevent him from
+continuing his friendship with Voltaire, to whom it is said he had
+formerly rendered the service of saving the manuscript of _La Henriade_,
+when its author was about to commit it to the flames. The literary work
+on which Henault bestowed his chief attention was the _Abrege
+chronologique de l'histoire de France_, first published in 1744 without
+the author's name. In the compass of two volumes he comprised the whole
+history of France from the earliest times to the death of Louis XIV. The
+work has no originality. Henault had kept his note-books of the history
+lectures at the Jesuit college, of which the substance was taken from
+Mezeray and P. Daniel. He revised them first in 1723, and later put them
+in the form of question and answer on the model of P. le Ragois, and by
+following Dubos and Boulainvilliers and with the aid of the abbe Boudot
+he compiled his _Abrege_. The research is all on the surface and is only
+borrowed. But the work had a prodigious success, and was translated into
+several languages, even into Chinese. This was due partly to Henault's
+popularity and position, partly to the agreeable style which made the
+history readable. He inserted, according to the fashion of the period,
+moral and political reflections, which are always brief and generally as
+fresh and pleasing as they are just. A few masterly strokes reproduced
+the leading features of each age and the characters of its illustrious
+men; accurate chronological tables set forth the most interesting events
+in the history of each sovereign and the names of the great men who
+flourished during his reign; and interspersed throughout the work are
+occasional chapters on the social and civil state of the country at the
+close of each era in its history. Continuations of the work have been
+made at separate periods by Fantin des Odoards, by Anguis with notes by
+Walckenaer, and by Michaud. He died at Paris on the 24th of November
+1770.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Henault's _Memoires_ have come down to us in two
+  different versions, both claiming to be authentic. One was published
+  in 1855 by M. du Vigan; the other was owned by the Comte de Coutades,
+  who permitted Lucien Perey to give long extracts in his work on
+  President Henault (Paris, 1893). The memoirs are fragmentary and
+  disconnected, but contain interesting anecdotes and details concerning
+  persons of note. See the _Correspondance_ of Grimm, of Madame du
+  Deffand and of Voltaire; the notice by Walckenaer in the edition of
+  the _Abrege_; Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du lundi_, vol. xi.; and the
+  _Origines de l'abrege_ (_Ann. Bulletin de la Societe de l'histoire de
+  France_, 1901). Also H. Lion, _Le President Henault_ (Paris, 1903).
+
+
+
+
+HENBANE (Fr. _jusquiaume_, from the Gr. [Greek: hyoskuamos], or
+hog's-bean; Ital. _giusquiamo_; Ger. _Schwarzes Bilsenkraut_,
+_Huhnertod_, _Saubohne_ and _Zigeuner-Korn_ or "gipsies' corn"), the
+common name of the plant _Hyoscyamus niger_, a member of the natural
+order Solanaceae, indigenous to Britain, found wild in waste places, on
+rubbish about villages and old castles, and cultivated for medicinal use
+in various counties in the south and east of England. It occurs also in
+central and southern Europe and in western Asia extending to India and
+Siberia, and has long been naturalized in the United States. There are
+two forms of the plant, an annual and a biennial, which spring
+indifferently from the same crop of seed--the one growing on during
+summer to a height of from 1 to 2 ft., and flowering and perfecting
+seed; the other producing the first season only a tuft of radical
+leaves, which disappear in winter, leaving underground a thick fleshy
+root, from the crown of which arises in spring a branched flowering
+stem, usually much taller and more vigorous than the flowering stems of
+the annual plants. The biennial form is that which is considered
+officinal. The radical leaves of this biennial plant spread out flat on
+all sides from the crown of the root; they are ovate-oblong, acute,
+stalked, and more or less incisely-toothed, of a greyish-green colour,
+and covered with viscid hairs; these leaves perish at the approach of
+winter. The flowering stem pushes up from the root-crown in spring,
+ultimately reaching from 3 to 4 ft. in height, and as it grows becoming
+branched, and furnished with alternate sessile leaves, which are
+stem-clasping, oblong, unequally-lobed, clothed with glandular clammy
+hairs, and of a dull grey-green, the whole plant having a powerful
+nauseous odour. The flowers are shortly-stalked, the lower ones growing
+in the fork of the branches, the upper ones sessile in one-sided leafy
+spikes which are rolled back at the top before flowering, the leaves
+becoming smaller upwards and taking the place of bracts. The flowers
+have an urn-shaped calyx which persists around the fruit and is strongly
+veined, with five stiff, broad, almost prickly lobes; these, when the
+soft matter is removed by maceration, form very elegant specimens when
+associated with leaves prepared in a similar way. The corollas are
+obliquely funnel-shaped, of a dirty yellow or buff, marked with a close
+reticulation of purple veins. The capsule opens transversely by a convex
+lid and contains numerous seeds. Both the leaves and the seeds are
+employed in pharmacy. The Mahommedan doctors of India are accustomed to
+prescribe the seeds. Henbane yields a poisonous alkaloid, _hyoscyamine_,
+which is stated to have properties almost identical with those of
+atropine, from which it differs in being more soluble in water. It is
+usually obtained in an amorphous, scarcely ever in a crystalline state.
+Its properties have been investigated in Germany by T. Husemann,
+Schroff, Hohn, &c. Hohn finds its chemical composition expressed by
+C18H28N2O3. (Compare Hellmann, _Beitrage zur Kenntnis der physiolog.
+Wirkung des Hyoscyamins_, &c., Jena, 1874.) In small and repeated doses
+henbane has been found to have a tranquillizing effect upon persons
+affected by severe nervous irritability. In poisonous doses it causes
+loss of speech, distortion and paralysis. In the form of extract or
+tincture it is a valuable remedy in the hands of a medical man, either
+as an anodyne, a hypnotic or a sedative. The extract of henbane is rich
+in nitrate of potassium and other inorganic salts. The smoking of the
+seeds and capsules of henbane is noted in books as a somewhat dangerous
+remedy adopted by country people for toothache. Accidental poisoning
+from henbane occasionally occurs, owing sometimes to the apparent
+edibility and wholesomeness of the root.
+
+  See Bentley and Trumen, _Medicinal Plants_, 194 (1880).
+
+
+
+
+HENCHMAN, originally, probably, one who attended on a horse, a groom,
+and hence, like groom (q.v.), a title of a subordinate official in royal
+or noble households. The first part of the word is the O. Eng.
+_hengest_, a horse, a word which occurs in many Teutonic languages, cf.
+Ger. and Dutch _hengst_. The word appears in the name, Hengest, of the
+Saxon chieftain (see HENGEST AND HORSA) and still survives in English in
+place and other names beginning with Hingst- or Hinx-. Henchmen, pages
+of honour or squires, rode or walked at the side of their master in
+processions and the like, and appear in the English royal household from
+the 14th century till Elizabeth abolished the royal henchmen, known also
+as the "children of honour." The word was obsolete in English from the
+middle of the 17th century, and seems to have been revived through Sir
+Walter Scott, who took the word and its derivation, according to the
+_New English Dictionary_, from Edward Burt's _Letters from a Gentleman
+in the North of Scotland_, together with its erroneous derivation from
+"haunch." The word is, in this sense, used as synonymous with "gillie,"
+the faithful personal follower of a Highland chieftain, the man who
+stands at his master's "haunch," ready for any emergency. It is this
+sense that usually survives in modern usage of the word, where it is
+often used of an out-and-out adherent or partisan, ready to do anything.
+
+
+
+
+
+HENDERSON, ALEXANDER (1583-1646), Scottish ecclesiastic, was born in
+1583 at Criech, Fifeshire. He graduated at the university of St Andrews
+in 1603, and in 1610 was appointed professor of rhetoric and philosophy
+and questor of the faculty of arts. Shortly after this he was presented
+to the living of Leuchars. As Henderson was forced upon his parish by
+Archbishop George Gladstanes, and was known to sympathize with
+episcopacy, his settlement was at first extremely unpopular; but he
+subsequently changed his views and became a Presbyterian in doctrine and
+church government, and one of the most esteemed ministers in Scotland.
+He early made his mark as a church leader, and took an active part in
+petitioning against the "five acts" and later against the introduction
+of a service-book and canons drawn up on the model of the English
+prayer-book. On the 1st of March 1638 the public signing of the
+"National Covenant" began in Greyfriars Church, Edinburgh. Henderson was
+mainly responsible for the final form of this document, which consisted
+of (1) the "king's confession" drawn up in 1581 by John Craig, (2) a
+recital of the acts of parliament against "superstitious and papistical
+rites," and (3) an elaborate oath to maintain the true reformed
+religion. Owing to the skill shown on this occasion he seems to have
+been applied to when any manifesto of unusual ability was required. In
+July of the same year he proceeded to the north to debate on the
+"Covenant" with the famous Aberdeen doctors; but he was not well
+received by them. "The voyd church was made fast, and the keys keeped by
+the magistrate," says Baillie. Henderson's next public opportunity was
+in the famous Assembly which met in Glasgow on the 21st of November
+1638. He was chosen moderator by acclamation, being, as Baillie says,
+"incomparablie the ablest man of us all for all things." James Hamilton,
+3rd marquess of Hamilton, was the king's commissioner; and when the
+Assembly insisted on proceeding with the trial of the bishops, he
+formally dissolved the meeting under pain of treason. Acting on the
+constitutional principle that the king's right to convene did not
+interfere with the church's independent right to hold assemblies, they
+sat till the 20th of December, deposed all the Scottish bishops,
+excommunicated a number of them, repealed all acts favouring episcopacy,
+and reconstituted the Scottish Kirk on thorough Presbyterian principles.
+During the sitting of this Assembly it was carried by a majority of
+seventy-five votes that Henderson should be transferred to Edinburgh. He
+had been at Leuchars for about twenty-three years, and was extremely
+reluctant to leave it.
+
+While Scotland and England were preparing for the "First Bishops' War,"
+Henderson drew up two papers, entitled respectively _The Remonstrance of
+the Nobility_ and _Instructions for Defensive Arms_. The first of these
+documents he published himself; the second was published against his
+wish by John Corbet (1603-1641), a deposed minister. The "First Bishops'
+War" did not last long. At the Pacification of Birks the king virtually
+granted all the demands of the Scots. In the negotiations for peace
+Henderson was one of the Scottish commissioners, and made a very
+favourable impression on the king. In 1640 Henderson was elected by the
+town council rector of Edinburgh University--an office to which he was
+annually re-elected till his death. The Pacification of Birks had been
+wrung from the king; and the Scots, seeing that he was preparing for the
+"Second Bishops' War," took the initiative, and pressed into England so
+vigorously that Charles had again to yield everything. The maturing of
+the treaty of peace took a considerable time, and Henderson was again
+active in the negotiations, first at Ripon (October 1st) and afterwards
+in London. While he was in London he had a personal interview with the
+king, with the view of obtaining assistance for the Scottish
+universities from the money formerly applied to the support of the
+bishops. On Henderson's return to Edinburgh in July 1641 the Assembly
+was sitting at St Andrews. To suit the convenience of the parliament,
+however, it removed to Edinburgh; Henderson was elected moderator of the
+Edinburgh meeting. In this Assembly he proposed that "a confession of
+faith, a catechism, a directory for all the parts of the public worship,
+and a platform of government, wherein possibly England and we might
+agree," should be drawn up. This was unanimously approved of, and the
+laborious undertaking was left in Henderson's hands; but the "notable
+motion" did not lead to any immediate results. During Charles's second
+state-visit to Scotland, in the autumn of 1641, Henderson acted as his
+chaplain, and managed to get the funds, formerly belonging to the
+bishopric of Edinburgh, applied to the metropolitan university. In 1642
+Henderson, whose policy was to keep Scotland neutral in the war which
+had now broken out between the king and the parliament, was engaged in
+corresponding with England on ecclesiastical topics; and, shortly
+afterwards, he was sent to Oxford to mediate between the king and his
+parliament; but his mission proved a failure.
+
+A memorable meeting of the General Assembly was held in August 1643.
+Henderson was elected moderator for the third time. He presented a draft
+of the famous "Solemn League and Covenant," which was received with
+great enthusiasm. Unlike the "National Covenant" of 1638, which applied
+to Scotland only, this document was common to the two kingdoms.
+Henderson, Baillie, Rutherford and others were sent up to London to
+represent Scotland in the Assembly at Westminster. The "Solemn League
+and Covenant," which pledged both countries to the extirpation of
+prelacy, leaving further decision as to church government to be decided
+by the "example of the best reformed churches," after undergoing some
+slight alterations, passed the two Houses of Parliament and the
+Westminster Assembly, and thus became law for the two kingdoms. By means
+of it Henderson has had considerable influence on the history of Great
+Britain. As Scottish commissioner to the Westminster Assembly, he was in
+England from August 1643 till August 1646; his principal work was the
+drafting of the directory for public worship. Early in 1645 Henderson
+was sent to Uxbridge to aid the commissioners of the two parliaments in
+negotiating with the king; but nothing came of the conference. In 1646
+the king joined the Scottish army; and, after retiring with them to
+Newcastle, he sent for Henderson, and discussed with him the two systems
+of church government in a number of papers. Meanwhile Henderson was
+failing in health. He sailed to Scotland, and eight days after his
+arrival died, on the 19th of August 1646. He was buried in Greyfriars
+churchyard, Edinburgh; and his death was the occasion of national
+mourning in Scotland. On the 7th of August Baillie had written that he
+had heard that Henderson was dying "most of heartbreak." A document was
+published in London purporting to be a "Declaration of Mr Alexander
+Henderson made upon his Death-bed"; and, although this paper was
+disowned, denounced and shown to be false in the General Assembly of
+August 1648, the document was used by Clarendon as giving the impression
+that Henderson had recanted. Its foundation was probably certain
+expressions lamenting Scottish interference in English affairs.
+
+Henderson is one of the greatest men in the history of Scotland and,
+next to Knox, is certainly the most famous of Scottish ecclesiastics. He
+had great political genius; and his statesmanship was so influential
+that "he was," as Masson well observes, "a cabinet minister without
+office." He has made a deep mark on the history, not only of Scotland,
+but of England; and the existing Presbyterian churches in Scotland are
+largely indebted to him for the forms of their dogmas and their
+ecclesiastical organization. He is thus justly considered the second
+founder of the Reformed Church in Scotland.
+
+  See M'Crie's _Life of Alexander Henderson_ (1846); Aiton's _Life and
+  Times of Alexander Henderson_ (1836); _The Letters and Journals of
+  Robert Baillie_ (1841-1842) (an exceedingly valuable work, from an
+  historical point of view); J. H. Burton's _History of Scotland_; D.
+  Masson's _Life of Drummond of Hawthornden_; and, above all, Masson's
+  _Life of Milton_; Andrew Lang, _Hist. of Scotland_ (1907), vol. iii.
+  Henderson's own works are chiefly contributions to current
+  controversies, speeches and sermons.     (T. Gi.; D. Mn.)
+
+
+
+
+HENDERSON, EBENEZER (1784-1858), a Scottish divine, was born at the Linn
+near Dunfermline on the 17th of November 1784, and died at Mortlake on
+the 17th of May 1858. He was the youngest son of an agricultural
+labourer, and after three years' schooling spent some time at
+watchmaking and as a shoemaker's apprentice. In 1803 he joined Robert
+Haldane's theological seminary, and in 1805 was selected to accompany
+the Rev. John Paterson to India; but as the East India Company would not
+allow British vessels to convey missionaries to India, Henderson and his
+colleague went to Denmark to await the chance of a passage to Serampur,
+then a Danish port. Being unexpectedly delayed, and having begun to
+preach in Copenhagen, they ultimately decided to settle in Denmark, and
+in 1806 Henderson became pastor at Elsinore. From this time till about
+1817 he was engaged in encouraging the distribution of Bibles in the
+Scandinavian countries, and in the course of his labours he visited
+Sweden and Lapland (1807-1808), Iceland (1814-1815) and the mainland of
+Denmark and part of Germany (1816). During most of this time he was an
+agent of the British and Foreign Bible Society. On the 6th of October
+1811 he formed the first Congregational church in Sweden. In 1818, after
+a visit to England, he travelled in company with Paterson through Russia
+as far south as Tiflis, but, instead of settling as was proposed at
+Astrakhan, he retraced his steps, having resigned his connexion with the
+Bible Society owing to his disapproval of a translation of the
+Scriptures which had been made in Turkish. In 1822 he was invited by
+Prince Alexander (Galitzin) to assist the Russian Bible Society in
+translating the Scriptures into various languages spoken in the Russian
+empire. After twenty years of foreign labour Henderson returned to
+England, and in 1825 was appointed tutor of the Mission College,
+Gosport. In 1830 he succeeded Dr William Harrison as theological
+lecturer and professor of Oriental languages in Highbury Congregational
+College. In 1850, on the amalgamation of the colleges of Homerton,
+Coward and Highbury, he retired on a pension. In 1852-1853 he was pastor
+of Sheen Vale chapel at Mortlake. His last work was a translation of the
+book of Ezekiel. Henderson was a man of great linguistic attainment. He
+made himself more or less acquainted, not only with the ordinary
+languages of scholarly accomplishment and the various members of the
+Scandinavian group, but also with Hebrew, Syriac, Ethiopic, Russian,
+Arabic, Tatar, Persian, Turkish, Armenian, Manchu, Mongolian and Coptic.
+He organized the first Bible Society in Denmark (1814), and paved the
+way for several others. In 1817 he was nominated by the Scandinavian
+Literary Society a corresponding member; and in 1840 he was made D.D. by
+the university of Copenhagen. He was honorary secretary for life of the
+Religious Tract Society, and one of the first promoters of the British
+Society for the Propagation of the Gospel among the Jews. The records of
+his travels in Iceland (1818) were valuable contributions to our
+knowledge of that island. His other principal works are: _Iceland, or
+the Journal of a Residence in that Island_ (2 vols., 1818); _Biblical
+Researches and Travels in Russia_ (1826); _Elements of Biblical
+Criticism and Interpretation_ (1830); _The Vaudois, a Tour of the
+Valleys of Piedmont_ (1845).
+
+  See _Memoirs of Ebenezer Henderson_, by Thulia S. Henderson (his
+  daughter) (London, 1859); _Congregational Year Book_ (1859).
+
+
+
+
+HENDERSON, GEORGE FRANCIS ROBERT (1854-1903), British soldier and
+military writer, was born in Jersey in 1854. Educated at Leeds Grammar
+School, of which his father, afterwards Dean of Carlisle, was
+headmaster, he was early attracted to the study of history, and obtained
+a scholarship at St John's College, Oxford. But he soon left the
+University for Sandhurst, whence he obtained his first commission in
+1878. One year later, after a few months' service in India, he was
+promoted lieutenant and returned to England, and in 1882 he went on
+active service with his regiment, the York and Lancaster (65th/84th) to
+Egypt. He was present at Tell-el-Mahuta and Kassassin, and at
+Tell-el-Kebir was the first man of his regiment to enter the enemy's
+works. His conduct attracted the notice of Sir Garnet (afterwards Lord)
+Wolseley, and he received the 5th class of the Medjidieh order. His name
+was, further, noted for a brevet-majority, which he did not receive till
+he became captain in 1886. During these years he had been quietly
+studying military art and history at Gibraltar, in Bermuda and in Nova
+Scotia, in spite of the difficulties of research, and in 1889 appeared
+(anonymously) his first work, _The Campaign of Fredericksburg_. In the
+same year he became Instructor in Tactics, Military Law and
+Administration at Sandhurst. From this post he proceeded as Professor of
+Military Art and History to the Staff College (1892-1899), and there
+exercised a profound influence on the younger generation of officers.
+His study on _Spicheren_ had been begun some years before, and in 1898
+appeared, as the result of eight years' work, his masterpiece,
+_Stonewall Jackson and the American Civil War_. In the South African War
+Lieutenant-Colonel Henderson served with distinction on the staff of
+Lord Roberts as Director of Intelligence. But overwork and malaria broke
+his health, and he had to return home, being eventually selected to
+write the official history of the war. But failing health obliged him to
+go to Egypt, where he died at Assuan on the 5th of March 1903. He had
+completed the portion of the history of the South African War dealing
+with the events up to the commencement of hostilities, amounting to
+about a volume, but the War Office decided to suppress this, and the
+work was begun _de novo_ and carried out by Sir F. Maurice.
+
+  Various lectures and papers by Henderson were collected and published
+  in 1905 by Captain Malcolm, D.S.O., under the title _The Science of
+  War_; to this collection a memoir was contributed by Lord Roberts. See
+  also Journal of the Royal United Service Institution, vol. xlvii. No.
+  302.
+
+
+
+
+HENDERSON, JOHN (1747-1785), English actor, of Scottish descent, was
+born in London. He made his first appearance on the stage at Bath on the
+6th of October 1772 as Hamlet. His success in this and other
+Shakespearian parts led to his being called the "Bath Roscius." He had
+great difficulty in getting a London engagement, but finally appeared at
+the Haymarket in 1777 as Shylock, and his success was a source of
+considerable profit to Colman, the manager. Sheridan then engaged him to
+play at Drury Lane, where he remained for two years. When the companies
+joined forces he went to Covent Garden, appearing as Richard III. in
+1778, and creating original parts in many of the plays of Cumberland,
+Shirley, Jephson and others. His last appearance was in 1785 as Horatius
+in _The Roman Father_, and he died on the 25th of November of that year
+and was buried in Westminster Abbey. Garrick was very jealous of
+Henderson, and the latter's power of mimicry separated him also from
+Colman, but he was always gratefully remembered by Mrs. Siddons and
+others of his profession whom he had encouraged. He was a close friend
+of Gainsborough, who painted his portrait, as did also Stewart and
+Romney. He was co-author of Sheridan and Henderson's _Practical Method
+of Reading and Writing English Poetry_.
+
+
+
+
+HENDERSON, a city and the county-seat of Henderson county, Kentucky,
+U.S.A., on the S. bank of the Ohio river, about 142 m. W.S.W. of
+Louisville. Pop. (1890), 8835; (1900), 10,272, of whom 4029 were
+negroes; (1910 census) 11,452. It is served by the Illinois Central, the
+Louisville & Nashville, and the Louisville, Henderson & St. Louis
+railways, and has direct communication by steamboat with Louisville,
+Evansville, Cairo, Memphis and New Orleans. Henderson is built on the
+high bank of the river, above the flood level; the river is spanned here
+by a fine steel bridge, designed by George W. G. Ferris (1859-1896), the
+designer of the Ferris Wheel. The city has a public park of 80 acres and
+a Carnegie library. It is situated in the midst of a region whose soil
+is said to be the best in the world for the raising of dark,
+heavy-fibred tobacco, and is well adapted also for the growing of fruit,
+wheat and Indian corn. Bituminous coal is obtained from the surrounding
+country. Immense quantities of stemmed tobacco are shipped from here,
+and the city is an important market for Indian corn. The manufactures of
+the city include cotton and woollen goods, hominy, meal, flour, tobacco
+and cigars, carriages, baskets, chairs and other furniture, bricks, ice,
+whisky and beer; the value of the city's factory products in 1905 was
+$1,365,120. The municipality owns and operates its water works, gas
+plant and electric-lighting plant. Henderson, named in honour of Richard
+Henderson (1734-1785), was settled as early as 1784, was first known as
+Red Banks, was laid out as a town by Henderson's company in 1797, was
+incorporated as a town in 1810, and was first chartered as a city in
+1854. The city boundary lines were extended in 1905 by the annexation of
+Audubon and Edgewood. Henderson was for some time the home of John James
+Audubon, the ornithologist.
+
+
+
+
+HENDIADYS, the name adopted from the Gr. [Greek: hen dia duoin] ("one by
+means of two") for a rhetorical figure, in which two words connected by
+a copulative conjunction are used of a single idea; usually the figure
+takes the form of two substantives instead of a substantive and
+adjective, as in the classical example _pateris libamus et auro_
+(Virgil, _Georgics_, ii. 192), "we pour libations in cups and gold" for
+"cups of gold."
+
+
+
+
+HENDON, an urban district in the Harrow parliamentary division of
+Middlesex, England, on the river Brent, 8 m. N.W. of St Paul's
+Cathedral, London, served by the Midland railway. Pop. (1891), 15,843;
+(1901), 22,450. The nucleus of the township lies on high ground to the
+east of the Edgware road, which crosses the Welsh Harp reservoir of
+Regent's Canal, a favourite fishing and skating resort. The church of St
+Mary is mainly Perpendicular, and contains a Norman font and monuments
+of the 18th century. To the north of the village, which has extended
+greatly as a residential suburb of the metropolis, is Mill Hill, with a
+Roman Catholic Missionary College, opened in 1871, with branches at
+Rosendaal, Holland and Brixen, Austria, and a preparatory school at
+Freshfield near Liverpool; and a large grammar school founded by
+Nonconformists in 1807. The manor belonged at an early date to the abbot
+of Westminster.
+
+
+
+
+HENDRICKS, THOMAS ANDREWS (1819-1885), American political leader,
+vice-president of the United States in 1885, was born near Zanesville,
+Ohio, on the 7th of September 1819. He graduated at Hanover College,
+Hanover, Indiana, in 1841, and began in 1843 a successful career at the
+bar. Identifying himself with the Democratic party, he served in the
+state House of Representatives in 1848, and was a prominent member of
+the convention for the revision of the state constitution in 1850-1851,
+a representative in Congress (1851-1855), commissioner of the United
+States General Land Office (1855-1859), a United States senator
+(1863-1869), and governor of Indiana (1873-1877). From 1868 until his
+death he was put forward for nomination for the presidency at every
+national Democratic Convention save in 1872. Both in 1876 and 1884,
+after his failure to receive the nomination for the presidency, he was
+nominated by the Democratic National Convention for vice-president, his
+nomination in each of these conventions being made partly, it seems,
+with the hope of gaining "greenback" votes--Hendricks had opposed the
+immediate resumption of specie payments. In 1876, with S. J. Tilden, he
+lost the disputed election by the decision of the electoral commission,
+but he was elected with Grover Cleveland in 1884. He died at
+Indianapolis on the 25th of November 1885.
+
+
+
+
+HENGELO, or HENGELOO, a town in the province of Overyssel, Holland, and
+a junction station 5 m. by rail N.W. of Enschede. Pop. (1900), 14,968.
+The castle belonging to the ancient territorial lords of Hengelo has
+long since disappeared, and the only interest the town now possesses is
+as the centre of the flourishing industries of the Twente district. The
+manufacture of cotton in all its branches is very actively carried on,
+and there are dye-works and breweries, besides the engineering works of
+the state railway company.
+
+
+
+
+HENGEST and HORSA, the brother chieftains who led the first Saxon bands
+which settled in England. They were apparently called in by the British
+king Vortigern (q.v.) to defend him against the Picts. The place of
+their landing is said to have been Ebbsfleet in Kent. Its date is not
+certainly known, 450-455 being given by the English authorities, 428 by
+the Welsh (see KENT). The settlers of Kent are described by Bede as
+Jutes (q.v.), and there are traces in Kentish custom of differences from
+the other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. Hengest and Horsa were at first given
+the island of Thanet as a home, but soon quarrelled with their British
+allies, and gradually possessed themselves of what became the kingdom of
+Kent. In 455 the Saxon Chronicle records a battle between Hengest and
+Horsa and Vortigern at a place called Aegaels threp, in which Horsa was
+slain. Thenceforward Hengest reigned in Kent, together with his son Aesc
+(Oisc). Both the _Saxon Chronicle_ and the _Historia Brittonum_ record
+three subsequent battles, though the two authorities disagree as to
+their issue. There is no doubt, however, that the net result was the
+expulsion of the Britons from Kent. According to the _Chronicle_, which
+probably derived its information from a lost list of Kentish kings,
+Hengest died in 488, while his son Aesc continued to reign until 512.
+
+  Bede, _Hist. Eccl._ (Plummer, 1896), i. 15, ii. 5; _Saxon Chronicle_
+  (Earle and Plummer, 1899), s.a. 449, 455, 457, 465, 473; Nennius,
+  _Historia Brittonum_ (San Marte, 1844), SS 31, 37, 38, 43-46, 58.
+
+
+
+
+HENGSTENBERG, ERNST WILHELM (1802-1869), German Lutheran divine and
+theologian, was born at Frondenberg, a Westphalian village, on the 20th
+of October 1802. He was educated by his father, who was a minister of
+the Reformed Church, and head of the Frondenberg convent of canonesses
+(Frauleinstift). Entering the university of Bonn in 1819, he attended
+the lectures of G. G. Freytag for Oriental languages and of F. K. L.
+Gieseler for church history, but his energies were principally devoted
+to philosophy and philology, and his earliest publication was an edition
+of the Arabic _Moallakat_ of Amru'l-Qais, which gained for him the prize
+at his graduation in the philosophical faculty. This was followed in
+1824 by a German translation of Aristotle's _Metaphysics_. Finding
+himself without the means to complete his theological studies under
+Neander and Tholuck in Berlin, he accepted a post at Basel as tutor in
+Oriental languages to J. J. Stahelin, who afterwards became professor at
+the university. Then it was that he began to direct his attention to a
+study of the Bible, which led him to a conviction, never afterwards
+shaken, not only of the divine character of evangelical religion, but
+also of the unapproachable adequacy of its expression in the Augsburg
+Confession. In 1824 he joined the philosophical faculty of Berlin as a
+_Privatdozent_, and in 1825 he became a licentiate in theology, his
+theses being remarkable for their evangelical fervour and for their
+emphatic protest against every form of "rationalism," especially in
+questions of Old Testament criticism. In 1826 he became professor
+extraordinarius in theology; and in July 1827 appeared, under his
+editorship, the _Evangelische Kirchenzeitung_, a strictly orthodox
+journal, which in his hands acquired an almost unique reputation as a
+controversial organ. It did not, however, attain to great notoriety
+until in 1830 an anonymous article (by E. L. von Gerlach) appeared,
+which openly charged Wilhelm Gesenius and J. A. L. Wegscheider with
+infidelity and profanity, and on the ground of these accusations
+advocated the interposition of the civil power, thus giving rise to the
+prolonged _Hallische Streit_. In 1828 the first volume of Hengstenberg's
+_Christologie des Alten Testaments_ passed through the press; in the
+autumn of that year he became professor ordinarius in theology, and in
+1829 doctor of theology. He died on the 28th of May 1869.
+
+  The following is a list of his principal works: _Christologie des
+  Alten Testaments_ (1829-1835; 2nd ed., 1854-1857; Eng. trans. by R.
+  Keith, 1835-1839, also in Clark's "Foreign Theological Library," by T.
+  Meyer and J. Martin, 1854-1858), a work of much learning, the estimate
+  of which varies according to the hermeneutical principles of the
+  individual critic; _Beitrage zur Einleitung in das Alte Testament_
+  (1831-1839); Eng. trans., _Dissertations on the Genuineness of Daniel
+  and the Integrity of Zechariah_ (Edin., 1848), and _Dissertations on
+  the Genuineness of the Pentateuch_ (Edin., 1847), in which the
+  traditional view on each question is strongly upheld, and much capital
+  is made of the absence of harmony among the negative critics; _Die
+  Bucher Moses und Agypten_ (1841); _Die Geschichte Bileams u. seiner
+  Weissagungen_ (1842; translated along with the Dissertations on Daniel
+  and Zechariah); _Commentar uber die Psalmen_ (1842-1847; 2nd ed.,
+  1849-1852; Eng. trans. by P. Fairbairn and J. Thomson, Edin.,
+  1844-1848), which shares the merits and defects of the _Christologie;
+  Die Offenbarung Johannis erlautert_ (1849-1851; 2nd ed., 1861-1862;
+  Eng. trans. by P. Fairbairn, also in Clark's "Foreign Theological
+  Library," 1851-1852); _Das Hohe Lied ausgelegt_ (1853); _Der Prediger
+  Salomo ausgelegt_ (1859); _Das Evangelium Johannis erlautert_
+  (1861-1863; 2nd ed., 1867-1871; Eng. trans., 1865) and _Die
+  Weissagungen des Propheten Ezechiel erlautert_ (1867-1868). Of minor
+  importance are _De rebus Tyriorum commentatio academica_ (1832); _Uber
+  den Tag des Herrn_ (1852); _Das Passa, ein Vortrag_ (1853); and _Die
+  Opfer der heiligen Schrift_ (1859). Several series of papers also, as,
+  for example, on "The Retention of the Apocrypha," "Freemasonry"
+  (1854), "Duelling" (1856) and "The Relation between the Jews and the
+  Christian Church" (1857; 2nd ed., 1859), which originally appeared in
+  the _Kirchenzeitung_, were afterwards printed in a separate form.
+  _Geschichte des Reiches Gottes unter dem Alten Bunde_ (1869-1871),
+  _Das Buch Hiob erlautert_ (1870-1875) and _Vorlesungen uber die
+  Leidensgeschichte_ (1875) were published posthumously.
+
+  See J. Bachmann's _Ernst Wilhelm Hengstenberg_ (1876-1879); also his
+  article in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_ (1899), and the article in
+  the _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_. Also F. Lichtenberger, _History
+  of German Theology in the Nineteenth Century_ (1889), pp. 212-217;
+  Philip Schaff, _Germany; its Universities, Theology and Religion_
+  (1857), pp. 300-319.
+
+
+
+
+HENKE, HEINRICH PHILIPP KONRAD (1752-1809), German theologian, best known
+as a writer on church history, was born at Hehlen, Brunswick, on the 3rd
+of July 1752. He was educated at the gymnasium of Brunswick and the
+university of Helmstadt, and from 1778 to 1809 he was professor, first of
+philosophy, then of theology, in that university. In 1803 he was
+appointed principal of the Carolinum in Brunswick as well. He died on the
+2nd of May 1809. Henke belonged to the rationalistic school. His
+principal work (_Allgemeine Geschichte der christl. Kirche_, 6 vols.,
+1788-1804; 2nd ed., 1795-1806) is commended by F. C. Baur for fullness,
+accuracy and artistic composition. His other works are _Lineamenta
+institutionum fidei Christianae historico-criticarum_ (1783), _Opuscula
+academica_ (1802) and two volumes of _Predigten_. He was also editor of
+the _Magazin fur die Religionsphilosophie, Exegese und Kirchengeschichte_
+(1793-1802) and the _Archiv fur die neueste Kirchengeschichte_
+(1794-1799).
+
+His son, ERNST LUDWIG THEODOR HENKE (1804-1872), after studying at the
+university of Jena, became _professor extraordinarius_ there in 1833,
+and professor ordinarius of Marburg in 1839. He is known as the author
+of monographs upon _Georg Calixt u. seine Zeit_ (1853-1860), _Papst Pius
+VII._ (1860), _Konrad von Marburg_ (1861), _Kaspar Peucer u. Nik. Krell_
+(1865), _Jak. Friedr. Fries_ (1867), _Zur neuern Kirchengeschichte_
+(1867).
+
+
+
+
+HENLE, FRIEDRICH GUSTAV JAKOB (1809-1885), German pathologist and
+anatomist, was born on the 9th of July 1809 at Furth, in Franconia.
+After studying medicine at Heidelberg and at Bonn, where he took his
+doctor's degree in 1832, he became prosector in anatomy to Johannes
+Muller at Berlin. During the six years he spent in that position he
+published a large amount of work, including three anatomical monographs
+on new species of animals, and papers on the structure of the lacteal
+system, the distribution of epithelium in the human body, the structure
+and development of the hair, the formation of mucus and pus, &c. In 1840
+he accepted the chair of anatomy at Zurich, and in 1844 he was called to
+Heidelberg, where he taught not only anatomy, but physiology and
+pathology. About this period he was engaged on his complete system of
+general anatomy, which formed the sixth volume of the new edition of S.
+T. von Sommerring's treatise, published at Leipzig between 1841 and
+1844. While at Heidelberg he published a zoological monograph on the
+sharks and rays, in conjunction with his master Muller, and in 1846 his
+famous _Manual of Rational Pathology_ began to appear; this marked the
+beginning of a new era in pathological study, since in it physiology and
+pathology were treated, in Henle's own words, as "branches of one
+science," and the facts of disease were systematically considered with
+reference to their physiological relations. In 1852 he moved to
+Gottingen, whence he issued three years later the first instalment of
+his great _Handbook of Systematic Human Anatomy_, the last volume of
+which was not published till 1873. This work was perhaps the most
+complete and comprehensive of its kind that had so far appeared, and it
+was remarkable not only for the fullness and minuteness of the
+anatomical descriptions, but also for the number and excellence of the
+illustrations with which they were elucidated. During the latter half of
+his life Henle's researches were mainly histological in character, his
+investigations embracing the minute anatomy of the blood vessels, serous
+membranes, kidney, eye, nails, central nervous system, &c. He died at
+Gottingen on the 13th of May 1885.
+
+
+
+
+HENLEY, JOHN (1692-1759), English clergyman, commonly known as "Orator
+Henley," was born on the 3rd of August 1692 at Melton-Mowbray, where his
+father was vicar. After attending the grammar schools of Melton and
+Oakham, he entered St John's College, Cambridge, and while still an
+undergraduate he addressed in February 1712, under the pseudonym of
+Peter de Quir, a letter to the _Spectator_ displaying no small wit and
+humour. After graduating B.A., he became assistant and then headmaster
+of the grammar school of his native town, uniting to these duties those
+of assistant curate. His abundant energy found still further expression
+in a poem entitled _Esther, Queen of Persia_ (1714), and in the
+compilation of a grammar of ten languages entitled _The Complete
+Linguist_ (2 vols., London, 1719-1721). He then decided to go to London,
+where he obtained the appointment of assistant preacher in the chapels
+of Ormond Street and Bloomsbury. In 1723 he was presented to the rectory
+of Chelmondiston in Suffolk; but residence being insisted on, he
+resigned both his appointments, and on the 3rd of July 1726 opened what
+he called an "oratory" in Newport Market, which he licensed under the
+Toleration Act. In 1729 he transferred the scene of his operations to
+Lincoln's Inn Fields. Into his services he introduced many peculiar
+alterations: he drew up a "Primitive Liturgy," in which he substituted
+for the Nicene and Athanasian creeds two creeds taken from the
+Apostolical Constitutions; for his "Primitive Eucharist" he made use of
+unleavened bread and mixed wine; he distributed at the price of one
+shilling medals of admission to his oratory, with the device of a sun
+rising to the meridian, with the motto _Ad summa_, and the words
+_Inveniam viam aut faciam_ below. But the most original element in the
+services was Henley himself, who is described by Pope in the _Dunciad_
+as
+
+  "Preacher at once and zany of his age."
+
+He possessed some oratorical ability and adopted a very theatrical style
+of elocution, "tuning his voice and balancing his hands"; and his
+addresses were a strange medley of solemnity and buffoonery, of clever
+wit and the wildest absurdity, of able and original disquisition and the
+worst artifices of the oratorical charlatan. His services were much
+frequented by the "free-thinkers," and he himself expressed his
+determination "to die a rational." Besides his Sunday sermons, he
+delivered Wednesday lectures on social and political subjects; and he
+also projected a scheme for connecting with the "oratory" a university
+on quite a utopian plan. For some time he edited the _Hyp Doctor_, a
+weekly paper established in opposition to the _Craftsman_, and for this
+service he enjoyed a pension of L100 a year from Sir Robert Walpole. At
+first the orations of Henley drew great crowds, but, although he never
+discontinued his services, his audience latterly dwindled almost
+entirely away. He died on the 13th of October 1759.
+
+  Henley is the subject of several of Hogarth's prints. His life,
+  professedly written by A. Welstede, but in all probability by himself,
+  was inserted by him in his _Oratory Transactions_. See J. B. Nichols,
+  _History of Leicestershire_; I. Disraeli, _Calamities of Authors_.
+
+
+
+
+HENLEY, WILLIAM ERNEST (1849-1903), British poet, critic and editor, was
+born on the 23rd of August 1849 at Gloucester, and was educated at the
+Crypt Grammar School in that city. The school was a sort of Cinderella
+sister to the Cathedral School, and Henley indicated its shortcomings in
+his article (_Pall Mall Magazine_, Nov. 1900) on T. E. Brown the poet,
+who was headmaster there for a brief period. Brown's appointment,
+uncongenial to himself, was a stroke of luck for Henley, for whom, as he
+said, it represented a first acquaintance with a man of genius. "He was
+singularly kind to me at a moment when I needed kindness even more than
+I needed encouragement." Among other kindnesses Brown did him the
+essential service of lending him books. To the end Henley was no
+classical scholar, but his knowledge and love of literature were vital.
+Afflicted with a physical infirmity, he found himself in 1874, at the
+age of twenty-five, an inmate of the hospital at Edinburgh. From there
+he sent to the _Cornhill Magazine_ poems in irregular rhythms,
+describing with poignant force his experiences in hospital. Leslie
+Stephen, then editor, being in Edinburgh, visited his contributor in
+hospital and took Robert Louis Stevenson, another recruit of the
+_Cornhill_, with him. The meeting between Stevenson and Henley, and the
+friendship of which it was the beginning, form one of the best-known
+episodes in recent literature (see especially Stevenson's letter to Mrs
+Sitwell, Jan. 1875, and Henley's poems "An Apparition" and "Envoy to
+Charles Baxter"). In 1877 Henley went to London and began his editorial
+career by editing _London_, a journal of a type more usual in Paris than
+London, written for the sake of its contributors rather than of the
+public. Among other distinctions it first gave to the world _The New
+Arabian Nights_ of Stevenson. Henley himself contributed to his journal
+a series of verses chiefly in old French forms. He had been writing
+poetry since 1872, but (so he told the world in his "advertisement" to
+his collected _Poems_, 1898) he "found himself about 1877 so utterly
+unmarketable that he had to own himself beaten in art and to addict
+himself to journalism for the next ten years." After the decease of
+_London_, he edited the _Magazine of Art_ from 1882 to 1886. At the end
+of that period he came before the public as a poet. In 1887 Mr Gleeson
+White made for the popular series of _Canterbury Poets_ (edited by Mr
+William Sharp) a selection of poems in old French forms. In his
+selection Mr Gleeson White included a considerable number of pieces from
+_London_, and only after he had completed the selection did he discover
+that the verses were all by one hand, that of Henley. In the following
+year, Mr H. B. Donkin in his volume _Voluntaries_, done for an East End
+hospital, included Henley's unrhymed rhythms quintessentializing the
+poet's memories of the old Edinburgh Infirmary. Mr Alfred Nutt read
+these, and asked for more; and in 1888 his firm published _A Book of
+Verse_. Henley was by this time well known in a restricted literary
+circle, and the publication of this volume determined for them his fame
+as a poet, which rapidly outgrew these limits, two new editions of this
+volume being called for within three years. In this same year (1888) Mr
+Fitzroy Bell started the _Scots Observer_ in Edinburgh, with Henley as
+literary editor, and early in 1889 Mr Bell left the conduct of the paper
+to him. It was a weekly review somewhat on the lines of the old
+_Saturday Review_, but inspired in every paragraph by the vigorous and
+combative personality of the editor. It was transferred soon after to
+London as the _National Observer_, and remained under Henley's
+editorship until 1893. Though, as Henley confessed, the paper had almost
+as many writers as readers, and its fame was mainly confined to the
+literary class, it was a lively and not uninfluential feature of the
+literary life of its time. Henley had the editor's great gift of
+discerning promise, and the "Men of the _Scots Observer_," as Henley
+affectionately and characteristically called his band of contributors,
+in most instances justified his insight. The paper found utterance for
+the growing imperialism of its day, and among other services to
+literature gave to the world Mr Kipling's _Barrack-Room Ballads_. In
+1890 Henley published _Views and Reviews_, a volume of notable
+criticisms, described by himself as "less a book than a mosaic of scraps
+and shreds recovered from the shot rubbish of some fourteen years of
+journalism." The criticisms, covering a wide range of authors (except
+Heine and Tolstoy, all English and French), though wilful and often
+one-sided were terse, trenchant and picturesque, and remarkable for
+insight and gusto. In 1892 he published a second volume of poetry, named
+after the first poem, _The Song of the Sword_, but on the issue of the
+second edition (1893) re-christened _London Voluntaries_ after another
+section. Stevenson wrote that he had not received the same thrill of
+poetry since Mr Meredith's "Joy of Earth" and "Love in the Valley," and
+he did not know that that was so intimate and so deep. "I did not guess
+you were so great a magician. These are new tunes; this is an undertone
+of the true Apollo. These are not verse; they are poetry." In 1892
+Henley published also three plays written with Stevenson--_Beau Austin_,
+_Deacon Brodie_ and _Admiral Guinea_. In 1895 followed _Macaire_,
+afterwards published in a volume with the other plays. _Deacon Brodie_
+was produced in Edinburgh in 1884 and later in London. Beerbohm Tree
+produced _Beau Austin_ at the Haymarket on the 3rd of November 1890 and
+_Macaire_ at His Majesty's on the 2nd of May 1901. _Admiral Guinea_ also
+achieved stage performance. In the meantime Henley was active in the
+magazines and did notable editorial work for the publishers: the _Lyra
+Heroica_, 1891; _A Book of English Prose_ (with Mr Charles Whibley),
+1894; the centenary Burns (with Mr T. F. Henderson) in 1896-1897, in
+which Henley's Essay (published separately 1898) roused considerable
+controversy. In 1892 he undertook for Mr Nutt the general editorship of
+the _Tudor Translations_; and in 1897 began for Mr Heinemann an edition
+of Byron, which did not proceed beyond one volume of letters. In 1898 he
+published a collection of his _Poems_ in one volume, with the
+autobiographical "advertisement" above quoted; in 1899 _London Types_,
+Quatorzains to accompany Mr William Nicolson's designs; and in 1900
+during the Boer War, a patriotic poetical brochure, _For England's
+Sake_. In 1901 he published a second volume of collected poetry with the
+title _Hawthorn and Lavender_, uniform with the volume of 1898. In 1902
+he collected his various articles on painters and artists and published
+them as a companion volume of _Views and Reviews: Art_. These with "A
+Song of Speed" printed in May 1903 within two months of his death make
+up his tale of work. At the close of his life he was engaged upon his
+edition of the Authorized Version of the Bible for his series of _Tudor
+Translations_. There remained uncollected some of his scattered articles
+in periodicals and reviews, especially the series of literary articles
+contributed to the _Pall Mall Magazine_ from 1899 until his death. These
+contain the most outspoken utterances of a critic never mealy-mouthed,
+and include the splenetic attack on the memory of his dead friend R. L.
+Stevenson, which aroused deep regret and resentment. In 1894 Henley lost
+his little six-year-old daughter Margaret; he had borne the
+"bludgeonings of chance" with "the unconquerable soul" of which he
+boasted, not unjustifiably, in a well-known poem; but this blow broke
+his heart. With the knowledge of this fact, some of these outbursts may
+be better understood; yet we have the evidence of a clear-eyed critic
+who knew Henley well, that he found him more generous, more sympathetic
+at the close of his life than he had been before. He died on the 11th of
+July 1903. In spite of his too boisterous mannerism and prejudices, he
+exercised by his originality, independence and fearlessness an inspiring
+and inspiriting influence on the higher class of journalism. This
+influence he exercised by word of mouth as well as by his pen, for he
+was a famous talker, and figures as "Burly" in Stevenson's essay on
+_Talk and Talkers_. As critic he was a good hater and a good fighter.
+His virtue lay in his vital and vitalizing love of good literature, and
+the vivid and pictorial phrases he found to give it expression. But his
+fame must rest on his poetry. He excelled alike in his delicate
+experiments in complicated metres, and the strong impressionism of
+_Hospital Sketches_ and _London Voluntaries_. The influence of Heine may
+be discerned in these "unrhymed rhythms"; but he was perhaps a truer and
+more successful disciple of Heine in his snatches of passionate song,
+the best of which should retain their place in English literature.
+
+  See also references in _Stevenson's Letters_; _Cornhill Magazine_
+  (1903) (Sidney Low); _Fortnightly Review_ (August 1892) (Arthur
+  Symons); and for bibliography, _English Illustrated Magazine_, vol.
+  xxix. p. 548.     (W. P. J.)
+
+
+
+
+HENLEY-ON-THAMES, a market town and municipal borough in the Henley
+parliamentary division of Oxfordshire, England, on the left bank of the
+Thames, the terminus of a branch of the Great Western railway, by which
+it is 35(3/4) m. W. of London, while it is 57(1/2) m. by river. Pop.
+(1901) 5984. It occupies one of the most beautiful situations on the
+Thames, at the foot of the finely wooded Chiltern Hills. The river is
+crossed by an elegant stone bridge of five arches, constructed in 1786.
+The parish church (Decorated and Perpendicular) possesses a lofty tower
+of intermingled flint and stone, attributed to Cardinal Wolsey, but more
+probably erected by Bishop Longland. The grammar school, founded in
+1605, is incorporated with a Blue Coat school. Henley is a favourite
+summer resort, and is celebrated for the annual Henley Royal Regatta,
+the principal gathering of amateur oarsmen in England, first held in
+1839 and usually taking place in July. Henley is governed by a mayor, 4
+aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 549 acres.
+
+Henley-on-Thames (Hanlegang, Henle, Handley), not mentioned in Domesday,
+was a manor or ancient demesne of the crown and was granted (1337) to
+John de Molyns, whose family held it for about 250 years. It is said
+that members for Henley sat in parliaments of Edward I. and Edward III.,
+but no writs have been found. Henry VIII. having granted the use of the
+titles "mayor" and "burgess," the town was incorporated in 1570-1571 by
+the name of the warden, portreeves, burgesses and commonalty. Henley
+suffered from both parties in the Civil War. William III. on his march
+to London (1688) rested here and received a deputation from the Lords.
+The period of prosperity in the 17th and 18th centuries was due to
+manufactures of glass and malt, and to trade in corn and wool. The
+existing Thursday market was granted by a charter of John and the
+existing Corpus Christi fair by a charter of Henry VI.
+
+  See J. S. Burn, _History of Henley-on-Thames_ (London, 1861).
+
+
+
+
+HENNA, the Persian name for a small shrub found in India, Persia, the
+Levant and along the African coasts of the Mediterranean, where it is
+frequently cultivated. It is the _Lawsonia alba_ of botanists, and from
+the fact that young trees are spineless, while older ones have the
+branchlets hardened into spines, it has also received the names of
+_Lawsonia inermis_ and _L. spinosa_. It forms a slender shrubby plant of
+from 8 to 10 ft. high, with opposite lance-shaped smooth leaves, which
+are entire at the margins, and bears small white four-petalled
+sweet-scented flowers disposed in panicles. Its Egyptian name is
+_Khenna_, its Arabic name _Al Khanna_, its Indian name _Mendee_, while
+in England it is called _Egyptian privet_, and in the West Indies, where
+it is naturalized, _Jamaica mignonette_.
+
+Henna or Henne is of ancient repute as a cosmetic. This consists of the
+leaves of the _Lawsonia_ powdered and made up into a paste; this is
+employed by the Egyptian women, and also by the Mahommedan women in
+India, to dye their fingernails and other parts of their hands and feet
+of an orange-red colour, which is considered to add to their beauty. The
+colour lasts for three or four weeks, when it requires to be renewed. It
+is moreover used for dyeing the hair and beard, and even the manes of
+horses; and the same material is employed for dyeing skins and
+morocco-leather a reddish-yellow, but it contains no tannin. The
+practice of dyeing the nails was common amongst the Egyptians, and not
+to conform to it would have been considered indecent. It has descended
+from very remote ages, as is proved by the evidence afforded by Egyptian
+mummies, the nails of which are most commonly stained of a reddish hue.
+Henna is also said to have been held in repute amongst the Hebrews,
+being considered to be the plant referred to as camphire in the Bible
+(Song of Solomon i. 14, iv. 13). "The custom of dyeing the nails and
+palms of the hands and soles of the feet of an iron-rust colour with
+henna," observes Dr J. Forbes Royle, "exists throughout the East from
+the Mediterranean to the Ganges, as well as in northern Africa. In some
+parts the practice is not confined to women and children, but is also
+followed by men, especially in Persia. In dyeing the beard the hair is
+turned to red by this application, which is then changed to black by a
+preparation of indigo. In dyeing the hair of children, and the tails and
+manes of horses and asses, the process is allowed to stop at the red
+colour which the henna produces." Mahomet, it is said, used henna as a
+dye for his beard, and the fashion was adopted by the caliphs. "The use
+of henna," remarks Lady Callcott in her _Scripture Herbal_, "is scarcely
+to be called a caprice in the East. There is a quality in the drug which
+gently restrains perspiration in the hands and feet, and produces an
+agreeable coolness equally conducive to health and comfort." She further
+suggests that if the Jewish women were not in the habit of using this
+dye before the time of Solomon, it might probably have been introduced
+amongst them by his wife, the daughter of Pharaoh, and traces to this
+probability the allusion to "camphire" in the passages in Canticles
+above referred to.
+
+The preparation of henna consists in reducing the leaves and young twigs
+to a fine powder, catechu or lucerne leaves in a pulverized state being
+sometimes mixed with them. When required for use, the powder is made
+into a pasty mass with hot water, and is then spread upon the part to be
+dyed, where it is generally allowed to remain for one night. According
+to Lady Callcott, the flowers are often used by the Eastern women to
+adorn their hair. The distilled water from the flowers is used as a
+perfume.
+
+
+
+
+HENNEBONT, a town of western France, in the department of Morbihan, 6 m.
+N.E. of Lorient by road. Pop. (1906) 7250. It is situated about 10 m.
+from the mouth of the Blavet, which divides it into two parts--the
+_Ville Close_, the medieval military town, and the _Ville Neuve_ on the
+left bank and the _Vieille Ville_ on the right bank. The Ville Close,
+surrounded by ramparts and entered by a massive gateway flanked by
+machicolated towers, consists of narrow quiet streets bordered by houses
+of the 16th and 17th centuries. The Ville Neuve, which lies nearer the
+river, developed during the 17th century and later than the Ville Close,
+while the Vieille Ville is older than either. The only building of
+architectural importance is the church of Notre-Dame de Paradis (16th
+century) preceded by a tower with an ornamented stone spire. There are
+scanty remains of the old fortress. Hennebont has a small but busy
+river-port accessible to vessels of 200 to 300 tons. An important
+foundry in the environs of the town employs 1400 work-people in the
+manufacture of tin-plate for sardine boxes and other purposes.
+Boat-building, tanning, distilling and the manufacture of earthenware,
+white lead and chemical manures are also carried on. Granite is worked
+in the neighbourhood. Hennebont is famed for the resistance which it
+made, under the widow of Jean de Montfort, when besieged in 1342 by the
+armies of Philip of Valois and Charles of Blois during the War of the
+Succession in Brittany (see BRITTANY).
+
+
+
+
+HENNEQUIN, PHILIPPE AUGUSTE (1763-1833), French painter, was a pupil of
+David. He was born at Lyons in 1763, distinguished himself early by
+winning the "Grand Prix," and left France for Italy. The disturbances at
+Rome, during the course of the Revolution, obliged him to return to
+Paris, where he executed the Federation of the 14th of July, and he was
+at work on a large design commissioned for the town-hall of Lyons, when
+in July 1794 he was accused before the revolutionary tribunal and thrown
+into prison. Hennequin escaped, only to be anew accused and imprisoned
+in Paris, and after running great danger of death, seems to have devoted
+himself thenceforth wholly to his profession. At Paris he finished the
+picture ordered for the municipality of Lyons, and in 1801 produced his
+chief work, "Orestes pursued by the Furies" (Louvre, engraved by Landon,
+_Annales du Musee_, vol. i. p. 105). He was one of the four painters who
+competed when in 1802 Gros carried off the official prize for a picture
+of the Battle of Nazareth, and in 1808 Napoleon himself ordered
+Hennequin to illustrate a series of scenes from his German campaigns,
+and commanded that his picture of the "Death of General Salomon" should
+be engraved. After 1815 Hennequin retired to Liege, and there, aided by
+subventions from the Government, carried out a large historical picture
+of the "Death of the Three Hundred in defence of Liege"--a sketch of
+which he himself engraved. In 1824 Hennequin settled at Tournay, and
+became director of the academy; he exhibited various works at Lille in
+the following year, and continued to produce actively up to the day of
+his death in May 1833.
+
+
+
+
+HENNER, JEAN JACQUES (1829-1905), French painter, was born on the 5th of
+March 1829 at Dornach (Alsace). At first a pupil of Drolling and of
+Picot, he entered the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in 1848, and took the Prix de
+Rome with a painting of "Adam and Eve finding the Body of Abel" (1858).
+At Rome he was guided by Flandrin, and, among other works, painted four
+pictures for the gallery at Colmar. He first exhibited at the Salon in
+1863 a "Bather Asleep," and subsequently contributed "Chaste Susanna"
+(1865); "Byblis turned into a Spring" (1867); "The Magdalene" (1878);
+"Portrait of M. Hayem" (1878); "Christ Entombed" (1879); "Saint Jerome"
+(1881); "Herodias" (1887); "A Study" (1891); "Christ in His Shroud," and
+a "Portrait of Carolus-Duran" (1896); a "Portrait of Mlle Fouquier"
+(1897); "The Levite of the Tribe of Ephraim" (1898), for which a
+first-class medal was awarded to him; and "The Dream" (1900). Among
+other professional distinctions Henner also took a Grand Prix for
+painting at the Paris International Exhibition of 1900. He was made
+Knight of the Legion of Honour in 1873, Officer in 1878 and Commander in
+1889. In 1889 he succeeded Cabanel in the Institut de France.
+
+  See E. Bricon, _Psychologie d'art_ (Paris, 1900); C. Phillips, _Art
+  Journal_ (1888); F. Wedmore, _Magazine of Art_ (1888).
+
+
+
+
+HENRIETTA MARIA (1609-1666), queen of Charles I. of England, born on the
+25th of November 1609, was the daughter of Henry IV. of France. When the
+first serious overtures for her hand were made on behalf of Charles,
+prince of Wales, in the spring of 1624, she was little more than
+fourteen years of age. Her brother, Louis XIII., only consented to the
+marriage on the condition that the English Roman Catholics were relieved
+from the operation of the penal laws. When therefore she set out for her
+new home in June 1625, she had already pledged the husband to whom she
+had been married by proxy on the 1st of May to a course of action which
+was certain to bring unpopularity on him as well as upon herself.
+
+That husband was now king of England. The early years of the married
+life of Charles I. were most unhappy. He soon found an excuse for
+breaking his promise to relieve the English Catholics. His young wife
+was deeply offended by treatment which she naturally regarded as
+unhandsome. The favourite Buckingham stirred the flames of his master's
+discontent. Charles in vain strove to reduce her to tame submission.
+After the assassination of Buckingham in 1628 the barrier between the
+married pair was broken down, and the bond of affection which from that
+moment united them was never loosened. The children of the marriage were
+Charles II. (b. 1630), Mary, princess of Orange (b. 1631), James II (b.
+1633), Elizabeth (b. 1636) Henry, duke of Gloucester (b. 1640), and
+Henrietta, duchess at Orleans (b. 1644).
+
+For some years Henrietta Maria's chief interests lay in her young
+family, and in the amusements of a gay and brilliant court. She loved to
+be present at dramatic entertainments, and her participation in the
+private rehearsals of the _Shepherd's Pastoral_, written by her
+favourite Walter Montague, probably drew down upon her the savage attack
+of Prynne. With political matters she hardly meddled as yet. Even her
+co-religionists found little aid from her till the summer of 1637. She
+had then recently opened a diplomatic communication with the see of
+Rome. She appointed an agent to reside at Rome, and a papal agent, a
+Scotsman named George Conn, accredited to her, was soon engaged in
+effecting conversions amongst the English gentry and nobility. Henrietta
+Maria was well pleased to become a patroness of so holy a work,
+especially as she was not asked to take any personal trouble in the
+matter. Protestant England took alarm at the proceedings of a queen who
+associated herself so closely with the doings of "the grim wolf with
+privy paw."
+
+When the Scottish troubles broke out, she raised money from her
+fellow-Catholics to support the king's army on the borders in 1639.
+During the session of the Short Parliament in the spring of 1640, the
+queen urged the king to oppose himself to the House of Commons in
+defence of the Catholics. When the Long Parliament met, the Catholics
+were believed to be the authors and agents of every arbitrary scheme
+which was supposed to have entered into the plans of Strafford or Laud.
+Before the Long Parliament had sat for two months, the queen was urging
+upon the pope the duty of lending money to enable her to restore her
+husband's authority. She threw herself heart and soul into the schemes
+for rescuing Strafford and coercing the parliament. The army plot, the
+scheme for using Scotland against England, and the attempt upon the five
+members were the fruits of her political activity.
+
+In the next year the queen effected her passage to the Continent. In
+February 1643 she landed at Burlington Quay, placed herself at the head
+of a force of loyalists, and marched through England to join the king
+near Oxford. After little more than a year's residence there, on the 3rd
+of April 1644, she left her husband, to see his face no more. Henrietta
+Maria found a refuge in France. Richelieu was dead, and Anne of Austria
+was compassionate. As long as her husband was alive the queen never
+ceased to encourage him to resistance.
+
+During her exile in France she had much to suffer. Her husband's
+execution in 1649 was a terrible blow. She brought up her youngest child
+Henrietta in her own faith, but her efforts to induce her youngest son,
+the duke of Gloucester, to take the same course only produced discomfort
+in the exiled family. The story of her marriage with her attached
+servant Lord Jermyn needs more confirmation than it has yet received to
+be accepted, but all the information which has reached us of her
+relations with her children points to the estrangement which had grown
+up between them. When after the Restoration she returned to England, she
+found that she had no place in the new world. She received from
+parliament a grant of L30,000 a year in compensation for the loss of her
+dower-lands, and the king added a similar sum as a pension from himself.
+In January 1661 she returned to France to be present at the marriage of
+her daughter Henrietta to the duke of Orleans. In July 1662 she set out
+again for England, and took up her residence once more at Somerset
+House. Her health failed her, and on the 24th of June 1665, she departed
+in search of the clearer air of her native country. She died on the 31st
+of August 1666, at Colombes, not far from Paris.
+
+  See I. A. Taylor, _The Life of Queen Henrietta Maria_ (1905).
+
+
+
+
+HENRY (Fr. _Henri_; Span. _Enrique_; Ger. _Heinrich_; Mid. H. Ger.
+_Heinrich_ and _Heimrich_; O.H.G. _Haimi-_ or _Heimirih_, i.e. "prince,
+or chief of the house," from O.H.G. _heim_, the Eng. _home_, and _rih_,
+Goth. _reiks_; compare Lat. _rex_ "king"--"rich," therefore "mighty,"
+and so "a ruler." Compare Sans. _radsh_ "to shine forth, rule, &c." and
+mod. _raj_ "rule" and _raja_, "king"), the name of many European
+sovereigns, the more important of whom are noticed below in the
+following order: (1) emperors and German kings; (2) kings of England;
+(3) other kings in the alphabetical order of their states; (4) other
+reigning princes in the same order; (5) non-reigning princes; (6)
+bishops, nobles, chroniclers, &c.
+
+
+
+
+HENRY I. (c. 876-936), surnamed the "Fowler," German king, son of Otto
+the Illustrious, duke of Saxony, grew to manhood amid the disorders
+which witnessed to the decay of the Carolingian empire, and in early
+life shared in various campaigns for the defence of Saxony. He married
+Hatburg, a daughter of Irwin, count of Merseburg, but as she had taken
+the veil on the death of a former husband this union was declared
+illegal by the church, and in 909 he married Matilda, daughter of a
+Saxon count named Thiederich, and a reputed descendant of the hero
+Widukind. On his father's death in 912 he became duke of Saxony, which
+he ruled with considerable success, defending it from the attacks of the
+Slavs and resisting the claims of the German king Conrad I. (see
+SAXONY). He afterwards won the esteem of Conrad to such an extent that
+in 918 the king advised the nobles to make the Saxon duke his successor.
+After Conrad's death the Franks and the Saxons met at Fritzlar in May
+919 and chose Henry as German king, after which the new king refused to
+allow his election to be sanctioned by the church. His authority, save
+in Saxony, was merely nominal; but by negotiation rather than by warfare
+he secured a recognition of his sovereignty from the Bavarians and the
+Swabians. A struggle soon took place between Henry and Charles III., the
+Simple, king of France, for the possession of Lorraine. In 921 Charles
+recognized Henry as king of the East Franks, and when in 923 the French
+king was taken prisoner by Herbert, count of Vermandois, Lorraine came
+under Henry's authority, and Giselbert, who married his daughter
+Gerberga, was recognized as duke. Turning his attention to the east,
+Henry reduced various Slavonic tribes to subjection, took Brennibor, the
+modern Brandenburg, from the Hevelli, and secured both banks of the Elbe
+for Saxony. In 923 he had bought a truce for ten years with the
+Hungarians, by a promise of tribute, but on its expiration he gained a
+great victory over these formidable foes in March 933. The Danes were
+defeated, and territory as far as the Eider secured for Germany; and the
+king sought further to extend his influence by entering into relations
+with the kings of England, France and Burgundy. He is said to have been
+contemplating a journey to Rome, when he died at Memleben on the 2nd of
+July 936, and was buried at Quedlinburg. By his first wife, Hatburg, he
+left a son, Thankmar, who was excluded from the succession as
+illegitimate; and by Matilda he left three sons, the eldest of whom,
+Otto (afterwards the emperor Otto the Great), succeeded him, and two
+daughters. Henry was a successful ruler, probably because he was careful
+to undertake only such enterprises as he was able to carry through.
+Laying more stress on his position as duke of Saxony than king of
+Germany, he conferred great benefits on his duchy. The founder of her
+town life and the creator of her army, he ruled in harmony with her
+nobles and secured her frontiers from attack. The story that he received
+the surname of "Fowler" because the nobles, sent to inform him of his
+election to the throne, found him engaged in laying snares for the
+birds, appears to be mythical.
+
+  See Widukind of Corvei, _Res gestae Saxonicae_, edited by G. Waitz in
+  the _Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scriptores_, Band iii. (Hanover
+  and Berlin, 1826 seq.); "Die Urkunde des deutschen Konigs Heinrichs
+  I.," edited by T. von Sickel in the _Monumenta Germaniae historica.
+  Diplomata_ (Hanover, 1879); W. von Giesebrecht, _Geschichte der
+  deutschen Kaiserzeit_, Bande i., ii. (Leipzig, 1881); G. Waitz,
+  _Jahrbucher des deutschen Reichs unter Konig Heinrich I._ (Leipzig,
+  1885); and F. Loher, _Die deutsche Politik Konig Heinrich I._ (Munich,
+  1857).
+
+
+
+
+HENRY II. (973-1024), surnamed the "Saint," Roman emperor, son of Henry
+II, the Quarrelsome, duke of Bavaria, and Gisela, daughter of Conrad,
+king of Burgundy, or Arles (d. 993), and great-grandson of the German
+king Henry I., the Fowler, was born on the 6th of May 973. When his
+father was driven from his duchy in 976 it was intended that Henry
+should take holy orders, and he received the earlier part of a good
+education at Hildesheim. This idea, however, was abandoned when his
+father was restored to Bavaria in 985; but young Henry, whose education
+was completed at Regensburg, retained a lively interest in
+ecclesiastical affairs. He became duke of Bavaria on his father's death
+in 995, and appears to have governed his duchy quietly and successfully
+for seven years. He showed a special regard for monastic reform and
+church government, accompanied his kinsman, the emperor Otto III., on
+two occasions to Italy, and about 1001 married Kunigunde (d. 1037),
+daughter of Siegfried, count of Luxemburg. When Otto III. died childless
+in 1002, Henry sought to secure the German throne, and seizing the
+imperial insignia made an arrangement with Otto I., duke of Carinthia.
+There was considerable opposition to his claim; but one rival, Ekkard
+I., margrave of Meissen, was murdered, and, hurrying to Mainz, Henry was
+chosen German king by the Franks and Bavarians on the 7th of June 1002,
+and subsequently crowned by Willigis, archbishop of Mainz, who had been
+largely instrumental in securing his election. Having ravaged the lands
+of another rival, Hermann II., duke of Swabia, Henry purchased the
+allegiance of the Thuringians and the Saxons; and when shortly
+afterwards the nobles of Lorraine did homage and Hermann of Swabia
+submitted, he was generally recognized as king. Danger soon arose from
+Boleslaus I., the Great, king of Poland, who had extended his authority
+over Meissen and Lusatia, seized Bohemia, and allied himself with some
+discontented German nobles, including the king's brother, Bruno, bishop
+of Augsburg. Henry easily crushed his domestic foes; but the incipient
+war with Boleslaus was abandoned in favour of an expedition into Italy,
+where Arduin, margrave of Ivrea, had been elected king. Crossing the
+Alps Henry met with no resistance from Arduin, and in May 1004 he was
+chosen and crowned king of the Lombards at Pavia; but a tumult caused by
+the presence of the Germans soon arose in the city, and having received
+the homage of several cities of Lombardy the king returned to Germany.
+He then freed Bohemia from the rule of the Poles, led an expedition into
+Friesland, and was successful in compelling Boleslaus to sue for peace
+in 1005. A struggle with Baldwin IV., count of Flanders, in 1006 and
+1007 was followed by trouble with the king's brothers-in-law, Dietrich
+and Adalbero of Luxemburg, who had seized respectively the bishopric of
+Metz and the archbishopric of Trier (Treves). Henry sought to dislodge
+them, but aided by their elder brother Henry, who had been made duke of
+Bavaria in 1004, they held their own in a desultory warfare in Lorraine.
+In 1009, however, the eldest of the three brothers was deprived of
+Bavaria, while Adalbero had in the previous year given up his claim to
+Trier, but Dietrich retained the bishopric of Metz. The Polish war had
+been renewed in 1007, but it was not until 1010 that the king was able
+to take a personal part in these campaigns. Meeting with indifferent
+success, he made peace with Boleslaus early in 1013, when the duke
+retained Lusatia, but did homage to Henry at Merseburg.
+
+In 1013 the king made a second journey to Italy where two popes were
+contending for the papal chair, and meeting with no opposition was
+received with great honour at Rome. Having recognized Benedict VIII. as
+the rightful pope, he was crowned emperor on the 14th of February 1014,
+and soon returned to Germany laden with treasures from Italian cities.
+But the struggle with the Poles now broke out afresh, and in 1015 and
+1017 the king, having obtained assistance from the heathen Liutici, led
+formidable armies against Boleslaus. During the campaign of 1017 he had
+as an ally the grand duke of Russia, but his troops suffered
+considerable loss, and on the 30th of January 1018 he made peace at
+Bautzen with Boleslaus, who again retained Lusatia. As early as 1006
+Henry had concluded a succession treaty with his uncle Rudolph III., the
+childless king of Burgundy, or Arles; but when Rudolph desired to
+abdicate in 1016 Henry's efforts to secure possession of the territory
+were foiled by the resistance of the nobles. In 1020 the emperor was
+visited at Bamberg by Pope Benedict, in response to whose entreaty for
+assistance against the Greeks of southern Italy he crossed the Alps in
+1021 for the third and last time. With the aid of the Normans he
+captured many fortresses and seriously crippled the power of the Greeks,
+but was compelled by the ravages of pestilence among his troops to
+return to Germany in 1022. It was probably about this time that Henry
+gave Benedict the diploma which ratified the gifts made by his
+predecessors to the papacy. Spending his concluding years in disputes
+over church reform he died on the 13th of July 1024 at Grona near
+Gottingen, and was buried at Bamberg, where he had founded and richly
+endowed a bishopric.
+
+Henry was an enthusiast for church reform, and under the influence of
+his friend Odilo, abbot of Cluny, sought to further the principles of
+the Cluniacs, and seconded the efforts of Benedict VIII. to prevent the
+marriage of the clergy and the sale of spiritual dignities. He was
+energetic and capable, but except in his relations with the church was
+not a strong ruler. But though devoted to the church and a strict
+observer of religious rites, he was by no means the slave of the clergy.
+He appointed bishops without the formality of an election, and attacked
+clerical privileges although he made clerics the representatives of the
+imperial power. He held numerous diets and issued frequent ordinances
+for peace, but feuds among the nobles were common, and the frontiers of
+the empire were insecure. Henry, who was the last emperor of the Saxon
+house, was the first to use the title "King of the Romans." He died
+childless, and a tradition of the 12th century says he and his wife took
+vows of chastity. He was canonized in 1146 by Pope Eugenius III.
+
+  See Adalbold of Utrecht, _Vita Heinrici II._, Thietmar of Merseburg,
+  _Chronicon_, both in the _Monumenta Germaniae historica, Scriptores_,
+  Bande iii. and iv. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826 seq.); W. von
+  Giesebrecht, _Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit_ (Leipzig,
+  1881-1890); S. Hirsch, continued by R. Usinger, H. Pabst and H.
+  Bresslau, _Jahrbucher des deutschen Reichs unter Kaiser Heinrich II_.
+  (Leipzig, 1874); A. Cohn, _Kaiser Heinrich II_. (Halle, 1867); H.
+  Zeissberg, _Die Kriege Kaiser Heinrichs II. mit Boleslaw I. von Polen_
+  (Vienna, 1868); and G. Matthaei, _Die Klosterpolitik Kaiser Heinrichs
+  II_. (Gottingen, 1877).
+
+
+
+
+HENRY III. (1017-1056), surnamed the "Black," Roman emperor, only son of
+the emperor Conrad II., and Gisela, widow of Ernest I., duke of Swabia,
+was born on the 28th of October 1017, designated as his father's
+successor in 1026, and crowned German king at Aix-la-Chapelle by
+Pilgrim, archbishop of Cologne, on the 14th of April 1028. In 1027 he
+was appointed duke of Bavaria, and his early years were mainly spent in
+this country, where he received an excellent education under the care of
+Bruno, bishop of Augsburg and, afterwards, of Egilbert, bishop of
+Freising. He soon began to take part in the business of the empire. In
+1032 he took part in a campaign in Burgundy; in 1033 led an expedition
+against Ulalrich, prince of the Bohemians; and in June 1036 was married
+at Nijmwegen to Gunhilda, afterwards called Kunigunde, daughter of
+Canute, king of Denmark and England. In 1038 he followed his father to
+Italy, and in the same year the emperor formally handed over to him the
+kingdom of Burgundy, or Arles, and appointed him duke of Swabia. In
+spite of the honours which Conrad heaped upon Henry the relations
+between father and son were not uniformly friendly, as Henry disapproved
+of the emperor's harsh treatment of some of his allies and adherents.
+When Conrad died in June 1039, Henry became sole ruler of the empire,
+and his authority was at once recognized in all parts of his dominions.
+Three of the duchies were under his direct rule, no rival appeared to
+contest his claim, and the outlying parts of the empire, as well as
+Germany, were practically free from disorder. This peaceful state of
+affairs was, however, soon broken by the ambition of Bretislaus, prince
+of the Bohemians, who revived the idea of an independent Slavonic state,
+and conquered various Polish towns. Henry took up arms, and having
+suffered two defeats in 1040 renewed the struggle with a stronger force
+in the following year, when he compelled Bretislaus to sue for peace and
+to do homage for Bohemia at Regensburg. In 1042 he received the homage
+of the Burgundians and his attention was then turned to the Hungarians,
+who had driven out their king Peter, and set up in his stead one Aba
+Samuel, or Ovo, who attacked the eastern border of Bavaria.
+
+In 1043 and the two following years Henry crushed the Hungarians,
+restored Peter, and brought Hungary completely under the power of the
+German king. In 1038 Queen Kunigunde had died in Italy, and in 1043 the
+king was married at Ingelheim to Agnes, daughter of William V., duke of
+Guienne, a union which drew him much nearer to the reforming party in
+the church. In 1044 Gothelon (Gozelo), duke of Lorraine, died, and some
+disturbance arose over Henry's refusal to grant the whole of the duchy
+to his son Godfrey, called the Bearded. Godfrey took up arms, but after
+a short imprisonment was released and confirmed in the possession of
+Upper Lorraine in 1046 which, however, he failed to secure. About this
+time Henry was invited to Italy where three popes were contending for
+power, and crossing the Alps with a large army he marched to Rome.
+Councils held at Sutri and at Rome having declared the popes deposed,
+the king secured the election of Suidger, bishop of Bamberg, who took
+the name of Clement II., and by this pontiff Henry was crowned as
+emperor on the 25th of December 1046. He was immediately recognized by
+the Romans as _Patricius_, an office which carried with it at this time
+the right to appoint the pope. Supreme in church and state alike, ruler
+of Germany, Italy and Burgundy, overlord of Hungary and Bohemia, Henry
+occupied a commanding position, and this time may be regarded as marking
+the apogee of the power of the Roman empire of the Germans. The emperor
+assisted Pope Clement in his efforts to banish simony. He made a
+victorious progress in southern Italy, where he restored Pandulph IV. to
+the principality of Capua, and asserted his authority over the Normans
+in Apulia and Aversa. Returning to Germany in 1047 he appointed two
+popes, Damasus II. and Leo IX., in quick succession, and turned to face
+a threatening combination in the west of the empire, where Godfrey of
+Lorraine was again in revolt, and with the help of Baldwin V., count of
+Flanders and Dirk IV., count of Holland, who had previously caused
+trouble to Henry, was ravaging the lands of the emperor's
+representatives in Lorraine. Assisted by the kings of England and
+Denmark, Henry succeeded with some difficulty in bringing the rebels to
+submission in 1050. Godfrey was deposed; but Baldwin soon found an
+opportunity for a further revolt, which an expedition undertaken by the
+emperor in 1054 was unable to crush.
+
+Meanwhile a reaction against German influence had taken place in
+Hungary. King Peter had been driven out in 1046 and his place taken by
+Andreas I. Inroads into Bavaria followed, and in 1051 and 1052 Henry led
+his forces against the Hungarians, and after the pope had vainly
+attempted to mediate, peace was made in 1053. It was quickly broken,
+however, and the emperor, occupied elsewhere, soon lost most of his
+authority in the east; although in 1054 he made peace between Brestislav
+of Bohemia and Casimir I., duke of the Poles. Henry had not lost sight
+of affairs in Italy during these years, and had received several visits
+from the pope, whose aim was to bring southern Italy under his own
+dominion. Henry had sent military assistance to Leo, and had handed over
+to him the government of the principality of Benevento in return for the
+bishopric of Bamberg. But the pope's defeat by the Normans was followed
+by his death. Henry then nominated Gebhard, bishop of Eichstadt, who
+took the name of Victor II., to the vacant chair, and promised his
+assistance to the reluctant candidate. In 1055 the emperor went a second
+time to Italy, where his authority was threatened by Godfrey of
+Lorraine, who had married Beatrice, widow of Boniface III., margrave of
+Tuscany, and was ruling her vast estates. Godfrey fled, however, on the
+appearance of Henry, who only remained a short time in Italy, during
+which he granted the duchy of Spoleto to Pope Victor, and negotiated for
+an attack upon the Normans. Before the journey to Italy, Henry had found
+it necessary to depose Conrad III., duke of Bavaria, and to suppress a
+rising in southern Germany. During his absence Conrad formed an alliance
+with Welf, duke of Carinthia, and Gebhard III., bishop of Regensburg. A
+conspiracy to depose the emperor, support for which was found in
+Lorraine, was quickly discovered, and Henry, leaving Victor as his
+representative in Italy, returned in 1055 to Germany to receive the
+submission of his foes. In 1056, the emperor was visited by the pope;
+and on the 5th of October in the same year he died at Bodfeld and was
+buried at Spires. Henry was a pious and peace-loving prince, who
+favoured church reform, sought earnestly to suppress private warfare,
+and alone among the early emperors is said to have been innocent of
+simony. Although under his rule Germany enjoyed considerable
+tranquillity, and a period of wealth and progress set in for the towns,
+yet his secular and ecclesiastical policy showed signs of weakness.
+Unable, or unwilling, seriously to curb the increasing power of the
+church, he alienated the sympathies of the nobles as a class, and by
+allowing the southern duchies to pass into other hands restored a power
+which true to its traditions was not always friendly to the royal house.
+Henry was a patron of learning, a founder of schools, and built or
+completed cathedrals at Spires, Worms and Mainz.
+
+  The chief original authorities for the life and reign of Henry III.
+  are the _Chronicon_ of Herimann of Reichenau, the _Annales
+  Sangallenses majores_, the _Annales Hildesheimenses_, all in the
+  _Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scriptores_ (Hanover and Berlin, 1826
+  fol.). The best modern authorities are W. von Giesebrecht, _Geschichte
+  der deutschen Kaiserzeit_, Band ii. (Leipzig, 1888); M. Perlbach, "Die
+  Kriege Heinrichs III. gegen Bohmen," in the _Forschungen zur deutschen
+  Geschichte_, Band x. (Gottingen, 1862-1886); E. Steindorff,
+  _Jahrbucher des deutschen Reichs unter Heinrich III._ (Leipzig,
+  1874-1881); and F. Steinhoff, _Das Konigthum und Kaiserthum Heinrichs
+  III._ (Gottingen, 1865).
+
+
+
+
+HENRY IV. (1050-1106), Roman emperor, son of the emperor Henry III. and
+Agnes, daughter of William V., duke of Guienne, was born on the 11th of
+November 1050, chosen German king at Tribur in 1053, and crowned at
+Aix-la-Chapelle on the 17th of July 1054. In 1055 he was appointed duke
+of Bavaria, and on his father's death in October 1056 inherited the
+kingdoms of Germany, Italy and Burgundy. These territories were governed
+in his name by his mother, who was unable to repress the internal
+disorder or to take adequate measures for their defence. Some opposition
+was soon aroused, and in 1062 Anno, archbishop of Cologne, and others
+planned to seize the person of the young king and to deprive Agnes of
+power. This plot met with complete success. Henry, who was at
+Kaiserwerth, was persuaded to board a boat lying in the Rhine; it was
+immediately unmoored and the king sprang into the stream, but was
+rescued by one of the conspirators and carried to Cologne. Agnes made no
+serious effort to regain her control, and the chief authority was
+exercised for a time by Anno; but his rule proved unpopular, and he was
+soon compelled to share his power with Adalbert, archbishop of Bremen.
+The education and training of Henry were supervised by Anno, who was
+called his _magister_, while Adalbert was styled _patronus_; but Anno
+was disliked by Henry, and during his absence in Italy the chief power
+passed into the hands of Adalbert. Henry's education seems to have been
+neglected, and his wilful and headstrong nature was developed by the
+conditions under which his early years were passed. In March 1065 he was
+declared of age, and in the following year a powerful coalition of
+ecclesiastical and lay nobles brought about the banishment of Adalbert
+from court and the return of Anno to power. In 1066 Henry was persuaded
+to marry Bertha, daughter of Otto, count of Savoy, to whom he had been
+betrothed since 1055. For some time he regarded his wife with strong
+dislike and sought in vain for a divorce, but after she had borne him a
+son in 1071 she gained his affections, and became his most trusted
+friend and companion.
+
+In 1069 the king took the reins of government into his own hands. He
+recalled Adalbert to court; led expeditions against the Liutici, and
+against Dedo or Dedi II., margrave of a district east of Saxony; and
+soon afterwards quarrelled with Rudolph, duke of Swabia, and Berthold,
+duke of Carinthia. Much more serious was Henry's struggle with Otto of
+Nordheim, duke of Bavaria. This prince, who occupied an influential
+position in Germany, was accused in 1070 by a certain Egino of being
+privy to a plot to murder the king. It was decided that a trial by
+battle should take place at Goslar, but when the demand of Otto for a
+safe conduct for himself and his followers, to and from the place of
+meeting, was refused, he declined to appear. He was thereupon declared
+deposed in Bavaria, and his Saxon estates were plundered. He obtained
+sufficient support, however, to carry on a struggle with the king in
+Saxony and Thuringia until 1071, when he submitted at Halberstadt. Henry
+aroused the hostility of the Thuringians by supporting Siegfried,
+archbishop of Mainz, in his efforts to exact tithes from them; but still
+more formidable was the enmity of the Saxons, who had several causes of
+complaint against the king. He was the son of one enemy, Henry III., and
+the friend of another, Adalbert of Bremen. He had ordered a restoration
+of all crown lands in Saxony and had built forts among this people,
+while the country was ravaged to supply the needs of his courtiers, and
+its duke Magnus was a prisoner in his hands. All classes were united
+against him, and when the struggle broke out in 1073 the Thuringians
+joined the Saxons; and the war, which lasted with slight intermissions
+until 1088, exercised a most potent influence upon Henry's fortunes
+elsewhere (see SAXONY).
+
+Henry soon found himself confronted by an abler and more stubborn
+antagonist than either Thuringian or Saxon. In 1073 Hildebrand became
+pope as Gregory VII. Two years later this great ecclesiastic issued his
+memorable prohibition of lay investiture, and the blow then struck at
+the secular power by the papacy threatened seriously to undermine the
+imperial authority. Spurred on by his advisers, Henry did not refuse the
+challenge. Threatened with the papal ban, he summoned a synod of German
+bishops which met at Worms in January 1076 and declared Gregory deposed;
+and he wrote his famous letter to the pope, in which he referred to him
+as "not pope, but false monk." The king was at once excommunicated. His
+adherents gradually fell away, the Saxons were again in arms, and Otto
+of Nordheim succeeded in uniting the malcontents of north and south
+Germany. In October 1076 an important diet met at Tribur, and after
+discussing the deposition of the king, decided that he should be judged
+by an assembly to be held at Augsburg in the following February under
+the presidency of the pope. This union of the temporal and spiritual
+forces was too strong for the king, and he decided to submit.
+
+Crossing the Alps, Henry appeared in January 1077 as a penitent before
+the castle of Canossa, where Gregory had taken refuge. The story of
+this famous occurrence, which represents the king as standing in the
+courtyard of the castle for three days in the snow, clad as a penitent,
+and entreating to be admitted to the pope's presence, is now regarded as
+mythical in its details; but there is no doubt that the king visited the
+castle at intervals, and prayed for admission for three days until the
+28th of January, when he was received by Gregory and absolved, after
+promising to submit to the pope's authority and to secure for him a safe
+journey to Germany. No historical incident has more profoundly impressed
+the imagination of the Western world. It marked the highest point
+reached by papal authority, and presents a vivid picture of the awe
+inspired during the middle ages by the supernatural powers supposed to
+be wielded by the church.
+
+Scorned by his Lombard allies, Henry left Italy to find that in his
+absence Rudolph, duke of Swabia, had been chosen German king; and
+although Gregory had taken no part in this election, Henry sought to
+prevent the pope's journey to Germany, and regaining courage, tried to
+recover his former position. Supported by most of the German bishops and
+by the Lombards, now reconciled to him, and recognized in Burgundy,
+Bavaria and Franconia, Henry (who at this time is referred to by Bruno,
+the author of _De bello Saxonico_, as _exrex_) appeared stronger than
+his rival Rudolph; but the ensuing war was waged with varying success.
+He was beaten at Mellrichstadt in 1078, and at Flarchheim in 1080, but
+these defeats were due rather to the fierce hostility of the Saxons, and
+the military skill of Otto of Nordheim, than to any general sympathy
+with Rudolph. Gregory's attitude remained neutral, in spite of appeals
+from both sides, until March 1080, when he again excommunicated Henry,
+but without any serious effect on the fortunes of the king. At Henry's
+initiative, Gregory was declared deposed on three occasions, and an
+anti-pope was elected in the person of Wibert, archbishop of Ravenna,
+who took the name of Clement III.
+
+The death of Rudolph in October 1080, and a consequent lull in the war,
+enabled the king to go to Italy early in 1081. He found considerable
+support in Lombardy; placed Matilda, marchioness of Tuscany, the
+faithful friend of Gregory, under the imperial ban; took the Lombard
+crown at Pavia; and secured the recognition of Clement by a council.
+Marching to Rome, he undertook the siege of the city, but was soon
+compelled to retire to Tuscany, where he granted privileges to various
+cities, and obtained monetary assistance from a new ally, the eastern
+emperor, Alexius I. A second and equally unsuccessful attack on Rome was
+followed by a war of devastation in northern Italy with the adherents of
+Matilda; and towards the end of 1082 the king made a third attack on
+Rome. After a siege of seven months the Leonine city fell into his
+hands. A treaty was concluded with the Romans, who agreed that the
+quarrel between king and pope should be decided by a synod, and secretly
+bound themselves to induce Gregory to crown Henry as emperor, or to
+choose another pope. Gregory, however, shut up in the castle of St
+Angelo, would hear of no compromise; the synod was a failure, as Henry
+prevented the attendance of many of the pope's supporters; and the king,
+in pursuance of his treaty with Alexius, marched against the Normans.
+The Romans soon fell away from their allegiance to the pope; and,
+recalled to the city, Henry entered Rome in March 1084, after which
+Gregory was declared deposed and Clement was recognized by the Romans.
+On the 31st of March 1084 Henry was crowned emperor by Clement, and
+received the patrician authority. His next step was to attack the
+fortresses still in the hands of Gregory. The pope was saved by the
+advance of Robert Guiscard, duke of Apulia, with a large force, which
+compelled Henry to return to Germany.
+
+Meanwhile the German rebels had chosen a fresh anti-king, Hermann, count
+of Luxemburg, whom Henry's supporters had already driven to his last
+line of defence in Saxony. During the campaign of 1086 Henry was
+defeated near Wurzburg, but in 1088 Hermann abandoned the struggle and
+the emperor was generally recognized in Saxony, to which country he
+showed considerable clemency. Although Henry's power was in the
+ascendent, a few powerful nobles adhered to the cause of Gregory's
+successor, Urban II. Among them was Welf, son of Welf I., the deposed
+duke of Bavaria, whose marriage with Matilda of Tuscany rendered him too
+formidable to be neglected. The emperor accordingly returned to Italy in
+1090, where Mantua and Milan were taken, and Pope Clement was restored
+to Rome. Henry's communications with Germany were, however, threatened
+by a league of the Lombard cities, and his anxieties were soon augmented
+by domestic troubles.
+
+Henry's first wife had died in 1087, and in 1089 he had married a
+Russian princess, Praxedis, afterwards called Adelaide. Her conduct soon
+aroused his suspicions, and his own eldest son, Conrad, who had been
+crowned German king in 1087, was thought to be a partner in her guilt.
+Escaping from prison, Adelaide fled to Henry's enemies and brought grave
+charges against her husband; while the papal party induced Conrad to
+desert his father and to be crowned king of Italy at Monza in 1093.
+Crushed by this blow, Henry remained almost helpless and inactive in
+northern Italy for five years, until 1097, when having lost every shred
+of authority in that country, he returned to Germany, where his position
+was stronger than ever. Welf had submitted, had forsaken the cause of
+Matilda and had been restored to Bavaria, and in 1098 the diet assembled
+at Mainz declared Conrad deposed, and chose the emperor's second son,
+Henry, afterwards the emperor Henry V., as German king. The crusade of
+1096 had freed Germany from many turbulent spirits, and the emperor,
+meeting with some success in his efforts to restore order, could afford
+to ignore his repeated excommunication. A successful campaign in
+Flanders was followed in 1103 by a diet at Mainz, where serious efforts
+were made to restore peace, and Henry himself promised to go on crusade.
+But this plan was shattered by the revolt of the younger Henry in 1104,
+who, encouraged by the adherents of the pope, declared he owed no
+allegiance to an excommunicated father. Saxony and Thuringia were soon
+in arms, the bishops held mainly to the younger Henry, while the emperor
+was supported by the towns. A desultory warfare was unfavourable,
+however, to the emperor, who, deceived by false promises, became a
+prisoner in the hands of his son in 1105. The diet met at Mainz in
+December, when he was compelled to abdicate; but contrary to the
+conditions, he was detained at Ingelheim and denied his freedom.
+Escaping to Cologne, he found considerable support in the lower
+Rhineland; he entered into negotiations with England, France and
+Denmark, and was engaged in collecting an army when he died at Liege on
+the 7th of August 1106. His body was buried by the bishop of Liege with
+suitable ceremony, but by command of the papal legate it was unearthed,
+taken to Spires, and placed in an unconsecrated chapel. After being
+released from the sentence of excommunication the remains were buried in
+the cathedral of Spires in August 1111.
+
+Henry IV. was very licentious and in his early years was careless and
+self-willed, but better qualities were developed in his later life. He
+displayed much diplomatic ability, and his abasement at Canossa may
+fairly be regarded as a move of policy to weaken the pope's position at
+the cost of a personal humiliation to himself. He was always regarded as
+a friend of the lower orders, was capable of generosity and gratitude,
+and showed considerable military skill. Unfortunate in the time in which
+he lived, and in the troubles with which he had to contend, he holds an
+honourable position in history as a monarch who resisted the excessive
+pretensions both of the papacy and of the ambitious feudal lords of
+Germany.
+
+  The authorities for the life and reign of Henry are Lambert of
+  Hersfeld, _Annales_; Bernold of Reichenau, Chronicon; Ekkehard of
+  Aura, _Chronicon_; and Bruno, _De bello Saxonico_, which gives several
+  of the more important letters that passed between Henry and Gregory
+  VII. These are all found in the _Monumenta Germaniae historica.
+  Scriptores_, Bande v. and vi. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826-1892). There
+  is an anonymous _Vita Heinrici IV._, edited by W. Wattenbach (Hanover,
+  1876). The best modern authorities are: G. Meyer von Knonau,
+  _Jahrbucher des deutschen Reiches unter Heinrich IV._ (Leipzig, 1890);
+  H. Floto, _Kaiser Heinrich IV. und sein Zeitalter_ (Stuttgart, 1855);
+  E. Kilian, _Itinerar Kaiser Heinrichs IV._ (Karlsruhe, 1886); K. W.
+  Nitzsch, "Das deutsche Reich und Heinrich IV.," in the _Historische
+  Zeitschrift_, Band xlv. (Munich, 1859); H. Ulmann, _Zum Verstandniss
+  der sachsischen Erhebung gegen Heinrich IV._ (Hanover, 1886), W. von
+  Giesebrecht, _Geschichte_ _der deutschen Kaiserzeit_ (Leipzig,
+  1881-1890); B. Gebhardt, _Handbuch der deutschen Geschichte_ (Berlin,
+  1901). For a list of other works, especially those on the relations
+  between Henry and Gregory, see Dahlmann-Waitz, _Quellenkunde der
+  deutschen Geschichte_ (Gottingen, 1894).     (A. W. H.*)
+
+
+
+
+HENRY V. (1081-1125), Roman emperor, son of the emperor Henry IV., was
+born on the 8th of January 1081, and after the revolt and deposition of
+his elder brother, the German king Conrad (d. 1101), was chosen as his
+successor in 1098. He promised to take no part in the business of the
+Empire during his father's lifetime, and was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle
+on the 6th of January 1099. In spite of his oath Henry was induced by
+his father's enemies to revolt in 1104, and some of the princes did
+homage to him at Mainz in January 1106. In August of the same year the
+elder Henry died, when his son became sole ruler of the Empire. Order
+was soon restored in Germany, the citizens of Cologne were punished by a
+fine, and an expedition against Robert II., count of Flanders, brought
+this rebel to his knees. In 1107 a campaign, which was only partially
+successful, was undertaken to restore Boriwoj II. to the dukedom of
+Bohemia, and in the year following the king led his forces into Hungary,
+where he failed to take Pressburg. In 1109 he was unable to compel the
+Poles to renew their accustomed tribute, but in 1110 he succeeded in
+securing the dukedom of Bohemia for Ladislaus I.
+
+The main interest of Henry's reign centres in the controversy over lay
+investiture, which had caused a serious dispute during the previous
+reign. The papal party who had supported Henry in his resistance to his
+father hoped he would assent to the decrees of the pope, which had been
+renewed by Paschal II. at the synod of Guastalla in 1106. The king,
+however, continued to invest the bishops, but wished the pope to hold a
+council in Germany to settle the question. Paschal after some hesitation
+preferred France to Germany, and, after holding a council at Troyes,
+renewed his prohibition of lay investiture. The matter slumbered until
+1110, when, negotiations between king and pope having failed, Paschal
+renewed his decrees and Henry went to Italy with a large army. The
+strength of his forces helped him to secure general recognition in
+Lombardy, and at Sutri he concluded an arrangement with Paschal by which
+he renounced the right of investiture in return for a promise of
+coronation, and the restoration to the Empire of all lands given by
+kings, or emperors, to the German church since the time of Charlemagne.
+It was a treaty impossible to execute, and Henry, whose consent to it is
+said to have been conditional on its acceptance by the princes and
+bishops of Germany, probably foresaw that it would occasion a breach
+between the German clergy and the pope. Having entered Rome and sworn
+the usual oaths, the king presented himself at St Peter's on the 12th of
+February 1111 for his coronation and the ratification of the treaty. The
+words commanding the clergy to restore the fiefs of the crown to Henry
+were read amid a tumult of indignation, whereupon the pope refused to
+crown the king, who in return declined to hand over his renunciation of
+the right of investiture. Paschal was seized by Henry's soldiers and, in
+the general disorder into which the city was thrown, an attempt to
+liberate the pontiff was thwarted in a struggle during which the king
+himself was wounded. Henry then left the city carrying the pope with
+him; and Paschal's failure to obtain assistance drew from him a
+confirmation of the king's right of investiture and a promise to crown
+him emperor. The coronation ceremony accordingly took place on the 13th
+of April 1111, after which the emperor returned to Germany, where he
+sought to strengthen his power by granting privileges to the inhabitants
+of the region of the upper Rhine.
+
+In 1112 Lothair, duke of Saxony, rose in arms against Henry, but was
+easily quelled. In 1113, however, a quarrel over the succession to the
+counties of Weimar and Orlamunde gave occasion for a fresh outbreak on
+the part of Lothair, whose troops were defeated at Warnstadt, after
+which the duke was pardoned. Having been married at Mainz on the 7th of
+January 1114 to Matilda, or Maud, daughter of Henry I., king of England,
+the emperor was confronted with a further rising, initiated by the
+citizens of Cologne, who were soon joined by the Saxons and others.
+Henry failed to take Cologne, his forces were defeated at Welfesholz on
+the 11th of February 1115, and complications in Italy compelled him to
+leave Germany to the care of Frederick II. of Hohenstaufen, duke of
+Swabia, and his brother Conrad, afterwards the German king Conrad III.
+After the departure of Henry from Rome in 1111 a council had declared
+the privilege of lay investiture, which had been extorted from Paschal,
+to be invalid, and Guido, archbishop of Vienne, excommunicated the
+emperor and called upon the pope to ratify this sentence. Paschal,
+however, refused to take so extreme a step; and the quarrel entered upon
+a new stage in 1115 when Matilda, daughter and heiress of Boniface,
+margrave of Tuscany, died leaving her vast estates to the papacy.
+Crossing the Alps in 1116 Henry won the support of town and noble by
+privileges to the one and presents to the other, took possession of
+Matilda's lands, and was gladly received in Rome. By this time Paschal
+had withdrawn his consent to lay investiture and the excommunication had
+been published in Rome; but the pope was compelled to fly from the city.
+Some of the cardinals withstood the emperor, but by means of bribes he
+broke down the opposition, and was crowned a second time by Burdinas,
+archbishop of Braga. Meanwhile the defeat at Welfesholz had given heart
+to Henry's enemies; many of his supporters, especially among the
+bishops, fell away; the excommunication was published at Cologne, and
+the pope, with the assistance of the Normans, began to make war. In
+January 1118 Paschal died and was succeeded by Gelasius II. The emperor
+immediately returned from northern Italy to Rome. But as the new pope
+escaped from the city, Henry, despairing of making a treaty, secured the
+election of an antipope who took the name of Gregory VIII., and who was
+left in possession of Rome when the emperor returned across the Alps in
+1118. The opposition in Germany was gradually crushed and a general
+peace declared at Tribur, while the desire for a settlement of the
+investiture dispute was growing. Negotiations, begun at Wurzburg, were
+continued at Worms, where the new pope, Calixtus II., was represented by
+Cardinal Lambert, bishop of Ostia. In the concordat of Worms, signed in
+September 1122, Henry renounced the right of investiture with ring and
+crozier, recognized the freedom of election of the clergy and promised
+to restore all church property. The pope agreed to allow elections to
+take place in presence of the imperial envoys, and the investiture with
+the sceptre to be granted by the emperor as a symbol that the estates of
+the church were held under the crown. Henry, who had been solemnly
+excommunicated at Reims by Calixtus in October 1119, was received again
+into the communion of the church, after he had abandoned his nominee,
+Gregory, to defeat and banishment. The emperor's concluding years were
+occupied with a campaign in Holland, and with a quarrel over the
+succession to the margraviate of Meissen, two disputes in which his
+enemies were aided by Lothair of Saxony. In 1124 he led an expedition
+against King Louis VI. of France, turned his arms against the citizens
+of Worms, and on the 23rd of May 1125 died at Utrecht and was buried at
+Spires. Having no children, he left his possessions to his nephew,
+Frederick II. of Hohenstaufen, duke of Swabia, and on his death the line
+of Franconian, or Salian, emperors became extinct.
+
+The character of Henry is unattractive. His love of power was
+inordinate; he was wanting in generosity, and he did not shrink from
+treachery in pursuing his ends.
+
+  The chief authority for the life and reign of Henry V. is Ekkehard of
+  Aura, _Chronicon_, edited by G. Waitz in the _Monumenta Germaniae
+  historica. Scriptores_, Band vi. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826-1892), See
+  also W. von Giesebrecht, _Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit_, Band
+  iii. (Leipzig, 1881-1890); L. von Ranke, _Weltgeschichte_, pt. vii.
+  (Leipzig, 1886); M. Manitius, _Deutsche Geschichte_ (Stuttgart, 1889);
+  G. Meyer von Knonau, _Jahrbucher des deutschen Reiches unter Heinrich
+  IV. und Heinrich V._ (Leipzig, 1890); E. Gervais, _Politische
+  Geschichte Deutschlands unter der Regierung der Kaiser Heinrich V. und
+  Lothar III._ (Leipzig, 1841-1842); G. Peiser, _Der deutsche
+  Investiturstreit unter Kaiser Heinrich V._ (Berlin, 1883); C. Stutzer,
+  "Zur Kritik der Investiturverhandlungen im Jahre 1119," in the
+  _Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte_, Band xviii. (Gottingen,
+  1862-1886); T. von Sickel and H. Bresslau, "Die kaiserliche
+  Ausfertigung des Wormser Konkordats," in the _Mittheilungen des
+  Instituts fur osterreichische Geschichtsforschung_ (Innsbruck, 1880);
+  B. Gebhardt, _Handbuch der deutschen Geschichte_, Band i. (Berlin,
+  1901), and E. Bernheim, _Zur Geschichte des Wormser Konkordats_
+  (Gottingen, 1878).
+
+
+
+
+HENRY VI. (1165-1197), Roman emperor, son of the emperor Frederick I.
+and Beatrix, daughter of Renaud III., count of upper Burgundy, was born
+at Nijmwegen, and educated under the care of Conrad of Querfurt,
+afterwards bishop of Hildesheim and Wurzburg. Chosen German king, or
+king of the Romans, at Bamberg in June 1169, he was crowned at
+Aix-la-Chapelle on the 15th of August 1169, invested with lands in
+Germany in 1179, and at Whitsuntide 1184 his knighthood was celebrated
+in the most magnificent manner at Mainz. Frederick was anxious to
+associate his son with himself in the government of the empire, and when
+he left Germany in 1184 Henry remained behind as regent, while his
+father sought to procure his coronation from Pope Lucius III. The pope
+was hesitating when he heard that the emperor had arranged a marriage
+between Henry and Constance, daughter of the late king of Sicily, Roger
+I., and aunt and heiress of the reigning king, William II.; and this
+step, which threatened to unite Sicily with Germany, decided him to
+refuse the proposal. This marriage took place at Milan on the 27th of
+January 1186, and soon afterwards Henry was crowned king of Italy. The
+claim of Henry and his wife on Sicily was recognized by the barons of
+that kingdom; and having been recognized by the pope as Roman emperor
+elect, Henry returned to Germany, and was again appointed regent when
+Frederick set out on crusade in May 1189. His attempts to bring peace to
+Germany were interrupted by the return of Henry the Lion, duke of
+Saxony, in October 1189, and a campaign against him was followed by a
+peace made at Fulda in July 1190.
+
+Henry's desire to make this peace was due to the death of William of
+Sicily, which was soon followed by that of the emperor Frederick.
+Germany and Italy alike seemed to need the king's presence, but for him,
+like all the Hohenstaufen, Italy had the greater charm, and having
+obtained a promise of his coronation from Pope Clement III. he crossed
+the Alps in the winter of 1190. He purchased the support of the cities
+of northern Italy, but on reaching Rome he found Clement was dead and
+his successor, Celestine III., disinclined to carry out the engagement
+of his predecessor. The strength of the German army and a treaty made
+between the king and the Romans induced him, however, to crown Henry as
+emperor on the 14th of April 1191. The aid of the Romans had been
+purchased by the king's promise to place in their possession the city of
+Tusculum, which they had attacked in vain for three years. After the
+ceremony the emperor fulfilled this contract, when the city was
+destroyed and many of the inhabitants massacred. Meanwhile a party in
+Sicily had chosen Tancred, an illegitimate son of Roger, son of King
+Roger II., as their king, and he had already won considerable authority
+and was favoured by the pope. Leaving Rome Henry met with no resistance
+until he reached Naples, which he was unable to take, as the ravages of
+fever and threatening news from Germany, where his death was reported,
+compelled him to raise the siege. In December 1191 he returned to
+Germany. Disorder was general and a variety of reasons induced both the
+Welfs and their earlier opponents to join in a general league against
+the emperor. Vacancies in various bishoprics added to the confusion, and
+Henry's enemies gained in numbers and strength when it was suspected
+that he was implicated in the murder of Albert, bishop of Liege. Henry
+acted energetically in fighting this formidable combination, but his
+salvation came from the captivity of Richard I., king of England, and
+the skill with which he used this event to make peace with his foes;
+and, when Henry the Lion came to terms in March 1194, order was restored
+to Germany.
+
+In the following May, Henry made his second expedition to Italy, where
+Pope Celestine had definitely espoused the cause of Tancred. The ransom
+received from Richard enabled him to equip a large army, and aided by a
+fleet fitted out by Genoa and Pisa he soon secured a complete mastery
+over the Italian mainland. When he reached Sicily he found Tancred
+dead, and, meeting with very little resistance, he entered Palermo,
+where he was crowned king on Christmas day 1194. A stay of a few months'
+duration enabled Henry to settle the affairs of the kingdom; and leaving
+his wife, Constance, as regent, and appointing many Germans to positions
+of influence, he returned to Germany in June 1195.
+
+Having established his position in Germany and Italy, Henry began to
+cherish ideas of universal empire. Richard of England had already owned
+his supremacy, and declaring he would compel the king of France to do
+the same Henry sought to stir up strife between France and England. Nor
+did the Spanish kingdoms escape his notice. Tunis and Tripoli were
+claimed, and when the eastern emperor, Isaac Angelus, asked his help, he
+demanded in return the cession of the Balkan peninsula. The kings of
+Cyprus and Armenia asked for investiture at his hands; and in general
+Henry, in the words of a Byzantine chronicler, put forward his demands
+as "the lord of all lords, the king of all kings." To complete this
+scheme two steps were necessary, a reconciliation with the pope and the
+recognition of his young son, Frederick, as his successor in the Empire.
+The first was easily accomplished; the second was more difficult. After
+attempting to suppress the renewed disorder in Germany, Henry met the
+princes at Worms in December 1195 and put his proposal before them. In
+spite of promises they disliked the suggestion as tending to draw them
+into Sicilian troubles, and avoided the emperor's displeasure by
+postponing their answer. By threats or negotiations, however, Henry won
+the consent of about fifty princes; but though the diet which met at
+Wurzburg in April 1196 agreed to the scheme, the vigorous opposition of
+Adolph, archbishop of Cologne, and others rendered it inoperative. In
+June 1196 Henry went again to Italy, sought vainly to restore order in
+the north, and tried to persuade the pope to crown his son who had been
+chosen king of the Romans at Frankfort. Celestine, who had many causes
+of complaint against the emperor and his vassals, refused. The emperor
+then went to the south, where the oppression of his German officials had
+caused an insurrection, which was put down with terrible cruelty. At
+Messina on the 28th of September 1197 Henry died from a cold caught
+whilst hunting, and was buried at Palermo. He was a man of small frame
+and delicate constitution, but possessed considerable mental gifts and
+was skilled in knightly exercises. His ambition was immense, and to
+attain his ends he often resorted deliberately to cruelty and treachery.
+His chief recreation was hunting, and he also found pleasure in the
+society of the Minnesingers and in writing poems, which appear in F. H.
+von der Hagen's _Minnesinger_ (Leipzig, 1838). He left an only son
+Frederick, afterwards the emperor Frederick II.
+
+  The chief authorities for the life and reign of Henry VI. are Otto of
+  Freising, _Chronicon_, continued by Otto of St Blasius; Godfrey of
+  Viterbo, _Gesta Friderici I._ and _Gesta Heinrici VI._; Giselbert of
+  Mons, _Chronicon Hanoniense_, all of which appear in the _Monumenta
+  Germaniae historica. Scriptores_, Bande xx., xxi., xxii. (Hanover and
+  Berlin, 1826-1892), and the various annals of the time.
+
+  The best modern authorities are: W. von Giesebrecht, _Geschichte der
+  deutschen Kaiserzeit_, Band iv. (Brunswick, 1877); T. Toeche, _Kaiser
+  Heinrich VI._ (Leipzig, 1867); H. Bloch, _Forschungen zur Politik
+  Kaiser Heinrichs VI._ (Berlin, 1892), and K. A. Kneller, _Des Richard
+  Lowenherz deutsche Gefangenschaft_ (Freiburg, 1893).
+
+
+
+
+HENRY VII. (c. 1269-1313), Roman emperor, son of Henry III., count of
+Luxemburg, was knighted by Philip IV., king of France, and passed his
+early days under French influences, while the French language was his
+mother-tongue. His father was killed in battle in 1288, and Henry ruled
+his tiny inheritance with justice and prudence, but came into collision
+with the citizens of Trier over a question of tolls. In 1292 he married
+Margaret (d. 1311), daughter of John I., duke of Brabant, and after the
+death of the German king, Albert I., he was elected to the vacant throne
+on the 27th of November 1308. Recognized at once by the German princes
+and by Pope Clement V., the aspirations of the new king turned to Italy,
+where he hoped by restoring the imperial authority to prepare the way
+for the conquest of the Holy Land. Meanwhile he strove to secure his
+position in Germany. The Rhenish archbishops were pacified by the
+restoration of the Rhine tolls, negotiations were begun with Philip IV.,
+king of France, and with Robert, king of Naples, and the Habsburgs were
+confirmed in their possessions. At this time Bohemia was ruled by Henry
+V., duke of Carinthia, but the terrible disorder which prevailed induced
+some of the Bohemians to offer the crown, together with the hand of
+Elizabeth, daughter of the late king Wenceslas II., to John, the son of
+the German king. Henry accepted the offer, and in August 1310 John was
+invested with Bohemia and his marriage was celebrated. Before John's
+coronation at Prague, however, in February 1311, Henry had crossed the
+Alps. His hopes of reuniting Germany and Italy and of restoring the
+empire of the Hohenstaufen were flattered by an appeal from the
+Ghibellines to come to their assistance, and by the fact that many
+Italians, sharing the sentiments expressed by Dante in his _De
+Monarchia_, looked eagerly for a restoration of the imperial authority.
+In October 1310 he reached Turin where, on receiving the homage of the
+Lombard cities, he declared that he favoured neither Guelphs nor
+Ghibellines, but only sought to impose peace. Having entered Milan he
+placed the Lombard crown upon his head on the 6th of January 1311. But
+trouble soon showed itself. His poverty compelled him to exact money
+from the citizens; the peaceful professions of the Guelphs were
+insincere, and Robert, king of Naples, watched his progress with
+suspicion. Florence was fortified against him, and the mutual hatred of
+Guelph and Ghibelline was easily renewed. Risings took place in various
+places and, after the capture of Brescia, Henry marched to Rome only to
+find the city in the hands of the Guelphs and the troops of King Robert.
+Some street fighting ensued, and the king, unable to obtain possession
+of St Peter's, was crowned emperor on the 29th of June 1312 in the
+church of St John Lateran by some cardinals who declared they only acted
+under compulsion. Failing to subdue Florence, the emperor from his
+headquarters at Pisa prepared to attack Robert of Naples, for which
+purpose he had allied himself with Frederick III., king of Sicily. But
+Clement, anxious to protect Robert, threatened Henry with
+excommunication. Undeterred by the threat the emperor collected fresh
+forces, made an alliance with the Venetians, and set out for Naples. On
+the march he was, however, taken ill, and died at Buonconvento near
+Siena on the 24th of August 1313, and was buried at Pisa. His death was
+attributed, probably without reason, to poison given him by a Dominican
+friar in the sacramental wine. Henry is described by his contemporary
+Albertino Mussato, in the _Historia Augusta_, as a handsome man, of
+well-proportioned figure, with reddish hair and arched eyebrows, but
+disfigured by a squint. He adds, among other details, that he was slow
+and laconic in his speech, magnanimous and devout, but impatient of any
+compacts with his subjects, loathing the mention of the Guelph and
+Ghibelline factions, and insisting on the absolute authority of the
+Empire over all (_cuncta absoluto complectens Imperio_). He was,
+however, a lover of justice, and as a knight both bold and skilful. He
+was hailed by Dante as the deliverer of Italy, and in the _Paradiso_ the
+poet reserved for him a place marked by a crown.
+
+  The contemporary documents for the life and reign of Henry VII. are
+  very numerous. Many of them are found in the _Rerum Italicarum
+  scriptores_, edited by L. A. Muratori (Milan, 1723-1751), others in
+  _Fontes rerum Germanicarum_, edited by J. F. Bohmer (Stuttgart,
+  1843-1868), and in _Die Geschichtsschreiber der deutschen Vorzeit_,
+  Bande 79 and 80 (Leipzig, 1884). The following modern works may also
+  be consulted: _Acta Henrici VII. imperatoris Romanorum_, edited by G.
+  Donniges (Berlin, 1839); F. Bonaini, _Acta Henrici VII. Romanorum
+  imperatoris_ (Florence, 1877); T. Lindner, _Deutsche Geschichte unter
+  den Habsburgern und Luxemburgern_ (Stuttgart, 1888-1893); J.
+  Heidemann, "Die Konigswahl Heinrichs von Luxemburg," in the
+  _Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte_, Band xi. (Gottingen,
+  1862-1886); B. Thomas, _Zur Konigswahl des Grafen Heinrich von
+  Luxemburg_ (Strassburg, 1875); D. Konig, _Kritische Erorterungen zu
+  einigen italienischen Quellen fur die Geschichte des Romerzuges Konigs
+  Heinrich VII._ (Gottingen, 1874); K. Wenck, _Clemens V. und Heinrich
+  VII._ (Halle, 1882); F. W. Barthold, _Der Romerzug Konig Heinrichs von
+  Lutzelburg_ (Konigsberg, 1830-1831); R. Pohlmann, _Der Romerzug Konig
+  Heinrichs VII. und die Politik der Curie_ (Nuremberg, 1875); W.
+  Donniges, _Kritik der Quellen fur die Geschichte Heinrichs VII. des
+  Luxemburgers_ (Berlin, 1841), and G. Sommerfeldt, _Die Romfahrt Kaiser
+  Heinrichs VII._ (Konigsberg, 1888).
+
+
+
+
+HENRY VII. (1211-1242), German king, son of the emperor Frederick II.
+and his first wife Constance, daughter of Alphonso II., king of Aragon,
+was crowned king of Sicily in 1212 and made duke of Swabia in 1216. Pope
+Innocent III. had favoured his coronation as king of Sicily in the hope
+that the union of this island with the Empire would be dissolved, and
+had obtained a promise from Frederick to this effect. In spite of this,
+however, Henry was chosen king of the Romans, or German king, at
+Frankfort in April 1220, and crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle on the 8th of
+May 1222 by his guardian Engelbert, archbishop of Cologne. He appears to
+have spent most of his youth in Germany, and on the 18th of November
+1225 was married at Nuremberg to Margaret (d. 1267), daughter of Leopold
+VI., duke of Austria. Henry's marriage was the occasion of some
+difference of opinion, as Engelbert wished him to marry an English
+princess, and the name of a Bohemian princess was also mentioned in this
+connexion, but Frederick insisted upon the union with Margaret. The
+murder of Engelbert in 1225 was followed by an increase of disorder in
+Germany in which Henry soon began to participate, and in 1227 he took
+part in a quarrel which had arisen on the death of Henry V., the
+childless count palatine of the Rhine. About this time the relations
+between Frederick and his son began to be somewhat strained. The emperor
+had favoured the Austrian marriage because Margaret's brother, Duke
+Frederick II., was childless; but Henry took up a hostile attitude
+towards his brother-in-law and wished to put away his wife and marry
+Agnes, daughter of Wenceslaus I., king of Bohemia. Other causes of
+trouble probably existed, for in 1231 Henry not only refused to appear
+at the diet at Ravenna, but opposed the privileges granted by Frederick
+to the princes at Worms. In 1232, however, he submitted to his father,
+promising to adopt the emperor's policy and to obey his commands. He did
+not long keep his word and was soon engaged in thwarting Frederick's
+wishes in several directions, until in 1233 he took the decisive step of
+issuing a manifesto to the princes, and the following year raised the
+standard of revolt at Boppard. He obtained very little support in
+Germany, however, while the suspicion that he favoured heresy deprived
+him of encouragement from the pope. On the other hand, he succeeded in
+forming an alliance with the Lombards in December 1234, but his few
+supporters fell away when the emperor reached Germany in 1235, and,
+after a vain attack on Worms, Henry submitted and was kept for some time
+as a prisoner in Germany, though his formal deposition as German king
+was not considered necessary, as he had broken the oath taken in 1232.
+He was soon removed to San Felice in Apulia, and afterwards to Martirano
+in Calabria, where he died, probably by his own hand, on the 12th of
+February 1242, and was buried at Cosenza. He left two sons, Frederick
+and Henry, both of whom died in Italy about 1251.
+
+  See J. Rohden, _Der Sturz Heinrichs VII._ (Gottingen, 1883); F. W.
+  Schirrmacher, _Die letzten Hohenstaufen_ (Gottingen, 1871), and E.
+  Winkelmann, _Kaiser Friedrich II._ (Leipzig, 1889).
+
+
+
+
+HENRY RASPE (c. 1202-1247), German king and landgrave of Thuringia, was
+the second surviving son of Hermann I., landgrave of Thuringia, and
+Sophia, daughter of Otto I., duke of Bavaria. When his brother the
+landgrave Louis IV. died in Italy in September 1227, Henry seized the
+government of Thuringia and expelled his brother's widow, St Elizabeth
+of Hungary, and her son Hermann. With some trouble Henry made good his
+position, although his nephew Hermann II. was nominally the landgrave,
+and was declared of age in 1237. Henry, who governed with a zealous
+regard for his own interests, remained loyal to the emperor Frederick
+II. during his quarrel with the Lombards and the revolt of his son
+Henry. In 1236 he accompanied the emperor on a campaign against
+Frederick II., duke of Austria, and took part in the election of his son
+Conrad as German king at Vienna in 1237. He appears, however, to have
+become somewhat estranged from Frederick after this expedition, for he
+did not appear at the diet of Verona in 1238; and it is not improbable
+that he disliked the betrothal of his nephew Hermann to the emperor's
+daughter Margaret. At all events, when the projected marriage had been
+broken off the landgrave publicly showed his loyalty to the emperor in
+1239 in opposition to a plan formed by various princes to elect an
+anti-king. Henry, whose attitude at this time was very important to
+Frederick, was probably kept loyal by the influence which his brother
+Conrad, grand-master of the Teutonic Order, exercised over him, for
+after the death of this brother in 1241 Henry's loyalty again wavered,
+and he was himself mentioned as a possible anti-king. Frederick's visit
+to Germany in 1242 was successful in preventing this step for a time,
+and in May of that year the landgrave was appointed administrator of
+Germany for King Conrad; and by the death of his nephew in this year he
+became the nominal, as well as the actual, ruler of Thuringia. Again he
+contemplated deserting the cause of Frederick, and in April 1246 Pope
+Innocent IV. wrote to the German princes advising them to choose Henry
+as their king in place of Frederick who had just been declared deposed.
+Acting on these instructions, Henry was elected at Veitshochheim on the
+22nd of May 1246, and owing to the part played by the spiritual princes
+in this election was called the _Pfaffenkonig_, or parsons' king.
+Collecting an army, he defeated King Conrad near Frankfort on the 5th of
+August 1246, and then, after holding a diet at Nuremberg, undertook the
+siege of Ulm. But he was soon compelled to give up this enterprise, and
+returning to Thuringia died at the Wartburg on the 17th of February
+1247. Henry married Gertrude, sister of Frederick II., duke of Austria,
+but left no children, and on his death the male line of his family
+became extinct.
+
+  See F. Reuss, _Die Wahl Heinrich Raspes_ (Ludenscheid, 1878); A.
+  Rubesamen, _Landgraf Heinrich Raspe von Thuringen_ (Halle, 1885); F.
+  W. Schirrmacher, _Die letzten Hohenstaufen_ (Gottingen, 1871); E.
+  Winkelmann, _Kaiser Friedrich II._ (Leipzig, 1889), and T.
+  Knochenhauer, _Geschichte Thuringens zur Zeit des ersten
+  Landgrafenhauses_ (Gotha, 1871).
+
+
+
+
+HENRY (c. 1174-1216), emperor of Romania, or Constantinople, was a
+younger son of Baldwin, count of Flanders and Hainaut (d. 1195). Having
+joined the Fourth Crusade about 1201, he distinguished himself at the
+siege of Constantinople in 1204 and elsewhere, and soon became prominent
+among the princes of the new Latin empire of Constantinople. When his
+brother, the emperor Baldwin I., was captured at the battle of
+Adrianople in April 1205, Henry was chosen regent of the empire,
+succeeding to the throne when the news of Baldwin's death arrived. He
+was crowned on the 20th of August 1205. Henry was a wise ruler, whose
+reign was largely passed in successful struggles with the Bulgarians and
+with his rival, Theodore Lascaris I., emperor of Nicaea. Henry appears
+to have been brave but not cruel, and tolerant but not weak; possessing
+"the superior courage to oppose, in a superstitious age, the pride and
+avarice of the clergy." The emperor died, poisoned, it is said, by his
+Greek wife, on the 11th of June 1216.
+
+  See Gibbon's _Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_, vol. vi. (ed. J.
+  B. Bury, 1898).
+
+
+
+
+HENRY I. (1068-1135), king of England, nicknamed Beauclerk, the fourth
+and youngest son of William I. by his queen Matilda of Flanders, was
+born in 1068 on English soil. Of his life before 1086, when he was
+solemnly knighted by his father at Westminster, we know little. He was
+his mother's favourite, and she bequeathed to him her English estates,
+which, however, he was not permitted to hold in his father's lifetime.
+Henry received a good education, of which in later life he was proud; he
+is credited with the saying that an unlettered king is only a crowned
+ass. His attainments included Latin, which he could both read and write;
+he knew something of the English laws and language, and it may have been
+from an interest in natural history that he collected, during his reign,
+the Woodstock menagerie which was the admiration of his subjects. But
+from 1087 his life was one of action and vicissitudes which left him
+little leisure. Receiving, under the Conqueror's last dispositions, a
+legacy of five thousand pounds of silver, but no land, he traded upon
+the pecuniary needs of Duke Robert of Normandy, from whom he purchased,
+for the small sum of L3000, the district of the Cotentin. He negotiated
+with Rufus to obtain the possession of their mother's inheritance, but
+only incurred thereby the suspicions of the duke, who threw him into
+prison. In 1090 the prince vindicated his loyalty by suppressing, on
+Robert's behalf, a revolt of the citizens of Rouen which Rufus had
+fomented. But when his elder brothers were reconciled in the next year
+they combined to evict Henry from the Cotentin. He dissembled his
+resentment for a time, and lived for nearly two years in the French
+Vexin in great poverty. He then accepted from the citizens of Domfront
+an invitation to defend them against Robert of Belleme; and
+subsequently, coming to an agreement with Rufus, assisted the king in
+making war on their elder brother Robert. When Robert's departure for
+the First Crusade left Normandy in the hands of Rufus (1096) Henry took
+service under the latter, and he was in the royal hunting train on the
+day of Rufus's death (August 2nd, 1100). Had Robert been in Normandy the
+claim of Henry to the English crown might have been effectually opposed.
+But Robert only returned to the duchy a month after Henry's coronation.
+In the meantime the new king, by issuing his famous charter, by
+recalling Anselm, and by choosing the Anglo-Scottish princess
+Edith-Matilda, daughter of Malcolm III., king of the Scots, as his
+future queen, had cemented that alliance with the church and with the
+native English which was the foundation of his greatness. Anselm
+preached in his favour, English levies marched under the royal banner
+both to repel Robert's invasion (1101) and to crush the revolt of the
+Montgomeries headed by Robert of Belleme (1102). The alliance of crown
+and church was subsequently imperilled by the question of Investitures
+(1103-1106). Henry was sharply criticized for his ingratitude to Anselm
+(q.v.), in spite of the marked respect which he showed to the
+archbishop. At this juncture a sentence of excommunication would have
+been a dangerous blow to Henry's power in England. But the king's
+diplomatic skill enabled him to satisfy the church without surrendering
+any rights of consequence (1106); and he skilfully threw the blame of
+his previous conduct upon his counsellor, Robert of Meulan. Although the
+Peterborough Chronicle accuses Henry of oppression in his early years,
+the nation soon learned to regard him with respect. William of
+Malmesbury, about 1125, already treats Tinchebrai (1106) as an English
+victory and the revenge for Hastings. Henry was disliked but feared by
+the baronage, towards whom he showed gross bad faith in his disregard of
+his coronation promises. In 1110 he banished the more conspicuous
+malcontents, and from that date was safe against the plots of his
+English feudatories.
+
+With Normandy he had more trouble, and the military skill which he had
+displayed at Tinchebrai was more than once put to the test against
+Norman rebels. His Norman, like his English administration, was popular
+with the non-feudal classes, but doubtless oppressive towards the
+barons. The latter had abandoned the cause of Duke Robert, who remained
+a prisoner in England till his death (1134); but they embraced that of
+Robert's son William the Clito, whom Henry in a fit of generosity had
+allowed to go free after Tinchebrai. The Norman conspiracies of 1112,
+1118, and 1123-24 were all formed in the Clito's interest. Both France
+and Anjou supported this pretender's cause from time to time; he was
+always a thorn in Henry's side till his untimely death at Alost (1128),
+but more especially after the catastrophe of the White Ship (1120)
+deprived the king of his only lawful son. But Henry emerged from these
+complications with enhanced prestige. His campaigns had been uneventful,
+his chief victory (Bremule, 1119) was little more than a skirmish. But
+he had held his own as a general, and as a diplomatist he had shown
+surpassing skill. The chief triumphs of his foreign policy were the
+marriage of his daughter Matilda to the emperor Henry V. (1114) which
+saved Normandy in 1124; the detachment of the pope, Calixtus II., from
+the side of France and the Clito (1119), and the Angevin marriages which
+he arranged for his son William Aetheling (1119) and for the widowed
+empress Matilda (1129) after her brother's death. This latter match,
+though unpopular in England and Normandy, was a fatal blow to the
+designs of Louis VI., and prepared the way for the expansion of English
+power beyond the Loire. After 1124 the disaffection of Normandy was
+crushed. The severity with which Henry treated the last rebels was
+regarded as a blot upon his fame; but the only case of merely vindictive
+punishment was that of the poet Luke de la Barre, who was sentenced to
+lose his eyes for a lampoon upon the king, and only escaped the sentence
+by committing suicide.
+
+Henry's English government was severe and grasping; but he "kept good
+peace" and honourably distinguished himself among contemporary statesmen
+in an age when administrative reform was in the air. He spent more time
+in Normandy than in England. But he showed admirable judgment in his
+choice of subordinates; Robert of Meulan, who died in 1118, and Roger of
+Salisbury, who survived his master, were statesmen of no common order;
+and Henry was free from the mania of attending in person to every
+detail, which was the besetting sin of medieval sovereigns. As a
+legislator Henry was conservative. He issued few ordinances; the
+unofficial compilation known as the _Leges Henrici_ shows that, like the
+Conqueror, he made it his ideal to maintain the "law of Edward." His
+itinerant justices were not altogether a novelty in England or Normandy.
+It is characteristic of the man that the exchequer should be the chief
+institution created in his reign. The eulogies of the last _Peterborough
+Chronicle_ on his government were written after the anarchy of Stephen's
+reign had invested his predecessor's "good peace" with the glamour of a
+golden age. Henry was respected and not tyrannous. He showed a lofty
+indifference to criticism such as that of Eadmer in the _Historia
+novorum_, which was published early in the reign. He showed, on some
+occasions, great deference to the opinions of the magnates. But dark
+stories, some certainly unfounded, were told of his prison-houses. Men
+thought him more cruel and more despotic than he actually was.
+
+Henry was twice married. After the death of his first wife, Matilda
+(1080-1118), he took to wife Adelaide, daughter of Godfrey, count of
+Louvain (1121), in the hope of male issue. But the marriage proved
+childless, and the empress Matilda was designated as her father's
+successor, the English baronage being compelled to do her homage both in
+1126, and again, after the Angevin marriage, in 1131. He had many
+illegitimate sons and daughters by various mistresses. Of these bastards
+the most important is Robert, earl of Gloucester, upon whom fell the
+main burden of defending Matilda's title against Stephen.
+
+Henry died near Gisors on the 1st of December, 1135, in the thirty-sixth
+year of his reign, and was buried in the abbey of Reading which he
+himself had founded.
+
+  ORIGINAL AUTHORITIES.--_The Peterborough Chronicle_ (ed. Plummer,
+  Oxford, 1882-1889); _Florence of Worcester_ and his first continuator
+  (ed. B. Thorpe, 1848-1849); Eadmer, _Historia novorum_ (ed. Rule,
+  Rolls Series, 1884); William of Malmesbury, _Gesta regum_ and
+  _Historia novella_ (ed. Stubbs, Rolls Series, 1887-1889); Henry of
+  Huntingdon, _Historia Anglorum_ (ed. Arnold, Rolls Series, 1879);
+  Simeon of Durham (ed. Arnold, Rolls Series, 1882-1885); Orderic
+  Vitalis, _Historia ecclesiastica_ (ed. le Prevost, Paris, 1838-1855);
+  Robert of Torigni, _Chronica_ (ed. Howlett, Rolls Series, 1889), and
+  _Continuatio Willelmi Gemmeticensis_ (ed. Duchesne, _Hist. Normannorum
+  scriptores_, pp. 215-317, Paris, 1619). See also the Pipe Roll of 31
+  H. I. (ed. Hunter, _Record Commission_, 1833); the documents in W.
+  Stubbs's _Select Chapters_ (Oxford, 1895); the _Leges Henrici_ in
+  Liebermann's _Gesetze der Angel-Sachsen_ (Halle, 1898, &c.); and the
+  same author's monograph, _Leges Henrici_ (Halle, 1901); the treaties,
+  &c., in the Record Commission edition of Thomas Rymer's _Foedera_,
+  vol. i. (1816).
+
+  MODERN AUTHORITIES.--E. A. Freeman, _History of the Norman Conquest_,
+  vol. v.; J. M. Lappenberg, _History of England under the Norman Kings_
+  (tr. Thorpe, Oxford, 1857); Kate Norgate, _England under the Angevin
+  Kings_, vol. i. (1887); Sir James Ramsay, _Foundations of England_,
+  vol. ii.; W. Stubbs, _Constitutional History_, vol. i.; H. W. C.
+  Davis, _England under the Normans and Angevins_; Hunt and Poole,
+  _Political History of England_, vol. ii.     (H. W. C. D.)
+
+
+
+
+HENRY II. (1133-1189), king of England, son of Geoffrey Plantagenet,
+count of Anjou, by Matilda, daughter of Henry I., was born at Le Mans on
+the 25th of March 1133. He was brought to England during his mother's
+conflict with Stephen (1142), and was placed under the charge of a tutor
+at Bristol. He returned to Normandy in 1146. He next appeared on English
+soil in 1149[1] when he came to court the help of Scotland and the
+English baronage against King Stephen. The second visit was of short
+duration. In 1150 he was invested with Normandy by his father, whose
+death in the next year made him also count of Anjou. In 1152 by a
+marriage with Eleanor of Aquitaine, the divorced wife of the French king
+Louis VII., he acquired Poitou, Guienne and Gascony; but in doing so
+incurred the ill-will of his suzerain from which he suffered not a
+little in the future. Lastly in 1153 he was able, through the aid of the
+Church and his mother's partisans, to extort from Stephen the
+recognition of his claim to the English succession; and this claim was
+asserted without opposition immediately after Stephen's death (25th of
+October 1154). Matilda retired into seclusion, although she possessed,
+until her death (1167), great influence with her son.
+
+The first years of the reign were largely spent in restoring the public
+peace and recovering for the crown the lands and prerogatives which
+Stephen had bartered away. Amongst the older partisans of the Angevin
+house the most influential were Archbishop Theobald, whose good will
+guaranteed to Henry the support of the Church, and Nigel, bishop of Ely,
+who presided at the exchequer. But Thomas Becket, archdeacon of
+Canterbury, a younger statesman whom Theobald had discovered and
+promoted, soon became all-powerful. Becket lent himself entirely to his
+master's ambitions, which at this time centred round schemes of
+territorial aggrandizement. In 1155 Henry asked and obtained from Adrian
+IV. a licence to invade Ireland, which the king contemplated bestowing
+upon his brother, William of Anjou. This plan was dropped; but Malcolm
+of Scotland was forced to restore the northern counties which had been
+ceded to David; North Wales was invaded in 1157; and in 1159 Henry made
+an attempt, which was foiled by the intervention of Louis VII., to
+assert his wife's claims upon Toulouse. After vainly invoking the aid of
+the emperor Frederick I., the young king came to terms with Louis
+(1160), whose daughter was betrothed to Henry's namesake and heir. The
+peace proved unstable, and there was desultory skirmishing in 1161. The
+following year was chiefly spent in reforming the government of the
+continental provinces. In 1163 Henry returned to England, and almost
+immediately embarked on that quarrel with the Church which is the
+keynote to the middle period of the reign.
+
+Henry had good cause to complain of the ecclesiastical courts, and had
+only awaited a convenient season to correct abuses which were admitted
+by all reasonable men. But he allowed the question to be complicated by
+personal issues. He was bitterly disappointed that Becket, on whom he
+bestowed the primacy, left vacant by the death of Theobald (1162), at
+once became the champion of clerical privilege; he and the archbishop
+were no longer on speaking terms when the Constitutions of Clarendon
+came up for debate. The king's demands were not intrinsically
+irreconcilable with the canon law, and the papacy would probably have
+allowed them to take effect _sub silentio_, if Becket (q.v.) had not
+been goaded to extremity by persecution in the forms of law. After
+Becket's flight (1164), the king put himself still further in the wrong
+by impounding the revenues of Canterbury and banishing at one stroke a
+number of the archbishop's friends and connexions. He showed, however,
+considerable dexterity in playing off the emperor against Alexander III.
+and Louis VII., and contrived for five years, partly by these means,
+partly by insincere negotiations with Becket, to stave off a papal
+interdict upon his dominions. When, in July 1170, he was forced by
+Alexander's threats to make terms with Becket, the king contrived that
+not a word should be said of the Constitutions. He undoubtedly hoped
+that in this matter he would have his way when Becket should be more in
+England and within his grasp. For the murder of Becket (Dec. 29, 1170)
+the king cannot be held responsible, though the deed was suggested by
+his impatient words. It was a misfortune to the royal cause; and Henry
+was compelled to purchase the papal absolution by a complete surrender
+on the question of criminous clerks (1172). When he heard of the murder
+he was panic-stricken; and his expedition to Ireland (1171), although so
+momentous for the future, was originally a mere pretext for placing
+himself beyond the reach of Alexander's censures.
+
+Becket's fate, though it supplied an excuse, was certainly not the real
+cause of the troubles with his sons which disturbed the king's later
+years (1173-1189). But Henry's misfortunes were largely of his own
+making. Queen Eleanor, whom he alienated by his faithlessness, stirred
+up her sons to rebellion; and they had grievances enough to be easily
+persuaded. Henry was an affectionate but a suspicious and close-handed
+father. The titles which he bestowed on them carried little power, and
+served chiefly to denote the shares of the paternal inheritance which
+were to be theirs after his death. The excessive favour which he showed
+to John, his youngest-born, was another cause of heart-burning; and
+Louis, the old enemy, did his utmost to foment all discords. It must,
+however, be remembered in Henry's favour, that the supporters of the
+princes, both in England and in the foreign provinces, were animated by
+resentment against the soundest features of the king's administration;
+and that, in the rebellion of 1173, he received from the English commons
+such hearty support that any further attempt to raise a rebellion in
+England was considered hopeless. Henry, like his grandfather, gained in
+popularity with every year of his reign. In 1183 the death of Prince
+Henry, the heir-apparent, while engaged in a war against his brother
+Richard and their father, secured a short interval of peace. But in 1184
+Geoffrey of Brittany and John combined with their father's leave to make
+war upon Richard, now the heir-apparent. After Geoffrey's death (1186)
+the feud between John and Richard drove the latter into an alliance with
+Philip Augustus of France. The ill-success of the old king in this war
+aggravated the disease from which he was suffering; and his heart was
+broken by the discovery that John, for whose sake he had alienated
+Richard, was in secret league with the victorious allies. Henry died at
+Chinon on the 6th of July 1189, and was buried at Fontevraud. By Eleanor
+of Aquitaine the king had five sons and three daughters. His eldest son,
+William, died young; his other sons, Henry, Richard, Geoffrey and John,
+are all mentioned above. His daughters were: Matilda (1156-1189), who
+became the wife of Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony; Eleanor (1162-1214),
+who married Alphonso III., king of Castile; and Joanna, who, after the
+death of William of Sicily in 1189, became the wife of Raymund VI.,
+count of Toulouse, having previously accompanied her brother, Richard,
+to Palestine. He had also three illegitimate sons: Geoffrey, archbishop
+of York; Morgan; and William Longsword, earl of Salisbury.
+
+Henry's power impressed the imagination of his contemporaries, who
+credited him with aiming at the conquest of France and the acquisition
+of the imperial title. But his ambitions of conquest were comparatively
+moderate in his later years. He attempted to secure Maurienne and Savoy
+for John by a marriage-alliance, for which a treaty was signed in 1173.
+But the project failed through the death of the intended bride; nor did
+the marriage of his third daughter, the princess Joanna (1165-1199),
+with William II., king of Sicily (1177) lead to English intervention in
+Italian politics. Henry once declined an offer of the Empire, made by
+the opponents of Frederick Barbarossa; and he steadily supported the
+young Philip Augustus against the intrigues of French feudatories. The
+conquest of Ireland was carried out independently of his assistance, and
+perhaps against his wishes. He asserted his suzerainty over Scotland by
+the treaty of Falaise (1175), but not so stringently as to provoke
+Scottish hostility. This moderation was partly due to the embarrassments
+produced by the ecclesiastical question and the rebellions of the
+princes. But Henry, despite a violent and capricious temper, had a
+strong taste for the work of a legislator and administrator. He devoted
+infinite pains and thought to the reform of government both in England
+and Normandy. The legislation of his reign was probably in great part
+of his own contriving. His supervision of the law courts was close and
+jealous; he transacted a great amount of judicial business in his own
+person, even after he had formed a high court of justice which might sit
+without his personal presence. To these activities he devoted his scanty
+intervals of leisure. His government was stern; he over-rode the
+privileges of the baronage without regard to precedent; he persisted in
+keeping large districts under the arbitrary and vexatious jurisdiction
+of the forest-courts. But it is the general opinion of historians that
+he had a high sense of his responsibilities and a strong love of
+justice; despite the looseness of his personal morals, he commanded the
+affection and respect of Gilbert Foliot and Hugh of Lincoln, the most
+upright of the English bishops.
+
+  ORIGINAL AUTHORITIES.--Henry's laws are printed in W. Stubb's _Select
+  Charters_ (Oxford, 1895). The chief chroniclers of his reign are
+  William of Newburgh, Ralph de Diceto, the so-called Benedict of
+  Peterborough, Roger of Hoveden, Robert de Torigni (or de Monte),
+  Jordan Fantosme, Giraldus Cambrensis, Gervase of Canterbury; all
+  printed in the Rolls Series. The biographies and letters contained in
+  the 7 vols. of _Materials for the History of Thomas Becket_ (ed. J. C.
+  Robertson, Rolls Series, 1875-1885) are valuable for the early and
+  middle part of the reign. For Irish affairs the _Song of Dermot_ (ed.
+  Orpen, Oxford, 1892), for the rebellions of the princes the metrical
+  _Histoire de Guillaume le Marechal_ (ed. Paul Meyer, 3 vols., Paris,
+  1891, &c.) are of importance. Henry's legal and administrative reforms
+  are illustrated by the _Tractatus de legibus_ attributed to Ranulph
+  Glanville, his chief justiciar (ed. G. Phillips, Berlin, 1828); by the
+  _Dialogus de scaccario_ of Richard fitz Nigel (Oxford, 1902); the
+  _Pipe Rolls_, printed by J. Hunter for the Record Commission (1844)
+  and by the Pipe-Roll Society (London, 1884, &c.) supply valuable
+  details. The works of John of Salisbury (ed. Giles, 1848), Peter of
+  Blois (ed. Migne), Walter Map (Camden Society, 1841, 1850) and the
+  letters of Gilbert Foliot (ed. J. A. Giles, Oxford, 1845) are useful
+  for the social and Church history of the reign.
+
+  MODERN AUTHORITIES.--R. W. Eyton, _Itinerary of Henry II._ (London,
+  1878); W. Stubbs, _Constitutional History_, vol. i. (Oxford, 1893),
+  _Lectures on Medieval and Modern History_ (Oxford, 1886) and _Early
+  Plantagenets_ (London, 1876); the same author's introduction to the
+  Rolls editions of "Benedict," Gervase, Diceto, Hoveden; Mrs J. R.
+  Green, Henry II. (London, 1888); Miss K. Norgate, _England under the
+  Angevin Kings_ (2 vols., London, 1887); Sir J. H. Ramsay's _The
+  Angevin Empire_ (London, 1893); H. W. C. Davis's _England under the
+  Normans and Angevins_ (London, 1905); Sir F. Pollock and F. W.
+  Maitland, _History of English Law_ (2 vols., Cambridge, 1898); and F.
+  Hardegen, _Imperialpolitik Konig Heinrichs II. von England_
+  (Heidelberg, 1905).     (H. W. C. D.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] For a supposed visit in 1147, see J. H. Round in _English
+    Historical Review_, v. 747.
+
+
+
+
+HENRY III. (1207-1272), king of England, was the eldest son of King John
+by Isabella of Angouleme. Born on the 1st of October 1207, the prince
+was but nine years old at the time of his father's death. The greater
+part of eastern England being in the hands of the French pretender,
+Prince Louis, afterwards King Louis VIII., and the rebel barons, Henry
+was crowned by his supporters at Gloucester, the western capital. John
+had committed his son to the protection of the Holy See; and a share in
+the government was accordingly allowed to the papal legates, Gualo and
+Pandulf, both during the civil war and for some time afterwards. But the
+title of regent was given by the loyal barons to William Marshal, the
+aged earl of Pembroke; and Peter des Roches, the Poitevin bishop of
+Winchester, received the charge of the king's person. The cause of the
+young Henry was fully vindicated by the close of the year 1217. Defeated
+both by land and sea, the French prince renounced his pretensions and
+evacuated England, leaving the regency to deal with the more difficult
+questions raised by the lawless insolence of the royal partisans. Henry
+remained a passive spectator of the measures by which William Marshal
+(d. 1219), and his successor, the justiciar Hubert de Burgh, asserted
+the royal prerogative against native barons and foreign mercenaries. In
+1223 Honorius III. declared the king of age, but this was a mere
+formality, intended to justify the resumption of the royal castles and
+demesnes which had passed into private hands during the commotions of
+the civil war.
+
+The personal rule of Henry III. began in 1227, when he was again
+proclaimed of age. Even then he remained for some time under the
+influence of Hubert de Burgh, whose chief rival, Peter des Roches, found
+it expedient to quit the kingdom for four years. But Henry was ambitions
+to recover the continental possessions which his father had lost.
+Against the wishes of the justiciar he planned and carried out an
+expedition to the west of France (1230); when it failed he laid the
+blame upon his minister. Other differences arose soon afterwards. Hubert
+was accused, with some reason, of enriching himself at the expense of
+the crown, and of encouraging popular riots against the alien clerks for
+whom the papacy was providing at the expense of the English Church. He
+was disgraced in 1232; and power passed for a time into the hands of
+Peter des Roches, who filled the administration with Poitevins. So began
+the period of misrule by which Henry III. is chiefly remembered in
+history. The Poitevins fell in 1234; they were removed at the demand of
+the barons and the primate Edmund Rich, who held them responsible for
+the tragic fate of the rebellious Richard Marshal. But the king replaced
+them with a new clique of servile and rapacious favourites. Disregarding
+the wishes of the Great Council, and excluding all the more important of
+the barons and bishops from office, he acted as his own chief minister
+and never condescended to justify his policy except when he stood in
+need of subsidies. When these were refused, he extorted aids from the
+towns, the Jews or the clergy, the three most defenceless interests in
+the kingdom. Always in pecuniary straits through his extravagance, he
+pursued a foreign policy which would have been expensive under the most
+careful management. He hoped not only to regain the French possessions
+but to establish members of his own family as sovereigns in Italy and
+the Empire. These plans were artfully fostered by the Savoyard kinsmen
+of Eleanor, daughter of Raymond Berenger, count of Provence, whom he
+married at Canterbury in January 1236, and by his half-brothers, the
+sons of Queen Isabella and Hugo, count of la Marche. These favourites,
+not content with pushing their fortunes in the English court, encouraged
+the king in the wildest designs. In 1242 he led an expedition to Gascony
+which terminated disastrously with the defeat of Taillebourg; and
+hostilities with France were intermittently continued for seventeen
+years. The Savoyards encouraged his natural tendency to support the
+Papacy against the Empire; at an early date in the period of misrule he
+entered into a close alliance with Rome, which resulted in heavy
+taxation of the clergy and gave great umbrage to the barons. A
+cardinal-legate was sent to England at Henry's request, and during four
+years (1237-1241) administered the English Church in a manner equally
+profitable to the king and to the pope. After the recall of the legate
+Otho the alliance was less open and less cordial. Still the pope
+continued to share the spoils of the English clergy with the king, and
+the king to enforce the demands of Roman tax-collectors.
+
+Circumstances favoured Henry's schemes. Archbishop Edmund Rich was timid
+and inexperienced; his successor, Boniface of Savoy, was a kinsman of
+the queen; Grosseteste, the most eminent of the bishops, died in 1253,
+when he was on the point of becoming a popular hero. Among the lay
+barons, the first place naturally belonged to Richard of Cornwall who,
+as the king's brother, was unwilling to take any steps which might
+impair the royal prerogative; while Simon de Montfort, earl of
+Leicester, the ablest man of his order, was regarded with suspicion as a
+foreigner, and linked to Henry's cause by his marriage with the princess
+Eleanor. Although the Great Council repeatedly protested against the
+king's misrule and extravagance, their remonstrances came to nothing for
+want of leaders and a clear-cut policy. But between 1248 and 1252 Henry
+alienated Montfort from his cause by taking the side of the Gascons,
+whom the earl had provoked to rebellion through his rigorous
+administration of their duchy. A little later, when Montfort was
+committed to opposition, Henry foolishly accepted from Innocent IV. the
+crown of Sicily for his second son Edmund Crouchback (1255). Sicily was
+to be conquered from the Hohenstaufen at the expense of England; and
+Henry pledged his credit to the papacy for enormous subsidies, although
+years of comparative inactivity had already overwhelmed him with debts.
+On the publication of the ill-considered bargain the baronage at length
+took vigorous action. They forced upon the king the Provisions of Oxford
+(1258), which placed the government in the hands of a feudal oligarchy;
+they reduced expenditure, expelled the alien favourites from the
+kingdom, and insisted upon a final renunciation of the French claims.
+The king submitted for the moment, but at the first opportunity
+endeavoured to cancel his concessions. He obtained a papal absolution
+from his promises; and he tricked the opposition into accepting the
+arbitration of the French king, Louis IX., whose verdict was a foregone
+conclusion. But Henry was incapable of protecting with the strong hand
+the rights which he had recovered by his double-dealing. Ignominiously
+defeated by Montfort at Lewes (1264) he fell into the position of a
+cipher, equally despised by his opponents and supporters. He acquiesced
+in the earl's dictatorship; left to his eldest son, Edward, the
+difficult task of reorganizing the royal party; marched with the
+Montfortians to Evesham; and narrowly escaped sharing the fate of his
+gaoler. After Evesham he is hardly mentioned by the chroniclers. The
+compromise with the surviving rebels was arranged by his son in concert
+with Richard of Cornwall and the legate Ottobuono; the statute of
+Marlborough (1267), which purchased a lasting peace by judicious
+concessions, was similarly arranged between Edward and the earl of
+Gloucester. Edward was king in all but name for some years before the
+death of his father, by whom he was alternately suspected and adored.
+
+Henry had in him some of the elements of a fine character. His mind was
+cultivated; he was a discriminating patron of literature, and
+Westminster Abbey is an abiding memorial of his artistic taste. His
+personal morality was irreproachable, except that he inherited the
+Plantagenet taste for crooked courses and dissimulation in political
+affairs; even in this respect the king's reputation has suffered unduly
+at the hands of Matthew Paris, whose literary skill is only equalled by
+his malice. The ambitions which Henry cherished, if extravagant, were
+never sordid; his patriotism, though seldom attested by practical
+measures, was thoroughly sincere. Some of his worst actions as a
+politician were due to a sincere, though exaggerated, gratitude for the
+support which the Papacy had given him during his minority. But he had
+neither the training nor the temper of a statesman. His dreams of
+autocracy at home and far-reaching dominion abroad were anachronisms in
+a century of constitutional ideas and national differentiation. Above
+all he earned the contempt of Englishmen and foreigners alike by the
+instability of his purpose. Matthew Paris said that he had a heart of
+wax; Dante relegated him to the limbo of ineffectual souls; and later
+generations have endorsed these scathing judgments.
+
+Henry died at Westminster on the 16th of November 1272; his widow,
+Eleanor, took the veil in 1276 and died at Amesbury on the 25th of June
+1291. Their children were: the future king Edward I.; Edmund, earl of
+Lancaster; Margaret (1240-1275), the wife of Alexander III., king of
+Scotland; Beatrice; and Katherine.
+
+  ORIGINAL AUTHORITIES.--Roger of Wendover, _Flores historiarum_ (ed. H.
+  O. Coxe, 4 vols., 1841-1844); and Matthew of Paris, _Chronica majora_
+  (ed. H. R. Luard, Rolls Series, 7 vols., 1872-1883) are the chief
+  narrative sources. See also the _Annales monastici_ (ed. H. R. Luard,
+  Rolls Series, 5 vols., 1864-1869); the collection of _Royal and other
+  Historical Letters_ edited by W. Shirley (Rolls Series, 2 vols.,
+  1862-1866); the Close and Patent Rolls edited for the Record
+  Commission and the Master of the Rolls; the _Epistolae Roberti
+  Grosseteste_ (ed. H. R. Luard, Rolls Series, 1861); the _Monumenta
+  Franciscana_, vol. i. (ed. J. S. Brewer, Rolls Series, 1858); the
+  documents in the new _Foedera_, vol. i. (Record Commission, 1816).
+
+  MODERN WORKS.--G. J. Turner's article on the king's minority in
+  _Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, New Series_, vol.
+  xviii.; Dom Gasquet's _Henry III. and the Church_ (1905); the lives of
+  Simon de Montfort by G. W. Prothero (1871), R. Pauli (Eng. ed., 1876)
+  and C. Bemont (Paris, 1884); W. Stubbs's _Constitutional History of
+  England_, vol. ii. (1887); R. Pauli's _Geschichte von England_, vol.
+  iii. (Hamburg, 1853); T. F. Tout in the _Political History of
+  England_, vol. iii. (1905), and H. W. C. Davis in _England under the
+  Normans and Angevins_ (1905).     (H. W. C. D.)
+
+
+
+
+HENRY IV. (1367-1413), king of England, son of John of Gaunt, by
+Blanche, daughter of Henry, duke of Lancaster, was born on the 3rd of
+April 1367, at Bolingbroke in Lincolnshire. As early as 1377 he is
+styled earl of Derby, and in 1380 he married Mary de Bohun (d. 1394)
+one of the co-heiresses of the last earl of Hereford. In 1387 he
+supported his uncle Thomas, duke of Gloucester, in his armed opposition
+to Richard II. and his favourites. Afterwards, probably through his
+father's influence, he changed sides. He was already distinguished for
+his knightly prowess, and for some years devoted himself to adventure.
+He thought of going on the crusade to Barbary; but instead, in July
+1390, went to serve with the Teutonic knights in Lithuania. He came home
+in the following spring, but next year went again to Prussia, whence he
+journeyed by way of Venice to Cyprus and Jerusalem. After his return to
+England he sided with his father and the king against Gloucester, and in
+1397 was made duke of Hereford. In January 1398 he quarrelled with the
+duke of Norfolk, who charged him with treason. The dispute was to have
+been decided in the lists at Coventry in September; but at the last
+moment Richard intervened and banished them both.
+
+When John of Gaunt died in February 1399 Richard, contrary to his
+promise, confiscated the estates of Lancaster. Henry then felt himself
+free, and made friends with the exiled Arundels. Early in July, whilst
+Richard was absent in Ireland, he landed at Ravenspur in Yorkshire. He
+was at once joined by the Percies; and Richard, abandoned by his
+friends, surrendered at Flint on the 19th of August. In the parliament,
+which assembled on the 30th of September, Richard was forced to
+abdicate. Henry then made his claim as coming by right line of blood
+from King Henry III., and through his right to recover the realm which
+was in point to be undone for default of governance and good law.
+Parliament formally accepted him, and thus Henry became king, "not so
+much by title of blood as by popular election" (Capgrave). The new
+dynasty had consequently a constitutional basis. With this Henry's own
+political sympathies well accorded. But though the revolution of 1399
+was popular in form, its success was due to an oligarchical faction.
+From the start Henry was embarrassed by the power and pretensions of the
+Percies. Nor was his hereditary title so good as that of the Mortimers.
+To domestic troubles was added the complication of disputes with
+Scotland and France. The first danger came from the friends of Richard,
+who plotted prematurely, and were crushed in January 1400. During the
+summer of 1400 Henry made a not over-successful expedition to Scotland.
+The French court would not accept his overtures, and it was only in the
+summer of 1401 that a truce was patched up by the restoration of
+Richard's child-queen, Isabella of Valois. Meantime a more serious
+trouble had arisen through the outbreak of the Welsh revolt under Owen
+Glendower (q.v.). In 1400 and again in each of the two following autumns
+Henry invaded Wales in vain. The success of the Percies over the Scots
+at Homildon Hill (Sept. 1402) was no advantage. Henry Percy (Hotspur)
+and his father, the earl of Northumberland, thought their services
+ill-requited, and finally made common cause with the partisans of
+Mortimer and the Welsh. The plot was frustrated by Hotspur's defeat at
+Shrewsbury (21st of July 1403); and Northumberland for the time
+submitted. Henry had, however, no one on whom he could rely outside his
+own family, except Archbishop Arundel. The Welsh were unsubdued; the
+French were plundering the southern coast; Northumberland was fomenting
+trouble in the north. The crisis came in 1405. A plot to carry off the
+young Mortimers was defeated; but Mowbray, the earl marshal, who had
+been privy to it, raised a rebellion in the north supported by
+Archbishop Scrope of York. Mowbray and Scrope were taken and beheaded;
+Northumberland escaped into Scotland. For the execution of the
+archbishop Henry was personally responsible, and he could never free
+himself from its odium. Popular belief regarded his subsequent illness
+as a judgment for his impiety. Apart from ill-health and unpopularity
+Henry had succeeded--relations with Scotland were secured by the capture
+of James, the heir to the crown; Northumberland was at last crushed at
+Bramham Moor (Feb. 1408); and a little later the Welsh revolt was
+mastered.
+
+Henry, stricken with sore disease, was unable to reap the advantage. His
+necessities had all along enabled the Commons to extort concessions in
+parliament, until in 1406 he was forced to nominate a council and govern
+by its advice. However, with Archbishop Arundel as his chancellor, Henry
+still controlled the government. But in January 1410 Arundel had to give
+way to the king's half-brother, Thomas Beaufort. Beaufort and his
+brother Henry, bishop of Winchester, were opposed to Arundel and
+supported by the prince of Wales. For two years the real government
+rested with the prince and the council. Under the prince's influence the
+English intervened in France in 1411 on the side of Burgundy. In this,
+and in some matters of home politics, the king disagreed with his
+ministers. There is good reason to suppose that the Beauforts had gone
+so far as to contemplate a forced abdication on the score of the king's
+ill-health. However, in November 1411 Henry showed that he was still
+capable of vigorous action by discharging the prince and his supporters.
+Arundel again became chancellor, and the king's second son, Thomas, took
+his brother's place. The change was further marked by the sending of an
+expedition to France in support of Orleans. But Henry's health was
+failing steadily. On the 20th of March 1413, whilst praying in
+Westminster Abbey he was seized with a fainting fit, and died that same
+evening in the Jerusalem Chamber. At the time he was believed to have
+been a leper, but as it would appear without sufficient reason.
+
+As a young man Henry had been chivalrous and adventurous, and in
+politics anxious for good government and justice. As king the loss and
+failure of friends made him cautious, suspicious and cruel. The
+persecution of the Lollards, which began with the burning statute of
+1401, may be accounted for by Henry's own orthodoxy, or by the influence
+of Archbishop Arundel, his one faithful friend. But that political
+Lollardry was strong is shown by the proposal in the parliament of 1410
+for a wholesale confiscation of ecclesiastical property. Henry's faults
+may be excused by his difficulties. Throughout he was practical and
+steadfast, and he deserved credit for maintaining his principles as a
+constitutional ruler. So after all his troubles he founded his dynasty
+firmly, and passed on the crown to his son with a better title. He is
+buried under a fine tomb at Canterbury.
+
+By Mary Bohun Henry had four sons: his successor Henry V., Thomas, duke
+of Clarence, John, duke of Bedford, and Humphrey, duke of Gloucester;
+and two daughters, Blanche, who married Louis III., elector palatine of
+the Rhine, and Philippa, who married Eric XIII., king of Sweden. Henry's
+second wife was Joan, or Joanna, (c. 1370-1437), daughter of Charles the
+Bad, king of Navarre, and widow of John IV. or V., duke of Brittany, who
+survived until July 1437. By her he had no children.
+
+  The chief contemporary authorities are the _Annales Henrici Quarti_
+  and T. Walsingham's _Historia Anglicana_ (Rolls Series), Adam of Usk's
+  _Chronicle_ and the various _Chronicles of London_. The life by John
+  Capgrave (_De illustribus Henricis_) is of little value. Some personal
+  matter is contained in _Wardrobe Accounts of Henry, Earl of Derby_
+  (Camden Soc.). For documents consult T. Rymer's _Foedera_; Sir N. H.
+  Nicolas, _Proceedings and Ordinances of the Privy Council_; Sir H.
+  Ellis, _Original Letters illustrative of English History_ (London,
+  1825-1846); _Rolls of Parliament_; _Royal and Historical Letters,
+  Henry IV._ (Rolls Series) and the _Calendars of Patent Rolls_. Of
+  modern authorities the foremost is J. H. Wylie's minute and learned
+  _Hist. of England under Henry IV._ (4 vols., London, 1884-1898). See
+  also W. Stubbs, _Constitutional History_; Sir J. Ramsay, _Lancaster
+  and York_ (2 vols., Oxford, 1892), and C. W. C. Oman, _The Political
+  History of England_, vol. iv.     (C. L. K.)
+
+
+
+
+HENRY V. (1387-1422), king of England, son of Henry IV. by Mary de
+Bohun, was born at Monmouth, in August 1387. On his father's exile in
+1398 Richard II. took the boy into his own charge, and treated him
+kindly. Next year the Lancastrian revolution forced Henry into
+precocious prominence as heir to the throne. From October 1400 the
+administration of Wales was conducted in his name; less than three years
+later he was in actual command of the English forces and fought against
+the Percies at Shrewsbury. The Welsh revolt absorbed his energies till
+1408. Then through the king's ill-health he began to take a wider share
+in politics. From January 1410, helped by his uncles Henry and Thomas
+Beaufort, he had practical control of the government. Both in foreign
+and domestic policy he differed from the king, who in November 1411
+discharged the prince from the council. The quarrel of father and son
+was political only, though it is probable that the Beauforts had
+discussed the abdication of Henry IV., and their opponents certainly
+endeavoured to defame the prince. It may be that to political enmity the
+tradition of Henry's riotous youth, immortalized by Shakespeare, is
+partly due. To that tradition Henry's strenuous life in war and politics
+is a sufficient general contradiction. The most famous incident, his
+quarrel with the chief-justice, has no contemporary authority and was
+first related by Sir Thomas Elyot in 1531. The story of Falstaff
+originated partly in Henry's early friendship for Oldcastle (q.v.). That
+friendship, and the prince's political opposition to Archbishop Arundel,
+perhaps encouraged Lollard hopes. If so, their disappointment may
+account for the statements of ecclesiastical writers, like Walsingham,
+that Henry on becoming king was changed suddenly into a new man.
+
+Henry succeeded his father on the 20th of March 1413. With no past to
+embarrass him, and with no dangerous rivals, his practical experience
+had full scope. He had to deal with three main problems--the restoration
+of domestic peace, the healing of schism in the Church and the recovery
+of English prestige in Europe. Henry grasped them all together, and
+gradually built upon them a yet wider policy. From the first he made it
+clear that he would rule England as the head of a united nation, and
+that past differences were to be forgotten. Richard II. was honourably
+reinterred; the young Mortimer was taken into favour; the heirs of those
+who had suffered in the last reign were restored gradually to their
+titles and estates. With Oldcastle Henry used his personal influence in
+vain, and the gravest domestic danger was Lollard discontent. But the
+king's firmness nipped the movement in the bud (Jan. 1414), and made his
+own position as ruler secure. Save for the abortive Scrope and Cambridge
+plot in favour of Mortimer in July 1415, the rest of his reign was free
+from serious trouble at home. Henry could now turn his attention to
+foreign affairs. A writer of the next generation was the first to allege
+that Henry was encouraged by ecclesiastical statesmen to enter on the
+French war as a means of diverting attention from home troubles. For
+this story there is no foundation. The restoration of domestic peace was
+the king's first care, and until it was assured he could not embark on
+any wider enterprise abroad. Nor was that enterprise one of idle
+conquest. Old commercial disputes and the support which the French had
+lent to Glendower gave a sufficient excuse for war, whilst the
+disordered state of France afforded no security for peace. Henry may
+have regarded the assertion of his own claims as part of his kingly
+duty, but in any case a permanent settlement of the national quarrel was
+essential to the success of his world policy. The campaign of 1415, with
+its brilliant conclusion at Agincourt (October 25), was only the first
+step. Two years of patient preparation followed. The command of the sea
+was secured by driving the Genoese allies of the French out of the
+Channel. A successful diplomacy detached the emperor Sigismund from
+France, and by the Treaty of Canterbury paved the way to end the schism
+in the Church. So in 1417 the war was renewed on a larger scale. Lower
+Normandy was quickly conquered, Rouen cut off from Paris and besieged.
+The French were paralysed by the disputes of Burgundians and Armagnacs.
+Henry skilfully played them off one against the other, without relaxing
+his warlike energy. In January 1419 Rouen fell. By August the English
+were outside the walls of Paris. The intrigues of the French parties
+culminated in the assassination of John of Burgundy by the dauphin's
+partisans at Montereau (September 10, 1419). Philip, the new duke, and
+the French court threw themselves into Henry's arms. After six months'
+negotiation Henry was by the Treaty of Troyes recognized as heir and
+regent of France, and on the 2nd of June 1420 married Catherine, the
+king's daughter. He was now at the height of his power. His eventual
+success in France seemed certain. He shared with Sigismund the credit of
+having ended the Great Schism by obtaining the election of Pope Martin
+V. All the states of western Europe were being brought within the web of
+his diplomacy. The headship of Christendom was in his grasp, and
+schemes for a new crusade began to take shape. He actually sent an envoy
+to collect information in the East; but his plans were cut short by
+death. A visit to England in 1421 was interrupted by the defeat of
+Clarence at Bauge. The hardships of the longer winter siege of Meaux
+broke down his health, and he died at Bois de Vincennes on the 31st of
+August 1422.
+
+Henry's last words were a wish that he might live to rebuild the walls
+of Jerusalem. They are significant. His ideal was founded consciously on
+the models of Arthur and Godfrey as national king and leader of
+Christendom. So he is the typical medieval hero. For that very reason
+his schemes were doomed to end in disaster, since the time was come for
+a new departure. Yet he was not reactionary. His policy was
+constructive: a firm central government supported by parliament; church
+reform on conservative lines; commercial development; and the
+maintenance of national prestige. His aims in some respects anticipated
+those of his Tudor successors, but he would have accomplished them on
+medieval lines as a constitutional ruler. His success was due to the
+power of his personality. He could train able lieutenants, but at his
+death there was no one who could take his place as leader. War,
+diplomacy and civil administration were all dependent on his guidance.
+His dazzling achievements as a general have obscured his more sober
+qualities as a ruler, and even the sound strategy, with which he aimed
+to be master of the narrow seas. If he was not the founder of the
+English navy he was one of the first to realize its true importance.
+Henry had so high a sense of his own rights that he was merciless to
+disloyalty. But he was scrupulous of the rights of others, and it was
+his eager desire to further the cause of justice that impressed his
+French contemporaries. He has been charged with cruelty as a religious
+persecutor; but in fact he had as prince opposed the harsh policy of
+Archbishop Arundel, and as king sanctioned a more moderate course.
+Lollard executions during his reign had more often a political than a
+religious reason. To be just with sternness was in his eyes a duty. So
+in his warfare, though he kept strict discipline and allowed no wanton
+violence, he treated severely all who had in his opinion transgressed.
+In his personal conduct he was chaste, temperate and sincerely pious. He
+delighted in sport and all manly exercises. At the same time he was
+cultured, with a taste for literature, art and music. Henry lies buried
+in Westminster Abbey. His tomb was stripped of its splendid adornment
+during the Reformation. The shield, helmet and saddle, which formed part
+of the original funeral equipment, still hang above it.
+
+  Of original authorities the best on the English side is the _Gesta
+  Henrici Quinti_ (down to 1416), printed anonymously for the English
+  Historical Society, but probably written by Thomas Elmham, one of
+  Henry's chaplains. Two lives edited by Thomas Hearne under the names
+  of Elmham and Titus Livius Forojuliensis come from a common source;
+  the longer, which Hearne ascribed incorrectly to Elmham, is perhaps
+  the original work of Livius, who was an Italian in the service of
+  Humphrey of Gloucester, and wrote about 1440. Other authorities are
+  the Chronicles of Walsingham and Otterbourne, the _English Chronicle_
+  or _Brut_, and the various _London Chronicles_. On the French side the
+  most valuable are Chronicles of Monstrelet and St Remy (both
+  Burgundian) and the _Chronique du religieux de S. Denys_ (the official
+  view of the French court). For documents and modern authorities see
+  under HENRY IV. See also Sir N. H. Nicolas, _Hist. of the Battle of
+  Agincourt and the Expedition of 1415_ (London, 1833); C. L. Kingsford,
+  _Henry V., the Typical Medieval Hero_ (New York, 1901), where a fuller
+  bibliography will be found.     (C. L. K.)
+
+
+
+
+HENRY VI. (1421-1471), king of England, son of Henry V. and Catherine of
+Valois, was born at Windsor on the 6th of December 1421. He became king
+of England on the 1st of September 1422, and a few weeks later, on the
+death of his grandfather Charles VI., was proclaimed king of France
+also. Henry V. had directed that Richard Beauchamp, earl of Warwick
+(q.v.), should be his son's preceptor; Warwick took up his charge in
+1428; he trained his pupil to be a good man and refined gentleman, but
+he could not teach him kingship. As early as 1423 the baby king was made
+to appear at public functions and take his place in parliament. He was
+knighted by his uncle Bedford at Leicester in May 1426, and on the 6th
+of November 1429 was crowned at Westminster. Early in the next year he
+was taken over to France, and after long delay crowned in Paris on the
+16th of December 1431. His return to London on the 14th of February 1432
+was celebrated with a great pageant devised by Lydgate.
+
+During these early years Bedford ruled France wisely and at first with
+success, but he could not prevent the mischief which Humphrey of
+Gloucester (q.v.) caused both at home and abroad. Even in France the
+English lost ground steadily after the victory of Joan of Arc before
+Orleans in 1429. The climax came with the death of Bedford, and
+defection of Philip of Burgundy in 1435. This closed the first phase of
+Henry's reign. There followed fifteen years of vain struggle in France,
+and growing disorder at home. The determining factor in politics was the
+conduct of the war. Cardinal Beaufort, and after him Suffolk, sought by
+working for peace to secure at least Guienne and Normandy. Gloucester
+courted popularity by opposing them throughout; with him was Richard of
+York, who stood next in succession to the crown. Beaufort controlled the
+council, and it was under his guidance that the king began to take part
+in the government. Thus it was natural that as Henry grew to manhood he
+seconded heartily the peace policy. That policy was wise, but national
+pride made it unpopular and difficult. Henry himself had not the
+strength or knowledge to direct it, and was unfortunate in his advisers.
+The cardinal was old, his nephews John and Edmund Beaufort were
+incompetent, Suffolk, though a man of noble character, was tactless.
+Suffolk, however, achieved a great success by negotiating the marriage
+of Henry to Margaret of Anjou (q.v.) in 1445. Humphrey of Gloucester and
+Cardinal Beaufort both died early in 1447. Suffolk was now all-powerful
+in the favour of the king and queen. But his home administration was
+unpopular, whilst the incapacity of Edmund Beaufort ended in the loss of
+all Normandy and Guienne. Suffolk's fall in 1450 left Richard of York
+the foremost man in England. Henry's reign then entered on its last
+phase of dynastic struggle. Cade's rebellion suggested first that
+popular discontent might result in a change of rulers. But York, as heir
+to the throne, could abide his time. The situation was altered by the
+mental derangement of the king, and the birth of his son in 1453. York
+after a struggle secured the protectorship, and for the next year ruled
+England. Then Henry was restored to sanity, and the queen and Edmund
+Beaufort, now Duke of Somerset, to power. Open war followed, with the
+defeat and death of Somerset at St Albans on the 22nd of May 1455.
+Nevertheless a hollow peace was patched up, which continued during four
+years with lack of all governance. In 1459 war broke out again. On the
+10th of July 1460 Henry was taken prisoner at Northampton, and forced to
+acknowledge York as heir, to the exclusion of his own son. Richard of
+York's death at Wakefield (Dec. 29, 1460), and the queen's victory at St
+Albans (Feb. 17, 1461), brought Henry his freedom and no more. Edward of
+York had himself proclaimed king, and by his decisive victory at Towton
+on the 29th of March, put an end to Henry's reign. For over three years
+Henry was a fugitive in Scotland. He returned to take part in an
+abortive rising in 1464. A year later he was captured in the north, and
+brought a prisoner to the Tower. For six months in 1470-1471 he emerged
+to hold a shadowy kingship as Warwick's puppet. Edward's final victory
+at Tewkesbury was followed by Henry's death on the 21st of May 1471,
+certainly by violence, perhaps at the hands of Richard of Gloucester.
+
+Henry was the most hapless of monarchs. He was so honest and
+well-meaning that he might have made a good ruler in quiet times. But he
+was crushed by the burden of his inheritance. He had not the genius to
+find a way out of the French entanglement or the skill to steer a
+constitutional monarchy between rival factions. So the system and policy
+which were the creations of Henry IV. and Henry V. led under Henry VI.
+to the ruin of their dynasty. Henry's very virtues added to his
+difficulties. He was so trusting that any one could influence him, so
+faithful that he would not give up a minister who had become impossible.
+Thus even in the middle period he had no real control of the government.
+In his latter years he was mentally too weak for independent action. At
+his best he was a "good and gentle creature," but too kindly and
+generous to rule others. Religious observances and study were his chief
+occupations. His piety was genuine; simple and pure, he was shocked at
+any suggestion of impropriety, but his rebuke was only "Fie, for shame!
+forsooth ye are to blame." For education he was really zealous. Even as
+a boy he was concerned for the upbringing of his half-brothers, his
+mother's children by Owen Tudor. Later, the planning of his great
+foundations at Eton and King's College, Cambridge, was the one thing
+which absorbed his interest. To both he was more than a royal founder,
+and the credit of the whole scheme belongs to him. The charter for Eton
+was granted on the 11th of October 1440, and that for King's College in
+the following February. Henry himself laid the foundation-stones of both
+buildings. He frequently visited Cambridge to superintend the progress
+of the work. When at Windsor he loved to send for the boys from his
+school and give them good advice.
+
+Henry's only son was Edward, prince of Wales (1453-1471), who, having
+shared the many journeys and varying fortunes of his mother, Margaret,
+was killed after the battle of Tewkesbury (May 4, 1471) by some noblemen
+in attendance on Edward IV.
+
+  There is a life of Henry by his chaplain John Blakman (printed at the
+  end of Hearne's edition of Otterbourne); but it is concerned only with
+  his piety and patience in adversity. English chronicles for the reign
+  are scanty; the best are the _Chronicles of London_ (ed. C. L.
+  Kingsford), with the analogous _Gregory's Chronicle_ (ed. J. Gairdner
+  for Camden Soc.) and _Chronicle of London_ (ed. Sir H. N. Nicolas).
+  _The Paston Letters_, with James Gairdner's valuable Introductions,
+  are indispensable. Other useful authorities are Joseph Stevenson's
+  _Letters and Papers illustrative of the Wars of the English in France
+  during the Reign of Henry VI._; and _Correspondence of T. Bekynton_
+  (both in "Rolls" series). For the French war the chief sources are the
+  _Chronicles_ of Monstrelet, D'Escouchy and T. Basin. For other
+  documents and modern authorities see under HENRY IV. For Henry's
+  foundations see Sir H. C. Maxwell-Lyte, _History of Eton College_
+  (London, 1899), and J. B. Mullinger, _History of the University of
+  Cambridge_ (London, 1888).     (C. L. K.)
+
+
+
+
+HENRY VII. (1457-1509), king of England, was the first of the Tudor
+dynasty. His claim to the throne was through his mother from John of
+Gaunt and Catherine Swynford, whose issue born before their marriage had
+been legitimated by parliament. This, of course, was only a Lancastrian
+claim, never valid, even as such, till the direct male line of John of
+Gaunt had become extinct. By his father the genealogists traced his
+pedigree to Cadwallader, but this only endeared him to the Welsh when he
+had actually become king. His grandfather, Owen Tudor, however, had
+married Catherine, the widow of Henry V. and daughter to Charles VI. of
+France. Their son Edmund, being half brother of Henry VI., was created
+by that king earl of Richmond, and having married Margaret Beaufort,
+only daughter of John, duke of Somerset, died more than two months
+before their only child, Henry, was born in Pembroke Castle in January
+1457. The fatherless child had sore trials. Edward IV. won the crown
+when he was four years old, and while Wales partly held out against the
+conqueror, he was carried for safety from one castle to another. Then
+for a time he was made a prisoner; but ultimately he was taken abroad by
+his uncle Jasper, who found refuge in Brittany. At one time the duke of
+Brittany was nearly induced to surrender him to Edward IV.; but he
+remained safe in the duchy till the cruelties of Richard III. drove more
+and more Englishmen abroad to join him. An invasion of England was
+planned in 1483 in concert with the duke of Buckingham's rising; but
+stormy weather at sea and an inundation in the Severn defeated the two
+movements. A second expedition, two years later, aided this time by
+France, was more successful. Henry landed at Milford Haven among his
+Welsh allies and defeated Richard at the battle of Bosworth (August 22,
+1485). He was crowned at Westminster on the 30th of October following.
+Then, in fulfilment of pledges by which he had procured the adhesion of
+many Yorkist supporters, he was married at Westminster to Elizabeth
+(1465-1503), eldest daughter and heiress of Edward IV. (Jan. 18, 1486),
+whose two brothers had both been murdered by Richard III. Thus the Red
+and White Roses were united and the pretexts for civil war done away
+with.
+
+Nevertheless, Henry's reign was much disturbed by a succession of
+Yorkist conspiracies and pretenders. Of the two most notable impostors,
+the first, Lambert Simnel, personated the earl of Warwick, son of the
+duke of Clarence, a youth of seventeen whom Henry had at his accession
+taken care to imprison in the Tower. Simnel, who was but a boy, was
+taken over to Ireland to perform his part, and the farce was wonderfully
+successful. He was crowned as Edward VI. in Christchurch Cathedral,
+Dublin, and received the allegiance of every one--bishops, nobles and
+judges, alike with others. From Ireland, accompanied by some bands of
+German mercenaries procured for him in the Low Countries, he invaded
+England; but the rising was put down at Stoke near Newark in
+Nottinghamshire, and, Simnel being captured, the king made him a menial
+of his kitchen.
+
+This movement had been greatly assisted by Margaret, duchess dowager of
+Burgundy, sister of Edward IV., who could not endure to see the House of
+York supplanted by that of Tudor. The second pretender, Perkin Warbeck,
+was also much indebted to her support; but he seems to have entered on
+his career at first without it. And his story, which was more prolonged,
+had to do with the attitude of many countries towards England. Anxious
+as Henry was to avoid being involved in foreign wars, it was not many
+years before he was committed to a war with France, partly by his desire
+of an alliance with Spain, and partly by the indignation of his own
+subjects at the way in which the French were undermining the
+independence of Brittany. Henry gave Brittany defensive aid; but after
+the duchess Anne had married Charles VIII. of France, he felt bound to
+fulfil his obligations to Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, and also to
+the German king Maximilian, by an invasion of France in 1492. His
+allies, however, were not equally scrupulous or equally able to fulfil
+their obligations to him; and after besieging Boulogne for some little
+time, he received very advantageous offers from the French king and made
+peace with him.
+
+Now Perkin Warbeck had first appeared in Ireland in 1491, and had
+somehow been persuaded there to personate Richard, duke of York, the
+younger of the two princes murdered in the Tower, pretending that he had
+escaped, though his brother had been killed. Charles VIII., then
+expecting war with England, called him to France, recognized his
+pretensions and gave him a retinue; but after the peace he dismissed
+him. Then Margaret of Burgundy received him as her nephew, and
+Maximilian, now estranged from Henry, recognized him as king of England.
+With a fleet given him by Maximilian he attempted to land at Deal, but
+sailed away to Ireland and, not succeeding very well there either,
+sailed farther to Scotland, where James IV. received him with open arms,
+married him to an earl's daughter and made a brief and futile invasion
+of England along with him. But in 1497 he thought best to dismiss him,
+and Perkin, after attempting something again in Ireland, landed in
+Cornwall with a small body of men.
+
+Already Cornwall had risen in insurrection that year, not liking the
+taxation imposed for the purpose of repelling the Scotch invasion. A
+host of the country people, led first by a blacksmith, but afterwards by
+a nobleman, marched up towards London and were only defeated at
+Blackheath. But the Cornishmen were quite ready for another revolt, and
+indeed had invited Perkin to their shores. He had little fight in him,
+however, and after a futile siege of Exeter and an advance to Taunton he
+stole away and took sanctuary at Beaulieu in Hampshire. But, being
+assured of his life, he surrendered, was brought to London, and was only
+executed two years later, when, being imprisoned near the earl of
+Warwick in the Tower, he inveigled that simple-minded youth into a
+project of escape. For this Warwick, too, was tried, condemned and
+executed--no doubt to deliver Henry from repeated conspiracies in his
+favour.
+
+Henry had by this time several children, of whom the eldest, Arthur, had
+been proposed in infancy for a bridegroom to Catherine, daughter of
+Ferdinand of Aragon. The match had always been kept in view, but its
+completion depended greatly on the assurance Ferdinand and Isabella
+could feel of Henry's secure position upon the throne. At last Catherine
+was brought to England and was married to Prince Arthur at St Paul's on
+the 14th of November 1501. The lad was just over fifteen and the
+co-habitation of the couple was wisely delayed; but he died on the 2nd
+of April following. Another match was presently proposed for Catherine
+with the king's second son, Henry, which only took effect when the
+latter had become king himself. Meanwhile Henry's eldest daughter
+Margaret was married to James IV. of Scotland--a match distinctly
+intended to promote international peace, and make possible that ultimate
+union which actually resulted from it. The espousals had taken place at
+Richmond in 1502, and the marriage was celebrated in Scotland the year
+after. In the interval between these two events Henry lost his queen,
+who died on the 11th of February 1503, and during the remainder of his
+reign he made proposals in various quarters for a second
+marriage--proposals in which political objects were always the chief
+consideration; but none of them led to any result. In his latter years
+he became unpopular from the extortions practised by his two
+instruments, Empson and Dudley, under the authority of antiquated
+statutes. From the beginning of his reign he had been accumulating
+money, mainly for his own security against intrigues and conspiracies,
+and avarice had grown upon him with success. He died in April 1509,
+undoubtedly the richest prince in Christendom. He was not a niggard,
+however, in his expenditure. Before his death he had finished the
+hospital of the Savoy and made provision for the magnificent chapel at
+Westminster which bears his name. His money-getting was but part of his
+statesmanship, and for his statesmanship his country owes him not a
+little gratitude. He not only terminated a disastrous civil war and
+brought under control the spirit of ancient feudalism, but with a clear
+survey of the conditions of foreign powers he secured England in almost
+uninterrupted peace while he developed her commerce, strengthened her
+slender navy and built, apparently for the first time, a naval dock at
+Portsmouth.
+
+In addition to his sons Arthur and Henry, Henry VII. had several
+daughters, one of whom, Margaret, married James IV., king of Scotland,
+and another, Mary, became the wife of Louis XII. of France, and
+afterwards of Charles Brandon, duke of Suffolk.
+
+  The popular view of Henry VII.'s reign has always been derived from
+  Bacon's _History_ of that king. This has been edited by J. R. Lumby
+  (Cambridge, 1881). But during the last half century large accessions
+  to our knowledge have been made from foreign and domestic archives,
+  and the sources of Bacon's work have been more critically examined.
+  For a complete account of those sources the reader may be referred to
+  W. Busch's _England under the Tudors_, published in German in 1892 and
+  in an English translation in 1895. Some further information of a
+  special kind will be found in M. Oppenheim's _Naval Accounts and
+  Inventories_, published by the Navy Records Society in 1896. See also
+  J. Gairdner's _Henry VII._ (1889).     (J. Ga.)
+
+
+
+
+HENRY VIII. (1491-1547), king of England and Ireland, the third child
+and second son of Henry VII. and Elizabeth of York, was born on the 28th
+of June 1491 and, like all the Tudor sovereigns except Henry VII., at
+Greenwich. His two brothers, Prince Arthur and Edmund, duke of Somerset,
+and two of his sisters predeceased their father; Henry was the only son,
+and Margaret, afterwards queen of Scotland, and Mary, afterwards queen
+of France and duchess of Suffolk, were the only daughters who survived.
+Henry is said, on authority which has not been traced farther back than
+Paolo Sarpi, to have been destined for the church; but the story is
+probably a mere surmise from his theological accomplishments, and from
+his earliest years high secular posts such as the viceroyalty of Ireland
+were conferred upon the child. He was the first English monarch to be
+educated under the influence of the Renaissance, and his tutors included
+the poet Skelton; he became an accomplished scholar, linguist, musician
+and athlete, and when by the death of his brother Arthur in 1502 and of
+his father on the 22nd of April 1509 Henry VIII. succeeded to the
+throne, his accession was hailed with universal acclamation.
+
+He had been betrothed to his brother's widow Catherine of Aragon, and in
+spite of the protest which he had been made to register against the
+marriage, and of the doubts expressed by Julius II. and Archbishop
+Warham as to its validity, it was completed in the first few months of
+his reign. This step was largely due to the pressure brought to bear by
+Catherine's father Ferdinand upon Henry's council; he regarded England
+as a tool in his hands and Catherine as his resident ambassador. The
+young king himself at first took little interest in politics, and for
+two years affairs were managed by the pacific Richard Fox (q.v.) and
+Warham. Then Wolsey became supreme, while Henry was immersed in the
+pursuit of sport and other amusements. He took, however, the keenest
+interest from the first in learning and in the navy, and his inborn
+pride easily led him to support Wolsey's and Ferdinand's warlike designs
+on France. He followed an English army across the Channel in 1513, and
+personally took part in the successful sieges of Therouanne and Tournay
+and the battle of Guinegate which led to the peace of 1514. Ferdinand,
+however, deserted the English alliance, and amid the consequent
+irritation against everything Spanish, there was talk of a divorce
+between Henry and Catherine (1514), whose issue had hitherto been
+attended with fatal misfortune. But the renewed antagonism between
+England and France which followed the accession of Francis I. (1515) led
+to a rapprochement with Ferdinand; the birth of the lady Mary (1516)
+held out hopes of the male issue which Henry so much desired; and the
+question of a divorce was postponed. Ferdinand died in that year (1516)
+and the emperor Maximilian in 1519. Their grandson Charles V. succeeded
+them both in all their realms and dignities in spite of Henry's hardly
+serious candidature for the empire; and a lifelong rivalry broke out
+between him and Francis I. Wolsey used this antagonism to make England
+arbiter between them; and both monarchs sought England's favour in 1520,
+Francis at the Field of Cloth of Gold and Charles V. more quietly in
+Kent. At the conference of Calais in 1521 English influence reached its
+zenith; but the alliance with Charles destroyed the balance on which
+that influence depended. Francis was overweighted, and his defeat at
+Pavia in 1525 made the emperor supreme. Feeble efforts to challenge his
+power in Italy provoked the sack of Rome in 1527; and the peace of
+Cambrai in 1529 was made without any reference to Wolsey or England's
+interests.
+
+Meanwhile Henry had been developing a serious interest in politics, and
+he could brook no superior in whatever sphere he wished to shine. He
+began to adopt a more critical attitude towards Wolsey's policy, foreign
+and domestic; and to give ear to the murmurs against the cardinal and
+his ecclesiastical rule. Parliament had been kept at arm's length since
+1515 lest it should attack the church; but Wolsey's expensive foreign
+policy rendered recourse to parliamentary subsidies indispensable. When
+it met in 1523 it refused Wolsey's demands, and forced loans were the
+result which increased the cardinal's unpopularity. Nor did success
+abroad now blunt the edge of domestic discontent. His fate, however, was
+sealed by his failure to obtain a divorce for Henry from the papal
+court. The king's hopes of male issue had been disappointed, and by 1526
+it was fairly certain that Henry could have no male heir to the throne
+while Catherine remained his wife. There was Mary, but no queen regnant
+had yet ruled in England; Margaret Beaufort had been passed over in
+favour of her son in 1485, and there was a popular impression that women
+were excluded from the throne. No candidate living could have secured
+the succession without a recurrence of civil war. Moreover the
+unexampled fatality which had attended Henry's issue revived the
+theological scruples which had always existed about the marriage; and
+the breach with Charles V. in 1527 provoked a renewal of the design of
+1514. All these considerations were magnified by Henry's passion for
+Anne Boleyn, though she certainly was not the sole or the main cause of
+the divorce. That the succession was the main point is proved by the
+fact that Henry's efforts were all directed to securing a wife and not a
+mistress. Wolsey persuaded him that the necessary divorce could be
+obtained from Rome, as it had been in the case of Louis XII. of France
+and Margaret of Scotland. For a time Clement VII. was inclined to
+concede the demand, and Campeggio in 1528 was given ample powers. But
+the prospect of French success in Italy which had encouraged the pope
+proved delusive, and in 1529 he had to submit to the yoke of Charles V.
+This involved a rejection of Henry's suit, not because Charles cared
+anything for his aunt, but because a divorce would mean disinheriting
+Charles's cousin Mary, and perhaps the eventual succession of the son of
+a French princess to the English throne.
+
+Wolsey fell when Campeggio was recalled, and his fall involved the
+triumph of the anti-ecclesiastical party in England. Laymen who had
+resented their exclusion from power were now promoted to offices such as
+those of lord chancellor and lord privy seal which they had rarely held
+before; and parliament was encouraged to propound lay grievances against
+the church. On the support of the laity Henry relied to abolish papal
+jurisdiction and reduce clerical privilege and property in England; and
+by a close alliance with Francis I. he insured himself against the
+enmity of Charles V. But it was only gradually that the breach was
+completed with Rome. Henry had defended the papacy against Luther in
+1521 and had received in return the title "defender of the faith." He
+never liked Protestantism, and he was prepared for peace with Rome on
+his own terms. Those terms were impossible of acceptance by a pope in
+Clement VII.'s position; but before Clement had made up his mind to
+reject them, Henry had discovered that the papacy was hardly worth
+conciliating. His eyes were opened to the extent of his own power as the
+exponent of national antipathy to papal jurisdiction and ecclesiastical
+privilege; and his appetite for power grew. With Cromwell's help he
+secured parliamentary support, and its usefulness led him to extend
+parliamentary representation to Wales and Calais, to defend the
+privileges of Parliament, and to yield rather than forfeit its
+confidence. He had little difficulty in securing the Acts of Annates,
+Appeals and Supremacy which completed the separation from Rome, or the
+dissolution of the monasteries which, by transferring enormous wealth
+from the church to the crown, really, in Cecil's opinion, ensured the
+reformation.
+
+The abolition of the papal jurisdiction removed all obstacles to the
+divorce from Catherine and to the legalization of Henry's marriage with
+Anne Boleyn (1533). But the recognition of the royal supremacy could
+only be enforced at the cost of the heads of Sir Thomas More, Bishop
+Fisher and a number of monks and others among whom the Carthusians
+signalized themselves by their devotion (1535-1536). Anne Boleyn fared
+no better than the Catholic martyrs; she failed to produce a male heir
+to the throne, and her conduct afforded a jury of peers, over which her
+uncle, the duke of Norfolk, presided, sufficient excuse for condemning
+her to death on a charge of adultery (1536). Henry then married Jane
+Seymour, who was obnoxious to no one, gave birth to Edward VI., and then
+died (1537). The dissolution of the monasteries had meanwhile evoked a
+popular protest in the north, and it was only by skilful and
+unscrupulous diplomacy that Henry was enabled to suppress so easily the
+Pilgrimage of Grace. Foreign intervention was avoided through the
+renewal of war between Francis and Charles; and the insurgents were
+hampered by having no rival candidate for the throne and no means of
+securing the execution of their programme.
+
+Nevertheless their rising warned Henry against further doctrinal change.
+He had authorized the English Bible and some approach towards Protestant
+doctrine in the Ten Articles. He also considered the possibility of a
+political and theological alliance with the Lutheran princes of Germany.
+But in 1538 he definitely rejected their theological terms, while in
+1539-1540 they rejected his political proposals. By the statute of Six
+Articles (1539) he took his stand on Catholic doctrine; and when the
+Lutherans had rejected his alliance, and Cromwell's nominee, Anne of
+Cleves, had proved both distasteful on personal grounds and unnecessary
+because Charles and Francis were not really projecting a Catholic
+crusade against England, Anne was divorced and Cromwell beheaded. The
+new queen Catherine Howard represented the triumph of the reactionary
+party under Gardiner and Norfolk; but there was no idea of returning to
+the papal obedience, and even Catholic orthodoxy as represented by the
+Six Articles was only enforced by spasmodic outbursts of persecution and
+vain attempts to get rid of Cranmer.
+
+The secular importance of Henry's activity has been somewhat obscured by
+his achievements in the sphere of ecclesiastical politics; but no small
+part of his energies was devoted to the task of expanding the royal
+authority at the expense of temporal competitors. Feudalism was not yet
+dead, and in the north and west there were medieval franchises in which
+the royal writ and common law hardly ran at all. Wales and its marches
+were brought into legal union with the rest of England by the statutes
+of Wales (1534-1536); and after the Pilgrimage of Grace the Council of
+the North was set up to bring into subjection the extensive
+jurisdictions of the northern earls. Neither they nor the lesser chiefs
+who flourished on the lack of common law and order could be reduced by
+ordinary methods, and the Councils of Wales and of the North were given
+summary powers derived from the Roman civil law similar to those
+exercised by the Star Chamber at Westminster and the court of Castle
+Chamber at Dublin. Ireland had been left by Wolsey to wallow in its own
+disorder; but disorder was anathema to Henry's mind, and in 1535 Sir
+William Skeffington was sent to apply English methods and artillery to
+the government of Ireland. Sir Anthony St Leger continued his policy
+from 1540; Henry, instead of being merely lord of Ireland dependent on
+the pope, was made by an Irish act of parliament king, and supreme head
+of the Irish church. Conciliation was also tried with some success;
+plantation schemes were rejected in favour of an attempt to Anglicize
+the Irish; their chieftains were created earls and endowed with monastic
+lands; and so peaceful was Ireland in 1542 that the lord-deputy could
+send Irish kernes and gallowglasses to fight against the Scots.
+
+Henry, however, seems to have believed as much in the coercion of
+Scotland as in the conciliation of Ireland. Margaret Tudor's marriage
+had not reconciled the realms; and as soon as James V. became a possible
+pawn in the hands of Charles V., Henry bethought himself of his old
+claims to suzerainty over Scotland. At first he was willing to
+subordinate them to an attempt to win over Scotland to his anti-papal
+policy, and he made various efforts to bring about an interview with his
+nephew. But James V. was held aloof by Beaton and two French marriages;
+and France was alarmed by Henry's growing friendliness with Charles V.,
+who was mollified by his cousin Mary's restoration to her place in the
+succession to the throne. In 1542 James madly sent a Scottish army to
+ruin at Solway Moss; his death a few weeks later left the Scottish
+throne to his infant daughter Mary Stuart, and Henry set to work to
+secure her hand for his son Edward and the recognition of his own
+suzerainty. A treaty was signed with the Scottish estates; but it was
+torn up a few months later under the influence of Beaton and the
+queen-dowager Mary of Guise, and Hertford was sent in 1544 to punish
+this breach of promise by sacking Edinburgh.
+
+Perhaps to prevent French intervention in Scotland Henry joined Charles
+V. in invading France, and captured Boulogne (Sept. 1544). But Charles
+left his ally in the lurch and concluded the peace of Crepy that same
+month; and in 1545 Henry had to face alone a French invasion of the Isle
+of Wight. This attack proved abortive, and peace between England and
+France was made in 1546. Charles V.'s desertion inclined Henry to listen
+to the proposals of the threatened Lutheran princes, and the last two
+years of his reign were marked by a renewed tendency to advance in a
+Protestant direction. Catherine Howard had been brought to the block
+(1542) on charges in which there was probably a good deal of truth, and
+her successor, Catherine Parr, was a patroness of the new learning. An
+act of 1545 dissolved chantries, colleges and other religious
+foundations; and in the autumn of 1546 the Spanish ambassador was
+anticipating further anti-ecclesiastical measures. Gardiner had almost
+been sent to the Tower, and Norfolk and Surrey were condemned to death,
+while Cranmer asserted that it was Henry's intention to convert the mass
+into a communion service. An opportunist to the last, he would readily
+have sacrificed any theological convictions he may have had in the
+interests of national uniformity. He died on the 28th of January 1547,
+and was buried in St George's Chapel, Windsor.
+
+The atrocity of many of Henry's acts, the novelty and success of his
+religious policy, the apparent despotism of his methods, or all
+combined, have made it difficult to estimate calmly the importance of
+Henry's work or the conditions which made it possible. Henry's egotism
+was profound, and personal motives underlay his public action. While
+political and ecclesiastical conditions made the breach with Rome
+possible--and in the view of most Englishmen desirable--Henry VIII. was
+led to adopt the policy by private considerations. He worked for the
+good of the state because he thought his interests were bound up with
+those of the nation; and it was the real coincidence of this private and
+public point of view that made it possible for so selfish a man to
+achieve so much for his country. The royal supremacy over the church and
+the means by which it was enforced were harsh and violent expedients;
+but it was of the highest importance that England should be saved from
+religious civil war, and it could only be saved by a despotic
+government. It was necessary for the future development of England that
+its governmental system should be centralized and unified, that the
+authority of the monarchy should be more firmly extended over Wales and
+the western and northern borders, and that the still existing feudal
+franchises should be crushed; and these objects were worth the price
+paid in the methods of the Star Chamber and of the Councils of the North
+and of Wales. Henry's work on the navy requires no apology; without it
+Elizabeth's victory over the Spanish Armada, the liberation of the
+Netherlands and the development of English colonies would have been
+impossible; and "of all others the year 1545 best marks the birth of the
+English naval power" (Corbett, _Drake_, i. 59). His judgment was more at
+fault when he conquered Boulogne and sought by violence to bring
+Scotland into union with England. But at least Henry appreciated the
+necessity of union within the British Isles; and his work in Ireland
+relaid the foundations of English rule. No less important was his
+development of the parliamentary system. Representation was extended to
+Wales, Cheshire, Berwick and Calais; and parliamentary authority was
+enhanced, largely that it might deal with the church, until men began to
+complain of this new parliamentary infallibility. The privileges of the
+two Houses were encouraged and expanded, and parliament was led to
+exercise ever wider powers. This policy was not due to any belief on
+Henry's part in parliamentary government, but to opportunism, to the
+circumstance that parliament was willing to do most of the things which
+Henry desired, while competing authorities, the church and the old
+nobility, were not. Nevertheless, to the encouragement given by Henry
+VIII. parliament owed not a little of its future growth, and to the aid
+rendered by parliament Henry owed his success.
+
+He has been described as a "despot under the forms of law"; and it is
+apparently true that he committed no illegal act. His despotism consists
+not in any attempt to rule unconstitutionally, but in the extraordinary
+degree to which he was able to use constitutional means in the
+furtherance of his own personal ends. His industry, his remarkable
+political insight, his lack of scruple, and his combined strength of
+will and subtlety of intellect enabled him to utilize all the forces
+which tended at that time towards strong government throughout western
+Europe. In Michelet's words, "le nouveau Messie est le roi"; and the
+monarchy alone seemed capable of guiding the state through the social
+and political anarchy which threatened all nations in their transition
+from medieval to modern organization. The king was the emblem, the focus
+and the bond of national unity; and to preserve it men were ready to put
+up with vagaries which to other ages seem intolerable. Henry could thus
+behead ministers and divorce wives with comparative impunity, because
+the individual appeared to be of little importance compared with the
+state. This impunity provoked a licence which is responsible for the
+unlovely features of Henry's reign and character. The elevation and the
+isolation of his position fostered a detachment from ordinary virtues
+and compassion, and he was a remorseless incarnation of Machiavelli's
+_Prince_. He had an elastic conscience which was always at the beck and
+call of his desire, and he cared little for principle. But he had a
+passion for efficiency, and for the greatness of England and himself.
+His mind, in spite of its clinging to the outward forms of the old
+faith, was intensely secular; and he was as devoid of a moral sense as
+he was of a genuine religious temperament. His greatness consists in his
+practical aptitude, in his political perception, and in the
+self-restraint which enabled him to confine within limits tolerable to
+his people an insatiable appetite for power.
+
+  The original materials for Henry VIII.'s biography are practically all
+  incorporated in the monumental _Letters and Papers of the Reign of
+  Henry VIII._ (21 vols.), edited by Brewer and Gairdner and completed
+  after fifty years' labour in 1910. A few further details may be
+  gleaned from such contemporary sources as Hall's _Chronicle_,
+  Cavendish's _Life of Wolsey_, W. Thomas's _The Pilgrim_ and others;
+  and some additions have been made to the documentary sources contained
+  in the _Letters and Papers_ by recent works, such as Ehses' _Romische
+  Dokumente_, and Merriman's _Life and Letters of Thomas Cromwell_. Lord
+  Herbert of Cherbury's _Life and Reign of Henry VIII._ (1649), while
+  good for its time, is based upon a very partial knowledge of the
+  sources and somewhat antiquated principles of historical scholarship.
+  Froude's famous portraiture of Henry is coloured by the ideas of
+  hero-worship and history which the author imbibed from Carlyle, and
+  the rival portraits in Lingard, R. W. Dixon's _Church History_ and
+  Gasquet's _Henry VIII. and the Monasteries_ by strong religious
+  feeling. A more discriminating estimate is attempted by H. A. L.
+  Fisher in Messrs Longmans' _Political History of England_, vol. v.
+  (1906). Of the numerous paintings of Henry none is by Holbein, who,
+  however, executed the striking chalk-drawing of Henry's head, now at
+  Munich, and the famous but decaying cartoon at Devonshire House. The
+  well-known three-quarter length at Windsor, usually attributed to
+  Holbein, is by an inferior artist. The best collection of Henry's
+  portraits was exhibited at the Burlington Fine Arts Club in 1909, and
+  the catalogue of that exhibition contains the best description of
+  them; several are reproduced in Pollard's _Henry VIII._ (Goupil)
+  (1902), the letterpress of which was published by Longmans in a
+  cheaper edition (1905). Henry composed numerous state papers still
+  extant; his only book was his _Assertio septem sacramentorum contra M.
+  Lutherum_ (1521), a copy of which, signed by Henry himself, is at
+  Windsor. Several anthems composed by him are extant; and one at least,
+  _O Lord, the Maker of all Things_, is still occasionally rendered in
+  English cathedrals.     (A. F. P.)
+
+
+
+
+HENRY I. (1214-1217), king of Castile, son of Alphonso VIII. of Castile,
+and his wife Eleanor of Aquitaine, daughter of Henry II. of England,
+after whom he was named, was born about 1207. He was killed, while still
+a boy, by the fall of a tile from a roof.
+
+HENRY II. of Trastamara (1369-1379), king of Castile, founder of the
+dynasty known as "the new kings," was the eldest son of Alphonso XI. and
+of his mistress Leonora de Guzman. He was born in 1333. His father
+endowed him with great lordships in northern Spain, and made him count
+of Trastamara. After the death of Alphonso XI. in 1350, Leonora was
+murdered to satisfy the revenge of the king's neglected wife. Several of
+the numerous children she had borne to Alphonso were slain at different
+times by Peter the Cruel, the king's legitimate son and successor. Henry
+preserved his life by submissions and by keeping out of the king's way.
+At last, after taking part in several internal commotions, he fled to
+France in 1356. In 1366 he persuaded the mercenary soldiers paid off by
+the kings of England and France to accompany him on an expedition to
+upset Peter, who was driven out. The Black Prince having intervened on
+behalf of Peter, Henry was defeated at Najera (3rd of April 1367) and
+had again to flee to Aragon. When the Black Prince was told that "the
+Bastard" had neither been slain nor taken, he said that nothing had been
+done. And so it turned out; for, when the Black Prince had left Spain,
+Henry came back with a body of French soldiers of fortune under du
+Guesclin, and drove his brother into the castle of Montiel in La Mancha.
+Peter was tempted out by du Guesclin, and the half brothers met in the
+Frenchman's tent. They rushed at one another, and Peter, the stronger
+man, threw Henry down, and fell on him. One of Henry's pages seized the
+king by the leg and threw him on his back. Henry then pulled up Peter's
+hauberk and stabbed him mortally in the stomach, on the 23rd of March
+1369. He reigned for ten years, with some success both in pacifying the
+kingdom and in war with Portugal. But as his title was disputed he was
+compelled to purchase support by vast grants to the nobles and
+concessions to the cities, by which he gained the title of _El de las
+Mercedes_--he of the largesse. Henry was a strong ally of the French
+king in his wars with the English, who supported the claims of Peter's
+natural daughters. He died on the 30th of May 1379.
+
+HENRY III. (1390-1406) king of Castile, called _El Doliente_, the
+Sufferer, was the son of John I. of Castile and Leon, and of his wife
+Beatrice, daughter of Ferdinand of Portugal. He was born in 1379. The
+period of minority was exceptionally anarchical, even for Castile, but
+as the cities, always the best supporters of the royal authority, were
+growing in strength, Henry was able to reduce his kingdom to obedience,
+and, when he took the government into his own hands after 1393, to
+compel his nobles with comparative ease to surrender the crown lands
+they had seized. The meeting of the Cortes summoned by him at Madrid in
+1394 marked a great epoch in the establishment of a practically despotic
+royal authority, based on the consent of the commons, who looked to the
+crown to protect them against the excesses of the nobles. Henry
+strengthened his position still further by his marriage with Catherine,
+daughter of John of Gaunt and of Constance, elder daughter of Peter the
+Cruel and Maria de Padilla. This union combined the rival claims of the
+descendants of Peter and of Henry of Trastamara. The king's bodily
+weakness limited his real capacity, and his early death on the 25th of
+December 1406 cut short the promise of his reign.
+
+HENRY IV. (1453-1474), king of Castile, surnamed the Impotent, or the
+Spendthrift, was the son of John II. of Castile and Leon, and of his
+wife, Mary, daughter of Ferdinand I. of Aragon and Sicily. He was born
+at Valladolid on the 6th of January 1425. The surnames given to this
+king by his subjects are of much more than usual accuracy. His personal
+character was one of mere weakness, bodily and mental. Henry was an
+undutiful son, and his reign was one long period of confusion, marked by
+incidents of the most ignominious kind. He divorced his first wife
+Blanche of Navarre in 1453 on the ground of "mutual impotence." Yet in
+1468 he married Joan of Portugal, and when she bore a daughter, first
+repudiated her as adulterine, and then claimed her for his own. In 1468
+he was solemnly deposed in favour of his brother Alphonso, on whose
+death in the same year his authority was again recognized. The last
+years of his life were spent in vain endeavours, first to force his
+half-sister Isabella, afterwards queen, to marry his favourite, the
+Master of Santiago, and then to exclude her from the throne. Henry died
+at Madrid on the 12th of December 1474.
+
+
+
+
+HENRY I. (1008-1060), king of France, son of King Robert and his queen,
+Constance of Aquitaine, and grandson of Hugh Capet, came to the throne
+upon the death of his father in 1031, although in 1027 he had been
+anointed king at Reims and associated in the government with his father.
+His mother, who favoured her younger son Robert, and had retired from
+court upon Henry's coronation, formed a powerful league against him, and
+he was forced to take refuge with Robert II., duke of Normandy. In the
+civil war which resulted, Henry was able to break up the league of his
+opponents in 1032. Constance died in 1034, and the rebel brother Robert
+was given the duchy of Burgundy, thus founding that great collateral
+line which was to rival the kings of France for three centuries. Henry
+atoned for this by a reign marked by unceasing struggle against the
+great barons. From 1033 to 1043 he was involved in a life and death
+contest with those nobles whose territory adjoined the royal domains,
+especially with the great house of Blois, whose count, Odo II., had been
+the centre of the league of Constance, and with the counts of Champagne.
+Henry's success in these wars was largely due to the help given him by
+Robert of Normandy, but upon the accession of Robert's son William (the
+Conqueror), Normandy itself became the chief danger. From 1047 to the
+year of his death, Henry was almost constantly at war with William, who
+held his own against the king's formidable leagues and beat back two
+royal invasions, in 1055 and 1058. Henry's reign marks the height of
+feudalism. The Normans were independent of him, with their frontier
+barely 25 m. west of Paris; to the south his authority was really
+bounded by the Loire; in the east the count of Champagne was little more
+than nominally his subject, and the duchy of Burgundy was almost
+entirely cut off from the king. Yet Henry maintained the independence of
+the clergy against the pope Leo IX., and claimed Lorraine from the
+emperor Henry III. In an interview at Ivois, he reproached the emperor
+with the violation of promises, and Henry III. challenged him to a
+single combat. According to the German chronicle--which French
+historians doubt--the king of France declined the combat and fled from
+Ivois during the night. In 1059 he had his eldest son Philip crowned as
+joint king, and died the following year. Henry's first wife was Maud,
+niece of the emperor Henry III., whom he married in 1043. She died
+childless in 1044. Historians have sometimes confused her with Maud (or
+Matilda), the emperor Conrad II.'s daughter, to whom Henry was affianced
+in 1033, but who died before the marriage. In 1051 Henry married the
+Russian princess Anne, daughter of Yaroslav I., grand duke of Kiev. She
+bore him two sons, Philip, his successor, and Hugh the great, count of
+Vermandois.
+
+  See the _Historiae_ of Rudolph Glaber, edited by M. Prou (Paris,
+  1886); F. Sochnee, _Catalogue des actes d'Henri I^er_ (1907); de Caiz
+  de Saint Aymour, _Anne de Russie, reine de France_ (1896); E. Lavisse,
+  _Histoire de France_, tome ii. (1901), and the article on Henry I. in
+  _La Grande Encyclopedie_ by M. Prou.
+
+
+
+
+HENRY II. (1519-1559), king of France, the second son of Francis I. and
+Claude, succeeded to the throne in 1547. When only seven years old he
+was sent by his father, with his brother the dauphin Francis, as a
+hostage to Spain in 1526, whence they returned after the conclusion of
+the peace of Cambrai in 1530. Henry was too young to have carried away
+any abiding impressions, yet throughout his life his character, dress
+and bearing were far more Spanish than French. In 1533 his father
+married him to Catherine de' Medici, from which match, as he said,
+Francis hoped to gain great advantage, even though it might be somewhat
+of a misalliance. In 1536 Henry, hitherto duke of Orleans, became
+dauphin by the death of his elder brother Francis. From that time he was
+under the influence of two personages, who dominated him completely for
+the remainder of his life--Diane de Poitiers, his mistress, and Anne de
+Montmorency, his mentor. Moreover, his younger brother, Charles of
+Orleans, who was of a more sprightly temperament, was his father's
+favourite; and the rivalry of Diane and the duchesse d'Etampes helped to
+make still wider the breach between the king and the dauphin. Henry
+supported the constable Montmorency when he was disgraced in 1541;
+protested against the treaty of Crepy in 1544; and at the end of the
+reign held himself completely aloof. His accession in 1547 gave rise to
+a veritable revolution at the court. Diane, Montmorency and the Guises
+were all-powerful, and dismissed Cardinal de Tournon, de Longueval, the
+duchesse d'Etampes and all the late king's friends and officials. At
+that time Henry was twenty-eight years old. He was a robust man, and
+inherited his father's love of violent exercise; but his character was
+weak and his intelligence mediocre, and he had none of the superficial
+and brilliant gifts of Francis I. He was cold, haughty, melancholy and
+dull. He was a bigoted Catholic, and showed to the Protestants even less
+mercy than his father. During his reign the royal authority became more
+severe and more absolute than ever. Resistance to the financial
+extortions of the government was cruelly chastised, and the "Chambre
+Ardente" was instituted against the Reformers. Abroad, the struggle was
+continued against Charles V. and Philip II., which ended in the
+much-discussed treaty of Cateau-Cambresis. Some weeks afterwards high
+feast was held on the occasion of the double marriage of the king's
+daughter Elizabeth with the king of Spain, and of his sister Margaret
+with the duke of Savoy. On the 30th of June 1559, when tilting with the
+count of Montgomery, Henry was wounded in the temple by a lance. In
+spite of the attentions of Ambroise Pare he died on the 10th of July. By
+his wife Catherine de' Medici he had seven children living: Elizabeth,
+queen of Spain; Claude, duchess of Lorraine; Francis (II), Charles
+(IX.) and Henry (III.), all of whom came to the throne; Marguerite, who
+became queen of Navarre in 1572; and Francis, duke of Alencon and
+afterwards of Anjou, who died in 1584.
+
+  The bulk of the documents for the reign of Henry II. are unpublished,
+  and are in the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris. Of the published
+  documents, see especially the correspondence of Catherine de' Medici
+  (ed. by de la Ferriere, Paris, 1880), of Diane de Poitiers (ed. by
+  Guiffrey, Paris, 1866), of Antoine de Bourbon and Jeanne d'Albret (ed.
+  by Rochambeau, Paris, 1877), of Odet de Selve, ambassador to England
+  (ed. by Lefevre-Pontalis, Paris, 1888) and of Dominique du Gabre,
+  ambassador to Venice (ed. by Vitalis, Paris, 1903); Ribier, _Lettres
+  et memoires d'estat_ (Paris, 1666); _Relations des ambassadeurs
+  venitiens_, &c. Of the contemporary memoirs and histories, see
+  Brantome (ed. by Lalanne, Paris, 1864-1882), Francois de Lorraine (ed.
+  by Michaud and Poujoulat, Paris, 1839), Montluc (ed. by de Ruble,
+  Paris, 1864), F. de Boyvin du Villars (Michaud and Poujoulat), F. de
+  Rabutin (_Pantheon litteraire_, Paris, 1836). See also de Thou,
+  _Historia sui temporis_ ... (London, 1733); Decrue, _Anne de
+  Montmorency_ (Paris, 1889); H. Forneron, _Les Ducs de Guise et leur
+  epoque_, vol. i. (Paris, 1877); and H. Lemonnier, "La France sous
+  Henri II" (Paris, 1904), in the _Histoire de France_, by E. Lavisse,
+  which contains a fuller bibliography of the subject.
+
+
+
+
+HENRY III. (1551-1589), king of France, third son of Henry II. and
+Catherine de' Medici, was born at Fontainebleau on the 19th of September
+1551, and succeeded to the throne of France on the death of his brother
+Charles IX. in 1574. In his youth, as duke of Anjou, he was warmly
+attached to the Huguenot opinions, as we learn from his sister
+Marguerite de Valois; but his unstable character soon gave way before
+his mother's will, and both Henry and Marguerite remained choice
+ornaments of the Catholic Church. Henry won, under the direction of
+Marshal de Tavannes, two brilliant victories at Jarnac and Moncontour
+(1569). He was the favourite son of his mother, and took part with her
+in organizing the massacre of St Bartholomew. In 1573 Catherine procured
+his election to the throne of Poland. Passionately enamoured of the
+princess of Conde, he set out reluctantly to Warsaw, but, on the death
+of his brother Charles IX. in 1574, he escaped from his Polish subjects,
+who endeavoured to retain him by force, came back to France and assumed
+the crown. He returned to a wretched kingdom, torn with civil war. In
+spite of his good intentions, he was incapable of governing, and
+abandoned the power to his mother and his favourites. Yet he was no
+dullard. He was a man of keen intelligence and cultivated mind, and
+deserves as much as Francis I. the title of patron of letters and art.
+But his incurable indolence and love of pleasure prevented him from
+taking any active part in affairs. Surrounded by his _mignons_, he
+scandalized the people by his effeminate manners. He dressed himself in
+women's clothes, made a collection of little dogs and hid in the cellars
+when it thundered. The disgust aroused by the vices and effeminacy of
+the king increased the popularity of Henry of Guise. After the "day of
+the barricades" (the 12th of May 1588), the king, perceiving that his
+influence was lost, resolved to rid himself of Guise by assassination;
+and on the 23rd of December 1588 his faithful bodyguard, the
+"forty-five," carried out his design at the chateau of Blois. But the
+fanatical preachers of the League clamoured furiously for vengeance, and
+on the 1st of August 1589, while Henry III. was investing Paris with
+Henry of Navarre, Jacques Clement, a Dominican friar, was introduced
+into his presence on false letters of recommendation, and plunged a
+knife into the lower part of his body. He died a few hours afterwards
+with great fortitude. By his wife Louise of Lorraine, daughter of the
+count of Vaudemont, he had no children, and on his deathbed he
+recognized Henry of Navarre as his successor.
+
+  See the memoirs and chronicles of l'Estoile, Villeroy, Ph. Hurault de
+  Cheverny, Brantome, Marguerite de Valois, la Huguerye, du
+  Plessis-Mornay, &c.; _Archives curieuses_ of Cimber and Danjou, vols.
+  x. and xi.; _Memoires de la Ligue_ (new ed., Amsterdam, 1758); the
+  histories of T. A. d'Aubigne and J. A. de Thou; Correspondence of
+  Catherine de' Medici and of Henry IV. (in the _Collection de documents
+  inedits_), and of the Venetian ambassadors, &c.; P. Matthieu,
+  _Histoire de France_, vol. i. (1631); Scipion Dupleix, _Histoire de
+  Henri III_ (1633); Robiquet, _Paris et la Ligue_ (1886); and J. H.
+  Mariejol, "La Reforme et la Ligue," in the _Histoire de France_, by E.
+  Lavisse (Paris, 1904), which contains a more complete bibliography.
+
+
+
+
+HENRY IV. (1553-1610), king of France, the son of Antoine de Bourbon,
+duke of Vendome, head of the younger branch of the Bourbons, descendant
+of Robert of Clermont, sixth son of St Louis and of Jeanne d'Albret,
+queen of Navarre, was born at Pau (Basses Pyrenees) on the 14th of
+December 1553. He was educated as a Protestant, and in 1557 was sent to
+the court at Amiens. In 1561 he entered the College de Navarre at Paris,
+returning in 1565 to Bearn. During the third war of religion in France
+(1568-1570) he was taken by his mother to Gaspard de Coligny, leader of
+the Protestant forces since the death of Louis I., prince of Conde, at
+Jarnac, and distinguished himself at the battle of Arnay-le-Duc in
+Burgundy in 1569. On the 9th of June 1572, Jeanne d'Albret died and
+Henry became king of Navarre, marrying Margaret of Valois, sister of
+Charles IX. of France, on the 18th of August of that year. He escaped
+the massacre of St Bartholomew on the 24th of August by a feigned
+abjuration. On the 2nd of February 1576, after several vain attempts, he
+escaped from the court, joined the combined forces of Protestants and of
+opponents of the king, and obtained by the treaty of Beaulieu (1576) the
+government of Guienne. In 1577 he secured the treaty of Bergerac, which
+foreshadowed the edict of Nantes. As a result of quarrels with his
+unworthy wife, and the unwelcome intervention of Henry III., he
+undertook the seventh war of religion, known as the "war of the lovers"
+(_des amoureux_), seized Cahors on the 5th of May 1580, and signed the
+treaty of Fleix on the 26th of November 1580. On the 10th of June 1584
+the death of Monsieur, the duke of Anjou, brother of King Henry III.,
+made Henry of Navarre heir presumptive to the throne of France. Excluded
+from it by the treaty of Nemours (1585) he began the "war of the three
+Henrys" by a campaign in Guienne (1586) and defeated Anne, duc de
+Joyeuse, at Coutras on the 20th of October 1587. Then Henry III., driven
+from Paris by the League on account of his murder of the duke of Guise
+at Blois (1588), sought the aid of the king of Navarre to win back his
+capital, recognizing him as his heir. The assassination of Henry III. on
+the 1st of August 1589 left Henry king of France; but he had to struggle
+for ten more years against the League and against Spain before he won
+his kingdom. The main events in that long struggle were the victory of
+Arques over Charles, duke of Mayenne, on the 28th of September 1589; of
+Ivry, on the 14th of March 1590; the siege of Paris (1590); of Rouen
+(1592); the meeting of the Estates of the League (1593), which the
+_Satire Menippee_ turned to ridicule; and finally the conversion of
+Henry IV. to Catholicism in July 1593--an act of political wisdom, since
+it brought about the collapse of all opposition. Paris gave in to him on
+the 22nd of March 1594 and province by province yielded to arms or
+negotiations; while the victory of Fontaine-Francaise (1595) and the
+capture of Amiens forced Philip II. of Spain to sign the peace of
+Vervins on the 2nd of May 1598. On the 13th of April of that year Henry
+IV. had promulgated the Edict of Nantes.
+
+Then Henry set to work to pacify and restore prosperity to his kingdom.
+Convinced by the experience of the wars that France needed an energetic
+central power, he pushed at times his royal prerogatives to excess,
+raising taxes in spite of the Estates, interfering in the administration
+of the towns, reforming their constitutions, and holding himself free to
+reject the advice of the notables if he consulted them. Aided by his
+faithful friend Maximilien de Bethune, baron de Rosny and duc de Sully
+(q.v.), he reformed the finances, repressed abuses, suppressed useless
+offices, extinguished the formidable debt and realized a reserve of
+eighteen millions. To alleviate the distress of the people, he undertook
+to develop both agriculture and industry: planting colonies of Dutch and
+Flemish settlers to drain the marshes of Saintonge, issuing prohibitive
+measures against the importation of foreign goods (1597), introducing
+the silk industry, encouraging the manufacture of cloth, of glass-ware,
+of tapestries (Gobelins), and under the direction of Sully--named
+_grand-voyer de France_--improving and increasing the routes for
+commerce. A complete system of canals was planned, that of Briare partly
+dug. New capitulations were concluded with the sultan Ahmed I. (1604)
+and treaties of commerce with England (1606), with Spain and Holland.
+Attempts were made in 1604 and 1608 to colonize Canada (see CHAMPLAIN,
+SAMUEL DE). The army was reorganized, its pay raised and assured, a
+school of cadets formed to supply it with officers, artillery
+constituted and strongholds on the frontier fortified. While lacking the
+artistic tastes of the Valois, Henry beautified Paris, building the
+great gallery of the Louvre, finishing the Tuileries, building the Pont
+Neuf, the Hotel-de-Ville and the Place Royale.
+
+The foreign policy of Henry IV. was directed against the Habsburgs.
+Without declaring war, he did all possible harm to them by alliances and
+diplomacy. In Italy he gained the grand duke of Tuscany--marrying his
+niece Marie de' Medici in 1600--the duke of Mantua, the republic of
+Venice and Pope Paul V. The duke of Savoy, who had held back from the
+treaty of Vervins in 1598, signed the treaty of Lyons in 1601; in
+exchange for the marquisate of Saluzzo, France acquired Bresse, Bugey,
+Valromey and the bailliage of Gex. In the Low Countries, Henry sent
+subsidies to the Dutch in their struggle against Spain. He concluded
+alliances with the Protestant princes in Germany, with the duke of
+Lorraine, the Swiss cantons (treaty of Soleure, 1602) and with Sweden.
+
+The opening on the 25th of March 1609 of the question of the succession
+of John William the Good, duke of Cleves, of Julich and of Berg, led
+Henry, in spite of his own hesitations and those of his German allies,
+to declare war on the emperor Rudolph II. But he was assassinated by
+Ravaillac (q.v.) on the 14th of May 1610, upon the eve of his great
+enterprise, leaving his policy to be followed up later by Richelieu.
+Sully in his _Economies royales_ attributes to his master the "great
+design" of constituting, after having defeated Austria, a vast European
+confederation of fifteen states--a "Christian Republic"--directed by a
+general council of sixty deputies reappointed every three years. But
+this "design" has been attributed rather to the imagination of Sully
+himself than to the more practical policy of the king.
+
+No figure in France has been more popular than that of "Henry the
+Great." He was affable to the point of familiarity, quick-witted like a
+true Gascon, good-hearted, indulgent, yet skilled in reading the
+character of those around him, and he could at times show himself severe
+and unyielding. His courage amounted almost to recklessness. He was a
+better soldier than strategist. Although at bottom authoritative he
+surrounded himself with admirable advisers (Sully, Sillery, Villeroy,
+Jeannin) and profited from their co-operation. His love affairs,
+undoubtedly too numerous (notably with Gabrielle d'Estrees and Henriette
+d'Entragues), if they injure his personal reputation, had no bad effect
+on his policy as king, in which he was guided only by an exalted ideal
+of his royal office, and by a sympathy for the common people, his
+reputation for which has perhaps been exaggerated somewhat in popular
+tradition by the circumstances of his reign.
+
+Henry IV. had no children by his first wife, Margaret of Valois. By
+Marie de' Medici he had Louis, later Louis XIII.; Gaston, duke of
+Orleans; Elizabeth, who married Philip IV. of Spain; Christine, duchess
+of Savoy; and Henrietta, wife of Charles I. of England. Among his
+bastards the most famous were the children of Gabrielle
+d'Estrees--Caesar, duke of Vendome, Alexander of Vendome, and Catherine
+Henriette, duchess of Elbeuf.
+
+Several portraits of Henry are preserved at Paris, in the Bibliotheque
+Nationale (cf. Bouchot, _Portraits au crayon_, p. 189), at the Louvre
+(by Probus, bust by Barthelemy Prieur) at Versailles, Geneva (Henry at
+the age of fifteen), at Hampton Court, at Munich and at Florence.
+
+  The works dealing with Henry IV. and his reign are too numerous to be
+  enumerated here. For sources, see the _Recueil des lettres missives de
+  Henri IV_, published from 1839 to 1853 by B. de Xivrey, in the
+  _Collection de documents inedits relatifs a l'histoire de France_, and
+  the various researches of Galitzin, Bautiot, Halphen, Dussieux and
+  others. Besides their historic interest, the letters written
+  personally by Henry, whether love notes or letters of state, reveal a
+  charming writer. Mention should be made of Auguste Poirson's _Histoire
+  du regne de Henri IV_ (2nd ed., 4 vols., Paris, 1862-1867) and of J.
+  H. Mariejol's volume (vi.) in the _Histoire de France_, edited by
+  Ernest Lavisse (Paris, 1905), where main sources and literature are
+  given with each chapter. A _Revue Henri IV_ has been founded at Paris
+  (1905). Finally, a complete survey of the sources for the period
+  1494-1610 is given by Henri Hauser in vol. vii. of _Sources de
+  l'histoire de France_ (Paris, 1906) in continuation of A. Molinier's
+  collection of the sources for French history during the middle ages.
+
+
+
+
+HENRY I. (c. 1210-1274), surnamed _le Gros_, king of Navarre and count
+of Champagne, was the youngest son of Theobald I. king of Navarre by
+Margaret of Foix, and succeeded his eldest brother Theobald III. as king
+of Navarre and count of Champagne in December 1270. His proclamation at
+Pamplona, however, did not take place till March of the following year,
+and his coronation was delayed until May 1273. After a brief reign,
+characterized, it is said, by dignity and talent, he died in July 1274,
+suffocated, according to the generally received accounts, by his own
+fat. In him the male line of the counts of Champagne and kings of
+Navarre, became extinct. He married in 1269 Blanche, daughter of Robert,
+count of Artois, and niece of King Louis IX. and was succeeded by his
+only legitimate child, Jeanne or Joanna, by whose marriage to Philip IV.
+afterwards king of France in 1284, the crown of Navarre became united to
+that of France.
+
+
+
+
+HENRY II. (1503-1555), titular king of Navarre, was the eldest son of
+Jean d'Albret (d. 1516) by his wife Catherine de Foix, sister and
+heiress of Francis Phoebus, king of Navarre, and was born at Sanquesa in
+April 1503. When Catherine died in exile in 1517 Henry succeeded her in
+her claim on Navarre, which was disputed by Ferdinand I. king of Spain;
+and under the protection of Francis I. of France he assumed the title of
+king. After ineffectual conferences at Noyon in 1516 and at Montpellier
+in 1518, an active effort was made in 1521 to establish him in the _de
+facto_ sovereignty; but the French troops which had seized the country
+were ultimately expelled by the Spaniards. In 1525 Henry was taken
+prisoner at the battle of Pavia, but he contrived to escape, and in 1526
+married Margaret, the sister of Francis I. and widow of Charles, duke of
+Alencon. By her he was the father of Jeanne d'Albret (d. 1572), and was
+consequently the grandfather of Henry IV. of France. Henry, who had some
+sympathy with the Huguenots, died at Pau on the 25th of May 1555.
+
+
+
+
+HENRY I. (1512-1580), king of Portugal, third son of Emanuel the
+Fortunate, was born in Lisbon, on the 31st of January 1512. He was
+destined for the church, and in 1532 was raised to the archiepiscopal
+see of Braga. In 1542 he received the cardinal's hat, and in 1578 when
+he was called to succeed his grandnephew Sebastian on the throne, he
+held the archbishoprics of Lisbon and Coimbra as well as that of Braga,
+in addition to the wealthy abbacy of Alcobazar. As an ecclesiastic he
+was pious, pure, simple in his mode of life, charitable, and a learned
+and liberal patron of letters; but as a sovereign he proved weak, timid
+and incapable. On his death in 1580, after a brief reign of seventeen
+months, the male line of the royal family which traced its descent from
+Henry, first count of Portugal (c. 1100), came to an end; and all
+attempts to fix the succession during his lifetime having ignominiously
+failed, Portugal became an easy prey to Philip II. of Spain.
+
+
+
+
+HENRY II. (1489-1568), duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel, was a son of Duke
+Henry I., and was born on the 10th of November 1489. He began to reign in
+1514, but his brother William objected to the indivisibility of the duchy
+which had been decreed by the elder Henry, and it was only in 1535, after
+an imprisonment of eleven years, that William recognized his brother's
+title. Sharing in an attack on John, bishop of Hildesheim, Henry was
+defeated at the battle of Soltau in June 1519, but afterwards he was more
+successful, and when peace was made received some lands from the bishop.
+In 1525 he assisted Philip, landgrave of Hesse, to crush the rising of
+the peasants in north Germany, and in 1528 took help to Charles V. in
+Italy, where he narrowly escaped capture. As a pronounced opponent of the
+reformed doctrines, he joined the Catholic princes in concerting measures
+for defence at Dessau and elsewhere, but on the other hand promised
+Philip of Hesse to aid him in restoring his own brother-in-law Ulrich,
+duke of Wurttemberg, to his duchy. However he gave no assistance when
+this enterprise was undertaken in 1534, and subsequently the hostility
+between Philip and himself was very marked. Henry was attacked by Luther
+with unmeasured violence in a writing _Wider Hans Worst_; but more
+serious was his isolation in north Germany. The duke soon came into
+collision with the Protestant towns of Goslar and Brunswick, against the
+former of which a sentence of restitution had been pronounced by the
+imperial court of justice (_Reichskammergericht_). To conciliate the
+Protestants Charles V. had suspended the execution of this sentence, a
+proceeding which Henry declared was _ultra vires_. The league of
+Schmalkalden, led by Philip of Hesse and John Frederick, elector of
+Saxony, then took up arms to defend the towns; and in 1542 Brunswick was
+overrun and the duke forced to flee. In September 1545 he made an attempt
+to regain his duchy, but was taken prisoner by Philip, and only released
+after the victory of Charles V. at Muhlberg in April 1547. Returning to
+Brunswick, where he was very unpopular, he soon quarrelled with his
+subjects both on political and religious questions, while his duchy was
+ravaged by Albert Alcibiades, prince of Bayreuth. Henry was among the
+princes who banded themselves together to crush Albert, and after the
+death of Maurice, elector of Saxony, at Sievershausen in July 1553, he
+took command of the allied troops and defeated Albert in two engagements.
+In his later years he became more tolerant, and was reconciled with his
+Protestant subjects. He died at Wolfenbuttel on the 11th of June 1568.
+The duke was twice married, firstly in 1515 to Maria (d. 1541), sister of
+Ulrich of Wurttemberg, and secondly in 1556 to Sophia (d. 1575) daughter
+of Sigismund I., king of Poland. He attained some notoriety through his
+romantic attachment to Eva von Trott, whom he represented as dead and
+afterwards kept concealed at Staufenburg. Henry was succeeded by his only
+surviving son, Julius (1528-1589).
+
+  See F. Koldewey, _Heinz von Wolfenbuttel_ (Halle, 1883); and F. Bruns,
+  _Die Vertreibung Herzog Heinrichs von Braunschweig durch den
+  Schmalkaldischen Bund_ (Marburg, 1889).
+
+
+
+
+HENRY (c. 1108-1139), surnamed the "Proud," duke of Saxony and Bavaria,
+second son of Henry the Black, duke of Bavaria, and Wulfhild, daughter
+of Magnus Billung, duke of Saxony, was a member of the Welf family. His
+father and mother both died in 1126, and as his elder brother Conrad had
+entered the church, Henry became duke of Bavaria and shared the family
+possessions in Saxony, Bavaria and Swabia with his younger brother,
+Welf. At Whitsuntide 1127 he was married to Gertrude, the only child of
+the German king, Lothair the Saxon, and at once took part in the warfare
+between the king and the Hohenstaufen brothers, Frederick II., duke of
+Swabia, and Conrad, afterwards the German king Conrad III. While engaged
+in this struggle Henry was also occupied in suppressing a rising in
+Bavaria, led by Frederick, count of Bogen, during which both duke and
+count sought to establish their own candidates in the bishopric of
+Regensburg. After a war of devastation, Frederick submitted in 1133, and
+two years later the Hohenstaufen brothers made their peace with Lothair.
+In 1136 Henry accompanied his father-in-law to Italy, and taking command
+of one division of the German army marched into southern Italy,
+devastating the land as he went. It was probably about this time that he
+was invested with the margraviate of Tuscany and the lands of Matilda,
+the late margravine. Having distinguished himself by his military genius
+during this campaign Henry left Italy with the German troops, and was
+appointed by the emperor as his successor in the dukedom of Saxony. When
+Lothair died in December 1137 Henry's wealth and position made him a
+formidable candidate for the German throne; but the same qualities which
+earned for him the surname of "Proud," aroused the jealousy of the
+princes, and so prevented his election. The new king, Conrad III.,
+demanded the imperial _insignia_ which were in Henry's possession, and
+the duke in return asked for his investiture with the Saxon duchy. But
+Conrad, who feared his power, refused to assent to this on the pretext
+that it was unlawful for two duchies to be in one hand. Attempts at a
+settlement failed, and in July 1138 the duke was placed under the ban,
+and Saxony was given to Albert the Bear, afterwards margrave of
+Brandenburg. War broke out in Saxony and Bavaria, but was cut short by
+Henry's sudden death at Quedlinburg on the 20th of October 1139. He was
+buried at Konigslutter. Henry was a man of great ability, and his early
+death alone prevented him from playing an important part in German
+history. Conrad the Priest, the author of the _Rolandslied_, was in
+Henry's service, and probably wrote this poem at the request of the
+duchess, Gertrude.
+
+  See S. Riezler, _Geschichte Bayerns_, Band i. (Gotha, 1878); W.
+  Bernhardi, _Lothar von Supplinburg_ (Leipzig, 1879); W. von
+  Giesebrecht, _Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit_, Band iv.
+  (Brunswick, 1877).
+
+
+
+
+HENRY (1129-1195), surnamed the "Lion," duke of Saxony and Bavaria, only
+son of Henry the Proud, duke of Saxony and Bavaria, and Gertrude,
+daughter of the emperor Lothair the Saxon, was born at Ravensburg, and
+was a member of the family of Welf. In 1138 the German king Conrad III.
+had sought to deprive Henry the Proud of his duchies, and when the duke
+died in the following year the interests of his young son were
+maintained in Saxony by his mother, and his grandmother Richenza, widow
+of Lothair, and in Bavaria by his uncle, Count Welf VI. This struggle
+ended in May 1142 when Henry was invested as duke of Saxony at
+Frankfort, and Bavaria was given to Henry II., Jasomirgott, margrave of
+Austria, who married his mother Gertrude. In 1147 he married Clementia,
+daughter of Conrad, duke of Zahringen (d. 1152), and began to take an
+active part in administering his dukedom and extending its area. He
+engaged in a successful expedition against the Abotrites, or Obotrites,
+in 1147, and won a considerable tract of land beyond the Elbe, in which
+were re-established the bishoprics of Mecklenburg,[1] Oldenburg[2] and
+Ratzeburg. Hartwig, archbishop of Bremen, wished these sees to be under
+his authority, but Henry contested this claim, and won the right to
+invest these bishops himself, a privilege afterwards confirmed by the
+emperor Frederick I. Henry, meanwhile, had not forgotten Bavaria. In
+1147 he made a formal claim on this duchy, and in 1151 sought to take
+possession, but failing to obtain the aid of his uncle Welf, did not
+effect his purpose. The situation was changed in his favour when
+Frederick I., who was anxious to count the duke among his supporters,
+succeeded Conrad as German king in February 1152. Frederick was unable
+at first to persuade Henry Jasomirgott to abandon Bavaria, but in June
+1154 he recognized the claim of Henry the Lion, who accompanied him on
+his first Italian campaign and distinguished himself in suppressing a
+rising at Rome, Henry's formal investiture as duke of Bavaria taking
+place in September 1156 on the emperor's return to Germany. Henry soon
+returned to Saxony, where he found full scope for his untiring energy.
+Adolph II., count of Holstein, was compelled to cede Lubeck to him in
+1158; campaigns in 1163 and 1164 beat down further resistance of the
+Abotrites; and Saxon garrisons were established in the conquered lands.
+The duke was aided in this work by the alliance of Valdemar I., king of
+Denmark, and, it is said, by engines of war brought from Italy. During
+these years he had also helped Frederick I. in his expedition of 1157
+against the Poles, and in July 1159 had gone to his assistance in Italy,
+where he remained for about two years.
+
+The vigorous measures taken by Henry to increase his power aroused
+considerable opposition. In 1166 a coalition was formed against him at
+Merseburg under the leadership of Albert the Bear, margrave of
+Brandenburg, and Archbishop Hartwig. Neither side met with much success
+in the desultory warfare that ensued, and Frederick made peace between
+the combatants at Wurzburg in June 1168. Having obtained a divorce from
+his first wife in 1162, Henry was married at Minden in February 1168 to
+Matilda (1156-1189), daughter of Henry II., king of England, and was
+soon afterwards sent by the emperor Frederick I. on an embassy to the
+kings of England and France. A war with Valdemar of Denmark, caused by a
+quarrel over the booty obtained from the conquest of Rugen, engaged
+Henry's activity until June 1171, when, in pursuance of a treaty which
+restored peace, Henry's daughter, Gertrude, married the Danish prince,
+Canute. Henry, whose position was now very strong, made a pilgrimage to
+Jerusalem in 1172, was received with great respect by the eastern
+emperor Manuel Comnenus at Constantinople, and returned to Saxony in
+1173.
+
+A variety of reasons were leading to a rupture in the harmonious
+relations between Frederick and Henry, whose increasing power could not
+escape the emperor's notice, and who showed little inclination to
+sacrifice his interests in Germany in order to help the imperial cause
+in Italy. He was not pleased when he heard that his uncle, Welf, had
+bequeathed his Italian and Swabian lands to the emperor, and the crisis
+came after Frederick's check before Alessandria in 1175. The emperor
+appealed personally to Henry for help in February, or March 1176, but
+Henry made no move in response, and his defection contributed in some
+measure to the emperor's defeat at Legnano. The peace of Venice provided
+for the restoration of Ulalrich to his see of Halberstadt. Henry,
+however, refused to give up the lands which he had seized belonging to
+the bishopric, and this conduct provoked a war in which Ulalrich was
+soon joined by Philip, archbishop of Cologne. No attack on Henry appears
+to have been contemplated by Frederick to whom both parties carried
+their complaints, and a day was fixed for the settlement of the dispute
+at Worms. But neither then, nor on two further occasions, did Henry
+appear to answer the charges preferred against him; accordingly in
+January 1180 he was placed under the imperial ban at Wurzburg, and was
+declared deprived of all his lands.
+
+Meanwhile the war with Ulalrich continued, but after his victory at
+Weissensee Henry's allies began to fall away, and his cause to decline.
+When Frederick took the field in June 1181 the struggle was soon over.
+Henry sought for peace, and the conditions were settled at Erfurt in
+November 1181, when he was granted the counties of Luneburg and
+Brunswick, but was banished under oath not to return without the
+emperor's permission. In July 1182 he went to his father-in-law's court
+in Normandy, and afterwards to England, returning to Germany with
+Frederick's permission in 1185. He was soon regarded once more as a
+menace to the peace of Germany, and of the three alternatives presented
+to him by the emperor in 1188 he rejected the idea of making a formal
+renunciation of his claim, or of participating in the crusade, and chose
+exile, going again to England in 1189. In October of the same year,
+however, he returned to Saxony, excusing himself by asserting that his
+lands had not been defended according to the emperor's promise. He found
+many allies, took Lubeck, and soon almost the whole of Saxony was in his
+power. King Henry VI. was obliged to take the field against him, after
+which the duke's cause declined, and in July 1190 a peace was arranged
+at Fulda, by which he retained Brunswick and Luneburg, received half the
+revenues of Lubeck, and gave two of his sons as hostages. Still hoping
+to regain his former position, he took advantage of a league against
+Henry VI. in 1193 to engage in a further revolt; but the captivity of
+his brother-in-law Richard I., king of England, led to a reconciliation.
+Henry passed his later years mainly at his castle of Brunswick, where he
+died on the 6th of August 1195, and was buried in the church of St
+Blasius which he had founded in the town. He had by his first wife a son
+and a daughter, and by his second wife five sons and a daughter. One of
+his sons was Otto, afterwards the emperor Otto IV., and another was
+Henry (d. 1227) count palatine of the Rhine.
+
+Henry was a man of great ambition, and won his surname of "Lion" by his
+personal bravery. His influence on the fortunes of Saxony and northern
+Germany was very considerable. He planted Flemish and Dutch settlers in
+the land between the Elbe and the Oder, fostered the growth and trade of
+Lubeck, and in other ways encouraged trade and agriculture. He sought to
+spread Christianity by introducing the Cistercians, founding bishoprics,
+and building churches and monasteries. In 1874 a colossal statue was
+erected to his memory at Brunswick.
+
+  The authorities for the life of Henry the Lion are those dealing with
+  the reign of the emperor Frederick I., and the early years of his son
+  King Henry VI. The chief modern works are H. Prutz, _Heinrich der
+  Lowe_ (Leipzig, 1865); M. Philippson, _Geschichte Heinrichs des Lowen_
+  (Leipzig, 1867); and L. Weiland, _Das sachsische Herzogthum unter
+  Lothar und Heinrich dem Lowen_ (Greifswald, 1866).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The see was transferred to Schwerin by Henry in 1167.
+
+  [2] Transferred to Lubeck in 1163.
+
+
+
+
+HENRY, PRINCE OF BATTENBERG (1858-1896), was the third son of Prince
+Alexander of Hesse and his morganatic wife, the beautiful Countess Julia
+von Hauke, to whom was granted in 1858 the title of princess of
+Battenberg, which her children inherited. He was born at Milan on the
+5th of October 1858, was educated with a special view to military
+service, and in due time became a lieutenant in the first regiment of
+Rhenish hussars. By their relationship to the grand dukes of Hesse the
+princes of Battenberg were brought into close contact with the English
+court, and Prince Henry paid several visits to England, where he soon
+became popular both in public and in private circles. It therefore
+created but little surprise when, towards the close of 1884, it was
+announced that Queen Victoria had sanctioned his engagement to the
+Princess Beatrice. The wedding took place at Whippingham on the 23rd of
+July 1885, and after the honeymoon the prince and princess settled down
+to a quiet home life with the queen, being seldom absent from the court,
+and accompanying her majesty in her annual visits to the continent.
+Three sons and a daughter were the issue of the marriage. On the 31st of
+July 1885 a bill to naturalize Prince Henry was passed by the House of
+Lords, and he received the title of royal highness. He was made a Knight
+of the Garter and a member of the Privy Council, and also appointed a
+colonel in the army, and afterwards captain-general and governor of the
+Isle of Wight and governor of Carisbrooke Castle. He adapted himself
+very readily to English country life, for he was an excellent shot and
+an enthusiastic yachtsman. Coming of a martial race, the prince would
+gladly have embraced an active military career, and when the Ashanti
+expedition was organized in November 1895 he volunteered to join it. But
+when the expedition reached Prahsu, about 30 m. from Kumasi, he was
+struck down by fever, and being promptly conveyed back to the coast, was
+placed on board H.M.S. "Blonde." On the 17th of January he seemed to
+recover slightly, but a relapse occurred on the 19th, and he died on the
+evening of the 20th off the coast of Sierra Leone.
+
+
+
+
+HENRY FITZ HENRY (1155-1183), second son of Henry II., king of England,
+by Eleanor of Aquitaine, became heir to the throne on the death of his
+brother William (1156), and at the age of five was married to
+Marguerite, the infant daughter of Louis VII. In 1170 he was crowned at
+Westminster by Roger of York. The protests of Becket against this
+usurpation of the rights of Canterbury were the ultimate cause of the
+primate's murder. The young king soon quarrelled with his father, who
+allowed him no power and a wholly inadequate revenue, and headed the
+great baronial revolt of 1173. He was assisted by his father-in-law, to
+whose court he had repaired; but, failing to shake the old king's power
+either in Normandy or England, made peace in 1174. Despite the generous
+terms which he received, he continued to intrigue with Louis VII., and
+was in consequence jealously watched by his father. In 1182 he and his
+younger brother Geoffrey took up arms, on the side of the Poitevin
+rebels, against Richard Coeur de Lion; apparently from resentment at the
+favour which Henry II. had shown to Richard in giving him the government
+of Poitou while they were virtually landless. Henry II. took the field
+in aid of Richard; but the young king and Geoffrey had no scruples about
+withstanding their father, and continued to aid the Aquitanian rising
+until the young king fell ill of a fever which proved fatal to him (June
+11, 1183). His death was bitterly regretted by his father and by all who
+had known him. Though of a fickle and treacherous nature, he had all the
+personal fascination of his family, and is extolled by his
+contemporaries as a mirror of chivalry. His train was full of knights
+who served him without pay for the honour of being associated with his
+exploits in the tilting-lists and in war.
+
+  The original authorities for Henry's life are Robert de Torigni,
+  _Chronica_; Giraldus Cambrensis, _De instructione principum, Guillaume
+  le Marechal_ (ed. P. Meyer, Paris, 1891, &c.); Benedict, _Gesta
+  Henrici_, William of Newburgh. See also Kate Norgate, _England under
+  the Angevin Kings_ (1887); Sir James Ramsay, _Angevin Empire_ (1903);
+  and C. E. Hodgson, _Jung Heinrich, Konig von England_ (Jena, 1906).
+
+
+
+
+HENRY, or in full, HENRY BENEDICT MARIA CLEMENT STUART (1725-1807),
+usually known as Cardinal York, the last prince of the royal house of
+Stuart, was the younger son of James Stuart, and was born in the Palazzo
+Muti at Rome on the 6th of March 1725. He was created duke of York by
+his father soon after his birth, and by this title he was always alluded
+to by Jacobite adherents of his house. British visitors to Rome speak of
+him as a merry high-spirited boy with martial instincts; nevertheless,
+he grew up studious, peace-loving and serious. In order to be of
+assistance to his brother Charles, who was then campaigning in Scotland,
+Henry was despatched in the summer of 1745 to France, where he was
+placed in nominal command of French troops at Dunkirk, with which the
+marquis d'Argenson had some vague idea of invading England. Seven months
+after Charles's return from Scotland Henry secretly departed to Rome
+and, with the full approval of his father, but to the intense disgust of
+his brother, was created a cardinal deacon under the title of the
+cardinal of York by Pope Benedict XIV. on the 3rd of July 1747. In the
+following year he was ordained priest, and nominated arch-priest of the
+Vatican Basilica. In 1759 he was consecrated archbishop of Corinth _in
+partibus_, and in 1761 bishop of Frascati (the ancient Tusculum) in the
+Alban Hills near Rome. Six years later he was appointed vice-chancellor
+of the Holy See. Henry Stuart likewise held sinecure benefices in
+France, Spain and Spanish America, so that he became one of the
+wealthiest churchmen of the period, his annual revenue being said to
+amount to L30,000 sterling. On the death of his father, James Stuart
+(whose affairs he had managed during the last five years of his life),
+Henry made persistent attempts to induce Pope Clement XIII. to
+acknowledge his brother Charles as legitimate king of Great Britain, but
+his efforts were defeated, chiefly through the adverse influence of
+Cardinal Alessandro Albani, who was bitterly opposed to the Stuart
+cause. On Charles's death in 1788 Henry issued a manifesto asserting his
+hereditary right to the British crown, and likewise struck a medal,
+commemorative of the event, with the legend "Hen. IX. Mag. Brit. Fr. et
+Hib. Rex. Fid. Def. Card. Ep. Tusc:" (Henry the Ninth of Great Britain,
+France and Ireland, King, Defender of the Faith, Cardinal, Bishop of
+Frascati). In February 1798, at the approach of the invading French
+forces, Henry was forced to fly from Frascati to Naples, whence at the
+close of the same year he sailed to Messina. From Messina he proceeded
+by sea in order to be present at the expected conclave at Venice, where
+he arrived in the spring of 1799, aged, ill and almost penniless. His
+sad plight was now made known by Cardinal Stefano Borgia to Sir John
+Coxe Hippisley (d. 1825), who had formerly acted semi-officially on
+behalf of the British government at the court of Pius VI. Sir John
+Hippisley appealed to George III., who on the warm recommendation of
+Prince Augustus Frederick, duke of Sussex, gave orders for the annual
+payment of a pension of L4000 to the last of the Royal Stuarts. Henry
+received the proffered assistance gratefully, and in return for the
+king's kindness subsequently left by his will certain British crown
+jewels in his possession to the prince regent. In 1800 Henry was able to
+return to Rome, and in 1803, being now senior cardinal bishop, he became
+_ipso facto_ dean of the Sacred College and bishop of Ostia and
+Velletri. He died at Frascati on the 13th of July 1807, and was buried
+in the _Grotte Vaticane_ of St Peter's in an urn bearing the title of
+"Henry IX."; he is also commemorated in Canova's well-known monument to
+the Royal Stuarts (see JAMES). The Stuart archives, once the property of
+Cardinal York, were subsequently presented by Pope Pius VII. to the
+prince regent, who placed them in the royal library at Windsor Castle.
+
+  See B. W. Kelly, _Life of Cardinal York_; H. M. Vaughan, _Last of the
+  Royal Stuarts_; and A. Shield, _Henry Stuart, Cardinal of York, and
+  his Times_ (1908).     (H. M. V.)
+
+
+
+
+HENRY OF PORTUGAL, surnamed the "Navigator" (1394-1460), duke of Viseu,
+governor of the Algarve, was born at Oporto on the 4th of March 1394. He
+was the third (or, counting children who died in infancy, the fifth) son
+of John (Joao) I., the founder of the Aviz dynasty, under whom Portugal,
+victorious against Castile and against the Moors of Morocco, began to
+take a prominent place among European nations; his mother was Philippa,
+daughter of John of Gaunt. When Ceuta, the "African Gibraltar," was
+taken in 1415, Prince Henry performed the most distinguished service of
+any Portuguese leader, and received knighthood; he was now created duke
+of Viseu and lord of Covilham, and about the same time began his
+explorations, which, however, limited in their original conception,
+certainly developed into a search for a better knowledge of the western
+ocean and for a sea-way along the unknown coast of Africa to the
+supposed western Nile (our Senegal), to the rich negro lands beyond the
+Sahara desert, to the half-true, half-fabled realm of Prester John, and
+so ultimately to the Indies.
+
+Disregarding the traditions which assign 1412 or even 1410 as the
+commencement of these explorations, it appears that in 1415, the year of
+Ceuta, the prince sent out one John de Trasto on a voyage which brought
+the Portuguese to Grand Canary. There was no discovery here, for the
+whole Canarian archipelago was now pretty well known to French and
+Spanish mariners, especially since the conquest of 1402-06 by French
+adventurers under Castillan overlordship; but in 1418 Henry's captain,
+Joao Goncalvez Zarco rediscovered Porto Santo, and in 1420 Madeira, the
+chief members of an island group which had originally been discovered
+(probably by Genoese pioneers) before 1351 or perhaps even before 1339,
+but had rather faded from Christian knowledge since. The story of the
+rediscovery of Madeira by the Englishman Robert Machim or Machin,
+eloping from Bristol with his lady-love, Anne d'Arfet, in the reign of
+Edward III. (about 1370), has been the subject of much controversy; in
+any case it does not affect the original Italian discovery, nor the
+first sighting of Porto Santo by Zarco, who, while exploring the west
+African mainland coast, was driven by storms to this island. In
+1424-1425 Prince Henry attempted to purchase the Canaries, and began the
+colonization of the Madeira group, both in Madeira itself and in Porto
+Santo; to aid this latter movement he procured the famous charters of
+1430 and 1433 from the Portuguese crown. In 1427, again, with the
+co-operation of his father King John, he seems to have sent out the
+royal pilot Diogo de Sevill, followed in 1431 by Goncalo Velho Cabral,
+to explore the Azores, first mentioned and depicted in a Spanish
+treatise of 1345 (the _Conoscimiento de todos los Reynos_) and in an
+Italian map of 1351 (the _Laurentian Portolano_, also the first
+cartographical work to give us the Madeiras with modern names), but
+probably almost unvisited from that time to the advent of Sevill. This
+rediscovery of the far western archipelago, and the expeditions which,
+even within Prince Henry's life (as in 1452) pushed still deeper into
+the Atlantic, seem to show that the infante was not entirely forgetful
+of the possibility of such a western route to Asia as Columbus attempted
+in 1492, only to find America across his path. Meantime, in 1418, Henry
+had gone in person to relieve Ceuta from an attack of Morocco and
+Granada Mussulmans; had accomplished his task, and had planned, though
+he did not carry out, a seizure of Gibraltar. About this time, moreover,
+it is probable that he had begun to gather information from the Moors
+with regard to the coast of "Guinea" and the interior of Africa. In
+1419, after his return to Portugal, he was created governor of the
+"kingdom" of Algarve, the southernmost province of Portugal; and his
+connexion now appears to have begun with what afterwards became known as
+the "Infante's Town" (_Villa do Iffante_) at Sagres, close to Cape St
+Vincent; where, before 1438, a _Tercena Nabal_ or naval arsenal grew up;
+where, from 1438, after the Tangier expedition, the prince certainly
+resided for a great part of his later life; and where he died in 1460.
+
+In 1433 died King John, exhorting his son not to abandon those schemes
+which were now, in the long-continued failure to round Cape Bojador,
+ridiculed by many as costly absurdities; and in 1434 one of the
+prince's ships, commanded by Gil Eannes, at length doubled the cape. In
+1435 Affonso Goncalvez Baldaya, the prince's cup-bearer, passed fifty
+leagues beyond; and before the close of 1436 the Portuguese had almost
+reached Cape Blanco. Plans of further conquest in Morocco, resulting in
+1437 in the disastrous attack upon Tangier, and followed in 1438 by the
+death of King Edward (Duarte) and the domestic troubles of the earlier
+minority of Affonso V., now interrupted Atlantic and African exploration
+down to 1441, except only in the Azores. Here rediscovery and
+colonization both progressed, as is shown by the royal licence of the
+2nd of July 1439, to people "the seven islands" of the group then known.
+In 1441 exploration began again in earnest with the venture of Antam
+Goncalvez, who brought to Portugal the first slaves and gold-dust from
+the Guinea coasts beyond Bojador; while Nuno Tristam in the same year
+pushed on to Cape Blanco. These successes produced a great effect; the
+cause of discovery, now connected with boundless hopes of profit, became
+popular; and many volunteers, especially merchants and seamen from
+Lisbon and Lagos, came forward. In 1442 Nuno Tristam reached the Bay or
+Bight of Arguim, where the infante erected a fort in 1448, and where for
+years the Portuguese carried on vigorous slave-raiding. Meantime the
+prince, who had now, in 1443, been created by Henry VI. a knight of the
+Garter of England, proceeded with his Sagres buildings, especially the
+palace, church and observatory (the first in Portugal) which formed the
+nucleus of the "Infante's Town," and which were certainly commenced soon
+after the Tangier fiasco (1437), if not earlier. In 1444-1446 there was
+an immense burst of maritime and exploring activity; more than 30 ships
+sailed with Henry's licence to Guinea; and several of their commanders
+achieved notable success. Thus Diniz Diaz, Nuno Tristam, and others
+reached the Senegal in 1445; Diaz rounded Cape Verde in the same year;
+and in 1446 Alvaro Fernandez pushed on almost to our Sierra Leone, to a
+point 110 leagues beyond Cape Verde. This was perhaps the most distant
+point reached before 1461. In 1444, moreover, the island of St Michael
+in the Azores was sighted (May 8), and in 1445 its colonization was
+begun. During this latter year also John Fernandez (q.v.) spent seven
+months among the natives of the Arguim coast, and brought back the first
+trustworthy first-hand European account of the Sahara hinterland.
+Slave-raiding continued ceaselessly; by 1446 the Portuguese had carried
+off nearly a thousand captives from the newly surveyed coasts; but
+between this time and the voyages of Cadamosto (q.v.) in 1455-1456, the
+prince altered his policy, forbade the kidnapping of the natives (which
+had brought about fierce reprisals, causing the death of Nuno Tristam in
+1446, and of other pioneers in 1445, 1448, &c.), and endeavoured to
+promote their peaceful intercourse with his men. In 1445-1446, again,
+Dom Henry renewed his earlier attempts (which had failed in 1424-1425)
+to purchase or seize the Canaries for Portugal; by these he brought his
+country to the verge of war with Castile; but the home government
+refused to support him, and the project was again abandoned. After 1446
+our most voluminous authority, Azurara, records but little; his
+narrative ceases altogether in 1448; one of the latest expeditions
+noticed by him is that of a foreigner in the prince's service, "Vallarte
+the Dane," which ended in utter destruction near the Gambia, after
+passing Cape Verde in 1448. After this the chief matters worth notice in
+Dom Henry's life are, first, the progress of discovery and colonization
+in the Azores--where Terceira was discovered before 1450, perhaps in
+1445, and apparently by a Fleming, called "Jacques de Bruges" in the
+prince's charter of the 2nd of March 1450 (by this charter Jacques
+receives the captaincy of this isle as its intending colonizer);
+secondly, the rapid progress of civilization in Madeira, evidenced by
+its timber trade to Portugal, by its sugar, corn and honey, and above
+all by its wine, produced from the Malvoisie or Malmsey grape,
+introduced from Crete; and thirdly, the explorations of Cadamosto and
+Diogo Gomez (q.v.). Of these the former, in his two voyages of 1455 and
+1456, explored part of the courses of the Senegal and the Gambia,
+discovered the Cape Verde Islands (1456), named and mapped more
+carefully than before a considerable section of the African littoral
+beyond Cape Verde, and gave much new information on the trade-routes of
+north-west Africa and on the native races; while Gomez, in his first
+important venture (after 1448 and before 1458), though not accomplishing
+the full Indian purpose of his voyage (he took a native interpreter with
+him for use "in the event of reaching India"), explored and observed in
+the Gambia valley and along the adjacent coasts with fully as much care
+and profit. As a result of these expeditions the infante seems to have
+sent out in 1458 a mission to convert the Gambia negroes. Gomez' second
+voyage, resulting in another "discovery" of the Cape Verde Islands, was
+probably in 1462, after the death of Prince Henry; it is likely that
+among the infante's last occupations were the necessary measures for the
+equipment and despatch of this venture, as well as of Pedro de Sintra's
+important expedition of 1461.
+
+The infante's share in home politics was considerable, especially in the
+years of Affonso V.'s minority (1438, &c.) when he helped to make his
+elder brother Pedro regent, reconciled him with the queen-mother, and
+worked together with them both in a council of regency. But when Dom
+Pedro rose in revolt (1447), Henry stood by the king and allowed his
+brother to be crushed. In the Morocco campaigns of his last years,
+especially at the capture of Alcazar the Little (1458), he restored the
+military fame which he had founded at Ceuta and compromised at Tangier,
+and which brought him invitations from the pope, the emperor and the
+kings of Castile and England, to take command of their armies. The
+prince was also grand master of the Order of Christ, the successor of
+the Templars in Portugal; and most of his Atlantic and African
+expeditions sailed under the flag of his order, whose revenues were at
+the service of his explorations, in whose name he asked and obtained the
+official recognition of Pope Eugenius IV. for his work, and on which he
+bestowed many privileges in the new-won lands--the tithes of St Michael
+in the Azores and one-half of its sugar revenues, the tithe of all
+merchandise from Guinea, the ecclesiastical dues of Madeira, &c. As
+"protector of Portuguese studies," Dom Henry is credited with having
+founded a professorship of theology, and perhaps also chairs of
+mathematics and medicine, in Lisbon--where also, in 1431, he is said to
+have provided house-room for the university teachers and students. To
+instruct his captains, pilots and other pioneers more fully in the art
+of navigation and the making of maps and instruments he procured, says
+Barros, the aid of one Master Jacome from Majorca, together with that of
+certain Arab and Jewish mathematicians. We hear also of one Master
+Peter, who inscribed and illuminated maps for the infante; the
+mathematician Pedro Nunes declares that the prince's mariners were well
+taught and provided with instruments and rules of astronomy and geometry
+"which all map-makers should know"; Cadamosto tells us that the
+Portuguese caravels in his day were the best sailing ships afloat;
+while, from several matters recorded by Henry's biographers, it is clear
+that he devoted great attention to the study of earlier charts and of
+any available information he could gain upon the trade-routes of
+north-west Africa. Thus we find an Oran merchant corresponding with him
+about events happening in the negro-world of the Gambia basin in 1458.
+Even if there were never a formal "geographical school" at Sagres, or
+elsewhere in Portugal, founded by Prince Henry, it appears certain that
+his court was the centre of active and useful geographical study, as
+well as the source of the best practical exploration of the time.
+
+The prince died on the 13th of November 1460, in his town near Cape St
+Vincent, and was buried in the church of St Mary in Lagos, but a year
+later his body was removed to the superb monastery of Batalha. His
+great-nephew, King Dom Manuel, had a statue of him placed over the
+centre column of the side gate of the church of Belem. On the 24th of
+July 1840, a monument was erected to him at Sagres at the instance of
+the marquis de Sa da Bandeira.
+
+The glory attaching to the name of Prince Henry does not rest merely on
+the achievements effected during his own lifetime, but on the subsequent
+results to which his genius and perseverance had lent the primary
+inspiration. To him the human race is indebted, in large measure, for
+the maritime exploration, within one century (1420-1522), of more than
+half the globe, and especially of the great waterways from Europe to
+Asia both by east and by west. His own life only sufficed for the
+accomplishment of a small portion of his task. The complete opening out
+of the African or south-east route to the Indies needed nearly forty
+years of somewhat intermittent labour after his death (1460-1498), and
+the prince's share has often been forgotten in that of pioneers who were
+really his executors--Diogo Cam, Bartholomew Diaz or Vasco da Gama. Less
+directly, other sides of his activity may be considered as fulfilled by
+the Portuguese penetration of inland Africa, especially of Abyssinia,
+the land of the "Prester John" for whom Dom Henry sought, and even by
+the finding of a western route to Asia through the discoveries of
+Columbus, Balboa and Magellan.
+
+  See _Alguns documentos do archivo nacional da Torre do Tombo acerca
+  das navegacoes ... portuguezas_ (Lisbon, 1892); Alves, _Dom Henrique o
+  Infante_ (Oporto, 1894); _Archivo dos Acores_ (Ponta Delgada,
+  1878-1894); Gomes Eannes de Azurara, _Chronica do descobrimento e
+  conquista de Guine_, ed. Carreira and Santarem (Paris, 1841; Eng.
+  trans. by Raymond Beazley and Edgar Prestage, Hakluyt Society, London,
+  1896-1899); Joao de Barros, _Decadas da Asia_ (Lisbon, 1652); Raymond
+  Beazley, _Prince Henry the Navigator_ (London, 1895), and introduction
+  to Azurara, vol. ii., in Hakluyt Soc. trans. (see above); Antonio
+  Cordeiro, _Historia Insultana_ (Lisbon, 1717); Freire (Candido
+  Lusitano), _Vida do Infante D. Henrique_ (Lisbon, 1858); "Diogo
+  Gomez," in Dr Schmeller's _Uber Valentim Fernandez Alemao_, vol. iv.
+  pt. iii., in the publications of the 1st class of the Royal Bavarian
+  Academy of Sciences (Munich, 1845); R. H. Major, _The Life of Henry of
+  Portugal, surnamed the Navigator_ (London, 1868); Jules Mees, _Henri
+  le Navigateur et l'academie ... de Sagres_ (Brussels, 1901), and
+  _Histoire de la decouverte des iles Acores_ (Ghent, 1901); Duarte
+  Pacheco Pereira, _Esmeraldo de situ orbis_ (Lisbon, 1892); Sophus
+  Ruge, "Prinz Heinrich der Seefahrer," in vol. 65 of _Globus_, p. 153
+  (Brunswick, 1894); Gustav de Veer, _Prinz Heinrich der Seefahrer_
+  (Danzig, 1863); H. E. Wauwerman, _Henri le Navigateur et l'academie
+  portugaise de Sagres_ (Antwerp and Brussels, 1890).     (C. R. B.)
+
+
+
+
+HENRY OF ALMAIN (1235-1271), so called from his father's German
+connexions, was the son of Richard, earl of Cornwall and king of the
+Romans. As a nephew of both Henry III. and Simon de Montfort he wavered
+between the two at the beginning of the Barons' War, but finally took
+the royalist side and was among the prisoners taken by Montfort at Lewes
+(1264). In 1268 he took the cross with his cousin Edward, who, however,
+sent him back from Sicily to pacify the unruly province of Gascony.
+Henry took the land route with the kings of France and Sicily. While
+attending mass at Viterbo (13 March 1271) he was attacked by Guy and
+Simon de Montfort, sons of Earl Simon, and foully murdered. This revenge
+was the more outrageous since Henry had personally exerted himself on
+behalf of the Montforts after Evesham. The deed is mentioned by Dante,
+who put Guy de Montfort in the seventh circle of hell.
+
+  See W. H. Blaauw's _The Barons' War_ (ed. 1871); Ch. Bemont's _Simon
+  de Montfort_ (1884).
+
+
+
+
+HENRY OF BLOIS, bishop of Winchester (1101-1171), was the son of
+Stephen, count of Blois, by Adela, daughter of William I., and brother
+of King Stephen. He was educated at Cluny, and consistently exerted
+himself for the principles of Cluniac reform. If these involved high
+claims of independence and power for the Church, they also asserted a
+high standard of devotion and discipline. Henry was brought to England
+by Henry I. and made abbot of Glastonbury. In 1129 he was given the
+bishopric of Winchester and allowed to hold his abbey in conjunction
+with it. His hopes of the see of Canterbury were disappointed, but he
+obtained in 1139 a legatine commission which gave him a higher rank than
+the primate. In fact as well as in theory he became the master of the
+Church in England. He even contemplated the erection of a new province,
+with Winchester as its centre, which was to be independent of
+Canterbury. Owing both to local and to general causes the power of the
+Church in England has never been higher than in the reign of Stephen
+(1135-1154), Henry as its leader and a legate of the pope was the real
+"lord of England," as the chronicles call him. Indeed, one of the
+ecclesiastical councils over which he presided formally declared that
+the election of the king in England was the special privilege of the
+clergy. Stephen owed his crown to Henry (1135), but they quarrelled
+when Stephen refused to give Henry the primacy; and the bishop took up
+the cause of Roger of Salisbury (1139). After the battle of Lincoln
+(1141) Henry declared for Matilda; but finding his advice treated with
+contempt, rejoined his brother's side, and his successful defence of
+Winchester against the empress (Aug.-Sept. 1141) was the turning-point
+of the civil war. The expiration of his legatine commission of 1144
+deprived him of much of his power. He spent the rest of Stephen's reign
+in trying to procure its renewal. But his efforts were unsuccessful,
+though he made a personal visit to Rome. At the accession of Henry II.
+(1154) he retired from the world and spent the rest of his life in works
+of charity and penitence. He died in 1171. Henry seems to have been a
+man of high character, great courage, resolution and ability. Like most
+great bishops of his age he had a passion for architecture. He built,
+among other castles, that of Farnham; and he began the hospital of St
+Cross at Winchester.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Original: William of Malmesbury, _De gestis regum_; the
+  _Gesta Stephani_. Modern: Sir James Ramsay, _Foundations of England_,
+  vol. ii.; Kate Norgate's _Angevin Kings_; Kitchin's _Winchester_.
+
+
+
+
+HENRY OF GHENT [Henricus a Gandavo] (c. 1217-1293), scholastic
+philosopher, known as "Doctor Solennis," was born in the district of
+Mude, near Ghent, and died at Tournai (or Paris). He is said to have
+belonged to an Italian family named Bonicolli, in Flemish Goethals, but
+the question of his name has been much discussed (see authorities
+below). He studied at Ghent and then at Cologne under Albertus Magnus.
+After obtaining the degree of doctor he returned to Ghent, and is said
+to have been the first to lecture there publicly on philosophy and
+theology. Attracted to Paris by the fame of the university, he took part
+in the many disputes between the orders and the secular priests, and
+warmly defended the latter. A contemporary of Aquinas, he opposed
+several of the dominant theories of the time, and united with the
+current Aristotelian doctrines a strong infusion of Platonism. He
+distinguished between knowledge of actual objects and the divine
+inspiration by which we cognize the being and existence of God. The
+first throws no light upon the second. Individuals are constituted not
+by the material element but by their independent existence, i.e.
+ultimately by the fact that they are created as separate entities.
+Universals must be distinguished according as they have reference to our
+minds or to the divine mind. In the divine intelligence exist exemplars
+or types of the genera and species of natural objects. On this subject
+Henry is far from clear; but he defends Plato against the current
+Aristotelian criticism, and endeavours to show that the two views are in
+harmony. In psychology, his view of the intimate union of soul and body
+is remarkable. The body he regards as forming part of the substance of
+the soul, which through this union is more perfect and complete.
+
+  WORKS.--_Quodlibeta theologica_ (Paris, 1518; Venice, 1608 and 1613);
+  _Summa theologiae_ (Paris, 1520; Ferrara, 1646); _De scriptoribus
+  ecclesiasticis_ (Cologne, 1580).
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--F. Huet's _Recherches hist. et crit. ... de H. de G._
+  (Paris, 1838) has been superseded by F. Ehrle's monograph in _Archiv
+  fur Lit. u. Kirchengeschichte des Mittelalters_, i. (1885); see also
+  A. Wauters and N. de Pauw in the _Bull. de la Com. royale d'histoire
+  de Belgique_ (4th series, xiv., xv., xvi., 1887-1889); H. Delehaye,
+  _Nouvelles Recherches sur Henri de Gand_ (1886); C. Werner, _Heinrich
+  von Gent als Reprasentant des christlichen Platonismus im 13ten
+  Jahrh._ (Vienna, 1878); A. Stockl, _Phil. d. Mittelalters_, ii.
+  738-758; C. Brechillet Jourdain, _La Philosophie de St Thomas d'Aquin_
+  (1858), ii. 29-46; Alphonse le Roy in _Biographie nationale de
+  Belgique_, vii. (Brussels, 1880); and article SCHOLASTICISM.
+
+
+
+
+HENRY OF HUNTINGDON, English chronicler of the 12th century, was born,
+apparently, between the years 1080 and 1090. His father, by name
+Nicholas, was a clerk, who became archdeacon of Cambridge, Hertford and
+Huntingdon, in the time of Remigius, bishop of Lincoln (d. 1092). The
+celibacy of the clergy was not strictly enforced in England before 1102.
+Hence the chronicler makes no secret of his antecedents, nor did they
+interfere with his career. At an early age Henry entered the household
+of Bishop Robert Bloet, who appointed him, immediately after the death
+of Nicholas (1110), archdeacon of Hertford and Huntingdon. Henry was on
+familiar terms with his patron; and also, it would seem, with Bloet's
+successor, by whom he was encouraged to undertake the writing of an
+English history from the time of Julius Caesar. This work, undertaken
+before 1130, was first published in that year; the author subsequently
+published in succession four more editions, of which the last ends in
+1154 with the accession of Henry II. The only recorded fact of the
+chronicler's later life is that he went with Archbishop Theobald to Rome
+in 1139. On the way Henry halted at Bec, and there made the acquaintance
+of Robert de Torigni, who mentions their encounter in the preface to his
+Chronicle.
+
+  The _Historia Anglorum_ was first printed in Savile, _Rerum Anglicarum
+  scriptores post Bedam_ (London, 1596). The first six books excepting
+  the third, which is almost entirely taken from Bede, are given in
+  _Monumenta historica Britannica_, vol. i. (ed. H. Petrie and J.
+  Sharpe, London, 1848). The standard edition is that of T. Arnold in
+  the Rolls Series (London, 1879). There is a translation by T. Forester
+  in Bohn's _Antiquarian Library_ (London, 1853). The Historia is of
+  little independent value before 1126. Up to that point the author
+  compiles from Eutropius, Aurelius Victor, Nennius, Bede and the
+  English chronicles, particularly that of Peterborough; in some cases
+  he professes to supplement these sources from oral tradition; but most
+  of his amplifications are pure rhetoric (see F. Liebermann in
+  _Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte_ for 1878, pp. 265 seq.). Arnold
+  prints, in an appendix, a minor work from Henry's pen, the _Epistola
+  ad Walterum de contemptu mundi_, which was written in 1135. It is a
+  moralizing tract, but contains some interesting anecdotes about
+  contemporaries. Henry also wrote epistles to Henry I. (on the
+  succession of kings and emperors in the great monarchies of the world)
+  and to "Warinus, a Briton" (on the early British kings, after Geoffrey
+  of Monmouth). A book, _De miraculis_, composed of extracts from Bede,
+  was appended along with these three epistles to the later recensions
+  of the _Historia_. Henry composed eight books of Latin epigrams; two
+  books survive in the Lambeth MS., No. 118. His value as a historian,
+  formerly much overrated, is discussed at length by Liebermann and in
+  T. Arnold's introduction to the Rolls edition of the _Historia_.
+       (H. W. C. D.)
+
+
+
+
+HENRY OF LAUSANNE (variously known as of Bruys, of Cluny, of Toulouse,
+and as the Deacon), French heresiarch of the first half of the 12th
+century. Practically nothing is known of his origin or early life. He
+may have been one of those hermits who at that time swarmed in the
+forests of western Europe, and particularly in France, always surrounded
+by popular veneration, and sometimes the founders of monasteries or
+religious orders, such as those of Premontre or Fontevrault. If St
+Bernard's reproach (_Ep._ 241) be well founded, Henry was an apostate
+monk--a "black monk" (Benedictine) according to the chronicler Alberic
+de Trois Fontaines. The information we possess as to his degree of
+instruction is scarcely more precise or less conflicting. When he
+arrived at Le Mans in 1101, his _terminus a quo_ was probably Lausanne.
+At that moment Hildebert, the bishop of Le Mans, was absent from his
+episcopal town, and this is one of the reasons why Henry was granted
+permission to preach (March to July 1101), a function jealously guarded
+by the regular clergy. Whether by his prestige as a hermit and ascetic
+or by his personal charm, he soon acquired enormous influence over the
+people. His doctrine at that date appears to have been very vague; he
+seemingly rejected the invocation of saints and also second marriages,
+and preached penitence. Women, inflamed by his words, gave up their
+jewels and luxurious apparel, and young men married courtesans in the
+hope of reclaiming them. Henry was peculiarly fitted for a popular
+preacher. In person he was tall and had a long beard; his voice was
+sonorous, and his eyes flashed fire. He went bare-footed, preceded by a
+man carrying a staff surmounted with an iron cross; he slept on the bare
+ground, and lived by alms. At his instigation the inhabitants of Le Mans
+soon began to slight the clergy of their town and to reject all
+ecclesiastical authority. On his return from Rome, Hildebert had a
+public disputation with Henry, in which, according to the bishop's _Acta
+episcoporum Cenomannensium_, Henry was shown to be less guilty of heresy
+than of ignorance. He, however, was forced to leave Le Mans, and went
+probably to Poitiers and afterwards to Bordeaux. Later we find him in
+the diocese of Arles, where the archbishop arrested him and had his case
+referred to the tribunal of the pope. In 1134 Henry appeared before Pope
+Innocent III. at the council of Pisa, where he was compelled to abjure
+his errors and was sentenced to imprisonment. It appears that St Bernard
+offered him an asylum at Clairvaux; but it is not known if he reached
+Clairvaux, nor do we know when or in what circumstances he resumed his
+activities. Towards 1139, however, Peter the Venerable, abbot of Cluny,
+wrote a treatise called _Epistola seu tractatus adversus Petrobrusianos_
+(Migne, _Patr. Lat._ clxxxix.) against the disciples of Peter of Bruys
+and Henry of Lausanne, whom he calls Henry of Bruys, and whom, at the
+moment of writing, he accuses of preaching, in all the dioceses in the
+south of France, errors which he had inherited from Peter of Bruys.
+According to Peter the Venerable, Henry's teaching is summed up as
+follows: rejection of the doctrinal and disciplinary authority of the
+church; recognition of the Gospel freely interpreted as the sole rule of
+faith; condemnation of the baptism of infants, of the eucharist, of the
+sacrifice of the mass, of the communion of saints, and of prayers for
+the dead; and refusal to recognize any form of worship or liturgy. The
+success of this teaching spread very rapidly in the south of France.
+Speaking of this region, St Bernard (_Ep._ 241) says: "The churches are
+without flocks, the flocks without priests, the priests without honour;
+in a word, nothing remains save Christians without Christ." On several
+occasions St Bernard was begged to fight the innovator on the scene of
+his exploits, and in 1145, at the instance of the legate Alberic,
+cardinal bishop of Ostia, he set out, passing through the diocese of
+Angouleme and Limoges, sojourning for some time at Bordeaux, and finally
+reaching the heretical towns of Bergerac, Perigueux, Sarlat, Cahors and
+Toulouse. At Bernard's approach Henry quitted Toulouse, leaving there
+many adherents, both of noble and humble birth, and especially among the
+weavers. But Bernard's eloquence and miracles made many converts, and
+Toulouse and Albi were quickly restored to orthodoxy. After inviting
+Henry to a disputation, which he refused to attend, St Bernard returned
+to Clairvaux. Soon afterwards the heresiarch was arrested, brought
+before the bishop of Toulouse, and probably imprisoned for life. In a
+letter to the people of Toulouse, undoubtedly written at the end of
+1146, St Bernard calls upon them to extirpate the last remnants of the
+heresy. In 1151, however, some Henricians still remained in Languedoc,
+for Matthew Paris relates (_Chron. maj._, at date 1151) that a young
+girl, who gave herself out to be miraculously inspired by the Virgin
+Mary, was reputed to have converted a great number of the disciples of
+Henry of Lausanne. It is impossible to designate definitely as
+Henricians one of the two sects discovered at Cologne and described by
+Everwin, provost of Steinfeld, in his letter to St Bernard (Migne,
+_Patr. Lat._, clxxxii. 676-680), or the heretics of Perigord mentioned
+by a certain monk Heribert (Martin Bouquet, _Recueil des historiens des
+Gaules et de la France_, xii. 550-551).
+
+  See "Les Origines de l'heresie albigeoise," by Vacandard in the _Revue
+  des questions historiques_ (Paris, 1894, pp. 67-83).     (P. A.)
+
+
+
+
+HENRY, EDWARD LAMSON (1841-   ), American genre painter, was born in
+Charleston, South Carolina, on the 12th of January 1841. He was a pupil
+of the schools of the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts in Philadelphia,
+and of Gleyre and Courbet in Paris, and in 1870 was elected to the
+National Academy of Design, New York. As a painter of colonial and early
+American themes and incidents of rural life, he displays a quaint humour
+and a profound knowledge of human nature. Among his best-known
+compositions are some of early railroad travel, incidents of stage coach
+and canal boat journeys, rendered with much detail on a minute scale.
+
+
+
+
+HENRY, JAMES (1798-1876), Irish classical scholar, was born in Dublin on
+the 13th of December 1798. He was educated at Trinity College, and until
+1845 practised as a physician in the city. In spite of his
+unconventionally and unorthodox views on religion and his own
+profession, he was very successful. His accession to a large fortune
+enabled him to devote himself entirely to the absorbing occupation of
+his life--the study of Virgil. Accompanied by his wife and daughter, he
+visited all those parts of Europe where he was likely to find rare
+editions or MSS. of the poet. He died near Dublin on the 14th of July
+1876. As a commentator on Virgil Henry will always deserve to be
+remembered, notwithstanding the occasional eccentricity of his notes and
+remarks. The first fruits of his researches were published at Dresden in
+1853 under the quaint title _Notes of a Twelve Years' Voyage of
+Discovery in the first six Books of the Eneis_. These were embodied,
+with alterations and additions, in the _Aeneidea, or Critical,
+Exegetical and Aesthetical Remarks on the Aeneis_ (1873-1892), of which
+only the notes on the first book were published during the author's
+lifetime. As a textual critic Henry was exceedingly conservative. His
+notes, written in a racy and interesting style, are especially valuable
+for their wealth of illustration and references to the less-known
+classical authors. Henry was also the author of several poems, some of
+them descriptive accounts of his travels, and of various pamphlets of a
+satirical nature.
+
+  See obituary notice by J. P. Mahaffy in the _Academy_ of the 12th of
+  August 1876, where a list of his works, nearly all of which were
+  privately printed, is given.
+
+
+
+
+HENRY, JOSEPH (1797-1878), American physicist, was born in Albany, N.Y.,
+on the 17th of December 1797. He received his education at an ordinary
+school, and afterwards at the Albany Academy, which enjoyed considerable
+reputation for the thoroughness of its classical and mathematical
+courses. On finishing his academic studies he contemplated adopting the
+medical profession, and prosecuted his studies in chemistry, anatomy and
+physiology with that view. He occasionally contributed papers to the
+Albany Institute, in the years 1824 and 1825, on chemical and mechanical
+subjects; and in the latter year, having been unexpectedly appointed
+assistant engineer on the survey of a route for a state road from the
+Hudson river to Lake Erie, a distance somewhat over 300 m., he at once
+embarked with zeal and success in the new enterprise. This diversion
+from his original bent gave him an inclination to the career of civil
+and mechanical engineering; and in the spring of 1826 he was elected by
+the trustees of the Albany Academy to the chair of mathematics and
+natural philosophy in that institution. In the latter part of 1827 he
+read before the Albany Institute his first important contribution, "On
+Some Modifications of the Electro-Magnetic Apparatus." Struck with the
+great improvements then recently introduced into such apparatus by
+William Sturgeon of Woolwich, he had still further extended their
+efficiency, with considerable reduction of battery-power, by adopting in
+all the experimental circuits (where applicable) the principle of J. S.
+C. Schweigger's "multiplier," that is, by substituting for single wire
+circuits, voluminous coils (_Trans. Albany Institute_, 1827, 1, p. 22).
+In June 1828 and in March 1829 he exhibited before the institute small
+electro-magnets closely and repeatedly wound with silk-covered wire,
+which had a far greater lifting power than any then known. Henry appears
+to have been the first to adopt insulated or silk-covered wire for the
+magnetic coil; and also the first to employ what may be called the
+"spool" winding for the limbs of the magnet. He was also the first to
+demonstrate experimentally the difference of action between what he
+called a "quantity" magnet excited by a "quantity" battery of a single
+pair, and an "intensity" magnet with long fine wire coil excited by an
+"intensity" battery of many elements, having their resistances suitably
+proportioned. He pointed out that the latter form alone was applicable
+to telegraphic purposes. A detailed account of these experiments and
+exhibitions was not, however, published till 1831 (_Sill. Journ._, 19,
+p. 400). Henry's "quantity" magnets acquired considerable celebrity at
+the time, from their unprecedented attractive power--one (August 1830)
+lifting 750 lb., another (March 1831) 2300, and a third (1834) 3500.
+
+Early in 1831 he arranged a small office-bell to be tapped by the
+polarized armature of an "intensity" magnet, whose coil was in
+continuation of a mile of insulated copper wire, suspended about one of
+the rooms of his academy. This was the first instance of magnetizing
+iron at a distance, or of a suitable combination of magnet and battery
+being so arranged as to be capable of such action. It was, therefore,
+the earliest example of a true "magnetic" telegraph, all preceding
+experiments to this end having been on the galvanometer or needle
+principle. About the same time he devised and constructed the first
+electromagnetic engine with automatic polechanger (_Sill. Journ._, 1831,
+20, p. 340; and Sturgeon's _Annals Electr._, 1839, 3, p. 554). Early in
+1832 he discovered the induction of a current on itself, in a long
+helical wire, giving greatly increased intensity of discharge (_Sill.
+Journ._, 1832, 22, p. 408). In 1832 he was elected to the chair of
+natural philosophy in the New Jersey college at Princeton. In 1834 he
+continued and extended his researches "On the Influence of a Spiral
+Conductor in increasing the Intensity of Electricity from a Galvanic
+Arrangement of a Single Pair," a memoir of which was read before the
+American Philosophical Society on the 5th of February 1835. In 1835 he
+combined the short circuit of his monster magnet (of 1834) with the
+small "intensity" magnet of an experimental telegraph wire, thereby
+establishing the fact that very powerful mechanical effects could be
+produced at a great distance by the agency of a very feeble magnet used
+as a circuit maker and breaker, or as a "trigger"--the precursor of
+later forms of relay and receiving magnets. In 1837 he paid his first
+visit to England and Europe. In 1838 he made important investigations in
+regard to the conditions and range of induction from electrical
+currents--showing that induced currents, although merely momentary,
+produce still other or tertiary currents, and thus on through successive
+orders of induction, with alternating signs, and with reversed initial
+and terminal signs. He also discovered similar successive orders of
+induction in the case of the passage of frictional electricity (_Trans.
+Am. Phil. Soc._, 6, pp. 303-337). Among many minor observations, he
+discovered in 1842 the oscillatory nature of the electrical discharge,
+magnetizing about a thousand needles in the course of his experiments
+(_Proc. Am. Phil. Soc._, 1, p. 301). He traced the influence of
+induction to surprising distances, magnetizing needles in the lower
+story of a house through several intervening floors by means of
+electrical discharges in the upper story, and also by the secondary
+current in a wire 220 ft. distant from the wire of the primary circuit.
+The five numbers of his _Contributions to Electricity and Magnetism_
+(1835-1842) were separately republished from the _Transactions_. In 1843
+he made some interesting original observations on "Phosphorescence"
+(_Proc. Am. Phil. Soc._, 3, pp. 38-44). In 1844, by experiments on the
+tenacity of soap-bubbles, he showed that the molecular cohesion of water
+is equal (if not superior) to that of ice, and hence, generally, that
+solids and their liquids have practically the same amount of cohesion
+(_Proc. Am. Phil. Soc._, 4, pp. 56 and 84). In 1845 he showed, by means
+of a thermo-galvanometer, that the solar spots radiate less heat than
+the general solar surface (_Proc. Am. Phil. Soc._, 4, pp. 173-176).
+
+In December 1846 Henry was elected secretary and director of the
+Smithsonian Institution, then just established. While closely occupied
+with the exacting duties of that office, he still found time to
+prosecute many original inquiries--as into the application of acoustics
+to public buildings, and the best construction and arrangement of
+lecture-rooms, into the strength of various building materials, &c.
+Having early devoted much attention to meteorology, both in observing
+and in reducing and discussing observations, he (among his first
+administrative acts) organized a large and widespread corps of
+observers, and made arrangements for simultaneous reports by means of
+the electric telegraph, which was yet in its infancy (_Smithson. Report_
+for 1847, pp. 146, 147). He was the first to apply the telegraph to
+meteorological research, to have the atmospheric conditions daily
+indicated on a large map, to utilize the generalizations made in weather
+forecasts, and to embrace a continent under a single system--British
+America and Mexico being included in the field of observation. In 1852,
+on the reorganization of the American lighthouse system, he was
+appointed a member of the new board; and in 1871 he became the presiding
+officer of the establishment--a position he continued to hold during the
+rest of his life. His diligent investigations into the efficiency of
+various illuminants in differing circumstances, and into the best
+conditions for developing their several maximum powers of brilliancy,
+while greatly improving the usefulness of the line of beacons along the
+extensive coast of the United States, effected at the same time a great
+economy of administration. His equally careful experiments on various
+acoustic instruments also resulted in giving to his country the most
+serviceable system of fog-signals known to maritime powers. In the
+course of these varied and prolonged researches from 1865 to 1877, he
+also made important contributions to the science of acoustics; and he
+established by several series of laborious observations, extending over
+many years and along a wide coast range, the correctness of G. G.
+Stokes's hypothesis (_Report Brit. Assoc._, 1857, part ii. 27) that the
+wind exerts a very marked influence in refracting sound-beams. From 1868
+Henry continued to be annually chosen as president of the National
+Academy of Sciences; and he was also president of the Philosophical
+Society of Washington from the date of its organization in 1871.
+
+Henry was by general concession the foremost of American physicists. He
+was a man of varied culture, of large breadth and liberality of views,
+of generous impulses, of great gentleness and courtesy of manner,
+combined with equal firmness of purpose and energy of action. He died at
+Washington on the 13th of May 1878.     (S. F. B.)
+
+
+
+
+HENRY, MATTHEW (1662-1714), English nonconformist divine, was born at
+Broad Oak, a farm-house on the confines of Flintshire and Shropshire, on
+the 18th of October 1662. He was the son of Philip Henry, who had, two
+months earlier, been ejected by the Act of Uniformity. Unlike most of
+his fellow-sufferers, Philip Henry possessed some private means, and was
+thus enabled to give a good education to his son, who went first to a
+school at Islington, and then to Gray's Inn. He soon relinquished his
+legal studies for theology, and in 1687 became minister of a
+Presbyterian congregation at Chester, removing in 1712 to Mare Street,
+Hackney. Two years later (22nd of June 1714), he died suddenly of
+apoplexy at Nantwich while on a journey from Chester to London. Henry's
+well-known _Exposition of the Old and New Testaments_ (1708-1710) is a
+commentary of a practical and devotional rather than of a critical kind,
+covering the whole of the Old Testament, and the Gospels and Acts in the
+New. Here it was broken off by the author's death, but the work was
+finished by a number of ministers, and edited by G. Burder and John
+Hughes in 1811. Of no value as criticism, its unfailing good sense, its
+discriminating thought, its high moral tone, its simple piety and its
+singular felicity of practical application, combine with the
+well-sustained flow of its racy English style to secure for it the
+foremost place among works of its class.
+
+His _Miscellaneous Writings_, including a _Life of Mr Philip Henry_,
+_The Communicant's Companion_, _Directions for Daily Communion with
+God_, _A Method for Prayer_, _A Scriptural Catechism_, and numerous
+sermons, were edited in 1809 and in 1830. See biographies by W. Tong
+(1816), C. Chapman (1859), J. B. Williams (1828, new ed. 1865); and M.
+H. Lee's _Diaries and Letters of Philip Henry_ (1883).
+
+
+
+
+HENRY, PATRICK (1736-1799), American statesman and orator, was born at
+Studley, Hanover county, Virginia, on the 29th of May 1736. He was the
+son of John Henry, a well-educated Scotsman, among whose relatives was
+the historian William Robertson, and who served in Virginia as county
+surveyor, colonel and judge of a county court. His mother was one of a
+family named Winston, of Welsh descent, noted for conversational and
+musical talent. At the age of ten Patrick was making slow progress in
+the study of reading, writing and arithmetic at a small country school,
+when his father became his tutor and taught him Latin, Greek and
+mathematics for five years, but with limited success. His school days
+being then terminated, he was employed as a store-clerk for one year.
+Within the seven years next following he failed twice as a storekeeper
+and once as a farmer; but in the meantime acquired a taste for reading,
+of history especially, and read and re-read the history of Greece and
+Rome, of England, and of her American colonies. Then, poor but not
+discouraged, he resolved to be a lawyer, and after reading _Coke upon
+Littleton_ and the Virginia laws for a few weeks only, he strongly
+impressed one of his examiners, and was admitted to the bar at the age
+of twenty-four, on condition that he spend more time in study before
+beginning to practise. He rapidly acquired a considerable practice, his
+fee books shewing that for the first three years he charged fees in 1185
+cases. Then in 1763 was delivered his speech in "The Parson's Cause"--a
+suit brought by a clergyman, Rev. James Maury, in the Hanover County
+Court, to secure restitution for money considered by him to be due on
+account of his salary (16,000 pounds of tobacco by law) having been paid
+in money calculated at a rate less than the current market price of
+tobacco. This speech, which, according to reports, was extremely radical
+and denied the right of the king to disallow acts of the colonial
+legislature, made Henry the idol of the common people of Virginia and
+procured for him an enormous practice. In 1765 he was elected a member
+of the Virginia legislature, where he became in the same year the author
+of the "Virginia Resolutions," which were no less than a declaration of
+resistance to the Stamp Act and an assertion of the right of the
+colonies to legislate for themselves independently of the control of the
+British parliament, and gave a most powerful impetus to the movement
+resulting in the War of Independence. In a speech urging their adoption
+appear the often-quoted words: "Tarquin and Caesar had each his Brutus,
+Charles the First his Cromwell, and George the Third [here he was
+interrupted by cries of "Treason"] and George the Third may profit by
+their example! If _this_ be treason, make the most of it." Until 1775 he
+continued to sit in the House of Burgesses, as a leader during all that
+eventful period. He was prominent as a radical in all measures in
+opposition to the British government, and was a member of the first
+Virginia committee of correspondence. In 1774 and 1775 he was a delegate
+to the Continental Congress and served on three of its most important
+committees: that on colonial trade and manufactures, that for drawing up
+an address to the king, and that for stating the rights of the colonies.
+In 1775, in the second revolutionary convention of Virginia, Henry,
+regarding war as inevitable, presented resolutions for arming the
+Virginia militia. The more conservative members strongly opposed them as
+premature, whereupon Henry supported them in a speech familiar to the
+American school-boy for several generations following, closing with the
+words, "Is life so dear or peace so sweet as to be purchased at the
+price of chains and slavery? Forbid it, Almighty God! I know not what
+course others may take, but as for me, give me liberty or give me
+death!" The resolutions were passed and their author was made chairman
+of the committee for which they provided. The chief command of the newly
+organized army was also given to him, but previously, at the head of a
+body of militia, he had demanded satisfaction for powder removed from
+the public store by order of Lord Dunmore, the royal governor, with the
+result that L330 was paid in compensation. But his military appointment
+required obedience to the Committee of Public Safety, and this body,
+largely dominated by Edmund Pendleton, so restrained him from active
+service that he resigned on the 28th of February 1776. In the Virginia
+convention of 1776 he favoured the postponement of a declaration of
+independence, until a firm union of the colonies and the friendship of
+France and Spain had been secured. In the same convention he served on
+the committee which drafted the first constitution for Virginia, and was
+elected governor of the State--to which office he was re-elected in 1777
+and 1778, thus serving as long as the new constitution allowed any man
+to serve continuously. As governor he gave Washington able support and
+sent out the expedition under George Rogers Clark (q.v.) into the
+Illinois country. In 1778 he was chosen a delegate to Congress, but
+declined to serve. From 1780 to 1784 and from 1787 to 1790 he was again
+a member of his State legislature; and from 1784 to 1786 was again
+governor. Until 1786 he was a leading advocate of a stronger central
+government but when chosen a delegate to the Philadelphia constitutional
+convention of 1787, he had become cold in the cause and declined to
+serve. Moreover, in the state convention called to decide whether
+Virginia should ratify the Federal Constitution he led the opposition,
+contending that the proposed Constitution, because of its centralizing
+character, was dangerous to the liberties of the country. This change of
+attitude is thought to have been due chiefly to his suspicion of the
+North aroused by John Jay's proposal to surrender to Spain for
+twenty-five or thirty years the navigation of the Mississippi. From 1794
+until his death he declined in succession the following offices: United
+States senator (1794), secretary of state in Washington's cabinet
+(1795), chief justice of the United States Supreme Court (1795),
+governor of Virginia (1796), to which office he had been elected by the
+Assembly, and envoy to France (1799). In 1799, however, he consented to
+serve again in his State legislature, where he wished to combat the
+Virginia Resolutions; he never took his seat, since he died, on his Red
+Hill estate in Charlotte county, Virginia, on the 6th of June of that
+year. Henry was twice married, first to Sarah Skelton, and second to
+Dorothea Spotswood Dandridge, a grand-daughter of Governor Alexander
+Spotswocd.
+
+  See Moses Coit Tyler, _Patrick Henry_ (Boston, 1887; new ed., 1899),
+  and William Wirt Henry (Patrick Henry's grandson), _Patrick Henry:
+  Life, Correspondence and Speeches_ (New York, 1890-1891); these
+  supersede the very unsatisfactory biography by William Wirt, _Sketches
+  of the Life and Character of Patrick Henry_ (Philadelphia, 1817). See
+  also George Morgan, _The True Patrick Henry_ (Philadelphia, 1907).
+       (N. D. M.)
+
+
+
+
+HENRY, ROBERT (1718-1790), British historian, was the son of James
+Henry, a farmer of Muirton, near Stirling. Born on the 18th of February
+1718 he was educated at the parish school of St Ninians, and at the
+grammar school of Stirling, and, after completing his course at
+Edinburgh University, became master of the grammar school at Annan. In
+1746 he was licensed to preach, and in 1748 was chosen minister of a
+Presbyterian congregation at Carlisle, where he remained until 1760,
+when he removed to a similar charge at Berwick-on-Tweed. In 1768 he
+became minister of the New Greyfriars' Church, Edinburgh, and having
+received the degree of D.D. from Edinburgh University in 1771, and
+served as moderator of the general assembly of the church of Scotland in
+1774, he was appointed one of the ministers of the Old Greyfriars'
+Church, Edinburgh, in 1776, remaining in this charge until his death on
+the 24th of November 1790. During his residence in Berwick, Henry
+commenced his _History of Great Britain, written on a new plan_; but,
+owing to the difficulty of consulting the original authorities, he did
+not make much progress with the work until his removal to Edinburgh in
+1768. The first five volumes appeared between 1771 and 1785, and the
+sixth, edited and completed by Malcolm Laing, was published three years
+after the author's death. A life of Henry was prefixed to this volume.
+The _History_ covers the years between the Roman invasion and the death
+of Henry VIII., and the "new plan" is the combination of an account of
+the domestic life and commercial and social progress of the people with
+the narrative of the political events of each period. The work was
+virulently assailed by Dr Gilbert Stuart (1742-1786), who appeared
+anxious to damage the sale of the book; but the injury thus effected was
+only slight, as Henry received L3300 for the volumes published during
+his lifetime. In 1781, through the influence of the earl of Mansfield,
+he obtained a pension of L100 a year from the British government.
+
+  The _History of Great Britain_ has been translated into French, and
+  has passed into several English editions. An account of Stuart's
+  attack on Henry is given in Isaac D'Israeli's _Calamities of Authors_.
+
+
+
+
+HENRY, VICTOR (1850-   ), French philologist, was born at Colmar in
+Alsace. Having held appointments at Douai and Lille, he was appointed
+professor of Sanskrit and comparative grammar in the university of
+Paris. A prolific and versatile writer, he is probably best known by the
+English translations of his _Precis de Grammaire comparee de l'anglais
+et de l'allemand_ and _Precis ... du Grec et du Latin_. Important works
+by him on India and Indian languages are: _Manuel pour etudier le
+Sanscrit vedique_ (with A. Bergaigne, 1890); _Elements de Sanscrit
+classique_ (1902); _Precis de grammaire Palie_ (1904); _Les Litteratures
+de l'Inde: Sanscrit, Pali, Pracrit_ (1904); _La Magie dans l'Inde
+antique_ (1904); _Le Parsisme_ (1905); _L'Agnistoma_ (1906). Obscure
+languages (such as Innok, Quichua, Greenland) and local dialects
+(_Lexique etymologique du Breton moderne; Le Dialecte Alaman de Colmar_)
+also claimed his attention. _Le Langage Martien_ is a curious book. It
+contains a discussion of some 40 phrases (amounting to about 300 words),
+which a certain Mademoiselle Helene Smith (a well-known spiritualist
+medium of Geneva), while on a hypnotic visit to the planet Mars, learnt
+and repeated and even wrote down during her trance as specimens of a
+language spoken there, explained to her by a disembodied interpreter.
+
+
+
+
+HENRY, WILLIAM (1775-1836), English chemist, son of Thomas Henry
+(1734-1816), an apothecary and writer on chemistry, was born at
+Manchester on the 12th of December 1775. He began to study medicine at
+Edinburgh in 1795, taking his doctor's degree in 1807, but ill-health
+interrupted his practice as a physician, and he devoted his time mainly
+to chemical research, especially in regard to gases. One of his
+best-known papers (_Phil. Trans._, 1803) describes experiments on the
+quantity of gases absorbed by water at different temperatures and under
+different pressures, the conclusion he reached ("Henry's law") being
+that "water takes up of gas condensed by one, two or more additional
+atmospheres, a quantity which, ordinarily compressed, would be equal to
+twice, thrice, &c. the volume absorbed under the common pressure of the
+atmosphere." Others of his papers deal with gas-analysis, fire-damp,
+illuminating gas, the composition of hydrochloric acid and of ammonia,
+urinary and other morbid concretions, and the disinfecting powers of
+heat. His _Elements of Experimental Chemistry_ (1799) enjoyed
+considerable vogue in its day, going through 11 editions in 30 years. He
+died at Pendlebury, near Manchester, on the 2nd of September 1836.
+
+
+
+
+HENRYSON, ROBERT (c. 1425-c. 1500), Scottish poet, was born about 1425.
+It has been surmised that he was connected with the family of Henderson
+of Fordell, but of this there is no evidence. He is described, on the
+title-page of the 1570 edition of his _Fables_, as "scholemaister of
+Dunfermeling," probably of the grammar-school of the Benedictine Abbey
+there. There is no record of his having studied at St Andrews, the only
+Scottish university at this time; but in 1462 a "Master Robert Henryson"
+is named among those incorporated in the recently founded university of
+Glasgow. It is therefore likely that his first studies were completed
+abroad, at Paris or Louvain. He would appear to have been in lower
+orders, if, in addition to being master of the grammar-school, he is the
+notary Robert Henryson who subscribes certain deeds in 1478. As Dunbar
+(q.v.) refers to him as deceased in his _Lament for the Makaris_, his
+death may be dated about 1500.
+
+Efforts have been made to draw up a chronology of his poems; but every
+scheme of this kind, is, in a stronger sense than in the case of Dunbar,
+mere guess-work. There are no biographical or bibliographical facts to
+guide us, and the "internal evidence" is inconclusive.
+
+Henryson's longest, and in many respects his most original and effective
+work, is his _Morall Fabillis of Esope_, a collection of thirteen
+fables, chiefly based on the versions of Anonymus, Lydgate and Caxton.
+The outstanding merit of the work is its freshness of treatment. The old
+themes are retold with such vivacity, such fresh lights on human
+character, and with so much local "atmosphere," that they deserve the
+credit of original productions. They are certainly unrivalled in English
+fabulistic literature. The earliest available texts are the Charteris
+text printed by Lekpreuik in Edinburgh in 1570 and the Harleian MS. No.
+3865 in the British Museum.
+
+In the _Testament of Cresseid_ Henryson supplements Chaucer's tale of
+Troilus with the story of the tragedy of Cresseid. Here again his
+literary craftsmanship saves him from the disaster which must have
+overcome another poet in undertaking to continue the part of the story
+which Chaucer had intentionally left untold. The description of
+Cresseid's leprosy, of her meeting with Troilus, of his sorrow and
+charity, and of her death, give the poem a high place in writings of
+this _genre_.
+
+The poem entitled _Orpheus and Eurydice_, which is drawn from Boethius,
+contains some good passages, especially the lyrical lament of Orpheus,
+with the refrains "Quhar art thow gane, my luf Erudices?" and "My lady
+quene and luf, Erudices." It is followed by a long _moralitas_, in the
+manner of the _Fables_.
+
+Thirteen shorter poems have been ascribed to Henryson. Of these the
+pastoral dialogue "Robene and Makyne," perhaps the best known of his
+work, is the most successful. Its model may perhaps be found in the
+_pastourelles_, but it stands safely on its own merits. Unlike most of
+the minor poems it is independent of Chaucerian tradition. The other
+pieces deal with the conventional 15th-century topics: Age, Death, Hasty
+Credence, Want of Wise Men and the like. The verses entitled "Sum
+Practysis of Medecyne," in which some have failed to see Henryson's
+hand, is an example of that boisterous alliterative burlesque which is
+represented by a single specimen in the work of the greatest makers,
+Dunbar, Douglas and Lyndsay. For this reason, if not for others, the
+difference of its manner is no argument against its authenticity.
+
+  The MS. authorities for the text are the Asloan, Bannatyne, Maitland
+  Folio, Makculloch, Gray and Riddell. Chepman and Myllar's Prints
+  (1508) have preserved two of the minor poems and a fragment of
+  _Orpheus and Eurydice_. The first complete edition was prepared by
+  David Laing (1 vol., Edinburgh, 1865). A more exhaustive edition in
+  three volumes, containing all the texts, was undertaken by the
+  Scottish Text Society (ed. G. Gregory Smith), the first volume of the
+  text (vol. ii. of the work) appearing in 1907. For a critical account
+  of Henryson, see Irving's _History of Scottish Poetry_, Henderson's
+  _Vernacular Scottish Literature_, Gregory Smith's _Transition Period_,
+  J. H. Millar's _Literary History of Scotland_, and the second volume
+  of the _Cambridge History of English Literature_ (1908).     (G. G. S.)
+
+
+
+
+HENSCHEL, GEORGE [ISIDOR GEORG] (1850-   ), English musician (naturalized
+1890), of German family, was born at Breslau, and educated as a pianist,
+making his first public appearance in Berlin in 1862. He subsequently,
+however, took up singing, having developed a fine baritone voice; and in
+1868 he sang the part of Hans Sachs in _Meistersinger_ at Munich. In
+1877 he began a successful career in England, singing at the principal
+concerts; and in 1881 he married the American soprano, Lilian Bailey (d.
+1901), who was associated with him in a number of vocal recitals. He was
+also prominent as a conductor, starting the London symphony concerts in
+1886, and both in England and America (where he was the first conductor
+of the Boston symphony concerts, 1881) he took a leading part in
+advancing his art. He composed a number of instrumental works, a fine
+_Stabat Mater_ (Birmingham festival, 1894), &c., and an opera, _Nubia_
+(Dresden, 1899).
+
+
+
+
+HENSELT, ADOLF VON (1814-1889), German composer, was born at Schwabach,
+in Bavaria, on the 12th of May 1814. At three years old he began to
+learn the violin, and at five the pianoforte under Frau v. Fladt. On
+obtaining financial help from King Louis I. he went to study under
+Hummel in Weimar, and thence in 1832 to Vienna, where, besides studying
+composition under Simon Sechter, he made a great success as a concert
+pianist. In order to recruit his health he made a prolonged tour in 1836
+through the chief German towns. In 1837 he settled at Breslau, where he
+had married, but in the following year he migrated to St Petersburg,
+where previous visits had made him _persona grata_ at Court. He then
+became court pianist and inspector of musical studies in the Imperial
+Institute of Female Education, and was ennobled. In 1852 and again in
+1867 he visited England, though in the latter year he made no public
+appearance. St Petersburg was his home practically until his death,
+which took place at Warmbrunn on the 10th of October 1889. The
+characteristic of Henselt's playing was a combination of Liszt's
+sonority with Hummel's smoothness. It was full of poetry, remarkable for
+the great use he made of extended chords, and for his perfect technique.
+He excelled in his own works and in those of Weber and Chopin. His
+concerto in F minor is frequently played on the continent; and of his
+many valuable studies, _Si oiseau j'etais_ is very familiar. His A minor
+trio deserves to be better known. At one time Henselt was second to
+Rubinstein in the direction of the St Petersburg Conservatorium.
+
+
+
+
+HENSLOW, JOHN STEVENS (1796-1861), English botanist and geologist, was
+born at Rochester on the 6th of February 1796. From his father, who was
+a solicitor in that city, he imbibed a love of natural history which
+largely influenced his career. He was educated at St John's College,
+Cambridge, where he graduated as sixteenth wrangler in 1818, the year in
+which Sedgwick became Woodwardian professor of geology. He accompanied
+Sedgwick in 1819 during a tour in the Isle of Wight, and there he
+learned his first lessons in geology. He also studied chemistry under
+Professor James Cumming and mineralogy under E. D. Clarke. In the autumn
+of 1819 he made some valuable observations on the geology of the Isle of
+Man (_Trans. Geol. Soc._, 1821), and in 1821 he investigated the geology
+of parts of Anglesey, the results being printed in the first volume of
+the _Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society_ (1821), the
+foundation of which society was originated by Sedgwick and Henslow.
+Meanwhile, Henslow had studied mineralogy with considerable zeal, so
+that on the death of Clarke he was in 1822 appointed professor of
+mineralogy in the university at Cambridge. Two years later he took holy
+orders. Botany, however, had claimed much of his attention, and to this
+science he became more and more attached, so that he gladly resigned the
+chair of mineralogy in 1825, to succeed to that of botany. As a teacher
+both in the class-room and in the field he was eminently successful. To
+him Darwin largely owed his attachment to natural history, and also his
+introduction to Captain Fitzroy of H.M.S. "Beagle." In 1832 Henslow was
+appointed vicar of Cholsey-cum-Moulsford in Berkshire, and in 1837
+rector of Hitcham in Suffolk, and at this latter parish he lived and
+laboured, endeared to all who knew him, until the close of his life. His
+energies were devoted to the improvement of his parishioners, but his
+influence was felt far and wide. In 1843 he discovered nodules of
+coprolitic origin in the Red Crag at Felixstowe in Suffolk, and two
+years later he called attention to those also in the Cambridge Greensand
+and remarked that they might be of use in agriculture. Although Henslow
+derived no benefit, these discoveries led to the establishment of the
+phosphate industry in Suffolk and Cambridgeshire; and the works proved
+lucrative until the introduction of foreign phosphates. The museum at
+Ipswich, which was established in 1847, owed much to Henslow, who was
+elected president in 1850, and then superintended the arrangement of the
+collections. He died at Hitcham on the 16th of May 1861. His
+publications included _A Catalogue of British Plants_ (1829; ed. 2,
+1835); _Principles of Descriptive and Physiological Botany_ (1835);
+_Flora of Suffolk_ (with E. Skepper) (1860).
+
+  _Memoir_, by the Rev. Leonard Jenyns (1862).
+
+
+
+
+HENSLOWE, PHILIP (d. 1616), English theatrical manager, was the son of
+Edmund Henslowe of Lindfield, Sussex, master of the game in Ashdown
+Forest and Broil Park. He was originally a servant in the employment of
+the bailiff to Viscount Montague, whose property included Montague House
+in Southwark, and his duties led him to settle there before 1577. He
+subsequently married the bailiff's widow, and, with the fortune he got
+with her, he developed into a clever business man and became a
+considerable owner of Southwark property. He started his connexion with
+the stage when, on the 24th of March 1584, he bought land near what is
+now the southern end of Southwark Bridge, on which stood the Little Rose
+playhouse, afterwards rebuilt as the Rose. Successive companies played
+in it under Henslowe's financial management between 1592 and 1603. The
+theatre at Newington Butts was also under him in 1594. A share of the
+control in the Swan theatre, which like the Rose was on the Bankside,
+fell to Henslowe before the close of the 16th century. With the actor
+Edward Alleyn, who married his step-daughter Joan Woodward, he built in
+Golden Lane, Cripplegate Without, the Fortune Playhouse, opened in
+November 1600. In December of 1594, they had secured the Paris Garden, a
+place for bear-baiting, on the Bankside, and in 1604 they bought the
+office of master of the royal game of bears, bulls and mastiffs from the
+holder, and obtained a patent. Alleyn sold his share to Henslowe in
+February 1610, and three years later Henslowe formed a new partnership
+with Jacob Meade and built the Hope playhouse, designed for stage
+performances as well as bull and bear-baiting, and managed by Meade.
+
+In Henslowe's theatres were first produced many plays by the famous
+Elizabethan dramatists. What is known as "Henslowe's Diary" contains
+some accounts referring to Ashdown Forest between 1576 and 1581, entered
+by John Henslowe, while the later entries by Philip Henslowe from 1592
+to 1609 are those which throw light on the theatrical matters of the
+time, and which have been subjected to much controversial criticism as a
+result of injuries done to the manuscript. "Henslowe's Diary" passed
+into the hands of Edward Alleyn, and thence into the Library of Dulwich
+College, where the manuscript remained intact for more than a hundred
+and fifty years. In 1780 Malone tried to borrow it, but it had been
+mislaid; in 1790 it was discovered and given into his charge. He was
+then at work on his _Variorum Shakespeare_. Malone had a transcript made
+of certain portions, and collated it with the original; and this
+transcript, with various notes and corrections by Malone, is now in the
+Dulwich Library. An abstract of this transcript he also published with
+his _Variorum Shakespeare_. The MS. of the diary was eventually returned
+to the library in 1812 by Malone's executor. In 1840 it was lent to J.
+P. Collier, who in 1845 printed for the Shakespeare Society what
+purported to be a full edition, but it was afterwards shown by G. F.
+Warner (_Catalogue_ of the Dulwich Library, 1881) that a number of
+forged interpolations have been made, the responsibility for which rests
+on Collier.
+
+  The complicated history of the forgeries and their detection has been
+  exhaustively treated in Walter W. Greg's edition of _Henslowe's Diary_
+  (London, 1904; enlarged 1908).
+
+
+
+
+HENTY, GEORGE ALFRED (1832-1902), English war-correspondent and author,
+was born at Trumpington, near Cambridge, in December 1832, and educated
+at Westminster School and Caius College, Cambridge. He served in the
+Crimea in the Purveyor's department, and after the peace filled various
+posts in the department in England and Ireland, but he found the routine
+little to his taste, and drifted into journalism for the London
+_Standard_. He volunteered as Special Correspondent for the
+Austro-Italian War of 1866, accompanied Garibaldi in his Tirolese
+Campaign, followed Lord Napier through the mountain gorges to Magdala,
+and Lord Wolseley across bush and swamp to Kumassi. Next he reported the
+Franco-German War, starved in Paris through the siege of the Commune,
+and then turned south to rough it in the Pyrenees during the Carlist
+insurrection. He was in Asiatic Russia at the time of the Khiva
+expedition, and later saw the desperate hand-to-hand fighting of the
+Turks in the Servian War. He found his real vocation in middle life.
+Invited to edit a magazine for boys called the _Union Jack_, he became
+the mainstay of the new periodical, to which he contributed several
+serials in succession. The stories pleased their public, and had ever
+increasing circulation in book form, until Henty became a name to
+conjure with in juvenile circles. Altogether he wrote about eighty of
+these books. Henty was an enthusiastic yachtsman, having spent at least
+six months afloat each year, and he died on board his yacht in Weymouth
+Harbour on the 16th of November 1902.
+
+
+
+
+HENWOOD, WILLIAM JORY (1805-1875), English mining geologist, was born at
+Perron Wharf, Cornwall, on the 16th of January 1805. In 1822 he
+commenced work as a clerk in a mining office, and soon took an active
+interest in the working of mines and in the metalliferous deposits. In
+1832 he was appointed to the office of assay-master and supervisor of
+tin in the duchy of Cornwall, a post from which he retired in 1838.
+Meanwhile he had commenced in 1826 to communicate papers on mining
+subjects to the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall, and the Geological
+Society of London, and in 1840 he was elected F.R.S. In 1843 he went to
+take charge of the Gongo-Soco mines in Brazil; afterwards he proceeded
+to India to report on certain metalliferous deposits for the Indian
+government; and in 1858, impaired in health, he retired and settled at
+Penzance. His most important memoirs on the metalliferous deposits of
+Cornwall and Devon were published in 1843 by the Royal Geological
+Society of Cornwall. At a much later date he communicated with enlarged
+experience a second series of _Observations on Metalliferous Deposits,
+and on Subterranean Temperature_ (reprinted from _Trans. R. Geol. Soc.
+Cornwall_, 2 vols., 1871). In 1874 he contributed a paper on the
+_Detrital Tin-ore of Cornwall_ (_Journ. R. Inst. Cornwall_). The
+Murchison medal of the Geological Society was awarded to him in 1875,
+and the mineral Henwoodite was named after him. He died at Penzance on
+the 5th of August 1875.
+
+
+
+
+HENZADA, a district of Lower Burma, formerly in the Pegu, but now in the
+Irrawaddy division. Area, 2870 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 484,558. It stretches
+from north to south in one vast plain, forming the valley of the
+Irrawaddy, and is divided by that river into two nearly equal portions.
+This country is protected from inundation by immense embankments, so
+that almost the whole area is suitable for rice cultivation. The chief
+mountains are the Arakan and Pegu Yoma ranges. The greatest elevation of
+the Arakan Yomas in Henzada, attained in the latitude of Myan-aung, is
+4003 ft. above sea-level. Numerous torrents pour down from the two
+boundary ranges, and unite in the plains to form large streams, which
+fall into the chief streams of the district, which are the Irrawaddy,
+Hlaing and Bassein, all of them branches of the Irrawaddy. The forests
+comprise almost every variety of timber found in Burma. The bulk of the
+cultivation is rice, but a number of acres are under tobacco. The chief
+town of the district is HENZADA, which had in 1901 a population of
+24,756. It is a municipal town, with ten elective and three _ex-officio_
+members. Other municipal towns in the district are Zalun, with a
+population of 6642; Myan-aung, with a population of 6351; and Kyangin,
+with a population of 7183, according to the 1901 census. The town of
+Lemyethna had a population of 5831. The steamers of the Irrawaddy
+Flotilla Company call at Henzada and Myan-aung.
+
+The district was once a portion of the Talaing kingdom of Pegu,
+afterwards annexed to the Burmese empire in 1753, and has no history of
+its own. During the second Burmese war, after Prome had been seized, the
+Burmese on the right bank of the Irrawaddy crossed the river and offered
+resistance to the British, but were completely routed. Meanwhile, in
+Tharawaddy, or the country east of the Irrawaddy, and in the south of
+Henzada, much disorder was caused by a revolt, the leaders of which
+were, however, defeated by the British and their gangs dispersed.
+
+
+
+
+HEPBURN, SIR JOHN (c. 1598-1636), Scottish soldier in the Thirty Years'
+War, was a son of George Hepburn of Athelstaneford near Haddington. In
+1620 and in the following years he served in Bohemia, on the lower Rhine
+and in the Netherlands, and in 1623 he entered the service of Gustavus
+Adolphus, who, two years later, appointed him colonel of a Scottish
+regiment of his army. He took part with his regiment in Gustavus's
+Polish wars, and in 1631, a few months before the battle of Breitenfeld
+he was placed in command of the "Scots" or "Green" brigade of the
+Swedish army. At Breitenfeld it was Hepburn's brigade which delivered
+the decisive stroke, and after this he remained with the king, who
+placed the fullest reliance on his skill and courage, until the battle
+of the Alte Veste near Nuremberg. He then entered the French service,
+and raised two thousand men in Scotland for the French army, to which
+force was added in France the historic Scottish archer bodyguard of the
+French kings. The existing Royal Scots (Lothian) regiment (late 1st
+Foot) represents in the British army of to-day Hepburn's French
+regiment, and indirectly, through the amalgamation referred to, the
+Scottish contingent of the Hundred Years' War. Hepburn's claim to the
+right of the line of battle was bitterly resented by the senior French
+regiments. Shortly after this, in 1633, Hepburn was under a _marechal de
+camp_, and he took part in the campaigns in Alsace and Lorraine
+(1634-36). In 1635 Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar, on entering the French
+service, brought with him Hepburn's former Swedish regiment, which was
+at once amalgamated with the French "regiment d'Hebron," the latter thus
+attaining the unusual strength of 8300 men. Sir John Hepburn was killed
+shortly afterwards during the siege of Saverne (Zabern) on the 8th of
+July 1636. He was buried in Toul cathedral. With his friend Sir Robert
+Monro, Hepburn was the foremost of the Scottish soldiers of fortune who
+bore so conspicuous a part in the Thirty Years' War. He was a sincere
+Roman Catholic. It is stated that he left Gustavus owing to a jest about
+his religion, and at any rate he found in the French service, in which
+he ended his days, the opportunity of reconciling his beliefs with the
+desire of military glory which had led him into the Swedish army, and
+with the patriotic feeling which had first brought him out to the wars
+to fight for the Stuart princess, Queen Elizabeth of Bohemia.
+
+  See James Grant, _Memoirs of Sir John Hepburn_.
+
+
+
+
+HEPHAESTION, a Macedonian general, celebrated as the friend of Alexander
+the Great, who, comparing himself with Achilles, called Hephaestion his
+Patroclus. In the later campaigns in Bactria and India, he was entrusted
+with the task of founding cities and colonies, and built the fleet
+intended to sail down the Indus. He was rewarded with a golden crown and
+the hand of Drypetis, the sister of Alexander's wife Stateira (324). In
+the same year he died suddenly at Ecbatana. A general mourning was
+ordered throughout Asia; at Babylon a funeral pile was erected at
+enormous cost, and temples were built in his honour (see ALEXANDER THE
+GREAT).
+
+
+
+
+HEPHAESTION, a grammarian of Alexandria, who flourished in the age of
+the Antonines. He was the author of a manual (abridged from a larger
+work in 48 books) of Greek metres ([Greek: Hegcheiridion peri metron]),
+which is most valuable as the only complete treatise on the subject that
+has been preserved. The concluding chapter ([Greek: Peri poiematos])
+discusses the various kinds of poetical composition. It is written in a
+clear and simple style, and was much used as a school-book.
+
+  Editions by T. Gaisford (1855, with the valuable scholia); R. Westphal
+  (1886, in _Scriptores metrici Graeci_) and M. Consbruch (1906);
+  translation by T. F. Barham (1843); see also W. Christ, _Gesch. der
+  griech. Litt._ (1898); M. Consbruch, _De veterum_ [Greek: Peri
+  poiematos] _doctrina_ (1890); J. E. Sandys, _Hist. Class. Schol._ i.
+  (1906).
+
+
+
+
+HEPHAESTUS, in Greek mythology, the god of fire, analogous to, and by
+the ancients often confused with, the Roman god Vulcan (q.v.); the
+derivation of the name is uncertain, but it may well be of Greek origin.
+The elemental character of Hephaestus is far more apparent than is the
+case with the majority of the Olympian gods; the word Hephaestus was
+used as a synonym for fire not only in poetry (Homer, _Il._ ii. 426 and
+later), but also in common speech (Diod. v. 74). It is doubtful whether
+the origin of the god can be traced to any specific form of fire. As all
+earthly fire was thought to have come from heaven, Hephaestus has been
+identified with the lightning. This is supported by the myth of his fall
+from heaven, and by the fact that, according to the Homeric tradition,
+his father was Zeus, the heaven-god. On the other hand, the lightning is
+not associated with him in literature or cult, and his connexion with
+volcanic fires is so close as to suggest that he was originally a
+volcano-god. The connexion, however, though it may be early, is probably
+not primitive, and it seems reasonable to conclude that Hephaestus was a
+general fire-god, though some of his characteristics were due to
+particular manifestations of the element.
+
+In Homer the fire-god was the son of Zeus and Hera, and found a place in
+the Olympian system as the divine smith. The _Iliad_ contains two
+versions of his fall from heaven. In one account (i. 590) he was cast
+out by Zeus and fell on Lemnos; in the other, Hera threw him down
+immediately after his birth in disgust at his lameness, and he was
+received by the sea-goddesses Eurynome and Thetis. The Lemnian version
+is due to the prominence of his cult at Lemnos in very early times; and
+his fall into the sea may have been suggested by volcanic activity in
+Mediterranean islands, as at Lipara and Thera. The subsequent return of
+Hephaestus to Olympus is a favourite theme in early art. His wife was
+Charis, one of the Graces (in the _Iliad_) or Aphrodite (in the
+_Odyssey_). The connexion of the rough Hephaestus with these goddesses
+is curious; it may be due to the beautiful works of the smith-god
+([Greek: charienta erga]), but it is possibly derived from the supposed
+fertilizing and productive power of fire, in which case Hephaestus is a
+natural mate of Charis, a goddess of spring, and Aphrodite the goddess
+of love. In Homer, the skill of Hephaestus in metallurgy is often
+mentioned; his forge was on Olympus, where he was served by images of
+golden handmaids which he had animated. Similar myths are found in
+relation to the Finnish smith-god Ilmarinen, who made a golden woman,
+and the Teutonic Wieland; a belief in the magical power of metal-workers
+is a common survival from an age in which their art was new and
+mysterious. In epic poetry Hephaestus is rather a comic figure, and his
+limping gait provokes "Homeric laughter" among the gods. In Vedic poetry
+Agni, the fire-god, is footless; and the ancients themselves attributed
+this lameness to the crooked appearance of flame (Servius on _Aen._
+viii. 814), and possibly no better explanation can be found, though it
+has been suggested that in an early stage of society the trade of a
+smith would be suitable for the lame; Hephaestus and the lame Wieland
+would thus conform to the type of their human counterparts.
+
+Except in Lemnos and Attica, there are few indications of any cult of
+Hephaestus. His association with Lemnos can be traced from Homer to the
+Roman age. A town in the island was called Hephaestia, and the functions
+of the god must have been wide, as we are told that his Lemnian priests
+could cure snake-bites. Once a year every fire was extinguished on the
+island for nine days, during which period sacrifice was offered to the
+gods of the underworld and the dead. After the nine days were passed,
+new fire was brought from the sacred hearth at Delos. The significance
+of this and similar customs is examined by J. G. Frazer, _Golden Bough_,
+iii. ch. 4. The close connexion of Hephaestus with Lemnos and especially
+with its mountain Mosychlus has been explained by the supposed existence
+of a volcano; but no crater or other sign of volcanic agency is now
+apparent, and the "Lemnian fire"--a phenomenon attributed to
+Hephaestus--may have been due to natural gas (see LEMNOS). In Sicily,
+however, the volcanic nature of the god is prominent in his cult at
+Etna, as well as in the neighbouring Liparaean isles. The Olympian forge
+had been transferred to Etna or some other volcano, and Hephaestus had
+become a subterranean rather than a celestial power.
+
+The divine smith naturally became a "culture-god"; in Crete the
+invention of forging in iron was attributed to him, and he was honoured
+by all metal-workers. But we have little record of his cult in this
+aspect, except at Athens, where his worship was of real importance,
+belonging to the oldest stratum of Attic religion. A tribe was called
+after his name, and Erichthonius, the mythical father of the Attic
+people, was the son of Hephaestus. Terra-cotta statuettes of the god
+seem to have been placed before the hearths of Athenian houses. This
+temple has been identified, not improbably, with the so-called
+"Theseum"; it contained a statue of Athena, and the two deities are
+often associated, in literature and cult, as the joint givers of
+civilization to the Athenians. The class of artisans was under their
+special protection; and the joint festival of the two divinities--the
+Chalceia--commemorated the invention of bronze-working by Hephaestus. In
+the Hephaesteia (the particular festival of the god) there was a torch
+race, a ceremonial not indeed confined to fire-gods like Hephaestus and
+Prometheus, but probably in its origin connected with them, whether its
+object was to purify and quicken the land, or (according to another
+theory) to transmit a new fire with all possible speed to places where
+the fire was polluted. If the latter view is correct, the torch race
+would be closely akin to the Lemnian fire-ritual which has been
+mentioned. The relation between Hephaestus and Prometheus is in some
+respects close, though the distinction between these gods is clearly
+marked. The fire, as an element, belongs to the Olympian Hephaestus; the
+Titan Prometheus, a more human character, steals it for the use of man.
+Prometheus resembles the Polynesian Maui, who went down to fetch fire
+from the volcano of Mahuika, the fire-god. Hephaestus is a culture-god
+mainly in his secondary aspect as the craftsman, whereas Prometheus
+originates all civilization with the gift of fire. But the importance of
+Prometheus is mainly mythological; the Titan belonged to a fallen
+dynasty, and in actual cult was largely superseded by Hephaestus.
+
+In archaic art Hephaestus is generally represented as bearded, though
+occasionally a younger beardless type is found, as on a vase (in the
+British Museum), on which he appears as a young man assisting Athena in
+the creation of Pandora. At a later time the bearded type prevails. The
+god is usually clothed in a short sleeveless tunic, and wears a round
+close-fitting cap. His face is that of a middle-aged man, with unkempt
+hair. He is in fact represented as an idealized Greek craftsman, with
+the hammer, and sometimes the pincers. Some mythologists have compared
+the hammer of Hephaestus with that of Thor, and have explained it as the
+emblem of a thunder-god; but it is Zeus, not Hephaestus, who causes the
+thunder, and the emblems of the latter god are merely the signs of his
+occupation as a smith. In art no attempt was made, as a rule, to
+indicate the lameness of Hephaestus; but one sculptor (Alcamenes) is
+said to have suggested the deformity without spoiling the statue.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--L. Preller (ed. C. Robert), _Griech. Mythologie_, i. 174
+  f. (Berlin, 1894); W. H. Roscher, _Lex. der griech. u. rom.
+  Mythologie_, s.v. "Hephaistos" (Leipzig, 1884-1886); Harrison, _Myth.
+  and Mon. of Ancient Athens_, p. 119 f. (London, 1890); O. Gruppe,
+  _Griech. Mythologie u. Religionsgesch._ p. 1304 f. (Munich, 1906); O.
+  Schrader and F. B. Jevons, _Prehistoric Antiquities of the Aryan
+  People_, p. 161, &c. (London, 1890); L. R. Farnell, _Cults of the
+  Greek States_, v. (1909).     (E. E. S.)
+
+
+
+
+HEPPENHEIM, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, on
+the Bergstrasse, between Darmstadt and Heidelberg, 21 m. N. of the
+latter by rail. Pop. (1905), 6364. It possesses a parish church,
+occupying the site of one reputed to have been built by Charlemagne
+about 805, an interesting town hall and several schools. On an isolated
+hill close by stand the extensive ruins of the castle of Starkenburg,
+built by the abbot, Ulrich von Lorsch, about 1064 and destroyed during
+the Seven Years' War, and another hill, the Landberg, was a place of
+assembly in the middle ages. Heppenheim, at first the property of the
+abbey of Lorsch, became a town in 1318. After belonging to the Rhenish
+Palatinate, it came into the possession of Hesse-Darmstadt in 1803.
+Hops, wine and tobacco are grown, and there are large stone quarries,
+and several small industries in the town.
+
+
+
+
+HEPPLEWHITE, GEORGE (d. 1786), one of the most famous English
+cabinet-makers of the 18th century. There is practically no biographical
+material relating to Hepplewhite. The only facts that are known with
+certainty are that he was apprenticed to Gillow at Lancaster, that he
+carried on business in the parish of Saint Giles, Cripplegate, and that
+administration of his estate was granted to his widow Alice on the 27th
+of June 1786. The administrator's accounts, which were filed in the
+Prerogative Court of Canterbury a year later, indicate that his property
+was of considerable value. After his death the business was continued by
+his widow under the style of A. Hepplewhite & Co. Our only approximate
+means of identifying his work are _The Cabinet-Maker and Upholsterer's
+Guide_, which was first published in 1788, two years after his death,
+and ten designs in _The Cabinet-maker's London Book of Prices_ (1788),
+issued by the London Society of Cabinet-Makers. It is, however,
+exceedingly difficult to earmark any given piece of furniture as being
+the actual work or design of Hepplewhite, since it is generally
+recognized that to a very large extent the name represents rather a
+fashion than a man. Lightness, delicacy and grace are the distinguishing
+characteristics of Hepplewhite work. The massiveness of Chippendale had
+given place to conceptions that, especially in regard to chairs--which
+had become smaller as hoops went out of fashion--depended for their
+effect more upon inlay than upon carving. In one respect at least the
+Hepplewhite style was akin to that of Chippendale--in both cases the
+utmost ingenuity was lavished upon the chair, and if Hepplewhite was not
+the originator he appears to have been the most constant and successful
+user of the shield back. This elegant form was employed by the school in
+a great variety of designs, and nearly always in a way artistically
+satisfying. Where Chippendale, his contemporaries and his immediate
+successors had used the cabriole and the square leg with a good deal of
+carving, the Hepplewhite manner preferred a slighter leg, plain, fluted
+or reeded, tapering to a spade foot which often became the "spider leg"
+that characterized much of the late 18th-century furniture; this form of
+leg was indeed not confined to chairs but was used also for tables and
+sideboards. Of the dainty drawing-room grace of the style there can be
+no question. The great majority of modern chairs are of Hepplewhite
+inspiration, while he, or those who worked with him, appears to have a
+clear claim to have originated, or at all events popularized, the winged
+easy-chair, in which the sides are continued to the same height as the
+back. This is probably the most comfortable type of chair that has ever
+been made. The backs of Hepplewhite chairs were often adorned with
+galleries and festoons of wheat-ears or pointed fern leaves, and not
+infrequently with the prince of Wales's feathers in some more or less
+decorative form. The frequency with which this badge was used has led to
+the suggestion either that A. Hepplewhite & Co. were employed by George
+IV. when prince of Wales, or that the feathers were used as a political
+emblem. The former suggestion is obviously the more feasible, but there
+is little doubt that the feathers were used by other makers working in
+the same style. It has been objected as an artistic flaw in
+Hepplewhite's chairs that they have the appearance of fragility. They
+are, however, constructionally sound as a rule. The painted and japanned
+work has been criticized on safer grounds. This delicate type of
+furniture, often made of satinwood, and painted with wreaths and
+festoons, with amorini and musical instruments or floral motives, is the
+most elegant and pleasing that can be imagined. It has, however, no
+elements of decorative permanence. With comparatively little use the
+paintings wear off and have to be renewed. A piece of untouched painted
+satinwood is almost unknown, and one of the essential charms of old
+furniture as of all other antiques is that it should retain the patina
+of time. A large proportion of Hepplewhite furniture is inlaid with the
+exotic woods which had come into high favour by the third quarter of the
+18th century. While the decorative use upon furniture of so evanescent a
+medium as paint is always open to criticism, any form of marquetry is
+obviously legitimate, and, if inlaid furniture be less ravishing to the
+eye, its beauty is but enhanced by time. It was not in chairs alone that
+the Hepplewhite manner excelled. It acquired, for instance, a speciality
+of seats for the tall, narrow Georgian sash windows, which in the
+Hepplewhite period had almost entirely superseded the more picturesque
+forms of an earlier time. These window-seats had ends rolling over
+outwards, and no backs, and despite their skimpiness their elegant
+simplicity is decidedly pleasing. Elegance, in fact, was the note of a
+style which on the whole was more distinctly English than that which
+preceded or immediately followed it. The smaller Hepplewhite pieces are
+much prized by collectors. Among these may be included urn-shaped
+knife-boxes in mahogany and satinwood, charming in form and decorative
+in the extreme; inlaid tea-caddies, varying greatly in shape and
+material, but always appropriate and _coquet_; delicate little
+fire-screens with shaped poles; painted work-tables, and inlaid stands.
+Hepplewhite's bedsteads with carved and fluted pillars were very
+handsome and attractive. The evolution of the dining-room sideboard made
+rapid progress towards the end of the 18th century, but neither
+Hepplewhite nor those who worked in his style did much to advance it.
+Indeed they somewhat retarded its development by causing it to revert to
+little more than that side-table which had been its original form. It
+was, however, a very delightful table with its undulating front, its
+many elegant spade-footed legs and its delicate carving. If we were
+dealing with a less elusive personality it would be just to say that
+Hepplewhite's work varies from the extreme of elegance and the most
+delicious simplicity to an unimaginative commonplace, and sometimes to
+actual ugliness. As it is, this summary may well be applied to the style
+as a whole--a style which was assuredly not the creation of any one man,
+but owed much alike of excellence and of defect to a school of
+cabinet-makers who were under the influence of conflicting tastes and
+changing ideals. At its best the taste was so fine and so full of
+distinction, so simple, modest and sufficient, that it amounted to
+genius. On its lower planes it was clearly influenced by commercialism
+and the desire to make what tasteless people preferred. Yet this is no
+more than to say that the Hepplewhite style succumbed sometimes, perhaps
+very often, to the eternal enemy of all art--the uninspired banality of
+the average man.     (J. P.-B.)
+
+
+
+
+HEPTARCHY (Gr. [Greek: hepta], seven, and [Greek: arche], rule), a word
+which is frequently used to designate the period of English history
+between the coming of the Anglo-Saxons in 449 and the union of the
+kingdoms under Ecgbert in 828. It was first used during the 16th century
+because of the belief held by Camden and other older historians, that
+during this period there were exactly seven kingdoms in England, these
+being Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, Essex, Kent, Sussex and Wessex.
+This belief is erroneous, as the number of kingdoms varied considerably
+from time to time; nevertheless the word still serves a useful purpose
+to denote the period.
+
+
+
+
+HERA, in Greek mythology, the sister and wife of Zeus and queen of the
+Olympian gods; she was identified by the Romans with Juno. The
+derivation of the name is obscure, but there is no reason to doubt that
+she was a genuine Greek deity. There are no signs of Oriental influence
+in her cults, except at Corinth, where she seems to have been identified
+with Astarte. It is probable that she was originally a personification
+of some department of nature; but the traces of her primitive
+significance are vague, and have been interpreted to suit various
+theories. Some of the ancients connected her with the earth; Plato,
+followed by the Stoics, derived her name from [Greek: aer], the air.
+Both theories have been revived in modern times, the former notably by
+F. G. Welcker, the latter by L. Preller. A third view, that Hera is the
+moon, is held by W. H. Roscher and others. Of these explanations, that
+advanced by Preller has little to commend it, even if, with O. Gruppe,
+we understand the air-goddess as a storm deity; some of the arguments in
+support of the two other theories will be examined in this article.
+
+Whatever may have been the origin of Hera, to the historic Greeks
+(except a few poets or philosophers) she was a purely anthropomorphic
+goddess, and had no close relation to any province of nature. In
+literature, from the times of Homer and Hesiod, she played an important
+part, appearing most frequently as the jealous and resentful wife of
+Zeus. In this character she pursues with vindictive hatred the heroines,
+such as Alcmene, Leto and Semele, who were beloved by Zeus. She visits
+his sins upon the children born of his intrigues, and is thus the
+constant enemy of Heracles and Dionysus. This character of the offended
+wife was borrowed by later poets from the Greek epic; but it belongs to
+literature rather than to cult, in which the dignity and power of the
+goddess is naturally more emphasized.
+
+The worship of Hera is found, in different degrees of prominence,
+throughout the Greek world. It was especially important in the ancient
+Achaean centres, Argos, Mycenae and Sparta, which she claims in the
+_Iliad_ (iv. 51) as her three dearest cities. Whether Hera was also
+worshipped by the early Dorians is uncertain; after the Dorian invasion
+she remained the chief deity of Argos, but her cult at Sparta was not so
+conspicuous. She received honour, however, in other parts of the
+Peloponnese, particularly in Olympia, where her temple was the oldest,
+and in Arcadia. In several Boeotian cities she seems to have been one of
+the principal objects of worship, while the neighbouring island of
+Euboea probably derived its name from a title of Hera, who was "rich in
+cows" ([Greek: Euboia]). Among the islands of the Aegean, Samos was
+celebrated for the cult of Hera; according to the local tradition, she
+was born in the island. As Hera Lacinia (from her Lacinian temple near
+Croton) she was extensively worshipped in Magna Graecia.
+
+The connexion of Zeus and Hera was probably not primitive, since Dione
+seems to have preceded Hera as the wife of Zeus at Dodona. The origin of
+the connexion may possibly be due to the fusion of two "Pelasgic"
+tribes, worshipping Zeus and Hera respectively; but speculation on the
+earliest cult of the goddess, before she became the wife of Zeus, must
+be largely conjectural. The close relation of the two deities appears in
+a frequent community of altars and sacrifices, and also in the [Greek:
+hieros gamos], a dramatic representation of their sacred marriage. The
+festival, which was certainly ancient, was held not only in Argos,
+Samos, Euboea and other centres of Hera-worship, but also in Athens,
+where the goddess was obscured by the predominance of Athena. The
+details of the [Greek: hieros gamos] may have varied locally, but the
+main idea of the ritual was the same. In the Daedala, as the festival
+was called at Plataea, an effigy was made from an oak-tree, dressed in
+bridal attire, and carried in a cart with a woman who acted as
+bridesmaid. The image was called Daedale, and the ritual was explained
+by a myth: Hera had left Zeus in her anger; in order to win her back,
+Zeus announced that he was about to marry, and dressed up a puppet to
+imitate a bride; Hera met the procession, tore the veil from the false
+bride, and, on discovering the ruse, became reconciled to her husband.
+The image was put away after each occasion; every sixty years a large
+number of such images, which had served in previous celebrations, were
+carried in procession to the top of Mount Cithaeron, and were burned on
+an altar together with animals and the altar itself. As Frazer notes
+(_Golden Bough_,^2 i. 227), this festival appears to belong to the large
+class of mimetic charms designed to quicken the growth of vegetation;
+the marriage of Zeus and Hera would in this case represent the union of
+the king and queen of May. But it by no means follows that Hera was
+therefore originally a goddess of the earth or of vegetation. When the
+real nature of the ritual had become lost or obscured, it was natural to
+explain it by the help of an aetiological myth; in European folklore,
+images, corresponding to those burnt at the Daedala, were sometimes
+called Judas Iscariot or Luther (_Golden Bough_,^2 iii. 315). At Samos
+the [Greek: hieros gamos] was celebrated annually; the image of Hera was
+concealed on the sea-shore and solemnly discovered. This rite seems to
+reflect an actual custom of abduction; or it may rather refer to the
+practice of intercourse between the betrothed before marriage. Such
+intercourse was sanctioned by the Samians, who excused it by the example
+of Zeus and Hera (schol. on _Il._ xiv. 296). There is nothing in the
+Samian [Greek: hieros gamos] to suggest a marriage of heaven and earth,
+or of two vegetation-spirits; as Dr Farnell points out, the ritual
+appears to explain the custom of human nuptials. The sacred marriage,
+therefore, though connected with vegetation at the Daedala, was not
+necessarily a vegetation-charm in its origin; consequently, it does not
+prove that Hera was an earth-goddess or tree-spirit. It is at least
+remarkable that, except at Argos, Hera had little to do with
+agriculture, and was not closely associated with such deities as Cybele,
+Demeter, Persephone and Dionysus, whose connexion with the earth, or
+with its fruits, is beyond doubt.
+
+In her general cult Hera was worshipped in two main capacities: (1) as
+the consort of Zeus and queen of heaven; (2) as the goddess who presided
+over marriage, and, in a wider sense, over the various phases of a
+woman's life. Dionysius of Halicarnassus (_Ars rhet._ ii. 2) calls Zeus
+and Hera the first wedded pair, and a sacrifice to Zeus [Greek: teleios]
+and Hera [Greek: teleia] was a regular feature of the Greek wedding.
+Girls offered their hair or veils to Hera before marriage. In
+Aristophanes (_Thesm._ 973) she "keeps the keys of wedlock." The
+marriage-goddess naturally became the protector of women in childbed,
+and bore the title of the birth-goddess (Eileithyia), at Argos and
+Athens. In Homer (_Il._ xi. 270) and Hesiod (_Theog._ 922) she is the
+mother of the Eileithyiae, or the single Eileithyia. Her cult-titles
+[Greek: parthenos] (or [Greek: pais]), [Greek: teleia] and [Greek:
+chera] the "maiden," "wife," and "widow" (or "divorced") have been
+interpreted as symbolical of the earth in spring, summer, and winter;
+but they may well express the different conditions in the lives of her
+human worshippers. The Argives believed that Hera recovered her
+virginity every year by bathing in a certain spring (Paus. viii. 22, 2),
+a belief which probably reflects the custom of ceremonial purification
+after marriage (see Frazer, _Adonis_, p. 176). Although Hera was not the
+bestower of feminine charm to the same extent as Aphrodite, she was the
+patron of a contest for beauty in a Lesbian festival ([Greek:
+kallisteia]). This intimate relation with women has been held a proof
+that Hera was originally a moon-goddess, as the moon is often thought to
+influence childbirth and other aspects of feminine life. But Hera's
+patronage of women, though undoubtedly ancient, is not necessarily
+primitive. Further, the Greeks themselves, who were always ready to
+identify Artemis with the moon, do not seem to have recognized any lunar
+connexion in Hera.
+
+Among her particular worshippers, at Argos and Samos, Hera was much more
+than the queen of heaven and the marriage-goddess. As the patron of
+these cities ([Greek: poliouchos]) she held a place corresponding to
+that of Athena in Athens. The Argives are called "the people of Hera" by
+Pindar; the Heraeum, situated under a mountain significantly called Mt.
+Euboea, was the most important temple in Argolis. Here the agricultural
+character of her ritual is well marked; the first oxen used in ploughing
+were, according to an Argive myth, dedicated to her as [Greek:
+zeuxidia]; and the sprouting ears of corn were called "the flowers of
+Hera." She was worshipped as the goddess of flowers ([Greek: antheia]);
+girls served in her temple under the name of "flower-bearers," and a
+flower festival ([Greek: Herosantheia, Heroanthia]) was celebrated by
+Peloponnesian women in spring. These rites recall our May day
+observance, and give colour to the earth-goddess theory. On the other
+hand it must be remembered that the patron deity of a Greek state had
+very wide functions; and it is not surprising to find that Hera
+(whatever her origin may have been) assumed an agricultural character
+among her own people whose occupations were largely agricultural. So,
+although the warlike character of Hera was not elsewhere prominent, she
+assumed a militant aspect in her two chief cities; a festival called the
+Shield ([Greek: aspis], in Pindar [Greek: agon chalkeos]) was part of
+the Argive cult, and there was an armed procession in her honour at
+Samos. The city-goddess, whether Hera or Athena, must be chief alike in
+peace and war.
+
+The cow was the animal specially sacred to Hera both in ritual and in
+mythology. The story of Io, metamorphosed into a cow, is familiar; she
+was priestess of Hera, and was originally, no doubt, a form of the
+goddess herself. The Homeric epithet [Greek: boopis] may have meant
+"cow-faced" to the earliest worshippers of Hera, though by Homer and the
+later Greeks it was understood as "large-eyed," like the cow. A car
+drawn by oxen seems to have been widely used in the processions of Hera,
+and the cow was her most frequent sacrifice. The origin of Hera's
+association with the cow is uncertain, but there is no need to see in
+it, with Roscher, a symbol of the moon. The cuckoo was also sacred to
+Hera, who, according to the Argive legend, was wooed by Zeus in the form
+of the bird. In later times the peacock, which was still unfamiliar to
+the Greeks in the 5th century, was her favourite, especially at Samos.
+
+The earliest recorded images of Hera preceded the rise of Greek
+sculpture; a log at Thespiae, a plank at Samos, a pillar at Argos served
+to represent the goddess. In the archaic period of sculpture the [Greek:
+xoanon] or wooden statue of the Samian Hera by Smilis was famous. In the
+first half of the 5th century the sacred marriage was represented on an
+extant metope from a temple at Selinus. The most celebrated statue of
+Hera was the chryselephantine work of Polyclitus, made for the Heraeum
+at Argos soon after 423 B.C. It is fully described by Pausanias, who
+says that Hera was seated on a throne, wearing a crown ([Greek:
+stephanos]), and carrying a sceptre in one hand and a pomegranate in the
+other. Various ancient writers testify to the beauty and dignity of the
+statue, which was considered equal to the Zeus of Pheidias. Polyclitus
+seems to have fixed the type of Hera as a youthful matron, but
+unfortunately the exact character of her head cannot be determined. A
+majestic and rather severe beauty marks the conception of Hera in later
+art, of which the Farnese bust at Naples and the Ludovisi Hera are the
+most conspicuous examples.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--F. G. Welcker, _Griech. Gotterl._ i. 362 f. (Gottingen,
+  1857-1863); L. Preller (ed. C. Robert), _Griech. Mythologie_, i. 160
+  f. (Berlin, 1894); W. H. Roscher, _Lex. der griech. u. rom.
+  Mythologie_, s.v. (Leipzig, 1884); C. Daremberg and E. Saglio, _Dict.
+  des ant. grecques et rom._ s.v. "Juno" (Paris, 1877); L. R. Farnell,
+  _Cults of the Greek States_, i. 179 f. (Oxford, 1896); A. B. Cook in
+  _Class. Rev._ xx. 365 f. 416 f.; O. Gruppe, _Griech. Mythologie u.
+  Religionsgesch._ p. 1121 f. (Munich, 1903). In the article GREEK ART,
+  fig. 24, will be found a roughly executed head of Hera, from the
+  pediment of the treasury of the Megarians.     (E. E. S.)
+
+
+
+
+HERACLEA, the name of a large number of ancient cities founded by the
+Greeks.
+
+1. HERACLEA (Gr. [Greek: Herakleia]), an ancient city of Lucania,
+situated near the modern Policoro, 3 m. from the coast of the gulf of
+Tarentum, between the rivers Aciris (Agri) and Siris (Sinni) about 13 m.
+S.S.W. of Metapontum. It was a Greek colony founded by the Tarentines
+and Thurians in 432 B.C., the former being predominant. It was chosen as
+the meeting-place of the general assembly of the Italiot Greeks, which
+Alexander of Epirus, after his alienation from Tarentum, tried to
+transfer to Thurii. Here Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, defeated the consul
+Laevinus in 280 B.C., after he had crossed the river Siris. In 278 B.C.,
+or possibly in 282 B.C., probably in order to detach it from Tarentum,
+the Romans made a special treaty with Heraclea, on such favourable terms
+that in 89 B.C. the Roman citizenship given to the inhabitants by the
+Lex Plautia Papiria was only accepted after considerable hesitation. We
+hear that Heraclea surrendered under compulsion to Hannibal in 212 B.C.
+and that in the Social war the public records were destroyed by fire.
+Cicero in his defence of the poet Archias, an adopted citizen of
+Heraclea, speaks of it as a flourishing town. As a consequence of its
+having accepted Roman citizenship, it became a _municipium_; part of a
+copy of the Lex Iulia Municipalis of 46 B.C. (engraved on the back of
+two bronze tablets, on the front of which is a Greek inscription of the
+3rd century B.C. defining the boundaries of lands belonging to various
+temples), which was found between Heraclea and Metapontum, is of the
+highest importance for our knowledge of that law. It was still a place
+of some importance under the empire; a branch road from Venusia joined
+the coast road here. The circumstances of its destruction and
+abandonment was unknown; the site is now marked by a few heaps of ruins.
+Its medieval representative was Anglona, once a bishopric, but now
+itself a heap of ruins, among which are those of an 11th-century church.
+
+2. HERACLEA MINOA, an ancient town on the south coast of Sicily, at the
+mouth of the river Halycus, near the modern Montallegro, some 20 m. N.W.
+of Girgenti. It was at first an outpost of Selinus (Herod. v. 46), then
+overthrown by Carthage, later a border town of Agrigentum. It passed
+into Carthaginian hands by the treaty of 405 B.C., was won back by
+Dionysius in his first Punic war, but recovered by Carthage in 383. From
+this date onwards coins bearing its Semitic name, _Ras Melkart_, become
+common, and it was obviously an important border fortress. It was here
+that Dion landed in 357 B.C., when he attacked Syracuse. The
+Agrigentines won it back in 309, but it soon fell under the power of
+Agathocles. It was temporarily recovered for Greece by Pyrrhus.
+     (T. As.)
+
+3. HERACLEA PONTICA (mod. _Bender Eregli_), an ancient city on the coast
+of Bithynia in Asia Minor, at the mouth of the Kilijsu. It was founded
+by a Megarian colony, which soon subjugated the native Mariandynians and
+extended its power over a considerable territory. The prosperity of the
+city, rudely shaken by the Galatians and the Bithynians, was utterly
+destroyed in the Mithradatic war. It was the birthplace of Heraclides
+Ponticus. The modern town is best known for its lignite coal-mines, from
+which Constantinople receives a good part of its supply.
+
+4. HERACLEA SINTICA, a town in Thracian Macedonia, to the south of the
+Strymon, the site of which is marked by the village of Zervokhori, and
+identified by the discovery of local coins.
+
+5. HERACLEA, a town on the borders of Caria and Ionia, near the foot of
+Mount Latmus. In its neighbourhood was the burial cave of Endymion.
+
+6. HERACLEA-CYBISTRA (mod. _Eregli_ in the vilayet of Konia), under the
+name Cybistra, had some importance in Hellenistic times owing to its
+position near the point where the road to the Cilician Gates enters the
+hills. It lay in the way of armies and was more than once sacked by the
+Arab invaders of Asia Minor (A.D. 805 and 832). It became Turkish
+(Seljuk) in the 11th century. Modern Eregli had grown from a large
+village to a town since the railway reached it from Konia and Karaman in
+1904; and it has now an hotel and good shops. Three hours' ride S. is
+the famous "Hittite" rock-relief of Ivriz, representing a king (probably
+of neighbouring Tyana) adoring a god (see HITTITES). This was the first
+"Hittite" monument discovered in modern times (early 18th century, by
+the Swede Otter, an emissary of Louis XIV.).
+
+  For Heraclea Trachinia see TRACHIS, and for Heraclea Perinthus see
+  PERINTHUS.
+
+HERACLEA was also the name of one of the Sporades, between Naxos and
+Ios, which is still called Raklia, and bears traces of a Greek township
+with temples to Tyche and Zeus Lophites.     (D. G. H.)
+
+
+
+
+HERACLEON, a Gnostic who flourished about A.D. 125, probably in the
+south of Italy or in Sicily, and is generally classed by the early
+heresiologists with the Valentinian school of heresy. In his system he
+appears to have regarded the divine nature as a vast abyss in whose
+_pleroma_ were aeons of different orders and degrees,--emanations from
+the source of being. Midway between the supreme God and the material
+world was the Demiurgus, who created the latter, and under whose
+jurisdiction the lower, animal soul of man proceeded after death, while
+his higher, celestial soul returned to the pleroma whence at first it
+issued. Though conspicuously uniting faith in Christ with spiritual
+maturity, there are evidences that, like other Valentinians, Heracleon
+did not sufficiently emphasize abstinence from the moral laxity and
+worldliness into which his followers fell. He seems to have received the
+ordinary Christian scriptures; and Origen, who treats him as a notable
+exegete, has preserved fragments of a commentary by him on the fourth
+gospel (brought together by Grabe in the second volume of his
+_Spicilegium_), while Clement of Alexandria quotes from him what appears
+to be a passage from a commentary on Luke. These writings are remarkable
+for their intensely mystical and allegorical interpretations of the
+text.
+
+
+
+
+HERACLEONAS, east-Roman emperor (Feb.-Sept. 641), was the son of
+Heraclius (q.v.) and Martina. At the end of Heraclius' reign he obtained
+through his mother's influence the title of Augustus (638), and after
+his father's death was proclaimed joint emperor with his half-brother
+Constantine III. The premature death of Constantine, in May 641, left
+Heracleonas sole ruler. But a suspicion that he and Martina had murdered
+Constantine led soon after to a revolt, and to the mutilation and
+banishment of the supposed offenders. Nothing further is known about
+Heracleonas subsequent to 641.
+
+
+
+
+HERACLIDAE, the general name for the numerous descendants of Heracles
+(Hercules), and specially applied in a narrower sense to the descendants
+of Hyllus, the eldest of his four sons by Deianeirathe, conquerors of
+Peloponnesus. Heracles, whom Zeus had originally intended to be ruler of
+Argos, Lacedaemon and Messenian Pylos, had been supplanted by the
+cunning of Hera, and his intended possessions had fallen into the hands
+of Eurystheus, king of Mycenae. After the death of Heracles, his
+children, after many wanderings, found refuge from Eurystheus at Athens.
+Eurystheus, on his demand for their surrender being refused, attacked
+Athens, but was defeated and slain. Hyllus and his brothers then invaded
+Peloponnesus, but after a year's stay were forced by a pestilence to
+quit. They withdrew to Thessaly, where Aegimius, the mythical ancestor
+of the Dorians, whom Heracles had assisted in war against the Lapithae,
+adopted Hyllus and made over to him a third part of his territory. After
+the death of Aegimius, his two sons, Pamphilus and Dymas, voluntarily
+submitted to Hyllus (who was, according to the Dorian tradition in
+Herodotus v. 72, really an Achaean), who thus became ruler of the
+Dorians, the three branches of that race being named after these three
+heroes. Being desirous of reconquering his paternal inheritance, Hyllus
+consulted the Delphic oracle, which told him to wait for "the third
+fruit," and then enter Peloponnesus by "a narrow passage by sea."
+Accordingly, after three years, Hyllus marched across the isthmus of
+Corinth to attack Atreus, the successor of Eurystheus, but was slain in
+single combat by Echemus, king of Tegea. This second attempt was
+followed by a third under Cleodaeus and a fourth under Aristomachus,
+both of which were equally unsuccessful. At last, Temenus, Cresphontes
+and Aristodemus, the sons of Aristomachus, complained to the oracle that
+its instructions had proved fatal to those who had followed them. They
+received the answer that by the "third fruit" the "third generation" was
+meant, and that the "narrow passage" was not the isthmus of Corinth, but
+the straits of Rhium. They accordingly built a fleet at Naupactus, but
+before they set sail, Aristodemus was struck by lightning (or shot by
+Apollo) and the fleet destroyed, because one of the Heraclidae had slain
+an Acarnanian soothsayer. The oracle, being again consulted by Temenus,
+bade him offer an expiatory sacrifice and banish the murderer for ten
+years, and look out for a man with three eyes to act as guide. On his
+way back to Naupactus, Temenus fell in with Oxylus, an Aetolian, who had
+lost one eye, riding on a horse (thus making up the three eyes) and
+immediately pressed him into his service. According to another account,
+a mule on which Oxylus rode had lost an eye. The Heraclidae repaired
+their ships, sailed from Naupactus to Antirrhium, and thence to Rhium in
+Peloponnesus. A decisive battle was fought with Tisamenus, son of
+Orestes, the chief ruler in the peninsula, who was defeated and slain.
+The Heraclidae, who thus became practically masters of Peloponnesus,
+proceeded to distribute its territory among themselves by lot. Argos
+fell to Temenus, Lacedaemon to Procles and Eurysthenes, the twin sons of
+Aristodemus; and Messene to Cresphontes. The fertile district of Elis
+had been reserved by agreement for Oxylus. The Heraclidae ruled in
+Lacedaemon till 221 B.C., but disappeared much earlier in the other
+countries. This conquest of Peloponnesus by the Dorians, commonly called
+the "Return of the Heraclidae," is represented as the recovery by the
+descendants of Heracles of the rightful inheritance of their hero
+ancestor and his sons. The Dorians followed the custom of other Greek
+tribes in claiming as ancestor for their ruling families one of the
+legendary heroes, but the traditions must not on that account be
+regarded as entirely mythical. They represent a joint invasion of
+Peloponnesus by Aetolians and Dorians, the latter having been driven
+southward from their original northern home under pressure from the
+Thessalians. It is noticeable that there is no mention of these
+Heraclidae or their invasion in Homer or Hesiod. Herodotus (vi. 52)
+speaks of poets who had celebrated their deeds, but these were limited
+to events immediately succeeding the death of Heracles. The story was
+first amplified by the Greek tragedians, who probably drew their
+inspiration from local legends, which glorified the services rendered by
+Athens to the rulers of Peloponnesus.
+
+  Apollodorus ii. 8; Diod. Sic. iv. 57, 58; Pausanias i. 32, 41, ii. 13,
+  18, iii. 1, iv. 3, v. 3; Euripides, _Heraclidae_; Pindar, _Pythia_,
+  ix. 137; Herodotus ix. 27. See Muller's _Dorians_, i. ch. 3;
+  Thirlwall, _History of Greece_, ch. vii.; Grote, _Hist. of Greece_,
+  pt. i. ch. xviii.; Busolt, _Griechische Geschichte_, i. ch. ii. sec.
+  7, where a list of modern authorities is given.
+
+
+
+
+HERACLIDES PONTICUS, Greek philosopher and miscellaneous writer, born at
+Heraclea in Pontus, flourished in the 4th century B.C. He studied
+philosophy at Athens under Speusippus, Plato and Aristotle. According to
+Suidas, Plato, on his departure for Sicily, left his pupils in charge of
+Heraclides. The latter part of his life was spent at Heraclea. He is
+said to have been vain and fat, and to have been so fond of display that
+he was nicknamed Pompicus, or the Showy (unless the epithet refers to
+his literary style). Various idle stories are related about him. On one
+occasion, for instance, Heraclea was afflicted with famine, and the
+Pythian priestess at Delphi, bribed by Heraclides, assured his inquiring
+townsmen that the dearth would be stayed if they granted a golden crown
+to that philosopher. This was done; but just as Heraclides was receiving
+his honour in a crowded assembly, he was seized with apoplexy, while the
+dishonest priestess perished at the same moment from the bite of a
+serpent. On his death-bed he is said to have requested a friend to hide
+his body as soon as life was extinct, and, by putting a serpent in its
+place, induce his townsmen to suppose that he had been carried up to
+heaven. The trick was discovered, and Heraclides received only ridicule
+instead of divine honours (Diogenes Laertius v. 6). Whatever may be the
+truth about these stories, Heraclides seems to have been a versatile and
+prolific writer on philosophy, mathematics, music, grammar, physics,
+history and rhetoric. Many of the works attributed to him, however, are
+probably by one or more persons of the same name.
+
+  The extant fragment of a treatise _On Constitutions_ (C. W. Muller,
+  _F.H.G._ ii. 197-207) is probably a compilation from the _Politics_ of
+  Aristotle by Heraclides Lembos, who lived in the time of Ptolemy VI.
+  Philometor (181-146). See Otto Voss, _De Heraclidis Pontici vita et
+  scriptis_ (1896).
+
+
+
+
+HERACLITUS ([Greek: Herakleitos]; c. 540-475 B.C.), Greek philosopher,
+was born at Ephesus of distinguished parentage. Of his early life and
+education we know nothing; from the contempt with which he spoke of all
+his fellow-philosophers and of his fellow-citizens as a whole we may
+gather that he regarded himself as self-taught and a pioneer of wisdom.
+So intensely aristocratic (hence his nickname [Greek: ochloloidoros],
+"he who rails at the people") was his temperament that he declined to
+exercise the regal-hieratic office of [Greek: Basileus] which was
+hereditary in his family, and presented it to his brother. It is
+probable, however, that he did occasionally intervene in the affairs of
+the city at the period when the rule of Persia had given place to
+autonomy; it is said that he compelled the usurper Melancomas to
+abdicate. From the lonely life he led, and still more from the extreme
+profundity of his philosophy and his contempt for mankind in general, he
+was called the "Dark Philosopher" ([Greek: ho skoteinos]), or the
+"Weeping Philosopher," in contrast to Democritus, the "Laughing
+Philosopher."
+
+Heraclitus is in a real sense the founder of metaphysics. Starting from
+the physical standpoint of the Ionian physicists, he accepted their
+general idea of the unity of nature, but entirely denied their theory of
+being. The fundamental uniform fact in nature is constant change
+([Greek: panta chorei kai ouden menei]); everything both is and is not
+at the same time. He thus arrives at the principle of Relativity;
+harmony and unity consist in diversity and multiplicity. The senses are
+"bad witnesses" ([Greek: kakoi martyres]); only the wise man can obtain
+knowledge.
+
+To appreciate the significance of the doctrines of Heraclitus, it must
+be borne in mind that to Greek philosophy the sharp distinction between
+subject and object which pervades modern thought was foreign, a
+consideration which suggests the conclusion that, while it is a great
+mistake to reckon Heraclitus with the materialistic cosmologists of the
+Ionic schools, it is, on the other hand, going too far to treat his
+theory, with Hegel and Lassalle, as one of pure Panlogism. Accordingly,
+when he denies the reality of Being, and declares Becoming, or eternal
+flux and change, to be the sole actuality, Heraclitus must be understood
+to enunciate not only the unreality of the abstract notion of being,
+except as the correlative of that of not-being, but also the physical
+doctrine that all phenomena are in a state of continuous transition from
+non-existence to existence, and vice versa, without either
+distinguishing these propositions or qualifying them by any reference to
+the relation of thought to experience. "Every thing is and is not"; all
+things are, and nothing remains. So far he is in general agreement with
+Anaximander (q.v.), but he differs from him in the solution of the
+problem, disliking, as a poet and a mystic, the primary matter which
+satisfied the patient researcher, and demanding a more vivid and
+picturesque element. Naturally he selects fire, according to him the
+most complete embodiment of the process of Becoming, as the principle of
+empirical existence, out of which all things, including even the soul,
+grow by way of a _quasi_ condensation, and into which all things must in
+course of time be again resolved. But this primordial fire is in itself
+that divine rational process, the harmony of which constitutes the law
+of the universe (see LOGOS). Real knowledge consists in comprehending
+this all-pervading harmony as embodied in the manifold of perception,
+and the senses are "bad-witnesses," because they apprehend phenomena,
+not as its manifestation, but as "stiff and dead." In like manner real
+virtue consists in the subordination of the individual to the laws of
+this harmony as the universal reason wherein alone true freedom is to be
+found. "The law of things is a law of Reason Universal ([Greek: logos]),
+but most men live as though they had a wisdom of their own." Ethics here
+stands to sociology in a close relation, similar, in many respects, to
+that which we find in Hegel and in Comte. For Heraclitus the soul
+approaches most nearly to perfection when it is most akin to the fiery
+vapour out of which it was originally created, and as this is most so in
+death, "while we live our souls are dead in us, but when we die our
+souls are restored to life." The doctrine of immortality comes
+prominently forward in his ethics, but whether this must not be reckoned
+with the figurative accommodation to the popular theology of Greece
+which pervades his ethical teaching, is very doubtful.
+
+The school of disciples founded by Heraclitus flourished for long after
+his death, the chief exponent of his teaching being Cratylus. A good
+deal of the information in regard to his doctrines has been gathered
+from the later Greek philosophy, which was deeply influenced by it.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The only authentic extant work of Heraclitus is the
+  [Greek: peri physeos]. The best edition (containing also the probably
+  spurious [Greek: Epistolai]) is that of I. Bywater, _Heracliti Ephesii
+  reliquiae_ (Oxford, 1877); of the epistles alone by A. Westermann
+  (Leipzig, 1857). See also in A. H. Ritter and L. Preller's _Historia
+  philosophiae Graecae_ (8th ed. by E. Wellmann, 1898); F. W. A.
+  Mullach, _Fragm. philos. Graec._ (Paris, 1860); A. Fairbanks, _The
+  First Philosophers of Greece_ (1898); H. Diels, _Heraklit von Ephesus_
+  (2nd ed., 1909), Greek and German. English translation of Bywater's
+  edition with introduction by G. T. W. Patrick (Baltimore, 1889). For
+  criticism see, in addition to the histories of philosophy, F.
+  Lassalle, _Die Philosophie Herakleitos' des Dunklen_ (Berlin, 1858;
+  2nd ed., 1892), which, however, is too strongly dominated by modern
+  Hegelianism; Paul Schuster, _Heraklit von Ephesus_ (Leipzig, 1873); J.
+  Bernays, _Die heraklitischen Briefe_ (Berlin, 1869); T. Gomperz, _Zu
+  Heraclits Lehre und den Uberresten seines Werkes_ (Vienna, 1887), and
+  in his _Greek Thinkers_ (English translation, L. Magnus, vol. i.
+  1901); J. Burnet, _Early Greek Philosophy_ (1892); A. Patin,
+  _Heraklits Einheitslehre_ (Leipzig, 1886); E. Pfleiderer, _Die
+  Philosophie des Heraklitus von Ephesus im Lichte der Mysterienidee_
+  (Berlin, 1886); G. T. Schafer, _Die Philosophie des Heraklit von
+  Ephesus und die moderne Heraklitforschung_ (Leipzig, 1902); Wolfgang
+  Schultz, _Studien zur antiken Kultur_, i.; _Pythagoras und Heraklit_
+  (Leipzig, 1905); O. Spengler, _Heraklit. Eine Studie uber den
+  energetischen Grundgedanken seiner Philosophie_ (Halle, 1904); A.
+  Brieger, "Die Grundzuge der heraklitischen Physik" in _Hermes_, xxxix.
+  (1904), 182-223, and "Heraklit der Dunkle" in _Neue Jahrb. f. das
+  klass. Altertum_ (1904), p. 687. For his place in the development of
+  early philosophy see also articles IONIAN SCHOOL OF PHILOSOPHY and
+  LOGOS. Ancient authorities: Diog. Laert. ix.; Sext. Empiric., _Adv.
+  mathem._ vii. 126, 127, 133; Plato, _Cratylus_, 402 A and
+  _Theaetetus_, 152 E; Plutarch, _Isis and Osiris_, 45, 48; Arist. _Nic.
+  Eth._ vii. 3, 4; Clement of Alexandria, _Stromata_, v. 599, 603 (ed.
+  Paris).     (J. M. M.)
+
+
+
+
+HERACLIUS ([Greek: Herakleios]) (c. 575-642), East Roman emperor, was
+born in Cappadocia. His father held high military command under the
+emperor Maurice, and as governor of Africa maintained his independence
+against the usurper Phocas (q.v.). When invited to head a rebellion
+against the latter, he sent his son with a fleet which reached
+Constantinople unopposed, and precipitated the dethronement of Phocas.
+Proclaimed emperor, Heraclius set himself to reorganize the utterly
+disordered administration. At first he found himself helpless before the
+Persian armies (see PERSIA: _Ancient History_; and CHOSROES II.) of
+Chosroes II., which conquered Syria and Egypt and since 616 had encamped
+opposite Constantinople; in 618 he even proposed in despair to abandon
+his capital and seek a refuge in Carthage, but at the entreaty of the
+patriarch he took courage. By securing a loan from the Church and
+suspending the corn-distribution at Constantinople, he raised sufficient
+funds for war, and after making a treaty with the Avars, who had nearly
+surprised the capital during an incursion in 619, he was at last able to
+take the field against Persia. During his first expedition (622) he
+failed to secure a footing in Armenia, whence he had hoped to take the
+Persians in flank, but by his unwearied energy he restored the
+discipline and efficiency of the army. In his second campaign (624-26)
+he penetrated into Armenia and Albania, and beat the enemy in the open
+field. After a short stay at Constantinople, which his son Constantine
+had successfully defended against renewed incursions by the Avars,
+Heraclius resumed his attacks upon the Persians (627). Though deserted
+by the Khazars, with whom he had made an alliance upon entering into
+Pontus, he gained a decisive advantage by a brilliant march across the
+Armenian highlands into the Tigris plain, and a hard-fought victory over
+Chosroes' general, Shahrbaraz, in which Heraclius distinguished himself
+by his personal bravery. A subsequent revolution at the Persian court
+led to the dethronement of Chosroes in favour of his son Kavadh II.
+(q.v.); the new king promptly made peace with the emperor, whose troops
+were already advancing upon the Persian capital Ctesiphon (628). Having
+thus secured his eastern frontier, Heraclius returned to Constantinople
+with ample spoils, including the true cross, which in 629 he brought
+back in person to Jerusalem. On the northern frontier of the empire he
+kept the Avars in check by inducing the Serbs to migrate from the
+Carpathians to the Balkan lands so as to divert the attention of the
+Avars.
+
+The triumphs which Heraclius had won through his own energy and skill
+did not bring him lasting popularity. In his civil administration he
+followed out his own ideas without deferring to the nobles or the
+Church, and the opposition which he encountered from these quarters went
+far to paralyse his attempts at reform. Worn out by continuous fighting
+and weakened by dropsy, Heraclius failed to show sufficient energy
+against the new peril that menaced his eastern provinces towards the end
+of his reign. In 629 the Saracens made their first incursion into Syria
+(see CALIPHATE, section A, S 1); in 636 they won a notable victory on
+the Yermuk (Hieromax), and in the following years conquered all Syria,
+Palestine and Egypt. Heraclius made no attempt to retrieve the
+misfortunes of his generals, but evacuated his possessions in sullen
+despair. The remaining years of his life he devoted to theological
+speculation and ecclesiastical reforms. His religious enthusiasm led him
+to oppress his Jewish subjects; on the other hand he sought to reconcile
+the Christian sects, and to this effect propounded in his _Ecthesis_ a
+conciliatory doctrine of monothelism. Heraclius died of his disease in
+642. He had been twice married; his second union, with his niece
+Martina, was frequently made a matter of reproach to him. In spite of
+his partial failures, Heraclius must be regarded as one of the greatest
+of Byzantine emperors, and his early campaigns were the means of saving
+the realm from almost certain destruction.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--G. Finlay, _History of Greece_ (Oxford, 1877) i.
+  311-358; J. B. Bury, _The Later Roman Empire_ (London, 1889), ii.
+  207-273; T. E. Evangelides, [Greek: Herakleios ho autokrator tou
+  Byzantiou] (Odessa, 1903); A. Pernice, _L'Imperatore Eraclio_
+  (Florence, 1905). On the Persian campaigns: the epic of George Pisides
+  (ed. 1836, Bonn); F. Macler, _Histoire d'Heraclius par l'eveque
+  Sebeos_ (Paris, 1904); E. Gerland in _Byzantinische Zeitschrift_, iii.
+  (1894) 330-337; N. H. Baynes in the _English Historical Review_
+  (1904), pp. 694-702.     (M. O. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+HERALD (O. Fr. _heraut_, _herault_; the origin is uncertain, but O.H.G.
+_heren_, to call, or _hariwald_, leader of an army, have been proposed;
+the Gr. equivalent is [Greek: keryx]: Lat. _praeco_, _caduceator_,
+_fetialis_), in Greek and Roman antiquities, the term for the officials
+described below; in modern usage, while the word "herald" is often used
+generally in a sense analogous to that of the ancients, it is more
+specially restricted to that dealt with in the article HERALDRY.
+
+The Greek heralds, who claimed descent from Hermes, the messenger of the
+gods, through his son Keryx, were public functionaries of high
+importance in early times. Like Hermes, they carried a staff of olive or
+laurel wood surrounded by two snakes (or with wool as messengers of
+peace); their persons were inviolable; and they formed a kind of
+priesthood or corporation. In the Homeric age, they summoned the
+assemblies of the people, at which they preserved order and silence;
+proclaimed war; arranged the cessation of hostilities and the conclusion
+of peace; and assisted at public sacrifices and banquets. They also
+performed certain menial offices for the kings (mixing and pouring out
+the wine for the guests), by whom they were treated as confidential
+servants. In later times, their position was a less honourable one;
+they were recruited from the poorer classes, and were mostly paid
+servants of the various officials. Pollux in his _Onomasticon_
+distinguishes four classes of heralds: (1) the sacred heralds at the
+Eleusinian mysteries;[1] (2) the heralds at the public games, who
+announced the names of the competitors and victors; (3) those who
+superintended the arrangements of festal processions; (4) those who
+proclaimed goods for sale in the market (for which purpose they mounted
+a stone), and gave notice of lost children and runaway slaves. To these
+should be added (5) the heralds of the boule and demos, who summoned the
+members of the council and ecclesia, recited the solemn formula of
+prayer before the opening of the meeting, called upon the orators to
+speak, counted the votes and announced the results; (6) the heralds of
+the law courts, who gave notice of the time of trials and summoned the
+parties. The heralds received payment from the state and free meals
+together with the officials to whom they were attached. Their
+appointment was subject to some kind of examination, probably of the
+quality of their voice. Like the earlier heralds, they were also
+employed in negotiations connected with war and peace.
+
+Among the Romans the _praecones_ or "criers" exercised their profession
+both in private and official business. As private criers they were
+especially concerned with auctions; they advertized the time, place and
+conditions of sale, called out the various bids, and like the modern
+auctioneer varied the proceedings with jokes. They gave notice in the
+streets of things that had been lost, and took over various commissions,
+such as funeral arrangements. Although the calling was held in little
+estimation, some of these criers amassed great wealth. The state criers,
+who were mostly freedmen and well paid, formed the lowest class of
+_apparitores_ (attendants on various magistrates). On the whole, their
+functions resembled those of the Greek heralds. They called the popular
+assemblies together, proclaimed silence and made known the result of the
+voting; in judicial cases, they summoned the plaintiff, defendant,
+advocates and witnesses; in criminal executions they gave out the
+reasons for the punishment and called on the executioner to perform his
+duty; they invited the people to the games and announced the names of
+the victors. Public criers were also employed at state auctions in the
+municipia and colonies, but, according to the lex Julia municipalis of
+Caesar, they were prohibited from holding office.
+
+Amongst the Romans the settlement of matters relating to war and peace
+was entrusted to a special class of heralds called _Fetiales_ (not
+_Feciales_), a word of uncertain etymology, possibly connected with
+_fateor_, _fari_, and meaning "the speakers." They formed a priestly
+college of 20 (or 15) members, the institution of which was ascribed to
+one of the kings. They were chosen from the most distinguished families,
+held office for life, and filled up vacancies in their number by
+co-optation. Their duties were to demand redress for insult or injury to
+the state, to declare war unless satisfaction was obtained within a
+certain number of days and to conclude treaties of peace. A deputation
+of four (or two), one of whom was called _pater patratus_, wearing
+priestly garments, with sacred herbs plucked from the Capitoline hill
+borne in front, proceeded to the frontier of the enemy's territory and
+demanded the surrender of the guilty party. This demand was called
+_clarigatio_ (perhaps from its being made in a loud, clear voice). If no
+satisfactory answer was given within 30 days, the deputation returned to
+Rome and made a report. If war was decided upon, the deputation again
+repaired to the frontier, pronounced a solemn formula, and hurled a
+charred and blood-stained javelin across the frontier, in the presence
+of three witnesses, which was tantamount to a declaration of war (Livy
+i. 24, 32). With the extension of the Roman empire, it became
+impossible to carry out this ceremonial, for which was substituted the
+hurling of a javelin over a column near the temple of Bellona in the
+direction of the enemy's territory. When the termination of a war was
+decided upon, the fetiales either made an arrangement for the suspension
+of hostilities for a definite term of years, after which the war
+recommenced automatically or they concluded a solemn treaty with the
+enemy. Conditions of peace or alliance proposed by the general on his
+own responsibility (_sponsio_) were not binding upon the people, and in
+case of rejection the general, with hands bound, was delivered by the
+fetiales to the enemy (Livy ix. 10). But if the terms were agreed to, a
+deputation carrying the sacred herbs and the flint stones, kept in the
+temple of Jupiter Feretrius for sacrificial purposes, met a deputation
+of fetiales from the other side. After the conditions of the treaty had
+been read, the sacrificial formula was pronounced and the victims slain
+by a blow from a stone (hence the expression _foedus ferire_). The
+treaty was then signed and handed over to the keeping of the fetial
+college. These ceremonies usually took place in Rome, but in 201 a
+deputation of fetiales went to Africa to ratify the conclusion of peace
+with Carthage. From that time little is heard of the fetiales, although
+they appear to have existed till the end of the 4th century A.D. The
+_caduceator_ (from _caduceus_, the latinized form of [Greek: kerykeion])
+was the name of a person who was sent to treat for peace. His person was
+considered sacred; and like the fetiales he carried the sacred herbs,
+instead of the caduceus, which was not in use amongst the Romans.
+
+  For the Greek heralds, see Ch. Ostermann, _De praeconibus Graecorum_
+  (1845); for the Roman Praecones, Mommsen, _Romisches Staatsrecht_, i.
+  363 (3rd ed., 1887); also article PRAECONES in Pauly's
+  _Realencyclopadie_ (1852 edition); for the Fetiales, monographs by F.
+  C. Conradi (1734, containing all the necessary material), and G.
+  Fusinato (1884, from _Atti della R. Accad. dei Lincei_, series iii.
+  vol. 13); also Marquardt, _Romische Staatsverwaltung_, iii. 415 (3rd
+  ed., 1885), and A. Weiss in Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire des
+  antiquites_.     (J. H. F.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] These heralds are regarded by some as a branch of the Eumolpidae,
+    by others as of Athenian origin. They enjoyed great prestige and
+    formed a hieratic caste like the Eumolpidae, with whom they shared
+    the most important liturgical functions. From them were selected the
+    [Greek: dadouchos] or torch-bearer, the [Greek: hierokeryx], whose
+    chief duty was to proclaim silence, and [Greek: ho epi bomo], an
+    official connected with the service at the altar (see L. R. Farnell,
+    Cults of the Greek States, iii. 161; J. Topffer, _Attische
+    Genealogie_ (1889); Dittenberger in _Hermes_, xx.; P. Foucart, "Les
+    Grands Mysteres d'Eleusis" in _Mem. de l'Institut National de
+    France_, xxxvii. (1904).
+
+
+
+
+HERALDRY. Although the word Heraldry properly belongs to all the
+business of the herald (q.v.), it has long attached itself to that which
+in earlier times was known as armory, the science of armorial bearings.
+
+_History of Armorial Bearings._--In all ages and in all quarters of the
+world distinguishing symbols have been adopted by tribes or nations, by
+families or by chieftains. Greek and Roman poets describe the devices
+borne on the shields of heroes, and many such painted shields are
+pictured on antique vases. Rabbinical writers have supported the fancy
+that the standards of the tribes set up in their camps bore figures
+devised from the prophecy of Jacob, the ravening wolf for Benjamin, the
+lion's whelp for Judah and the ship of Zebulon. In the East we have such
+ancient symbols as the five-clawed dragon of the Chinese empire and the
+chrysanthemum of the emperor of Japan. In Japan, indeed, the
+systematized badges borne by the noble clans may be regarded as akin to
+the heraldry of the West, and the circle with the three asarum leaves of
+the Tokugawa shoguns has been made as familiar to us by Japanese lacquer
+and porcelain as the red pellets of the Medici by old Italian fabrics.
+Before the landing of the Spaniards in Mexico the Aztec chiefs carried
+shields and banners, some of whose devices showed after the fashion of a
+phonetic writing the names of their bearers; and the eagle on the new
+banner of Mexico may be traced to the eagle that was once carved over
+the palace of Montezuma. That mysterious business of totemism, which
+students of folk-lore have discovered among most primitive peoples, must
+be regarded as another of the forerunners of true heraldry, the totem of
+a tribe supplying a badge which was sometimes displayed on the body of
+the tribesman in paint, scars or tattooing. Totemism so far touches our
+heraldry that some would trace to its symbols the white horse of
+Westphalia, the bull's head of the Mecklenburgers and many other ancient
+armories.
+
+When true heraldry begins in Western Europe nothing is more remarkable
+than the suddenness of its development, once the idea of hereditary
+armorial symbols was taken by the nobles and knights. Its earliest
+examples are probably still to be discovered by research, but certain
+notes may be made which narrow the dates between which we must seek its
+origin. The older writers on heraldry, lacking exact archaeology, were
+wont to carry back the beginnings to the dark ages, even if they lacked
+the assurance of those who distributed blazons among the angelic host
+before the Creation. Even in our own times old misconceptions give
+ground slowly. Georg Ruexner's _Thurnier Buch_ of 1522 is still cited
+for its evidence of the tournament laws of Henry the Fowler, by which
+those who would contend in tournaments were forced to show four
+generations of arms-bearing ancestors. Yet modern criticism has
+shattered the elaborated fiction of Ruexner. In England many legends
+survive of arms borne by the Conqueror and his companions. But nothing
+is more certain than that neither armorial banners nor shields of arms
+were borne on either side at Hastings. The famous record of the Bayeux
+tapestry shows shields which in some cases suggest rudely devised
+armorial bearings, but in no case can a shield be identified as one
+which is recognized in the generations after the Conquest. So far is the
+idea of personal arms from the artist, that the same warrior, seen in
+different parts of the tapestry's history, has his shield with differing
+devices. A generation later, Anna Comnena, the daughter of the Byzantine
+emperor, describing the shields of the French knights who came to
+Constantinople, tells us that their polished faces were plain.
+
+Of all men, kings and princes might be the first to be found bearing
+arms. Yet the first English sovereign who appears on his great seal with
+arms on his shield is Richard I. His seal of 1189 shows his shield
+charged with a lion ramping towards the sinister side. Since one half
+only is seen of the rounded face of the shield, English antiquaries have
+perhaps too hastily suggested that the whole bearing was two lions face
+to face. But the mounted figure of Philip of Alsace, count of Flanders,
+on his seal of 1164 bears a like shield charged with a like lion, and in
+this case another shield on the counterseal makes it clear that this is
+the single lion of Flanders. Therefore we may take it that, in 1189,
+King Richard bore arms of a lion rampant, while, nine years later,
+another seal shows him with a shield of the familiar bearings which have
+been borne as the arms of England by each one of his successors.
+
+That seal of Philip of Alsace is the earliest known example of the arms
+of the great counts of Flanders. The ancient arms of the kings of
+France, the blue shield powdered with golden fleurs-de-lys, appear even
+later. Louis le Jeune, on the crowning of his son Philip Augustus,
+ordered that the young prince should be clad in a blue dalmatic and blue
+shoes, sewn with golden fleurs-de-lys, a flower whose name, as "Fleur de
+Loys," played upon that of his own, and possibly upon his epithet name
+of Florus. A seal of the same king has the device of a single lily. But
+the first French royal seal with the shield of the lilies is that of
+Louis VIII. (1223-1226). The eagle of the emperors may well be as
+ancient a bearing as any in Europe, seeing that Charlemagne is said, as
+the successor of the Caesars, to have used the eagle as his badge. The
+emperor Henry III. (1039-1056) has the sceptre on his seal surmounted by
+an eagle; in the 12th century the eagle was embroidered upon the
+imperial gloves. At Molsen in 1080 the emperor's banner is said by
+William of Tyre to have borne the eagle, and with the beginning of
+regular heraldry this imperial badge would soon be displayed on a
+shield. The double-headed eagle is not seen on an imperial seal until
+after 1414, when the bird with one neck becomes the recognized arms of
+the king of the Romans.
+
+There are, however, earlier examples of shields of arms than any of
+these. A document of the first importance is the description by John of
+Marmoustier of the marriage of Geoffrey of Anjou with Maude the empress,
+daughter of Henry I., when the king is said to have hung round the neck
+of his son-in-law a shield with golden "lioncels." Afterwards the monk
+speaks of Geoffrey in fight, "pictos leones preferens in clypeo." Two
+notes may be added to this account. The first is that the enamelled
+plate now in the museum at Le Mans, which is said to have been placed
+over the tomb of Geoffrey after his death in 1151, shows him bearing a
+long shield of azure with six golden lioncels, thus confirming the
+monk's story. The second is the well-known fact that Geoffrey's bastard
+grandson, William with the Long Sword, undoubtedly bore these same arms
+of the six lions of gold in a blue field, even as they are still to be
+seen upon his tomb at Salisbury. Some ten years before Richard I. seals
+with the three leopards, his brother John, count of Mortain, is found
+using a seal upon which he bears two leopards, arms which later
+tradition assigns to the ancient dukes of Normandy and to their
+descendants the kings of England before Henry II., who is said to have
+added the third leopard in right of his wife, a legend of no value. Mr
+Round has pointed out that Gilbert of Clare, earl of Hertford, who died
+in 1152, bears on his seal to a document sealed after 1138 and not later
+than 1146, the three cheverons afterwards so well known in England as
+the bearings of his successors. An old drawing of the seal of his uncle
+Gilbert, earl of Pembroke (_Lansdowne MS._ 203), shows a cheveronny
+shield used between 1138 and 1148. At some date between 1144 and 1150,
+Waleran, count of Meulan, shows on his seal a pennon and saddle-cloth
+with a checkered pattern: the house of Warenne, sprung from his mother's
+son, bore shields checky of gold and azure. If we may trust the
+inventory of Norman seals made by M. Demay, a careful antiquary, there
+is among the archives of the Manche a grant by Eudes, seigneur du Pont,
+sealed with a seal and counterseal of arms, to which M. Demay gives a
+date as early as 1128. The writer has not examined this seal, the
+earliest armorial evidence of which he has any knowledge, but it may be
+remarked that the arms are described as varying on the seal and
+counterseal, a significant touch of primitive armory. Another type of
+seal common in this 12th century shows the personal device which had not
+yet developed into an armorial charge. A good example is that of
+Enguerrand de Candavene, count of St Pol, where, although the shield of
+the horseman is uncharged, sheaves of oats, playing on his name, are
+strewn at the foot of the seal. Five of these sheaves were the arms of
+Candavene when the house came to display arms. In the same fashion three
+different members of the family of Armenteres in England show one, two
+or three swords upon their seals, but here the writer has no evidence of
+a coat of arms derived from these devices.
+
+From the beginning of the 13th century arms upon shields increase in
+number. Soon the most of the great houses of the west display them with
+pride. Leaders in the field, whether of a royal army or of a dozen
+spears, saw the military advantage of a custom which made shield and
+banner things that might be recognized in the press. Although it is
+probable that armorial bearings have their first place upon the shield,
+the charges of the shield are found displayed on the knight's long
+surcoat, his "coat of arms," on his banner or pennon, on the trappers of
+his horse and even upon the peaks of his saddle. An attempt has been
+made to connect the rise of armory with the adoption of the
+barrel-shaped close helm; but even when wearing the earlier Norman
+helmet with its long nasal the knight's face was not to be recognized.
+The Conqueror, as we know, had to bare his head before he could persuade
+his men at Hastings that he still lived. Armory satisfied a need which
+had long been felt. When fully armed, one galloping knight was like
+another; but friend and foe soon learned that the gold and blue checkers
+meant that Warenne was in the field and that the gold and red vair was
+for Ferrers. Earl Simon at Evesham sent up his barber to a spying place
+and, as the barber named in turn the banners which had come up against
+him, he knew that his last fight was at hand. In spite of these things
+the growth of the custom of sealing deeds and charters had at least as
+much influence in the development of armory as any military need. By
+this way, women and clerks, citizens and men of peace, corporations and
+colleges, came to share with the fighting man in the use of armorial
+bearings. Arms in stone, wood and brass decorated the tombs of the dead
+and the houses of the living; they were broidered in bed-curtains,
+coverlets and copes, painted on the sails of ships and enamelled upon
+all manner of goldsmiths' and silversmiths' work. And, even by warriors,
+the full splendour of armory was at all times displayed more fully in
+the fantastic magnificence of the tournament than in the rougher
+business of war.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE I.
+
+PART OF A ROLL OF ARMS PAINTED IN ENGLAND AT THE BEGINNING OF THE 14TH
+CENTURY. THE NAMES HAVE BEEN ADDED BY A SOMEWHAT LATER HAND, AND ARE IN
+MANY CASES MISTAKEN AND MIS-SPELLED.
+
+_Drawn by William Gibb for the_ ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA.]
+
+There can be little doubt that ancient armorial bearings were chosen at
+will by the man who bore them, many reasons guiding his choice. Crosses
+in plenty were taken. Old writers have asserted that these crosses
+commemorate the badge of the crusaders, yet the fact that the cross was
+the symbol of the faith was reason enough. No symbolism can be found in
+such charges as bends and fesses; they are on the shield because a broad
+band, aslant or athwart, is a charge easily recognized. Medieval wisdom
+gave every noble and magnanimous quality to the lion, and therefore this
+beast is chosen by hundreds of knights as their bearing. We have already
+seen how the arms of a Candavene play upon his name. Such an example was
+imitated on all sides. Salle of Bedfordshire has two _sal_amanders
+_sal_tirewise; Belet has his namesake the weasel. In ancient shields
+almost all beasts and birds other than the lion and the eagle play upon
+the bearer's name. No object is so humble that it is unwelcome to the
+knight seeking a pun for his shield. Trivet has a three-legged trivet;
+Trumpington two trumps; and Montbocher three pots. The legends which
+assert that certain arms were "won in the Holy Land" or granted by
+ancient kings for heroic deeds in the field are for the most part
+worthless fancies.
+
+Tenants or neighbours of the great feudal lords were wont to make their
+arms by differencing the lord's shield or by bringing some charge of it
+into their own bearings. Thus a group of Kentish shields borrow lions
+from that of Leyborne, which is azure with six lions of silver. Shirland
+of Minster bore the same arms differenced with an ermine quarter.
+Detling had the silver lions in a sable field. Rokesle's lions are azure
+in a golden field with a fesse of gules between them; while Wateringbury
+has six sable lions in a field of silver, and Tilmanstone six ermine
+lions in a field of azure. The Vipont ring or annelet is in several
+shields of Westmorland knights, and the cheverons of Clare, the
+cinquefoil badge of Beaumont and the sheaves of Chester can be traced in
+the coats of many of the followers of those houses. Sometimes the lord
+himself set forth such arms in a formal grant, as when the baron of
+Greystock grants to Adam of Blencowe a shield in which his own three
+chaplets are charges. The Whitgreave family of Staffordshire still show
+a shield granted to their ancestor in 1442 by the earl of Stafford, in
+which the Stafford red cheveron on a golden field is four times
+repeated.
+
+_Differences._--By the custom of the middle ages the "whole coat," which
+is the undifferenced arms, belonged to one man only and was inherited
+whole only by his heirs. Younger branches differenced in many ways,
+following no rule. In modern armory the label is reckoned a difference
+proper only to an eldest son. But in older times, although the label was
+very commonly used by the son and heir apparent, he often chose another
+distinction during his father's lifetime, while the label is sometimes
+found upon the shields of younger sons. Changing the colours or varying
+the number of charges, drawing a bend or baston over the shield or
+adding a border are common differences of cadet lines. Beauchamp, earl
+of Warwick, bore "Gules with a fesse and six crosslets gold." His
+cousins are seen changing the crosslets for martlets or for billets.
+Bastards difference their father's arms, as a rule, in no more striking
+manner than the legitimate cadets. Towards the end of the 14th century
+we have the beginning of the custom whereby certain bastards of princely
+houses differenced the paternal arms by charging them upon a bend, a
+fesse or a chief, a cheveron or a quarter. Before his legitimation the
+eldest son of John of Gaunt by Katharine Swinford is said to have borne
+a shield party silver and azure with the arms of Lancaster on a bend.
+After his legitimation in 1397 he changed his bearings to the royal arms
+of France and England within a border gobony of silver and azure. Warren
+of Poynton, descended from the last earl Warenne and his concubine,
+Maude of Neirford, bore the checkered shield of Warenne with a quarter
+charged with the ermine lion of Neirford. By the end of the middle ages
+the baston under continental influence tended to become a bastard's
+difference in England and the jingle of the two words may have helped
+to support the custom. About the same time the border gobony began to
+acquire a like character. The "bar sinister" of the novelists is
+probably the baston sinister, with the ends couped, which has since the
+time of Charles II. been familiar on the arms of certain descendants of
+the royal house. But it has rarely been seen in England over other
+shields; and, although the border gobony surrounds the arms granted to a
+peer of Victorian creation, the modern heralds have fallen into the
+habit of assigning, in nineteen cases out of twenty, a wavy border as
+the standard difference for illegitimacy.
+
+Although no general register of arms was maintained it is remarkable
+that there was little conflict between persons who had chanced to assume
+the same arms. The famous suit in which Scrope, Grosvenor and Carminow
+all claimed the blue shield with the golden bend is well known, and
+there are a few cases in the 14th century of like disputes which were
+never carried to the courts. But the men of the middle ages would seem
+to have had marvellous memories for blazonry; and we know that rolls of
+arms for reference, some of them the records of tournaments, existed in
+great numbers. A few examples of these remain to us, with painted
+shields or descriptions in French blazon, some of them containing many
+hundreds of names and arms.
+
+[Illustration: Shield from seal of Robert de Pinkeny, an early example
+of parted arms.]
+
+[Illustration: Shield of Joan atte Pole, widow of Robert of Hemenhale,
+from her seal (1403), showing parted arms.]
+
+To women were assigned, as a rule, the undifferenced arms of their
+fathers. In the early days of armory married women--well-born spinsters
+of full age were all but unknown outside the walls of religious
+houses--have seals on which appear the shield of the husband or the
+father or both shields side by side. But we have some instances of the
+shield in which two coats of arms are parted or, to use the modern
+phrase, "impaled." Early in the reign of King John, Robert de Pinkeny
+seals with a parted shield. On the right or dexter side--the right hand
+of a shield is at the right hand of the person covered by it--are two
+fusils of an indented fesse: on the left or sinister side are three
+waves. The arms of Pinkeny being an indented fesse, we may see in this
+shield the parted arms of husband and wife--the latter being probably a
+Basset. In many of the earliest examples, as in this, the dexter half of
+the husband's shield was united with the sinister half of that of the
+wife, both coats being, as modern antiquaries have it, dimidiated. This
+"dimidiation," however, had its inconvenience. With some coats it was
+impossible. If the wife bore arms with a quarter for the only charge,
+her half of the shield would be blank. Therefore the practice was early
+abandoned by the majority of bearers of parted shields although there is
+a survival of it in the fact that borders and tressures continue to be
+"dimidiated" in order that the charges within them shall not be cramped.
+Parted shields came into common use from the reign of Edward II., and
+the rule is established that the husband's arms should take the dexter
+side. There are, however, several instances of the contrary practice. On
+the seal (1310) of Maude, wife of John Boutetort of Halstead, the
+engrailed saltire of the Boutetorts takes the sinister place. A
+twice-married woman would sometimes show a shield charged with her
+paternal arms between those of both of her husbands, as did Beatrice
+Stafford in 1404, while in 1412 Elizabeth, Lady of Clinton, seals with a
+shield paled with five coats--her arms of la Plaunche between those of
+four husbands. In most cases the parted shield is found on the wife's
+seal alone. Even in our own time it is recognized that the wife's arms
+should not appear upon the husband's official seal, upon his banner or
+surcoat or upon his shield when it is surrounded by the collar of an
+order. Parted arms, it may be noted, do not always represent a husband
+and wife. Richard II. parted with his quartered arms of France and
+England those ascribed to Edward the Confessor, and parting is often
+used on the continent where quartering would serve in England. In 1497
+the seal of Giles Daubeney and Reynold Bray, fellow justices in eyre,
+shows their arms parted in one shield. English bishops, by a custom
+begun late in the 14th century, part the see's arms with their own. By
+modern English custom a husband and wife, where the wife is not an heir,
+use the parted coat on a shield, a widow bearing the same upon the
+lozenge on which, when a spinster, she displayed her father's coat
+alone. When the wife is an heir, her arms are now borne in a little
+scocheon above those of her husband. If the husband's arms be in an
+unquartered shield the central charge is often hidden away by this
+scocheon.
+
+[Illustration: Shield of Beatrice Stafford from her seal (1404), showing
+her arms of Stafford between those of her husbands--Thomas, Lord Roos,
+and Sir Richard Burley.]
+
+[Illustration: Shield of John Talbot, first earl of Shrewsbury (d.
+1453), showing four coats quartered.]
+
+The practice of marshalling arms by quartering spread in England by
+reason of the example given by Eleanor, wife of Edward I., who displayed
+the castle of Castile quartered with the lion of Leon. Isabel of France,
+wife of Edward II., seals with a shield in whose four quarters are the
+arms of England, France, Navarre and Champagne. Early In the 14th
+century Simon de Montagu, an ancestor of the earls of Salisbury,
+quartered with his own arms a coat of azure with a golden griffon. In
+1340 we have Laurence Hastings, earl of Pembroke, quartering with the
+Hastings arms the arms of Valence, as heir of his great-uncle Aymer,
+earl of Pembroke. In the preceding year the king had already asserted
+his claim to another kingdom by quartering France with England, and
+after this quartered shields became common in the great houses whose
+sons were carefully matched with heirs female. When the wife was an heir
+the husband would quarter her arms with his own, displaying, as a rule,
+the more important coat in the first quarter. Marshalling becomes more
+elaborate with shields showing both quarterings and partings, as in the
+seal (1368) of Sibil Arundel, where Arundel (Fitzalan) is quartered with
+Warenne and parted with the arms of Montagu. In all, save one, of these
+examples the quartering is in its simplest form, with one coat repeated
+in the first and fourth quarters of the shield and another in the second
+and third. But to a charter of 1434 Sir Henry Bromflete sets a seal upon
+which Bromflete quarters Vesci in the second quarter, Aton in the third
+and St John in the fourth, after the fashion of the much earlier seal of
+Edward II.'s queen. Another development is that of what armorists style
+the "grand quarter," a quarter which is itself quartered, as in the
+shield of Reynold Grey of Ruthyn, which bears Grey in the first and
+fourth quarters and Hastings quartered with Valence in the third and
+fourth. Humphrey Bourchier, Lord Cromwell, in 1469, bears one grand
+quarter quartered with another, the first having Bourchier and Lovaine,
+the second Tatershall and Cromwell.
+
+[Illustration: Shield of Richard Beauchamp, earl of Warwick, from his
+garter stall-plate (after 1423). The arms are Beauchamp quartering
+Newburgh, with a scocheon of Clare quartering Despenser.]
+
+The last detail to be noted in medieval marshalling is the introduction
+into the shield of another surmounting shield called by old armorists
+the "innerscocheon" and by modern blazoners the "inescutcheon." John the
+Fearless, count of Flanders, marshalled his arms in 1409 as a quartered
+shield of the new and old coats of Burgundy. Above these coats a little
+scocheon, borne over the crossing of the quartering lines, had the black
+lion of Flanders, the arms of his mother. Richard Beauchamp, the
+adventurous earl of Warwick, who had seen most European courts during
+his wanderings, may have had this shield in mind when, over his arms of
+Beauchamp quartering Newburgh, he set a scocheon of Clare quartering
+Despenser, the arms of his wife Isabel Despenser, co-heir of the earls
+of Gloucester. The seal of his son-in-law, the King-Maker, shows four
+quarters--Beauchamp quartering Clare, Montagu quartering Monthermer,
+Nevill alone, and Newburgh quartering Despenser. An interesting use of
+the scocheon _en surtout_ is that made by Richard Wydvile, Lord Rivers,
+whose garter stall-plate has a grand quarter of Wydvile and Prouz
+quartering Beauchamp of Hache, the whole surmounted by a scocheon with
+the arms of Reviers or Rivers, the house from which he took the title of
+his barony. On the continent the common use of the scocheon is to bear
+the paternal arms of a sovereign or noble, surmounting the quarterings
+of his kingdoms, principalities, fiefs or seigniories. Our own prince of
+Wales bears the arms of Saxony above those of the United Kingdom
+differenced with his silver label. Marshalling takes its most elaborate
+form, the most removed from the graceful simplicity of the middle ages,
+in such shields as the "Great Arms" of the Austrian empire, wherein are
+nine grand quarters each marshalling in various fashions from three to
+eleven coats, six of the grand-quarters bearing scocheons _en surtout_,
+each scocheon ensigned with a different crown.
+
+_Crests._--The most important accessory of the arms is the crested helm.
+Like the arms it has its pre-heraldic history in the crests of the Greek
+helmets, the wings, the wild boar's and bull's heads of Viking
+headpieces. A little roundel of the arms of a Japanese house was often
+borne as a crest in the Japanese helmet, stepped in a socket above the
+middle of the brim. The 12th-century seal of Philip of Alsace, count of
+Flanders, shows a demi-lion painted or beaten on the side of the upper
+part of his helm, and on his seal of 1198 our own Richard Coeur de
+Lion's barrel-helm has a leopard upon the semicircular comb-ridge, the
+edge of which is set off with feathers arranged as two wings. Crests,
+however, came slowly into use in England, although before 1250 Roger de
+Quincy, earl of Winchester, is seen on his seal with a wyver upon his
+helm. Of the long roll of earls and barons sealing the famous letter to
+the pope in 1301 only five show true crests on their seals. Two of them
+are the earl of Lancaster and his brother, each with a wyver crest like
+that of Quincy. One, and the most remarkable, is John St John of
+Halnaker, whose crest is a leopard standing between two upright palm
+branches. Ralph de Monthermer has an eagle crest, while Walter de
+Moncy's helm is surmounted by a fox-like beast. In three of these
+instances the crest is borne, as was often the case, by the horse as
+well as the rider. Others of these seals to the barons' letter have the
+fan-shaped crest without any decoration upon it. But as the furniture of
+tournaments grew more magnificent the crest gave a new field for
+display, and many strange shapes appear in painted and gilded wood,
+metal, leather or parchment above the helms of the jousters. The
+Berkeleys, great patrons of abbeys, bore a mitre as their crest painted
+with their arms, like crests being sometimes seen on the continent where
+the wearer was _advocatus_ of a bishopric or abbey. The whole or half
+figures or the heads and necks of beasts and birds were employed by
+other families. Saracens' heads topped many helms, that of the great
+Chandos among them. Astley bore for his crest a silver harpy standing in
+marsh-sedge, a golden chain fastened to a crown about her neck. Dymoke
+played pleasantly on his name with a long-eared moke's scalp. Stanley
+took the eagle's nest in which the eagle is lighting down with a
+swaddled babe in his claws. Burnell had a burdock bush, la Vache a cow's
+leg, and Lisle's strange fancy was to perch a huge millstone on edge
+above his head. Many early helms, as that of Sir John Loterel, painted
+in the Loterel psalter, repeat the arms on the sides of a fan-crest.
+Howard bore for a crest his arms painted on a pair of wings, while
+simple "bushes" or feathers are seen in great plenty. The crest of a
+cadet is often differenced like the arms, and thus a wyver or a leopard
+will have a label about its neck. The Montagu griffon on the helm of
+John, marquess of Montagu, holds in its beak the gimel ring with which
+he differenced his father's shield. His brother, the King-Maker,
+following a custom commoner abroad than at home, shows two crested helms
+on his seal, one for Montagu and one for Beauchamp--none for his
+father's house of Nevill. It is often stated that a man, unless by some
+special grace or allowance, can have but one crest. This, however, is
+contrary to the spirit of medieval armory in which a man, inheriting the
+coat of arms of another house than his own, took with it all its
+belongings, crest, badge and the like. The heraldry books, with more
+reason, deny crests to women and to the clergy, but examples are not
+wanting of medieval seals in which even this rule is broken. It is
+perhaps unfair to cite the case of the bishops of Durham who ride in
+full harness on their palatinate seals; but Henry Despenser, bishop of
+Norwich, has a helm on which the winged griffon's head of his house
+springs from a mitre, while Alexander Nevill, archbishop of York, seals
+with shield, supporters and crowned and crested helm like those of any
+lay magnate. Richard Holt, a Northamptonshire clerk in holy orders,
+bears on his seal in the reign of Henry V. a shield of arms and a
+mantled helm with the crest of a collared greyhound's head. About the
+middle of the same century a seal cut for the wife of Thomas Chetwode, a
+Cheshire squire, has a shield of her husband's arms parted with her own
+and surmounted by a crowned helm with the crest of a demi-lion; and this
+is not the only example of such bearings by a woman.
+
+[Illustration: Ralph de Monthermer (1301), showing shield of arms, helm
+with crest and mantle, horse-crest and armorial trappers.]
+
+Before passing from the crest let us note that in England the juncture
+of crest and helm was commonly covered, especially after the beginning
+of the 15th century, by a torse or "wreath" of silk, twisted with one,
+two or three colours. Coronets or crowns and "hats of estate" often take
+the place of the wreath as a base for the crest, and there are other
+curious variants. With the wreath may be considered the mantle, a
+hanging cloth which, in its earliest form, is seen as two strips of silk
+or sendal attached to the top of the helm below the crest and streaming
+like pennants as the rider bent his head and charged. Such strips are
+often displayed from the conical top of an uncrested helm, and some
+ancient examples have the air of the two ends of a stole or of the
+_infulae_ of a bishop's mitre. The general opinion of antiquaries has
+been that the mantle originated among the crusaders as a protection for
+the steel helm from the rays of an Eastern sun; but the fact that
+mantles take in England their fuller form after our crusading days were
+over seems against this theory. When the fashion for slittering the
+edges of clothing came in, the edges of the mantle were slittered like
+the edge of the sleeve or skirt, and, flourished out on either side of
+the helm, it became the delight of the painter of armories and the seal
+engraver. A worthless tale, repeated by popular manuals, makes the
+slittered edge represent the shearing work of the enemy's sword, a fancy
+which takes no account of the like developments in civil dress. Modern
+heraldry in England paints the mantle with the principal colour of the
+shield, lining it with the principal metal. This in cases where no old
+grant of arms is cited as evidence of another usage. The mantles of the
+king and of the prince of Wales are, however, of gold lined with ermine
+and those of other members of the royal house of gold lined with silver.
+In ancient examples there is great variety and freedom. Where the crest
+is the head of a griffon or bird the feathering of the neck will be
+carried on to cover the mantle. Other mantles will be powdered with
+badges or with charges from the shield, others checkered, barred or
+paled. More than thirty of the mantles enamelled on the stall-plates of
+the medieval Garter-knights are of red with an ermine lining, tinctures
+which in most cases have no reference to the shields below them.
+
+[Illustration: Shield and crested helm with hat and mantle of Thomas of
+Hengrave (1401).]
+
+_Supporters._--Shields of arms, especially upon seals, are sometimes
+figured as hung round the necks of eagles, lions, swans and griffons, as
+strapped between the horns of a hart or to the boughs of a tree. Badges
+may fill in the blank spaces at the sides between the shield and the
+inscription on the rim, but in the later 13th and early 14th centuries
+the commonest objects so serving are sprigs of plants, lions, leopards,
+or, still more frequently, lithe-necked wyvers. John of Segrave in 1301
+flanks his shields with two of the sheaves of the older coat of Segrave:
+William Marshal of Hingham does the like with his two marshal's staves.
+Henry of Lancaster at the same time shows on his seal a shield and a
+helm crested with a wyver, with two like wyvers ranged on either side of
+the shield as "supporters." It is uncertain at what time in the 14th
+century these various fashions crystallize into the recognized use of
+beasts, birds, reptiles, men or inanimate objects, definitely chosen as
+"supporters" of the shield, and not to be taken as the ornaments
+suggested by the fancy of the seal engraver. That supporters originate
+in the decoration of the seal there can be little doubt. Some writers,
+the learned Menetrier among them, will have it that they were first the
+fantastically clad fellows who supported and displayed the knight's
+shield at the opening of the tournament. If the earliest supporters were
+wild men, angels or Saracens, this theory might be defended; but lions,
+boars and talbots, dogs and trees are guises into which a man would put
+himself with difficulty. By the middle of the 14th century we find what
+are clearly recognizable as supporters. These, as in a lesser degree the
+crest, are often personal rather than hereditary, being changed
+generation by generation. The same person is found using more than one
+pair of them. The kings of France have had angels as supporters of the
+shield of the fleurs de lys since the 15th century, but the angels have
+only taken their place as the sole royal supporters since the time of
+Louis XIV. Sovereigns of England from Henry IV. to Elizabeth changed
+about between supporters of harts, leopards, antelopes, bulls,
+greyhounds, boars and dragons. James I. at his accession to the English
+throne brought the Scottish unicorn to face the English leopard rampant
+across his shield, and, ever since, the "lion and unicorn" have been the
+royal supporters.
+
+[Illustration: Arms of William, Lord Hastings, from his seal (1477),
+showing shield, crowned and crested helm with mantle and supporters.]
+
+[Illustration: Badge of John of Whethamstede, abbot of St Albans (d.
+1465), from his tomb in the abbey church.]
+
+[Illustration: Rudder badge of Willoughby.]
+
+An old herald wrote as his opinion that "there is little or nothing in
+precedent to direct the use of supporters." Modern custom gives them, as
+a rule, only to peers, to knights of the Garter, the Thistle and St
+Patrick, and to knights who are "Grand Crosses" or Grand Commanders of
+other orders. Royal warrants are sometimes issued for the granting of
+supporters to baronets, and, in rare cases, they have been assigned to
+untitled persons. But in spite of the jealousy with which official
+heraldry hedges about the display of these supporters once assumed so
+freely, a few old English families still assert their right by
+hereditary prescription to use these ornaments as their forefathers were
+wont to use them.
+
+[Illustration: Badge of Dacre of Gilsland and Dacre of the North.]
+
+_Badges._--The badge may claim a greater antiquity and a wider use than
+armorial bearings. The "Plantagenet" broom is an early example in
+England, sprigs of it being figured on the seal of Richard I. In the
+14th and 15th centuries every magnate had his badge, which he displayed
+on his horse-furniture, on the hangings of his bed, his wall and his
+chair of state, besides giving it as a "livery" to his servants and
+followers. Such were the knots of Stafford, Bourchier and Wake, the
+scabbard-crampet of La Warr, the sickle of Hungerford, the swan of
+Toesni, Bohun and Lancaster, the dun-bull of Nevill, the blue boar of
+Vere and the bear and ragged staff of Beauchamp, Nevill of Warwick and
+Dudley of Northumberland. So well known of all were these symbols that a
+political ballad of 1449 sings of the misfortunes of the great lords
+without naming one of them, all men understanding what signified the
+Falcon, the Water Bowge and the Cresset and the other badges of the
+doggerel. More famous still were the White Hart, the Red Rose, the White
+Rose, the Sun, the Falcon and Fetterlock, the Portcullis and the many
+other badges of the royal house. We still call those wars that blotted
+out the old baronage the Wars of the Roses, and the Prince of Wales's
+feathers are as well known to-day as the royal arms. The Flint and Steel
+of Burgundy make a collar for the order of the Golden Fleece.
+
+[Illustration: Ostrich feather badge of Beaufort, from a garter
+stall-plate of 1440. The silver feather has a quill gobony silver and
+azure.]
+
+_Mottoes._--The motto now accompanies every coat of arms in these
+islands. Few of these Latin aphorisms, these bald assertions of virtue,
+high courage, patriotism, piety and loyalty have any antiquity. Some
+few, however, like the "Esperance" of Percy, were the war-cries of
+remote ancestors. "I mak' sicker" of Kirkpatrick recalls pridefully a
+bloody deed done on a wounded man, and the "Dieu Ayde," "Agincourt" and
+"D'Accomplir Agincourt" of the Irish "Montmorencys" and the English
+Wodehouses and Dalisons, glorious traditions based upon untrustworthy
+genealogy. The often-quoted punning mottoes may be illustrated by that
+of Cust, who says "Qui Cust-odit caveat," a modern example and a fair
+one. Ancient mottoes as distinct from the war or gathering cry of a
+house are often cryptic sentences whose meaning might be known to the
+user and perchance to his mistress. Such are the "Plus est en vous" of
+Louis de Bruges, the Flemish earl of Winchester, and the "So have I
+cause" and "Till then thus" of two Englishmen. The word motto is of
+modern use, our forefathers speaking rather of their "word" or of their
+"reason."
+
+_Coronets of Rank._--Among accessories of the shield may now be counted
+the coronets of peers, whose present form is post-medieval. When Edward
+III. made dukes of his sons, gold circlets were set upon their heads in
+token of their new dignity. In 1385 John de Vere, marquess of Dublin,
+was created in the same fashion. Edward VI. extended the honour of the
+gold circle to earls. Caps of honour were worn with these circles or
+coronets, and viscounts wore the cap by appointment of James I., Vincent
+the herald stating that "a verge of pearls on top of the circulet of
+gold" was added at the creation of Robert Cecil as Viscount Cranborne.
+At the coronation of Charles I. the viscounts walked in procession with
+their caps and coronets. A few days before the coronation of Charles II.
+the privilege of the cap of honour was given to the lowest rank of the
+peerage, and letters patent of January 1661 assign to them both cap and
+coronet. The caps of velvet turned up with miniver, which are now always
+worn with the peer's coronet, are therefore the ancient caps of honour,
+akin to that "cap of maintenance" worn by English sovereigns on their
+coronation days when walking to the Abbey Church, and borne before them
+on occasions of royal state.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE II.
+
+SIXTEEN SHIELDS FROM A ROLL OF ARMS OF ENGLISH KNIGHTS AND BARONS MADE
+BY AN ENGLISH PAINTER EARLY IN THE REIGN OF EDWARD III.
+
+  _Drawn by William Gibb._
+  _Niagara Litho. Co., Buffalo, N. Y._]
+
+The ancient circles were enriched according to the taste of the bearer,
+and, although used at creations as symbols of the rank conferred, were
+worn in the 14th and 15th centuries by men and women of rank without the
+use signifying a rank in the peerage. Edmund, earl of March, in his will
+of 1380, named his _sercle ove roses, emeraudes et rubies d'alisaundre
+en les roses_, and bequeathed it to his daughter. Modern coronets are of
+silver-gilt, without jewels, set upon caps of crimson velvet turned up
+with ermine, with a gold tassel at the top. A duke's coronet has the
+circle decorated with eight gold "strawberry leaves"; that of a marquess
+has four gold strawberry leaves and four silver balls. The coronet of an
+earl has eight silver balls, raised upon points, with gold strawberry
+leaves between the points. A viscount's coronet has on the circle
+sixteen silver balls, and a baron's coronet six silver balls. On the
+continent the modern use of coronets is not ordered in the precise
+English fashion, men of gentle birth displaying coronets which afford
+but slight indication of the bearer's rank.
+
+_Lines._--Eleven varieties of lines, other than straight lines, which
+divide the shield, or edge our cheverons, pales, bars and the like, are
+pictured in the heraldry books and named as engrailed, embattled,
+indented, invected, wavy or undy, nebuly, dancetty, raguly, potente,
+dovetailed and urdy.
+
+As in the case of many other such lists of the later armorists these
+eleven varieties need some pruning and a new explanation.
+
+The most commonly found is the line engrailed, which for the student of
+medieval armory must be associated with the line indented. In its
+earliest form the line which a roll of arms will describe indifferently
+as indented or engrailed takes almost invariably the form to which the
+name indented is restricted by modern armorists.
+
+[Illustration: Mohun.]
+
+The cross may serve as our first example. A cross, engrailed or
+indented, the words being used indifferently, is a cross so deeply
+notched at the edges that it seems made up of so many lozenge-shaped
+wedges or fusils. About the middle of the 14th century begins a
+tendency, resisted in practice by many conservative families, to draw
+the engrailing lines in the fashion to which modern armorists restrict
+the word "engrailed," making shallower indentures in the form of lines
+of half circles. Thus the engrailed cross of the Mohuns takes either of
+the two forms which we illustrate. Bends follow the same fashion, early
+bends engrailed or indented being some four or more fusils joined
+bendwise by their blunt sides, bends of less than four fusils being very
+rare. Thus also the engrailed or indented saltires, pales or cheverons,
+the exact number of the fusils which go to the making of these being
+unconsidered. For the fesse there is another law. The fesse indented or
+engrailed is made up of fusils as is the engrailed bend. But although
+early rolls of arms sometimes neglect this detail in their blazon, the
+fusils making a fesse must always be of an ascertained number. Montagu,
+earl of Salisbury, bore a fesse engrailed or indented of three fusils
+only, very few shields imitating this. Medieval armorists will describe
+his arms as a fesse indented of three indentures, as a fesse fusilly of
+three pieces, or as a fesse engrailed of three points or pieces, all of
+these blazons having the same value. The indented fesse on the red
+shield of the Dynhams has four such fusils of ermine. Four, however, is
+almost as rare a number as three, the normal form of a fesse indented
+being that of five fusils as borne by Percys, Pinkenys, Newmarches and
+many other ancient houses. Indeed, accuracy of blazon is served if the
+number of fusils in a fesse be named in the cases of threes and fours.
+Fesses of six fusils are not to be found. Note that bars indented or
+engrailed are, for a reason which will be evident, never subject to this
+counting of fusils. Fauconberg, for example, bore "Silver with two bars
+engrailed, or indented, sable." Displayed on a shield of the flat-iron
+outline, the lower bar would show fewer fusils than the upper, while on
+a square banner each bar would have an equal number--usually five or
+six.
+
+[Illustration: Montagu. Dynham. Percy. Fauconberg.]
+
+While bends, cheverons, crosses, saltires and pales often follow,
+especially in the 15th century, the tendency towards the rounded
+"engrailing," fesses keep, as a rule, their bold indentures--neither
+Percy nor Montagu being ever found with his bearings in aught but their
+ancient form. Borders take the newer fashion as leaving more room for
+the charges of the field. But indented chiefs do not change their
+fashion, although many saw-teeth sometimes take the place of the three
+or four strong points of early arms, and parti-coloured shields whose
+party line is indented never lose the bold zig-zag.
+
+[Illustration: West.]
+
+While bearing in mind that the two words have no distinctive force in
+ancient armory, the student and the herald of modern times may
+conveniently allow himself to blazon the sharp and saw-toothed line as
+"indented" and the scolloped line as "engrailed," especially when
+dealing with the debased armory in which the distinction is held to be a
+true one and one of the first importance. One error at least he must
+avoid, and that is the following of the heraldry-book compilers in their
+use of the word "dancetty." A "dancetty" line, we are told, is a line
+having fewer and deeper indentures than the line indented. But no
+dancetty line could make a bolder dash across the shield than do the
+lines which the old armorists recognized as "indented." In old armory we
+have fesses dancy--commonly called "dances"--bends dancy, or cheverons
+dancy; there are no chiefs dancy nor borders dancy, nor are there
+shields blazoned as parted with a dancy line. Waved lines, battled lines
+and ragged lines need little explanation that a picture cannot give. The
+word invecked or invected is sometimes applied by old-fashioned heraldic
+pedants to engrailed lines; later pedants have given it to a line found
+in modern grants of arms, an engrailed line reversed. Dove-tailed and
+urdy lines are mere modernisms. Of the very rare nebuly or clouded line
+we can only say that the ancient form, which imitated the conventional
+cloud-bank of the old painters, is now almost forgotten, while the bold
+"wavy" lines of early armory have the word "nebuly" misapplied to them.
+
+_The Ordinary Charges._--The writers upon armory have given the name of
+Ordinaries to certain conventional figures commonly charged upon
+shields. Also they affect to divide these into Honourable Ordinaries and
+Sub-Ordinaries without explaining the reason for the superior honour of
+the Saltire or for the subordination of the Quarter. Disregarding such
+distinctions, we may begin with the description of the "Ordinaries" most
+commonly to be found.
+
+From the first the Cross was a common bearing on English shields,
+"Silver a cross gules" being given early to St George, patron of knights
+and of England, for his arms; and under St George's red cross the
+English were wont to fight. Our armorial crosses took many shapes, but
+the "crosses innumerabill" of the Book of St Albans and its successors
+may be left to the heraldic dictionary makers who have devised them. It
+is more important to define those forms in use during the middle ages,
+and to name them accurately after the custom of those who bore them in
+war, a task which the heraldry books have never as yet attempted with
+success.
+
+The cross in its simple form needs no definition, but it will be noted
+that it is sometimes borne "voided" and that in a very few cases it
+appears as a lesser charge with its ends cut off square, in which case
+it must be clearly blazoned as "a plain Cross."
+
+  Andrew Harcla, the march-warden, whom Edward II. made an earl and
+  executed as a traitor, bore the arms of St George with a martlet sable
+  in the quarter.
+
+  Crevequer of Kent bore "Gold a voided cross gules."
+
+  Newsom (14th century) bore "Azure a fesse silver with three plain
+  crosses gules."
+
+[Illustration: St George. Harcla. Crevequer. Latimer.]
+
+Next to the plain Cross may be taken the Cross paty, the _croiz patee_
+or _pate_ of old rolls of arms. It has several forms, according to the
+taste of the artist and the age. So, in the 13th and early 14th
+centuries, its limbs curve out broadly, while at a later date the limbs
+become more slender and of even breadth, the ends somewhat resembling
+fleurs-de-lys. Each of these forms has been seized by the heraldic
+writers as the type of a distinct cross for which a name must be found,
+none of them, as a rule, being recognized as a cross paty, a word which
+has its misapplication elsewhere. Thus the books have "cross patonce"
+for the earlier form, while "cross clechee" and "cross fleurie" serve
+for the others. But the true identification of the various crosses is of
+the first importance to the antiquary, since without it descriptions of
+the arms on early seals or monuments must needs be valueless. Many
+instances of this need might be cited from the British Museum catalogue
+of seals, where, for example, the cross paty of Latimer is described
+twice as a "cross flory," six times as a "cross patonce," but not once
+by its own name, although there is no better known example of this
+bearing in England.
+
+  Latimer bore "Gules a cross paty gold."
+
+The cross formy follows the lines of the cross paty save that its
+broadening ends are cut off squarely.
+
+  Chetwode bore "Quarterly silver and gules with four crosses formy
+  countercoloured"--that is to say, the two crosses in the gules are of
+  silver and the two in the silver of gules.
+
+The cross flory or flowered cross, the "cross with the ends
+flowered"--_od les boutes floretes_ as some of the old rolls have
+it--is, like the cross paty, a mark for the misapprehension of writers
+on armory, who describe some shapes of the cross paty by its name.
+Playing upon discovered or fancied variants of the word, they bid us
+mark the distinctions between crosses "fleur-de-lisee," "fleury" and
+"fleurettee," although each author has his own version of the value
+which must be given these precious words. But the facts of the medieval
+practice are clear to those who take their armory from ancient examples
+and not from phrases plagiarized from the hundredth plagiarist. The
+flowered cross is one whose limbs end in fleur-de-lys, which spring
+sometimes from a knop or bud but more frequently issue from the square
+ends of a cross of the "formy" type.
+
+  Swynnerton bore "Silver a flowered cross sable."
+
+[Illustration: Mill-rinds.]
+
+The mill-rind, which takes its name from the iron of a mill-stone--_fer
+de moline_--must be set with the crosses. Some of the old rolls call it
+_croiz recercele_, from which armorial writers have leaped to imagine a
+distinct type. Also they call the mill-rind itself a "cross moline"
+keeping the word mill-rind for a charge having the same origin but of
+somewhat differing form. Since this charge became common in Tudor armory
+it is perhaps better that the original mill-rind should be called for
+distinction a mill-rind cross.
+
+  Willoughby bore "Gules a mill-rind cross silver."
+
+[Illustration: Chetwode. Swynnerton. Willoughby. Brerelegh.]
+
+The crosslet, cross botonny or cross crosletted, is a cross whose limbs,
+of even breadth, end as trefoils or treble buds. It is rarely found in
+medieval examples in the shape--that of a cross with limbs ending in
+squarely cut plain crosses--which it took during the 16th-century
+decadence. As the sole charge of a shield it is very rare; otherwise it
+is one of the commonest of charges.
+
+  Brerelegh bore "Silver a crosslet gules."
+
+Within these modest limits we have brought the greater part of that
+monstrous host of crosses which cumber the dictionaries. A few rare
+varieties may be noticed.
+
+  Dukinfield bore "Silver a voided cross with sharpened ends."
+
+  Skirlaw, bishop of Durham (d. 1406), the son of a basket-weaver, bore
+  "Silver a cross of three upright wattles sable, crossed and interwoven
+  by three more."
+
+  Drury bore "Silver a chief vert with a St Anthony's cross gold between
+  two golden molets, pierced gules."
+
+  Brytton bore "Gold a patriarch's cross set upon three degrees or steps
+  of gules."
+
+  Hurlestone of Cheshire bore "Silver a cross of four ermine tails
+  sable."
+
+  Melton bore "Silver a Toulouse cross gules." By giving this cross a
+  name from the counts of Toulouse, its best-known bearers, some
+  elaborate blazonry is spared.
+
+[Illustration: Skirlaw. Drury. St Anthony's Cross. Brytton.]
+
+The crosses paty and formy, and more especially the crosslets, are often
+borne fitchy, that is to say, with the lower limb somewhat lengthened
+and ending in a point, for which reason the 15th-century writers call
+these "crosses fixabill." In the 14th-century rolls the word "potent" is
+sometimes used for these crosses fitchy, the long foot suggesting a
+potent or staff. From this source modern English armorists derive many
+of their "crosses potent," whose four arms have the T heads of
+old-fashioned walking staves.
+
+  Howard bore "Silver a bend between six crosslets fitchy gules."
+
+  Scott of Congerhurst in Kent bore "Silver a crosslet fitchy sable."
+
+[Illustration: Hurlestone. Melton. Howard. Scott.]
+
+The Saltire is the cross in the form of that on which St Andrew
+suffered, whence it is borne on the banner of Scotland, and by the
+Andrew family of Northamptonshire.
+
+  Nevile of Raby bore "Gules a saltire silver."
+
+  Nicholas Upton, the 15th-century writer on armory, bore "Silver a
+  saltire sable with the ends couped and five golden rings thereon."
+
+  Aynho bore "Sable a saltire silver having the ends flowered between
+  four leopards gold."
+
+  "Mayster Elwett of Yorke chyre" in a 15th-century roll bears "Silver a
+  saltire of chains sable with a crescent in the chief."
+
+[Illustration: Nevile. Upton. Aynho. Elwett.]
+
+  Restwolde bore "Party saltirewise of gules and ermine."
+
+[Illustration: Fenwick.]
+
+The chief is the upper part of the shield and, marked out by a line of
+division, it is taken as one of the Ordinaries. Shields with a plain
+chief and no more are rare in England, but Tichborne of Tichborne has
+borne since the 13th century "Vair a chief gold." According to the
+heraldry books the chief should be marked off as a third part of the
+shield, but its depth varies, being broader when charged with devices
+and narrower when, itself uncharged, it surmounts a charged field.
+Fenwick bore "Silver a chief gules with six martlets countercoloured,"
+and in this case the chief would be the half of the shield. Clinging to
+the belief that the chief must not fill more than a third of the shield,
+the heraldry books abandon the word in such cases, blazoning them as
+"party per fesse."
+
+  Hastang bore "Azure a chief gules and a lion with a forked tail over
+  all."
+
+  Walter Kingston seals in the 13th century with a shield of "Two rings
+  or annelets in the chief."
+
+  Hilton of Westmoreland bore "Sable three rings gold and two saltires
+  silver in the chief."
+
+With the chief may be named the Foot, the nether part of the shield
+marked off as an Ordinary. So rare is this charge that we can cite but
+one example of it, that of the shield of John of Skipton, who in the
+14th century bore "Silver with the foot indented purple and a lion
+purple." The foot, however, is a recognized bearing in France, whose
+heralds gave it the name of _champagne_.
+
+[Illustration: Restwolde. Hastang. Hilton. Provence.]
+
+The Pale is a broad stripe running the length of the shield. Of a single
+pale and of three pales there are several old examples. Four red pales
+in a golden shield were borne by Eleanor of Provence, queen of Henry
+III.; but the number did not commend itself to English armorists. When
+the field is divided evenly into six pales it is said to be paly; if
+into four or eight pales, it is blazoned as paly of that number of
+pieces. But paly of more or less than six pieces is rarely found.
+
+  The Yorkshire house of Gascoigne bore "Silver a pale sable with a
+  golden conger's head thereon, cut off at the shoulder."
+
+  Ferlington bore "Gules three pales vair and a chief gold."
+
+  Strelley bore "Paly silver and azure."
+
+  Rothinge bore "Paly silver and gules of eight pieces."
+
+When the shield or charge is divided palewise down the middle into two
+tinctures it is said to be "party." "Party silver and gules" are the
+arms of the Waldegraves. Bermingham bore "Party silver and sable
+indented." Caldecote bore "Party silver and azure with a chief gules."
+Such partings of the field often cut through charges whose colours
+change about on either side of the parting line. Thus Chaucer the poet
+bore "Party silver and gules with a bend countercoloured."
+
+[Illustration: Gascoigne. Ferlington. Strelley. Rothinge.]
+
+The Fesse is a band athwart the shield, filling, according to the rules
+of the heraldic writers, a third part of it. By ancient use, however, as
+in the case of the chief and pale, its width varies with the taste of
+the painter, narrowing when set in a field full of charges and
+broadening when charges are displayed on itself. When two or three
+fesses are borne they are commonly called Bars. "Ermine _four_ bars
+gules" is given as the shield of Sir John Sully, a 14th-century Garter
+knight, on his stall-plate at Windsor: but the plate belongs to a later
+generation, and should probably have three bars only. Little bars borne
+in couples are styled Gemels (twins). The field divided into an even
+number of bars of alternate colours is said to be barry, barry of six
+pieces being the normal number. If four or eight divisions be found the
+number of pieces must be named; but with ten or more divisions the
+number is unreckoned and "burely" is the word.
+
+[Illustration: Bermingham. Caldecote. Colevile. Fauconberg.]
+
+  Colevile of Bitham bore "Gold a fesse gules."
+
+  West bore "Silver a dance (or fesse dancy) sable."
+
+  Fauconberg bore "Gold a fesse azure with three pales gules in the
+  chief."
+
+  Cayvile bore "Silver a fesse gules, flowered on both sides."
+
+[Illustration: Cayvile. Devereux. Chamberlayne. Harcourt.]
+
+  Devereux bore "Gules a fesse silver with three roundels silver in the
+  chief."
+
+  Chamberlayne of Northamptonshire bore "Gules a fesse and three
+  scallops gold."
+
+  Harcourt bore "Gules two bars gold."
+
+  Manners bore "Gold two bars azure and a chief gules."
+
+  Wake bore "Gold two bars gules with three roundels gules in the
+  chief."
+
+  Bussy bore "Silver three bars sable."
+
+  Badlesmere of Kent bore "Silver a fesse between two gemels gules."
+
+  Melsanby bore "Sable two gemels and a chief silver."
+
+[Illustration: Manners. Wake. Melsanby. Grey.]
+
+  Grey bore "Barry of silver and azure."
+
+  Fitzalan of Bedale bore "Barry of eight pieces gold and gules."
+
+  Stutevile bore "Burely of silver and gules."
+
+The Bend is a band traversing the shield aslant, arms with one, two or
+three bends being common during the middle ages in England. Bendy
+shields follow the rule of shields paly and barry, but as many as ten
+pieces have been counted in them. The bend is often accompanied by a
+narrow bend on either side, these companions being called Cotices. A
+single narrow bend, struck over all other charges, is the Baston, which
+during the 13th and 14th centuries was a common difference for the
+shields of the younger branches of a family, coming in later times to
+suggest itself as a difference for bastards.
+
+[Illustration: Fitzalan of Bedale. Mauley. Harley. Wallop.]
+
+The Bend Sinister, the bend drawn from right to left beginning at the
+"sinister" corner of the shield, is reckoned in the heraldry books as a
+separate Ordinary, and has a peculiar significance accorded to it by
+novelists. Medieval English seals afford a group of examples of Bends
+Sinister and Bastons Sinister, but there seems no reason for taking them
+as anything more than cases in which the artist has neglected the common
+rule.
+
+  Mauley bore "Gold a bend sable."
+
+  Harley bore "Gold a bend with two cotices sable."
+
+  Wallop bore "Silver a bend wavy sable."
+
+  Ralegh bore "Gules a bend indented, or engrailed, silver."
+
+[Illustration: Ralegh. Tracy. Bodrugan. St Philibert.]
+
+  Tracy bore "Gold two bends gules with a scallop sable in the chief
+  between the bends."
+
+  Bodrugan bore "Gules three bends sable."
+
+  St Philibert bore "Bendy of six pieces, silver and azure."
+
+  Bishopsdon bore "Bendy of six pieces, gold and azure, with a quarter
+  ermine."
+
+  Montfort of Whitchurch bore "Bendy of ten pieces gold and azure."
+
+[Illustration: Bishopsdon. Montfort. Lancaster. Fraunceys.]
+
+  Henry of Lancaster, second son of Edmund Crouchback, bore the arms of
+  his cousin, the king of England, with the difference of "a baston
+  azure."
+
+  Adam Fraunceys (14th century) bore "Party gold and sable bendwise with
+  a lion countercoloured." The parting line is here commonly shown as
+  "sinister."
+
+The Cheveron, a word found In medieval building accounts for the
+barge-boards of a gable, is an Ordinary whose form is explained by its
+name. Perhaps the very earliest of English armorial charges, and
+familiarized by the shield of the great house of Clare, it became
+exceedingly popular in England. Like the bend and the chief, its width
+varies in different examples. Likewise its angle varies, being sometimes
+so acute as to touch the top of the shield, while in post-medieval
+armory the point is often blunted beyond the right angle. One, two or
+three cheverons occur in numberless shields, and five cheverons have
+been found. Also there are some examples of the bearing of cheveronny.
+
+  The earls of Gloucester of the house of Clare bore "Gold three
+  cheverons gules" and the Staffords derived from them their shield of
+  "Gold a cheveron gules."
+
+  Chaworth bore "Azure two cheverons gold."
+
+  Peytevyn bore "Cheveronny of ermine and gules."
+
+  St Quintin of Yorkshire bore "Gold two cheverons gules and a chief
+  vair."
+
+  Sheffield bore "Ermine a cheveron gules between three sheaves gold."
+
+  Cobham of Kent bore "Gules a cheveron gold with three fleurs-de-lys
+  azure thereon."
+
+  Fitzwalter bore "Gold a fesse between two cheverons gules."
+
+[Illustration: Chaworth. Peytevyn. Sheffield. Cobham.]
+
+Shields parted cheveronwise are common in the 15th century, when they
+are often blazoned as having chiefs "enty" or grafted. Aston of Cheshire
+bore "Party sable and silver cheveronwise" or "Silver a chief enty
+sable."
+
+The Pile or stake (_estache_) is a wedge-shaped figure jutting from the
+chief to the foot of the shield, its name allied to the pile of the
+bridge-builder. A single pile is found in the notable arms of Chandos,
+and the black piles in the ermine shield of Hollis are seen as an
+example of the bearing of two piles. Three piles are more easily found,
+and when more than one is represented the points are brought together at
+the foot. In ancient armory piles in a shield are sometimes reckoned as
+a variety of pales, and a Basset with three piles on his shield is seen
+with three pales on his square banner.
+
+  Chandos bore "Gold a pile gules."
+
+  Bryene bore "Gold three piles azure."
+
+The Quarter is the space of the first quarter of the shield divided
+crosswise into four parts. As an Ordinary it is an ancient charge and a
+common one in medieval England, although it has all but disappeared from
+modern heraldry books, the "Canton," an alleged "diminutive," unknown to
+early armory, taking its place. Like the other Ordinaries, its size is
+found to vary with the scheme of the shield's charges, and this has
+persuaded those armorists who must needs call a narrow bend a "bendlet,"
+to the invention of the "Canton," a word which in the sense of a quarter
+or small quarter appears for the first time in the latter part of the
+15th century. Writers of the 14th century sometimes give it the name of
+the Cantel, but this word is also applied to the void space on the
+opposite side of the chief, seen above a bend.
+
+[Illustration: Aston. Hollis. Bryene. Blencowe.]
+
+  Blencowe bore "Gules a quarter silver."
+
+  Basset of Drayton bore "Gold three piles (or pales) gules with a
+  quarter ermine."
+
+  Wydvile bore "Silver a fesse and a quarter gules."
+
+  Odingseles bore "Silver a fesse gules with a molet gules in the
+  quarter."
+
+  Robert Dene of Sussex (14th century) bore "Gules a quarter azure
+  'embelif,' or aslant, and thereon a sleeved arm and hand of silver."
+
+Shields or charges divided crosswise with a downward line and a line
+athwart are said to be quarterly. An ancient coat of this fashion is
+that of Say who bore (13th century) "Quarterly gold and gules"--the
+first and fourth quarters being gold and the second and third red. Ever
+or Eure bore the same with the addition of "a bend sable with three
+silver scallops thereon." Phelip, Lord Bardolf, bore "Quarterly gules
+and silver with an eagle gold in the quarter."
+
+[Illustration: PLATE III.
+
+SHIELDS OF ARMS OF "LE ROY DARRABE," "LE ROY DE TARSSE," AND OTHER
+SOVEREIGNS. MOSTLY MYTHICAL. TAKEN FROM A ROLL OF ARMS MADE BY AN
+ENGLISH PAINTER IN THE TIME OF HENRY VI.
+
+  _Drawn by William Gibb._
+  _Niagara Litho. Co., Buffalo, N. Y._]
+
+[Illustration: Basset. Wydvile. Odingseles. Ever.]
+
+With the 15th century came a fashion of dividing the shield into more
+than four squares, six and nine divisions being often found in arms of
+that age. The heraldry books, eager to work out problems of blazonry,
+decide that a shield divided into six squares should be described as
+"Party per fesse with a pale counterchanged," and one divided into nine
+squares as bearing "a cross quarter-pierced." It seems a simpler
+business to follow a 15th-century fashion and to blazon such shields as
+being of six or nine "pieces." Thus John Garther (15th century) bore
+"Nine pieces erminees and ermine" and Whitgreave of Staffordshire "Nine
+pieces of azure and of Stafford's arms, which are gold with a cheveron
+gules." The Tallow Chandlers of London had a grant in 1456 of "Six
+pieces azure and silver with three doves in the azure, each with an
+olive sprig in her beak."
+
+Squared into more than nine squares the shield becomes checky or
+checkered and the number is not reckoned. Warenne's checker of gold and
+azure is one of the most ancient coats in England and checkered fields
+and charges follow in great numbers. Even lions have been borne
+checkered.
+
+  Warenne bore "Checky gold and azure."
+
+  Clifford bore the like with "a fesse gules."
+
+  Cobham bore "Silver a lion checky gold and sable."
+
+  Arderne bore "Ermine a fesse checky gold and gules."
+
+[Illustration: Phelip Lord Bardolf. Whitgreave. Tallow Chandlers.
+Warenne.]
+
+Such charges as this fesse of Arderne's and other checkered fesses,
+bars, bends, borders and the like, will commonly bear but two rows of
+squares, or three at the most. The heraldry writers are ready to note
+that when two rows are used "counter-compony" is the word in place of
+checky, and "compony-counter-compony" in the case of three rows. It is
+needless to say that these words have neither practical value nor
+antiquity to commend them. But bends and bastons, labels, borders and
+the rest are often coloured with a single row of alternating tinctures.
+In this case the pieces are said to be "gobony." Thus John Cromwell
+(14th century) bore "Silver a chief gules with a baston gobony of gold
+and azure."
+
+The scocheon or shield used as a charge is found among the earliest
+arms. Itself charged with arms, it served to indicate alliance by blood
+or by tenure with another house, as in the bearings of St Owen whose
+shield of "Gules with a cross silver" has a scocheon of Clare in the
+quarter. In the latter half of the 15th century it plays an important
+part in the curious marshalling of the arms of great houses and
+lordships.
+
+  Erpingham bore "Vert a scocheon silver with an orle (or border) of
+  silver martlets."
+
+  Davillers bore at the battle of Boroughbridge "Silver three scocheons
+  gules."
+
+The scocheon was often borne voided or pierced, its field cut away to a
+narrow border. Especially was this the case in the far North, where the
+Balliols, who bore such a voided scocheon, were powerful. The voided
+scocheon is wrongly named in all the heraldry books as an orle, a term
+which belongs to a number of small charges set round a central charge.
+Thus the martlets in the shield of Erpingham, already described, may be
+called an orle of martlets or a border of martlets. This misnaming of
+the voided scocheon has caused a curious misapprehension of its form,
+even Dr Woodward, in his _Heraldry, British and Foreign_, describing the
+"orle" as "a narrow border detached from the edge of the shield."
+Following this definition modern armorial artists will, in the case of
+quartered arms, draw the "orle" in a first or second quarter of a
+quartered shield as a rectangular figure and in a third or fourth
+quarter as a scalene triangle with one arched side. Thereby the original
+voided scocheon changes into forms without meaning.
+
+  Balliol bore "Gules a voided scocheon silver."
+
+  Surtees bore "Ermine with a quarter of the arms of Balliol."
+
+[Illustration: Clifford. Arderne. Cromwell. Erpingham.]
+
+The _Tressure_ or flowered tressure is a figure which is correctly
+described by Woodward's incorrect description of the orle as cited
+above, being a narrow inner border of the shield. It is distinguished,
+however, by the fleurs-de-lys which decorate it, setting off its edges.
+The double tressure which surrounds the lion in the royal shield of
+Scotland, and which is borne by many Scottish houses who have served
+their kings well or mated with their daughters, is carefully described
+by Scottish heralds as "flowered and counter-flowered," a blazon which
+is held to mean that the fleurs-de-lys show head and tail in turn from
+the outer rim of the outer tressure and from the inner rim of the
+innermost. But this seems to have been no essential matter with medieval
+armorists and a curious 15th-century enamelled roundel of the arms of
+Vampage shows that in this English case the flowering takes the more
+convenient form of allowing all the lily heads to sprout from the outer
+rim.
+
+  Vampage bore "Azure an eagle silver within a flowered tressure
+  silver."
+
+  The king of Scots bore "Gold a lion within a double tressure flowered
+  and counterflowered gules."
+
+  Felton bore "Gules two lions passant within a double tressure flory
+  silver."
+
+[Illustration: Davillers. Balliol. Surtees. Vampage.]
+
+The Border of the shield when marked out in its own tincture is counted
+as an Ordinary. Plain or charged, it was commonly used as a difference.
+As the principal charge of a shield it is very rare, so rare that in
+most cases where it apparently occurs we may, perhaps, be following
+medieval custom in blazoning the shield as one charged with a scocheon
+and not with a border. Thus Hondescote bore "Ermine a border gules" or
+"Gules a scocheon ermine."
+
+  Somerville bore "Burely silver and gules and a border azure with
+  golden martlets."
+
+  Paynel bore "Silver two bars sable with a border, or orle, of martlets
+  gules."
+
+The Flaunches are the flanks of the shield which, cut off by rounded
+lines, are borne in pairs as Ordinaries. These charges are found in many
+coats devised by 15th-century armorists. "Ermine two flaunches azure
+with six golden wheat-ears" was borne by John Greyby of Oxfordshire
+(15th century).
+
+The Label is a narrow fillet across the upper part of the chief, from
+which hang three, four, five or more pendants, the pendants being, in
+most old examples, broader than the fillet. Reckoned with the
+Ordinaries, it was commonly used as a means of differencing a cadet's
+shield, and in the heraldry books it has become the accepted difference
+for an eldest son, although the cadets often bore it in the middle ages.
+John of Hastings bore in 1300 before Carlaverock "Gold a sleeve (or
+maunche) gules," while Edmund his brother bore the same arms with a
+sable label. In modern armory the pendants are all but invariably
+reduced to three, which, in debased examples, are given a dovetailed
+form while the ends of the fillet are cut off.
+
+[Illustration: Scotland. Hondescote. Greyby. Hastings.]
+
+The Fret, drawn as a voided lozenge interlaced by a slender saltire, is
+counted an Ordinary. A charge in such a shape is extremely rare in
+medieval armory, its ancient form when the field is covered by it being
+a number of bastons--three being the customary number--interlaced by as
+many more from the sinister side. Although the whole is described as a
+fret in certain English blazons of the 15th century, the adjective
+"fretty" is more commonly used. Trussel's fret is remarkable for its
+bezants at the joints, which stand, doubtless, for the golden nail-heads
+of the "trellis" suggested by his name. Curwen, Wyvile and other
+northern houses bearing a fret and a chief have, owing to their fashion
+of drawing their frets, often seen them changed by the heraldry books
+into "three cheverons braced or interlaced."
+
+  Huddlestone bore "Gules fretty silver."
+
+  Trussel bore "Silver fretty gules, the joints bezanty."
+
+  Hugh Giffard (14th century) bore "Gules with an engrailed fret of
+  ermine."
+
+  Wyvile bore "Gules fretty vair with a chief gold."
+
+  Boxhull bore "Gold a lion azure fretty silver."
+
+[Illustration: Trussel. Giffard. Wyvile. Mortimer.]
+
+Another Ordinary is the Giron or Gyron--a word now commonly
+mispronounced with a hard "g." It may be defined as the lower half of a
+quarter which has been divided bendwise. No old example of a single
+giron can be found to match the figure in the heraldry books. Gironny,
+or gyronny, is a manner of dividing the field into sections, by lines
+radiating from a centre point, of which many instances may be given.
+Most of the earlier examples have some twelve divisions although later
+armory gives eight as the normal number, as Campbell bears them.
+
+  Bassingbourne bore "Gironny of gold and azure of twelve pieces."
+
+  William Stoker, who died Lord Mayor of London in 1484, bore "Gironny
+  of six pieces azure and silver with three popinjays in the silver
+  pieces."
+
+  A pair of girons on either side of a chief were borne in the strange
+  shield of Mortimer, commonly blazoned as "Barry azure and gold of six
+  pieces, the chief azure with two pales and two girons gold, a scocheon
+  silver over all." An early example shows that this shield began as a
+  plain field with a gobony border.
+
+With the Ordinaries we may take the Roundels or Pellets, disks or balls
+of various colours. Ancient custom gives the name of a bezant to the
+golden roundel, and the folly of the heraldic writers has found names
+for all the others, names which may be disregarded together with the
+belief that, while bezants and silver roundels, as representing coins,
+must be pictured with a flat surface, roundels of other hues must needs
+be shaded by the painter to represent rounded balls. Rings or Annelets
+were common charges in the North, where Lowthers, Musgraves and many
+more, differenced the six rings of Vipont by bearing them in various
+colours.
+
+[Illustration: Campbell. Bassingbourne. Stoker. Burlay.]
+
+  Burlay of Wharfdale bore "Gules a bezant."
+
+  Courtenay, earl of Devon, bore "Gold three roundels gules with a label
+  azure."
+
+  Caraunt bore "Silver three roundels azure, each with three cheverons
+  gules."
+
+  Vipont bore "Gold six annelets gules."
+
+  Avenel bore "Silver a fesse and six annelets (_aunels_) gules."
+
+  Hawberk of Stapleford bore "Silver a bend sable charged with three
+  pieces of a mail hawberk, each of three linked rings of gold."
+
+  Stourton bore "Sable a bend gold between six fountains." The fountain
+  is a roundel charged with waves of white and blue.
+
+[Illustration: Courtenay. Caraunt. Vipont. Avenel.]
+
+The Lozenge is linked in the heraldry book with the Fusil. This Fusil is
+described as a lengthened and sharper lozenge. But it will be understood
+that the Fusil, other than as part of an engrailed or indented bend,
+pale or fesse, is not known to true armory. Also it is one of the
+notable achievements of the English writers on heraldry that they should
+have allotted to the lozenge, when borne voided, the name of Mascle.
+This "mascle" is the word of the oldest armorists for the unvoided
+charge, the voided being sometimes described by them as a lozenge,
+without further qualifications. Fortunately the difficulty can be solved
+by following the late 14th-century custom in distinguishing between
+"lozenges" and "voided lozenges" and by abandoning altogether this
+misleading word Mascle.
+
+[Illustration: Hawberk. Stourton. Charles. Fitzwilliam.]
+
+  Thomas of Merstone, a clerk, bore on his seal in 1359 "Ermine a
+  lozenge with a pierced molet thereon."
+
+  Braybroke bore "Silver seven voided lozenges gules."
+
+  Charles bore "Ermine a chief gules with five golden lozenges.
+  thereon."
+
+  Fitzwilliam bore "Lozengy silver and gules."
+
+Billets are oblong figures set upright. Black billets in the arms of
+Delves of Cheshire stand for "delves" of earth and the gads of steel in
+the arms of the London Ironmongers' Company took a somewhat similar
+form.
+
+  Sir Ralph Mounchensy bore in the 14th century "Silver a cheveron
+  between three billets sable."
+
+  Haggerston bore "Azure a bend with cotices silver and three billets
+  sable on the bend."
+
+With the Billet, the Ordinaries, uncertain as they are in number, may be
+said to end. But we may here add certain armorial charges which might
+well have been counted with them.
+
+First of these is the Molet, a word corrupted in modern heraldry to
+Mullet, a fish-like change with nothing to commend it. This figure is as
+a star of five or six points, six points being perhaps the commonest
+form in old examples, although the sixth point is, as a rule, lost
+during the later period. Medieval armorists are not, it seems, inclined
+to make any distinction between molets of five and six points, but some
+families, such as the Harpedens and Asshetons, remained constant to the
+five-pointed form. It was generally borne pierced with a round hole, and
+then represents, as its name implies, the rowel of a spur. In ancient
+rolls of arms the word Rowel is often used, and probably indicated the
+pierced molet. That the piercing was reckoned an essential difference is
+shown by a roll of the time of Edward II., in which Sir John of Pabenham
+bears "Barry azure and silver, with a bend gules and three molets gold
+thereon," arms which Sir John his son differences by piercing the
+molets. Beside these names is that of Sir Walter Baa with "Gules a
+cheveron and three rowels silver," rowels which are shown on seals of
+this family as pierced molets. Probably an older bearing than the molet,
+which would be popularized when the rowelled spur began to take the
+place of the prick-spur, is the Star or Estoile, differing from the
+molet in that its five or six points are wavy. It is possible that
+several star bearings of the 13th century were changed in the 14th for
+molets. The star is not pierced in the fashion of the molet; but, like
+the molet, it tends to lose its sixth point in armory of the decadence.
+Suns, sometimes blazoned in old rolls as Sun-rays--_rays de soleil_--are
+pictured as unpierced molets of many points, which in rare cases are
+waved.
+
+  Harpeden bore "Silver a pierced molet gules."
+
+  Gentil bore "Gold a chief sable with two molets goles pierced gules."
+
+  Grimston bore "Silver a fesse sable and thereon three molets silver
+  pierced gules."
+
+  Ingleby of Yorkshire bore "Sable a star silver."
+
+  Sir John de la Haye of Lincolnshire bore "Silver a sun gules."
+
+[Illustration: Mounchensy. Haggerston. Harpeden. Gentil.]
+
+The Crescent is a charge which has to answer for many idle tales
+concerning the crusading ancestors of families who bear it. It is
+commonly borne with both points uppermost, but when representing the
+waning or the waxing moon--decrescent or increscent--its horns are
+turned to the sinister or dexter side of the shield.
+
+  Peter de Marines (13th century) bore on his seal a shield charged with
+  a crescent in the chief.
+
+  William Gobioun (14th century) bore "A bend between two waxing moons."
+
+  Longchamp bore "Ermine three crescents gules, pierced silver."
+
+_Tinctures._--The tinctures or hues of the shield and its charges are
+seven in number--gold or yellow, silver or white, red, blue, black,
+green and purple. Medieval custom gave, according to a rule often
+broken, "gules," "azure" and "sable" as more high-sounding names for the
+red, blue and black. Green was often named as "vert," and sometimes as
+"synobill," a word which as "sinople" is used to this day by French
+armorists. The song of the siege of Carlaverock and other early
+documents have red, gules or "vermeil," sable or black, azure or blue,
+but gules, azure, sable and vert came to be recognized as armorists'
+adjectives, and an early 15th-century romance discards the simple words
+deliberately, telling us of its hero that
+
+  "His shield was black and blue, sanz fable,
+   Barred of azure and of sable."
+
+But gold and silver served as the armorists' words for yellows and
+whites until late in the 16th century, when gold and silver made way for
+"or" and "argent," words which those for whom the interest of armory
+lies in its liveliest days will not be eager to accept. Likewise the
+colours of "sanguine" and "tenne" brought in by the pedants to bring the
+tinctures to the mystical number of nine may be disregarded.
+
+[Illustration: Grimston. Ingilby. Gobioun. Longchamp.]
+
+A certain armorial chart of the duchy of Brabant, published in 1600, is
+the earliest example of the practice whereby later engravers have
+indicated colours in uncoloured plates by the use of lines and dots.
+Gold is indicated by a powdering of dots; silver is left plain. Azure is
+shown by horizontal shading lines; gules by upright lines; sable by
+cross-hatching of upright and horizontal lines. Diagonal lines from
+sinister to dexter indicate purple; vert is marked with diagonal lines
+from dexter to sinister. The practice, in spite of a certain
+convenience, has been disastrous in its cramping effects on armorial
+art, especially when applied to seals and coins.
+
+Besides the two "metals" and five "colours," fields and charges are
+varied by the use of the furs ermine and vair. Ermine is shown by a
+white field flecked with black ermine tails, and vair by a conventional
+representation of a fur of small skins sewn in rows, white and blue
+skins alternately. In the 15th century there was a popular variant of
+ermine, white tails upon a black field. To this fur the books now give
+the name of "ermines"--a most unfortunate choice, since ermines is a
+name used in old documents for the original ermine. "Erminees," which
+has at least a 15th-century authority, will serve for those who are not
+content to speak of "sable ermined with silver." Vair, although silver
+and blue be its normal form, may be made up of gold, silver or ermine,
+with sable or gules or vert, but in these latter cases the colours must
+be named in the blazon. To the vairs and ermines of old use the heraldry
+books have added "erminois," which is a gold field with black ermine
+fails, "pean," which is "erminois" reversed, and "erminites," which is
+ermine with a single red hair on either side of each black tail. The
+vairs, mainly by misunderstanding of the various patterns found in old
+paintings, have been amplified with "countervair," "potent,"
+"counter-potent" and "vair-en-point," no one of which merits
+description.
+
+No shield of a plain metal or colour has ever been borne by an
+Englishman, although the knights at Carlaverock and Falkirk saw Amaneu
+d'Albret with his banner all of red having no charge thereon. Plain
+ermine was the shield of the duke of Brittany and no Englishman
+challenged the bearing. But Beauchamp of Hatch bore simple vair, Ferrers
+of Derby "Vairy gold and gules," and Ward "Vairy silver and sable."
+Gresley had "Vairy ermine and gules," and Beche "Vairy silver and
+gules."
+
+Only one English example has hitherto been discovered of a field covered
+not with a fur but with overlapping feathers. A 15th-century book of
+arms gives "Plumetty of gold and purple" for "Mydlam in Coverdale."
+
+Drops of various colours which variegate certain fields and charges are
+often mistaken for ermine tails when ancient seals are deciphered. A
+simple example of such spattering is in the shield of Grayndore, who
+bore "Party ermine and vert, the vert dropped with gold." Sir Richard
+le Brun (14th century) bore "Azure a silver lion dropped with gules."
+
+[Illustration: Brittany. Beauchamp. Mydlam. Grayndorge.]
+
+A very common variant of charges and fields is the sowing or "powdering"
+them with a small charge repeated many times. Mortimer of Norfolk bore
+"gold powdered with fleurs-de-lys sable" and Edward III. quartered for
+the old arms of France "Azure powdered with fleurs-de-lys gold," such
+fields being often described as flowered or flory. Golden billets were
+scattered in Cowdray's red shield, which is blazoned as "Gules billety
+gold," and bezants in that of Zouche, which is "Gules bezanty with a
+quarter ermine." The disposition of such charges varied with the users.
+Zouche as a rule shows ten bezants placed four, three, two and one on
+his shield, while the old arms of France in the royal coat allows the
+pattern of flowers to run over the edge, the shield border thus showing
+halves and tops and stalk ends of the fleurs-de-lys. But the commonest
+of these powderings is that with crosslets, as in the arms of John la
+Warr "Gules crusily silver with a silver lion."
+
+[Illustration: Mortimer. Cowdray. Zouche. La Warr. Cheyndut. Applegarth.
+Chester. Rye.]
+
+_Trees, Leaves and Flowers._--Sir Stephen Cheyndut, a 13th-century
+knight, bore an oak tree, the _cheyne_ of his first syllable, while for
+like reasons a Piriton had a pear tree on his shield. Three pears were
+borne (_temp._ Edward III.) by Nicholas Stivecle of Huntingdonshire, and
+about the same date is Applegarth's shield of three red apples in a
+silver field. Leaves of burdock are in the arms (14th century) of Sir
+John de Lisle and mulberry leaves in those of Sir Hugh de Morieus. Three
+roots of trees are given to one Richard Rotour in a 14th-century roll.
+Malherbe (13th century) bore the "evil herb"--a teazle bush. Pineapples
+are borne here and there, and it will be noted that armorists have not
+surrendered this, our ancient word for the "fir-cone," to the foreign
+_ananas_. Out of the cornfield English armory took the sheaf, three
+sheaves being on the shield of an earl of Chester early in the 13th
+century and Sheffield bearing sheaves for a play on his name. For a like
+reason Peverel's sheaves were sheaves of pepper. Rye bore three ears of
+rye on a bend, and Graindorge had barley-ears. Flowers are few in this
+field of armory, although lilies with their stalks and leaves are in the
+grant of arms to Eton College. Ousethorpe has water flowers, and now and
+again we find some such strange charges as those in the 15th-century
+shield of Thomas Porthelyne who bore "Sable a cheveron gules between
+three 'popyebolles,' or poppy-heads vert."
+
+The fleur-de-lys, a conventional form from the beginnings of armory,
+might well be taken amongst the "ordinaries." In England as in France it
+is found in great plenty.
+
+  Aguylon bore "Gules a fleur-de-lys silver."
+
+  Peyferer bore "Silver three fleur-de-lys sable."
+
+[Illustration: Eton College.]
+
+Trefoils are very rarely seen until the 15th century, although Hervey
+has them, and Gausill, and a Bosville coat seems to have borne them.
+They have always their stalk left hanging to them. Vincent, Hattecliffe
+and Massingberd all bore the quatrefoil, while the Bardolfs, and the
+Quincys, earls of Winchester, had cinqfoils. The old rolls of arms made
+much confusion between cinqfoils and sixfoils (_quintefoilles e
+sisfoilles_) and the rose. It is still uncertain how far that confusion
+extended amongst the families which bore these charges. The cinqfoil and
+sixfoil, however, are all but invariably pierced in the middle like the
+spur rowel, and the rose's blunt-edged petals give it definite shape
+soon after the decorative movement of the Edwardian age began to carve
+natural buds and flowers in stone and wood.
+
+[Illustration: Aguylon. Peyferer. Hervey. Vincent.]
+
+  Hervey bore "Gules a bend silver with three trefoils vert thereon."
+
+  Vincent bore "Azure three quatrefoils silver."
+
+  Quincy bore "Gules a cinqfoil silver."
+
+  Bardolf of Wormegay bore "Gules three cinqfoils silver."
+
+  Cosington bore "Azure three roses gold."
+
+  Hilton bore "Silver three chaplets or garlands of red roses."
+
+[Illustration: Quincy. Bardolf. Cosington. Hilton.]
+
+_Beasts and Birds._--The book of natural history as studied in the
+middle ages lay open at the chapter of the lion, to which royal beast
+all the noble virtues were set down. What is the oldest armorial seal of
+a sovereign prince as yet discovered bears the rampant lion of Flanders.
+In England we know of no royal shield earlier than that first seal of
+Richard I. which has a like device. A long roll of our old earls, barons
+and knights wore the lion on their coats--Lacy, Marshal, Fitzalan and
+Montfort, Percy, Mowbray and Talbot. By custom the royal beast is shown
+as rampant, touching the ground with but one foot and clawing at the air
+in noble rage. So far is this the normal attitude of a lion that the
+adjective "rampant" was often dropped, and we have leave and good
+authority for blazoning the rampant beast simply as "a lion," leave
+which a writer on armory may take gladly to the saving of much
+repetition. In France and Germany this licence has always been the rule,
+and the modern English herald's blazon of "Gules a lion rampant or" for
+the arms of Fitzalan, becomes in French _de gueules au lion d'or_ and in
+German _in Rot ein goldener Loewe_. Other positions must be named with
+care and the prowling "lion passant" distinguished from the rampant
+beast, as well as from such rarer shapes as the couchant lion, the lion
+sleeping, sitting or leaping. Of these the lion passant is the only one
+commonly encountered. The lion standing with his forepaws together is
+not a figure for the shield, but for the crest, where he takes this
+position for greater stableness upon the helm, and the sitting lion is
+also found rather upon helms than in shields. For a couchant lion or a
+dormant lion one must search far afield, although there are some
+medieval instances. The leaping lion is in so few shields that no maker
+of a heraldry book has, it would appear, discovered an example. In the
+books this "lion salient" is described as with the hind paws together on
+the ground and the fore paws together in the air, somewhat after the
+fashion of a diver's first movement. But examples from seals and
+monuments of the Felbrigges and the Merks show that the leaping lion
+differed only from the rampant in that he leans somewhat forward in his
+eager spring. The compiler of the British Museum catalogue of medieval
+armorial seals, and others equally unfamiliar with medieval armory,
+invariably describe this position as "rampant," seeing no distinction
+from other rampings. As rare as the leaping lion is the lion who looks
+backward over his shoulder. This position is called "regardant" by
+modern armorists. The old French blazon calls it _rere regardant or
+turnaunte le visage arere_, "regardant" alone meaning simply "looking,"
+and therefore we shall describe it more reasonably in plain English as
+"looking backward." The two-headed lion occurs in a 15th-century coat of
+Mason, and at the same period a monstrous lion of three bodies and one
+head is borne, apparently, by a Sharingbury.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE IV.
+
+THE BEGINNING OF A ROLL OF THE ARMS OF THOSE JOUSTING IN A TOURNAMENT
+HELD ON THE FIELD OF THE CLOTH OF GOLD. BESIDES THE ARMS OF THE KINGS OF
+FRANCE AND ENGLAND ARE TWO COLUMNS OF "CHEQUES," MARKED WITH THE NAMES
+AND SCORING POINTS OF THE JOUSTERS.
+
+  _Drawn by William Gibb._
+  _Niagara Litho. Co., Buffalo, N. Y._]
+
+[Illustration: England.]
+
+The lion's companion is the leopard. What might be the true form of this
+beast was a dark thing to the old armorist, yet knowing from the report
+of grave travellers that the leopard was begotten in spouse-breach
+between the lion and the pard, it was felt that his shape would favour
+his sire's. But nice distinctions of outline, even were they
+ascertainable, are not to be marked on the tiny seal, or easily
+expressed by the broad strokes of the shield painter. The leopard was
+indeed lesser than the lion, but in armory, as in the Noah's arks
+launched by the old yards, the bear is no bigger than the badger. Then a
+happy device came to the armorist. He would paint the leopard like the
+lion at all points. But as the lion looks forward the leopard should
+look sidelong, showing his whole face. The matter was arranged, and
+until the end of the middle ages the distinction held and served. The
+disregarded writers on armory, Nicholas Upton, and his fellows,
+protested that a lion did not become a leopard by turning his face
+sidelong, but none who fought in the field under lion and leopard
+banners heeded this pedantry from cathedral closes. The English king's
+beasts were leopards in blazon, in ballad and chronicle, and in the
+mouths of liegeman and enemy. Henry V.'s herald, named from his master's
+coat, was Leopard Herald; and Napoleon's gazettes never fail to speak of
+the English leopards. In our own days, those who deal with armory as
+antiquaries and students of the past will observe the old custom for
+convenience' sake. Those for whom the interest of heraldry lies in the
+nonsense-language brewed during post-medieval years may correct the
+medieval ignorance at their pleasure. The knight who saw the king's
+banner fly at Falkirk or Crecy tells us that it bore "Gules with three
+leopards of gold." The modern armorist will shame the uninstructed
+warrior with "Gules three lions passant gardant in pale or."
+
+As the lion rampant is the normal lion, so the normal leopard is the
+leopard passant, the adjective being needless. In a few cases only the
+leopard rises up to ramp in the lion's fashion, and here he must be
+blazoned without fail as a leopard rampant.
+
+Parts of the lion and the leopard are common charges. Chief of these are
+the demi-lion and the demi-leopard, beasts complete above their slender
+middles, even to the upper parts of their lashing tails. Rampant or
+passant, they follow the customs of the unmaimed brute. Also the heads
+of lion and leopard are in many shields, and here the armorist of the
+modern handbooks stumbles by reason of his refusal to regard clearly
+marked medieval distinctions. The instructed will know a lion's head
+because it shows but half the face and a leopard's head because it is
+seen full-face. But the handbooks of heraldry, knowing naught of
+leopards, must judge by absence or presence of a mane, speaking
+uncertainly of leopards' faces and lions' heads and faces. Here again
+the old path is the straighter. The head of a lion, or indeed of any
+beast, bird or monster, is generally painted as "razed," or torn away
+with a ragged edge which is pleasantly conventionalized. Less often it
+is found "couped" or cut off with a sheer line. But the leopard's head
+is neither razed nor couped, for no neck is shown below it. Likewise the
+lion's fore leg or paw--"gamb" is the book word--may be borne, razed or
+coupled. Its normal position is raided upright, although Newdegate seems
+to have borne "Gules three lions' legs razed silver, the paws downward."
+With the strange bearing of the lion's whip-like tail cut off at the
+rump, we may end the list of these oddments.
+
+  Fitzalan, earl of Arundel, bore "Gules a lion gold."
+
+  Simon de Montfort bore "Gules a silver lion with a forked tail."
+
+  Segrave bore "Sable a lion silver crowned gold."
+
+  Havering bore "Silver a lion rampant gules with a forked tail, having
+  a collar azure."
+
+  Felbrigge of Felbrigge bore "Gold a leaping lion gules."
+
+  Esturmy bore "Silver a lion sable (or purple) looking backward."
+
+  Marmion bore "Gules a lion vair."
+
+  Mason bore "Silver a two-headed lion gules."
+
+  Lovetot bore "Silver a lion parted athwart of sable and gules."
+
+  Richard le Jen bore "Vert a lion gold"--the arms of Wakelin of
+  Arderne--"with a fesse gules on the lion."
+
+  Fiennes bore "Azure three lions gold."
+
+  Leyburne of Kent bore "Azure six lions silver."
+
+[Illustration: Fitzalan. Felbrigge. Fiennes. Leyburne.]
+
+  Carew bore "Gold three lions passant sable."
+
+  Fotheringhay bore "Silver two lions passant sable, looking backward."
+
+  Richard Norton of Waddeworth (1357) sealed with arms of "A lion
+  dormant."
+
+  Lisle bore "Gules a leopard silver crowned gold."
+
+  Ludlowe bore "Azure three leopards silver."
+
+  Brocas bore "Sable a leopard rampant gold."
+
+[Illustration: Carew. Fotheringhay. Brocas. Lisle.]
+
+  John Hardrys of Kent seals in 1372 with arms of "a sitting leopard."
+
+  John Northampton, Lord Mayor of London in 1381, bore "Azure a crowned
+  leopard gold with two bodies rampant against each other."
+
+  Newenham bore "Azure three demi-lions silver."
+
+  A deed delivered at Lapworth in Warwickshire in 1466 is sealed with
+  arms of "a molet between three demi-leopards."
+
+  Kenton bore "Gules three lions' heads razed sable."
+
+[Illustration: Kenton. Pole. Cantelou. Pynchebek.]
+
+  Pole, earl and duke of Suffolk, bore "Azure a fesse between three
+  leopards' heads gold."
+
+  Cantelou bore "Azure three leopards' heads silver with silver
+  fleurs-de-lys issuing from them."
+
+  Wederton bore "Gules a cheveron between three lions' legs razed
+  silver."
+
+  Pynchebek bore "silver three forked tails of lions sable."
+
+The tiger is rarely named in collections of medieval arms. Deep mystery
+wrapped the shape of him, which was never during the middle ages
+standardized by artists. A crest upon a 15th-century brass shows him as
+a lean wolf-like figure, with a dash of the boar, gazing after his vain
+wont into a looking-glass; and the 16th-century heralds gave him the
+body of a lion with the head of a wolf, head and body being tufted here
+and there with thick tufts of hair. But it is noteworthy that the arms
+of Sir John Norwich, a well-known knight of the 14th century, are
+blazoned in a roll of that age as "party azure and gules with a tiger
+rampant ermine." Now this beast in the arms of Norwich has been commonly
+taken for a lion, and the Norwich family seem in later times to have
+accepted the lion as their bearing. But a portion of a painted roll of
+Sir John's day shows on careful examination that his lion has been given
+two moustache-like tufts to the nose. A copy made about 1600 of another
+roll gives the same decoration to the Norwich lion, and it is at least
+possible we have here evidence that the economy of the medieval armorist
+allowed him to make at small cost his lion, his leopard and his tiger
+out of a single beast form.
+
+Take away the lions and the leopards, and the other beasts upon medieval
+shields are a little herd. In most cases they are here to play upon the
+names of their bearers. Thus Swinburne of Northumberland has the heads
+of swine in his coat and Bacon has bacon pigs. Three white bears were
+borne by Barlingham, and a bear ramping on his hind legs is for Barnard.
+Lovett of Astwell has three running wolves, Videlou three wolves' heads,
+Colfox three foxes' heads.
+
+[Illustration: Lovett. Talbot. Saunders.]
+
+Three hedgehogs were in the arms of Heriz. Barnewall reminds us of
+extinct natives of England by bearing two beavers, and Otter of
+Yorkshire had otters. Harewell had hares' heads, Cunliffe conies,
+Mitford moles or moldiwarps. A Talbot of Lancashire had three purple
+squirrels in a silver shield. An elephant was brought to England as
+early as the days of Henry III., but he had no immediate armorial
+progeny, although Saunders of Northants may have borne before the end of
+the middle ages the elephants' heads which speak of Alysaunder the
+Great, patron of all Saunderses. Bevil of the west had a red bull, and
+Bulkeley bore three silver bulls' heads. The heads in Neteham's
+14th-century shield are neat's heads, ox heads are for Oxwyk. Calves are
+for Veel, and the same mild beasts are in the arms of that fierce knight
+Hugh Calveley. Stansfeld bore three rams with bells at their necks, and
+a 14th-century Lecheford thought no shame to bear the head of the ram
+who is the symbol of lechery. Lambton had lambs. Goats were borne by
+Chevercourt to play on his name, a leaping goat by Bardwell, and goats'
+heads by Gateshead. Of the race of dogs the greyhound and the talbot, or
+mastiff, are found most often. Thus Talbot of Cumberland had talbots,
+and Mauleverer, running greyhounds or "leverers" for his name's sake.
+The alaund, a big, crop-eared dog, is in the 15th-century shield of John
+Woode of Kent, and "kenets," or little tracking dogs, in a 13th-century
+coat of Kenet. The horse is not easily found as an English charge, but
+Moyle's white mule seems an old coat; horses' heads are in Horsley's
+shield, and ass heads make crests for more than one noble house. Askew
+has three asses in his arms. Three bats or flittermice are in the shield
+of Burninghill and in that of Heyworth of Whethamstede.
+
+As might be looked for in a land where forest and greenwood once linked
+from sea to sea, the wild deer is a common charge in the shield. Downes
+of Cheshire bore a hart "lodged" or lying down. Hertford had harts'
+heads, Malebis, fawns' heads (_testes de bis_), Bukingham, heads of
+bucks. The harts in Rotherham's arms are the roes of his name's first
+syllable. Reindeer heads were borne by Bowet in the 14th century.
+Antelopes, fierce beasts with horns that have something of the ibex,
+show by their great claws, their lion tails, and their boar muzzles and
+tusks that they are midway between the hart and the monster.
+
+[Illustration: Griffin.]
+
+Of the outlandish monsters the griffon is the oldest and the chief. With
+the hinder parts of a lion, the rest of him is eagle, head and
+shoulders, wings and fore legs. The long tuft under the beak and his
+pointed ears mark him out from the eagle when his head alone is borne.
+At an early date a griffon rampant, his normal position, was borne by
+the great house of Montagu as a quartering, and another griffon played
+upon Griffin's name.
+
+[Illustration: Drake.]
+
+The wyver, who becomes wyvern in the 16th century, and takes a new form
+under the care of inventive heralds, was in the middle ages a
+lizard-like dragon, generally with small wings. Sir Edmund Mauley in the
+14th century is found differencing the black bend of his elder brother
+by charging it with three wyvers of silver. During the middle ages there
+seems small distinction between the wyver and the still rarer dragon,
+which, with the coming of the Tudors, who bore it as their badge, is
+seen as a four-legged monster with wings and a tail that ends like a
+broad arrow. The monster in the arms of Drake, blazoned by Tudor heralds
+as a wyvern, is clearly a fire-drake or dragon in his origin.
+
+The unicorn rampant was borne by Harlyn of Norfolk, unicorn's heads by
+the Cambridgeshire family of Paris. The mermaid with her comb and
+looking-glass makes a 14th-century crest for Byron, while "Silver a bend
+gules with three silver harpies thereon" is found in the 15th century
+for Entyrdene.
+
+Concerning beasts and monsters the heraldry books have many adjectives
+of blazonry which may be disregarded. Even as it was once the pride of
+the cook pedant to carve each bird on the board with a new word for the
+act, so it became the delight of the pedant herald to order that the
+rampant horse should be "forcene," the rampant griffon "segreant," the
+passant hart "trippant"; while the same hart must needs be "attired" as
+to its horns and "unguled" as to its hoofs. There is ancient authority
+for the nice blazonry which sometimes gives a separate colour to the
+tongue and claws of the lion, but even this may be set aside. Though a
+black lion in a silver field may be armed with red claws, and a golden
+leopard in a red field given blue claws and tongues, these trifles are
+but fancies which follow the taste of the painter, and are never of
+obligation. The tusks and hoofs of the boar, and often the horns of the
+hart, are thus given in some paintings a colour of their own which
+elsewhere is neglected.
+
+As the lion is among armorial beasts, so is the eagle among the birds. A
+bold convention of the earliest shield painters displayed him with
+spread wing and claw, the feat of a few strokes of the brush, and after
+this fashion he appears on many scores of shields. Like the claws and
+tongue of the lion, the beak and claws of the eagle are commonly painted
+of a second colour in all but very small representations. Thus the
+golden eagle of Lymesey in a red field may have blue beak and claws, and
+golden beak and claws will be given to Jorce's silver eagle upon red. A
+lure, or two wings joined and spread like those of an eagle, is a rare
+charge sometimes found. When fitted with the cord by which a falconer's
+lure is swung, the cord must be named.
+
+  Monthermer bore "Gold an eagle vert."
+
+  Siggeston bore "Silver a two-headed eagle sable."
+
+  Gavaston, earl of Cornwall, bore "Vert six eagles gold."
+
+  Bayforde of Fordingbridge sealed (in 1388) with arms of "An eagle
+  bendwise, with a border engrailed and a baston."
+
+  Graunson bore "Paly silver and azure with a bend gules and three
+  golden eagles thereon."
+
+  Seymour bore "Gules a lure of two golden wings."
+
+Commoner than the eagle as a charge is the martlet, a humbler bird which
+is never found as the sole charge of a shield. In all but a few early
+representations the feathers of the legs are seen without the legs or
+claws. The martlet indicates both swallow and martin, and in the arms of
+the Cornish Arundels the martlets must stand for "hirundels" or
+swallows.
+
+[Illustration: Monthermer. Siggeston. Gavaston. Graunson. Arundel.]
+
+The falcon or hawk is borne as a rule with close wings, so that he may
+not be taken for the eagle. In most cases he is there to play on the
+bearer's name, and this may be said of most of the flight of lesser
+birds.
+
+  Naunton bore "Sable three martlets silver."
+
+  Heron bore "Azure three herons silver."
+
+  Fauconer bore "Silver three falcons gules."
+
+  Hauvile bore "Azure a dance between three hawks gold."
+
+  Twenge bore "Silver a fesse gules between three popinjays (or parrots)
+  vert."
+
+  Cranesley bore "Silver a cheveron gules between three cranes azure."
+
+  Asdale bore "Gules a swan silver."
+
+  Dalston bore "Silver a cheveron engrailed between three daws' heads
+  razed sable."
+
+  Corbet bore "Gold two corbies sable."
+
+[Illustration: Seymour. Naunton. Fauconer. Twenge.]
+
+  Cockfield bore "Silver three cocks gules."
+
+  Burton bore "Sable a cheveron sable between three silver owls."
+
+  Rokeby bore "Silver a cheveron sable between three rooks."
+
+  Duffelde bore "Sable a cheveron silver between three doves."
+
+  Pelham bore "Azure three pelicans silver."
+
+[Illustration: Asdale. Corbet. Cockfield. Burton.]
+
+  Sumeri (13th century) sealed with arms of "A peacock with his tail
+  spread."
+
+  John Pyeshale of Suffolk (14th century) sealed with arms of "Three
+  magpies."
+
+_Fishes, Reptiles and Insects._--Like the birds, the fishes are borne
+for the most part to call to mind their bearers' names. Unless their
+position be otherwise named, they are painted as upright in the shield,
+as though rising towards the water surface. The dolphin is known by his
+bowed back, old artists making him a grotesquely decorative figure.
+
+  Lucy bore "Gules three luces (or pike) silver."
+
+  Heringaud bore "Azure, crusilly gold, with six golden herrings."
+
+  Fishacre bore "Gules a dolphin silver."
+
+  La Roche bore "Three roach swimming."
+
+  John Samon (14th century) sealed with arms of "Three salmon swimming."
+
+  Sturgeon bore "Azure three sturgeon swimming gold, with a fret gules
+  over all."
+
+  Whalley bore "Silver three whales' heads razed sable."
+
+Shell-fish would hardly have place in English armory were it not for the
+abundance of scallops which have followed their appearance in the
+banners of Dacre and Scales. The crest of the Yorkshire Scropes,
+playing upon their name, was a pair of crabs' claws.
+
+  Dacre bore "Gules three scallops silver."
+
+  Shelley bore "Sable a fesse engrailed between three whelk-shells
+  gold."
+
+[Illustration: Rokeby. Pelham. Lucy. Fishacre. Roche.]
+
+Reptiles and insects are barely represented. The lizards in the crest
+and supporters of the Ironmongers of London belong to the 15th century.
+Gawdy of Norfolk may have borne the tortoise in his shield in the same
+age. "Silver three toads sable" was quartered as a second coat for
+Botreaux of Cornwall in the 16th century--Botereau or Boterel signifying
+a little toad in the old French tongue--but the arms do not appear on
+the old Botreaux seals beside their ancient bearing of the griffon.
+Beston bore "Silver a bend between six bees sable" and a 15-century
+Harbottle seems to have sealed with arms of three bluebottle flies.
+Three butterflies are in the shield of Presfen of Lancashire in 1415,
+while the winged insect shown on the seal of John Mayre, a King's Lynn
+burgess of the age of Edward I., is probably a mayfly.
+
+[Illustration: Dacre. Shelley. See of Salisbury. Isle of Man.]
+
+_Human Charges._--Man and the parts of him play but a small part in
+English shields, and we have nothing to put beside such a coat as that
+of the German Manessen, on which two armed knights attack each other's
+hauberks with their teeth. But certain arms of religious houses and the
+like have the whole figure, the see of Salisbury bearing the Virgin and
+Child in a blue field. And old crests have demi-Saracens and falchion
+men, coal-miners, monks and blackamoors. Sowdan bore in his shield a
+turbaned soldan's head; Eady, three old men's "'eads"! Heads of maidens,
+the "winsome marrows" of the ballad, are in the arms of Marow. The
+Stanleys, as kings of Man, quartered the famous three-armed legs
+whirling mill-sail fashion, and Tremayne of the west bore three men's
+arms in like wise. "Gules three hands silver" was for Malmeyns as early
+as the 13th century, and Tynte of Colchester displayed hearts.
+
+_Miscellaneous Charges._--Other charges of the shield are less frequent
+but are found in great variety, the reason for most of them being the
+desire to play upon the bearer's name.
+
+Weapons and the like are rare, having regard to the military
+associations of armory. Daubeney bore three helms; Philip Marmion took
+with his wife, the coheir of Kilpek, the Kilpek shield of a sword
+(_espek_). Tuck had a stabbing sword or "tuck." Bent bows were borne by
+Bowes, an arblast by Arblaster, arrows by Archer, birding-bolts or
+_bosouns_ by Bosun, the mangonel by Mangnall. The three lances of
+Amherst is probably a medieval coat; Leweston had battle-axes.
+
+A scythe was in the shield of Praers; Picot had picks; Bilsby a hammer
+or "beal"; Malet showed mallets. The chamberlain's key is in the shield
+of a Chamberlain, and the spenser's key in that of a Spenser. Porter
+bore the porter's bell, Boteler the butler's cup. Three-legged pots were
+borne by Monbocher. Crowns are for Coroun. Yarde had yard-wands;
+Bordoun a burdon or pilgrim's staff.
+
+Of horse-furniture we have the stirrups of Scudamore and Giffard, the
+horse-barnacles of Bernake, and the horse-shoes borne by many branches
+and tenants of the house of Ferrers.
+
+Of musical instruments there are pipes, trumps and harps for Pipe,
+Trumpington and Harpesfeld. Hunting horns are common among families
+bearing such names as Forester or Horne. Remarkable charges are the
+three organs of Grenville, who held of the house of Clare, the lords of
+Glamorgan.
+
+Combs play on the name of Tunstall, and gloves (_wauns_ or _gauns_) on
+that of Wauncy. Hose were borne by Hoese; buckles by a long list of
+families. But the most notable of the charges derived from clothing is
+the hanging sleeve familiar in the arms of Hastings, Conyers and Mansel.
+
+Chess-rooks, hardly to be distinguished from the _roc_ or _roquet_ at
+the head of a jousting-lance, were borne by Rokewode and by many more.
+Topcliffe had pegtops in his shield, while Ambesas had a cast of three
+dice which should each show the point of one, for "to throw ambesace" is
+an ancient phrase used of those who throw three aces.
+
+Although we are a sea-going people, there are few ships in our armory,
+most of these in the arms of sea-ports. Anchors are commoner.
+
+Castles and towers, bridges, portcullises and gates have all examples,
+and a minster-church was the curious charge borne by the ancient house
+of Musters of Kirklington.
+
+Letters of the alphabet are very rarely found in ancient armory; but
+three capital T's, in old English script, were borne by Toft of Cheshire
+in the 14th century. In the period of decadence whole words or
+sentences, commonly the names of military or naval victories, are often
+seen.
+
+_Blazonry._--An ill-service has been done to the students of armory by
+those who have pretended that the phrases in which the shields and their
+charges are described or blazoned must follow arbitrary laws devised by
+writers of the period of armorial decadence. One of these laws, and a
+mischievous one, asserts that no tincture should be named a second time
+in the blazon of one coat. Thus if gules be the hue of the field any
+charge of that colour must thereafter be styled "of the first." Obeying
+this law the blazoner of a shield of arms elaborately charged may find
+himself sadly involved among "of the first," "of the second," and "of
+the third." It is needless to say that no such law obtained among
+armorists of the middle ages. The only rule that demands obedience is
+that the brief description should convey to the reader a true knowledge
+of the arms described.
+
+The examples of blazonry given in that part of this article which deals
+with armorial charges will be more instructive to the student than any
+elaborated code of directions. It will be observed that the description
+of the field is first set down, the blazoner giving its plain tincture
+or describing it as burely, party, paly or barry, as powdered or sown
+with roses, crosslets or fleurs-de-lys. Then should follow the main or
+central charges, the lion or griffon dominating the field, the cheveron
+or the pale, the fesse, bend or bars, and next the subsidiary charges in
+the field beside the "ordinary" and those set upon it. Chiefs and
+quarters are blazoned after the field and its contents, and the border,
+commonly an added difference, is taken last of all. Where there are
+charges both upon and beside a bend, fesse or the like, a curious
+inversion is used by pedantic blazoners. The arms of Mr Samuel Pepys of
+the Admiralty Office would have been described in earlier times as
+"Sable a bend gold between two horses' heads razed silver, with three
+fleurs-de-lys sable on the bend." Modern heraldic writers would give the
+sentence as "Sable, on a bend or between two horses' heads erased
+argent, three fleurs-de-lys of the first." Nothing is gained by this
+inversion but the precious advantage of naming the bend but once. On the
+other side it may be said that, while the newer blazon couches itself in
+a form that seems to prepare for the naming of the fleurs-de-lys as the
+important element of the shield, the older form gives the fleurs-de-lys
+as a mere postscript, and rightly, seeing that charges in such a
+position are very commonly the last additions to a shield by way of
+difference. In like manner when a crest is described it is better to say
+"a lion's head out of a crown" than "out of a crown a lion's head." The
+first and last necessity in blazonry is lucidity, which is cheaply
+gained at the price of a few syllables repeated.
+
+_Modern Heraldry._--With the accession of the Tudors armory began a
+rapid decadence. Heraldry ceased to play its part in military affairs,
+the badges and banners under which the medieval noble's retinue came
+into the field were banished, and even the tournament in its later days
+became a renascence pageant which did not need the painted shield and
+armorial trappers. Treatises on armory had been rare in the days before
+the printing press, but even so early a writer as Nicholas Upton had
+shown himself as it were unconcerned with the heraldry that any man
+might see in the camp and the street. From the Book of St Albans onward
+the treatises on armory are informed with a pedantry which touches the
+point of crazy mysticism in such volumes as that of Sylvanus Morgan.
+Thus came into the books those long lists of "diminutions of
+ordinaries," the closets and escarpes, the endorses and ribands, the
+many scores of strange crosses and such wild fancies as the rule, based
+on an early German pedantry, that the tinctures in peers shields should
+be given the names of precious stones and those in the shields of
+sovereigns the names of planets. Blazon became cumbered with that
+vocabulary whose French of Stratford atte Bowe has driven serious
+students from a business which, to use a phrase as true as it is
+hackneyed, was at last "abandoned to the coachpainter and the
+undertaker."
+
+With the false genealogy came in the assumption or assigning of shields
+to which the new bearers had often no better claim than lay in a surname
+resembling that of the original owner. The ancient system of
+differencing arms disappeared. Now and again we see a second son obeying
+the book-rules and putting a crescent in his shield or a third son
+displaying a molet, but long before our own times the practice was
+disregarded, and the most remote kinsman of a gentle house displayed the
+"whole coat" of the head of his family.
+
+The art of armory had no better fate. An absurd rule current for some
+three hundred years has ordered that the helms of princes and knights
+should be painted full-faced and those of peers and gentlemen sidelong.
+Obeying this, the herald painters have displayed the crests of knights
+and princes as sideways upon a full-faced helm; the torse or wreath,
+instead of being twisted about the brow of the helm, has become a
+sausage-shaped bar see-sawing above the helm; and upon this will be
+balanced a crest which might puzzle the ancient craftsman to mould in
+his leather or parchment. A ship on a lee-shore with a thunderstorm
+lowering above its masts may stand as an example of such devices.
+"Tastes, of course, differ," wrote Dr Woodward, "but the writer can
+hardly think that the epergne given to Lieut.-General Smith by his
+friends at Bombay was a fitting ornament for a helmet." As with the
+crest, so with the shield. It became crowded with ill-balanced figures
+devised by those who despised and ignored the ancient examples whose
+painters had followed instinctively a simple and pleasant convention.
+Landscapes and seascapes, musical lines, military medals and corrugated
+boiler-flues have all made their appearance in the shield. Even as on
+the signs of public houses, written words have taken the place of
+figures, and the often-cited arms exemplified to the first Earl Nelson
+marked, it may be hoped, the high watermark of these distressing
+modernisms. Of late years, indeed, official armory in England has shown
+a disposition to follow the lessons of the archaeologist, although the
+recovery of medieval use has not yet been as successful as in Germany,
+where for a long generation a school of vigorous armorial art has
+flourished.
+
+_Officers of Arms._--Officers of arms, styled kings of arms, heralds and
+pursuivants, appear at an early period of the history of armory as the
+messengers in peace and war of princes and magnates. It is probable that
+from the first they bore in some wise their lord's arms as the badge of
+their office. In the 14th century we have heralds with the arms on a
+short mantle, witness the figure of the duke of Gelderland's herald
+painted in the _Armorial de Gelre_. The title of Blue Mantle
+pursuivant, as old as the reign of Edward III., suggests a like usage in
+England. When the tight-laced coat of arms went out of fashion among the
+knighthood the loose tabard of arms with its wide sleeves was at once
+taken in England as the armorial dress of both herald and cavalier, and
+the fashion of it has changed but little since those days. Clad in such
+a coat the herald was the image of his master and, although he himself
+was rarely chosen from any rank above that of the lesser gentry, his
+person, as a messenger, acquired an almost priestly sacredness. To
+injure or to insult him was to affront the coat that he wore.
+
+We hear of kings of arms in the royal household of the 13th century, and
+we may compare their title with those of such officers as the King of
+the Ribalds and the King of the Minstrels; but it is noteworthy that,
+even in modern warrants for heralds' patents, the custom of the reign of
+Edward III. is still cited as giving the necessary precedents for the
+officers' liveries. Officers of arms took their titles from their
+provinces or from the titles and badges of their masters. Thus we have
+Garter, Norroy and Clarenceux, March, Lancaster, Windsor, Leicester,
+Leopard, Falcon and Blanc Sanglier as officers attached to the royal
+house; Chandos, the herald of the great Sir John Chandos; Vert Eagle of
+the Nevill earls of Salisbury, Esperance and Crescent of the Percys of
+Northumberland. The spirit of Henry VII.'s legislation was against such
+usages in baronial houses, and in the age of the Tudors the last of the
+private heralds disappears.
+
+In England the royal officers of arms were made a corporation by Richard
+III. Nowadays the members of this corporation, known as the College of
+Arms or Heralds' College, are Garter Principal King of Arms, Clarenceux
+King of Arms South of Trent, Norroy King of Arms North of Trent, the
+heralds Windsor, Chester, Richmond, Somerset, York and Lancaster, and
+the pursuivants Rouge Croix, Bluemantle, Rouge Dragon and Portcullis.
+Another king of arms, not a member of this corporation, has been
+attached to the order of the Bath since the reign of George I., and an
+officer of arms, without a title, attends the order of St Michael and St
+George.
+
+There is no college or corporation of heralds in Scotland or Ireland. In
+Scotland "Lyon-king-of-arms," "Lyon rex armorum," or "Leo fecialis," so
+called from the lion on the royal shield, is the head of the office of
+arms. When first the dignity was constituted is not known, but Lyon was
+a prominent figure in the coronation of Robert II. in 1371. The office
+was at first, as in England, attached to the earl marshal, but it has
+long been conferred by patent under the great seal, and is held direct
+from the crown. Lyon is also king-of-arms for the national order of the
+Thistle. He is styled "Lord Lyon," and the office has always been held
+by men of family, and frequently by a peer who would appoint a "Lyon
+depute." He is supreme in all matters of heraldry in Scotland. Besides
+the "Lyon depute," there are the Scottish heralds, Albany, Ross and
+Rothesay, with precedence according to date of appointment; and the
+pursuivants, Carrick, March and Unicorn. Heralds and pursuivants are
+appointed by Lyon.
+
+In Ireland also there is but one king-of-arms, Ulster. The office was
+instituted by Edward VI. in 1553. The patent is given by Rymer, and
+refers to certain emoluments as "praedicto officio ... ab antiquo
+spectantibus." The allusion is to an Ireland king-of-arms mentioned in
+the reign of Richard II. and superseded by Ulster. Ulster holds office
+by patent, during pleasure; under him the Irish office of arms consists
+of two heralds, Cork and Dublin; and a pursuivant, Athlone. Ulster is
+king-of-arms to the order of St Patrick. He held visitations in parts of
+Ireland from 1568 to 1620, and these and other records, including all
+grants of arms from the institution of the office, are kept in the
+Birmingham Tower, Dublin.
+
+The armorial duties of the ancient heralds are not clearly defined. The
+patent of Edward IV., creating John Wrythe king of arms of England with
+the style of Garter, speaks vaguely of the care of the office of arms
+and those things which belong to that office. We know that the heralds
+had their part in the ordering of tournaments, wherein armory played its
+greatest part, and that their expert knowledge of arms gave them such
+duties as reckoning the noble slain on a battlefield. But it is not
+until the 15th century that we find the heralds following a recognized
+practice of granting or assigning arms, a practice on which John of
+Guildford comments, saying that such arms given by a herald are not of
+greater authority than those which a man has taken for himself. The Book
+of St Albans, put forth in 1486, speaking of arms granted by princes and
+lords, is careful to add that "armys bi a mannys proper auctorite take,
+if an other man have not borne theym afore, be of strength enogh,"
+repeating, as it seems, Nicholas Upton's opinion which, in this matter,
+does not conflict with the practice of his day. It is probable that the
+earlier grants of arms by heralds were made by reason of persons
+uncunning in armorial lore applying for a suitable device to experts in
+such matters--and that such setting forth of arms may have been
+practised even in the 14th century.
+
+The earliest known grants of arms in England by sovereigns or private
+persons are, as a rule, the conveyance of a right in a coat of arms
+already existing or of a differenced version of it. Thus in 1391 Thomas
+Grendale, a squire who had inherited through his grandmother the right
+in the shield of Beaumeys, granted his right in it to Sir William
+Moigne, a knight who seems to have acquired the whole or part of the
+Beaumeys manor in Sawtry. Under Henry VI. we have certain rare and
+curious letters of the crown granting nobility with arms "_in signum
+hujusmodi nobilitatis_" to certain individuals, some, and perhaps all of
+whom, were foreigners who may have asked for letters which followed a
+continental usage. After this time we have a regular series of grants by
+heralds who in later times began to assert that new arms, to be valid,
+must necessarily be derived from their assignments, although ancient use
+continued to be recognized.
+
+An account of the genealogical function of the heralds, so closely
+connected with their armorial duties will be found in the article
+GENEALOGY. In spite of the work of such distinguished men as Camden and
+Dugdale they gradually fell in public estimation until Blackstone could
+write of them that the marshalling of coat-armour had fallen into the
+hands of certain officers called heralds, who had allowed for lucre such
+falsity and confusion to creep into their records that even their common
+seal could no longer be received as evidence in any court of justice.
+From this low estate they rose again when the new archaeology included
+heraldry in its interests, and several antiquaries of repute have of
+late years worn the herald's tabard.
+
+In spite of the vast amount of material which the libraries catalogue
+under the head of "Heraldry," the subject has as yet received little
+attention from antiquaries working in the modern spirit. The old books
+are as remarkable for their detachment from the facts as for their
+folly. The work of Nicholas Upton, _De studio militari_, although
+written in the first half of the 15th century, shows, as has been
+already remarked, no attempt to reconcile the conceits of the author
+with the armorial practice which he must have seen about him on every
+side. Gerard Leigh, Bossewell, Ferne and Morgan carry on this bad
+tradition, each adding his own extravagances. The _Display of Heraldry_,
+first published in 1610 under the name of John Guillim, is more
+reasonable if not more learned, and in its various editions gives a
+valuable view of the decadent heraldry of the 17th century. In the 19th
+century many important essays on the subject are to be found in such
+magazines as the _Genealogist_, the _Herald and Genealogist_ and the
+_Ancestor_, while Planche's _Pursuivant of Arms_ contains some slight
+but suggestive work which attempts original enquiry. But Dr Woodward's
+_Treatise on Heraldry, British and Foreign_ (1896), in spite of many
+errors arising from the author's reliance upon unchecked material, must
+be counted the only scholarly book in English upon a matter which has
+engaged so many pens. Among foreign volumes may be cited those of
+Menestrier and Spener, and the vast compilation of the German
+Siebmacher. Notable ordinaries of arms are those of Papworth and
+Renesse, companions to the armorials of Burke and Rietstap. The student
+may be advised to turn his attention to all works dealing with the
+effigies, brasses and other monuments of the middle ages, to the ancient
+heraldic seals and to the heraldry of medieval architecture and
+ornament.     (O. Ba.)
+
+
+
+
+HERAT, a city and province of Afghanistan. The city of Herat lies in 340
+deg. 20' 30" N., and 62 deg. 11' 0" E., at an altitude of 2500 ft. above
+sea-level. Estimated pop. about 10,000. It is a city of great interest
+historically, geographically, politically and strategically, but in
+modern days it has quite lost its ancient commercial importance. From
+this central point great lines of communication radiate in all
+directions to Russian, British, Persian and Afghan territory. Sixty-six
+miles to the north lies the terminus of the Russian railway system; to
+the south-east is Kandahar (360 m.) and about 70 m. beyond that, New
+Chaman, the terminus of the British railway system. Southward lies
+Seistan (200 m.), and eastward Kabul (550 m.); while on the west four
+routes lead into Persia by Turbet to Meshed (215 m.), and by Birjend to
+Kerman (400 m.), to Yezd (500 m.), or to Isfahan (600 m.). The city
+forms a quadrangle of nearly 1 m. square (more accurately about 1600
+yds. by 1500 yds.); on the western, southern and eastern faces the line
+of defence is almost straight, the only projecting points being the
+gateways, but on the northern face the contour is broken by a double
+outwork, consisting of the _Ark_ or citadel, which is built of sun-dried
+brick on a high artificial mound within the enceinte, and a lower work
+at its foot, called the _Ark-i-nao_, or "new citadel," which extends 100
+yds. beyond the line of the city wall. That which distinguishes Herat
+from all other Oriental cities, and at the same time constitutes its
+main defence, is the stupendous character of the earthwork upon which
+the city wall is built. This earthwork averages 250 ft. in width at the
+base and about 50 ft. in height, and as it is crowned by a wall 25 ft.
+high and 14 ft. thick at the base, supported by about 150 semicircular
+towers, and is further protected by a ditch 45 ft. in width and 16 in
+depth, it presents an appearance of imposing strength. When the royal
+engineers of the Russo-Afghan Boundary Commission entered Herat in 1885
+they found its defences in various stages of disrepair. The gigantic
+rampart was unflanked, and the covered ways in the face of it subject to
+enfilade from end to end. The ditch was choked, the gates were
+unprotected; the tumbled mass of irregular mud buildings which
+constituted the city clung tightly to the walls; there were no gun
+emplacements. Outside, matters were almost worse than inside. To the
+north of the walls the site of old Herat was indicated by a vast mass of
+debris--mounds of bricks and pottery intersected by a network of shallow
+trenches, where the only semblance of a protective wall was the
+irregular line of the Tal-i-Bangi. South of the city was a vast area
+filled in with the graveyards of centuries. Here the trenches dug by the
+Persians during the last siege were still in a fair state of
+preservation; they were within a stone's-throw of the walls. Round about
+the city on all sides were similar opportunities for close approach;
+even the villages stretched out long irregular streets towards the city
+gates. To the north-west, beyond the Tal-i-Bangi, the magnificent
+outlines of the Mosalla filled a wide space with the glorious curves of
+dome and gateway and the stately grace of tapering minars, but the
+impressive beauty of this, by far the finest architectural structure in
+all Afghanistan, could not be permitted to weigh against the fact that
+the position occupied by this pile of solid buildings was fatal to the
+interests of effective defence. By the end of August 1885, when a
+political crisis had supervened between Great Britain and Russia, under
+the orders of the Amir the Mosalla was destroyed; but four minars
+standing at the corners of the wide plinth still remain to attest to the
+glorious proportions of the ancient structure, and to exhibit samples of
+that decorative tilework, which for intricate beauty of design and
+exquisite taste in the blending of colour still appeals to the memory as
+unique. At the same time the ancient graveyards round the city were
+swept smooth and levelled; obstructions were demolished, outworks
+constructed, and the defences generally renovated. Whether or no the
+strength of this bulwark of North-Western Afghanistan should ever be
+practically tested, the general result of the most recent investigations
+into the value of Herat as a strategic centre has been largely to
+modify the once widely-accepted view that the key to India lies within
+it. Abdur Rahman and his successor Habibullah steadfastly refused the
+offer of British engineers to strengthen its defences; and though the
+Afghans themselves have occasionally undertaken repairs, it is doubtful
+whether the old walls of Herat are maintained in a state of efficiency.
+
+The exact position of Herat, with reference to the Russian station of
+Kushk (now the terminus of a branch railway from Merv), is as follows:
+From Herat, a gentle ascent northwards for 3 m. reaches to the foot of
+the Koh-i-Mulla Khwaja, crossing the Jui Nao or "new" canal, which here
+divides the gravel-covered foot hills from the alluvial flats of the
+Hari Rud plain. The crest of the outer ridges of this subsidiary range
+is about 700 ft. above the city, at a distance of 4 m. from it. For 28
+m. farther the road winds first amongst the broken ridges of the
+Koh-i-Mulla Khwaja, then over the intervening _dasht_ into the southern
+spurs of the Paropamisus to the Ardewan pass. This is the highest point
+it attains, and it has risen about 2150 ft. from Herat. From the pass it
+drops over the gradually decreasing grades of a wide sweep of Chol
+(which here happens to be locally free from the intersecting network of
+narrow ravines which is generally a distinguishing feature of Turkestan
+loess formations) for a distance of 35 m. into the Russian railway
+station, falling some 2700 ft. from the crest of the Paropamisus. To the
+south the road from Herat to India through Kandahar lies across an open
+plain, which presents no great engineering difficulties, but is of a
+somewhat waterless and barren character.
+
+The city possesses five gates, two on the northern face, the Kutab-chak
+near the north-east angle of the wall, and the Malik at the re-entering
+angle of the Ark-i-nao; and three others in the centres of the remaining
+faces, the Irak gate on the west, the Kandahar gate on the south and the
+Kushk gate on the east face. Four streets called the _Chahar-suk_,
+running from the centre of each face, meet in the centre of the town in
+a small domed quadrangle. The principal street runs from the south or
+Kandahar gate to the market in front of the citadel, and is covered in
+with a vaulted roof through its entire length, the shops and buildings
+of this bazaar being much superior to those of the other streets, and
+the merchants' caravanserais, several of which are spacious and well
+built, all opening out on this great thoroughfare. Near the central
+quadrangle of the city is a vast reservoir of water, the dome of which
+is of bold and excellent proportions. The only other public building of
+any consequence in Herat is the great mosque or _Mesjid-i-Juma_, which
+comprises an area of 800 yds. square, and must have been a most
+magnificent structure. It was erected towards the close of the 15th
+century, during the reign of Shah Sultan Hussein of the family of Timur,
+and is said when perfect to have been 465 ft. long by 275 ft. wide, to
+have had 408 cupolas, 130 windows, 444 pillars and 6 entrances, and to
+have been adorned in the most magnificent manner with gilding, carving,
+precious mosaics and other elaborate and costly embellishments. Now,
+however, it is falling rapidly into ruin, the ever-changing provincial
+governors who administer Herat having neither the means nor the
+inclination to undertake the necessary repairs. Neither the palace of
+the Charbagh within the city wall, which was the residence of the
+British mission in 1840-1841, nor the royal quarters in the citadel
+deserve any special notice. At the present day, with the exception of
+the _Chahar-suk_, where there is always a certain amount of traffic, and
+where the great diversity of race and costume imparts much liveliness to
+the scene, Herat presents a very melancholy and desolate appearance. The
+mud houses in rear of the bazaars are for the most part uninhabited and
+in ruins, and even the burnt brick buildings are becoming everywhere
+dilapidated. The city is also one of the filthiest in the East, as there
+are no means of drainage or sewerage, and garbage of every description
+lies in heaps in the open streets.
+
+Along the slopes of the northern hills there is a space of some 4 m. in
+length by 3 m. in breadth, the surface of the plain, strewn over its
+whole extent with pieces of pottery and crumbling bricks, and also
+broken here and there by earthen mounds and ruined walls, the debris of
+palatial structures which at one time were the glory and wonder of the
+East. Of these structures indeed some have survived to the present day
+in a sufficiently perfect state to bear witness to the grandeur and
+beauty of the old architecture of Herat. Such was the mosque of the
+Mosalla before its destruction. Scarcely inferior in beauty of design
+and execution, though of more moderate dimensions, is the tomb of the
+saint Abdullah Ansari, in the same neighbourhood. This building, which
+was erected by Shah Rukh Mirza, the grandson of Timur, over 500 years
+ago, contains some exquisite specimens of sculpture in the best style of
+Oriental art. Adjoining the tomb also are numerous marble mausoleums,
+the sepulchres of princes of the house of Timur; and especially
+deserving of notice is a royal building tastefully decorated by an
+Italian artist named Geraldi, who was in the service of Shah Abbas the
+Great. The locality, which is further enlivened by gardens and running
+streams, is named _Gazir-gah_, and is a favourite resort of the Heratis.
+It is held indeed in high veneration by all classes, and the famous Dost
+Mahommed Khan is himself buried at the foot of the tomb of the saint.
+Two other royal palaces named respectively _Bagh-i-Shah_ and
+_Takht-i-Sefer_, are situated on the same rising ground somewhat farther
+to the west. The buildings are now in ruins, but the view from the
+pavilions, shaded by splendid plane trees on the terraced gardens formed
+on the slope of the mountain, is said to be very beautiful.
+
+The population of Herat and the neighbourhood is of a very mixed
+character. The original inhabitants of Ariana were no doubt of the Aryan
+family, and immediately cognate with the Persian race, but they were
+probably intermixed at a very early period with the Sacae and
+Massagetae, who seem to have held the mountains from Kabul to Herat from
+the first dawn of history, and to whom must be ascribed--rather than to
+an infusion of Turco-Tartaric blood introduced by the armies of Jenghiz
+and Timur--the peculiar broad features and flattish countenance which
+distinguish the inhabitants of Herat, Seistan and the eastern provinces
+of Persia from their countrymen farther to the west. Under the
+government of Herat, however, there are a very large number cf tribes,
+ruled over by separate and semi-independent chiefs, and belonging
+probably to different nationalities. The principal group of tribes is
+called the _Chahar-Aimak_, or "four races," the constituent parts of
+which, however, are variously stated by different authorities both as to
+strength and nomenclature. The Heratis are an agricultural race, and are
+not nearly so warlike as the Pathans from the neighbourhood of Kabul or
+Kandahar.
+
+
+  Environs of Herat.
+
+The long narrow valley of the Hari Rud, starting from the western slopes
+of the Koh-i-Baba, extends almost due west for 300 m. before it takes
+its great northern bend at Kuhsan, and passes northwards through the
+broken ridges of the Siah Bubuk (the western extremity of the range
+which we now call Paropamisus) towards Sarakhs. For the greater part of
+its length it drains the southern slopes only of the Paropamisus and the
+northern slopes of a parallel range called Koh-i-Safed. The Paropamisus
+forms the southern face of the Turkestan plateau, which contains the
+sources of the Murghab river; the northern face of the same plateau is
+defined by the Band-i-Turkestan. On the south of the plateau we find a
+similar succession of narrow valleys dividing parallel flexures, or
+anticlinals, formed under similar geological conditions to those which
+appear to be universally applicable to the Himalaya, the Hindu Kush, and
+the Indus frontier mountain systems. From one of these long lateral
+valleys the Hari Rud receives its principal tributary, which joins the
+main river below Obeh, 180 m. from its source; and it is this tributary
+(separated from the Hari Rud by the narrow ridges of the Koh-i-Safed and
+Band-i-Baian) that offers the high road from Herat to Kabul, and not the
+Hari Rud itself. From its source to Obeh the Hari Rud is a valley of
+sandy desolation. There are no glaciers near its sources, although they
+must have existed there in geologically recent times, but masses of
+melting snow annually give rise to floods, which rush through the midst
+of the valley in a turbid red stream, frequently rendering the river
+impassable and cutting off the crazy brick bridges at Herat and Tirpul.
+It is impossible, whilst watching the rolling, seething volume of
+flood-water which swirls westwards in April, to imagine the waste
+stretches of dry river-bed which in a few months' time (when every
+available drop of water is carried off for irrigation) will represent
+the Hari Rud. The soft shales or clays of the hills bounding the valley
+render these hills especially subject to the action of denudation, and
+the result, in rounded slopes and easily accessible crests, determines
+the nature of the easy tracks and passes which intersect them. At the
+same time, any excessive local rainfall is productive of difficulty and
+danger from the floods of liquid mud and loose boulders which sweep like
+an avalanche down the hill sides. The intense cold which usually
+accompanies these sudden northern blizzards of Herat and Turkestan is a
+further source of danger.
+
+From Obeh, 50 m. east of Herat, the cultivated portion of the valley
+commences, and it extends, with a width which varies from 8 to 16 m., to
+Kuhsan, 60 m. west of the city. But the great stretch of highly
+irrigated and valuable fruit-growing land, which appears to spread from
+the walls of Herat east and west as far as the eye can reach, and to
+sweep to the foot of the hills north and south with an endless array of
+vineyards and melon-beds, orchards and villages, varied with a brilliant
+patchwork of poppy growth brightening the width of green wheat-fields
+with splashes of scarlet and purple--all this is really comprised within
+a narrow area which does not extend beyond a ten-miles' radius from the
+city. The system of irrigation by which these agricultural results are
+attained is most elaborate. The despised Herati Tajik, in blue shirt and
+skull-cap, and with no instrument better than a three-cornered spade, is
+as skilled an agriculturist as is the Ghilzai engineer, but he cannot
+effect more than the limits of his water-supply will permit. He adopts
+the karez (or, Persian, _kanat_) system of underground irrigation, as
+does the Ghilzai, and brings every drop of water that he can find to the
+surface; but it cannot be said that he is more successful than the
+Ghilzai. It is the startling contrast of the Herati oasis with the vast
+expanse of comparative sterility that encloses it which has given such a
+fictitious value to the estimates of the material wealth of the valley
+of the Hari Rud.
+
+The valley about Herat includes a flat alluvial plain which might, for
+some miles on any side except the north, be speedily reduced to an
+impassable swamp by means of flood-water from the surrounding canals.
+Three miles to the south of the city the river flows from east to west,
+spanned by the Pal-i-Malun, a bridge possessing grand proportions, but
+which was in 1885 in a state of grievous disrepair and practically
+useless. East and west stretches the long vista of the Hari Rud. Due
+north the hills called the Koh-i-Mulla Khwaja appear to be close and
+dominating, but the foot of these hills is really about 3 m. distant
+from the city. This northern line of barren, broken sandstone hills is
+geographically no part of the Paropamisus range, from which it is
+separated by a stretch of sandy upland about 20 m. in width, called the
+Dasht-i-Hamdamao, or Dasht-i-Ardewan, formed by the talus or drift of
+the higher mountains, which, washed down through centuries of
+denudation, now forms long sweeping spurs of gravel and sand, scantily
+clothed with wormwood scrub and almost destitute of water. Through this
+stretch of _dasht_ the drainage from the main water-divide breaks
+downwards to the plains of Herat, where it is arrested and utilized for
+irrigation purposes. To the north-east of the city a very considerable
+valley has been formed between the Paropamisus and the subsidiary
+Koh-i-Mulla Khwaja range, called Korokh. Here there are one or two
+important villages and a well-known shrine marked by a group of pine
+trees which is unique in this part of Afghanistan. The valley leads to a
+group of passes across the Paropamisus into Turkestan, of which the
+Zirmast is perhaps the best known. The main water-divide between Herat
+and the Turkestan Chol (the loess district) has been called Paropamisus
+for want of any well-recognized general name. To the north of the Korokh
+valley it exhibits something of the formation of the Hindu Kush (of
+which it is apparently a geological extension), but as it passes
+westwards it becomes broken into fragments by processes of denudation,
+until it is hardly recognizable as a distinct range at all. The direct
+passes across it from Herat (the Baba and the Ardewan) wind amongst
+masses of disintegrating sandstone for some miles on each side of the
+dividing watershed, but farther west the rounded knolls of the
+rain-washed downs may be crossed almost at any point without difficulty.
+The names applied to this debris of a once formidable mountain system
+are essentially local and hardly distinctive. Beyond this range the sand
+and clay loess formation spreads downwards like a tumbled sea, hiding
+within the folds of its many-crested hills the twisting course of the
+Kushk and its tributaries.
+
+_History._--The origin of Herat is lost in antiquity. The name first
+appears in the list of primitive Zoroastrian settlements contained in
+the _Vendidad Sade_, where, however, like most of the names in the same
+list,--such as _Sughudu_ (Sogdiana), _Mouru_ (Merv or Margus),
+_Haraquiti_ (Arachotus or Arghand-ab), _Haetumant_ (Etymander or
+Helmund), and _Ragha_ (or Argha-stan),--it seems to apply to the river
+or river-basin, which was the special centre of population. This name of
+_Haroyu_, as it is written in the _Vendidad_, or _Hariwa_, as it appears
+in the inscriptions of Darius, is a cognate form with the Sanskrit
+_Sarayu_, which signifies "a river," and its resemblance to the ethnic
+title of Aryan (Sans. _Arya_) is purely fortuitous; though from the
+circumstance of the city being named "Aria Metropolis" by the Greeks,
+and being also recognized as the capital of Ariana, "the country of the
+Arians," the two forms have been frequently confounded. Of the
+foundation of Herat (or Heri, as it is still often called) nothing is
+known. We can only infer from the colossal character of the earth-works
+which surround the modern town, that, like the similar remains at Bost
+on the Helmund and at Ulan Robat of Arachosia, they belong to that
+period of Central-Asian history which preceded the rise of Achaemenian
+power, and which in Grecian romance is illustrated by the names of
+Bacchus, of Hercules and of Semiramis. To trace in any detail the
+fortunes of Herat would be to write the modern history of the East, for
+there has hardly been a dynastic revolution, or a foreign invasion, or a
+great civil war in Central Asia since the time of the prophet, in which
+Herat has not played a conspicuous part and suffered accordingly. Under
+the Tahirids of Khorasan, the Saffarids of Seistan and the Samanids of
+Bokhara, it flourished for some centuries in peace and progressive
+prosperity; but during the succeeding rule of the Ghaznevid kings its
+metropolitan character was for a time obscured by the celebrity of the
+neighbouring capital of Ghazni, until finally in the reign of Sultan
+Sanjar of Merv about 1157 the city was entirely destroyed by an
+irruption of the Ghuzz, the predecessors, in race as well as in habitat,
+of the modern Turkomans. Herat gradually recovered under the enlightened
+Ghorid kings, who were indeed natives of the province, though they
+preferred to hold their court amid their ancestral fortresses in the
+mountains of Ghor, so that at the time of Jenghiz Khan's invasion it
+equalled or even exceeded in populousness and wealth its sister capitals
+Of Balkh, Merv and Nishapur, the united strength of the four cities
+being estimated at three millions of inhabitants. But this Mogul
+visitation was most calamitous; forty persons, indeed, are stated to
+have alone survived the general massacre of 1232, and as a similar
+catastrophe overtook the city at the hands of Timur in 1398, when the
+local dynasty of Kurt, which had succeeded the Ghorides in eastern
+Khorasan, was put an end to, it is astonishing to find that early in the
+15th century Herat was again flourishing and populous, and the favoured
+seat of the art and literature of the East. It was indeed under the
+princes of the house of Timur that most of the noble buildings were
+erected, of which the remains still excite our admiration at Herat,
+while all the great historical works relative to Asia, such as the
+_Rozetes-Sefa_, the _Habib-es-seir_, _Hafiz Abru's Tarikh_, the _Matla'
+a-es-Sa'adin_, &c., date from the same place and the same age. Four
+times was Herat sacked by Turkomans and Usbegs during the centuries
+which intervened between the Timuride princes and the rise of the Afghan
+power, and it has never in modern times attained to anything like its
+old importance. Afghan tribes, who had originally dwelt far to the
+east, were first settled at Herat by Nadir Shah, and from that time they
+have monopolized the government and formed the dominant element in the
+population. It will be needless to trace the revolutions and
+counter-revolutions which have followed each other in quick succession
+at Herat since Ahmad Shah Durani founded the Afghan monarchy about the
+middle of the 18th century. Let it suffice to say that Herat has been
+throughout the seat of an Afghan government, sometimes in subordination
+to Kabul and sometimes independent. Persia indeed for many years showed
+a strong disposition to reassert the supremacy over Herat which was
+exercised by the Safawid kings, but great Britain, disapproving of the
+advance of Persia towards the Indian frontier, steadily resisted the
+encroachment; and, indeed, after helping the Heratis to beat off the
+attack of the Persian army in 1838, the British at length compelled the
+shah in 1857 at the close of his war with them to sign a treaty
+recognizing the further independence of the place, and pledging Persia
+against any further interference with the Afghans. In 1863 Herat, which
+for fifty years previously had been independent of Kabul, was
+incorporated by Dost Mahomed Khan in the Afghan monarchy, and the Amir,
+Habibullah of Afghanistan, like his father Abdur Rahman before him,
+remained Amir of Herat and Kandahar, as well as Kabul.
+
+  See Holdich, _Indian Borderland_ (1901); C. E. Yate, _Northern
+  Afghanistan_ (1888).     (T. H. H.*)
+
+
+
+
+HERAULT, a department in the south of France, formed from Lower
+Languedoc. Pop. (1906) 482,779. Area, 2403 sq. m. It is bounded N.E. by
+Gard, N.W. by Aveyron and Tarn, and S. by Aude and the Golfe du Lion.
+The southern prolongation of the Cevennes mountains occupies the
+north-western zone of the department, the highest point being about 4250
+ft. above the sea-level. South-east of this range comes a region of
+hills and plateaus decreasing in height as they approach the sea, from
+which they are separated by the rich plains at the mouth of the Orb and
+the Herault and, farther to the north-east, by the line of
+intercommunicating salt lagoons (Etang de Thau, &c.) which fringes the
+coast. The region to the north-west of Montpellier comprises an
+extensive tract of country known as the Garrigues, a district of dry
+limestone plateaus and hills, which stretches into the neighbouring
+department of Gard. The mountains of the north-west form the watershed
+between the Atlantic and Mediterranean basins. From them flow the
+Herault, its tributary the Lergue, and more to the south-west the Livron
+and the Orb, which are the main rivers of the department. Dry summers,
+varied by occasional violent storms, are characteristic of Herault. The
+climate is naturally colder and more rainy in the mountains.
+
+A third of the surface of Herault is planted with vines, which are the
+chief source of agricultural wealth, the department ranking first in
+France with respect to the area of its vineyards; the red wines of St
+Georges, Cazouls-les-Beziers, Picpoul and Maranssan, and the white wines
+of Frontignan and Lunel (pop. in 1906, 6769) are held in high
+estimation. The area given over to arable land and pasture is small in
+extent. Fruit trees of various kinds, but especially mulberries, olives
+and chestnuts flourish. The rearing of silk-worms is largely carried on.
+Considerable numbers of sheep are raised, their milk being utilized for
+the preparation of Roquefort cheeses. The mineral wealth of the
+department is considerable. There are mines of lignite, coal in the
+vicinity of Graissessac, iron, calamine and copper, and quarries of
+building-stone, limestone, gypsum, &c.; the marshes supply salt. Mineral
+springs are numerous, the most important being those of
+Lamalon-les-Bains and Balaruc-les-Bains. The chief manufactures are
+woollen and cotton cloth, especially for military use, silk (Ganges),
+casks, soap and fertilizing stuffs. There are also oil-works,
+distilleries (Beziers) and tanneries (Bedarieux). Fishing is an
+important industry. Cette and Meze (pop. in 1906, 5574) are the chief
+ports. Herault exports salt fish, wine, liqueurs, timber, salt,
+building-material, &c. It imports cattle, skins, wool, cereals,
+vegetables, coal and other commodities. The railway lines belong chiefly
+to the Southern and Paris-Lyon-Mediterranee companies. The Canal du
+Midi traverses the south of the department for 44 m. and terminates at
+Cette. The Canal des Etangs traverses the department for about 20 m.,
+forming part of a line of communication between Cette and Aigues-Mortes.
+Montpellier, the capital, is the seat of a bishopric of the province of
+Avignon, and of a court of appeal and centre of an academic (educational
+division). The department belongs to the 16th military region, which has
+its headquarters at Montpellier. It is divided into the arrondissements
+of Montpellier, Beziers, Lodeve and St Pons, with 36 cantons and 340
+communes.
+
+Montpellier, Beziers, Lodeve, Bedarieux, Cette, Agde, Pezenas,
+Lamalou-les-Bains and Clermont-l'Herault are the more noteworthy towns
+and receive separate treatment. Among the other interesting places in
+the department are St Pons, with a church of the 12th century, once a
+cathedral, Villemagne, which has several old houses and two ruined
+churches, one of the 13th, the other of the 14th century; Pignan, a
+medieval town, near which is the interesting abbey-church of Vignogoul
+in the early Gothic style; and St Guilhem-le-Desert, which has a church
+of the 11th and 12th centuries. Maguelonne, which in the 6th century
+became the seat of a bishopric transferred to Montpellier in 1536, has a
+cathedral of the 12th century.
+
+
+
+
+HERAULT DE SECHELLES, MARIE JEAN (1759-1794), French politician, was
+born at Paris on the 20th of September 1759, of a noble family connected
+with those of Contades and Polignac. He made his debut as a lawyer at
+the Chatelet, and delivered some very successful speeches; later he was
+_avocat general_ to the parlement of Paris. His legal occupations did
+not prevent him from devoting himself also to literature, and after 1789
+he published an account of a visit he had made to the comte de Buffon at
+Montbard. Herault's account is marked by a delicate irony, and it has
+with some justice been called a masterpiece of interviewing, before the
+day of journalists. Herault, who was an ardent champion of the
+Revolution, took part in the taking of the Bastille, and on the 8th of
+December 1789 was appointed judge of the court of the first
+arrondissement in the department of Paris. From the end of January to
+April 1791 Herault was absent on a mission in Alsace, where he had been
+sent to restore order. On his return he was appointed _commissaire du
+roi_ in the court of cassation. He was elected as a deputy for Paris to
+the Legislative Assembly, where he gravitated more and more towards the
+extreme left; he was a member of several committees, and, when a member
+of the diplomatic committee, presented a famous report demanding that
+the nation should be declared to be in danger (11th June 1793). After
+the revolution of the 10th of August 1792 (see FRENCH REVOLUTION), he
+co-operated with Danton, one of the organizers of this rising, and on
+the 2nd of September was appointed president of the Legislative
+Assembly. He was a deputy to the National Convention for the department
+of Seine-et-Oise, and was sent on a mission to organize the new
+department of Mont Blanc. He was thus absent during the trial of Louis
+XVI., but he made it known that he approved of the condemnation of the
+king, and would probably have voted for the death penalty. On his return
+to Paris, Herault was several times president of the Convention, notably
+on the 2nd of June 1793, the occasion of the attack on the Girondins,
+and on the 10th of August 1793, on which the passing of the new
+constitution was celebrated. On this occasion Herault, as president of
+the Convention, had to make several speeches. It was he, moreover, who,
+on the rejection of the projected constitution drawn up by Condorcet,
+was entrusted with the task of preparing a fresh one; this work he
+performed within a few days, and his plan, which, however, differed very
+little from that of Condorcet, became the Constitution of 1793, which
+was passed, but never applied. As a member of the Committee of Public
+Safety, it was with diplomacy that Herault was chiefly concerned, and
+from October to December 1793 he was employed on a diplomatic and
+military mission in Alsace. But this mission helped to make him an
+object of suspicion to the other members of the Committee of Public
+Safety, and especially to Robespierre, who as a deist and a fanatical
+follower of the ideas of Rousseau, hated Herault, the follower of the
+naturalism of Diderot. He was accused of treason, and after being tried
+before the revolutionary tribunal, was condemned at the same time as
+Danton, and executed on the 16th Germinal in the year II. (5th April
+1794). He was handsome, elegant and a lover of pleasure, and was one of
+the most individual figures of the Revolution.
+
+  See the _Voyage a Montbard_, published by A. Aulard (Paris, 1890); A.
+  Aulard, _Les Orateurs de la Legislative et de la Convention_, 2nd ed.
+  (Paris, 1906); J. Claretie, _Camille Desmoulins ... etude sur les
+  Dantonistes_ (Paris, 1875); Dr Robinet, _Le Proces des Dantonistes_
+  (Paris, 1879); "Herault de Sechelles, sa premiere mission en Alsace"
+  in the review _La Revolution Francaise_, tome 22; E. Daudet, _Le Roman
+  d'un conventionnel. Herault de Sechelles et les dames de Bellegarde_
+  (1904). His _Oeuvres litteraires_ were edited (Paris, 1907) by E.
+  Dard.     (R. A.*)
+
+
+
+
+HERB (Lat. _herba_, grass, food for cattle, generally taken to represent
+the Old Lat. _forbea_, Gr. [Greek: phorbe], pasture, [Greek: pherbein],
+to feed, Sans. _bharb_, to eat), in botany, the name given to those
+plants whose stem or stalk dies entirely or down to the root each year,
+and does not become, as in shrubs or trees, woody or permanent, such
+plants are also called "herbaceous." The term "herb" is also used of
+those herbaceous plants, which possess certain properties, and are used
+for medicinal purposes, for flavouring or garnishing in cooking, and
+also for perfumes (see HORTICULTURE and PHARMACOLOGY).
+
+
+
+
+HERBARIUM, or HORTUS SICCUS, a collection of plants so dried and
+preserved as to illustrate as far as possible their characters. Since
+the same plant, owing to peculiarities of climate, soil and situation,
+degree of exposure to light and other influences may vary greatly
+according to the locality in which it occurs, it is only by gathering
+together for comparison and study a large series of examples of each
+species that the flora of different regions can be satisfactorily
+represented. Even in the best equipped botanical garden it is impossible
+to have, at one and the same time, more than a very small percentage of
+the representatives of the flora of any given region or of any large
+group of plants. Hence a good herbarium forms an indispensable part of a
+botanical museum or institution. There are large herbaria at the British
+Museum and at the Royal Gardens, Kew, and smaller collections at the
+botanical institutions at the principal British universities. The
+original herbarium of Linnaeus is in the possession of the Linnaean
+Society of London. It was purchased from the widow of Linnaeus by Dr
+(afterwards Sir) J. E. Smith, one of the founders of the Linnaean
+Society, and after his death was purchased by the society. Herbaria are
+also associated with the more important botanic gardens and museums in
+other countries. The value of a herbarium is much enhanced by the
+possession of "types," that is, the original specimens on the study of
+which a species was founded. Thus the herbarium at the British Museum,
+which is especially rich in the earlier collections made in the 18th and
+early 19th centuries, contains the types of many species founded by the
+earlier workers in botany. It is also rich in the types of Australian
+plants in the collections of Sir Joseph Banks and Robert Brown, and
+contains in addition many valuable modern collections. The Kew
+herbarium, founded by Sir William Hooker and greatly increased by his
+son Sir Joseph Hooker, is also very rich in types, especially those of
+plants described in the _Flora of British India_ and various colonial
+floras. The collection of Dillenius is deposited at Oxford, and that of
+Professor W. H. Harvey at Trinity College, Dublin. The collections of
+Antoine Laurent de Jussieu, his son Adrien, and of Auguste de St
+Hilaire, are included in the large herbarium of the Jardin des Plantes
+at Paris, and in the same city is the extensive private collection of Dr
+Ernest Cosson. At Geneva are three large collections--Augustin Pyrame de
+Candolle's, containing the typical specimens of the _Prodromus_, a large
+series of monographs of the families of flowering plants, Benjamin
+Delessert's fine series at the Botanic Garden, and the Boissier
+Herbarium, which is rich in Mediterranean and Oriental plants. The
+university of Gottingen has had bequeathed to it the largest collection
+(exceeding 40,000 specimens) ever made by a single individual--that of
+Professor Grisebach. At the herbarium in Brussels are the specimens
+obtained by the traveller Karl Friedrich Philipp von Martius, the
+majority of which formed the groundwork of his _Flora Brasiliensis_. The
+Berlin herbarium is especially rich in more recent collections, and
+other national herbaria sufficiently extensive to subserve the
+requirements of the systematic botanist exist at St Petersburg, Vienna,
+Leiden, Stockholm, Upsala, Copenhagen and Florence. Of those in the
+United States of America, the chief, formed by Asa Gray, is the property
+of Harvard university; there is also a large one at the New York
+Botanical Garden. The herbarium at Melbourne, Australia, under Baron
+Muller, attained large proportions; and that of the Botanical Garden of
+Calcutta is noteworthy as the repository of numerous specimens described
+by writers on Indian botany.
+
+Specimens of flowering plants and vascular cryptograms are generally
+mounted on sheets of stout smooth paper, of uniform quality; the size
+adopted at Kew is 17 in. long by 11 in. broad, that at the British
+Museum is slightly larger; the palms and their allies, however, and some
+ferns, require a larger size. The tough but flexible coarse grey paper
+(German _Fliesspapier_), upon which on the Continent specimens are
+commonly fixed by gummed strips of the same, is less hygroscopic than
+ordinary cartridge paper, but has the disadvantage of affording
+harbourage in the inequalities of its surface to a minute insect,
+_Atropos pulsatoria_, which commits great havoc in damp specimens, and
+which, even if noticed, cannot be dislodged without difficulty. The
+majority of plant specimens are most suitably fastened on paper by a
+mixture of equal parts of gum tragacanth and gum arabic made into a
+thick paste with water. Rigid leathery leaves are fixed by means of
+glue, or, if they present too smooth a surface, by stitching at their
+edges. Where, as in private herbaria, the specimens are not liable to be
+handled with great frequency, a stitch here and there round the stem,
+tied at the back of the sheet, or slips of paper passed over the stem
+through two slits in the sheet and attached with gum to its back, or
+simply strips of gummed paper laid across the stem, may be resorted to.
+
+To preserve from insects, the plants, after mounting, are often brushed
+over with a liquid formed by the solution of 1/4 lb. each of corrosive
+sublimate and carbolic acid in 1 gallon of methylated spirits. They are
+then laid out to dry on shelves made of a network of stout galvanized
+iron wire. The use of corrosive sublimate is not, however, recommended,
+as it forms on drying a fine powder which when the plants are handled
+will rub off and, being carried into the air, may prove injurious to
+workers. If the plants are subjected to some process, before mounting,
+by which injurious organisms are destroyed, such as exposure in a closed
+chamber to vapour of carbon bisulphide for some hours, the presence of
+pieces of camphor or naphthalene in the cabinet will be found a
+sufficient preservative. After mounting are written--usually in the
+right-hand corner of the sheet, or on a label there affixed--the
+designation of each species, the date and place of gathering, and the
+name of the collector. Other particulars as to habit, local abundance,
+soil and claim to be indigenous may be written on the back of the sheet
+or on a slip of writing paper attached to its edge. It is convenient to
+place in a small envelope gummed to an upper corner of the sheet any
+flowers, seeds or leaves needed for dissection or microscopical
+examination, especially where from the fixation of the specimen it is
+impossible to examine the leaves for oil-receptacles and where seed is
+apt to escape from ripe capsules and be lost. The addition of a careful
+dissection of a flower greatly increases the value of the specimen. To
+ensure that all shall lie evenly in the herbarium the plants should be
+made to occupy as far as possible alternately the right and left sides
+of their respective sheets. The species of each genus are then arranged
+either systematically or alphabetically in separate covers of stout,
+usually light brown paper, or, if the genus be large, in several covers
+with the name of the genus clearly indicated in the lower left-hand
+corner of each, and opposite it the names or reference numbers of the
+species. Undetermined species are relegated to the end of the genus.
+Thus prepared, the specimens are placed on shelves or movable trays, at
+intervals of about 6 in., in an air-tight cupboard, on the inner side of
+the door of which, as a special protection against insects, is suspended
+a muslin bag containing a piece of camphor.
+
+The systematic arrangement varies in different herbaria. In the great
+British herbaria the orders and genera of flowering plants are usually
+arranged according to Bentham and Hooker's _Genera plantarum_; the
+species generally follow the arrangement of the most recent complete
+monograph of the family. In non-flowering plants the works usually
+followed are for ferns, Hooker and Baker's _Synopsis filicum_; for
+mosses, Muller's _Synopsis muscorum frondosorum_, Jaeger & Sauerbeck's
+_Genera et species muscorum_, and Engler & Prantl's _Pflanzenfamilien_;
+for algae, de Toni's _Sylloge algarum_; for hepaticae, Gottsche,
+Lindenberg and Nees ab Esenbeck's _Synopsis hepaticarum_, supplemented
+by Stephani's _Species hepaticarum_; for fungi, Saccardo's _Sylloge
+fungorum_, and for mycetozoa Lister's monograph of the group. For the
+members of large genera, e.g. _Piper_ and _Ficus_, since the number of
+cosmopolitan or very widely distributed species is comparatively few, a
+geographical grouping is found specially convenient by those who are
+constantly receiving parcels of plants from known foreign sources. The
+ordinary systematic arrangement possesses the great advantage, in the
+case of large genera, of readily indicating the affinities of any
+particular specimen with the forms most nearly allied to it. Instead of
+keeping a catalogue of the species contained in the herbarium, which,
+owing to the constant additions, would be almost impossible, such
+species are usually ticked off with a pencil in the systematic work
+which is followed in arranging them, so that by reference to this work
+it is possible to see at a glance whether the specimen sought is in the
+herbarium and what species are still wanted.
+
+  Specimens intended for the herbarium should be collected when possible
+  in dry weather, care being taken to select plants or portions of
+  plants in sufficient number and of a size adequate to illustrate all
+  the characteristic features of the species. When the root-leaves and
+  roots present any peculiarities, they should invariably be collected,
+  but the roots should be dried separately in an oven at a moderate
+  heat. Roots and fruits too bulky to be placed on the sheet of the
+  herbarium may be conveniently arranged in glass-covered boxes
+  contained in drawers. The best and most effective mode of drying
+  specimens is learned only by experience, different species requiring
+  special treatment according to their several peculiarities. The chief
+  points to be attended to are to have a plentiful supply of botanical
+  drying paper, so as to be able to use about six sheets for each
+  specimen; to change the paper at intervals of six to twelve hours; to
+  avoid contact of one leaf or flower with another; and to increase the
+  pressure applied only in proportion to the dryness of the specimen. To
+  preserve the colour of flowers pledgets of cotton wool, which prevent
+  bruising, should be introduced between them, as also, if the stamens
+  are thick and succulent, as in _Digitalis_, between these and the
+  corolla. A flower dissected and gummed on the sheets will often retain
+  the colour which it is impossible to preserve in a crowded
+  inflorescence. A flat sheet of lead or some other suitable weight
+  should be laid upon the top of the pile of specimens, so as to keep up
+  a continuous pressure. Succulent specimens, as many of the
+  _Orchidaceae_ and sedums and various other Crassulaceous plants,
+  require to be killed by immersion in boiling water before being placed
+  in drying paper, or, instead of becoming dry, they will grow between
+  the sheets. When, as with some plants like _Verbascum_, the thick hard
+  stems are liable to cause the leaves to wrinkle in drying by removing
+  the pressure from them, small pieces of bibulous paper or cotton wool
+  may be placed upon the leaves near their point of attachment to the
+  stem. When a number of specimens have to be submitted to pressure,
+  ventilation is secured by means of frames corresponding in size to the
+  drying paper, and composed of strips of wood or wires laid across each
+  other so as to form a kind of network. Another mode of drying is to
+  keep the specimens in a box of dry sand in a warm place for ten or
+  twelve hours, and then press them in drying paper. A third method
+  consists in placing the specimen within bibulous paper, and enclosing
+  the whole between two plates of coarsely perforated zinc supported in
+  a wooden frame. The zinc plates are then drawn close together by means
+  of straps, and suspended before a fire until the drying is effected.
+  By the last two methods the colour of the flowers may be well
+  preserved. When the leaves are finely divided, as in _Conium_, much
+  trouble will be experienced in lifting a half-dried specimen from one
+  paper to another; but the plant may be placed in a sheet of thin
+  blotting paper, and the sheet containing the plant, instead of the
+  plant itself, can then be moved. Thin straw-coloured paper, such as is
+  used for biscuit bags, may be conveniently employed by travellers
+  unable to carry a quantity of bibulous paper. It offers the advantage
+  of fitting closely to thick-stemmed specimens and of rapidly drying. A
+  light but strong portfolio, to which pressure by means of straps can
+  be applied, and a few quires of this paper, if the paper be changed
+  night and morning, will be usually sufficient to dry all except very
+  succulent plants. When a specimen is too large for one sheet, and it
+  is necessary, in order to show its habit, &c., to dry the whole of it,
+  it may be divided into two or three portions, and each placed on a
+  separate sheet for drying. Specimens may be judged to be dry when they
+  no longer cause a cold sensation when applied to the cheek, or assume
+  a rigidity not evident in the earlier stages of preparation.
+
+  Each class of flowerless or cryptogamic plants requires special
+  treatment for the herbarium.
+
+  Marine algae are usually mounted on tough smooth white cartridge paper
+  in the following manner. Growing specimens of good colour and in fruit
+  are if possible selected, and cleansed as much as practicable from
+  adhering foreign particles, either in the sea or a rocky pool. Some
+  species rapidly change colour, and cause the decay of any others with
+  which they come in contact. This is especially the case with the
+  _Ectocarpi_, _Desmarestiae_, and a few others, which should therefore
+  be brought home in a separate vessel. In mounting, the specimen is
+  floated out in a flat white dish containing sea-water, so that foreign
+  matter may be detected, and a piece of paper of suitable size is
+  placed under it, supported either by the fingers of the left hand or
+  by a palette. It is then pruned, in order clearly to show the mode of
+  branching, and is spread out as naturally as possible with the right
+  hand. For this purpose a bone knitting-needle answers well for the
+  coarse species, and a camel's-hair pencil for the more delicate ones.
+  The paper with the specimen is then carefully removed from the water
+  by sliding it over the edge of the dish so as to drain it as much as
+  possible. If during this process part of the fronds run together, the
+  beauty of the specimen may be restored by dipping the edge into water,
+  so as to float out the part and allow it to subside naturally on the
+  paper. The paper, with the specimen upwards, is then laid on bibulous
+  paper for a few minutes to absorb as much as possible of the
+  superfluous moisture. When freed from excess of water it is laid on a
+  sheet of thick white blotting-paper, and a piece of smooth washed
+  calico is placed upon it (unwashed calico, on account of its "facing,"
+  adheres to the sea-weed). Another sheet of blotting-paper is then laid
+  over it; and, a number of similar specimens being formed into a pile,
+  the whole is submitted to pressure, the paper being changed every hour
+  or two at first. The pressure is increased, and the papers are changed
+  less frequently as the specimens become dry, which usually takes place
+  in thirty-six hours. Some species, especially those of a thick or
+  leathery texture, contract so much in drying that without strong
+  pressure the edges of the paper become puckered. Other species of a
+  gelatinous nature, like _Nemalion_ and _Dudresnaya_, may be allowed to
+  dry on the paper, and need not be submitted to pressure until they no
+  longer present a gelatinous appearance. Large coarse algae, such, for
+  instance, as the _Fucaceae_ and _Laminariae_, do not readily adhere to
+  paper, and require soaking for some time in fresh water before being
+  pressed. The less robust species, such as _Sphacelaria scoparia_,
+  which do not adhere well to paper, may be made to do so by brushing
+  them over either with milk carefully skimmed, or with a liquid formed
+  by placing isinglass (1/4 oz.) and water (1(1/2) oz.) in a wide-mouthed
+  bottle, and the bottle in a small glue-pot or saucepan containing cold
+  water, heating until solution is effected, and then adding 1 oz. of
+  rectified spirits of wine; the whole is next stirred together, and
+  when cold is kept in a stoppered bottle. For use, the mixture is
+  warmed to render it fluid, and applied by means of a camel's hair
+  brush to the under side of the specimen, which is then laid neatly on
+  paper. For the more delicate species, such as the _Callithamnia_ and
+  _Ectocarpi_, it is an excellent plan to place a small fruiting
+  fragment, carefully floated out in water, on a slip of mica of the
+  size of an ordinary microscopical slide, and allow it to dry. The
+  plant can then be at any time examined under the microscope without
+  injuring the mounted specimen. Many of the fresh-water algae which
+  form a mere crust, such as _Palmella cruenta_, may be placed in a
+  vessel of water, where after a time they float like a scum, the earthy
+  matter settling down to the bottom, and may then be mounted by
+  slipping a piece of mica under them and allowing it to dry.
+  _Oscillatoriae_ may be mounted by laying a portion on a silver coin
+  placed on a piece of paper in a plate, and pouring in water until the
+  edge of the coin is just covered. The alga by its own peculiar
+  movement will soon form a radiating circle, perfectly free from dirt,
+  around the coin, which may then be removed. There is considerable
+  difficulty in removing mounted specimens of algae from paper, and
+  therefore a small portion preserved on mica should accompany each
+  specimen, enclosed for safety in a small envelope fastened at one
+  corner of the sheet of paper. Filamentous diatoms may be mounted like
+  ordinary sea-weeds, and, as well as all parasitic algae, should
+  whenever possible be allowed to remain attached to a portion of the
+  alga on which they grow, some species being almost always found
+  parasitical on particular plants. Ordinary diatoms and desmids may be
+  mounted on mica, as above described, by putting a portion in a vessel
+  of water and exposing it to sunlight, when they rise to the surface,
+  and may be thus removed comparatively free from dirt or impurity.
+  Owing to their want of adhesiveness, they are, however, usually
+  mounted on glass as microscopic slides, either in glycerin jelly,
+  Canada balsam or some other suitable medium.
+
+  Lichens are generally mounted on sheets of paper of the ordinary size,
+  several specimens from different localities being laid upon one sheet,
+  each specimen having been first placed on a small square of paper
+  which is gummed on the sheet, and which has the locality, date, name
+  of collector, &c., written upon it. This mode has some disadvantages
+  attending it; such sheets are difficult to handle; the crustaceous
+  species are liable to have their surfaces rubbed; the foliaceous
+  species become so compressed as to lose their characteristic
+  appearance; and the spaces between the sheets caused by the thickness
+  of the specimen permit the entrance of dust. A plan which has been
+  found to answer well is to arrange them in cardboard boxes, either
+  with glass tops or in sliding covers, in drawers--the name being
+  placed outside each box and the specimens gummed into the boxes.
+  Lichens for the herbarium should, whenever possible, be sought for on
+  a slaty or laminated rock, so as to procure them on flat thin pieces
+  of the same, suitable for mounting. Specimens on the bark of trees
+  require pressure until the bark is dry, lest they become curled; and
+  those growing on sand or friable soil, such as _Coniocybe furfuracea_,
+  should be laid carefully on a layer of gum in the box in which they
+  are intended to be kept. Many lichens, such as the _Verrucariae_ and
+  _Collemaceae_, are found in the best condition during the winter
+  months. In mounting collemas it is advisable to let the specimen
+  become dry and hard, and then to separate a portion from adherent
+  mosses, earth, &c., and mount it separately so as to show the
+  branching of the thallus. _Pertusariae_ should be represented by both
+  fruiting and sorediate specimens.
+
+  The larger species of fungi, such as the _Agaricini_ and _Polyporei_,
+  &c., are prepared for the herbarium by cutting a slice out of the
+  centre of the plant so as to show the outline of the cap or pileus,
+  the attachment of the gills, and the character of the interior of the
+  stem. The remaining portions of the pileus are then lightly pressed,
+  as well as the central slices, between bibulous paper until dry, and
+  the whole is then "poisoned," and gummed on a sheet of paper in such a
+  manner as to show the under surface of the one and the upper surface
+  of the other half of the pileus on the same sheet. A "map" of the
+  spores should be taken by separating a pileus and placing it flat on a
+  piece of thin paper for a few hours when the spores will fall and
+  leave a nature print of the arrangement of the gills which may be
+  fixed by gumming the other side of the paper. As it is impossible to
+  preserve the natural colours of fungi, the specimens should, whenever
+  possible, be accompanied by a coloured drawing of the plant.
+  Microscopic fungi are usually preserved in envelopes, or simply
+  attached to sheets of paper or mounted as microscopic slides. Those
+  fungi which are of a dusty nature, and the _Myxomycetes_ or
+  _Mycetozoa_ may, like the lichens, be preserved in small boxes and
+  arranged in drawers. Fungi under any circumstances form the least
+  satisfactory portion of an herbarium.
+
+  Mosses when growing in tufts should be gathered just before the
+  capsules have become brown, divided into small flat portions, and
+  pressed lightly in drying paper. During this process the capsules
+  ripen, and are thus obtained in a perfect state. They are then
+  preserved in envelopes attached to a sheet of paper of the ordinary
+  size, a single perfect specimen being washed, and spread out under the
+  envelope so as to show the habit of the plant. For attaching it to the
+  paper a strong mucilage of gum tragacanth, containing an eighth of its
+  weight of spirit of wine, answers best. If not preserved in an
+  envelope the calyptra and operculum are very apt to fall off and
+  become lost. Scale-mosses are mounted in the same way, or may be
+  floated out in water like sea-weeds, and dried in white blotting paper
+  under strong pressure before gumming on paper, but are best mounted as
+  microscopic slides, care being taken to show the stipules. The
+  specimens should be collected when the capsules are just appearing
+  above or in the colesule or calyx; if kept in a damp saucer they soon
+  arrive at maturity, and can then be mounted in better condition, the
+  fruit-stalks being too fragile to bear carriage in a botanical tin
+  case without injury.
+
+  Of the _Characeae_ many are so exceedingly brittle that it is best to
+  float them out like sea-weeds, except the prickly species, which may
+  be carefully laid out on bibulous paper, and when dry fastened on
+  sheets of white paper by means of gummed strips. Care should be taken
+  in collecting charae to secure, in the case of dioecious species,
+  specimens of both forms, and also to get when possible the roots of
+  those species on which the small granular starchy bodies or gemmae are
+  found, as in _C. fragifera_. Portions of the fructification may be
+  preserved in small envelopes attached to the sheets.
+
+
+
+
+HERBART, JOHANN FRIEDRICH (1776-1841), German philosopher and
+educationist, was born at Oldenburg on the 4th of May 1776. After
+studying under Fichte at Jena he gave his first philosophical lectures
+at Gottingen in 1805, whence he removed in 1809 to occupy the chair
+formerly held by Kant at Konigsberg. Here he also established and
+conducted a seminary of pedagogy till 1833, when he returned once more
+to Gottingen, and remained there as professor of philosophy till his
+death on the 14th of August 1841.
+
+  Philosophy, according to Herbart, begins with reflection upon our
+  empirical conceptions, and consists in the reformation and elaboration
+  of these--its three primary divisions being determined by as many
+  distinct forms of elaboration. Logic, which stands first, has to
+  render our conceptions and the judgments and reasonings arising from
+  them clear and distinct. But some conceptions are such that the more
+  distinct they are made the more contradictory their elements become;
+  so to change and supplement these as to make them at length thinkable
+  is the problem of the second part of philosophy, or metaphysics. There
+  is still a class of conceptions requiring more than a logical
+  treatment, but differing from the last in not involving latent
+  contradictions, and in being independent of the reality of their
+  objects, the conceptions, viz. that embody our judgments of approval
+  and disapproval; the philosophic treatment of these conceptions falls
+  to Aesthetic.
+
+  In Herbart's writings logic receives comparatively meagre notice; he
+  insisted strongly on its purely formal character, and expressed
+  himself in the main at one with Kantians such as Fries and Krug.
+
+  As a metaphysician he starts from what he terms "the higher
+  scepticism" of the Hume-Kantian sphere of thought, the beginnings of
+  which he discerns in Locke's perplexity about the idea of substance.
+  By this scepticism the real validity of even the _forms_ of experience
+  is called in question on account of the contradictions they are found
+  to involve. And yet that these forms are "given" to us, as truly as
+  sensations are, follows beyond doubt when we consider that we are as
+  little able to control the one as the other. To attempt at this stage
+  a psychological inquiry into the origin of these conceptions would be
+  doubly a mistake; for we should have to use these unlegitimated
+  conceptions in the course of it, and the task of clearing up their
+  contradictions would still remain, whether we succeeded in our enquiry
+  or not. But how are we to set about this task? We have given to us a
+  conception A uniting among its constituent marks two that prove to be
+  contradictory, say M and N; and we can neither deny the unity nor
+  reject one of the contradictory members. For to do either is forbidden
+  by experience; and yet to do nothing is forbidden by logic. We are
+  thus driven to the assumption that the conception is contradictory
+  because incomplete; but how are we to supplement it? What we have must
+  point the way to what we want, or our procedure will be arbitrary.
+  Experience asserts that M is the same (i.e. a mark of the same
+  concept) as N, while logic denies it; and so--it being impossible for
+  one and the same M to sustain these contradictory positions--there is
+  but one way open to us; we must posit _several_ Ms. But even now we
+  cannot say one of these Ms is the same as N, another is not; for every
+  M must be both thinkable and valid. We may, however, take the Ms not
+  singly but together; and again, no other course being open to us, this
+  is what we must do; we must assume that N results from a combination
+  of Ms. This is Herbart's method of relations, the counterpart in his
+  system of the Hegelian dialectic.
+
+  In the _Ontology_ this method is employed to determine what in reality
+  corresponds to the empirical conceptions of substance and cause, or
+  rather of inherence and change. But first we must analyse this notion
+  of reality itself, to which our scepticism had already led us, for,
+  though we could doubt whether "the given" is what it appears, we
+  cannot doubt that it is something; the conception of the real thus
+  consists of the two conceptions of being and quality. That which we
+  are compelled to "posit," which cannot be sublated, is that which
+  _is_, and in the recognition of this lies the simple conception of
+  being. But when is a thing thus posited? When it is posited as we are
+  wont to posit the things we see and taste and handle. If we were
+  without sensations, i.e. were never bound against our will to endure
+  the persistence of a presentation, we should never know what being is.
+  Keeping fast hold of this idea of absolute position, Herbart leads us
+  next to the quality of the real. (1) This must exclude everything
+  negative; for non-A sublates instead of positing, and is not absolute,
+  but relative to A. (2) The real must be absolutely simple; for if it
+  contain two determinations, A and B, then either these are reducible
+  to one, which is the true quality, or they are not, when each is
+  conditioned by the other and their position is no longer absolute. (3)
+  All quantitative conceptions are excluded, for quantity implies parts,
+  and these are incompatible with simplicity. (4) But there may be a
+  plurality of "reals," albeit the mere conception of being can tell us
+  nothing as to this. The doctrine here developed is the first cardinal
+  point of Herbart's system, and has obtained for it the name of
+  "pluralistic realism."
+
+  The contradictions he finds in the common-sense conception of
+  inherence, or of "a thing with several attributes," will now become
+  obvious. Let us take some thing, say A, having n attributes, a, b,
+  c...: we are forced to posit each of these because each is presented
+  in intuition. But in conceiving A we make, not n positions, still less
+  n + 1 positions, but one position simply; for common sense removes the
+  absolute position from its original source, sensation. So when we ask,
+  What is the one posited? we are told--the possessor of a, b, c..., or
+  in other words, their seat or substance. But if so, then A, as a real,
+  being simple, must = a; similarly it must = b; and so on. Now this
+  would be possible if a, b, c ... were but "contingent aspects" of A,
+  as e.g. 2^3, [root]64, 4 + 3 + 1 are contingent aspects of 8. Such, of
+  course, is not the case, and so we have as many contradictions as
+  there are attributes; for we must say A is a, is not a, is b, is not
+  b, &c. There must then, according to the method of relations, be
+  several As. For a let us assume A1 + A1 + A1...; for b, A2 + A2 +
+  A2...; and so on for the rest. But now what relation can there be
+  among these several As, which will restore to us the unity of our
+  original A or substance? There is but one; we must assume that the
+  first A of every series is identical, just as the centre is the same
+  point in every radius. By way of concrete illustration Herbart
+  instances "the common observation that the properties of things exist
+  only under external conditions. Bodies, we say, are coloured, but
+  colour is nothing without light, and nothing without eyes. They sound,
+  but only in a vibrating medium, and for healthy ears. Colour and tone
+  present the appearance of inherence, but on looking closer we find
+  they are not really immanent in things but rather presuppose a
+  communion among several." The result then is briefly thus: In place of
+  the one absolute position, which in some unthinkable way the common
+  understanding substitutes for the absolute positions of the n
+  attributes, we have really a series of two or more positions for each
+  attribute, every series, however, beginning with the same (as it were,
+  central) real (hence the unity of substance in a group of attributes),
+  but each being continued by different reals (hence the plurality and
+  difference of attributes in unity of substance). Where there is the
+  appearance of inherence, therefore, there is always a plurality of
+  reals; no such correlative to substance as attribute or accident can
+  be admitted at all. Substantiality is impossible without causality,
+  and to this as its true correlative we now turn.
+
+  The common-sense conception of change involves at bottom the same
+  contradiction of opposing qualities in one real. The same A that was
+  a, b, c ... becomes a, b, d...; and this, which experience thrusts
+  upon us, proves on reflection unthinkable. The metaphysical
+  supplementing is also fundamentally as before. Since c depended on a
+  series of reals A3 + A3 + A3 ... in connexion with A, and d may be
+  said similarly to depend on a series A4 + A4 + A4..., then the change
+  from c to d means, not that the central real A or any real has
+  changed, but that A is now in connexion with A4, &c., and no longer in
+  connexion with A3, &c.
+
+  But to think a number of reals "in connexion" (_Zusammensein_) will
+  not suffice as an explanation of phenomena; something or other must
+  happen when they are in connexion; what is it? The answer to this
+  question is the second hinge-point of Herbart's theoretical
+  philosophy. What "actually happens" as distinct from all that seems to
+  happen, when two reals A and B are together is that, assuming them to
+  differ in quality, they tend to disturb each other to the extent of
+  that difference, at the same time that each preserves itself intact by
+  resisting, as it were, the other's disturbance. And so by coming into
+  connexion with different reals the "self-preservations" of A will vary
+  accordingly, A remaining the same through all; just as, by way of
+  illustration, hydrogen remains the same in water and in ammonia, or as
+  the same line may be now a normal and now a tangent. But to indicate
+  this opposition in the qualities of the reals A + B, we must
+  substitute for these symbols others, which, though only "contingent
+  aspects" of A and B, i.e. representing their relations, not
+  themselves, yet like similar devices in mathematics enable thought to
+  advance. Thus we may put A = [alpha] + [beta] - [gamma], B = m + n +
+  [gamma]; [gamma] then represents the character of the
+  self-preservations in this case, and [alpha] + [beta] + m + n
+  represents all that could be observed by a spectator who did not know
+  the simple qualities, but was himself involved in the relations of A
+  to B; and such is exactly our position.
+
+  Having thus determined what really is and what actually happens, our
+  philosopher proceeds next to explain synthetically the objective
+  semblance (_der objective Schein_) that results from these. But if
+  this construction is to be truly objective, i.e. valid for all
+  intelligences, ontology must furnish us with a clue. This we have in
+  the forms of Space, Time and Motion which are involved whenever we
+  think the reals as being in, or coming into, connexion and the
+  opposite. These forms then cannot be merely the products of our
+  psychological mechanism, though they may turn out to coincide with
+  these. Meanwhile let us call them "intelligible," as being valid for
+  all who comprehend the real and actual by thought, although no such
+  forms are predicable of the real and actual themselves. The elementary
+  spatial relation Herbart conceives to be "the contiguity
+  (_Aneinander_) of two points," so that every "pure and independent
+  line" is discrete. But an investigation of dependent lines which are
+  often incommensurable forces us to adopt the contradictory fiction of
+  partially overlapping, i.e. divisible points, or in other words, the
+  conception of Continuity.[1] But the contradiction here is one we
+  cannot eliminate by the method of relations, because it does not
+  involve anything real; and in fact as a necessary outcome of an
+  "intelligible" form, the fiction of continuity is valid for the
+  "objective semblance," and no more to be discarded than say
+  [root](-1). By its help we are enabled to comprehend what actually
+  happens among reals to produce the appearance of matter. When three or
+  more reals are together, each disturbance and self-preservation will
+  (in general) be imperfect, i.e. of less intensity than when only two
+  reals are together. But "objective semblance" corresponds with
+  reality; the spatial or external relations of the reals in this case
+  must, therefore, tally with their inner or actual states. Had the
+  self-preservations been perfect, the coincidence in space would have
+  been complete, and the group of reals would have been inextended; or
+  had the several reals been simply contiguous, i.e. without connexion,
+  then, as nothing would actually have happened, nothing would appear.
+  As it is we shall find a continuous molecule manifesting attractive
+  and repulsive forces; attraction corresponding to the tendency of the
+  self-preservations to become perfect, repulsion to the frustration of
+  this. Motion, even more evidently than space, implicates the
+  contradictory conception of continuity, and cannot, therefore, be a
+  real predicate, though valid as an intelligible form and necessary to
+  the comprehension of the objective semblance. For we have to think of
+  the reals as absolutely independent and yet as entering into
+  connexions. This we can only do by conceiving them as originally
+  moving through intelligible space in rectilinear paths and with
+  uniform velocities. For such motion no cause need be supposed; motion,
+  in fact, is no more a state of the moving real than rest is, both
+  alike being but relations, with which, therefore, the real has no
+  concern. The changes in this motion, however, for which we _should_
+  require a cause, would be the objective semblance of the
+  self-preservations that actually occur when reals meet. Further, by
+  means of such motion these actual occurrences, which are in themselves
+  timeless, fall for an observer in a definite time--a time which
+  becomes continuous through the partial coincidence of events.
+
+  But in all this it has been assumed that we are spectators of the
+  objective semblance; it remains to make good this assumption, or, in
+  other words, to show the possibility of knowledge; this is the problem
+  of what Herbart terms Eidolology, and forms the transition from
+  metaphysic to psychology. Here, again, a contradictory conception
+  blocks the way, that, viz. of the Ego as the identity of knowing and
+  being, and as such the stronghold of idealism. The contradiction
+  becomes more evident when the ego is defined to be a subject (and so a
+  real) that is its own object. As real and not merely formal, this
+  conception of the ego is amenable to the method of relations. The
+  solution this method furnishes is summarily that there are several
+  objects which mutually modify each other, and so constitute that ego
+  we take for the presented real. But to explain this modification is
+  the business of psychology; it is enough now to see that the subject
+  like all reals is necessarily unknown, and that, therefore, the
+  idealist's theory of knowledge is unsound. But though the simple
+  quality of the subject or soul is beyond knowledge, we know what
+  actually happens when it is in connexion with other's reals, for its
+  self-preservations then are what we call sensations. And these
+  sensations are the sole material of our knowledge; but they are not
+  given to us as a chaos but in definite groups and series, whence we
+  come to know the relations of those reals, which, though themselves
+  unknown, our sensations compel us to posit absolutely.
+
+  In his _Psychology_ Herbart rejects altogether the doctrine of mental
+  faculties as one refuted by his metaphysics, and tries to show that
+  all psychical phenomena whatever result from the action and
+  interaction of elementary ideas or presentations (_Vorstellungen_).
+  The soul being one and simple, its separate acts of self-preservation
+  or primary presentations must be simple too, and its several
+  presentations must become united together. And this they can do at
+  once and completely when, as is the case, for example, with the
+  several attributes of an object, they are not of opposite quality. But
+  otherwise there ensues a conflict in which the opposed presentations
+  comport themselves like forces and mutually suppress or obscure each
+  other. The act of presentation (_Vorstellen_) then becomes partly
+  transformed into an effort, and its product, the idea, becomes in the
+  same proportion less and less intense till a position of equilibrium
+  is reached; and then at length the remainders coalesce. We have thus a
+  statics and a mechanics of mind which investigate respectively the
+  conditions of equilibrium and of movement among presentations. In the
+  statics two magnitudes have to be determined: (1) the amount of the
+  suppression or inhibition (_Hemmungssumme_), and (2) the ratio in
+  which this is shared among the opposing presentations. The first must
+  obviously be as small as possible; thus for two totally-opposed
+  presentations a and b, of which a is the greater, the _inhibendum_ =
+  b. For a given degree of opposition this burden will be shared between
+  the conflicting presentations in the inverse ratio of their strength.
+  When its remainder after inhibition = 0, a presentation is said to be
+  on the threshold of consciousness, for on a small diminution of the
+  inhibition the "effort" will become actual presentation in the same
+  proportion. Such total exclusion from consciousness is, however,
+  manifestly impossible with only two presentations,[2] though with
+  three or a greater number the residual value of one may even be
+  negative. The first and simplest law in psychological mechanics
+  relates to the "sinking" of inhibited presentations. As the
+  presentations yield to the pressure, the pressure itself diminishes,
+  so that the velocity of sinking decreases, i.e. we have the equation
+  (S - [sigma]) dt = d[sigma], where S is the total _inhibendum_, and
+  [sigma] the intensity actually inhibited after the time t. Hence t =
+  log (S/S - [sigma]), and [sigma] = S[1 - e^(-t)]. From this law it
+  follows, for example, that equilibrium is never quite obtained for
+  those presentations which continue above the threshold of
+  consciousness, while the rest which cannot so continue are very
+  speedily driven beyond the threshold. More important is the law
+  according to which a presentation freed from inhibition and rising
+  anew into consciousness tends to raise the other presentations with
+  which it is combined. Suppose two presentations p and [pi] united by
+  the residua r and [rho]; then the amount of p's "help" to [pi] is r,
+  the portion of which appropriated by [pi] is given by the ratio [rho]:
+  [pi]; and thus the initial help is r[rho]/[pi].
+
+  But after a time t, when a portion of [rho] represented by [omega] has
+  been actually brought into consciousness, the help afforded in the
+  next instant will be found by the equation
+
+    r[rho]   [rho] - [omega]
+    ------ . --------------- dt = d[omega],
+     [pi]        [rho]
+
+  from which by integration we have the value of [omega].
+
+    [omega] = [rho] {1 - [epsilon]^(-rt/[pi])}.
+
+  So that if there are several [pi]s connected with p by smaller and
+  smaller parts, there will be a definite "serial" order in which they
+  will be revived by p; and on this fact Herbart rests all the phenomena
+  of the so-called faculty of memory, the development of spatial and
+  temporal forms and much besides. Emotions and volitions, he holds, are
+  not directly self-preservations of the soul, as our presentations are,
+  but variable states of such presentations resulting from their
+  interaction when above the threshold of consciousness. Thus when some
+  presentations tend to force a presentation into consciousness, and
+  others at the same time tend to drive it out, that presentation is the
+  seat of painful feeling; when, on the other hand, its entrance is
+  favoured by all, pleasure results. Desires are presentations
+  struggling into consciousness against hindrances, and when accompanied
+  by the supposition of success become volitions. Transcendental freedom
+  of will in Kant's sense is an impossibility. Self-consciousness is the
+  result of an interaction essentially the same in kind as that which
+  takes place when a comparatively simple presentation finds the field
+  of consciousness occupied by a long-formed and well-consolidated
+  "mass" of presentations--as, e.g. one's business or garden, the
+  theatre, &c., which promptly inhibit the isolated presentation if
+  incongruent, and unite it to themselves if not. What we call Self is,
+  above all, such a central mass, and Herbart seeks to show with great
+  ingenuity and detail how this position is occupied at first chiefly by
+  the body, then by the seat of ideas and desires, and finally by that
+  first-personal Self which recollects the past and resolves concerning
+  the future. But at any stage the actual constituents of this
+  "complexion" are variable; the concrete presentation of Self is never
+  twice the same. And, therefore, finding on reflection any particular
+  concrete factor contingent, we abstract the position from that which
+  occupies it, and so reach the speculative notion of the pure Ego.
+
+  _Aesthetics_ elaborates the "ideas" involved in the expression of
+  taste called forth by those relations of object which acquire for them
+  the attribution of beauty or the reverse. The beautiful ([Greek:
+  kalon]) is to be carefully distinguished from the allied conceptions
+  of the useful and the pleasant, which vary with time, place and
+  person; whereas beauty is predicated absolutely and involuntarily by
+  all who have attained the right standpoint. Ethics, which is but one
+  branch of aesthetics, although the chief, deals with such relations
+  among volitions (_Willensverhaltnisse_) as thus unconditionally please
+  or displease. These relations Herbart finds to be reducible to five,
+  which do not admit of further simplification; and corresponding to
+  them are as many moral ideas (_Musterbegriffe_), viz.: (1) _Internal
+  Freedom_, the underlying relation being that of the individual's will
+  to his judgment of it; (2) _Perfection_, the relation being that of
+  his several volitions to each other in respect of intensity, variety
+  and concentration; (3) _Benevolence_, the relation being that between
+  his own will and the thought of another's; (4) _Right_, in case of
+  actual conflict with another; and (5) _Retribution_ or _Equity_, for
+  intended good or evil done. The ideas of a final society, a system of
+  rewards and punishments, a system of administration, a system of
+  culture and a "unanimated society," corresponding to the ideas of law,
+  equity, benevolence, perfection and internal freedom respectively,
+  result when we take account of a number of individuals. Virtue is the
+  perfect conformity of the will with the moral ideas; of this the
+  single virtues are but special expressions. The conception of duty
+  arises from the existence of hindrances to the attainment of virtue. A
+  general scheme of principles of conduct is possible, but the
+  subsumption of special cases under these must remain matter of tact.
+  The application of ethics to things as they are with a view to the
+  realization of the moral ideas is moral technology (_Tugendlehre_), of
+  which the chief divisions are Paedagogy and Politics.
+
+  In _Theology_ Herbart held the argument from design to be as valid for
+  divine activity as for human, and to justify the belief in a
+  super-sensible real, concerning which, however, exact knowledge is
+  neither attainable nor on practical grounds desirable.
+
+  Among the post-Kantian philosophers Herbart doubtless ranks next to
+  Hegel in importance, and this without taking into account his very
+  great contributions to the science of education. His disciples speak
+  of theirs as the "exact philosophy," and the term well expresses their
+  master's chief excellence and the character of the chief influence he
+  has exerted upon succeeding thinkers of his own and other schools. His
+  criticisms are worth more than his constructions; indeed for exactness
+  and penetration of thought he is quite on a level with Hume and Kant.
+  His merits in this respect, however, can only be appraised by the
+  study of his works at first hand. But we are most of all indebted to
+  Herbart for the enormous advance psychology has been enabled to make,
+  thanks to his fruitful treatment of it, albeit as yet but few among
+  the many who have appropriated and improved his materials have
+  ventured to adopt his metaphysical and mathematical foundations.
+       (J. W.*)
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Herbart's works were collected and published by his
+  disciple G. Hartenstein (Leipzig, 1850-1852; reprinted at Hamburg,
+  with supplementary volume, 1883-1893); another edition by K. Kehrbach
+  (Leipzig, 1882, and Langensalza, 1887). The following are the most
+  important: _Allgemeine Padagogik_ (1806; new ed., 1894); _Hauptpunkte
+  der Metaphysik_ (1808); _Allgemeine praktische Philosophie_ (1808);
+  _Lehrbuch zur Einleitung in die Philosophie_ (1813; new ed. by
+  Hartenstein, 1883); _Lehrbuch der Psychologie_ (1816; new ed. by
+  Hartenstein, 1887); _Psychologie als Wissenschaft_ (1824-1825);
+  _Allgemeine Metaphysik_ (1828-1829); _Encyklopadie der Philosophie_
+  (2nd ed., 1841); _Umriss padagogischer Vorlesungen_ (2nd ed., 1841);
+  _Psychologische Untersuchungen_ (1839-1840).
+
+  Some of his works have been translated into English under the
+  following titles: _Textbook in Psychology_, by M. K. Smith (1891);
+  _The Science of Education and the Aesthetic Revelation of the World_
+  (1892), and _Letters and Lectures on Education_ (1898), by H. M. and
+  E. Felkin; _A B C of Sense Perception and minor pedagogical works_
+  (New York, 1896), by W. J. Eckhoff and others; _Application of
+  Psychology to the Science of Education_ (1898), by B. C. Mulliner;
+  _Outlines of Educational Doctrine_, by A. F. Lange (1901).
+
+  There is a life of Herbart in Hartenstein's introduction to his
+  _Kleinere philosophische Schriften und Abhandlungen_ (1842-1843) and
+  by F. H. T. Allihn in _Zeitschrift fur exacte Philosophie_ (Leipzig,
+  1861), the organ of Herbart and his school, which ceased to appear in
+  1873. In America the National Society for the Scientific Study of
+  Education was originally founded as the National Herbart Society.
+
+  Of the large number of writings dealing with Herbart's works and
+  theories, the following may be mentioned: H. A. Fechner, _Zur Kritik
+  der Grundlagen von Herbart's Metaphysik_ (Leipzig, 1853); J. Kaftan,
+  _Sollen und Sein in ihrem Verhaltniss zu einander: eine Studie zur
+  Kritik Herbarts_ (Leipzig, 1872); M. W. Drobisch, _Uber die
+  Fortbildung der Philosophie durch Herbart_ (Leipzig, 1876); K. S.
+  Just, _Die Fortbildung der Kant'schen Ethik durch Herbart_ (Eisenach,
+  1876); C. Ufer, _Vorschule der Padagogik Herbarts_ (1883; Eng. tr. by
+  J. C. Zinser, 1895); G. Kozle, _Die padagogische Schule Herbarts und
+  ihre Lehre_ (Gutersloh, 1889); L. Strumpell, _Das System der Padagogik
+  Herbarts_ (Leipzig, 1894); J. Christinger, _Herbarts Erziehungslehre
+  und ihre Fortbildner_ (Zurich, 1895); O. H. Lang, _Outline of
+  Herbart's Pedagogics_ (1894); H. M. and E. Felkin, _Introduction to
+  Herbart's Science and Practice of Education_ (1895); C. de Garmo,
+  _Herbart and the Herbartians_ (New York, 1895); E. Wagner, _Die Praxis
+  der Herbartianer_ (Langensalza, 1897) and _Vollstandige Darstellung
+  der Lehre Herbarts_ (ib., 1899); J. Adams, _The Herbartian Psychology
+  applied to Education_ (1897); F. H. Hayward, _The Student's Herbart_
+  (1902), _The Critics of Herbartianism_ (1903), _Three Historical
+  Educators: Pestalozzi, Frobel, Herbart_ (1905), _The Secret of
+  Herbart_ (1907), _The Meaning of Education as interpreted by Herbart_
+  (1907); W. Kinkel, _J. F. Herbart: sein Leben und seine Philosophie_
+  (1903); A. Darroch, _Herbart and the Herbartian Theory of Education_
+  (1903); C. J. Dodd, _Introduction to the Herbartian Principles of
+  Teaching_ (1904); J. Davidson, _A new Interpretation of Herbart's
+  Psychology and Educational Theory through the Philosophy of Leibnitz_
+  (1906); see also J. M. Baldwin, _Dictionary of Psychology and
+  Philosophy_ (1901-1905).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Hence Herbart gave the name Synechology to this branch of
+    metaphysics, instead of the usual one, Cosmology.
+
+  [2] Thus, taking the case above supposed, the share of the inhibendum
+    falling to the smaller presentation b is the fourth term of the
+    proportion a + b : a :: b : ab/(a + b); and so b's remainder is b
+    - ab/(a + b) = b^2/(a + b), which only = 0 when a = [infinity].
+
+
+
+
+HERBELOT DE MOLAINVILLE, BARTHELEMY D' (1625-1695), French orientalist,
+was born on the 14th of December 1625 at Paris. He was educated at the
+university of Paris, and devoted himself to the study of oriental
+languages, going to Italy to perfect himself in them by converse with
+the orientals who frequented its sea-ports. There he also made the
+acquaintance of Holstenius, the Dutch humanist (1596-1661), and Leo
+Allatius, the Greek scholar (1586-1669). On his return to France after a
+year and a half, he was received into the house of Fouquet,
+superintendent of finance, who gave him a pension of 1500 livres. Losing
+this on the disgrace of Fouquet in 1661, he was appointed secretary and
+interpreter of Eastern languages to the king. A few years later he again
+visited Italy, when the grand-duke Ferdinand II. of Tuscany presented
+him with a large number of valuable Oriental MSS., and tried to attach
+him to his court. Herbelot, however, was recalled to France by Colbert,
+and received from the king a pension equal to the one he had lost. In
+1692 he succeeded D'Auvergne in the chair of Syriac, in the College de
+France. He died in Paris on the 8th of December 1695. His great work is
+the _Bibliotheque orientale, ou dictionnaire universel contenant tout
+ce qui regarde la connaissance des peuples de l'Orient_, which occupied
+him nearly all his life, and was completed in 1697 by A. Galland. It is
+based on the immense Arabic dictionary of Hadji Khalfa, of which indeed
+it is largely an abridged translation, but it also contains the
+substance of a vast number of other Arabic and Turkish compilations and
+manuscripts.
+
+  The _Bibliotheque_ was reprinted at Maestricht (fol. 1776), and at the
+  Hague (4 vols. 4to, 1777-1799). The latter edition is enriched with
+  the contributions of the Dutch orientalist Schultens, Johann Jakob
+  Reiske (1716-1774), and by a supplement provided by Visdelow and
+  Galland. Herbelot's other works, none of which have been published,
+  comprise an _Oriental Anthology_, and an _Arabic, Persian, Turkish and
+  Latin Dictionary_.
+
+
+
+
+HERBERAY DES ESSARTS, NICOLAS DE (d. about 1557), French translator, was
+born in Picardy. He served in the artillery, and at the expressed desire
+of Francis I. he translated into French the first eight books of _Amadis
+de Gaul_ (1540-1548). The remaining books were translated by other
+authors. His other translations from the Spanish include _L'Amant
+maltraite de sa mye_ (1539); _Le Premier Livre de la chronique de dom
+Flores de Grece_ (1552); and _L'Horloge des princes_ (1555) from
+Guevara. He also translated the works of Josephus (1557). He died about
+1557. The _Amadis de Gaul_ was translated into English by Anthony Munday
+in 1619.
+
+
+
+
+HERBERT (FAMILY). The sudden rising of this English family to great
+wealth and high place is the more remarkable in that its elevation
+belongs to the 15th century and not to that age of the Tudors when many
+new men made their way upwards into the ranks of the nobility. Earlier
+generations of a pedigree which carries the origin of the Herberts to
+Herbert the Chamberlain, a Domesday tenant, being disregarded, their
+patriarch may be taken to be one Jenkin ap Adam (temp. Edward III.), who
+had a small Monmouthshire estate at Llanvapley and the office of master
+sergeant of the lordship of Abergavenny, a place which gave him
+precedence after the steward of that lordship. Jenkin's son, Gwilim ap
+Jenkin, who followed his father as master sergeant, is given six sons by
+the border genealogists, no less than six score pedigrees finding their
+origin in these six brothers. Their order is uncertain, although the
+Progers of Werndee, the last of whom sold his ancestral estate in 1780,
+are reckoned as the senior line of Gwilim's descendants. But Thomas ap
+Gwilim Jenkin, called the fourth son, is ancestor of all those who bore
+the surname of Herbert.
+
+Thomas's fifth son, William or Gwilim ap Thomas, who died in 1446, was
+the first man of the family to make any figure in history. This Gwilim
+ap Thomas was steward of the lordships of Usk and Caerleon under
+Richard, duke of York. Legend makes him a knight on the field of
+Agincourt, but his knighthood belongs to the year 1426. He appears to
+have married twice, his first wife being Elizabeth Bluet of Raglan,
+widow of Sir James Berkeley, and his second a daughter of David Gam, a
+valiant Welsh squire slain at Agincourt. Royal favour enriched Sir
+William, and he was able to buy Raglan Castle from the Lord Berkeley,
+his first wife's son, the deed, which remains among the Beaufort
+muniments, refuting the pedigree-maker's statement that he inherited the
+castle as heir of his mother "Maude, daughter of Sir John Morley." His
+sons William and Richard, both partisans of the White Rose, took the
+surname of Herbert in or before 1461. Playing a part in English affairs
+remote from the Welsh Marches, their lack of a surname may well have
+inconvenienced them, and their choice of the name Herbert can only be
+explained by the suggestion that their long pedigree from Herbert the
+Chamberlain, absurdly represented as a bastard son of Henry I., must
+already have been discovered for them. Copies exist of an alleged
+commission issued by Edward IV. to a committee of Welsh bards for the
+ascertaining of the true ancestry of William Herbert, earl of Pembroke,
+whom "the chiefest men of skill" in the province of South Wales declare
+to be the descendant of "Herbert, a noble lord, natural son to King
+Henry the first," and it is recited that King Edward, after the creation
+of the earldom, commanded the earl and Sir Richard his brother to "take
+their surnames after their first progenitor Herbert fitz Roy and to
+forego the British order and manner." But this commission, whose date
+anticipates by some years the true date of the creation of the earldom,
+is the work of one of the many genealogical forgers who flourished under
+the Tudors.
+
+Sir William Herbert, called by the Welsh Gwilim Ddu or Black William,
+was a baron in 1461 and a Knight of the Garter in the following year.
+With many manors and castles on the Marches he had the castle, town and
+lordship of Pembroke, and after the attainder of Jasper Tudor in 1468
+was created earl of Pembroke. When in July 1469 he was taken by Sir John
+Conyers and the northern Lancastrians on Hedgecote, he was beheaded with
+his brother Sir Richard Herbert of Coldbrook. The second earl while
+still a minor exchanged at the king's desire in 1479 his earldom of
+Pembroke for that of Huntingdon. In 1484 this son of one whom Hall not
+unjustly describes as born "a mean gentleman" contracted to marry
+Katharine the daughter of King Richard III., but her death annulled the
+contract and the earl married Mary, daughter of the Earl Rivers, by whom
+he had a daughter Elizabeth, whose descendants, the Somersets, lived in
+the Herbert's castle of Raglan until the cannon of the parliament broke
+it in ruins. With the second earl's death in 1491 the first Herbert
+earldom became extinct. No claim being set up among the other
+descendants of the first earl, it may be taken that their lines were
+illegitimate. One of the chief difficulties which beset the genealogist
+of the Herberts lies in their Cambrian disregard of the marriage tie,
+bastards and legitimate issue growing up, it would seem, side by side in
+their patriarchal households. Thus the ancestor of the present earls of
+Pembroke and Carnarvon and of the Herbert who was created marquess of
+Powis was a natural son of the first earl, one Richard Herbert, whom the
+restored inscription on his tomb at Abergavenny incorrectly describes as
+a knight. He was constable and porter of Abergavenny Castle, and his son
+William, "a mad fighting fellow" in his youth, married a sister of
+Catherine Parr and thus in 1543 became nearly allied to the king, who
+made him one of the executors of his will. The earldom of Pembroke was
+revived for him in 1551. It is worthy of note that all traces of
+illegitimacy have long since been removed from the arms of the noble
+descendants of Richard Herbert.
+
+The honours and titles of this clan of marchmen make a long list. They
+include the marquessate of Powis, two earldoms with the title of
+Pembroke, two with that of Powis, and the earldoms of Huntingdon and
+Montgomery, Torrington and Carnarvon, the viscountcies of Montgomery and
+Ludlow, fourteen baronies and seven baronetcies. Seven Herberts have
+worn the Garter. The knights and rich squires of the stock can hardly be
+reckoned, more especially as they must be sought among Raglans, Morgans,
+Parrys, Vaughans, Progers, Hugheses, Thomases, Philips, Powels, Gwyns,
+Evanses and Joneses, as well as among those who have borne the surname
+of Herbert, a surname which in the 19th century was adopted by the
+Joneses of Llanarth and Clytha, although they claim no descent from
+those sons of Sir William ap Thomas for whom it was devised.     (O. Ba.)
+
+
+
+
+HERBERT, GEORGE (1593-1633), English poet, was born at Montgomery Castle
+on the 3rd of April 1593. He was the fifth son of Sir Richard Herbert
+and a brother of Lord Herbert of Cherbury. His mother, Lady Magdalen
+Herbert, a woman of great good sense and sweetness of character, and a
+friend of John Donne, exercised great influence over her son. Educated
+privately until 1605, he was then sent to Westminster School, and in
+1609 he became a scholar of Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was
+made B.A. in 1613, M.A. and major fellow of the college in 1616. In 1618
+he became Reader in Rhetoric, and in 1619 orator for the university. In
+this capacity he was several times brought into contact with King James.
+From Cambridge he wrote some Latin satiric verses[1] in defence of the
+universities and the English Church against Andrew Melville, a Scottish
+Presbyterian minister. He numbered among his friends Dr Donne, Sir
+Henry Wotton, Izaak Walton, Bishop Andrewes and Francis Bacon, who
+dedicated to him his translation of the Psalms. Walton tells us that
+"the love of a court conversation, mixed with a laudable ambition to be
+something more than he was, drew him often from Cambridge to attend the
+king wheresoever the court was," and James I. gave him in 1623 the
+sinecure lay rectory of Whitford, Flintshire, worth L120 a year. The
+death of his patrons, the duke of Richmond and the marquess of Hamilton,
+and of King James put an end to his hopes of political preferment;
+moreover he probably distrusted the conduct of affairs under the new
+reign. Largely influenced by his mother, he decided to take holy orders,
+and in July 1626 he was appointed prebendary of Layton Ecclesia
+(Leighton Bromswold), Huntingdon. Here he was within two miles of Little
+Gidding, and came under the influence of Nicholas Ferrar. It was at
+Ferrar's suggestion that he undertook to rebuild the church at Layton,
+an undertaking carried through by his own gifts and the generosity of
+his friends. There is little doubt that the close friendship with Ferrar
+had a large share in Herbert's adoption of the religious life. In 1630
+Charles I., at the instance of the earl of Pembroke, whose kinsman
+Herbert was, presented him to the living of Fugglestone with Bemerton,
+near Salisbury, and he was ordained priest in September. A year before,
+after three days' acquaintance, he had married Jane Danvers, whose
+father had been set on the marriage for a long time. He had often spoken
+of his daughter Jane to Herbert, and "so much commended Mr Herbert to
+her, that Jane became so much a Platonic as to fall in love with Mr
+Herbert unseen." The story of the poet's life at Bemerton, as told by
+Walton, is one of the most exquisite pictures in literary biography. He
+devoted much time to explaining the meaning of the various parts of the
+Prayer-Book, and held services twice every day, at which many of the
+parishioners attended, and some "let their plough rest when Mr Herbert's
+saints-bell rung to prayers, that they might also offer their devotions
+to God with him." Next to Christianity itself he loved the English
+Church. He was passionately fond of music, and his own hymns were
+written to the accompaniment of his lute or viol. He usually walked
+twice a week to attend the cathedral at Salisbury, and before returning
+home, would "sing and play his part" at a meeting of music lovers.
+Walton illustrates Herbert's kindness to the poor by many touching
+anecdotes, but he had not been three years in Bemerton when he succumbed
+to consumption. He was buried beneath the altar of his church on the 3rd
+of March 1633.
+
+None of Herbert's English poems was published during his lifetime. On
+his death-bed he gave to Nicholas Ferrar a manuscript with the title
+_The Temple: Sacred Poems and Private Ejaculations_. This was published
+at Cambridge, apparently for private circulation, almost immediately
+after Herbert's death, and a second imprint followed in the same year.
+On the title-page of both is the quotation "In his Temple doth every man
+speak of his honour." _The Temple_ is a collection of religious poems
+connected by unity of sentiment and inspiration. Herbert tried to
+interpret his own devout meditations by applying images of all kinds to
+the ritual and beliefs of the Church. Nothing in his own church at
+Bemerton was too commonplace to serve as a starting-point for the
+epigrammatic expression of his piety. The church key reminds him that
+"it is my sin that locks his handes," and the stones of the floor are
+patience and humility, while the cement that binds them together is love
+and charity. The chief faults of the book are obscurity, verbal conceits
+and a forced ingenuity which shows itself in grotesque puns, odd metres
+and occasional want of taste. But the quaint beauty of Herbert's style
+and its musical quality give _The Temple_ a high place. "The Church
+Porch," "The Agony," "Sin," "Sunday," "Virtue," "Man," "The British
+Church," "The Quip," "The Collar," "The Pulley," "The Flower," "Aaron"
+and "The Elixir" are among the best known of these poems. Herbert and
+Keble are the poets of Anglican theology. No book is fuller of devotion
+to the Church of England than _The Temple_, and no poems in our language
+exhibit more of the spirit of true Christianity. Every page is marked by
+transparent sincerity, and reflects the beautiful character of "holy
+George Herbert."
+
+  Nicholas Ferrar's translation (Oxford, 1638) of the _Hundred and Ten
+  Considerations ..._ of Juan de Valdes contained a letter and notes by
+  Herbert. In 1652 appeared _Herbert's Remains; or, Sundry Pieces of
+  that Sweet Singer of the Temple, Mr George Herbert_. This included _A
+  Priest to the Temple; or, The Country Parson, his Character, and Rule
+  of Holy Life_, in prose; _Jacula prudentum_, a collection of proverbs
+  with a separate title-page dated 1651, which had appeared in a shorter
+  form as _Outlandish Proverbs_ in 1640; and some miscellaneous matter.
+  The completest edition of his works is that by Dr A. B. Grosart in
+  1874, this edition of the Poetical works being reproduced in the
+  "Aldine edition" in 1876. _The English Works of George Herbert ..._ (3
+  vols., 1905) were edited in much detail by G. H. Palmer. A
+  contemporary account of Herbert's life by Barnabas Oley was prefixed
+  to the _Remains_ of 1652, but the classic authority is Izaak Walton's
+  _Life of Mr George Herbert_, published in 1670, with some letters from
+  Herbert to his mother. See also A. G. Hyde, _George Herbert and his
+  Times_ (1907), and the "Oxford" edition of his poems by A. Waugh
+  (1908).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Printed in 1662 as an appendix to J. Vivian's _Ecclesiastes
+    Solomonis_.
+
+
+
+
+HERBERT, HENRY WILLIAM ["Frank Forester"] (1807-1858), English novelist
+and writer on sport, son of the Hon. and Rev. William Herbert, dean of
+Manchester, a son of the first earl of Carnarvon, was born in London on
+the 3rd of April 1807. He was educated at Eton and at Caius College,
+Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. in 1830. Having become involved in
+debt, he emigrated to America, and from 1831 to 1839 was teacher of
+Greek in a private school in New York. In 1833 he started the _American
+Monthly Magazine_, which he edited, in conjunction with A. D. Patterson,
+till 1835. In 1834 he published his first novel, _The Brothers: a Tale
+of the Fronde_, which was followed by a number of others which obtained
+a certain degree of popularity. He also wrote a series of historical
+studies, including _The Cavaliers of England_ (1852), _The Knights of
+England, France and Scotland_ (1852), _The Chevaliers of France_ (1853),
+and _The Captains of the Old World_ (1851); but he is best known for his
+works on sport, published under the pseudonym of "Frank Forester." These
+include _The Field Sports of the United States and British Provinces_
+(1849), _Frank Forester and his Friends_ (1849), _The Fish and Fishing
+of the United States_ (1850), _The Young Sportsman's Complete Manual_
+(1852), and _The Horse and Horsemanship in the United States and British
+Provinces of North America_ (1858). He also translated many of the
+novels of Eugene Sue and Alexandre Dumas. Herbert was a man of varied
+accomplishments, but of somewhat dissipated habits. He died by his own
+hand in New York on the 17th of May 1858.
+
+
+
+
+HERBERT, SIR THOMAS (1606-1682), English traveller and author, was born
+at York in 1606. Several of his ancestors were aldermen and merchants in
+that city--e.g. his grandfather and benefactor, Alderman Herbert (d.
+1614)--and they traced a connexion with the earls of Pembroke. Thomas
+became a commoner of Jesus College, Oxford, in 1621, but afterwards
+removed to Cambridge, through the influence of his uncle Dr Ambrose
+Akroyd. In 1627 the earl of Pembroke procured his appointment in the
+suite of Sir Dodmore Cotton, then starting as ambassador for Persia with
+Sir Robert Shirley. Sailing in March they visited the Cape, Madagascar,
+Goa and Surat; landing at Gambrun (10th of January 1627-1628), they
+travelled inland to Ashraf and thence to Kazvin, where both Cotton and
+Shirley died, and whence Herbert made extensive travels in the Persian
+_Hinterland_, visiting Kashan, Bagdad, &c. On his return voyage he
+touched at Ceylon, the Coromandel coast, Mauritius and St Helena. He
+reached England in 1629, travelled in Europe in 1630-1631, married in
+1632 and retired from court in 1634 (his prospects perhaps blighted by
+Pembroke's death in 1630); after this he resided on his Tintern estate
+and elsewhere till the Civil War, siding with the parliament till his
+appointment to attend on the king in 1646. Becoming a devoted royalist,
+he was rewarded with a baronetcy at the Restoration (1660). He resided
+mainly in York Street, Westminster, till the Great Plague (1666), when
+he retired to York, where he died (at Petergate House) on the 1st of
+March 1682.
+
+  Herbert's chief work is the _Description of the Persian Monarchy now
+  beinge: the Orientall Indyes, Iles and other parts of the Greater Asia
+  and Africk_ (1634), reissued with additions, &c., in 1638 as _Some
+  Yeares Travels into Africa and Asia the Great_ (al. _into divers parts
+  of Asia and Afrique_); a third edition followed in 1664, and a fourth
+  in 1677. This is one of the best records of 17th-century travel. Among
+  its illustrations are remarkable sketches of the dodo, cuneiform
+  inscriptions and Persepolis. Herbert's _Threnodia Carolina; or,
+  Memoirs of the two last years of the reign of that unparallell'd
+  prince of ever blessed memory King Charles I._, was in great part
+  printed at the author's request in Wood's _Athenae Oxonienses_; in
+  full by Dr C. Goodall in his _Collection of Tracts_ (1702, repr. G. &
+  W. Nicol, 1813). Sir William Dugdale is understood to have received
+  assistance from Herbert in the _Monasticon Anglicanum_, vol. iv.; see
+  two of Herbert's papers on St John's, Beverley and Ripon collegiate
+  church, now cathedral, in Drake's _Eboracum_ (appendix). Cf. also
+  Robert Davies' account of Herbert in _The Yorkshire Archaeological and
+  Topographical Journal_, part iii., pp. 182-214 (1870), containing a
+  facsimile of the inscription on Herbert's tomb; Wood's _Athenae_, iv.
+  15-41; and _Fasti_, ii. 26, 131, 138, 143-144, 150.
+
+
+
+
+HERBERT OF CHERBURY, EDWARD HERBERT, BARON (1583-1648), English soldier,
+diplomatist, historian and religious philosopher, eldest son of Richard
+Herbert of Montgomery Castle (a member of a collateral branch of the
+family of the earls of Pembroke) and of Magdalen, daughter of Sir
+Richard Newport, was born at Eyton-on-Severn near Wroxeter on the 3rd of
+March 1583. After careful private tuition he matriculated at University
+College, Oxford, as a gentleman commoner, in May 1596. On the 28th of
+February 1599 he married his cousin Mary, daughter and heiress of Sir
+William Herbert (d. 1593). He returned to Oxford with his wife and
+mother, continued his studies, and obtained proficiency in modern
+languages as well as in music, riding and fencing. On the accession of
+James I. he presented himself at court and was created a knight of the
+Bath on the 24th of July 1603. In 1608 he went to Paris, enjoying the
+friendship and hospitality of the old constable de Montmorency, and
+being entertained by Henry IV. On his return, as he says himself with
+naive vanity, he was "in great esteem both in court and city, many of
+the greatest desiring my company." In 1610 he served as a volunteer in
+the Low Countries under the prince of Orange, whose intimate friend he
+became, and distinguished himself at the capture of Juliers from the
+emperor. He offered to decide the war by engaging in single combat with
+a champion chosen from among the enemy, but his challenge was declined.
+During an interval in the fighting he paid a visit to Spinola, in the
+Spanish camp near Wezel, and afterwards to the elector palatine at
+Heidelberg, subsequently travelling in Italy. At the instance of the
+duke of Savoy he led an expedition of 4000 Huguenots from Languedoc into
+Piedmont to help the Savoyards against Spain, but after nearly losing
+his life in the journey to Lyons he was imprisoned on his arrival there,
+and the enterprise came to nothing. Thence he returned to the
+Netherlands and the prince of Orange, arriving in England in 1617. In
+1619 he was made by Buckingham ambassador at Paris, but a quarrel with
+de Luynes and a challenge sent by him to the latter occasioned his
+recall in 1621. After the death of de Luynes Herbert resumed his post in
+February 1622. He was very popular at the French court and showed
+considerable diplomatic ability, his chief objects being to accomplish
+the union between Charles and Henrietta Maria and secure the assistance
+of Louis XIII. for the unfortunate elector palatine. This latter
+advantage he could not obtain, and he was dismissed in April 1624. He
+returned home greatly in debt and received little reward for his
+services beyond the Irish peerage of Castle island in 1624 and the
+English barony of Cherbury, or Chirbury, on the 7th of May 1629. In 1632
+he was appointed a member of the council of war. He attended the king at
+York in 1639, and in May 1642 was imprisoned by the parliament for
+urging the addition of the words "without cause" to the resolution that
+the king violated his oath by making war on parliament. He determined
+after this to take no further part in the struggle, retired to
+Montgomery Castle, and declined the king's summons. On the 5th of
+September 1644 he surrendered the castle to the parliamentary forces,
+returned to London, submitted, and was granted a pension of L20 a week.
+In 1647 he paid a visit to Gassendi at Paris, and died in London on the
+20th of August, 1648, being buried in the church of St Giles's in the
+Fields.
+
+Lord Herbert left two sons, Richard (c. 1600-1655), who succeeded him as
+2nd Lord Herbert of Cherbury, and Edward, the title becoming extinct in
+the person of Henry Herbert, the 4th baron, grandson of the 1st Lord
+Herbert in 1691. In 1694, however, it was revived in favour of Henry
+Herbert (1654-1709), son of Sir Henry Herbert (1595-1673), brother of
+the 1st Lord Herbert of Cherbury. Sir Henry was master of the revels to
+Charles I. and Charles II., being busily employed in reading and
+licensing plays and in supervising all kinds of public entertainments.
+He died in April 1673; his son Henry died in January 1709, when the
+latter's son Henry became 2nd Lord Herbert of Cherbury of the second
+creation. He died without issue in April 1738, and again the barony
+became extinct. In 1743 it was revived for Henry Arthur Herbert (c.
+1703-1772), who five years later was created earl of Powis. This
+nobleman was a great-grandson of the 2nd Lord Herbert of Cherbury of the
+first creation, and since his time the barony has been held by the earls
+of Powis.
+
+Lord Herbert's cousin, Sir Edward Herbert (c. 1591-1657), was a member
+of parliament under James I. and Charles I. Having become
+attorney-general he was instructed by Charles to take proceedings
+against some members of parliament who had been concerned in the passing
+of the Grand Remonstrance; the only result, however, was Herbert's own
+impeachment by the House of Commons and his imprisonment. Later in life
+he was with the exiled royal family in Holland and in France, becoming
+lord keeper of the great seal to Charles II., an office which he had
+refused in 1645. He died in Paris in December 1657. One of Herbert's son
+was Arthur Herbert, earl of Torrington, and another was Sir Edward
+Herbert (c. 1648-1698), titular earl of Portland, who was made chief
+justice of the king's bench in 1685 in succession to Lord Jeffreys. It
+was Sir Edward who declared for the royal prerogative in the case of
+_Godden_ v. _Hales_, asserting that the kings of England, being
+sovereign princes, could dispense with particular laws in particular
+cases. After the escape of James II. to France this king made Herbert
+his lord chancellor and created him earl of Portland, although he was a
+Protestant and had exhibited a certain amount of independence during
+1687.
+
+  The first Lord Herbert's real claim to fame and remembrance is derived
+  from his writings. Herbert's first and most important work is the _De
+  veritate prout distinguitur a revelatione, a verisimili, a possibili,
+  et a falso_ (Paris, 1624; London, 1633; translated into French 1639,
+  but never into English; a MS. in add. MSS. 7081. Another, Sloane MSS.
+  3957, has the author's dedication to his brother George in his own
+  hand, dated 1622). It combines a theory of knowledge with a partial
+  psychology, a methodology for the investigation of truth, and a scheme
+  of natural religion. The author's method is prolix and often far from
+  clear; the book is no compact system, but it contains the skeleton and
+  much of the soul of a complete philosophy. Giving up all past theories
+  as useless, Herbert professedly endeavours to constitute a new and
+  true system. Truth, which he defines as a just conformation of the
+  faculties with one another and with their objects, he distributed into
+  four classes or stages: (1) truth in the thing or the truth of the
+  object; (2) truth of the appearance; (3) truth of the apprehension
+  (_conceptus_); (4) truth of the intellect. The faculties of the mind
+  are as numerous as the differences of their objects, and are
+  accordingly innumerable; but they may be arranged in four groups. The
+  first and fundamental and most certain group is the _Natural
+  Instinct_, to which belong the [Greek: koinai ennoiai], the _notitiae
+  communes_, which are innate, of divine origin and indisputable. The
+  second group, the next in certainty, is the _sensus internus_ (under
+  which head Herbert discusses amongst others love, hate, fear,
+  conscience with its _communis notitia_, and free will); the third is
+  the _sensus externus_; and the fourth is _discursus_, reasoning, to
+  which, as being the least certain, we have recourse when the other
+  faculties fail. The ratiocinative faculties proceed by division and
+  analysis, by questioning, and are slow and gradual in their movement;
+  they take aid from the other faculties, those of the _instinctus
+  naturalis_ being always the final test. Herbert's categories or
+  questions to be used in investigation are ten in number whether (a
+  thing is), what, of what sort, how much, in what relation, how, when,
+  where, whence, wherefore. No faculty, rightly used, can err "even in
+  dreams"; badly exercised, reasoning becomes the source of almost all
+  our errors. The discussion of the _notitiae communes_ is the most
+  characteristic part of the book. The exposition of them, though highly
+  dogmatic, is at times strikingly Kantian in substance. "So far are
+  these elements or sacred principles from being derived from experience
+  or observation that without some of them, or at least some one of
+  them, we can neither experience nor even observe." Unless we felt
+  driven by them to explore the nature of things, "it would never occur
+  to us to distinguish one thing from another." It cannot be said that
+  Herbert proves the existence of the common notions; he does not deduce
+  them or even give any list of them. But each faculty has its common
+  notion; and they may be distinguished by six marks, their _priority_,
+  _independence_, _universality_, _certainty_, _necessity_ (for the
+  well-being of man), and _immediacy_. Law is based on certain _common
+  notions_; so is religion. Though Herbert expressly defines the scope
+  of his book as dealing with the intellect, not faith, it is the common
+  notions of religion he has illustrated most fully; and it is plain
+  that it is in this part of his system that he is chiefly interested.
+  The common notions of religion are the famous five articles, which
+  became the charter of the English deists (see DEISM). There is little
+  polemic against the received form of Christianity, but Herbert's
+  attitude towards the Church's doctrine is distinctly negative, and he
+  denies revelation except to the individual soul. In the _De religione
+  gentilium_ (completed 1645, published Amsterdam, 1663, translated into
+  English by W. Lewis, London, 1705) he gives what may be called, in
+  Hume's words, "a natural history of religion." By examining the
+  heathen religions Herbert finds, to his great delight, the
+  universality of his five great articles, and that these are clearly
+  recognizable under their absurdities as they are under the rites,
+  ceremonies and polytheism invented by sacerdotal superstition. The
+  same vein is maintained in the tracts _De causis errorum_, an
+  unfinished work on logical fallacies, _Religio laici_, and _Ad
+  sacerdotes de religione laici_ (1645). In the _De veritate_ Herbert
+  produced the first purely metaphysical treatise written by an
+  Englishman, and in the _De religione gentilium_ one of the earliest
+  studies extant in comparative theology; while both his metaphysical
+  speculations and his religious views are throughout distinguished by
+  the highest originality and provoked considerable controversy. His
+  achievements in historical writing are vastly inferior, and vitiated
+  by personal aims and his preoccupation to gain the royal favour.
+  Herbert's first historical work is the _Expeditio Buckinghami ducis_
+  (published in a Latin translation in 1656 and in the original English
+  by the earl of Powis for the Philobiblon Society in 1860), a defence
+  of Buckingham's conduct of the ill-fated expedition of 1627. _The Life
+  and Raigne of King Henry VIII._ (1649) derives its chief value from
+  its composition from original documents, but is ill-proportioned, and
+  the author judges the character and statesmanship of Henry with too
+  obvious a partiality.
+
+  His poems, published in 1665 (reprinted and edited by J. Churton
+  Collins in 1881), show him in general a faithful disciple of Donne,
+  obscure and uncouth. His satires are miserable compositions, but a few
+  of his lyrical verses show power of reflection and true inspiration,
+  while his use of the metre afterwards employed by Tennyson in his "In
+  Memoriam" is particularly happy and effective. His Latin poems are
+  evidence of his scholarship. Three of these had appeared together with
+  the _De causis errorum_ in 1645. To these works must be added _A
+  Dialogue between a Tutor and a Pupil_ (1768; a treatise on education,
+  MS. in the Bodleian Library); a treatise on the king's supremacy in
+  the Church (MS. in the Record Office and at Queen's College, Oxford),
+  and his well-known autobiography, first published by Horace Walpole in
+  1764, a naive and amusing narrative, too much occupied, however, with
+  his duels and amorous adventures, to the exclusion of more creditable
+  incidents in his career, such as his contributions to philosophy and
+  history, his intimacy with Donne, Ben Jonson, Selden and Carew,
+  Casaubon, Gassendi and Grotius, or his embassy in France, in relation
+  to which he only described the splendour of his retinue and his social
+  triumphs.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The autobiography edited by Sidney Lee with
+  correspondence from add. MSS. 7082 (1886); article in the _Dict. of
+  Nat. Biog._ by the same writer and the list of authorities there
+  collated; _Hist. MSS. Comm. Rep._ x. app. iv., 378; _Lord Herbert de
+  Cherbury_, by Charles de Remusat (1874); _Eduard, Lord Herbert von
+  Cherbury_, by C. Guttler (a criticism of his philosophy; 1897);
+  _Collections Historical and Archaeological_ relating to
+  Montgomeryshire, vols. vii., xi., xx.; R. Warner's _Epistolary
+  Curiosities_, i. ser.; Reid's works, edited by Sir William Hamilton;
+  _National Review_, xxxv. 661 (Leslie Stephen); Locke's _Essay on Human
+  Understanding_; Wood, _Ath. Oxon._ (Bliss), iii. 239; _Gentleman's
+  Magazine_ (1816), i. 201 (print of remains of his birthplace); _Lord
+  Herbert's Poems_, ed. by J. Churton Collins (1881); Aubrey's _Lives of
+  Eminent Men_; also works quoted under DEISM.
+
+
+
+
+HERBERT OF LEA, SIDNEY HERBERT, 1ST BARON (1810-1861), English
+statesman, was the younger son of the 11th earl of Pembroke. Educated at
+Harrow and Oriel, Oxford, he made a reputation at the Oxford Union as a
+speaker, and entered the House of Commons as Conservative member for a
+division of Wiltshire in 1832. Under Peel he held minor offices, and in
+1845 was included in the cabinet as secretary at war, and again held
+this office in 1852-1855, being responsible for the War Office during
+the Crimean difficulties, and in 1859. It was Sidney Herbert who sent
+Florence Nightingale out to the Crimea, and he led the movement for War
+Office reform after the war, the hard work entailed causing his
+breakdown in health, so that in July 1861, having been created a baron,
+he had to resign office, and died on the 2nd of August 1861. His statue
+was placed in front of the War Office in Pall Mall. He was succeeded in
+the title by his eldest son, who later became 13th earl of Pembroke, and
+the barony is now merged in that earldom; his second son became 14th
+earl. Another son, the Hon. Michael Herbert (1857-1904), was British
+Ambassador at Washington in succession to Lord Pauncefote.
+
+  A life of Lord Herbert by Lord Stanmore was published in 1906.
+
+
+
+
+HERBERTON, a mining town of Cardwell county, Queensland, Australia, 55
+m. S.W. of Cairns. Pop. (1901) 2806. Tin was discovered in the locality
+in 1879, and to this mineral the town chiefly owes its prosperity,
+though copper, bismuth and some silver and gold are also found.
+Atherton, 12 m. from the town, is served by rail from Cairns, which is
+the port for the Herberton district.
+
+
+
+
+HERCULANEUM, an ancient city of Italy, situated about two-thirds of a
+mile from the Portici station of the railway from Naples to Pompeii. The
+ruins are less frequently visited than those of Pompeii, not only
+because they are smaller in extent and of less obvious interest, but
+also because they are more difficult of access. The history of their
+discovery and exploration, and the artistic and literary relics which
+they have yielded, are worthy, however, of particular notice. The small
+part of the city, which was investigated at the spot called _Gli scavi
+nuovi_ (the new excavations) was discovered in the 19th century. But the
+more important works were executed in the 18th century; and of the
+buildings then explored at a great depth, by means of tunnels, none is
+visible except the theatre, the orchestra of which lies 85 ft. below the
+surface.
+
+The brief notices of the classical writers inform us that Herculaneum[1]
+was a small city of Campania between Neapolis and Pompeii, that it was
+situated between two streams at the foot of Vesuvius on a hill
+overlooking the sea, and that its harbour was at all seasons safe. With
+regard to its earlier history nothing is known. The account given by
+Dionysius repeats a tradition which was most natural for a city bearing
+the name of Hercules. Strabo follows up the topographical data with a
+few brief historical statements--[Greek: Oskoi eichon kai tauten kai ten
+ephexes Pompeian ... eita Turrhenoi kai Pelasgoi, meta tauta Saunitai].
+But leaving the questions suggested by these names (see ETRURIA,
+&c.),[2] as well as those which relate to the origin of Pompeii (q.v.),
+it is sufficient here to say that the first historical record about
+Herculaneum has been handed down by Livy (viii. 25), where he relates
+how the city fell under the power of Rome during the Samnite wars. It
+remained faithful to Rome for a long time, but it joined the Italian
+allies in the Social War. Having submitted anew in June of the year 665
+(88 B.C.), it appears to have been less severely treated than Pompeii,
+and to have escaped the imposition of a colony of Sulla's veterans,
+although Zumpt has suspected the contrary (_Comm. epigr._ i. 259). It
+afterwards became a municipium, and enjoyed great prosperity towards the
+close of the republic and in the earlier times of the empire, since many
+noble families of Rome selected this pleasant spot for the construction
+of splendid villas, one of which indeed belonged to the imperial house
+(Seneca, _De ira_, iii.), and another to the family of Calpurnius Piso.
+By means of the Via Campana it had easy communication north-westward
+with Neapolis, Puteoli and Capua, and thence by the Via Appia with Rome;
+and southwards with Pompeii and Nuceria, and thence with Lucania and the
+Bruttii. In the year A.D. 63 it suffered terribly from the earthquake
+which, according to Seneca, "Campaniam nunquam securam huius mali,
+indemnem tamen, et toties defunctam metu magna strage vastavit. Nam et
+Herculanensis oppidi pars ruit dubieque stant etiam quae relicta sunt"
+(_Nat. quaest._ vi. 1). Hardly had Herculaneum completed the restoration
+of some of its principal buildings (cf. Mommsen, I.N. n. 2384; _Catalogo
+del Museo Nazionale di Napoli_, n. 1151) when it fell beneath the great
+eruption of the year 79, described by Pliny the younger (_Ep._ vi. 16,
+20), in which Pompeii also was destroyed, with other flourishing cities
+of Campania. According to the commonest account, on the 23rd of August
+of that year Pliny the elder, who had command of the Roman fleet at
+Misenum, set out to render assistance to a young lady of noble family
+named Rectina and others dwelling on that coast, but, as there was no
+escape by sea, the little harbour having been on a sudden filled up so
+as to be inaccessible, he was obliged to abandon to their fate those
+people of Herculaneum who had managed to flee from their houses,
+overwhelmed in a moment by the material poured forth by Vesuvius. But
+the text of Pliny the younger, where this account is given, has been
+subjected to various interpretations; and from the comparison of other
+classical testimonies and the study of the excavations it has been
+concluded that it is impossible to determine the date of the
+catastrophe, though there are satisfactory arguments to justify the
+statement that the event took place in the autumn. The opinion that
+immediately after the first outbreak of Vesuvius a torrent of lava was
+ejected over Herculaneum was refuted by the scholars of the 18th
+century, and their refutation is confirmed by Beule (_Le Drame du
+Vesuve_, p. 240 seq.). And the last recensions of the passage quoted
+from Pliny, aided by an inscription,[3] prove that Rectina cannot have
+been the name of the harbour described by Beule (ib. pp. 122, 247), but
+the name of a lady who had implored succour, the wife of Caesius Bassus,
+or rather Tascius (cf. Pliny, ed. Keil, Leipzig, 1870; Aulus Persius,
+ed. Jahn, _Sat._ vi.). The shore, moreover, according to the accurate
+studies of the engineer Michele Ruggiero, director of the excavations,
+was not altered by the causes adduced by Beule (p. 125), but by a
+simpler event. "It is certain," he says (_Pompei e la regione sotterrata
+dal Vesuvio l'anno 79_, Naples, 1879, p. 21 seq.), "that the districts
+between the south and west, and those between the south and east, were
+overwhelmed in two quite different ways. From Torre Annunziata (which is
+believed to be the site of the ancient Oplontii) to San Giovanni a
+Teduccio, for a distance of about 9 m., there flowed a muddy eruption
+which in Herculaneum and the neighbouring places, where it was most
+abundant, raised the level of the country more than 65 ft. The matter
+transported consisted of soil of various kinds--sand, ashes, fragments
+of lava, pozzolana and whitish pumice, enclosing grains of uncalcined
+lime, similar in every respect to those of Pompeii. In the part of
+Herculaneum already excavated the corridors in the upper portions of the
+theatre are compactly filled, up to the head of the arches, with
+pozzolana and pumice transformed into tufa (which proves that the
+formation of this stone may take place in a comparatively short time).
+Tufa is also found in the lowest part of the city towards the sea in
+front of the few houses that have been discovered; and in the very high
+banks that surround them, as also in the lowest part of the theatre,
+there are plainly to be seen earth, sand, ashes, fragments of lava and
+pumice, with little distinction of strata, almost always confused and
+mingled together, and varying from spot to spot in degree of
+compactness. It is clear that this immense congeries of earth and stones
+could not flow in a dry state over those 5 m. of country (in the
+beginning very steep, and at intervals almost level), where certainly it
+would have been arrested and all accumulated in a mound; but it must
+have been borne along by a great quantity of water, the effects of which
+may be distinctly recognized, not only in the filling and choking up
+even of the most narrow, intricate and remote parts of the buildings,
+but also in the formation of the tufa, in which water has so great a
+share; for it cannot be supposed that enough of it has filtered through
+so great a depth of earth. The torrent ran in a few hours to the sea,
+and formed that shallow or lagoon called by Pliny _Subitum Vadum_, which
+prevented the ships approaching the shores." Hence it is that, while
+many made their escape from Pompeii (which was overwhelmed by the fall
+of the small stones and afterwards by the rain of ashes), comparatively
+few can have managed to escape from Herculaneum, and these, according to
+the interpretation given to the inscription preserved in the National
+Museum (Mommsen, _I.N._ n. 2455), found shelter in the neighbouring city
+of Neapolis, where they inhabited a quarter called that of the buried
+city (Suetonius, _Titus_, 8; _C.I.L._ x. No. 1492, in Naples: "Regio
+primaria splendidissima Herculanensium"). The name of Herculaneum, which
+for some time remained attached to the site of the disaster, is
+mentioned in the later itineraries; but in the course of the middle ages
+all recollection of it perished.
+
+  In 1719, while Prince Elbeuf of the house of Lorraine, in command of
+  the armies of Charles VI., was seeking crushed marble to make plaster
+  for his new villa near Portici, he learned from the peasants that
+  there were in the vicinity some pits from which they not only quarried
+  excellent marble, but had extracted many statues in the course of
+  years (see Jorio, _Notizia degli scavi d' Ercolano_, Naples, 1827). In
+  1738, while Colonel D. Rocco de Alcubierre was directing the works for
+  the construction of the "Reali Delizie" at Portici, he received orders
+  from Charles IV. (later, Charles III. of Spain) to begin excavations
+  on the spot where it had been reported to the king that the Elbeuf
+  statues had been found. At first it was believed that a temple was
+  being explored, but afterwards the inscriptions proved that the
+  building was a theatre. This discovery excited the greatest commotion
+  among the scholars of all nations; and many of them hastened to Naples
+  to see the marvellous statues of the Balbi and the paintings on the
+  walls. But everything was kept private, as the government wished to
+  reserve to itself the right of illustrating the monuments. First of
+  all Monsignor Bayardi was brought from Rome and commissioned to write
+  about the antiquities which were being collected in the museum at
+  Portici under the care of Camillo Paderni, and when it was recognized
+  that the prelate had not sufficient learning, and by the progress of
+  the excavations other most abundant material was accumulated, about
+  which at once scholars and courtiers were anxious to be informed,
+  Bernardo Tanucci, having become secretary of state in 1755, founded
+  the Accademia Ercolanese, which published the principal works on
+  Herculaneum (_Le Pitture ed i bronzi d' Ercolano_, 8 vols., 1757,
+  1792; _Dissertations isagogicae ad Herculanensium voluminum
+  explanationem pars prima_, 1797). The criterion which guided the
+  studies of the academicians was far from being worthy of unqualified
+  praise, and consequently their work did not always meet the approval
+  of the best scholars who had the opportunity of seeing the monuments.
+  Among these was Winckelmann, who in his letters gave ample notices of
+  the excavations and the antiquities which he was able to visit on
+  several occasions. Other notices were furnished by Gori, _Symbolae
+  litterariae Florentinae_ (1748, 1751), by Marcello Venuti,
+  _Descrizione delle prime scoperte d' Ercolano_ (Rome, 1748), and
+  Scipione Maffei, _Tre lettere intorno alle scoperte d' Ercolano_
+  (Verona, 1748). The excavations, which continued for more than forty
+  years (1738-1780), were executed at first under the immediate
+  direction of Alcubierre (1738-1741), and then with the assistance of
+  the engineers Rorro and Bardet (1741-1745), Carl Weber (1750-1764),
+  and Francesco La Vega. After the death of Alcubierre (1780) the
+  last-named was appointed director-in-chief of the excavations; but
+  from that time the investigations at Herculaneum were intermitted, and
+  the researches at Pompeii were vigorously carried on. Resumed in 1827,
+  the excavations at Herculaneum were shortly after suspended, nor were
+  the new attempts made in 1866 with the money bestowed by King Victor
+  Emmanuel attended with success, being impeded by the many dangers
+  arising from the houses built overhead. The meagreness of the results
+  obtained by the occasional works executed in the last century, and the
+  fact that the investigators were unfortunate enough to strike upon
+  places already explored, gave rise to the opinion that the whole area
+  of the city had been crossed by tunnels in the time of Charles III.
+  and in the beginning of the reign of Ferdinand IV. And although it is
+  recognized that the works had not been prosecuted with the caution
+  that they required, yet in view of the serious difficulties that would
+  attend the collection of the little that had been left by the first
+  excavators, every proposal for new investigations has been abandoned.
+  But in a memoir which Professor Barnabei read in the Reale Accademia
+  dei Lincei (_Atti della R. Ac._ series iii. vol. ii. p. 751) he
+  undertook to prove that the researches made by the government in the
+  18th century did not cover any great area. The antiquities excavated
+  at Herculaneum in that century (i.e. the 18th) form a collection of
+  the highest scientific and artistic value. They come partly from the
+  buildings of the ancient city (theatre, basilica, houses and forum),
+  and partly from the private villa of a great Roman family (cf.
+  Comparetti and de Petra, _La Villa Ercolanese dei Pisoni_, Turin,
+  1883). From the city come, among many other marble statues, the two
+  equestrian statues of the Balbi (_Museo Borbonico_, vol. ii. pl.
+  xxxviii.-xxxix.), and the great imperial and municipal bronze statues.
+  Mural paintings of extraordinary beauty were also discovered here,
+  such as those that represent Theseus after the slaughter of the
+  Minotaur (Helbig, _Wandgemalde_, Leipzig, 1878, No. 1214), Chiron
+  teaching Achilles the art of playing on the lyre (ibid. No. 1291), and
+  Hercules finding Telephus who is being suckled by the hind (ibid. No.
+  1143).
+
+  Notwithstanding subsequent discoveries of stupendous paintings in the
+  gardens of the Villa Farnesina on the banks of the Tiber, the
+  monochromes of Herculaneum remain among the finest specimens of the
+  exquisite taste and consummate skill displayed by the ancient artists.
+  Among the best preserved is Leto and Niobe, which has been the subject
+  of so many studies and so many publications (ibid. No. 1706). There is
+  also a considerable number of lapidary inscriptions edited in vol. ii.
+  of the epigraphic collection of the _Cat. del Mus. Naz. di Napoli_.
+  The Villa Suburbana has given us a good number of marble busts, and
+  the so-called statue of Aristides, but above all that splendid
+  collection of bronze statues and busts mostly reproductions of famous
+  Greek works now to be found in the Naples Museum. It is thence that we
+  have obtained the reposing Hermes, the drunken Silenus, the sleeping
+  Faunus, the dancing girls, the bust called Plato's, that believed to
+  be Seneca's, the two quoit-throwers or discoboli, and so many
+  masterpieces more, figured by the academicians in their volume on the
+  bronzes. But a still further discovery made in the Villa Suburbana
+  contributed to magnify the greatness of Herculaneum; within its walls
+  was found the famous library, of which, counting both entire and
+  fragmentary volumes, 1803 papyri are preserved. Among the nations
+  which took the greatest interest in the discovery of the Herculaneum
+  library, the most honourable rank belongs to England, which sent
+  Hayter and other scholars to Naples to solicit the publication of the
+  volumes. Of the 341 papyri which have been unrolled, 195 have been
+  published (_Herculanensium voluminum quae supersunt_ (Naples,
+  1793-1809); _Collectio altera_, 1862-1876). They contain works by
+  Epicurus, Demetrius, Polystratus, Colotes, Chrysippus, Carniscus and
+  Philodemus. The names of the authors are in themselves sufficient to
+  show that the library belonged to a person whose principal study was
+  the Epicurean philosophy. But of the great master of this school only
+  a few works have been found. Of his treatise [Greek: Peri physeos],
+  divided into 37 books, it is known that there were three copies in the
+  library (_Coll. alt._ vi.). Professor Comparetti, studying the first
+  fasciculus of volume xi. of the same new collection, recognized most
+  important fragments of the _Ethics_ of Epicurus, and these he
+  published in 1879 in Nos. ix. and xi. of the _Rivista di filologia e
+  d' istruzione classica_ (Turin). Even the other authors above
+  mentioned are but poorly represented, with the exception of
+  Philodemus, of whom 26 different treatises have been recognized. But
+  all these philosophic discussions, belonging for the most part to an
+  author less than secondary among the Epicureans, fall short of the
+  high expectations excited by the first discovery of the library. Among
+  the many volumes unrolled only a few are of historical
+  importance--that edited by Bucheler, which treats of the philosophers
+  of the academy (_Acad. phil. index Hercul._, Greifswald, 1859), and
+  that edited by Comparetti, which deals with the Stoics ("Papiro
+  ercolanese inedito," in _Rivista di fil. e d' ist. class._ anno iii.
+  fasc. x.-xii.). To appreciate the value of the volumes unrolled but
+  not yet published (for 146 vols. were only copied and not printed) the
+  student must read Comparetti's paper, "Relazione sui papiri
+  ercolanesi." Contributions of some value have been made to the study
+  of Herculaneum fragments by Spengel ("Die hercul. Rollen," in
+  _Philologus_, 1863, suppl. vol.), and Gomperz (_Hercul. Studien_,
+  Leipzig, 1865-1866, cf. _Zeitschr. f. osterr. Gymn._, 1867-1872).
+  There are in the library some volumes written in Latin, which,
+  according to Boot (_Notice sur les manuscrits trouves a Herculaneum_,
+  Amsterdam, 1845), were found tied up in a bundle apart. Of these we
+  know 18, but they are all so damaged that hardly any of them can be
+  deciphered. One with verses relating to the battle of Actium is
+  believed to belong to a poem of Rabirius. The numerical preponderance
+  of the works of Philodemus led some people to believe that this had
+  been the library of that philosopher. Professor Comparetti has thrown
+  out a conjecture (cf. Comparetti and de Petra, op. cit.) that the
+  library was collected by Lucius Piso Caesoninus (see _Regione
+  sotterrata dal Vesuvio_, Naples, 1879, p. 159 sq.), but this
+  conjecture has not found many supporters. Professor de Petra (in the
+  same work) has also published the official notices upon the
+  antiquities unearthed in the sumptuous villa, giving the plan
+  executed by Weber and recovered by chance by the director of
+  excavations, Michele Ruggiero. This plan, which is here reproduced
+  from de Petra[4] is the only satisfactory document for the topography
+  of Herculaneum; for the plan of the theatre published in the
+  _Bullettino archeologico italiano_ (Naples, 1861, i. 53, tab. iii.)
+  was executed in 1747, when the excavations were not completed. And
+  even for the history of the "finds" made in the Villa Suburbana the
+  necessity for further studies makes itself felt, since there is a lack
+  of agreement between the accounts given by Alcubierre and Weber and
+  those communicated to the _Philosophical Transactions_ (London, vol.
+  x.) by Camillo Paderni, conservator of the Portici Museum.
+
+  [Illustration: Plan of Villa Erolanese, Herculaneum.]
+
+  Among the older works relating to Herculaneum, in addition to those
+  already quoted, may be mentioned de Brosses, _Lettre sur l'etat actuel
+  de la ville souterraine d'Heraclea_ (Paris, 1750); Seigneux de
+  Correvon, _Lettre sur la decouverte de l'ancienne ville d'Herculane_
+  (Yverdon, 1770); David, _Les Antiquites d'Herculaneum_ (Paris, 1780);
+  D' Ancora Gaetano, _Prospetto storico-fisico degli scavi d' Ercolano e
+  di Pompei_ (Naples, 1803); Venuti, _Prime Scoverte di Ercolano_ (Rome,
+  1748); and Romanelli, _Viaggio ad Ercolano_ (Naples, 1811). A full
+  list will be found in vol. i. of _Museo Borbonico_ (Naples, 1824), pp.
+  1-11.
+
+  The most important reference work is C. Waldstein and L. Shoobridge,
+  _Herculaneum, Past, Present and Future_ (London, 1908); it contains
+  full references to the history and the explorations, and to the
+  buildings and objects found (with illustrations). Miss E. R. Barker's
+  _Buried Herculaneum_ (1908) is exceedingly useful.
+
+  In 1904 Professor Waldstein expounded both in Europe and in America an
+  international scheme for thorough investigation of the site.
+  Negotiations of a highly complex character ensued with the Italian
+  government, which ultimately in 1908 decided that the work should be
+  undertaken by Italian scholars with Italian funds. The work was begun
+  in the autumn of 1908, but financial difficulties with property owners
+  in Resina immediately arose with the result that progress was
+  practically stopped.     (F. B.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] A fragment of L. Sisenna calls it "Oppidum tumulo in excelso loco
+    propter mare, parvis moenibus, inter duas fluvias, infra Vesuvium
+    collocatum" (lib. iv., fragm. 53, Peters). Of one of these rivers
+    this historian again makes mention in the passage where probably he
+    related the capture of Herculaneum by Minatius Magius and T. Didius
+    (Velleius Paterculus ii. 16). Further topographical details are
+    supplied by Strabo, who, after speaking about Naples,
+    continues--[Greek: hechomenon de phrourion estin Hrakleion ekkeimenen
+    eis ten thalattan akran echon, katapneomenon Libi thaumastos hoshth
+    hugieinen poiein ten katoikian]. Dionysius of Halicarnassus relates
+    that Heracles, in the place where he stopped with his fleet on the
+    return voyage from Iberia, founded a little city ([Greek:
+    polichnen]), to which he gave his own name; and he adds that this
+    city was in his time inhabited by the Romans, and that, situated
+    between Neapolis and Pompeii, it had [Greek: limenas en panti kairo
+    bebaious] (i. 44).
+
+  [2] See also Niebuhr, _Hist. of Rome_, i. 76, and Mommsen, _Die
+    unteritalischen Dialekte_ (1850), p. 314; for later discussions see
+    OSCA LINGUA, PELASGIANS.
+
+  [3] _C.I.L._ ii. No. 3866. This Spanish inscription refers to a
+    Rectina who died at the age of 18 and was the wife of Voconius
+    Romanus. It is quite possible that she was the Rectina whom Pliny the
+    elder wished to assist during the disaster of Vesuvius, for her
+    husband, Voconius Romanus, was an intimate friend of Pliny the
+    younger. The latter addressed four letters to Voconius (i. 5, ii. 1,
+    iii. 13, ix. 28), in another letter commended him to the emperor
+    Trajan (x. 3), and in another (ii. 13) says of him: "Hunc ego cum
+    simul studere, mus arte familiariterque dilexi; ille meus in urbe,
+    ille in secessu contubernalis; cum hoc seria et jocos miscui."
+
+  [4] The diagram shows the arrangement and proportions of the Villa
+    Ercolanese. The dotted lines show the course taken by the
+    excavations, which began at the lower part of the plan.
+
+
+
+
+HERCULANO DE CARVALHO E ARAUJO, ALEXANDRE (1810-1877), Portuguese
+historian, was born in Lisbon of humble stock, his grandfather having
+been a foreman stonemason in the royal employ. He received his early
+education, comprising Latin, logic and rhetoric, at the Necessidades
+Monastery, and spent a year at the Royal Marine Academy studying
+mathematics with the intention of entering on a commercial career. In
+1828 Portugal fell under the absolute rule of D. Miguel, and Herculano,
+becoming involved in the unsuccessful military _pronunciamento_ of
+August 1831, had to leave Portugal clandestinely and take refuge in
+England and France. In 1832 he accompanied the Liberal expedition to
+Terceira as a volunteer, and was one of D. Pedro's famous army of 7500
+men who landed at the Mindello and occupied Oporto. He took part in all
+the actions of the great siege, and at the same time served as a
+librarian in the city archives. He published his first volume of verses,
+_A Voz de Propheta_, in 1832, and two years later another entitled _A
+Harpa do Crente_. Privation had made a man of him, and in these little
+books he proves himself a poet of deep feeling and considerable power of
+expression. The stirring incidents in the political emancipation of
+Portugal inspired his muse, and he describes the bitterness of exile,
+the adventurous expedition to Terceira, the heroic defence of Oporto,
+and the final combats of liberty. In 1837 he founded the _Panorama_ in
+imitation of the _English Penny Magazine_, and there and in
+_Illustracao_ he published the historical tales which were afterwards
+collected into _Lendas e Narratives_; in the same year he became royal
+librarian at the Ajuda Palace, which enabled him to continue his studies
+of the past. The _Panorama_ had a large circulation and influence, and
+Herculano's biographical sketches of great men and his articles of
+literary and historical criticism did much to educate the middle class
+by acquainting them with the story of their nation, and with the
+progress of knowledge and the state of letters in foreign countries. On
+entering parliament in 1840 he resigned the editorship to devote himself
+to history, but he still remained its most important contributor.
+
+Up to the age of twenty-five Herculano had been a poet, but he then
+abandoned poetry to Garrett, and after several essays in that direction
+he definitely introduced the historical novel into Portugal in 1844 by a
+book written in imitation of Walter Scott. _Eurico_ treats of the fall
+of the Visigothic monarchy and the beginnings of resistance in the
+Asturias which gave birth to the Christian kingdoms of the Peninsula,
+while the _Monge de Cister_, published in 1848, describes the time of
+King John I., when the middle class and the municipalities first
+asserted their power and elected a king in opposition to the nobility.
+From an artistic standpoint, these stories are rather laboured
+productions, besides being ultra-romantic in tone; but it must be
+remembered that they were written mainly with an educational object,
+and, moreover, they deserve high praise for their style. Herculano had
+greater book learning than Scott, but lacked descriptive talent and
+skill in dialogue. His touch is heavy, and these novels show no dramatic
+power, which accounts for his failure as a playwright, but their
+influence was as great as their followers were many, and they still find
+readers. These and editions of two old chronicles, the _Chronica de D.
+Sebastiao_ (1839) and the _Annaes del rei D. Joao III_ (1844), prepared
+Herculano for his life's work, and the year 1846 saw the first volume of
+his _History of Portugal from the Beginning of the Monarchy to the end
+of the Reign of Affonso III._, a book written on critical lines and
+based on documents. The difficulties he encountered in producing it were
+very great, for the foundations had been ill-prepared by his
+predecessors, and he was obliged to be artisan and architect at the same
+time. He had to collect MSS. from all parts of Portugal, decipher,
+classify and weigh them before he could begin work, and then he found it
+necessary to break with precedents and destroy traditions. Serious
+students in Portugal and abroad welcomed the book as an historical work
+of the first rank, for its evidence of careful research, its able
+marshalling of facts, its learning and its painful accuracy, while the
+sculptural simplicity of the style and the correctness of the diction
+have made it a Portuguese classic. The first volume, however, gave rise
+to a celebrated controversy, because Herculano had reduced the famous
+battle of Ourique, which was supposed to have seen the birth of the
+Portuguese monarchy, to the dimensions of a mere skirmish, and denied
+the apparition of Christ to King Affonso, a fable first circulated in
+the 15th century. Herculano was denounced from the pulpit and the press
+for his lack of patriotism and piety, and after bearing the attack for
+some time his pride drove him to reply. In a letter to the cardinal
+patriarch of Lisbon entitled _Eu e o Clero_ (1850), he denounced the
+fanaticism and ignorance of the clergy in plain terms, and this provoked
+a fierce pamphlet war marked by much personal abuse. The professor of
+Arabic in Lisbon intervened to sustain the accepted view of the battle,
+and charged Herculano and his supporter Gayangos with ignorance of the
+Arab historians and of their language. The conduct of the controversy,
+which lasted some years, did credit to none of the contending parties,
+but Herculano's statement of the facts is now universally accepted as
+correct. The second volume of his history appeared in 1847, the third in
+1849 and the fourth in 1853. In his youth, the excesses of absolutism
+had made Herculano a Liberal, and the attacks on his history turned this
+man, full of sentiment and deep religious conviction, into an
+anti-clerical who began to distinguish between political Catholicism and
+Christianity. His _History of the Origin and Establishment of the
+Inquisition_ (1854-1855), relating the thirty years' struggle between
+King John III. and the Jews--he to establish the tribunal and they to
+prevent him--was compiled, as the preface showed, to stem the
+Ultramontane reaction, but none the less carried weight because it was a
+recital of events with little or no comment or evidence of passion in
+its author. Next to these two books his study, _Do Estado das classes
+servas na Peninsula desde o VII. ate o XII. seculo_, is Herculano's most
+valuable contribution to history. In 1856 he began editing a series of
+_Portugalliae monumenta historica_, but personal differences between him
+and the keeper of the Archive office, which he was forced to frequent,
+caused him to interrupt his historical studies, and on the death of his
+friend King Pedro V. he left the Ajuda and retired to a country house
+near Santarem.
+
+Disillusioned with men and despairing of the future of his country, he
+spent the rest of his life devoted to agricultural pursuits, and rarely
+emerged from his retirement; when he did so, it was to fight political
+and religious reaction. Once he had defended the monastic orders,
+advocating their reform and not their suppression, supported the rural
+clergy and idealized the village priest in his _Parocho da Aldeia_,
+after the manner of Goldsmith in the _Vicar of Wakefield_.
+Unfortunately, however, the brilliant epoch of the alliance of
+Liberalism and Catholicism, represented on its literary side by
+Chateaubriand and by Lamartine, to whose poetic school Herculano had
+belonged, was past, and fanatical attacks and the progress of events
+drove this former champion of the Church into conflict with the
+ecclesiastical authorities. His protest against the Concordat of the
+21st of February 1857 between Portugal and the Holy See, regulating the
+Portuguese Padroado in the East, his successful opposition to the entry
+of foreign religious orders, and his advocacy of civil marriage, were
+the chief landmarks in his battle with Ultra-montanism, and his _Estudos
+sobre o Casamento Civil_ were put on the Index. Finally in 1871 he
+attacked the dogmas of the Immaculate Conception and papal
+infallibility, and fell into line with the Old Catholics. In the domain
+of letters he remained until his death a veritable pontiff, and an
+article or book of his was an event celebrated from one end of Portugal
+to the other. The nation continued to look up to him for mental
+leadership, but, in his later years, lacking hope himself, he could not
+stimulate others or use to advantage the powers conferred upon him. In
+politics he remained a constitutional Liberal of the old type, and for
+him the people were the middle classes in opposition to the lower, which
+he saw to have been the supporters of tyranny in all ages, while he
+considered Radicalism to mean a return via anarchy to absolutism.
+However, though he conducted a political propaganda in the newspaper
+press in his early days, Herculano never exercised much influence in
+politics. Grave as most of his writings are, they include a short
+description of a crossing from Jersey to Granville, in which he
+satirizes English character and customs, and reveals an unexpected sense
+of humour. A rare capacity for tedious work, a dour Catonian rectitude,
+a passion for truth, pride, irritability at criticism and independence
+of character, are the marks of Herculano as a man. He could be broken
+but never bent, and his rude frankness accorded with his hard, sombre
+face, and alienated men's sympathies though it did not lose him their
+respect. His lyrism is vigorous, feeling, austere and almost entirely
+subjective and personal, while his pamphlets are distinguished by energy
+of conviction, strength of affirmation, and contempt for weaker and more
+ignorant opponents. His _History of Portugal_ is a great but incomplete
+monument. A lack of imagination and of the philosophic spirit prevented
+him from penetrating or drawing characters, but his analytical gift,
+joined to persevering toil and honesty of purpose enabled him to present
+a faithful account of ascertained facts and a satisfactory and lucid
+explanation of political and economic events. His remains lie in a
+majestic tomb in the Jeronymos at Belem, near Lisbon, which was raised
+by public subscription to the greatest modern historian of Portugal and
+of the Peninsula. His more important works have gone through many
+editions and his name is still one to conjure with.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Antonio de Serpa Pimentel, _Alexandre Herculano e o seu
+  tempo_ (Lisbon, 1881); A. Romero Ortiz, _La Litteratura Portuguesa en
+  el siglo XIX._ (Madrid, 1869); Moniz Barreto, _Revista de Portugal_
+  (July 1889).     (E. Pr.)
+
+
+
+
+HERCULES (O. Lat. _Hercoles_, _Hercles_), the latinized form of the
+mythical Heracles, the chief national hero of Hellas. The name [Greek:
+Herakles] ([Greek: Hera], and [Greek: kleos] = glory) is explained as
+"renowned through Hera" (i.e. in consequence of her persecution) or "the
+glory of Hera" i.e. of Argos. The thoroughly national character of
+Heracles is shown by his being the mythical ancestor of the Dorian
+dynastic tribe, while revered by Ionian Athens, Lelegian Opus and
+Aeolo-Phoenician Thebes, and closely associated with the Achaean heroes
+Peleus and Telamon. The Perseid Alcmena, wife of Amphitryon of Tiryns,
+was Hercules' mother, Zeus his father. After his father he is often
+called Amphitryoniades, and also Alcides, after the Perseid Alcaeus,
+father of Amphitryon. His mother and her husband lived at Thebes in
+exile as guests of King Creon. By the craft of Hera, his foe through
+life, his birth was delayed, and that of Eurystheus, son of Sthenelus of
+Argos, hastened, Zeus having in effect sworn that the elder of the two
+should rule the realm of Perseus. Hera sent two serpents to destroy the
+new-born Hercules, but he strangled them. He was trained in all manly
+accomplishments by heroes of the highest renown in each, until in a
+transport of anger at a reprimand he slew Linus, his instructor in
+music, with the lyre. Thereupon he was sent to tend Amphitryon's oxen,
+and at this period slew the lion of Mount Cithaeron. By freeing Thebes
+from paying tribute to the Minyans of Orchomenus he won Creon's
+daughter, Megara, to wife. Her children by him he killed in a frenzy
+induced by Hera. After purification he was sent by the Pythia to serve
+Eurystheus. Thus began the cycle of the twelve labours.
+
+  1. Wrestling with the Nemean lion.
+
+  2. Destruction of the Lernean hydra.
+
+  3. Capture of the Arcadian hind (a _stag_ in art).
+
+  4. Capture of the boar of Erymanthus, while chasing which he fought
+  the Centaurs and killed his friends Chiron and Pholus, this homicide
+  leading to Demeter's institution of _mysteries_.
+
+  5. Cleansing of the stables of Augeas.
+
+  6. Shooting the Stymphalian birds.
+
+  7. Capture of the Cretan bull subsequently slain by Theseus at
+  Marathon.
+
+  8. Capture of the man-eating mares of the Thracian Diomedes.
+
+  9. Seizure of the girdle of Hippolyte, queen of the Amazons.
+
+  10. Bringing the oxen of Geryones from Erythia in the far west, which
+  errand involved many adventures in the coast lands of the
+  Mediterranean, and the setting up of the "Pillars of Hercules" at the
+  Straits of Gibraltar.
+
+  11. Bringing the golden apples from the garden of the Hesperides.
+
+  12. Carrying Cerberus from Hades to the upper world.
+
+Most of the labours lead to various adventures called [Greek: parerga].
+On Hercules' return to Thebes he gave his wife Megara to his friend and
+charioteer Iolaus, son of Iphicles, and by beating Eurytus of Oechalia
+and his sons in a shooting match won a claim to the hand of his daughter
+Iole, whose family, however, except her brother Iphitus, withheld their
+consent to the union. Iphitus persuaded Hercules to search for Eurytus'
+lost oxen, but was killed by him at Tiryns in a frenzy. He consulted the
+Pythia about a cure for the consequent madness, but she declined to
+answer him. Whereupon he seized the oracular tripod, and so entered upon
+a contest with Apollo, which Zeus stopped by sending a flash of
+lightning between the combatants. The Pythia then sent him to serve the
+Lydian queen Omphale. He then, with Telamon, Peleus and Theseus, took
+Troy. He next helped the gods in the great battle against the giants. He
+destroyed sundry sea-monsters, set free the bound Prometheus, took part
+in the Argonautic voyage and the Calydonian boar hunt, made war against
+Augeas, and against Nestor and the Pylians, and restored Tyndareus to
+the sovereignty of Lacedaemon. He sustained many single combats, one
+very famous struggle being the wrestling with the Libyan Antaeus, son of
+Poseidon and Ge (Earth), who had to be held in the air, as he grew
+stronger every time he touched his mother, Earth. Hercules withstood
+Ares, Poseidon and Hera, as well as Apollo. The close of his career is
+assigned to Aetolia and Trachis. He wrestles with Achelous for Deianeira
+("destructive to husband"), daughter of Oeneus, king of Calydon,
+vanquishes the river god, and breaks off one of his horns, which as a
+horn of plenty is found as an attribute of Hercules in art. Driven from
+Calydon for homicide, he goes with Deianeira to Trachis. On the way he
+slays the centaur Nessus, who persuades Deianeira that his blood is a
+love-charm. From Trachis he wages successful war against the Dryopes and
+Lapithae as ally of Aegimius, king of the Dorians, who promised him a
+third of his realm, and after his death adopted Hyllus, his son by
+Deianeira. Finally Hercules attacks Eurytus, takes Oechalia and carries
+off Iola. Thereupon Deianeira, prompted by love and jealousy, sends him
+a tunic dipped in the blood of Nessus, and the unsuspecting hero puts it
+on just before sacrificing at the headland of Cenaeum in Euboea. (So far
+the dithyramb of Bacchylides xv. [xvi.], agrees with Sophocles'
+_Trachiniae_ as to the hero's end.) Mad with pain, he seizes Lichas, the
+messenger who had brought the fatal garment, and hurls him on the rocks;
+and then he wanders in agony to Mount Oeta, where he mounts a pyre,
+which, however, no one will kindle. At last Poeas, father of
+Philoctetes, takes pity on him, and is rewarded with the gift of his bow
+and arrows. The immortal part of Hercules passes to Olympus, where he is
+reconciled to Hera and weds her daughter Hebe. This account of the
+hero's principal labours, exploits and crimes is derived from the
+mythologists Apollodorus and Diodorus, who probably followed the
+_Heracleia_ by Peisander of Rhodes as to the twelve labours or that of
+Panyasis of Halicarnassus, but sundry variations of order and incident
+are found in classical literature.
+
+In one aspect Hercules is clearly a sun-god, being identified,
+especially in Cyprus and in Thasos (as Makar), with the Tyrian Melkarth.
+The third and twelfth labours may be solar, the horned hind representing
+the moon, and the carrying of Cerberus to the upper world an eclipse,
+while the last episode of the hero's tragedy is possibly a complete
+solar myth developed at Trachis. The winter sun is seen rising over the
+Cenaean promontory to toil across to Mount Oeta and disappear over it in
+a bank of fiery cloud. But more important and less speculative is the
+hero's aspect as a national type or an amalgamation of tribal types of
+physical force, of dauntless effort and endurance, of militant
+civilization, and of Hellenic enterprise, "stronger than everything
+except his own passions," and "at once above and below the noblest type
+of man" (Jebb). The fifth labour seems to symbolize some great
+improvement in the drainage of Elis. Strenuous devotion to the
+deliverance of mankind from dangers and pests is the "virtue" which, in
+Prodicus' famous apologue on the _Choice of Hercules_, the hero
+preferred to an easy and happy life. Ethically, Hercules symbolizes the
+attainment of glory and immortality by toil and suffering.
+
+The Old-Dorian Hercules is represented in three cycles of myth, the
+Argive, the Boeotian and the Thessalian; the legends of Arcadia,
+Aetolia, Lydia, &c., and Italy are either local or symbolical and
+comparatively late. The fatality by which Hercules kills so many friends
+as well as foes recalls the destroying Apollo; while his career
+frequently illustrates the Delphic views on blood-guiltiness and
+expiation. As Apollo's champion Hercules is Daphnephoros, and fights
+Cycnus and Amyntor to keep open the sacred way from Tempe to Delphi. As
+the Dorian tutelar he aids Tyndareus and Aegimius. As patron of maritime
+adventure ([Greek: hegemonios]) he struggles with Nereus and Triton,
+slays Eryx and Busiris, and perhaps captures the wild horses and oxen,
+which may stand for pirates. As a god of athletes he is often a wrestler
+([Greek: palaimon]), and founds the Olympian games. In comedy and
+occasionally in myths he is depicted as voracious ([Greek: bouphagos]).
+He is also represented as the companion of Dionysus, especially in Asia
+Minor. The "Resting" ([Greek: anapauomenos]) Hercules is, as at
+Thermopylae and near Himera, the natural tutelar of hot springs in
+conjunction with his protectress Athena, who is usually depicted
+attending him on ancient vases. The glorified Hercules was worshipped
+both as a god and a hero. In the Attic deme Melita he was invoked as
+[Greek: alexikakos] ("Helper in ills"), at Olympia as [Greek:
+kallinikos] ("Nobly-victorious"), in the rustic worship of the Oetaeans
+as [Greek: kornopion] ([Greek: kornopes], "locusts"), by the Erythraeans
+of Ionia as [Greek: ipoktonos] ("Canker-worm-slayer"). He was [Greek:
+soter] ("Saviour"), i.e. a protector of voyagers, at Thasos and Smyrna.
+Games in his honour were held at Thebes and Marathon and annual
+festivals in every deme of Attica, in Sicyon and Agyrium (Sicily). His
+guardian goddess was Athena (Homer, _Il._ viii. 638; Bacchylides v. 91
+f.). In early poetry, as often in art, he is an archer, afterwards a
+club-wielder and fully-armed warrior. In early art the adult Hercules is
+bearded, but not long-haired. Later he is sometimes youthful and
+beardless, always with short curly hair and thick neck, the lower part
+of the brow prominent. A lion's skin is generally worn or carried.
+Lysippus worked out the finest type of sculptured Hercules, of which the
+Farnese by Glycon is a grand specimen. The infantine struggle with
+serpents was a favourite subject.
+
+Quite distinct was the Idaean Hercules, a Cretan Dactyl connected with
+the cult of Rhea or Cybele. The Greeks recognized Hercules in an
+Egyptian deity _Chons_ and an Indian _Dorsanes_, not to mention
+personages of other mythologies.
+
+Hercules is supposed to have visited Italy on his return from Erythia,
+when he slew Cacus, son of Vulcan, the giant of the Aventine mount of
+Rome, who had stolen his oxen. To this victory was assigned the founding
+of the _Ara maxima_ by Evander. His worship, introduced from the Greek
+colonies in Etruria and in the south of Italy, seems to have been
+established in Rome from the earliest times, as two old Patrician
+_gentes_ were associated with his cult and the Fabii claimed him as
+their ancestor. The tithes vowed to him by Romans and men of Sora and
+Reate, for safety on journeys and voyages, furnished sacrifices and (in
+Rome) public entertainment (_polluctum_). Tibur was a special seat of
+his cult. In Rome he was patron of gladiators, as of athletes in Greece.
+With respect to the Roman relations of the hero, it is manifest that the
+native myths of Recaranus, or Sancus, or Dius Fidius, were transferred
+to the Hellenic Hercules.     (C. A. M. F.)
+
+  See L. Preller, _Griechische Mythologie_ (4th ed., Berlin, 1900); W.
+  H. Roscher, _Ausfuhrliches Lexikon der griechischen und romischen
+  Mythologie_ (1884); Sir R. C. Jebb, _Trachiniae_ of Sophocles
+  (Introd.), (1892); Ch. Daremberg and E. Saglio, _Dictionnaire des
+  antiquites grecques et romaines_; Breal, _Hercule et Cacus_, 1863; J.
+  G. Winter, _Myth of Hercules at Rome_ (New York, 1910).
+
+  In the article GREEK ART, fig. 16 represents Heracles wrestling with
+  the river-god Achelous; fig. 20 (from a small pediment, possibly of a
+  shrine of the hero) the slaying of the Hydra; fig. 35 Heracles holding
+  up the sky on a cushion.
+
+  Hercules was a favourite figure in French medieval literature. In the
+  romance of Alexander the tent of the hero is decorated with incidents
+  from his adventures. In the prose romance _Les Prouesses et vaillances
+  du preux Hercule_ (Paris, 1500), the hero's labours are represented as
+  having been performed in honour of a Boeotian princess; Pluto is a
+  king dwelling in a dismal castle; the Fates are duennas watching
+  Proserpine; the entrance to Pluto's castle is watched by the giant
+  Cerberus. Hercules conquers Spain and takes Merida from Geryon. The
+  book is translated into English as _Hercules of Greece_ (n. d.).
+  Fragments of a French poem on the subject will be found in the
+  _Bulletin de la soc. des anciens textes francais_ (1877). Don Enrique
+  de Villena took from _Les Prouesses_ his prose _Los Doze Trabajos de
+  Hercules_ (Zamora, 1483 and 1499), and Fernandez de Heredia wrote
+  _Trabajos y afanes de Hercules_ (Madrid, 1682), which belies its
+  title, being a collection of adages and allegories. _Le Fatiche
+  d'Ercole_ (1475) is a romance in poetic prose by Pietro Bassi, and the
+  _Dodeci Travagli di Ercole_ (1544) a poem by J. Perillos.
+
+
+
+
+HERCULES, in astronomy, a constellation of the northern hemisphere,
+mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century B.C.) and Aratus (3rd century B.C.)
+and catalogued by Ptolemy (29 stars) and Tycho Brahe (28 stars).
+Represented by a man kneeling, this constellation was first known as
+"the man on his knees," and was afterwards called Cetheus, Theseus and
+Hercules by the ancient Greeks. Interesting objects in this
+constellation are: [alpha] _Herculis_, a fine coloured double star,
+composed of an orange star of magnitude 2(1/2), and a blue star of
+magnitude 6; [zeta] _Herculis_, a binary star, discovered by Sir William
+Herschel in 1782; one component is a yellow star of the third magnitude,
+the other a bluish, which appears to vary from red to blue, of magnitude
+6; g and u _Herculis_, irregularly variable stars; and the cluster _M.
+13 Herculis_, the finest globular cluster in the northern hemisphere,
+containing at least 5000 stars and of the 1000 determined only 2 are
+variable.
+
+
+
+
+HERD (a word common to Teutonic languages; the O. Eng. form was _heord_;
+cf. Ger. _Herde_, Swed. and Dan. _hjord_; the Sans. _ca'rdhas_, which
+shows the pre-Teutonic form, means a troop), a number of animals of one
+kind driven or fed together, usually applied to cattle as "flock" is to
+sheep, but used also of whales, porpoises, &c., and of birds, as swans,
+cranes and curlews. A "herd-book" is a book containing the pedigree and
+other information of any breed of cattle or pigs, like the "flock-book"
+for sheep or "stud-book" for horses. Formerly the word "herdwick" was
+applied to the pasture ground under the care of a shepherd, and it is
+now used of a special hardy breed of sheep in Cumberland and
+Westmorland. The word "herd" is also applied in a disparaging sense to a
+company of people, a mob or rabble, as "the vulgar herd." As the name
+for a keeper of a herd or flock of domestic animals, the herdsman, it is
+usually qualified to denote the kind of animal under his protection, as
+swine-herd, shepherd, &c., but in Ireland, Scotland and the north of
+England, "herd" alone is commonly used.
+
+
+
+
+HERDER, JOHANN GOTTFRIED VON (1744-1803), one of the most prolific and
+influential writers that Germany has produced, was born in Mohrungen, a
+small town in East Prussia, on the 25th of August 1744. Like his
+contemporary Lessing, Herder had throughout his life to struggle against
+adverse circumstances. His father was poor, having to put together a
+subsistence by uniting the humble offices of sexton, choir-singer and
+petty schoolmaster. After receiving some rudimentary instruction from
+his father, the boy was sent to the grammar school of his native town.
+The mode of discipline practised by the pedantic and irritable old man
+who stood at the head of this institution was not at all to the young
+student's liking, and the impression made upon him stimulated him later
+on to work out his projects of school reform. The hardships of his early
+years drove him to introspection and to solitary communion with nature,
+and thus favoured a more than proportionate development of the
+sentimental and poetic side of his mind. When quite young he expressed a
+wish to become a minister of the gospel, but his aspirations were
+discouraged by the local clergyman. In 1762, at the age of eighteen, he
+went up to Konigsberg with the intention of studying medicine, but
+finding himself unequal to the operations of the dissecting-room, he
+abandoned this object, and, by the help of one or two friends and his
+own self-supporting labours, followed out his earlier idea of the
+clerical profession by joining the university. There he came under the
+influence of Kant, who was just then passing from physical to
+metaphysical problems. Without becoming a disciple of Kant, young Herder
+was deeply stimulated to fresh critical inquiry by that thinker's
+revolutionary ideas in philosophy. To Kant's lectures and conversations
+he further owed something of his large interest in cosmological and
+anthropological problems. Among the writers whom he most carefully read
+were Plato, Hume, Shaftesbury, Leibnitz, Diderot and Rousseau. Another
+personal influence under which he fell at Konigsberg, and which was
+destined to be far more permanent, was that of J. G. Hamann, "the
+northern Mage." This writer had already won a name, and in young Herder
+he found a mind well fitted to be the receptacle and vehicle of his new
+ideas on literature. From this vague, incoherent, yet gifted writer our
+author acquired some of his strong feeling for the naive element in
+poetry, and for the earliest developments of national literature. Even
+before he went to Konigsberg he had begun to compose verses, and at the
+age of twenty he took up the pen as a chief occupation. His first
+published writings were occasional poems and reviews contributed to the
+_Konigsbergische Zeitung_. Soon after this he got an appointment at
+Riga, as assistant master at the cathedral school, and a few years
+later, became assistant pastor. In this busy commercial town, in
+somewhat improved pecuniary and social circumstances, he developed the
+main ideas of his writings. In the year 1767 he published his first
+considerable work _Fragmente uber die neuere deutsche Literatur_, which
+at once made him widely known and secured for him the favourable
+interest of Lessing. From this time he continued to pour forth a number
+of critical writings on literature, art, &c. His bold ideas on these
+subjects, which were a great advance even on Lessing's doctrines,
+naturally excited hostile criticism, and in consequence of this
+opposition, which took the form of aspersions on his religious
+orthodoxy, he resolved to leave Riga. He was much carried away at this
+time by the idea of a radical reform of social life in Livonia, which
+(after the example of Rousseau) he thought to effect by means of a
+better method of school-training. With this plan in view he began (1769)
+a tour through France, England, Holland, &c., for the purpose of
+collecting information respecting their systems of education. It was
+during the solitude of his voyage to France, when on deck at night, that
+he first shaped his idea of the genesis of primitive poetry, and of the
+gradual evolution of humanity. Having received an offer of an
+appointment as travelling tutor and chaplain to the young prince of
+Eutin-Holstein, he abandoned his somewhat visionary scheme of a social
+reconstruction of a Russian province. He has, however, left a curious
+sketch of his projected school reforms. His new duties led him to
+Strassburg, where he met the young Goethe, on whose poetical development
+he exercised so potent an influence. At Darmstadt he made the
+acquaintance of Caroline Flachsland, to whom he soon became betrothed,
+and who for the rest of his life supplied him with that abundance of
+consolatory sympathy which his sensitive and rather querulous nature
+appeared to require. The engagement as tutor did not prove an agreeable
+one, and he soon threw it up (1771) in favour of an appointment as court
+preacher and member of the consistory at Buckeburg. Here he had to
+encounter bitter opposition from the orthodox clergy and their
+followers, among whom he was regarded as a freethinker. His health
+continued poor, and a fistula in the eye, from which he had suffered
+from early childhood, and to cure which he had undergone a number of
+painful operations, continued to trouble him. Further, pecuniary
+difficulties, from which he never long managed to keep himself free, by
+delaying his marriage, added to his depression. Notwithstanding these
+trying circumstances he resumed literary work, which his travels had
+interrupted. For some time he had been greatly interested by the poetry
+of the north, more particularly Percy's _Reliques_, the poems of
+"Ossian" (in the genuineness of which he like many others believed) and
+the works of Shakespeare. Under the influence of this reading he now
+finally broke with classicism and became one of the leaders of the new
+_Sturm und Drang_ movement. He co-operated with a band of young writers
+at Darmstadt and Frankfort, including Goethe, who in a journal of their
+own sought to diffuse the new ideas. His marriage took place in 1773. In
+1776 he obtained through Goethe's influence the post of general
+superintendent and court preacher at Weimar, where he passed the rest of
+his life. There he enjoyed the society of Goethe, Wieland, Jean Paul
+(who came to Weimar in order to be near Herder), and others, the
+patronage of the court, with whom as a preacher he was very popular, and
+an opportunity of carrying out some of his ideas of school reform. Yet
+the social atmosphere of the place did not suit him. His personal
+relations with Goethe again and again became embittered. This, added to
+ill-health, served to intensify a natural irritability of temperament,
+and the history of his later Weimar days is a rather dreary page in the
+chronicles of literary life. He had valued more than anything else a
+teacher's influence over other minds, and as he began to feel that he
+was losing it he grew jealous of the success of those who had outgrown
+this influence. Yet while presenting these unlovely traits, Herder's
+character was on the whole a worthy and attractive one. This seems to be
+sufficiently attested by the fact that he was greatly liked and
+esteemed, not only in the pulpit but in private intercourse, by
+cultivated women like the countess of Buckeburg, the duchess of Weimar
+and Frau von Stein, and, what perhaps is more, was exceedingly popular
+among the gymnasium pupils, in whose education he took so lively an
+interest. While much that Herder produced after settling in Weimar has
+little value, he wrote also some of his best works, among others his
+collection of popular poetry on which he had been engaged for many
+years, _Stimmen der Volker in Liedern_ (1778-1779); his translation of
+the Spanish romances of the _Cid_ (1805); his celebrated work on Hebrew
+poetry, _Vom Geist der hebraischen Poesie_ (1782-1783); and his _opus
+magnum_, the _Ideen zur Philosophie der Geschichte der Menschheit_
+(1784-1791). Towards the close of his life he occupied himself, like
+Lessing, with speculative questions in philosophy and theology. The
+boldness of some of his ideas cost him some valuable friendships, as
+that of Jacobi, Lavater and even of his early teacher Hamann. He died on
+the 18th of December 1803, full of new literary plans up to the very
+last.
+
+Herder's writings were for a long time regarded as of temporary value
+only, and fell into neglect. Recent criticism, however, has tended very
+much to raise their value by tracing out their wide and far-reaching
+influence. His works are very voluminous, and to a large extent
+fragmentary and devoid of artistic finish; nevertheless they are nearly
+always worth investigating for the brilliant suggestions in which they
+abound. His place in German literature has already been indicated in
+tracing his mental development. Like Lessing, whose work he immediately
+continued, he was a pioneer of the golden age of this literature.
+Lessing had given the first impetus to the formation of a national
+literature by exposing the folly of the current imitation of French
+writers. But in doing this he did not so much call his fellow-countrymen
+to develop freely their own national sentiments and ideas as send them
+back to classical example and principle. Lessing was the exponent of
+German classicism; Herder, on the contrary, was a pioneer of the
+romantic movement. He fought against all imitation as such, and bade
+German writers be true to themselves and their national antecedents. As
+a sort of theoretic basis for this adhesion to national type in
+literature, he conceived the idea that literature and art, together with
+language and national culture as a whole, are evolved by a natural
+process, and that the intellectual and emotional life of each people is
+correlated with peculiarities of physical temperament and of material
+environment. In this way he became the originator of that genetic or
+historical method which has since been applied to all human ideas and
+institutions. Herder was thus an evolutionist, but an evolutionist still
+under the influence of Rousseau. That is to say, in tracing back the
+later acquisitions of civilization to impulses which are as old as the
+dawn of primitive culture, he did not, as the modern evolutionist does,
+lay stress on the superiority of the later to the earlier stages of
+human development, but rather became enamoured of the simplicity and
+spontaneity of those early impulses which, since they are the oldest,
+easily come to look like the most real and precious. Yet even in this
+way he helped to found the historical school in literature and science,
+for it was only after an excessive and sentimental interest in primitive
+human culture had been awakened that this subject would receive the
+amount of attention which was requisite for the genetic explanation of
+later developments. This historical idea was carried by Herder into the
+regions of poetry, art, religion, language, and finally into human
+culture as a whole. It colours all his writings, and is intimately
+connected with some of the most characteristic attributes of his mind, a
+quick sympathetic imagination, a fine feeling for local differences, and
+a scientific instinct for seizing the sequences of cause and effect.
+
+  Herder's works may be arranged in an ascending series, corresponding
+  to the way in which the genetic or historical idea was developed and
+  extended. First come the works on poetic literature, art, language and
+  religion as special regions of development. Secondly, we have in the
+  _Ideen_ a general account of the process of human evolution. Thirdly,
+  there are a number of writings which, though inferior in interest to
+  the others, may be said to supply the philosophic basis of his leading
+  ideas.
+
+  1. In the region of poetry Herder sought to persuade his countrymen,
+  both by example and precept, to return to a natural and spontaneous
+  form of utterance. His own poetry has but little value; Herder was a
+  skilful verse-maker but hardly a creative poet. He was most successful
+  in his translation of popular song, in which he shows a rare
+  sympathetic insight into the various feelings and ideas of peoples as
+  unlike as Greenlanders and Spaniards, Indians and Scots. In the
+  _Fragmente_ he aims at nationalizing German poetry and freeing it from
+  all extraneous influence. He ridicules the ambition of German writers
+  to be classic, as Lessing had ridiculed their eagerness to be French.
+  He looked at poetry as a kind of "proteus among the people, which
+  changes its form according to language, manners, habits, according to
+  temperament and climate, nay, even according to the accent of
+  different nations." This fact of the idiosyncrasy of national poetry
+  he illustrated with great fulness and richness in the case of Homer,
+  the nature of whose works he was one of the first to elucidate, the
+  Hebrew poets, and the poetry of the north as typified in "Ossian."
+  This same idea of necessary relation to national character and
+  circumstance is also applied to dramatic poetry, and more especially
+  to Shakespeare. Lessing had done much to make Shakespeare known to
+  Germany, but he had regarded him in contrast to the French dramatists
+  with whom he also contrasted the Greek dramatic poets, and accordingly
+  did not bring out his essentially modern and Teutonic character.
+  Herder does this, and in doing so shows a far deeper understanding of
+  Shakespeare's genius than his predecessor had shown.
+
+  2. The views on art contained in Herder's _Kritische Walder_ (1769),
+  _Plastik_ (1778), &c., are chiefly valuable as a correction of the
+  excesses into which reverence for Greek art had betrayed Winckelmann
+  and Lessing, by help of his fundamental idea of national idiosyncrasy.
+  He argues against the setting up of classic art as an unchanging type,
+  valid for all peoples and all times. He was one of the first to bring
+  to light the characteristic excellences of Gothic art. Beyond this, he
+  eloquently pleaded the cause of painting as a distinct art, which
+  Lessing in his desire to mark off the formative arts from poetry and
+  music had confounded with sculpture. He regarded this as the art of
+  the eye, while sculpture was rather the art of the organ of touch.
+  Painting being less real than sculpture, because lacking the third
+  dimension of space, and a kind of dream, admitted of much greater
+  freedom of treatment than this last. Herder had a genuine appreciation
+  for early German painters, and helped to awaken the modern interest in
+  Albrecht Durer.
+
+  3. By his work on language _Uber den Ursprung der Sprache_ (1772),
+  Herder may be said to have laid the first rude foundations of the
+  science of comparative philology and that deeper science of the
+  ultimate nature and origin of language. It was specially directed
+  against the supposition of a divine communication of language to man.
+  Its main argument is that speech is a necessary outcome of that
+  special arrangement of mental forces which distinguishes man, and more
+  particularly from his habits of reflection. "If," Herder says, "it is
+  incomprehensible to others how a human mind could invent language, it
+  is as incomprehensible to me how a human mind could be what it is
+  without discovering language for itself." The writer does not make
+  that use of the fact of man's superior organic endowments which one
+  might expect from his general conception of the relation of the
+  physical and the mental in human development.
+
+  4. Herder's services in laying the foundations of a comparative
+  science of religion and mythology are even of greater value than his
+  somewhat crude philological speculations. In opposition to the general
+  spirit of the 18th century he saw, by means of his historic sense, the
+  naturalness of religion, its relation to man's wants and impulses.
+  Thus with respect to early religious beliefs he rejected Hume's notion
+  that religion sprang out of the fears of primitive men, in favour of
+  the theory that it represents the first attempts of our species to
+  explain phenomena. He thus intimately associated religion with
+  mythology and primitive poetry. As to later forms of religion, he
+  appears to have held that they owe their vitality to their embodiment
+  of the deep-seated moral feelings of our common humanity. His high
+  appreciation of Christianity, which contrasts with the contemptuous
+  estimate of the contemporary rationalists, rested on a firm belief in
+  its essential humanity, to which fact, and not to conscious deception,
+  he attributes its success. His exposition of this religion in his
+  sermons and writings was simply an unfolding of its moral side. In his
+  later life, as we shall presently see, he found his way to a
+  speculative basis for his religious beliefs.
+
+  5. Herder's masterpiece, the _Ideen zur Philosophie der Geschichte_,
+  has the ambitious aim of explaining the whole of human development in
+  close connexion with the nature of man's physical environment. Man is
+  viewed as a part of nature, and all his widely differing forms of
+  development as strictly natural processes. It thus stands in sharp
+  contrast to the anthropology of Kant, which opposes human development
+  conceived as the gradual manifestation of a growing faculty of
+  rational free will to the operations of physical nature. Herder
+  defines human history as "a pure natural history of human powers,
+  actions and propensities, modified by time and place." The _Ideen_
+  shows us that Herder is an evolutionist after the manner of Leibnitz,
+  and not after that of more modern evolutionists. The lower forms of
+  life prefigure man in unequal degrees of imperfection; they exist for
+  his sake, but they are not regarded as representing necessary
+  antecedent conditions of human existence. The genetic method is
+  applied to varieties of man, not to man as a whole. It is worth
+  noting, however, that Herder in his provokingly tentative way of
+  thinking comes now and again very near ideas made familiar to us by
+  Spencer and Darwin. Thus in a passage in book xv. chap, ii., which
+  unmistakably foreshadows Darwin's idea of a struggle for existence, we
+  read: "Among millions of creatures whatever could preserve itself
+  abides, and still after the lapse of thousands of years remains in the
+  great harmonious order. Wild animals and tame, carnivorous and
+  graminivorous, insects, birds, fishes and man are adapted to each
+  other." With this may be compared a passage in the _Ursprung der
+  Sprache_, where there is a curious adumbration of Spencer's idea that
+  intelligence, as distinguished from instinct, arises from a growing
+  complexity of action, or, to use Herder's words, from the substitution
+  of a more for a less contracted sphere. Herder is more successful in
+  tracing the early developments of particular peoples than in
+  constructing a scientific theory of evolution. Here he may be said to
+  have laid the foundations of the science of primitive culture as a
+  whole. His account of the first dawnings of culture, and of the ruder
+  Oriental civilizations, is marked by genuine insight. On the other
+  hand the development of classic culture is traced with a less skilful
+  hand. Altogether this work is rich in suggestion to the philosophic
+  historian and the anthropologist, though marked by much vagueness of
+  conception and hastiness of generalization.
+
+  6. Of Herder's properly metaphysical speculations little needs to be
+  said. He was too much under the sway of feeling and concrete
+  imagination to be capable of great things in abstract thought. It is
+  generally admitted that he had no accurate knowledge either of
+  Spinoza, whose monism he advocated, or of Kant, whose critical
+  philosophy he so fiercely attacked. Herder's Spinozism, which is set
+  forth in his little work, _Vom Erkennen und Empfinden der menschlichen
+  Seele_ (1778), is much less logically conceived than Lessing's. It is
+  the religious aspect of it which attracts him, the presentation in God
+  of an object which at once satisfies the feelings and the intellect.
+  With respect to his attacks on the critical philosophy in the
+  _Metakritik_ (1799), it is easy to understand how his concrete mind,
+  ever alive to the unity of things, instinctively rebelled against that
+  analytic separation of the mental processes which Kant attempted.
+  However crude and hasty this critical investigation, it helped to
+  direct philosophic reflection to the unity of mind, and so to develop
+  the post-Kantian line of speculation. Herder was much attracted by
+  Schelling's early writings, but appears to have disliked Hegelianism
+  because of the atheism it seemed to him to involve. In the _Kalligone_
+  (1800), work directed against Kant's _Kritik der Urteilskraft_, Herder
+  argues for the close connexion of the beautiful and the good. To his
+  mind the content of art, which he conceived as human feeling and human
+  life in its completeness, was much more valuable than the form, and so
+  he was naturally led to emphasize the moral element in art. Thus his
+  theoretic opposition to the Kantian aesthetics is but the reflection
+  of his practical opposition to the form-idolatry of the Weimar poets.
+       (J. S.)
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--An edition of Herder's _Samtliche Werke_ in 45 vols.
+  was published after his death by his widow (1805-1820); a second in 60
+  vols. followed in 1827-1830; a third in 40 vols. in 1852-1854. There
+  is also an edition by H. Duntzer (24 vols., 1869-1879). But these have
+  all been superseded by the monumental critical edition by B. Suphan
+  (32 vols., 1877 _sqq._). Of the many "selected works," mention may be
+  made of those by B. Suphan (4 vols., 1884-1887); by H. Lambel, H.
+  Meyer and E. Kuhnemann in Kurschner's _Deutsche Nationalliteratur_ (10
+  vols., 1885-1894). For Herder's correspondence, see _Aus Herders
+  Nachlass_ (3 vols., 1856-1857), _Herders Reise nach Italien_ (1859),
+  _Von und an Herder: Ungedruckte Briefe_ (3 vols., 1861-1862)--all
+  three works edited by H. Duntzer and F. G. von Herder. Herder's
+  _Briefwechsel mit Nicolai_ and his _Briefe an Hamann_ have been edited
+  by O. Hoffmann (1887 and 1889). For biography and criticism, see
+  _Erinnerungen aus dem Leben Herders_, by his wife, edited by J. G.
+  Muller (2 vols., 1820); _J. G. von Herders Lebensbild_ (with his
+  correspondence), by his son, E. G. von Herder (6 vols., 1846); C.
+  Joret, _Herder et la renaissance litteraire en Allemagne au XVIII^e
+  siecle_ (1875); F. von Barenbach, _Herder als Vorganger Darwins_
+  (1877); R. Haym, _Herder nach seinem Leben und seinen Werken_ (2
+  vols., 1880-1885); H. Nevinson, _A Sketch of Herder and his Times_
+  (1884); M. Kronenberg, _Herders Philosophie nach ihrem
+  Entwicklungsgang_ (1889); E. Kuhnemann, _Herders Leben_ (1895); R.
+  Burkner, _Herder, sein Leben und Wirken_ (1904).
+
+
+
+
+HEREDIA, JOSE MARIA DE (1842-1905), French poet, the modern master of
+the French sonnet, was born at Fortuna Cafeyere, near Santiago de Cuba,
+on the 22nd of November 1842, being in blood part Spanish Creole and
+part French. At the age of eight he came from the West Indies to France,
+returning thence to Havana at seventeen, and finally making France his
+home not long afterwards. He received his classical education with the
+priests of Saint Vincent at Senlis, and after a visit to Havana he
+studied at the Ecole des Chartes at Paris. In the later 'sixties, with
+Francois Coppee, Sully-Prudhomme, Paul Verlaine and others less
+distinguished, he made one of the band of poets who gathered round
+Leconte de Lisle, and received the name of Parnassiens. To this new
+school, form--the technical side of their art--was of supreme
+importance, and, in reaction against the influence of Musset, they
+rigorously repressed in their work the expression of personal feeling
+and emotion. "True poetry," said M. de Heredia in his discourse on
+entering the Academy--"true poetry dwells in nature and in humanity,
+which are eternal, and not in the heart of the creature of a day,
+however great." M. de Heredia's place in the movement was soon assured.
+He wrote very little, and published even less, but his sonnets
+circulated in MS., and gave him a reputation before they appeared in
+1893, together with a few longer poems, as a volume, under the title of
+_Les Trophees_. He was elected to the Academy on the 22nd of February
+1894, in the place of Louis de Mazade-Percin the publicist. Few purely
+literary men can have entered the Academy with credentials so small in
+quantity. A small volume of verse--a translation, with introduction, of
+Diaz del Castillo's _History of the Conquest of New Spain_
+(1878-1881)--a translation of the life of the nun Alferez (1894), de
+Quincey's "Spanish Military Nun"--and one or two short pieces of
+occasional verse, and an introduction or so--this is but small literary
+baggage, to use the French expression. But the sonnets are of their kind
+among the most superb in modern literature. "A _Legende des siecles_ in
+sonnets" M. Francois Coppee called them. Each presents a picture,
+striking, brilliant, drawn with unfaltering hand--the picture of some
+characteristic scene in man's long history. The verse is flawless,
+polished like a gem; and its sound has distinction and fine harmony. If
+one may suggest a fault, it is that each picture is sometimes too much
+of a picture only, and that the poetical line, like that of M. de
+Heredia's master, Leconte de Lisle himself, is occasionally overcrowded.
+M. de Heredia was none the less one of the most skilful craftsmen who
+ever practised the art of verse. In 1901 he became librarian of the
+Bibliotheque de l'Arsenal at Paris. He died at the Chateau de Bourdonne
+(Seine-et-Oise) on the 3rd of October 1905, having completed his
+critical edition of Andre Chenier's works.
+
+
+
+
+HEREDIA Y CAMPUZANO, JOSE MARIA (1803-1839), Cuban poet, was born at
+Santiago de Cuba on the 31st of December 1803, studied at the university
+of Havana, and was called to the bar in 1823. In the autumn of 1823 he
+was arrested on a charge of conspiracy against the Spanish government,
+and was sentenced to banishment for life. He took refuge in the United
+States, published a volume of verses at New York in 1825, and then went
+to Mexico, where, becoming naturalized, he obtained a post as
+magistrate. In 1832 a collection of his poems was issued at Toluca, and
+in 1836 he obtained permission to visit Cuba for two months.
+Disappointed in his political ambitions, and broken in health, Heredia
+returned to Mexico in January 1837, and died at Toluca on the 21st of
+May 1839. Many of his earlier pieces are merely clever translations from
+French, English and Italian; but his originality is placed beyond doubt
+by such poems as the _Himno del desterrado_, the epistle to Emilia,
+_Desenganos_, and the celebrated ode to Niagara. Bello may be thought to
+excel Heredia in execution, and a few lines of Olmedo's _Canto a Junin_
+vibrate with a virile passion to which the Cuban poet rarely attained;
+but the sincerity of his patriotism and the sublimity of his imagination
+have secured for Heredia a real supremacy among Spanish-American poets.
+
+  The best edition of his works is that published at Paris in 1893 with
+  a preface by Elias Zerolo.
+
+
+
+
+HEREDITAMENT (from Lat. _hereditare_, to inherit, _heres_, heir), in
+law, every kind of property that can be _inherited_. Hereditaments are
+divided into corporeal and incorporeal; corporeal hereditaments are
+"such as affect the senses, and may be seen and handled by the body;
+incorporeal are not the subject of sensation, can neither be seen nor
+handled, are creatures of the mind, and exist only in contemplation"
+(Blackstone, _Commentaries_). An example of a corporeal hereditament is
+land held in freehold, of incorporeal hereditaments, tithes, advowsons,
+pensions, annuities, rents, franchises, &c. It is still used in the
+phrase "lands, tenements and hereditaments" to describe property in
+land, as distinguished from goods and chattels or movable property.
+
+
+
+
+HEREDITY, in biological science, the name given to the generalization,
+drawn from the observed facts, that animals and plants closely resemble
+their progenitors. (That the resemblance is not complete involves in the
+first place the subject of variation (see VARIATION AND SELECTION); but
+it must be clearly stated that there is no adequate ground for the
+current loose statements as to the existence of opposing "laws" or
+"forces" of heredity and variation.) In the simplest cases there seems
+to be no separate problem of heredity. When a creeping plant propagates
+itself by runners, when a _Nais_ or _Myrianida_ breaks up into a series
+of similar segments, each of which becomes a worm like the parent, we
+have to do with the general fact that growing organisms tend to display
+a symmetrical repetition of equivalent parts, and that reproduction by
+fission is simply a special case of metamerism. When we try to answer
+the question why the segments of an organism resemble one another,
+whether they remain in association to form a segmented animal, or break
+into different animals, we come to the conclusion, which at least is on
+the way to an answer, that it is because they are formed from pieces of
+the same protoplasm, growing under similar conditions. It is apparently
+a fundamental property of protoplasm to be able to multiply by division
+into parts, the properties of which are similar to each other and to
+those of the parent.
+
+This leads us directly to the cases of reproduction where there is an
+obvious problem of heredity. In the majority of cases among animals and
+plants the new organisms arise from portions of living matter, separated
+from the parents, but different from the parents in size and structure.
+These germs of the new organisms may be spores, reproductive cells,
+fused reproductive cells or multicellular masses (see REPRODUCTION). For
+the present purpose it is enough to state that they consist of portions
+of the parental protoplasm. These pass through an embryological history,
+in which by growth, multiplication and specialization they form
+structures closely resembling the parents. Now, if it could be shown
+that these reproductive masses arose directly from the reproductive
+masses which formed the parent body, the problems of heredity would be
+extremely simplified. If the first division of a reproductive cell set
+apart one mass to lie dormant for a time and ultimately to form the
+reproductive cells of the new generation, while the other mass, exactly
+of the same kind, developed directly into the new organism, then
+heredity would simply be a delayed case of what is called organic
+symmetry, the tendency of similar living material to develop in similar
+ways under the stimulus of similar external conditions. The cases in
+which this happens are very rare. In the Diptera the first division of
+the egg-cell separates the nuclear material of the subsequent
+reproductive cells from the material that is elaborated into the new
+organism to contain these cells. In the _Daphnidae_ and in _Sagitta_ a
+similar separation occurs at slightly later stages; in vertebrates it
+occurs much later; while in some hydroids the germ-cells do not arise in
+the individual which is developed from the egg-cell at all, but in a
+much later generation, which is produced from the first by budding.
+However, it is not necessary to dismiss the fertile idea of what Moritz
+Nussbaum and August Weismann, who drew attention to it, called
+"continuity of the germ-plasm." Weismann has shown that an actual series
+of organic forms might be drawn up in which the formation of germ-cells
+begins at stages successively more remote from the first division of the
+egg-cell. He has also shown evidence, singularly complete in the case of
+the hydroids, for the existence of an actual migration of the place of
+formation of the germ-cells, the migration reaching farther and farther
+from the egg-cell. He has elaborated the conception of the germ-track, a
+chain of cell generations in the development of any creature along which
+the reproductive material saved over from the development of one
+generation for the germ-cells of the next generation is handed on in a
+latent condition to its ultimate position. And thus he supposes a real
+continuity of the germ-plasm, extending from generation to generation in
+spite of the apparent discontinuity in the observed cases. The
+conception certainly ranks among the most luminous and most fertile
+contributions of the 19th century to biological thought, and it is
+necessary to examine at greater length the superstructure which Weismann
+has raised upon it.
+
+_Weismann's Theory of the Germ-plasm._--A living being takes its
+individual origin only where there is separated from the stock of the
+parent a little piece of the peculiar reproductive plasm, the so-called
+germ-plasm. In sexless reproduction one parent is enough; in sexual
+reproduction equivalent masses of germ-plasm from each parent combine to
+form the new individual. The germ-plasm resides in the nucleus of cells,
+and Weismann identifies it with the nuclear material named chromatin.
+Like ordinary protoplasm, of which the bulk of cell bodies is composed,
+germ-plasm is a living material, capable of growing in bulk without
+alteration of structure when it is supplied with appropriate food. But
+it is a living material much more complex than protoplasm. In the first
+place, the mass of germ-plasm which is the starting-point of a new
+individual consists of several, sometimes of many, pieces named
+"idants," which are either the chromosomes into a definite number of
+which the nuclear material of a dividing cell breaks up, or possibly
+smaller units named chromomeres. These idants are a collection of "ids,"
+which Weismann tentatively identifies with the microsomata contained in
+the chromosomes, which are visible after treatment with certain
+reagents. Each id contains all the possibilities--generic, specific,
+individual--of a new organism, or rather the directing substance which
+in appropriate surroundings of food, &c., forms a new organism. Each id
+is a veritable microcosm, possessed of an historic architecture that has
+been elaborated slowly through the multitudinous series of generations
+that stretch backwards in time from every living individual. This
+microcosm, again, consists of a number of minor vital units called
+"determinants," which cohere according to the architecture of the whole
+id. The determinants are hypothetical units corresponding to the number
+of parts of the organism independently variable. Lastly, each
+determinant consists of a number of small hypothetical units, the
+"biophores." These are adaptations of a conception of H. de Vries, and
+are supposed to become active by leaving the nucleus of the cell in
+which they lie, passing out into the general protoplasm of the cell and
+ruling its activities. Each new individual begins life as a nucleated
+cell, the nucleus of which contains germ-plasm of this complex structure
+derived from the parent. The reproductive cell gives rise to the new
+individual by continued absorption of food, by growth, cell-divisions
+and cell-specializations. The theory supposes that the first divisions
+of the nucleus are "doubling," or homogeneous divisions. The germ-plasm
+has grown in bulk without altering its character in any respect, and,
+when it divides, each resulting mass is precisely alike. From these
+first divisions a chain of similar doubling divisions stretches along
+the "germ-tracks," so marshalling unaltered germ-plasm to the generative
+organs of the new individual, to be ready to form the germ-cells of the
+next generation. In this mode the continuity of the germ-plasm from
+individual to individual is maintained. This also is the immortality of
+the germ-cells, or rather of the germ-plasm, the part of the theory
+which has laid so large a hold on the popular imagination, although it
+is really no more than a reassertion in new terms of biogenesis. With
+this also is connected the celebrated denial of the inheritance of
+acquired characters. It seemed a clear inference that, if the hereditary
+mass for the daughters were separated off from the hereditary mass that
+was to form the mother, at the very first, before the body of the mother
+was formed, the daughters were in all essentials the sisters of their
+mother, and could take from her nothing of any characters that might be
+impressed on her body in subsequent development. In the later
+elaboration of his theory Weismann has admitted the possibility of some
+direct modification of the germ-plasm within the body of the individual
+acting as its host.
+
+The mass of germ-plasm which is not retained in unaltered form to
+provide for the generative cells is supposed to be employed for the
+elaboration of the individual body. It grows, dividing and multiplying,
+and forms the nuclear matter of the tissues of the individual, but the
+theory supposes this process to occur in a peculiar fashion. The nuclear
+divisions are what Weismann calls "differentiating" or heterogeneous
+divisions. In them the microcosms of the germ-plasm are not doubled, but
+slowly disintegrated in accordance with the historical architecture of
+the plasm, each division differentiating among the determinants and
+marshalling one set into one portion, another into another portion.
+There are differences in the observed facts of nuclear division which
+tend to support the theoretical possibility of two sorts of division,
+but as yet these have not been correlated definitely with the divisions
+along the germ-tracks and the ordinary divisions of embryological
+organogeny. The theoretical conception is, that when the whole body is
+formed, the cells contain only their own kind of determinants, and it
+would follow from this that the cells of the tissues cannot give rise to
+structures containing germ-plasm less disintegrated than their own
+nuclear material, and least of all to reproductive cells which must
+contain the undisintegrated microcosms of the germ-plasm. Cases of
+bud-formation and of reconstructions of lost parts (see REGENERATION OF
+LOST PARTS) are regarded as special adaptations made possible by the
+provision of latent groups of accessory determinants, to become active
+only on emergency.
+
+It is to be noticed that Weismann's conception of the processes of
+ontogeny is strictly evolutionary, and in so far is a reversion to the
+general opinion of biologists of the 17th and 18th centuries. These
+supposed that the germ-cell contained an image-in-little of the adult,
+and that the process of development was a mere unfolding or evolution of
+this, under the influence of favouring and nutrient forces. Hartsoeker,
+indeed, went so far as to figure the human spermatozoon with a mannikin
+seated within the "head," and similar extremes of imagination were
+indulged in by other writers for the spermatozoon or ovum, according to
+the view they took of the relative importance of these two bodies. C. F.
+Wolff, in his _Theoria generationis_ (1759), was the first distinguished
+anatomist to make assault on these evolutionary views, but his direct
+observations on the process of development were not sufficient in bulk
+nor in clarity of interpretation to convince his contemporaries.
+Naturally the improved methods and vastly greater knowledge of modern
+days have made evolution in the old sense an impossible conception; we
+know that the egg is morphologically unlike the adult, that various
+external conditions are necessary for its subsequent progress through a
+slow series of stages, each of which is unlike the adult, but gradually
+approaching it until the final condition is reached. None the less,
+Weismann's theory supposes that the important determining factor in
+these gradual changes lies in the historical architecture of the
+germ-plasm, and from the theoretical point of view his theory remains
+strictly an unfolding, a becoming manifest of hidden complexity.
+
+_Hertwig's View._--The chief modern holder of the rival view, and the
+writer who has put together in most cogent form the objections to
+Weismann's theory, is Oscar Hertwig. He points out that there is no
+direct evidence for the existence of differentiating as opposed to
+doubling divisions of the nuclear matter, and, moreover, he thinks that
+there is very generally diffused evidence as to the universality of
+doubling division. In the first place, there is the fundamental fact
+that single-celled organisms exhibit only doubling division, as by that
+the persistence of species which actually occurs alone is possible. In
+the case of higher plants, the widespread occurrence of tissues with
+power of reproduction, the occurrence of budding in almost any part of
+the body in lower animals and in plants, and the widespread powers of
+regeneration of lost parts, are easily intelligible if every cell like
+the egg-cell has been formed by doubling division, and so contains the
+germinal material for every part of the organism, and thus, on the call
+of special conditions, can become a germ-cell again. He lays special
+stress on those experiments in which the process of development has been
+interfered with in various ways at various stages, as showing that the
+cells which arise from the division of the egg-cell were not predestined
+unalterably for a particular role, according to a predetermined plan. He
+dismisses Weismann's suggestion of the presence of accessory
+determinants which remain latent unless they happen to be required, as
+being too complicated a supposition to be supported without exact
+evidence, a view in which he has received strong support from those who
+have worked most at the experimental side of the question. From
+consideration of a large number of physiological facts, such as the
+results of grafting, transplantations of tissues and transfusions of
+blood, he concludes that the cells of an organism possess, in addition
+to their patent microscopical characters, latent characters peculiar to
+the species, and pointing towards a fundamental identity of the germinal
+substance in every cell.
+
+_The Nuclear Matter._--Apart from these two characteristic protagonists
+of extreme and opposing views, the general consensus of biological
+opinion does not take us very far beyond the plainest facts of
+observation. The resemblances of heredity are due to the fact that the
+new organism takes its origin from a definite piece of the substance of
+its parent or parents. This piece always contains protoplasm, and as the
+protoplasm of every animal and plant appears to have its own specific
+reactions, we cannot exclude this factor; indeed many, following the
+views of M. Verworn, and seeing in the specific metabolisms of
+protoplasm a large part of the meaning of life, attach an increasing
+importance to the protoplasm in the hereditary mass. Next, it always
+contains nuclear matter, and, in view of the extreme specialization of
+the nuclear changes in the process of maturation and fertilization of
+the generative cells, there is more than sufficient reason for believing
+that the nuclear substance, if not actually the specific germ-plasm, is
+of vast importance in heredity. The theory of its absolute dominance
+depends on a number of experiments, the interpretation of which is
+doubtful. Moritz Nussbaum showed that in Infusoria non-nucleated
+fragments of a cell always died, while nucleated fragments were able to
+complete themselves; but it may be said with almost equal confidence
+that nuclei separated from protoplasm also invariably die--at least, all
+attempts to preserve them have failed. Hertwig and others, in their
+brilliant work on the nature of fertilization, showed that the process
+always involved the entrance into the female cell of the nucleus of the
+male cell, but we now know that part of the protoplasm of the
+spermatozoon also enters. T. Boveri made experiments on the
+cross-fertilization of non-nucleated fragments of the eggs of
+_Sphaerechinus granularis_ with spermatozoa of _Echinus
+microtuberculatus_, and obtained dwarf larvae with only the paternal
+characters; but the nature of his experiments was not such as absolutely
+to exclude doubt. Finally, in addition to the nucleus and the
+protoplasm, another organism of the cell, the centrosome, is part of the
+hereditary mass. In sum, while most of the evidence points to a
+preponderating importance of the nuclear matter, it cannot be said to be
+an established proposition that the nuclear matter is the germ-plasm.
+Nor are we yet definitely in a position to say that the germinal mass
+(nuclear matter, protoplasm, &c., of the reproductive cells) differs
+essentially from the general substance of the organism--whether, in
+fact, there is continuity of _germ-plasm_ as opposed to continuity of
+living material from individual to individual. The origin of sexual
+cells from only definite places, in the vast majority of cases, and such
+phenomena as the phylo-genetic migration of their place of origin among
+the Hydro-medusae, tell strongly in favour of Weismann's conception.
+Early experiments on dividing eggs, in which, by separation or
+transposition, cells were made to give rise to tissues and parts of the
+organism which in the natural order they would not have produced, tell
+strongly against any profound separation between germ-plasm and
+body-plasm. It is also to be noticed that the failure of germ-cells to
+arise except in specific places may be only part of the specialized
+ordering of the whole body, and does not necessarily involve the
+interpretation that reproductive material is absolutely different in
+kind.
+
+_Amphimixis._--Hitherto we have considered the material bearer of
+heredity apart from the question of sexual union, and we find that the
+new organism takes origin from a portion of living matter, forming a
+material which may be called germ-plasm, in which resides the capacity
+to correspond to the same kind of surrounding forces as stimulated the
+parent germ-plasm by growth of the same fashion. In many cases (e.g.
+asexual spores) the piece of germ-plasm comes from one parent, and from
+an organ or tissue not associated with sexual reproduction; in other
+cases (parthenogenetic eggs) it comes from the ovary of a female, and
+may have the apparent characters of a sexual egg, except that it
+develops without fertilization; here also are to be included the cases
+where normal female ova have been induced to develop, not by the
+entrance of a spermatozoon, but by artificial chemical stimulation. In
+such cases the problem of heredity does not differ fundamentally from
+the symmetrical repetition of parts. In most of the higher plants and
+animals, however, sexual reproduction is the normal process, and from
+our present point of view the essential feature of this is that the
+germ-plasm which starts the new individual (the fertilized egg) is
+derived from the male (the spermatozoon) and from the female parent (the
+ovum). Although it cannot yet be set down sharply as a general
+proposition, there is considerable evidence to show that in the
+preparation of the ovum and spermatozoon for fertilization the nuclear
+matter of each is reduced by half (reducing division of the
+chromosomes), and that fertilization means the restoration of the normal
+bulk in the fertilized cell by equal contributions from male and female.
+So far as the known facts of this process of union of germ-plasms go,
+they take us no farther than to establish such a relation between the
+offspring and two parents as exists between the offspring and one parent
+in the other cases. Amphimixis has a vast importance in the theory of
+evolution (Weismann, for instance, regards it as the chief factor in the
+production of variations); for its relation to heredity we are as yet
+dependent on empirical observations.
+
+_Heredity and Development._--The actual process by which the germinal
+mass slowly assumes the characters of the adult--that is, becomes like
+the parent--depends on the interaction of two sets of factors: the
+properties of the germinal material itself, and the influences of
+substances and conditions external to the germinal material. Naturally,
+as K. W. von Nageli and Hertwig in particular have pointed out, there is
+no perpetual sharp contrast between the two sets of factors, for, as
+growth proceeds, the external is constantly becoming the internal; the
+results of influences, which were in one stage part of the environment,
+are in the next and subsequent stages part of the embryo. The
+differences between the exponents of evolution and epigenesis offer
+practical problems to be decided by experiment. Every phenomenon in
+development that is proved the direct result of epigenetic factors can
+be discounted from the complexity of the germinal mass. If, for
+instance, as H. Driesch and Hertwig have argued, much of the
+differentiation of cells and tissues is a function of locality and is
+due to the action of different external forces on similar material, then
+just so much burden is removed from what evolutionists have to explain.
+That much remains cannot be doubted. Two eggs similar in appearance
+develop side by side in the same sea-water, one becoming a mollusc, the
+other an _Amphioxus_. Hertwig would say that the slight differences in
+the original eggs would determine slight differences in metabolism and
+so forth, with the result that the segmentation of the two is slightly
+different; in the next stage the differences in metabolisms and other
+relations will be increased, and so on indefinitely. But in such cases
+_c'est le premier pas qui coute_, and the absolute cost in theoretical
+complexity of the germinal material can be estimated only after a
+prolonged course of experimental work in a field which is as yet hardly
+touched.
+
+_Empirical Study of Heredity._--The fundamental basis of heredity is the
+separation of a mass from the parent (germ-plasm) which under certain
+conditions grows into an individual resembling the parent. The goal of
+the study of heredity will be reached only when all the phenomena can be
+referred to the nature of the germ-plasm and of its relations to the
+conditions under which it grows, but we have seen how far our knowledge
+is from any attempt at such references. In the meantime, the empirical
+facts, the actual relations of the characters in the offspring to the
+characters of the parents and ancestors, are being collected and
+grouped. In this inquiry it at once becomes obvious that every character
+found in a parent may or may not be present in the offspring. When any
+character occurs in both, it is generally spoken of as transmissible and
+of having been transmitted. In this broad sense there is no character
+that is not transmissible. In all kinds of reproduction, the characters
+of the class, family, genus, species, variety or race, and of the actual
+individual, are transmissible, the certainty with which any character
+appears being almost in direct proportion to its rank in the descending
+scale from order to individual. The transmitted characters are
+anatomical, down to the most minute detail; physiological, including
+such phenomena as diatheses, timbre of voice and even compound
+phenomena, such as _gaucherie_ and peculiarity of handwriting;
+psychological; pathological; teratological, such as syndactylism and all
+kinds of individual variations. Either sex may transmit characters which
+in themselves are necessarily latent, as, for instance, a bull may
+transmit a good milking strain. In forms of asexual reproduction, such
+as division, budding, propagation by slips and so forth, every character
+of the parent may appear in the descendant, and apparently even in the
+descendants produced from that descendant by the ordinary sexual
+processes. In reproduction by spore formation, in parthenogenesis and in
+ordinary sexual modes, where there is an embryological history between
+the separated mass and the new adult, it is necessary to attempt a
+difficult discrimination between acquired and innate characters.
+
+_Acquired Characters._--Every character is the result of two sets of
+factors, those resident in the germinal material and those imposed from
+without. Our knowledge has taken us far beyond any such idea as the
+formation of a germinal material by the collection of particles from the
+adult organs and tissues (gemmules of C. Darwin). The inheritance of any
+character means the transmission in the germinal material of matter
+which, brought under the necessary external conditions, develops into
+the character of the parent. There is necessarily an acquired or
+epigenetic side to every character; but there is nothing in our
+knowledge of the actual processes to make necessary or even probable the
+supposition that the result of that factor in one generation appears in
+the germ-plasm of the subsequent generations, in those cases where an
+embryological development separates parent and offspring. The
+development of any normal, so-called "innate," character, such as, say,
+the assumption of the normal human shape and relations of the frontal
+bone, requires the co-operation of many factors external to the
+developing embryo, and the absence of abnormal distorting factors. When
+we say that such an innate character is transmitted, we mean only that
+the germ-plasm has such a constitution that, in the presence of the
+epigenetic factors and the absence of abnormal epigenetic factors, the
+bone will appear in due course and in due form. If an abnormal
+epigenetic factor be applied during development, whether to the embryo
+_in utero_, to the developing child, or in after life, abnormality of
+some kind will appear in the bone, and such an abnormality is a good
+type of what is spoken of as an "acquired" character. Naturally such a
+character varies with the external stimulus and the nature of the
+material to which the stimulus is applied, and probability and
+observation lead us to suppose that as the germ-plasm of the offspring
+is similar to that of the parent, being a mass separated from the
+parent, abnormal epigenetic influences would produce results on the
+offspring similar to those which they produced on the parent. Scrutiny
+of very many cases of the supposed inheritance of acquired characters
+shows that they may be explained in this fashion--that is to say, that
+they do not necessarily involve any feature different in kind from what
+we understand to occur in normal development. The effects of increased
+use or of disuse on organs or tissues, the reactions of living tissues
+to various external influences, to bacteria, to bacterial or other
+toxins, or to different conditions of respiration, nutrition and so
+forth, we know empirically to be different in the case of different
+individuals, and we may expect that when the living matter of a parent
+responds in a certain way to a certain external stimulus, the living
+matter of the descendant will respond to similar circumstances in a
+similar fashion. The operation of similar influences on similar material
+accounts for a large proportion of the facts. In the important case of
+the transmission of disease from parent to offspring it is plain that
+three sets of normal factors may operate, and other cases of
+transmission must be subjected to similar scrutiny: (1) a child may
+inherit the anatomical and physiological constitution of either parent,
+and with that a special liability of failure to resist the attacks of a
+widespread disease; (2) the actual bacteria may be contained in the ovum
+or possibly in the spermatozoon; (3) the toxins of the disease may have
+affected the ovum, or the spermatozoon, or through the placenta the
+growing embryo. Obviously in the first two cases the offspring cannot be
+said in any strict sense to have inherited the disease; in the last
+case, the theoretical nomenclature is more doubtful, but it is at least
+plain that no inexplicable factor is involved.
+
+It is to be noticed, however, that "Lamarckians" and "Neo-Lamarckians"
+in their advocacy of an inheritance of "acquired characters" make a
+theoretical assumption of a different kind, which applies equally to
+"acquired" and to "innate" characters. They suppose that the result of
+the epigenetic factors is reflected on the germ-plasm in such a mode
+that in development the products would display the same or a similar
+character without the co-operation of the epigenetic factors on the new
+individual, or would display the result in an accentuated form if with
+the renewed co-operation of the external factors. Such an assumption
+presents its greatest theoretical difficulty if, with Weismann, we
+suppose the germ-plasm to be different in kind from the general
+soma-plasm, and its least theoretical difficulty if, with Hertwig, we
+suppose the essential matter of the reproductive cells to be similar in
+kind to the essential substance of the general body cells. But, apart
+from the differences between such theories, it supposes, in all cases
+where an embryological development lies between parent and descendant,
+the existence of a factor towards which our present knowledge of the
+actual processes gives us no assistance. The separated hereditary mass
+does not contain the organs of the adult; the Lamarckian factor would
+involve the translation of the characters of the adult back into the
+characters of the germ-cell in such a fashion that when the germ-cell
+developed these characters would be re-translated again into those which
+originally had been produced by co-operation between germ-plasm
+characters and epigenetic factors. In the present state of our knowledge
+the theoretical difficulty is not fatal to the Lamarckian supposition;
+it does no more than demand a much more careful scrutiny of the supposed
+cases. Such a scrutiny has been going on since Weismann first raised the
+difficulty, and the present result is that no known case has appeared
+which cannot be explained without the Lamarckian factor, and the vast
+majority of cases have been resolved without any difficulty into the
+ordinary events of which we have full experience. Taking the empirical
+data in detail, it would appear first that the effects of single
+mutilations are not inherited. The effects of long-continued mutilations
+are not inherited, but Darwin cites as a possible case the Mahommedans
+of Celebes, in whom the prepuce is very small. C. E. Brown-Sequard
+thought that he had shown in the case of guinea-pigs the inheritance of
+the results of nervous lesions, but analyses of his results leave the
+question extremely doubtful. The inheritance of the effects of use and
+disuse is not proved. The inheritance of the effects of changed
+conditions of life is quite uncertain. Nageli grew Alpine plants at
+Munich, but found that the change was produced at once and was not
+increased in a period of thirteen years. Alphonse de Candolle starved
+plants, with the result of producing better blooms, and found that
+seedlings from these were also above the average in luxuriance of
+blossom, but in these experiments the effects of selection during the
+starvation, and of direct effect on the nutrition of the seeds, were not
+eliminated. Such results are typical of the vast number of experiments
+and observations recorded. The empirical issue is doubtful, with a
+considerable balance against the supposed inheritance of acquired
+characters.
+
+_Empirical Study of Effects of Amphimixis._--Inheritance is
+theoretically possible from each parent and from the ancestry of each.
+In considering the total effect it is becoming customary to distinguish
+between "blended" inheritance, where the offspring appears in respect of
+any character to be intermediate between the conditions in the parents;
+"prepotent" inheritance, where one parent is supposed to be more
+effective than the other in stamping the offspring (thus, for instance,
+Negroes, Jews and Chinese are stated to be prepotent in crosses);
+"exclusive" inheritance, where the character of the offspring is
+definitely that of one of the parents. Such a classification depends on
+the interpretation of the word character, and rests on no certain
+grounds. An apparently blended character or a prepotent character may on
+analysis turn out to be due to the inheritance of a certain proportion
+of minuter characters derived exclusively from either parent. H. de
+Vries and later on a number of other biologists have advanced the
+knowledge of heredity in crosses by carrying out further the
+experimental and theoretical work of Gregor Mendel (see MENDELISM and
+HYBRIDISM), and results of great practical importance to breeders have
+already been obtained. These experiments and results, however, appear to
+relate exclusively to sexual reproduction and almost entirely to the
+crossing of artificial varieties of animals and plants. So far as they
+go, they point strongly to the occurrence of alternate inheritance
+instead of blended inheritance in the case of artificial varieties. On
+the other hand, in the case of natural varieties it appears that blended
+inheritance predominates. The difficulty of the interpretation of the
+word "character" still remains and the Mendelian interpretation cannot
+be dismissed with regard to the behaviour of any "character" in
+inheritance until it is certain that it is a unit and not a composite.
+There is another fundamental difficulty in making empirical comparisons
+between the characters of parents and offspring. At first sight it seems
+as if this mode of work were sufficiently direct and simple, and
+involved no more than a mere collection of sufficient data. The cranial
+index, or the height of a human being and of so many of his ancestors
+being given, it would seem easy to draw an inference as to whether or no
+in these cases brachycephaly or stature were inherited. But our modern
+conceptions of the individual and the race make it plain that the
+problems are not so simple. With regard to any character, the race type
+is not a particular measurement, but a curve of variations derived from
+statistics, and any individual with regard to the particular character
+may be referable to any point of the curve. A tall race like the modern
+Scots may contain individuals of any height within the human limits; a
+dolichocephalic race like the modern Spaniards may contain extremely
+round-headed individuals. What is meant by saying that one race is tall
+or the other dolichocephalic, is merely that if a sufficiently large
+number be chosen at random, the average height of the one race will be
+great, the cranial index of the other low. It follows that the study of
+variation must be associated with, or rather must precede, the empirical
+study of heredity, and we are beginning to know enough now to be certain
+that in both cases the results to be obtained are practically useless
+for the individual case, and of value only when large masses of
+statistics are collected. No doubt, when general conclusions have been
+established, they must be acted on for individual cases, but the results
+can be predicted not for the individual case, but only for the average
+of a mass of individual cases. It is impossible within the limits of
+this article to discuss the mathematical conceptions involved in the
+formation and applications of the method, but it is necessary to insist
+on the fact that these form an indispensable part of any valuable study
+of empirical data. One interesting conclusion, which may be called the
+"ancestral law" of heredity, with regard to any character, such as
+height, which appears to be a blend of the male and female characters,
+whether or no the apparent blend is really due to an exclusive
+inheritance of separate components, may be given from the work of F.
+Galton and K. Pearson. Each parent, on the average, contributes 1/4 or
+(0.5)^2, each grandparent 1/16 or (0.5)^4, and each ancestor of n^th
+place (0.5)^(2n). But this, like all other deductions, is applicable
+only to the mass of cases and not to any individual case.
+
+_Regression._--An important result of quantitative work brings into
+prominence the steady tendency to maintain the type which appears to be
+one of the most important results of amphimixis. In the tenth generation
+a man has 1024 tenth grandparents, and is thus the product of an
+enormous population, the mean of which can hardly differ from that of
+the general population. Hence this heavy weight of mediocrity produces
+regression or progression to type. Thus in the case of height, a large
+number of cases being examined, it was found that fathers of a stature
+of 72 in. had sons with a mean stature of 70.8 in., a regression towards
+the normal stature of the race. Fathers with a stature of 66 in. had
+sons with a mean of 68.3 in., a progression towards the normal. It
+follows from this that where there is much in-and-in breeding the weight
+of mediocrity will be less, and the peculiarities of the breed will be
+accentuated.
+
+_Atavism._--Under this name a large number of ordinary cases of
+variation are included. A tall man with very short parents would
+probably be set down as a case of atavism if the existence of a very
+tall ancestor were known. He would, however, simply be a case of normal
+variation, the probability of which may be calculated from a table of
+stature variations in his race. Less marked cases set down to atavism
+may be instances merely of normal regression. Many cases of more
+abnormal structure, which are really due to abnormal embryonic or
+post-embryonic development, are set down to atavism, as, for instance,
+the cervical fistulae, which have been regarded as atavistic
+persistences of the gill clefts. It is also used to imply the reversion
+that takes place when domestic varieties are set free and when species
+or varieties are crossed (see HYBRIDISM). Atavism is, in fact, a
+misleading name covering a number of very different phenomena.
+
+_Telegony_ is the name given to the supposed fact that offspring of a
+mother to one sire may inherit characters from a sire with which the
+mother had previously bred. Although breeders of stock have a strong
+belief in the existence of this, there are no certain facts to support
+it, the supposed cases being more readily explained as individual
+variations of the kind generally referred to as "atavism." None the
+less, two theoretical explanations have been suggested: (1) that
+spermatozoa, or portions of spermatozoa, from the first sire may
+occasionally survive within the mother for an abnormally long period;
+(2) that the body, or the reproductive cells of the mother, may be
+influenced by the growth of the embryo within her, so that she acquires
+something of the character of the sire. The first supposition has no
+direct evidence to support it, and is made highly improbable from the
+fact that a second impregnation is always necessary. Against the second
+supposition Pearson brings the cogent empirical evidence that the
+younger children of the same sire show no increased tendency to resemble
+him. (See TELEGONY.)
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The following books contain a fair proportion of the new
+  and old knowledge on this subject:--W. Bateson, _Materials for the
+  Study of Variation_ (1894); Y. Delage, _La Structure du protoplasma et
+  les theories sur l'heredite_ (a very full discussion and list of
+  literature); G. H. T. Eimer, _Organic Evolution_, Eng. trans. by
+  Cunningham (1890); J. C. Ewart, _The Penycuik Experiments_ (1899); F.
+  Galton, _Natural Inheritance_ (1887); O. Hertwig, _Evolution or
+  Epigenesis?_ Eng. trans. by P. C. Mitchell (1896); K. Pearson, _The
+  Grammar of Science_ (1900); Verworn, _General Physiology_, Eng. trans.
+  (1899); A. Weismann, _The Germ Plasm_, Eng. trans. by Parker (1893).
+  Lists of separate papers are given in the annual volumes of the
+  _Zoological Record_ under heading "General Subject."     (P. C. M.)
+
+
+
+
+HEREFORD, a city and municipal and parliamentary borough, and the county
+town of Herefordshire, England, on the river Wye, 144 m. W.N.W. of
+London, on the Worcester-Cardiff line of the Great Western railway and
+on the west-and-north joint line of that company and the North-Western.
+It is connected with Ross and Gloucester by a branch of the Great
+Western, and is the terminus of a line from the west worked by the
+Midland and Neath & Brecon companies. Pop. (1901) 21,382. It is mainly
+on the left bank of the river, which here traverses a broad valley, well
+wooded and pleasant. The cathedral of St Ethelbert exemplifies all
+styles from Norman to Perpendicular. The see was detached from Lichfield
+in 676, Putta being its first bishop; and the modern diocese covers most
+of Herefordshire, a considerable part of Shropshire, and small portions
+of Worcestershire, Staffordshire and Monmouthshire; extending also a
+short distance across the Welsh border. The removal of murdered
+Aethelbert's body from Marden to Hereford led to the foundation of a
+superior church, reconstructed by Bishop Athelstane, and burnt by the
+Welsh in 1055. Begun again in 1079 by Bishop Robert Losinga, it was
+carried on by Bishop Reynelm and completed in 1148 by Bishop R. de
+Betun. In 1786 the great western tower fell and carried with it the west
+front and the first bay of the nave, when the church suffered much from
+unhappy restoration by James Wyatt, but his errors were partly corrected
+by the further work of Lewis Cottingham and Sir Gilbert Scott in 1841
+and 1863 respectively, while the present west front is a reconstruction
+completed in 1905. The total length of the cathedral outside is 342 ft.,
+inside 327 ft. 5 in., the nave being 158 ft. 6 in., the choir from
+screen to reredos 75 ft. 6 in. and the lady chapel 93 ft. 5 in. Without,
+the principal features are the central tower, of Decorated work with
+ball-flower ornament, formerly surmounted by a timber spire; and the
+north porch, rich Perpendicular with parvise. The lady chapel has a bold
+east end with five narrow lancet windows. The bishop's cloisters, of
+which only two walks remain, are Perpendicular of curious design, with
+heavy tracery in the bays. A picturesque tower at the south-east corner,
+in the same style, is called the "Lady Arbour," but the origin of the
+name is unknown. Of the former fine decagonal Decorated chapter-house,
+only the doorway and slight traces remain. Within, the nave has Norman
+arcades, showing the wealth of ornament common to the work of this
+period in the church. Wyatt shortened it by one bay, and the clerestory
+is his work. There is a fine late Norman font, springing from a base
+with the rare design of four lions at the corners. The south transept is
+also Norman, but largely altered by the introduction of Perpendicular
+work. The north transept was wholly rebuilt in 1287 to contain the
+shrine of St Thomas de Cantilupe, bishop of Hereford, of which there
+remains the magnificent marble pedestal surmounted by an ornate arcade.
+The fine lantern, with its many shafts and vaulting, was thrown open to
+the floor of the bell-chamber by Cottingham. The choir screen is a
+florid design by Sir Gilbert Scott, in light wrought iron, with a wealth
+of ornament in copper, brass, mosaic and polished stones. The dark choir
+is Norman in the arcades and the stage above, with Early English
+clerestory and vaulting. At the east end is a fine Norman arch, blocked
+until 1841 by a Grecian screen erected in 1717. The choir stalls are
+largely Decorated. The organ contains original work by the famous
+builder Renatus Harris, and was the gift of Charles II. to the
+cathedral. The small north-east and south-east transepts are Decorated
+but retain traces of the Norman apsidal terminations eastward. The
+eastern lady chapel, dated about 1220, shows elaborate Early English
+work. On the south side opens the little Perpendicular chantry of Bishop
+Audley (1492-1502). In the north choir aisle is the beautiful
+fan-vaulted chantry of Bishop Stanbury (1470). The crypt is remarkable
+as being, like the lady chapel, Early English, and is thus the only
+cathedral crypt in England of a later date than the 11th century. The
+ancient monastic library remains in the archive room, with its heavy oak
+cupboards. Deeds, documents and several rare manuscripts and relics are
+preserved, and several of the precious books are still secured by
+chains. But the most celebrated relic is in the south choir aisle. This
+is the Map of the World, dating from about 1314, the work of a
+Lincolnshire monk, Richard of Haldingham. It represents the world as
+surrounded by ocean, and embodies many ideas taken from Herodotus, Pliny
+and other writers, being filled with grotesque figures of men, beasts,
+birds and fishes, together with representations of famous cities and
+scenes of scriptural classical story, such as the Labyrinth of Crete,
+the Egyptian pyramids, Mount Sinai and the journeyings of the
+Israelites. The map is surmounted by representations of Paradise and the
+Day of Judgment.
+
+From the south-east transept of the cathedral a cloister leads to the
+quadrangular college of the Vicars-Choral, a beautiful Perpendicular
+building. On this side of the cathedral, too, the bishop's palace,
+originally a Norman hall, overlooks the Wye, and near it lies the castle
+green, the site of the historic castle, which is utterly effaced. There
+is here a column (1809) commemorating the victories of Nelson. The
+church of All Saints is Early English and Decorated, and has a lofty
+spire. Both this and St Peter's (originally Norman) have good carved
+stalls, but the fabric of both churches is greatly restored. One only of
+the six gates and a few fragments of the old walls are still to be seen,
+but there are ruins of the Black Friars' Monastery in Widemarsh, and a
+mile out of Hereford on the Brecon Road, the White Cross, erected in
+1347 by Bishop Louis Charlton, and restored by Archdeacon Lord Saye and
+Sele, commemorates the departure of the Black Plague. Of domestic
+buildings the "Old House" is a good example of the picturesque
+half-timbered style, dating from 1621, and the Coningsby Hospital
+(almshouses) date from 1614. The inmates wear a remarkable uniform of
+red, designed by the founder, Sir T. Coningsby. St Ethelbert's hospital
+is an Early English foundation. Old-established schools are the
+Cathedral school (1384) and the Blue Coat school (1710); there is also
+the County College (1880). The public buildings are the shire hall in St
+Peter's Street, in the Grecian Doric style, with a statue in front of it
+of Sir George Cornewall Lewis, who represented the county in parliament
+from 1847 to 1852, the town hall (1904), the corn-exchange (1858), the
+free library and museum in Broad Street; the guildhall and mansion
+house. A musical festival of the choirs of Hereford, Gloucester and
+Worcester cathedrals is held annually in rotation at these cities.
+
+The government is in the hands of a municipal council consisting of a
+mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 5031 acres.
+
+Hereford (_Herefortuna_), founded after the crossing of the Severn by
+the West Saxons early in the 7th century, had a strategic importance due
+to its proximity to the Welsh March. The foundation of the castle is
+ascribed to Earl Harold, afterwards Harold II. The castle was
+successfully besieged by Stephen, and was the prison of Prince Edward
+during the Barons' Wars. The pacification of Wales deprived Hereford of
+military significance until it became a Royalist stronghold during the
+Civil Wars. It surrendered easily to Waller in 1643; but was reoccupied
+by the king's troops and received Rupert on his march to Wales after
+Naseby. It was besieged by the Scots during August 1645 and relieved by
+the king. It fell to the Parliamentarians in this year. In 1086 the town
+included fees of the bishop, the dean and chapter, and the Knights
+Hospitallers, but was otherwise royal demesne. Richard I. in 1189 sold
+their town to the citizens at a fee farm rent, which grant was confirmed
+by John, Henry III., Edward II., Edward III., Richard II., Henry IV. and
+Edward IV. Incorporation was granted to the mayor, aldermen and citizens
+in 1597, and confirmed in 1620 and 1697-1698. Hereford returned two
+members to parliament from 1295 until 1885, when the Redistribution Act
+deprived it of one representative. In 1116-1117 a fair beginning on St
+Ethelberta's day was conferred on the bishop, the antecedent of the
+modern fair in the beginning of May. A fair beginning on St Denis' day,
+granted to the citizens in 1226-1227, is represented by that held in
+October. The fair of Easter Wednesday was granted in 1682. In 1792 the
+existing fairs of Candlemas week and the beginning of July were held.
+Market days were, under Henry VIII. and in 1792, Wednesday, Friday and
+Saturday; the Friday market was discontinued before 1835. Hereford was
+the site of a provincial mint in 1086 and later. A grant of an exclusive
+merchant gild, in 1215-1216, was several times confirmed. The trade in
+wool was important in 1202, and eventually responsible for gilds of
+tailors, drapers, mercers, dyers, fullers, cloth workers, weavers and
+haberdashers; it brought into the market Welsh friezes and white cloth;
+but declined in the 16th century, although it existed in 1835. The
+leather trade was considerable in the 13th century. In 1835 the glove
+trade had declined. The city anciently had an extensive trade in bread
+with Wales. It was the birthplace of David Garrick, the actor, in 1716,
+and probably of Nell Gwyn, mistress of Charles II., to whose memory a
+tablet was erected in 1883, marking the supposed site of her house.
+
+  See R. Johnson, _Ancient Customs of Hereford_ (London, 1882); J.
+  Duncumbe, _History of Hereford_ (Hereford, 1882); _Journal_ of Brit.
+  Arch. Assoc. xxvi.
+
+
+
+
+HEREFORDSHIRE, an inland county of England on the south Welsh border,
+bounded N. by Shropshire, E. by Worcestershire, S. by Monmouthshire and
+Gloucestershire, and W. by Radnorshire and Brecknockshire. The area is
+839.6 sq. m. The county is almost wholly drained by the Wye and its
+tributaries, but on the north and east includes a small portion of the
+Severn basin. The Wye enters Herefordshire from Wales at Hay, and with a
+sinuous and very beautiful course crosses the south-western part of the
+county, leaving it close above the town of Monmouth. Of its tributaries,
+the Lugg enters in the north-west near Presteign, and has a course
+generally easterly to Leominster, where it turns south, receives the
+Arrow from the west, and joins the Wye 6 m. below Hereford, the Frome
+flowing in from the east immediately above the junction. The Monnow
+rising in the mountains of Brecknockshire forms the boundary between
+Herefordshire and Monmouthshire over one-half of its course (about 20
+m.), but it joins the main river at Monmouth. Its principal tributary in
+Herefordshire is the Dore, which traverses the picturesque Golden
+Valley. The Wye is celebrated for its salmon fishing, which is carefully
+preserved, while the Lugg, Arrow and Frome abound in trout and grayling,
+as does the Teme. This last is a tributary of the Severn, and only two
+short reaches lie within this county in the north, while it also forms
+parts of the northern and eastern boundary. The Leddon, also flowing to
+the Severn, rises in the east of the county and leaves it in the
+south-east, passing the town of Ledbury. High ground, of an elevation
+from 500 to 800 ft., separates the various valleys, while on the eastern
+boundary rise the Malvern Hills, reaching 1194 ft. in the Herefordshire
+Beacon, and 1395 ft. in the Worcestershire Beacon, and on the boundary
+with Brecknockshire the Black Mountains exceed 2000 ft. The scenery of
+the Wye, with its wooded and often precipitous banks, is famous, the
+most noteworthy point in this county being about Symond's Yat, on the
+Gloucestershire border below Ross.
+
+  _Geology._--The Archean or Pre-Cambrian rocks, the most ancient in the
+  county, emerge from beneath the newer deposits in three small isolated
+  areas. On the western border, Stanner Rock, a picturesque craggy hill
+  near Kington, consists of igneous materials (granitoid rock, felstone,
+  dolerite and gabbro), apparently of intrusive origin and possibly of
+  Uriconian age. In Brampton Bryan Park, a few miles to the north-east,
+  some ancient conglomerates emerge and may be of Longmyndian age. On
+  the east of the county the Herefordshire Beacon in the Malvern chain
+  consists of gneisses and schists and Uriconian volcanic rocks; these
+  have been thrust over various members of the Cambrian and Silurian
+  systems, and owing to their hard and durable nature they form the
+  highest ground in the county. The Cambrian rocks (Tremadoc Beds) come
+  next in order of age and consist of quartzites, sandstones and shales,
+  well exposed at the southern end of the Malvern chain and also at
+  Pedwardine near Brampton Bryan. The Silurian rocks are well developed
+  in the north-west part of the county, between Presteign and Ludlow;
+  also along the western flanks of the Malvern Hills and in the eroded
+  dome of Woolhope. Smaller patches come to light at Westhide east of
+  Hereford and at May Hill near Newent. They consist of highly
+  fossiliferous sandstones, mudstones, shales and limestones, known as
+  the Llandovery, Wenlock and Ludlow Series; the Woolhope, Wenlock and
+  Aymestry Limestones are famed for their rich fossil contents. The
+  remainder and by far the greater part of the county is occupied by the
+  Old Red Sandstone, through which the rocks above described project in
+  detached areas. The Old Red Sandstone consists of a great thickness of
+  red sandstones and marls, with impersistent bands of impure
+  concretionary limestone known as cornstones, which by their superior
+  hardness give rise to scarps and rounded ridges; they have yielded
+  remains of fishes and crustaceans. Some of the upper beds are
+  conglomeratic. On its south-eastern margin the county just reaches the
+  Carboniferous Limestone cliffs of the Wye Valley near Ross. Glacial
+  deposits, chiefly sand and gravel, are found in the lower ground along
+  the river-courses, while caves in the Carboniferous Limestone have
+  yielded remains of the hyena, cave-lion, rhinoceros, mammoth and
+  reindeer.
+
+_Agriculture and Industries._--The soil is generally marl and clay, but
+in various parts contains calcareous earth in mixed proportions.
+Westward the soil is tenacious and retentive of water; on the east it is
+a stiff and often reddish clay. In the south is found a light sandy
+loam. More than four-fifths of the total area of the county is under
+cultivation and about two-thirds of this is in permanent pasture. Ash
+and oak coppices and larch plantations clothe its hillsides and crests.
+The rich red soil of the Old Red Sandstone formation is famous for its
+pear and apple orchards, the county, notwithstanding its much smaller
+area, ranking in this respect next to Devonshire. The apple crop,
+generally large, is enormous one year out of four. Twenty hogsheads of
+cider have been made from an acre of orchard, twelve being the ordinary
+yield. Cider is the staple beverage of the county, and the trade in
+cider and perry is large. Hops are another staple of the county, the
+vines of which are planted in rows on ploughed land. As early as
+Camden's day a Herefordshire adage coupled Weobley ale with Leominster
+bread, indicating the county's capacity to produce fine wheat and
+barley, as well as hops.
+
+Herefordshire is also famous as a breeding county for its cattle of
+bright red hue, with mottled or white faces and sleek silky coats. The
+Herefords are stalwart and healthy, and, though not good milkers, put on
+more meat and fat at an early age, in proportion to food consumed, than
+almost any other variety. They produce the finest beef, and are more
+cheaply fed than Devons or Durhams, with which they are advantageously
+crossed. As a dairy county Herefordshire does not rank high. Its small,
+white-faced, hornless, symmetrical breed of sheep known as "the
+Ryelands," from the district near Ross, where it was bred in most
+perfection, made the county long famous both for the flavour of its meat
+and the merino-like texture of its wool. Fuller says of this that it was
+best known as "Lempster ore," and the finest in all England. In its
+original form the breed is extinct, crossing with the Leicester having
+improved size and stamina at the cost of the fleece, and the chief
+breeds of sheep on Herefordshire farms at present are Shropshire Downs,
+Cotswolds and Radnors, with their crosses. Agricultural horses of good
+quality are bred in the north, and saddle and coach horses may be met
+with at the fairs. Breeders' names from the county are famous at the
+national cattle shows, and the number, size and quality of the stock are
+seen in their supply of the metropolitan and other markets. Prize
+Herefords are constantly exported to the colonies.
+
+Manufacturing enterprise is small. There are some iron foundries and
+factories for agricultural implements, and some paper is made. There are
+considerable limestone quarries, as near Ledbury.
+
+_Communications._--Hereford is an important railway centre. The
+Worcester and Cardiff line of the Great Western railway, entering on the
+east, runs to Hereford by Ledbury and then southward. The joint line of
+the Great Western and North-Western companies runs north from Hereford
+by Leominster, proceeding to Shrewsbury and Crewe. At Leominster a Great
+Western branch crosses, connecting Worcester, Bromyard and New Radnor.
+From Hereford a Great Western branch follows the Wye south to Ross, and
+thence to the Forest of Dean and to Gloucester; a branch connects
+Ledbury with Gloucester, and the Golden Valley is traversed by a branch
+from Pontrilas on the Worcester-Cardiff line. From Hereford the Midland
+and Neath and Brecon line follows the Wye valley westward. None of the
+rivers is commercially navigable and the canals are out of use.
+
+_Population and Administration._--The area of the ancient county is
+537,363 acres, with a population in 1891 of 115,949 and in 1901 of
+114,380. The area of the administrative county is 538,921 acres. The
+county contains 12 hundreds. It is divided into two parliamentary
+divisions, Leominster (N.) and Ross (S.), and it also includes the
+parliamentary borough of Hereford, each returning one member. There are
+two municipal boroughs--Hereford (pop. 21,382) and Leominster (5826).
+The other urban districts are Bromyard (1663), Kington (1944), Ledbury
+(3259) and Ross (3303). The county is in the Oxford circuit, and assizes
+are held at Hereford. It has one court of quarter sessions and is
+divided into 11 petty sessional divisions. The boroughs of Hereford and
+Leominster have separate commissions of the peace, and the borough of
+Hereford has in addition a separate court of quarter sessions. There are
+260 civil parishes. The ancient county, which is almost entirely in the
+diocese of Hereford, with small parts in those of Gloucester, Worcester
+and Llandaff, contains 222 ecclesiastical parishes or districts, wholly
+or in part.
+
+_History._--At some time in the 7th century the West Saxons pushed their
+way across the Severn and established themselves in the territory
+between Wales and Mercia, with which kingdom they soon became
+incorporated. The district which is now Herefordshire was occupied by a
+tribe the Hecanas, who congregated chiefly in the fertile area about
+Hereford and in the mining districts round Ross. In the 8th century Offa
+extended the Mercian frontier to the Wye, securing it by the earthwork
+known as Offa's dike, portions of which are visible at Knighton and
+Moorhampton in this county. In 915 the Danes made their way up the
+Severn to the district of Archenfield, where they took prisoner
+Cyfeiliawg bishop of Llandaff, and in 921 they besieged Wigmore, which
+had been rebuilt in that year by Edward. From the time of its first
+settlement the district was the scene of constant border warfare with
+the Welsh, and Harold, whose earldom included this county, ordered that
+any Welshman caught trespassing over the border should lose his right
+hand. In the period preceding the Conquest much disturbance was caused
+by the outrages of the Norman colony planted in this county by Edward
+the Confessor. Richard's castle in the north of the county was the first
+Norman fortress erected on English soil, and Wigmore, Ewyas Harold,
+Clifford, Weobley, Hereford, Donnington and Caldecot were all the sites
+of Norman strongholds. The conqueror entrusted the subjugation of
+Herefordshire to William FitzOsbern, but Edric the Wild in conjunction
+with the Welsh prolonged resistance against him for two years.
+
+In the wars of Stephen's reign Hereford and Weobley castles were held
+against the king, but were captured in 1138. Edward, afterwards Edward
+I., was imprisoned in Hereford Castle, and made his famous escape thence
+in 1265. In 1326 the parliament assembled at Hereford which deposed
+Edward II. In the 14th and 15th centuries the forest of Deerfold gave
+refuge to some of the most noted followers of Wycliffe. During the Wars
+of the Roses the influence of the Mortimers led the county to support
+the Yorkist cause, and Edward, afterwards Edward IV., raised 23,000 men
+in this neighbourhood. The battle of Mortimer's Cross was fought in 1461
+near Wigmore. Before the outbreak of the civil war of the 17th century,
+complaints of illegal taxation were rife in Herefordshire, but a strong
+anti-puritan feeling induced the county to favour the royalist cause.
+Hereford, Goodrich and Ledbury all endured sieges.
+
+The earldom of Hereford was granted by William I. to William FitzOsbern,
+about 1067, but on the outlawry of his son Roger in 1074 the title
+lapsed until conferred on Henry de Bohun about 1199. It remained in the
+possession of the Bohuns until the death of Humphrey de Bohun in 1373;
+in 1397 Henry, earl of Derby, afterwards King Henry IV., who had married
+Mary Bohun, was created duke of Hereford. Edward VI. created Walter
+Devereux, a descendant of the Bohun family, Viscount Hereford, in 1550,
+and his grandson, the famous earl of Essex, was born in this county.
+Since this date the viscounty has been held by the Devereux family, and
+the holder ranks as the premier viscount of England. The families of
+Clifford, Giffard and Mortimer figured prominently in the warfare on the
+Welsh border, and the Talbots, Lacys, Crofts and Scudamores also had
+important seats in the county, Sir James Scudamore of Holme Lacy being
+the original of the Sir Scudamore of Spenser's _Faery Queen_. Sir John
+Oldcastle, the leader of the Lollards, was sheriff of Herefordshire in
+1406.
+
+Herefordshire probably originated as a shire in the time of Aethelstan,
+and is mentioned in the Saxon Chronicle in 1051. In the Domesday Survey
+parts of Monmouthshire and Radnorshire are assessed under Herefordshire,
+and the western and southern borders remained debatable ground until
+with the incorporation of the Welsh marches in 1535 considerable
+territory was restored to Herefordshire and formed into the hundreds of
+Wigmore, Ewyas Lacy and Huntingdon, while Ewyas Harold was united to
+Webtree. At the time of the Domesday Survey the divisions of the county
+were very unsettled. As many as nineteen hundreds are mentioned, but
+these were of varying extent, some containing only one manor, some from
+twenty to thirty. Of the twelve modern hundreds, only Greytree, Radlow,
+Stretford, Wolphy and Wormelow retain Domesday names. Herefordshire has
+been included in the diocese of Hereford since its foundation in 676. In
+1291 it comprised the deaneries of Hereford, Weston, Leominster,
+Weobley, Frome, Archenfield and Ross in the archdeaconry of Hereford,
+and the deaneries of Burford, Stottesdon, Ludlow, Pontesbury, Clun and
+Wenlock, in the archdeaconry of Shropshire. In 1877 the name of the
+archdeaconry of Shropshire was changed to Ludlow, and in 1899 the
+deaneries of Abbey Dore, Bromyard, Kingsland, Kington and Ledbury were
+created in the archdeaconry of Hereford.
+
+Herefordshire was governed by a sheriff as early as the reign of Edward
+the Confessor, the shire-court meeting at Hereford where later the
+assizes and quarter sessions were also held. In 1606 an act was passed
+declaring Hereford free from the jurisdiction of the council of Wales,
+but the county was not finally relieved from the interference of the
+Lords Marchers until the reign of William and Mary.
+
+Herefordshire has always been esteemed an exceptionally rich
+agricultural area, the manufactures being unimportant, with the sole
+exception of the woollen and the cloth trade which flourished soon after
+the Conquest. Iron was worked in Wormelow hundred in Roman times, and
+the Domesday Survey mentions iron workers in Marcle. At the time of
+Henry VIII. the towns had become much impoverished, and Elizabeth in
+order to encourage local industries, insisted on her subjects wearing
+English-made caps from the factory of Hereford. Hops were grown in the
+county soon after their introduction into England in 1524. In 1580 and
+again in 1637 the county was severely visited by the plague, but in the
+17th century it had a flourishing timber trade and was noted for its
+orchards and cider.
+
+Herefordshire was first represented in parliament in 1295, when it
+returned two members, the boroughs of Ledbury, Hereford, Leominster and
+Weobley being also represented. Hereford was again represented in 1299,
+and Bromyard and Ross in 1304, but the boroughs made very irregular
+returns, and from 1306 until Weobley regained representation in 1627,
+only Hereford and Leominster were represented. Under the act of 1832 the
+county returned three members and Weobley was disfranchised. The act of
+1868 deprived Leominster of one member, and under the act of 1885
+Leominster was disfranchised, and Hereford lost one member.
+
+_Antiquities._--There are remains of several of the strongholds which
+Herefordshire possessed as a march county, some of which were maintained
+and enlarged, after the settlement of the border, to serve in later
+wars. To the south of Ross are those of Wilton and Goodrich, commanding
+the Wye on the right bank, the latter a ruin of peculiar magnificence,
+and both gaining picturesqueness from their beautiful situations. Of the
+several castles in the valleys of the boundary-river Monnow and its
+tributaries, those in this county include Pembridge, Kilpeck and
+Longtown; of which the last shows extensive remains of the strong keep
+and thick walls. In the north the finest example is Wigmore, consisting
+of a keep on an artificial mound within outer walls, the seat of the
+powerful family of Mortimer.
+
+Beside the cathedral of Hereford, and the fine churches of Ledbury,
+Leominster and Ross, described under separate headings, the county
+contains some churches of almost unique interest. In that of Kilpeck
+remarkable and unusual Norman work is seen. It consists of the three
+divisions of nave, choir and chancel, divided by ornate arches, the
+chancel ending in an apse, with a beautiful and elaborate west end and
+south doorway. The columns of the choir arch are composed of figures. A
+similar plan is seen in Peterchurch in the Golden Valley, and in Moccas
+church, on the Wye above Hereford. Among the large number of churches
+exhibiting Norman details that at Bromyard is noteworthy. At Abbey Dore,
+the Cistercian abbey church, still in use, is a large and beautiful
+specimen of Early English work, and there are slight remains of the
+monastic buildings. At Madley, south of the Wye 5 m. W. of Hereford, is
+a fine Decorated church (with earlier portions), with the rare feature
+of a Decorated apsidal chancel over an octagonal crypt. Of the churches
+in mixed styles those in the larger towns are the most noteworthy,
+together with that of Weobley.
+
+The half-timbered style of domestic architecture, common in the west and
+midlands of England in the 16th and 17th centuries, beautifies many of
+the towns and villages. Among country houses, that of Treago, 9 m. W. of
+Ross, is a remarkable example of a fortified mansion of the 13th
+century, in a condition little altered. Rudhall and Sufton Court,
+between Ross and Hereford, are good specimens of 15th-century work, and
+portions of Hampton Court, 8 m. N. of Hereford, are of the same period,
+built by Sir Rowland Lenthall, a favourite of Henry IV. Holme Lacy, 5 m.
+S.E. of Hereford, is a fine mansion of the latter part of the 17th
+century, with picturesque Dutch gardens, and much wood-carving by
+Grinling Gibbons within. This was formerly the seat of the Scudamores,
+from whom it was inherited by the Stanhopes, earls of Chesterfield, the
+9th earl of Chesterfield taking the name of Scudamore-Stanhope. His son,
+the 10th earl, has recently (1909) sold Holme Lacy to Sir Robert
+Lucas-Tooth, Bart. Downton Castle possesses historical interest in
+having been designed in 1774, in a strange mixture of Gothic and Greek
+styles, by Richard Payne Knight (1750-1824), a famous scholar,
+numismatist and member of parliament for Leominster and Ludlow; while
+Eaton Hall, now a farm, was the seat of the family of the famous
+geographer Richard Hakluyt.
+
+  See _Victoria County History, Herefordshire_; J. Duncomb, _Collections
+  towards the History and Antiquities of the County of Hereford_
+  (Hereford, 1804-1812); John Allen, _Bibliotheca Herefordiensis_
+  (Hereford, 1821); John Webb, _Memorials of the Civil War between
+  Charles I. and the Parliament of England as it affected Herefordshire
+  and the adjacent Counties_ (London, 1879); R. Cooke, _Visitation of
+  Herefordshire, 1569_ (Exeter, 1886); F. T. Havergal, _Herefordshire
+  Words and Phrases_ (Walsall, 1887); J. Hutchinson, _Herefordshire
+  Biographies_ (Hereford, 1890).
+
+
+
+
+HERERO, or OVAHERERO ("merry people"), a Bantu people of German
+South-West Africa, living in the region known as Damaraland or
+Hereroland. They call themselves Ovaherero and their language
+Otshi-herero. Sometimes they are described as Cattle Damara or "Damara
+of the Plains" in distinction from the Hill Damara who are of mixed
+blood and Hottentots in language. The Herero, whose main occupation is
+that of cattle-rearing, are a warlike race, possessed of considerable
+military skill, as was shown in their campaigns of 1904-5 against the
+Germans. (See further GERMAN SOUTH-WEST AFRICA.)
+
+
+
+
+HERESY, the English equivalent of the Greek word [Greek: hairesis] which
+is used in the Septuagint for "free choice," in later classical
+literature for a philosophical school or sect as "chosen" by those who
+belong to it, in Philo for religion, in Josephus for a religious party
+(the Sadducees, the Pharisees and the Essenes).
+
+
+  New Testament.
+
+It is in this last sense that the term is used in the New Testament,
+usually with an implicit censure of the factious spirit to which such
+divisions are due. The term is applied to the Sadducees (Acts v. 17) and
+Pharisees (Acts xv. 5, xxvi. 5). From the standpoint of opponents,
+Christianity is itself so described (Acts xxiv. 14, xxviii. 22). In the
+Pauline Epistles it is used with severe condemnation of the divisions
+within the Christian Church itself. Heresies with "enmities, strife,
+jealousies, wraths, factions, divisions, envyings" are reckoned among
+"the works of the flesh" (Gal. v. 20). Such divisions, proofs of a
+carnal mind, are censured in the church of Corinth (1 Cor. iii. 3, 4);
+and the church of Rome is warned against those who cause them (Rom. xvi.
+17). The term "schism," afterwards distinguished from "heresy," is also
+used of these divisions (1 Cor. i. 10). The estrangements of the rich
+and the poor in the church at Corinth, leading to a lack of Christian
+fellowship even at the Lord's Supper, is described as "heresy" (1 Cor.
+xi. 19). Breaches of the law of love, not errors about the truth of the
+Gospel, are referred to in these passages. But the first step towards
+the ecclesiastical use of the term is found already in 2 Peter ii. 1,
+"Among you also there shall be false teachers who shall privily bring in
+destructive heresies (R.V. margin "sects of perdition"), denying even
+the Master that bought them, bringing upon themselves swift
+destruction." The meaning here suggested is "falsely chosen or erroneous
+tenets. Already the emphasis is moving from persons and their temper to
+mental products--from the sphere of sympathetic love to that of
+objective truth" (Bartlet, art. "Heresy," Hastings's _Bible
+Dictionary_). As the parallel passage in Jude, verse 4, shows, however,
+that these errors had immoral consequences, the moral reference is not
+absent even from this passage. The first employment of the term outside
+the New Testament is also its first use for theological error. Ignatius
+applies it to Docetism (_Ad Trall._ 6). As doctrine came to be made more
+important, heresy was restricted to any departure from the recognized
+creed. Even Constantine the Great describes the Christian Church as "the
+Catholic heresy," "the most sacred heresy" (Eusebius, _Ecclesiastical
+History_, x. c. 5, the letter to Chrestus, bishop of Syracuse); but this
+use was very soon abandoned, and the Catholic Church distinguished
+itself from the dissenting minorities, which it condemned as "heresies."
+The use of the term heresy in the New Testament cannot be regarded as
+defining the attitude of the Christian Church, even in the Apostolic
+age, towards errors in belief. The Apostolic writings show a vehement
+antagonism towards all teaching opposed to the Gospel. Paul declares
+_anathema_ the Judaizer, who required the circumcision of the Gentiles
+(Gal. i. 8), and even calls them the "dogs of the concision" and "evil
+workers" (Phil. iii. 2). The elders of Ephesus are warned against the
+false teachers who would appear in the church after the apostle's death
+as "grievous wolves not sparing the flock" (Acts xx. 29); and the
+speculations of the Gnostics are denounced as "seducing spirits and
+doctrines of devils" (1 Tim. iv. 1), as "profane babblings and
+oppositions of the knowledge which is falsely so called" (vi. 20).
+John's warnings are as earnest and severe. Those who deny the fact of
+the Incarnation are described as "antichrist," and as "deceivers" (1
+John iv. 3; 2 John 7). The references to heretics in 2 Peter and Jude
+have already been dealt with. This antagonism is explicable by the
+character of the heresies that threatened the Christian Church in the
+Apostolic age. Each of these heresies involved such a blending of the
+Gospel with either Jewish or pagan elements, as would not only pollute
+its purity, but destroy its power. In each of these the Gospel was in
+danger of being made of none effect by the environment, which it must
+resist in order that it might transform (see Burton's Bampton Lectures
+on _The Heresies of the Apostolic Age_).
+
+
+  Gnosticism.
+
+These Gnostic heresies, which threatened to paganize the Christian
+Church, were condemned in no measured terms by the fathers. These false
+teachers are denounced as "servants of Satan, beasts in human shape,
+dealers in deadly poison, robbers and pirates." Polycarp, Ignatius,
+Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Hippolytus, Tertullian and even Clement of
+Alexandria and Origen are as severe in condemnation as the later fathers
+(cf. Matt. xiii. 35-43; Tertullian, _Praescr._ 31). While the necessity
+of the heresies is admitted in accordance with 1 Cor. xi. 19, yet woe is
+pronounced on those who have introduced them, according to Matt. xviii.
+7. (This application of these passages, however, is of altogether
+doubtful validity.) "It was necessary," says Tertullian (ibid. 30),
+"that the Lord should be betrayed; but woe to the traitor." The very
+worst motives, "pride, disappointed ambition, sensual lust, and
+avarice," are recklessly imputed to the heretics; and no possibility of
+morally innocent doubt, difficulty or difference in thought is admitted.
+Origen and Augustine do, however, recognize that even false teachers may
+have good motives. While we must admit that there was a very serious
+peril to the thought and life of the Christian Church in the teaching
+thus denounced, yet we must not forget that for the most part these
+teachers are known to us only in the _ex parte_ representation that
+their opponents have given of them; and we must not assume that even
+their doctrines, still less their characters, were so bad as they are
+described.
+
+The attitude of the church in the post-Nicene period differs from that
+in the ante-Nicene in two important respects. (1) As has already been
+indicated, the earlier heresies threatened to introduce Jewish or pagan
+elements into the faith of the church, and it was necessary that they
+should be vigorously resisted if the church was to retain its
+distinctive character. Many of the later heresies were differences in
+the interpretation of Christian truth, which did not in the same way
+threaten the very life of the church. No vital interest of Christian
+faith justified the extravagant denunciations in which theological
+partisanship so recklessly and ruthlessly indulged. (2) In the
+ante-Nicene period only ecclesiastical penalties, such as reproof,
+deposition or excommunication, could be imposed. In the post-Nicene the
+union of church and state transformed theological error into legal
+offence (see below).
+
+
+  Christian definition.
+
+We must now consider the definition of heresy which was gradually
+reached in the Christian Church. It is "a religious error held in wilful
+and persistent opposition to the truth after it has been defined and
+declared by the church in an authoritative manner," or "pertinax
+defensio dogmatis ecclesiae universalis judicio condemnati" (Schaff's
+_Ante-Nicene_ Christianity, ii. 512-516). (i.) It "denotes an opinion
+antagonistic to a fundamental article of the Christian faith," due to
+the introduction of "foreign elements" and resulting in a perversion of
+Christianity, and an amalgamation with it of ideas discordant with its
+nature (Fisher's _History of Christian Doctrine_, p. 9). It has been
+generally assumed that the ecclesiastical authority was always competent
+to determine what are the fundamental articles of the Christian faith,
+and to detect any departures from them; but it is necessary to admit the
+possibility that the error was in the church, and the truth was with the
+heresy. (ii.) There cannot be any heresy where there is no orthodoxy,
+and, therefore, in the definition it is assumed that the church has
+declared what is the truth or the error in any matter. Accordingly
+"heresy is to be distinguished from defective stages of Christian
+knowledge. For example, the Jewish believers, including the Apostles
+themselves, at the outset required the Gentile believers to be
+circumcised. They were not on this account chargeable with heresy.
+Additional light must first come in, and be rejected, before that
+earlier opinion could be thus stigmatized. Moreover, heresies are not to
+be confounded with tentative and faulty hypotheses broached in a period
+prior to the scrutiny of a topic of Christian doctrine, and before that
+scrutiny has led the general mind to an assured conclusion. Such
+hypotheses--for example, the idea that in the person of Christ the Logos
+is substituted for a rational human spirit--are to be met with in
+certain early fathers" (ibid. p. 10). Origen indulged in many
+speculations which were afterwards condemned, but, as these matters were
+still open questions in his day, he was not reckoned a heretic. (iii.)
+In accordance with the New Testament use of the term heresy, it is
+assumed that moral defect accompanies the intellectual error, that the
+false view is held pertinaciously, in spite of warning, remonstrance and
+rebuke; aggressively to win over others, and so factiously, to cause
+division in the church, a breach in its unity.
+
+
+  Schism.
+
+A distinction is made between "heresy" and "schism" (from Gr. [Greek:
+schizein], rend asunder, divide). "The fathers commonly use 'heresy' of
+false teaching in opposition to Catholic doctrine, and 'schism' of a
+breach of discipline, in opposition to Catholic government" (Schaff).
+But as the claims of the church to be the guardian through its
+episcopate of the apostolic tradition, of the Christian faith itself,
+were magnified, and unity in practice as well as in doctrine came to be
+regarded as essential, this distinction became a theoretical rather than
+a practical one. While severely condemning, both Irenaeus and Tertullian
+distinguished schismatics from heretics. "Though we are by no means
+entitled to say that they acknowledged orthodox schismatics they did not
+yet venture to reckon them simply as heretics. If it was desired to get
+rid of these, an effort was made to impute to them some deviation from
+the rule of faith; and under this pretext the church freed herself from
+the Montanists and the Monarchians. Cyprian was the first to proclaim
+the identity of heretics and schismatics by making a man's Christianity
+depend on his belonging to the great episcopal church confederation. But
+in both East and West, this theory of his became established only by
+very imperceptible degrees, and indeed, strictly speaking, the process
+was never completed. The distinction between heretics and schismatics
+was preserved because it prevented a public denial of the old
+principles, because it was advisable on political grounds to treat
+certain schismatic communities with indulgence, and because it was
+always possible in case of need to prove heresy against the
+schismatics." (Harnack's _History of Dogma_, ii. 92-93).
+
+
+  Heretical baptism.
+
+There was considerable controversy in the early church as to the
+validity of heretical baptism. As even "the Christian virtues of the
+heretics were described as hypocrisy and love of ostentation," so no
+value whatever was attached by the orthodox party to the sacraments
+performed by heretics. Tertullian declares that the church can have no
+communion with the heretics, for there is nothing common; as they have
+not the same God, and the same Christ, so they have not the same baptism
+(_De bapt._ 15). Cyprian agreed with him. The validity of heretical
+baptism was denied by the church of Asia Minor as well as of Africa; but
+the practice of the Roman Church was to admit without second baptism
+heretics who had been baptized with the name of Christ, or of the Holy
+Trinity. Stephen of Rome attempted to force the Roman practice on the
+whole church in 253. The controversy his intolerance provoked was closed
+by Augustine's controversial treatise _De Baptismo_, in which the
+validity of baptism administered by heretics is based on the objectivity
+of the sacrament. Whenever the name of the three-one God is used, the
+sacrament is declared valid by whomsoever it may be performed. This was
+a triumph of sacramentarianism, not of charity.
+
+
+  Types of heresy.
+
+Three types of heresy have appeared in the history of the Christian
+Church.[1] The earliest may be called the _syncretic_; it is the fusion
+of Jewish or pagan with Christian elements. _Ebionitism_ asserted "the
+continual obligation to observe the whole of the Mosaic law," and
+"outran the Old Testament monotheism by a barren monarchianism that
+denied the divinity of Christ" (Kurtz, _Church History_, i. 120).
+"_Gnosticism_ was the result of the attempt to blend with Christianity
+the religious notions of pagan mythology, mysterology, theosophy and
+philosophy" (p. 98). The Judaizing and the paganizing tendency were
+combined in _Gnostic Ebionitism_ which was prepared for in _Jewish
+Essenism_. In the later heresy of _Manichaeism_ there were affinities to
+Gnosticism, but it was a mixture of many elements, Babylonian-Chaldaic
+theosophy, Persian dualism and even Buddhist ethics (p. 126).
+
+The next type of heresy may be called _evolutionary_ or _formatory_.
+When the Christian faith is being formulated, undue emphasis may be put
+on one aspect, and thus so partial a statement of truth may result in
+error. Thus when in the ante-Nicene age the doctrine of the Trinity was
+under discussion, dynamic _Monarchianism_ "regarded Christ as a mere
+man, who, like the prophets, though in a much higher measure, had been
+endued with divine wisdom and power"; modal _Monarchianism_ saw in the
+Logos dwelling in Christ "only a mode of the activity of the Father";
+_Patripassianism_ identified the Logos with the Father; and
+_Sabellianism_ regarded Father, Son and Spirit as "the _roles_ which the
+God who manifests Himself in the world assumes in succession" (Kurtz,
+_Church History_, i. 175-181). When Arius asserted the subordination of
+the Son to the Father, and denied the eternal generation, Athanasius and
+his party asserted the _Homoousia_, the cosubstantiality of the Father
+and the Son. This assertion of the divinity of Christ triumphed, but
+other problems at once emerged. How was the relation of the humanity to
+the divinity in Christ to be conceived? Apollinaris denied the
+completeness of the human nature, and substituted the divine Logos for
+the reasonable soul of man. Nestorius held the two natures so far apart
+as to appear to sacrifice the unity of the person of Christ. Eutyches on
+the contrary "taught not only that after His incarnation Christ had only
+one nature, but also that the body of Christ as the body of God is not
+of like substance with our own" (Kurtz, _Church History_, i, 330-334).
+The Church in the Creed of Chalcedon in A.D. 451 affirmed "that Christ
+is true God and true man, according to His Godhead begotten from
+eternity and like the Father in everything, only without sin; and that
+after His incarnation the unity of the person consists in two natures
+which are conjoined without confusion, and without change, but also
+without rending and without separation." The problem was not solved, but
+the inadequate solutions were excluded, and the data to be considered in
+any adequate solution were affirmed. After this decision the
+controversies about the Person of Christ degenerated into mere
+hair-splitting; and the interference of the imperial authority from time
+to time in the dispute was not conducive to the settlement of the
+questions in the interests of truth alone. This problem interested the
+East for the most part; in the West there was waged a theological
+warfare around the nature of man and the work of Christ. To Augustine's
+doctrine of man's total depravity, his incapacity for any good, and the
+absolute sovereignty of the divine grace in salvation according to the
+divine election, Pelagius opposed the view that "God's grace is destined
+for all men, but man must make himself worthy of it by honest striving
+after virtue" (Kurtz, _Church History_, i. 348). While Pelagius was
+condemned, it was only a modified Augustinianism which became the
+doctrine of the church. It is not necessary in illustration of the
+second type of heresy--that which arises when the contents of the
+Christian faith are being defined--to refer to the doctrinal
+controversies of the middle ages. It may be added that after the
+Reformation Arianism was revived in Socinianism, and Pelagianism in
+Arminianism; but the conception of heresy in Protestantism demands
+subsequent notice.
+
+The third type of heresy is the _revolutionary_ or _reformatory_. This
+is not directed against doctrine as such, but against the church, its
+theory and its practice. Such movements of antagonism to the errors or
+abuses of ecclesiastical authority may be so permeated by defective
+conceptions and injurious influences as by their own character to
+deserve condemnation. But on the other hand the church in maintaining
+its place and power may condemn as heretical genuine efforts at reform
+by a return, though partial, to the standard set by the Holy Scriptures
+or the Apostolic Church. On the one hand there were during the middle
+ages sects, like the Catharists and Albigenses, whose "opposition as a
+rule developed itself from dualistic or pantheistic premises (surviving
+effects of old Gnostic or Manichaean views)" and who "stood outside of
+ordinary Christendom, and while no doubt affecting many individual
+members within it, had no influence on church doctrine." On the other
+hand there were movements, such as the Waldensian, the Wycliffite and
+Hussite, which are often described as "reformations anticipating the
+Reformation" which "set out from the Augustinian conception of the
+Church, but took exception to the development of the conception," and
+were pronounced by the medieval church as heretical for (1) "contesting
+the hierarchical gradation of the priestly order; or (2) giving to the
+religious idea of the Church implied in the thought of predestination a
+place superior to the conception of the empirical Church; or (3)
+applying to the priests, and thereby to the authorities of the Church,
+the test of the law of God, before admitting their right to exercise, as
+holding the keys, the power of binding and loosing" (Harnack's _History
+of Dogma_, vi. 136-137). The Reformation itself was from the standpoint
+of the Roman Catholic Church heresy and schism.
+
+
+  Modern use of the term.
+
+"In the present divided state of Christendom," says Schaff (_Ante-Nicene
+Christianity_, ii. 513-514), "there are different kinds of orthodoxy and
+heresy. Orthodoxy is conformity to the recognized creed or standard of
+public doctrine; heresy is a wilful departure from it. The Greek Church
+rejects as heretical, because contrary to the teaching of the first
+seven ecumenical councils, the Roman dogmas of the papacy, of the double
+procession of the Holy Ghost, the immaculate conception of the Virgin
+Mary, and the infallibility of the Pope. The Roman Church anathematized,
+in the council of Trent, all the distinctive doctrines of the Protestant
+Reformation. Among Protestant churches again there are minor doctrinal
+differences, which are held with various degrees of exclusiveness or
+liberality according to the degree of departure from the Roman Catholic
+Church. Luther, for instance, would not tolerate Zwingli's view on the
+Lord's Supper, while Zwingli was willing to fraternize with him
+notwithstanding this difference." At the colloquy of Marburg "Zwingli
+offered his hand to Luther with the entreaty that they be at least
+Christian brethren, but Luther refused it and declared that the Swiss
+were of another spirit. He expressed surprise that a man of such views
+as Zwingli should wish brotherly relations with the Wittenberg
+reformers" (Walker, _The Reformation_, p. 174). A difference of opinion
+on the question of the presence of Christ in the elements at the Lord's
+Supper was thus allowed to divide and to weaken the forces of the
+Reformation. On the problem of divine election Lutheranism and Calvinism
+remained divided. The Formula of Concord (1577), which gave to the whole
+Lutheran Church of Germany a common doctrinal system, declined to accept
+the Calvinistic position that man's condemnation as well as his
+salvation is an object of divine predestination. Within Calvinism itself
+Pelagianism was revived in Arminianism, which denied the
+irresistibility, and affirmed the universality of grace. This heresy was
+condemned by the synod of Dort (1619). The standpoint of the Reformed
+churches was the substitution of the authority of the Scriptures for the
+authority of the church. Whatever was conceived as contrary to the
+teaching of the Bible was regarded as heresy. The position is well
+expressed in the _Scotch Confession_ (1559). "Protesting, that if any
+man will note in this our Confession any article or sentence repugning
+to God's Holy Word, that it would please him, of his gentleness, and for
+Christian charity's sake, to admonish us of the same in writ, and we of
+our honour and fidelity do promise unto him satisfaction from the mouth
+of God; that is, from His Holy Scripture, or else reformation of that
+which he shall prove to be amiss. In God we take to record in our
+consciences that from our hearts we abhor all sects of heresy, and all
+teachers of erroneous doctrines; and that with all humility we embrace
+purity of Christ's evangel, which is the only food of our souls"
+(Preface).
+
+Although subsequently to the Reformation period the Protestant churches
+for the most part relapsed into the dogmatism of the Roman Catholic
+Church, and were ever ready with censure for every departure from
+orthodoxy--yet to-day a spirit of diffidence in regard to one's own
+beliefs, and of tolerance towards the beliefs of others, is abroad. The
+enlargement of the horizon of knowledge by the advance of science, the
+recognition of the only relative validity of human opinions and beliefs
+as determined by and adapted to each stage of human development, which
+is due to the growing historical sense, the alteration of view regarding
+the nature of inspiration, and the purpose of the Holy Scriptures, the
+revolt against all ecclesiastical authority, and the acceptance of
+reason and conscience as alone authoritative, the growth of the spirit
+of Christian charity, the clamorous demand of the social problem for
+immediate attention, all combine in making the Christian churches less
+anxious about the danger, and less zealous in the discovery and
+condemnation of heresy.
+
+
+  Persecution of heretics.
+
+Having traced the history of opinion in the Christian churches on the
+subject of heresy, we must now return to resume a subject already
+mentioned, the persecution of heretics. According to the Canon Law,
+which "was the ecclesiastical law of medieval Europe, and is still the
+law of the Roman Catholic Church," heresy was defined as "error which is
+voluntarily held in contradiction to a doctrine which has been clearly
+stated in the creed, and has become part of the defined faith of the
+church," and which is "persisted in by a member of the church." It was
+regarded not only as an error, but also as a crime to be detected and
+punished. As it belongs, however, to a man's thoughts and not his deeds,
+it often can be proved only from suspicions. The canonists define the
+degrees of suspicion as "light" calling for vigilance, "vehement"
+demanding denunciation, and "violent" requiring punishment. The grounds
+of suspicion have been formulated "Pope Innocent III. declared that to
+lead a solitary life, to refuse to accommodate oneself to the prevailing
+manners of society and to frequent unauthorized religious meetings were
+abundant grounds of suspicion; while later canonists were accustomed to
+give lists of deeds which made the doers suspect: a priest who did not
+celebrate mass, a layman who was seen in clerical robes, those who
+favoured heretics, received them as guests, gave them safe conduct,
+tolerated them, trusted them, defended them, fought under them or read
+their books were all to be suspect" (T. M. Lindsay in article "Heresy,"
+_Ency. Brit._ 9th edition). That the dangers of heresy might be avoided,
+laymen were forbidden to argue about matters of faith by Pope Alexander
+IV., an oath "to abjure every heresy and to maintain in its completeness
+the Catholic faith" was required by the council of Toledo (1129), the
+reading of the Scriptures in the vulgar tongue was not allowed to the
+laity by Pope Pius IV. The reading of books was restricted and certain
+books were prohibited. Regarding heresy as a crime, the church was not
+content with inflicting its spiritual penalties, such as excommunication
+and such civil disabilities as its own organization allowed it to impose
+(e.g. the heretics were forbidden to give evidence in ecclesiastical
+courts, fathers were forbidden to allow a son or a daughter to marry a
+heretic, and to hold social intercourse with a heretic was an offence).
+It regarded itself as justified in invoking the power of the state to
+suppress heresy by civil pains and penalties, including even torture and
+death.
+
+The story of the persecution of heretics by the state must be briefly
+sketched.
+
+As long as the Christian Church was itself persecuted by the pagan
+empire, it advocated freedom of conscience, and insisted that religion
+could be promoted only by instruction and persuasion (Justin Martyr,
+Tertullian, Lactantius); but almost immediately after Christianity was
+adopted as the religion of the Roman empire the persecution of men for
+religious opinions began. While Constantine at the beginning of his
+reign (313) declared complete religious liberty, and kept on the whole
+to this declaration, yet he confined his favours to the orthodox
+hierarchical church, and even by an edict of the year 326 formally
+asserted the exclusion from these of heretics and schismatics. Arianism,
+when favoured by the reigning emperor, showed itself even more
+intolerant than Catholic Orthodoxy. Theodosius the Great, in 380, soon
+after his baptism, issued, with his co-emperors, the following edict:
+"We, the three emperors, will that all our subjects steadfastly adhere
+to the religion which was taught by St Peter to the Romans, which has
+been faithfully preserved by tradition, and which is now professed by
+the pontiff Damasus of Rome, and Peter, bishop of Alexandria, a man of
+apostolic holiness. According to the institution of the Apostles, and
+the doctrine of the Gospel, let us believe in the one Godhead of the
+Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost, of equal majesty in the Holy
+Trinity. We order that the adherents of this faith be called _Catholic
+Christians_; we brand all the senseless followers of the other religions
+with the infamous name of _heretics_, and forbid their conventicles
+assuming the name of churches. Besides the condemnation of divine
+justice, they must expect the heavy penalties which our authority,
+guided by heavenly wisdom, shall think proper to inflict" (Schaff's
+_Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity_, i. 142). The fifteen penal laws
+which this emperor issued in as many years deprived them of all right to
+the exercise of their religion, "excluded them from all civil offices,
+and threatened them with fines, confiscation, banishment and even in
+some cases with death." In 385 Maximus, his rival and colleague, caused
+seven heretics to be put to death at Treves (Trier). Many bishops
+approved the act, but Ambrose of Milan and Martin of Tours condemned it.
+While Chrysostom disapproved of the execution of heretics, he approved
+"the prohibition of their assemblies and the confiscation of their
+churches." Jerome by an appeal to Deut. xiii. 6-10 appears to defend
+even the execution of heretics. Augustine found a justification for
+these penal measures in the "compel them to come in" of Luke xiv. 23,
+although his personal leanings were towards clemency. Only the
+persecuted themselves insisted on toleration as a Christian duty. In the
+middle ages the church showed no hesitation about persecuting unto death
+all who dared to contradict her doctrine, or challenge her practice, or
+question her authority. The instruction and persuasion which St Bernard
+favoured found little imitation. Even the Dominicans, who began as a
+preaching order to convert heretics, soon became persecutors. In the
+Albigensian Crusade (A.D. 1209-1229) thousands were slaughtered. As the
+bishops were not zealous enough in enforcing penal laws against
+heretics, the Tribunal of the Inquisition was founded in 1232 by Gregory
+IX., and was entrusted to the Dominicans who "as _Domini canes_
+subjected to the most cruel tortures all on whom the suspicion of heresy
+fell, and all the resolute were handed over to the civil authorities,
+who readily undertook their execution" (Kurtz, _Church History_, ii.
+137-138).
+
+At the Reformation Luther laid down the principle that the civil
+government is concerned with the province of the external and temporal
+life, and has nothing to do with faith and conscience. "How could the
+emperor gain the right," he asks, "to rule my faith?" With that only the
+Word of God is concerned. "Heresy is a spiritual thing," he says, "which
+one cannot hew with any iron, burn with any fire, drown with any water.
+The Word of God alone is there to do it." Nevertheless Luther assigned
+to the state, which he assumes to be Christian, the function of
+maintaining the Gospel and the Word of God in public life. He was not
+quite consistent in carrying out his principle (see Luthard's
+_Geschichte der christlichen Ethik_, ii. 33). In the Religious Peace of
+Augsburg the principle "cujus regio ejus religio" was accepted; by it a
+ruler's choice between Catholicism and Lutheranism bound his subjects,
+but any subject unwilling to accept the decision might emigrate without
+hindrance.
+
+In Geneva under Calvin, while the _Consistoire_, or ecclesiastical
+court, could inflict only spiritual penalties, yet the medieval idea of
+the duty of the state to co-operate with the church to maintain the
+religious purity of the community in matters of belief as well as of
+conduct so far survived that the civil authority was sure to punish
+those whom the ecclesiastical had censured. Calvin consented to the
+death of Servetus, whose views on the Trinity he regarded as most
+dangerous heresy, and whose denial of the full authority of the
+Scriptures he dreaded as overthrowing the foundations of all religious
+authority. Protestantism generally, it is to be observed, quite approved
+the execution of the heretic. The Synod of Dort (1619) not only
+condemned Arminianism, but its defenders were expelled from the
+Netherlands; only in 1625 did they venture to return, and not till 1630
+were they allowed to erect schools and churches. In modern Protestantism
+there is a growing disinclination to deal even with errors of belief by
+ecclesiastical censure; the appeal to the civil authority to inflict any
+penalty is abandoned. During the course of the 19th century in Scottish
+Presbyterianism the affirmation of Christ's atoning death for _all_ men,
+the denial of eternal punishment, the modification of the doctrine of
+the inspiration of the Scriptures by acceptance of the results of the
+Higher Criticism, were all censured as perilous errors.
+
+The subject cannot be left without a brief reference to the persecution
+of witches. To the beginning of the 13th century the popular
+superstitions regarding sorcery, witchcraft and compacts with the devil
+were condemned by the ecclesiastical authorities as heathenish, sinful
+and heretical. But after the establishment of the Inquisition "heresy
+and sorcery were regarded as correlates, like two agencies resting on
+and serviceable to the demoniacal powers, and were therefore treated in
+the same way as offences to be punished with torture and the stake"
+(Kurtz, _Church History_, ii. 195). While the Franciscans rejected the
+belief in witchcraft, the Dominicans were most zealous in persecuting
+witches. In the 15th century this delusion, fostered by the
+ecclesiastical authorities, took possession of the mind of the people,
+and thousands, mostly old women, but also a number of girls, were
+tortured and burned as witches. Protestantism took over the superstition
+from Catholicism. It was defended by James I. of England. As late as the
+18th century death was inflicted in Germany and Switzerland on men,
+women and even children accused of this crime. This superstition
+dominated Scotland. Not till 1736 were the statutes against witchcraft
+repealed; an act which the Associate Presbytery at Edinburgh in 1743
+declared to be "contrary to the express law of God, for which a holy God
+may be provoked in a way of righteous judgment."
+
+
+  Non-Christian religions.
+
+The recognition and condemnation of errors in religious belief is by no
+means confined to the Christian Church. Only a few instances of heresy
+in other religions can be given. In regard to the fetishism of the Gold
+Coast of Africa, Jevons (_Introduction to the History of Religion_, pp.
+165-166) maintains that "public opinion does not approve of the worship
+by an individual of a _suhman_, or private tutelary deity, and that his
+dealings with it are regarded in the nature of 'black art' as it is not
+a god of the community." In China there is a "classical or canonical,
+primitive and therefore alone orthodox (_tsching_) and true religion,"
+Confucianism and Taoism, while the "heterodox (_sic_)," Buddhism
+especially, is "partly tolerated, but generally forbidden, and even
+cruelly persecuted" (Chantepie de la Saussaye, _Religionsgeschichte_, i.
+57). In Islam "according to an unconfirmed tradition Mahomet is said to
+have foretold that his community would split into seventy-three sects
+(see MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION, S _Sects_), of which only one would escape the
+flames of hell." The first split was due to uncertainty regarding the
+principle which should rule the succession to the Caliphate. The Arabic
+and orthodox party (i.e. the Sunnites, who held by the Koran and
+tradition) maintained that this should be determined by the choice of
+the community. The Persian and heterodox party (the Shiites) insisted on
+heredity. But this political difference was connected with theological
+differences. The sect of the Mu'tazilites which affirmed that the Koran
+had been created, and denied predestination, began to be persecuted by
+the government in the 9th century, and discussion of religious questions
+was forbidden (see CALIPHATE, sections B and C). The mystical tendency
+in Islam, Sufism, is also regarded as heretical (see Kuenen's Hibbert
+Lecture, pp. 45-50). Buddhism is a wide departure in doctrine and
+practice from Brahmanism, and hence after a swift unfolding and quick
+spread it was driven out of India and had to find a home in other lands.
+Essenism from the standpoint of Judaism was heterodox in two respects,
+the abandonment of animal sacrifices and the adoration of the sun.
+
+Although in Greece there was generally wide tolerance, yet in 399 B.C.
+Socrates "was indicted as an irreligious man, a corrupter of youth, and
+an innovator in worship."
+
+  Besides the works quoted above, see Gottfried Arnold's _Unparteiische
+  Kirchen- und Ketzer-Historie_ (1699-1700; ed. Schaffhausen, 1740). A
+  very good list of writers on heresy, ancient and medieval, is given in
+  Burton's _Bampton Lectures on Heresies of the Apostolic Age_ (1829).
+  The various Trinitarian and Christological heresies may be studied in
+  Dorner's _History of the Doctrine of the Person of Christ_ (1845-1856;
+  Eng. trans., 1861-1862); the Gnostic and Manichaean heresies in the
+  works of Mansel, Matter and Beausobre; the medieval heresies in Hahn's
+  _Geschichte der Ketzer im Mittelalter_ (1846-1850), and Preger's
+  _Geschichte der deutschen Mystik_ (1875); Quietism in Heppe's
+  _Geschichte der quietistischen Mystik_ (1875); the Pietist sects in
+  Palmer's _Gemeinschaften und Secten Wurttembergs_ (1875); the
+  Reformation and 17th-century heresies and sects in the _Anabaptisticum
+  et enthusiasticum Pantheon und geistliches Rust-Haus_ (1702). Bohmer's
+  _Jus ecclesiasticum Protestantium_ (1714-1723), and van Espen's _Jus
+  ecclesiasticum_ (1702) detail at great length the relations of heresy
+  to canon and civil law. On the question of the baptism of heretics see
+  Smith and Cheetham's _Dict. of Eccl. Antiquities_, "Baptism, Iteration
+  of"; and on that of the readmission of heretics into the church,
+  compare Martene, _De ritibus_, and Morinus, _De poenitentia_.
+       (A. E. G.*)
+
+  _Heresy according to the Law of England._--The highest point reached
+  by the ecclesiastical power in England was in the Act _De Haeretico
+  comburendo_ (2 Henry IV. c. 15). Some have supposed that a writ of
+  that name is as old as the common law, but its execution might be
+  arrested by a pardon from the crown. The Act of Henry IV. enabled the
+  diocesan alone, without the co-operation of a synod, to pronounce
+  sentence of heresy, and required the sheriff to execute it by burning
+  the offender, without waiting for the consent of the crown.[2] A large
+  number of penal statutes were enacted in the following reigns, and the
+  statute 1 Eliz. c. 1 is regarded by lawyers as limiting for the first
+  time the description of heresy to tenets declared heretical either by
+  the canonical Scripture or by the first four general councils, or such
+  as should thereafter be so declared by parliament with the assent of
+  Convocation. The writ was abolished by 29 Car. II. c. 9, which
+  reserved to the ecclesiastical courts their jurisdiction over heresy
+  and similar offences, and their power of awarding punishments not
+  extending to death. Heresy became henceforward a purely ecclesiastical
+  offence, although disabling laws of various kinds continued to be
+  enforced against Jews, Catholics and other dissenters. The temporal
+  courts have no knowledge of any offence known as heresy, although
+  incidentally (e.g. in questions of copyright) they have refused
+  protection to persons promulgating irreligious or blasphemous
+  opinions. As an ecclesiastical offence it would at this moment be
+  almost impossible to say what opinion, in the case of a layman at
+  least, would be deemed heretical. Apparently, if a proper case could
+  be made out, an ecclesiastical court might still sentence a layman to
+  excommunication for heresy, but by no other means could his opinions
+  be brought under censure. The last case on the subject (Jenkins _v._
+  Cook, _L.R._ 1 P.D. 80) leaves the matter in the same uncertainty. In
+  that case a clergyman refused the communion to a parishioner who
+  denied the personality of the devil. The judicial committee held that
+  the rights of the parishioners are expressly defined in the statute of
+  I Edw. VI. c. i, and, without admitting that the canons of the church,
+  which are not binding on the laity, could specify a lawful cause for
+  rejection, held that no lawful cause within the meaning of either the
+  canons or the rubric had been shown. It was maintained at the bar that
+  the denial of the most fundamental doctrines of Christianity would not
+  be a lawful cause for such rejection, but the judgment only queries
+  whether a denial of the personality of the devil or eternal punishment
+  is consistent with membership of the church. The right of every layman
+  to the offices of the church is established by statute without
+  reference to opinions, and it is not possible to say what opinions, if
+  any, would operate to disqualify him.
+
+  The case of clergymen is entirely different. The statute 13 Eliz. c.
+  12, S 2, enacts that "if any person ecclesiastical, or which shall
+  have an ecclesiastical living, shall advisedly maintain or affirm any
+  doctrine directly contrary or repugnant to any of the said articles,
+  and by conventicle before the bishop of the diocese, or the ordinary,
+  or before the queen's highness's commissioners in matters
+  ecclesiastical, shall persist therein or not revoke his error, or
+  after such revocation eftsoons affirm such untrue doctrine," he shall
+  be deprived of his ecclesiastical promotions. The act it will be
+  observed applies only to clergymen, and the punishment is strictly
+  limited to deprivation of benefice. The judicial committee of the
+  privy council, as the last court of appeal, has on several occasions
+  pronounced judgments by which the scope of the act has been confined
+  to its narrowest legal effect. The court will construe the Articles of
+  Religion and formularies according to the _legal rules for the
+  interpretation of statutes and written instruments_. No rule of
+  doctrine is to be ascribed to the church which is not distinctly and
+  expressly stated or plainly involved in the _written law of the
+  Church_, and where there is no rule, a clergyman may express his
+  opinion without fear of penal consequences. In the _Essays and
+  Reviews_ cases (Williams _v._ the Bishop of Salisbury, and Wilson _v._
+  Fendall, 2 _Moo._ P.C.C., N.S. 375) it was held to be not penal for a
+  clergyman to speak of merit by transfer as a "fiction," or to express
+  a hope of the ultimate pardon of the wicked, or to affirm that any
+  part of the Old or New Testament, however unconnected with religious
+  faith or moral duty, was not written under the inspiration of the Holy
+  Spirit. In the case of Noble _v._ Voysey (_L.R._ 3 P.C. 357) in 1871
+  the committee held that it was not bound to affix a meaning to
+  articles of really dubious import, as it would have been in cases
+  affecting property. At the same time any manifest contradiction of the
+  Articles, or any obvious evasion of them, would subject the offender
+  to the penalties of deprivation. In some of the cases the question has
+  been raised how far the doctrine of the church could be ascertained by
+  reference to the opinions generally expressed by divines belonging to
+  its communion. Such opinions, it would seem, might be taken into
+  account as showing the extent of liberty which had been in practice,
+  claimed and exercised on the interpretation of the articles, but would
+  certainly not be allowed to increase their stringency. It is not the
+  business of the court to pronounce upon the absolute truth or
+  falsehood of any given opinion, but simply to say whether it is
+  formally consistent with the legal doctrines of the Church of England.
+  Whether Convocation has any jurisdiction in cases of heresy is a
+  question which has occasioned some difference of opinion among
+  lawyers. Hale, as quoted by Phillimore (_Ecc. Law_), says that before
+  the time of Richard II., that is, before any acts of Parliament were
+  made about heretics, it is without question that in a convocation of
+  the clergy or provincial synod "they might and frequently did here in
+  England proceed to the sentencing of heretics." But later writers,
+  while adhering to the statement that Convocation might declare
+  opinions to be heretical, doubted whether it could proceed to punish
+  the offender, even when he was a clerk in orders. Phillimore states
+  that there is no longer any doubt, even apart from the effect of the
+  Church Discipline Act 1840, that Convocation has no power to condemn
+  clergymen for heresy. The supposed right of Convocation to stamp
+  heretical opinions with its disapproval was exercised on a somewhat
+  memorable occasion. In 1864 the Convocation of the province of
+  Canterbury, having taken the opinion of two of the most eminent
+  lawyers of the day (Sir Hugh Cairns and Sir John Rolt), passed
+  judgment upon the volume entitled _Essays and Reviews_. The judgment
+  purported to "synodically condemn the said volume as containing
+  teaching contrary to the doctrine received by the United Church of
+  England and Ireland, in common with the whole Catholic Church of
+  Christ." These proceedings were challenged in the House of Lords by
+  Lord Houghton, and the lord chancellor (Westbury), speaking on behalf
+  of the government, stated that if there was any "synodical judgment"
+  it would be a violation of the law, subjecting those concerned in it
+  to the penalties of a _praemunire_, but that the sentence in question,
+  was "simply nothing, literally no sentence at all." It is thus at
+  least doubtful whether Convocation has a right even to express an
+  opinion unless specially authorized to do so by the crown, and it is
+  certain that it cannot do anything more. Heresy or no heresy, in the
+  last resort, like all other ecclesiastical questions, is decided by
+  the judicial committee of the council.
+
+  The English lawyers, following the Roman law, distinguish between
+  heresy and apostasy. The latter offence is dealt with by an act which
+  still stands on the statute book, although it has long been virtually
+  obsolete--the 9 & 10 Will. III. c. 35. If any person _who has been
+  educated in or has professed the Christian religion_ shall, by
+  writing, printing, teaching, or advised speaking, assert or maintain
+  that there are more Gods than one, or shall deny any of the persons of
+  the Holy Trinity to be God, or shall deny the Christian religion to be
+  true or the Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testament to be of
+  divine authority, he shall for the first offence be declared incapable
+  of holding any ecclesiastical, civil, or military office or
+  employment, and for the second incapable of bringing any action, or of
+  being guardian, executor, legatee, or grantee, and shall suffer three
+  years' imprisonment without bail. Unitarians were saved from these
+  atrocious penalties by a later act (53 Geo. III. c. 160), which
+  permits Christians to deny any of the persons in the Trinity without
+  penal consequences.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] For fuller details see separate articles.
+
+  [2] Stephen's _Commentaries_, bk. iv. ch. 7.
+
+
+
+
+HEREWARD, usually but erroneously styled "the Wake" (an addition of
+later days), an Englishman famous for his resistance to William the
+Conqueror. It is now established that he was a tenant of Peterborough
+Abbey, from which he held lands at Witham-on-the-Hill and Barholme with
+Stow in the south-western corner of Lincolnshire, and of Crowland Abbey
+at Rippingale in the neighbouring fenland. His first authentic act is
+the storm and sacking of Peterborough in 1070, in company with outlaws
+and Danish invaders. The next year he took part in the desperate stand
+against the Conqueror's rule made in the isle of Ely, and, on its
+capture by the Normans, escaped with his followers through the fens.
+That his exploits made an exceptional impression on the popular mind is
+certain from the mass of legendary history that clustered round his
+name; he became, says Mr Davis, "in popular eyes the champion of the
+English national cause." The Hereward legend has been fully dealt with
+by him and by Professor Freeman, who observed that "with no name has
+fiction been more busy."
+
+  See E. A. Freeman, _History of the Norman Conquest_, vol. iv.; J. H.
+  Round, _Feudal England_; H. W. C. Davis, _England under the Normans
+  and Angevins_.     (J. H. R.)
+
+
+
+
+HERFORD, a town in the Prussian province of Westphalia, situated at the
+confluence of the Werre and Aa, on the Minden & Cologne railway, 9 m.
+N.E. of Bielefeld, and at the junction of the railway to Detmold and
+Altenbeken. Pop. (1885) 15,902; (1905) 24,821. It possesses six
+Evangelical churches, notably the Munsterkirche, a Romanesque building
+with a Gothic apse of the 15th century; the Marienkirche, in the Gothic
+style; and the Johanniskirche, with a steeple 280 ft. high. The other
+principal buildings are the Roman Catholic church, the synagogue, the
+gymnasium founded in 1540, the agricultural school and the theatre.
+There is a statue of Frederick William of Brandenburg. The industries
+include cotton and flax-spinning, and the manufacture of linen cloth,
+carpets, furniture, machinery, sugar, tobacco and leather.
+
+Herford owes its origin to a Benedictine nunnery which is said to have
+been founded in 832, and was confirmed by the emperor Louis the Pious in
+839. From the emperor Frederick I. the abbess obtained princely rank and
+a seat in the imperial diet. Among the abbesses was the celebrated
+Elizabeth (1618-1680), eldest daughter of the elector palatine Frederick
+V., who was a philosophical princess, and a pupil of Descartes. Under
+her rule the sect of the Labadists settled for some time in Herford. The
+foundation was secularized in 1803. Herford was a member of the
+Hanseatic League, and its suzerainty passed in 1547 from the abbesses to
+the dukes of Juliers. In 1631 it became a free imperial town, but in
+1647 it was subjugated by the elector of Brandenburg. It came into the
+possession of Westphalia in 1807, and in 1813 into that of Prussia.
+
+  See L. Holscher, _Reformationsgeschichte der Stadt Herford_
+  (Gutersloh, 1888).
+
+
+
+
+HERGENROTHER, JOSEPH VON (1824-1890), German theologian, was born at
+Wurzburg in Bavaria on the 15th of September 1824. He studied at
+Wurzburg and at Rome. After spending a year as parish priest at
+Zellingen, near his native city, he went, in 1850, at his bishop's
+command, to the university of Munich, where he took his degree of doctor
+of theology the same year, becoming in 1851 _Privatdozent_, and in 1855
+professor of ecclesiastical law and history. At Munich he gained the
+reputation of being one of the most learned theologians on the
+Ultramontane side of the Infallibility question, which had begun to be
+discussed; and in 1868 he was sent to Rome to arrange the proceedings of
+the Vatican Council. He was a stanch supporter of the infallibility
+dogma; and in 1870 he wrote _Anti-Janus_, an answer to _The Pope and the
+Council_, by "Janus" (Dollinger and J. Friedrich), which made a great
+sensation at the time. In 1877 he was made prelate of the papal
+household; he became cardinal deacon in 1879, and was afterwards made
+curator of the Vatican archives. He died in Rome on the 3rd of October
+1890.
+
+  Hergenrother's first published work was a dissertation on the doctrine
+  of the Trinity according to Gregory Nazianzen (Regensburg, 1850), and
+  from this time onward his literary activity was immense. After several
+  articles and brochures on Hippolytus and the question of the
+  authorship of the _Philosophumena_, he turned to the study of Photius,
+  patriarch of Constantinople, and the history of the Greek schism. For
+  twelve years he was engaged upon this work, the result being his
+  monumental _Photius, Patriarch von Constantinopel. Sein Leben, seine
+  Schriften und das griechische Schisma_ (3 vols., Regensburg,
+  1867-1869); an additional volume (1869) gave, under the title
+  _Monumenta Graeca ad Photium ... pertinentia_, a collection of the
+  unpublished documents on which the work was largely based. Of
+  Hergenrother's other works, the most important are his history of the
+  Papal States since the Revolution (_Der Kirchenstaat seit der
+  franzosischen Revolution_, Freiburg i. B., 1860; Fr. trans., Leipzig,
+  1860), his great work on the relations of church and state
+  (_Katholische Kirche und christlicher Staat in ihrer geschichtlichen
+  Entwickelung und in Beziehung auf Fragen der Gegenwart_, 2 parts,
+  Freiburg i. B., 1872; 2nd ed. expanded, 1876; Eng. trans., London,
+  1876, Baltimore, 1889), and his universal church history (_Handbuch
+  der allgemeinen Kirchengeschichte_, 3 vols., Freiburg i. B.,
+  1876-1880; 2nd ed., 1879, &c.; 3rd ed., 1884-1886; 4th ed., by Peter
+  Kirsch, 1902, &c.; French trans., Paris, 1880, &c.). He also found
+  time for a while to edit the new edition of Wetzer and Welte's
+  _Kirchenlexikon_ (1877), to superintend the publication of part of the
+  _Regesta_ of Pope Leo X. (Freiburg i. B., 1884-1885), and to add two
+  volumes to Hefele's _Conciliengeschichte_ (ib., 1887 and 1890).
+
+
+
+
+HERINGSDORF, a seaside resort of Germany, in the Prussian province of
+Pomerania, on the north coast of the island of Usedom, 5 m. by rail N.W.
+of Swinemunde. It is surrounded by beech woods, and is perhaps the most
+popular seaside resort on the German shore of the Baltic, being
+frequented by some 12,000 visitors annually.
+
+
+
+
+HERIOT, GEORGE (1563-1623), the founder of Heriot's Hospital, Edinburgh,
+was descended from an old Haddington family; his father, a goldsmith in
+Edinburgh, represented the city in the Scottish parliament. George was
+born in 1563, and after receiving a good education was apprenticed to
+his father's trade. In 1586 he married the daughter of a deceased
+Edinburgh merchant, and with the assistance of her patrimony set up in
+business on his own account. At first he occupied a small "buith" at the
+north-east corner of St Giles's church, and afterwards a more
+pretentious shop at the west end of the building. To the business of a
+goldsmith he joined that of a money-lender, and in 1597 he had acquired
+such a reputation that he was appointed goldsmith to Queen Anne, consort
+of James VI. In 1601 he became jeweller to the king, and followed him to
+London, occupying a shop opposite the Exchange. Heriot was largely
+indebted for his fortune to the extravagance of the queen, and the
+imitation of this extravagance by the nobility. Latterly he had such an
+extensive business as a jeweller that on one occasion a government
+proclamation was issued calling upon all the magistrates of the kingdom
+to aid him in securing the workmen he required. He died in London on the
+10th of February 1623. In 1608, having some time previously lost his
+first wife, he married Alison Primrose, daughter of James Primrose,
+grandfather of the first earl of Rosebery, but she died in 1612; by
+neither marriage had he any issue. The surplus of his estate, after
+deducting legacies to his nearest relations and some of his more
+intimate friends, was bequeathed to found a hospital for the education
+of freemen's sons of the town of Edinburgh; and its value afterwards
+increased so greatly as to supply funds for the erection of several
+Heriot foundation schools in different parts of the city.
+
+  Heriot takes a leading part in Scott's novel, _The Fortunes of Nigel_
+  (see also the Introduction). A _History of Heriot's Hospital, with a
+  Memoir of the Founder_, by William Steven, D.D., appeared in 1827; 2nd
+  ed. 1859.
+
+
+
+
+HERIOT, by derivation the arms and equipment (_geatwa_) of a soldier or
+army (_here_); the O. Eng. word is thus here-geatwa. The lord of a fee
+provided his tenant with arms and a horse, either as a gift or loan,
+which he was to use in the military service paid by him. On the death of
+the tenant the lord claimed the return of the equipment. When by the
+10th century land was being given instead of arms, the heriot was still
+paid, but more in the nature of a "relief" (q.v.). There seems to have
+been some connexion between the payment of the heriot and the power of
+making a will (F. W. Maitland, _Domesday Book and Beyond_, p. 298). By
+the 13th century the payment was made either in money or in kind by the
+handing over of the best beast or of the best other chattel of the
+tenant (see Pollock and Maitland, _History of English Law_, i. 270 sq.).
+For the manorial law relating to heriots, see COPYHOLD.
+
+
+
+
+HERISAU, the largest town in the entire Swiss canton of Appenzell, built
+on the Glatt torrent, and by light railway 7 m. south-west of St Gall or
+13(1/2) m. north of Appenzell. In 1900 it had 13,497 inhabitants, mainly
+Protestant and German-speaking. The lower portion of the massive tower
+of the parish church (Protestant) dates from the 11th century or even
+earlier. It is a prosperous little industrial town in the Ausser Rhoden
+half of the canton, especially busied with the manufacture of embroidery
+by machinery, and of muslins. Near it is the goats' whey cure
+establishment of Heinrichsbad, and the two castles of Rosenberg and
+Rosenburg, ruined in 1403 when the land rose against its lord, the abbot
+of St Gall. About 5 m. to the south-east is Hundwil, a village of 1523
+inhabitants, where the _Landsgemeinde_ of Ausser Rhoden meets In the odd
+years (in other years at Trogen) on the last Sunday in April.
+
+
+
+
+HERITABLE JURISDICTIONS, in the law of Scotland, grants of jurisdiction
+made to a man and his heirs. They were a usual accompaniment to feudal
+tenures, and the power which they conferred on great families, being
+recognized as a source of danger to the state, led to frequent attempts
+being made by statute to restrict them, both before and after the Union.
+They were all abolished in 1746.
+
+
+
+
+HERKIMER, a village and the county-seat of Herkimer county, New York,
+U.S.A., in the township of the same name, on the Mohawk river, about 15
+m. S.E. of Utica. Pop. (1900) 5555 (724 being foreign-born); (1905,
+state census) 6596; (1910) 7520. It is served by the New York Central &
+Hudson River railway, a branch of which (the Mohawk & Malone railway)
+extends through the Adirondacks to Malone, N.Y.; by inter-urban electric
+railway to Little Falls, Syracuse, Richfield Springs, Cooperstown and
+Oneonta, and by the Erie canal. The village has a public library, and is
+the seat of the Folts Mission Institute (opened 1893), a training school
+for young women, controlled by the Women's Foreign Missionary Society of
+the Methodist Episcopal Church. Herkimer is situated in a rich dairying
+region, and has various manufactures. The municipality owns and operates
+its water-supply system and electric-lighting plant. Herkimer, named in
+honour of General Nicholas Herkimer (c. 1728-1777), who was mortally
+wounded in the Battle of Oriskany, and in whose memory there is a
+monument (unveiled on the 6th of August 1907) in the village, was
+settled about 1725 by Palatine Germans, who bought from the Mohawk
+Indians a large tract of land including the present site of the village
+and established thereon several settlements which became known
+collectively as the "German Flats." In 1756 a stone house, built in 1740
+by General Herkimer's father, John Jost Herkimer (d. 1775)--apparently
+one of the original group of settlers--a stone church, and other
+buildings, standing within what is now Herkimer village, were enclosed
+in a stockade and ditch fortifications by Sir William Johnson, and this
+post, at first known as Fort Kouari (the Indian name), was subsequently
+called Fort Herkimer. Another fort (Ft. Dayton) was built within the
+limits of the present village in 1776 by Colonel Elias Dayton
+(1737-1807), who later became a brigadier-general (1783) and served in
+the Confederation Congress in 1787-1788. During the French and Indian
+War the settlement was attacked (12th November 1757) and practically
+destroyed, many of the settlers being killed or taken prisoners; and it
+was again attacked on the 30th of April 1758. In the War of Independence
+General Herkimer assembled here the force which on the 6th of August
+1777 was ambushed near Oriskany on its march from Ft. Dayton to the
+relief of Ft. Schuyler (see ORISKANY); and the settlement was attacked
+by Indians and "Tories" in September 1778 and in June 1782. The township
+of Herkimer was organized in 1788, and in 1807 the village was
+incorporated.
+
+  See Nathaniel I. Benton, _History of Herkimer County_ (Albany, 1856);
+  and Phoebe S. Cowen, _The Herkimers and Schuylers_, (1903).
+
+
+
+
+HERKOMER, SIR HUBERT VON (1849-   ), British painter, was born at Waal,
+in Bavaria, and eight years later was brought to England by his father,
+a wood-carver of great ability. He lived for some time at Southampton
+and in the school of art there began his art training; but in 1866 he
+entered upon a more serious course of study at the South Kensington
+Schools, and in 1869 exhibited for the first time at the Royal Academy.
+By his picture, "The Last Muster," at the Academy in 1875, he definitely
+established his position as an artist of high distinction. He was
+elected an associate of the Academy in 1879, and academician in 1890; an
+associate of the Royal Society of Painters in Water Colours in 1893, and
+a full member in 1894; and in 1885 he was appointed Slade professor at
+Oxford. He exhibited a very large number of memorable portraits, figure
+subjects and landscapes, in oil and water colour; he achieved marked
+success as a worker in enamel, as an etcher, mezzotint engraver and
+illustrative draughtsman; and he exercised wide influence upon art
+education by means of the Herkomer School (Incorporated), at Bushey,
+which he founded in 1883 and directed gratuitously until 1904, when he
+retired. It was then voluntarily wound up, and is now conducted
+privately. Two of his pictures, "Found" (1885) and "The Chapel of the
+Charterhouse" (1889), are in the National Gallery of British Art. In the
+year 1907 he received the honorary degree of D.C.L. at Oxford, and a
+knighthood was conferred upon him by the king in addition to the
+commandership of the Royal Victorian Order with which he was already
+decorated.
+
+  See _Hubert von Herkomer, R.A., a Study and a Biography_, by A. L.
+  Baldry (London, 1901); _Professor Hubert Herkomer, Royal Academician,
+  His Life and Work_, by W. L. Courtney (London, 1892).
+
+
+
+
+HERLEN (or HERLIN), FRITZ, of Nordlingen, German artist of the early
+Swabian school, in the 15th century. The date and place of his birth are
+unknown, but his name is on the roll of the tax-gatherers of Ulm in
+1449; and in 1467 he was made citizen and town painter at Nordlingen,
+"because of his acquaintance with Flemish methods of painting." One of
+the first of his acknowledged productions is a shrine on one of the
+altars of the church of Rothenburg on the Tauber, the wings of which
+were finished in 1466, with seven scenes from the lives of Christ and
+the Virgin Mary. In the town-hall of Rothenburg is a Madonna and St
+Catherine of 1467; and in the choir of Nordlingen cathedral a triptych
+of 1488, representing the "Nativity" and "Christ amidst the Doctors," at
+the side of a votive Madonna attended by St Joseph and St Margaret as
+patrons of a family. In each of these works the painter's name certifies
+the picture, and the manner is truly that of an artist "acquainted with
+Flemish methods." We are not told under whom Herlen laboured in the
+Netherlands, but he probably took the same course as Schongauer and Hans
+Holbein the elder, who studied in the school of van der Weyden. His
+altarpiece at Rothenburg contains groups and figures, as well as forms
+of action and drapery, which seem copied from those of van der Weyden's
+or Memlinc's disciples, and the votive Madonna of 1488, whilst
+characterized by similar features, only displays such further changes as
+may be accounted for by the master's constant later contact with
+contemporaries in Swabia. Herlen had none of the genius of Schongauer.
+He failed to acquire the delicacy even of the second-rate men who handed
+down to Matsys the traditions of the 15th century; but his example was
+certainly favourable to the development of art in Swabia. By general
+consent critics have assigned to him a large altar-piece, with scenes
+from the gospels and figures of St Florian and St Floriana, and a
+Crucifixion, the principal figure of which is carved in high relief on
+the surface of a large panel in the church of Dinkelsbuhl. A
+Crucifixion, with eight scenes from the New Testament, is shown as his
+in the cathedral, a "Christ in Judgment, with Mary and John," and the
+"Resurrection of Souls" in the town-hall of Nordlingen. A small
+Epiphany, once in the convent of the Minorites of Ulm, is in the
+Holzschuher collection at Augsburg, a Madonna and Circumcision in the
+National Museum at Munich. Herlen's epitaph, preserved by Rathgeber,
+states that he died on the 12th of October 1491, and was buried at
+Nordlingen.
+
+
+
+
+HERMAE, in Greek antiquities, quadrangular pillars, broader above than
+at the base, surmounted by a head or bust, so called either because the
+head of Hermes was most common or from their etymological connexion with
+the Greek word [Greek: hermata] (blocks of stone), which originally had
+no reference to Hermes at all. In the oldest times Hermes, like other
+divinities, was worshipped in the form of a heap of stones or of an
+amorphous block of wood or stone, which afterwards took the shape of a
+phallus, the symbol of productivity. The next step was the addition of a
+head to this phallic column which became quadrangular (the number 4 was
+sacred to Hermes, who was born on the fourth day of the month), with the
+significant indication of sex still prominent. In this shape the number
+of herms rapidly increased, especially those of Hermes, for which the
+distinctive name of Hermhermae has been suggested. In Athens they were
+found at the corners of streets; before the gates and in the courtyards
+of houses, where they were worshipped by women as having the power to
+make them prolific; before the temples; in the gymnasia and palaestrae.
+On each side of the road leading from the Stoa Poikile to the Stoa
+Basileios, rows of Hermae were set up in such numbers by the piety of
+private individuals or public corporations, that the Stoa Basileios was
+called the Stoa of the Hermae. The function of Hermes as protector of
+the roads, of merchants and of commerce, explains the number of Hermae
+that served the purpose of signposts on the roads outside the city. It
+is stated in the pseudo-Platonic _Hipparchus_ that the son of
+Peisistratus had set up marble pillars at suitable places on the roads
+leading from the different country districts to Athens, having the
+places connected with the roads inscribed on the one side in a hexameter
+verse, and on the other a pentameter containing a short proverb or moral
+precept for the edification of travellers. Sometimes they bore
+inscriptions celebrating the valour of those who had fought for their
+country. Just as it was customary for the passer-by to show respect to
+the rudest form of the god (the heap of stones) by contributing a stone
+to the heap or anointing it with oil, in like manner small offerings,
+generally of dried figs, were deposited near the Hermae, to appease the
+hunger of the necessitous wayfarer. Garlands of flowers were also
+suspended on the two arm-like tenons projecting from either side of the
+column at the top (for the oracle at Pharae see HERMES). These pillars
+were also used to mark the frontier boundaries or the limits of
+different estates. The great respect attaching to them is shown by the
+excitement caused in Athens by the "Mutilation of the Hermae" just
+before the departure of the Sicilian expedition (May 415 B.C.). They
+formed the object of a special industry, the makers of them being called
+Hermoglyphi. The surmounting heads were not, however, confined to those
+of Hermes; those of other gods and heroes, and even of distinguished
+mortals, were of frequent occurrence. In this case a compound was
+formed: Hermathena (a herm of Athena), Hermares, Hermaphroditus,
+Hermanubis, Hermalcibiades, and so on. In the case of these compounds it
+is disputed whether they indicated a herm with the head of Athena, or
+with a Janus-like head of both Hermes and Athena, or a figure compounded
+of both deities. The Romans not only borrowed the Hermes pillars for
+their deities which at an early period they assimilated to those of the
+Greeks (as Heracles--Hercules) but also for the indigenous gods who
+preserved their individuality. Thus herms of Jupiter Terminalis (the
+hermae being identified with the Roman termini) and of Silvanus occur.
+Under the empire, the function of the hermae was rather architectural
+than religious. They were used to keep up the draperies in the interior
+of a house, and in the Circus Maximus they were used to support the
+barriers.
+
+  See the article with bibliography by Pierre Paris in Daremberg and
+  Saglio's _Dictionnaire des antiquites_; for the mutilation of the
+  Hermae, Thucydides vi. 27; Andocides, _De mysteriis_; Grote, _Hist. of
+  Greece_, ch. 58; H. Weil, _Etudes sur l'antiquite grecque_ (1900);
+  Burolt, _Griech. Gesch._ (ed. 1904), III. ii. p. 1287.
+
+
+
+
+HERMAGORAS, of Temnos, Greek rhetorician of the Rhodian school and
+teacher of oratory in Rome, flourished during the first half of the 1st
+century B.C. He obtained a great reputation among a certain section and
+founded a special school, the members of which called themselves
+Hermagorei. His chief opponent was Posidonius of Rhodes, who is said to
+have contended with him in argument in the presence of Pompey (Plutarch,
+_Pompey_, 42). Hermagoras devoted himself particularly to the branch of
+rhetoric known as [Greek: oikonomia] (_inventio_), and is said to have
+invented the doctrine of the four [Greek: staseis] (_status_) and to
+have arranged the parts of an oration differently from his predecessors.
+Cicero held an unfavourable opinion of his methods, which were approved
+by Quintilian, although he considers that Hermagoras neglected the
+practical side of rhetoric for the theoretical. According to Suidas and
+Strabo, he was the author of [Greek: technai rhetorikai] (rhetorical
+manuals) and of other works, which should perhaps be attributed to his
+younger namesake, surnamed Carion, the pupil of Theodorus of Gadara.
+
+  See Strabo xiii. p. 621; Cicero, _De inventione_, i. 6. 8, _Brutus_,
+  76, 263. 78, 271; Quintilian, _Instit._ iii. 1. 16, 3. 9, 11. 22; C.
+  W. Piderit, _De Hermagora rhetore_ (1839); G. Thiele, _Hermagoras Ein
+  Beitrag zur Geschichte der Rhetorik_ (1893).
+
+
+
+
+HERMANDAD (from _hermano_, Lat. _germanus_, a brother), a Castilian word
+meaning, strictly speaking, a brotherhood. In the Romance language
+spoken on the east coast of Spain in Catalonia it is written _germandat_
+or _germania_. In the form _germania_ it has acquired the significance
+of "thieves' Latin" or "thieves' cant," and is applied to any jargon
+supposed to be understood only by the Initiated. But the typical
+"germania" is a mixture of slang and of the gipsy language. The
+hermandades have played a conspicuous part in the history of Spain. The
+first recorded case of the formation of an hermandad occurred in the
+12th century when the towns and the peasantry of the north united to
+police the pilgrim road to Santiago in Galicia, and protect the pilgrims
+against robber knights. Throughout the middle ages such alliances were
+frequently formed by combinations of towns to protect the roads
+connecting them, and were occasionally extended to political purposes.
+They acted to some extent like the Fehmic courts of Germany. The
+Catholic sovereigns, Ferdinand and Isabella, adapted an existing
+hermandad to the purpose of a general police acting under officials
+appointed by themselves, and endowed with large powers of summary
+jurisdiction even in capital cases. The hermandad became, in fact, a
+constabulary, which, however, fell gradually into neglect. In Catalonia
+and Valencia the "germanias" were combinations of the peasantry to
+resist the exactions of the feudal lords.
+
+
+
+
+HERMAN DE VALENCIENNES, 12th-century French poet, was born at
+Valenciennes, of good parentage. His father and mother, Robert and
+Herembourg, belonged to Hainault, and gave him for god-parents Count
+Baldwin and Countess Yoland--doubtless Baldwin IV. of Hainault and his
+mother Yoland. Herman was a priest and the author of a verse _Histoire
+de la Bible_, which includes a separate poem on the Assumption of the
+Virgin. The work is generally known as _Le Roman de sapience_, the name
+arising from a copyist's error in the first line of the poem:
+
+  "Comens de sapiense, ce est la cremors de Deu"
+
+the first word being miswritten in one MS. _Romens_, and In another
+_Romanz_. His work has, indeed, the form of an ordinary romance, and
+cannot be regarded as a translation. He selects such stories from the
+Bible as suit his purpose, and adds freely from legendary sources,
+displaying considerable art in the selection and use of his materials.
+This scriptural poem, very popular in its day, mentions Henry II. of
+England as already dead, and must therefore be assigned to a date
+posterior to 1189.
+
+  See _Notices et extraits des manuscrits_ (Paris, vol. 34), and Jean
+  Bonnard, _Les Traductions de la Bible en vers francais au moyen age_
+  (1884).
+
+
+
+
+HERMANN I. (d. 1217), landgrave of Thuringia and count palatine of
+Saxony, was the second son of Louis II. the Hard, landgrave of
+Thuringia, and Judith of Hohenstaufen, sister of the emperor Frederick
+I. Little is known of his early years, but in 1180 he joined a coalition
+against Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony, and with his brother, the
+landgrave Louis III., suffered a short imprisonment after his defeat at
+Weissensee by Henry. About this time he received from his brother Louis
+the Saxon palatinate, over which he strengthened his authority by
+marrying Sophia, sister of Adalbert, count of Sommerschenburg, a former
+count palatine. In 1190 Louis died and Hermann by his energetic measures
+frustrated the attempt of the emperor Henry VI. to seize Thuringia as a
+vacant fief of the Empire, and established himself as landgrave. Having
+joined a league against the emperor he was accused, probably wrongly, of
+an attempt to murder him. Henry was not only successful in detaching
+Hermann from the hostile combination, but gained his support for the
+scheme to unite Sicily with the Empire. In 1197 Hermann went on crusade.
+When Henry VI. died in 1198 Hermann's support was purchased by the late
+emperor's brother Philip, duke of Swabia, but as soon as Philip's cause
+appeared to be weakening he transferred his allegiance to Otto of
+Brunswick, afterwards the emperor Otto IV. Philip accordingly invaded
+Thuringia in 1204 and compelled Hermann to come to terms by which he
+surrendered the lands he had obtained in 1198. After the death of Philip
+and the recognition of Otto he was among the princes who invited
+Frederick of Hohenstaufen, afterwards the emperor Frederick II., to come
+to Germany and assume the crown. In consequence of this step the Saxons
+attacked Thuringia, but the landgrave was saved by Frederick's arrival
+in Germany in 1212. After the death of his first wife in 1195 Hermann
+married Sophia, daughter of Otto I., duke of Bavaria. By her he had four
+sons, two of whom, Louis and Henry Raspe, succeeded their father in turn
+as landgrave. Hermann died at Gotha on the 25th of April 1217, and was
+buried at Reinhardsbrunn. He was fond of the society of men of letters,
+and Walther von der Vogelweide and other Minnesingers were welcomed to
+his castle of the Wartburg. In this connexion he figures in Wagner's
+_Tannhauser_.
+
+  See E. Winkelmann, _Philipp von Schwaben und Otto IV. von
+  Braunschweig_ (Leipzig, 1873-1878); T. Knochenhauer, _Geschichte
+  Thuringens_ (Gotha, 1871); and F. Wachter, _Thuringische und
+  obersachsische Geschichte_ (Leipzig, 1826).
+
+
+
+
+HERMANN OF REICHENAU (HERIMANNUS AUGIENSIS), commonly distinguished as
+Hermannus Contractus, i.e. the Lame (1013-1054), German scholar and
+chronicler, was the son of Count Wolferad of Alshausen in Swabia.
+Hermann, who became a monk of the famous abbey of Reichenau, is at once
+one of the most attractive and one of the most pathetic figures of
+medieval monasticism. Crippled and distorted by gout from his childhood,
+he was deprived of the use of his legs; but, in spite of this, he became
+one of the most learned men of his time, and exercised a great personal
+and intellectual influence on the numerous band of scholars he gathered
+round him. He died on the 24th of September 1054, at the family castle
+of Alshausen near Biberach. Besides the ordinary studies of the monastic
+scholar, he devoted himself to mathematics, astronomy and music, and
+constructed watches and instruments of various kinds.
+
+  His chief work is a _Chronicon ad annum_ 1054, which furnishes
+  important and original material for the history of the emperor Henry
+  III. The first edition, from a MS. no longer extant, was printed by J.
+  Sichard at Basel in 1529, and reissued by Heinrich Peter in 1549;
+  another edition appeared at St Blaise in 1790 under the supervision of
+  Ussermann; and a third, as a result of the collation of numerous MSS.,
+  forms part of vol. v. of Pertz's _Monumenta Germaniae historica_. A
+  German translation of the last is contributed by K. F. A. Nobbe to
+  _Die Geschichtsschreiber der deutschen Vorzeit_ (1st ed., Berlin,
+  1851; 2nd ed., Leipzig, 1893). The separate lives of Conrad II. and
+  Henry III., often ascribed to Hermann, appear to have perished. His
+  treatises _De mensura astrolabii_ and _De utilitatibus astrolabii_ (to
+  be found, on the authority of Salzburg MSS., in Pez, _Thesaurus
+  anecdotorum novissimus_, iii.) being the first contributions of moment
+  furnished by a European to this subject, Hermann was for a time
+  considered the inventor of the astrolabe. A didactic poem from his
+  pen, _De octo vitiis principalibus_, is printed in Haupt's
+  _Zeitschrift fur deutsches Alterthum_ (vol. xiii.); and he is
+  sometimes credited with the composition of the Latin hymns _Veni
+  Sancte Spiritus, Salve Regina_, and _Alma Redemptoris_. A
+  _martyrologium_ by Hermann was discovered by E. Dummler in a MS. at
+  Stuttgart, and was published by him in "Das Martyrologium Notkers und
+  seine Verwandten" in _Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte_, xxv.
+  (Gottingen, 1885).
+
+  See H. Hansjakob, _Herimann der Lahme_ (Mainz, 1875); Potthast,
+  _Bibliotheca med. aev._ s. "Herimannus Augiensis."
+
+
+
+
+HERMANN OF WIED (1477-1552), elector and archbishop of Cologne, was the
+fourth son of Frederick, count of Wied (d. 1487), and was born on the
+14th of January 1477. Educated for the Church, he became elector and
+archbishop in 1515, and ruled his electorate with vigour and
+intelligence, taking up at first an attitude of hostility towards the
+reformers and their teaching. A quarrel with the papacy turned, or
+helped to turn, his thoughts in the direction of Church reform, but he
+hoped this would come from within rather than from without, and with the
+aid of his friend John Gropper (1503-1559), began, about 1536, to
+institute certain reforms in his own diocese. One step led to another,
+and as all efforts at union failed the elector invited Martin Bucer to
+Cologne in 1542. Supported by the estates of the electorate, and relying
+upon the recess of the diet of Regensburg in 1541, he encouraged Bucer
+to press on with the work of reform, and in 1543 invited Melanchthon to
+his assistance. His conversion was hailed with great joy by the
+Protestants, and the league of Schmalkalden declared they were resolved
+to defend him; but the Reformation in the electorate received checks
+from the victory of Charles V. over William, duke of Cleves, and the
+hostility of the citizens of Cologne. Summoned both before the emperor
+and the pope, the elector was deposed and excommunicated by Paul III. in
+1546. He resigned his office in February 1547, and retired to Wied.
+Hermann, who was also a bishop of Paderborn from 1532 to 1547, died on
+the 15th of August 1552.
+
+  See C. Varrentrapp, _Hermann von Wied_ (Leipzig, 1878).
+
+
+
+
+HERMANN, FRIEDRICH BENEDICT WILHELM VON (1795-1868), German economist,
+was born on the 5th of December 1795, at Dinkelsbuhl in Bavaria. After
+finishing his primary education he was for some time employed in a
+draughtsman's office. He then resumed his studies, partly at the
+gymnasium in his native town, partly at the universities of Erlangen and
+Wurzburg. In 1817 he took up a private school at Nuremberg, where he
+remained for four years. After filling an appointment as teacher of
+mathematics at the gymnasium of Erlangen, he became in 1823
+_Privatdozent_ at the university in that town. His inaugural
+dissertation was on the notions of political economy among the Romans
+(_Dissertatio exhibens sententias Romanorum ad oeconomiam politicam
+pertinentes_, Erlangen, 1823). He afterwards acted as professor of
+mathematics at the gymnasium and polytechnic school in Nuremberg, where
+he continued till 1827. During his stay there he published an elementary
+treatise on arithmetic and algebra (_Lehrbuch der Arith. u. Algeb._,
+1826), and made a journey to France to inspect the organization and
+conduct of technical schools in that country. The results of his
+investigation were published in 1826 and 1828 (_Uber technische
+Unterrichts-Anstalten_). Soon after his return from France he was made
+_professor extraordinarius_ of political science of the university of
+Munich, and in 1833 he was advanced to the rank of ordinary professor.
+In 1832 appeared the first edition of his great work on political
+economy, _Staatswirthschaftliche Untersuchungen_. In 1835 he was made
+member of the Royal Bavarian Academy of Sciences. From the year 1836 he
+acted as inspector of technical instruction in Bavaria, and made
+frequent journeys to Berlin and Paris in order to study the methods
+there pursued. In the state service of Bavaria, to which he devoted
+himself, he rose rapidly. In 1837 he was placed on the council for
+superintendence of church and school work; in 1839 he was entrusted with
+the direction of the bureau of statistics; in 1845 he was one of the
+councillors for the interior; in 1848 he sat as member for Munich in the
+national assembly at Frankfort. In this assembly Hermann, with Johann
+Heckscher and others, was mainly instrumental in organizing the
+so-called "Great German" party, and was selected as one of the
+representatives of their views at Vienna. Warmly supporting the customs
+union (Zollverein), he acted in 1851 as one of its commissioners at the
+great industrial exhibition at London, and published an elaborate report
+on the woollen goods. Three years later he was president of the
+committee of judges at the similar exhibition at Munich, and the report
+of its proceedings was drawn up by him. In 1855 he became councillor of
+state, the highest honour in the service. From 1835 to 1847 he
+contributed a long series of reviews, mainly of works on economical
+subjects, to the _Munchener gelehrte Anzeigen_ and also wrote for Rau's
+_Archiv der politischen Okonomie_ and the _Augsburger allgemeine
+Zeitung_. As head of the bureau of statistics he published a series of
+valuable annual reports (_Beitrage zur Statistik des Konigreichs
+Bayern_, Hefte 1-17, 1850-1867). He was engaged at the time of his
+death, on the 23rd of November 1868, upon a second edition of his
+_Staatswirthschaftliche Untersuchungen_, which was published in 1870.
+
+Hermann's rare technological knowledge gave him a great advantage in
+dealing with some economic questions. He reviewed the principal
+fundamental ideas of the science with great thoroughness and acuteness.
+"His strength," says Roscher, "lies in his clear, sharp, exhaustive
+distinction between the several elements of a complex conception, or the
+several steps comprehended in a complex act." For keen analytical power
+his German brethren compare him with Ricardo. But he avoids several
+one-sided views of the English economist. Thus he places public spirit
+beside egoism as an economic motor, regards price as not measured by
+labour only but as a product of several factors, and habitually
+contemplates the consumption of the labourer, not as a part of the cost
+of production to the capitalist, but as the main practical end of
+economics.
+
+  See Kautz, _Gesch. Entwicklung d. National-Okonomik_, pp. 633-638;
+  Roscher, _Gesch. d. Nat.-Okon. in Deutschland_, pp. 860-879.
+
+
+
+
+HERMANN, JOHANN GOTTFRIED JAKOB (1772-1848), German classical scholar
+and philologist, was born at Leipzig on the 28th of November 1772.
+Entering the university of his native city at the age of fourteen,
+Hermann at first studied law, which he soon abandoned for the classics.
+After a session at Jena in 1793-1794, he became a lecturer on classical
+literature in Leipzig, in 1798 _professor extraordinarius_ of philosophy
+in the university, and in 1803 professor of eloquence (and poetry,
+1809). He died on the 31st of December 1848. Hermann maintained that an
+accurate knowledge of the Greek and Latin languages was the only road to
+a clear understanding of the intellectual life of the ancient world, and
+the chief, if not the only, aim of philology. As the leader of this
+grammatico-critical school, he came into collision with A. Bockh and
+Otfried Muller, the representatives of the historico-antiquarian school,
+which regarded Hermann's view of philology as inadequate and one-sided.
+
+Hermann devoted his early attention to the classical poetical metres,
+and published several works on that subject, the most important being
+_Elementa doctrinae metricae_ (1816), in which he set forth a scientific
+theory based on the Kantian categories. His writings on Greek grammar
+are also valuable, especially _De emendanda ratione Graecae grammaticae_
+(1801), and notes and excursus on Viger's treatise on Greek idioms. His
+editions of the classics include several of the plays of Euripides; the
+_Clouds_ of Aristophanes (1799); _Trinummus_ of Plautus (1800);
+_Poetica_ of Aristotle (1802); _Orphica_ (1805); the Homeric _Hymns_
+(1806); and the _Lexicon_ of Photius (1808). In 1825 Hermann finished
+the edition of Sophocles begun by Erfurdt. His edition of Aeschylus was
+published after his death in 1852. The _Opuscula_, a collection of his
+smaller writings in Latin, appeared in seven volumes between 1827 and
+1839.
+
+  See monographs by O. Jahn (1849) and H. Kochly (1874); C. Bursian,
+  _Geschichte der klassischen Philologie in Deutschland_ (1883); art. in
+  _Allgem. deutsche Biog._; Sandys, _Hist. Class. Schol._ iii.
+
+
+
+
+HERMANN, KARL FRIEDRICH (1804-1855), German classical scholar and
+antiquary, was born on the 4th of August 1804, at Frankfort-on-Main.
+Having studied at the universities of Heidelberg and Leipzig, he went
+for a tour in Italy, on his return from which he lectured as
+_Privatdozent_ in Heidelberg. In 1832 he was called to Marburg as
+_professor ordinarius_ of classical literature; and in 1842 he was
+transferred to Gottingen to the chair of philology and archaeology,
+vacant by the death of Otfried Muller. He died at Gottingen on the 31st
+of December 1855. His knowledge of all branches of classical learning
+was profound, but he was chiefly distinguished for his works on Greek
+antiquities and ancient philosophy. Among these may be mentioned the
+_Lehrbuch der griechischen Antiquitaten_ (new ed., 1889) dealing with
+political, religious and domestic antiquities; the _Geschichte und
+System der Platonischen Philosophie_ (1839), unfinished; an edition of
+the Platonic Dialogues (6 vols., 1851-1853); and _Culturgeschickte der
+Griechen und Romer_ (1857-1858), published after his death by C. G.
+Schmidt. He also edited the text of Juvenal and Persius (1854) and
+Lucian's _De conscribenda historia_ (1828). A collection of
+_Abhandlungen und Beitrage_ appeared in 1849.
+
+  See M. Lechner, _Zur Erinnerung an K. F. Hermann_ (1864), and article
+  by C. Halm in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, xii. (1880).
+
+
+
+
+HERMAPHRODITUS, in Greek mythology, a being, partly male, partly female,
+originally worshipped as a divinity. The conception undoubtedly had its
+origin in the East, where deities of a similar dual nature frequently
+occur. The oldest traces of the cult in Greek countries are found in
+Cyprus. Here, according to Macrobius (_Saturnalia_, iii. 8) there was a
+bearded statue of a male aphrodite, called Aphroditos by Aristophanes
+(probably in his [Greek: Niobos], a similar variant). Philochorus in his
+_Atthis_ (_ap._ Macrobius _loc. cit._) further identified this divinity,
+at whose sacrifices men and women exchanged garments, with the moon.
+This double sex also attributed to Dionysus and Priapus--the union in
+one being of the two principles of generation and conception--denotes
+extensive fertilizing and productive powers. This Cyprian Aphrodite is
+the same as the later Hermaphroditos, which simply means Aphroditos in
+the form of a herm (see HERMAE), and first occurs in the _Characteres_
+(16) of Theophrastus. After its introduction at Athens (probably in the
+5th century B.C.), the importance of this being seems to have declined.
+It appears no longer as the object of a special cult, but limited to the
+homage of certain sects, expressed by superstitious rites of obscure
+significance. The still later form of the legend, a product of the
+Hellenistic period, is due to a mistaken etymology of the name. In
+accordance with this, Hermaphroditus is the son of Hermes and Aphrodite,
+of whom the nymph of the fountain of Salmacis in Caria became enamoured
+while he was bathing. When her overtures were rejected, she embraced him
+and entreated the gods that she might be for ever united with him. The
+result was the formation of a being, half man, half woman. This story is
+told by Ovid (_Metam._ iv. 285) to explain the peculiarly enervating
+qualities of the water of the fountain. Strabo (xiv. p. 656) attributes
+its bad reputation to the attempt of the inhabitants of the country to
+find some excuse for the demoralization caused by their own luxurious
+and effeminate habits of life. There was a famous statue of
+Hermaphroditus by Polycles of Athens, probably the younger of the two
+statuaries of that name. In later Greek art he was a favourite subject.
+
+  See articles in Daremberg and Saglio, _Dictionnaire des antiquites_,
+  and Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_; and for art, A. Baumeister,
+  _Denkmaler des klassischen Altertums_ (1884-1888).
+
+
+
+
+HERMAS, SHEPHERD OF, one of the works representing the Apostolic Fathers
+(q.v.), a hortatory writing which "holds the mirror up" to the Church in
+Rome during the 3rd Christian generation. This is the period indicated
+by the evidence of the Muratorian Canon, which assigns it to the brother
+of Pius, Roman bishop c. 139-154. Probably it was not the fruit of a
+single effort of its author. Rather its contents came to him piecemeal
+and at various stages in his ministry as a Christian "prophet,"
+extending over a period of years; and, like certain Old Testament
+prophets, he shows us how by his own experiences he became the medium of
+a divine message to his church and to God's "elect" people at large.
+
+In its present form it falls under three heads: _Visions_, _Mandates_,
+_Similitudes_. But these divisions are misleading. The personal and
+preliminary revelation embodied in _Vision_ i. brings the prophet a new
+sense of sin as essentially a matter of the heart, and an awakened
+conscience as before the "glory of God," the Creator and Upholder of all
+things. His responsibility also for the sad state of religion at home is
+emphasized, and he is given a mission of repentance to his erring
+children. How far in all this and in the next vision the author is
+describing facts, and how far transforming his personal history into a
+type (after the manner of Bunyan's _Pilgrim's Progress_), the better to
+impress his moral upon his readers, is uncertain. But the whole style of
+the work, with its use of conventional apocalyptic forms, favours the
+more symbolic view. _Vision_ ii. records his call proper, through
+revelation of his essential message, to be delivered both to his wife
+and children and to "all the saints who have sinned unto this day" (2.
+4). It contains the assurances of forgiveness even for the gravest sins
+after baptism (save blasphemy of the Name and betrayal of the brethren,
+_Sim._ ix. 19), "if they repent with their whole heart and remove doubts
+from their minds. For the Master hath sworn by His glory ('His Son,'
+below) touching His elect, that if there be more sinning after this day
+which He hath limited, they shall not obtain salvation. For the
+repentance of the righteous hath an end; the days of repentance for all
+saints are fulfilled.... Stand fast, then, ye that work righteousness
+and be not of doubtful mind.... Happy are all ye that endure the great
+tribulation which is to come.... _The Lord is nigh unto them that turn
+to Him_, as it is written in the book of Eldad and Modad, who prophesied
+to the people in the wilderness."
+
+Here, in the gist of the "booklet" received from the hand of a female
+figure representing the Church, we have in germ the message of _The
+Shepherd_. But before Hermas announces it to the Roman Church, and
+through "Clement"[1] to the churches abroad, there are added two
+_Visions_ (iii. iv.) tending to heighten its impressiveness. He is shown
+the "holy church" under the similitude of a tower in building, and the
+great and final tribulation (already alluded to as near at hand) under
+that of a devouring beast, which yet is innocuous to undoubting faith.
+
+Hermas begins to deliver the message of _Vis._ i.-iv., as bidden. But as
+he does so, it is added to, in the way of detail and illustration, by a
+fresh series of revelations through an angel in the guise of a Shepherd,
+who in a preliminary interview announces himself as the Angel of
+Repentance, sent to administer the special "repentance" which it was
+Hermas's mission to declare. This interview appears in our MSS. as
+_Vis._ v.,[2] but is really a prelude to the _Mandates_ and
+_Similitudes_ which form the bulk of the whole work, hence known as "The
+Shepherd." The relation of this second part to _Vis._ i.-iv. is set
+forth by the Shepherd himself. "I was sent, quoth he, to show thee
+_again_ all that thou sawest before, to wit the sum of the things
+profitable for thee. First of all write thou my mandates and
+similitudes; and _the rest_, as I will show thee, so shalt thou write."
+This programme is fulfilled in the xii. _Mandates_--perhaps suggested by
+the _Teaching of the Twelve Apostles_ (see DIDACHE), which Hermas
+knows--and _Similitudes_ i.-viii., while _Simil._ ix. is "the rest" and
+constitutes a distinct "book" (_Sim._ ix. 1. 1, x. 1. 1). In this latter
+the building of the Tower, already shown in outline in _Vis._ iii., is
+shown "more carefully" in an elaborate section dealing with the same
+themes. One may infer that _Sim._ ix. represents a distinctly later
+stage in Hermas's ministry--during the whole of which he seems to have
+committed to writing what he received on each occasion,[3] possibly for
+recital to the church (cf. _Vis._ ii. _fin._). Finally came _Sim._ x.,
+really an epilogue in which Hermas is "delivered" afresh to the
+Shepherd, for the rest of his days. He is "to continue in this ministry"
+of proclaiming the Shepherd's teaching, "so that they who have repented
+or are about to repent may have the same mind with thee," and so receive
+a good report before God (_Sim._ x. 2 2-4). Only they must "make haste
+to do aright," lest while they delay the tower be finished (4. 4), and
+the new aeon dawn (after the final tribulation: cf. _Vis._ iv. 3. 5).
+
+The relation here indicated between the Shepherd's instruction and the
+initial message of one definitive repentance, open to those believers
+who have already "broken" their "seal" of baptism by deadly sins, as
+announced in _Visions_ i.-iv. is made yet plainer by _Sim._ vi. 1. 3 f.
+"These mandates are profitable to such as are about to repent; for
+except they walk in them their repentance is in vain." Hermas sees that
+mere repentance is not enough to meet the backsliding condition in which
+so many Christians then were, owing to the recoil of inveterate habits
+of worldliness[4] entrenched in society around and within. It is, after
+all, too negative a thing to stand by itself or to satisfy God. "Cease,
+Hermas," says the Church, "to pray all about thy sins. Ask for
+righteousness also" (_Vis._ iii. 1. 6). The positive Christian ideal
+which "the saints" should attain, "the Lord enabling," it is the
+business of the Shepherd to set forth.
+
+Here lies a great merit of Hermas's book, his insight into experimental
+religion and the secret of failure in Christians about him, to many of
+whom Christianity had come by birth rather than personal conviction.
+They shared the worldly spirit in its various forms, particularly the
+desire for wealth and the luxuries it affords, and for a place in "good
+society"--which meant a pagan atmosphere. Thus they were divided in soul
+between spiritual goods and worldly pleasures, and were apt to doubt
+whether the rewards promised by God to the life of "simplicity" (all
+Christ meant by the childlike spirit, including generosity in giving and
+forgiving) and self-restraint, were real or not. For while the expected
+"end of the age" delayed, persecutions abounded. Such "doubled-souled"
+persons, like Mr Facing-both-ways, inclined to say, "The Christian ideal
+may be glorious, but is it practicable?" It is this most fatal doubt
+which evokes the Shepherd's sternest rebuke; and he meets it with the
+ultimate religious appeal, viz. to "the glory of God." He who made man
+"to rule over all things under heaven," could He have given behests
+beyond man's ability? If only a man "hath the Lord in his heart," he
+"shall know that there is nothing easier nor sweeter nor gentler than
+these mandates" (_Mand._ xii. 3-4). So in the forefront of the
+_Mandates_ stands the secret of all: "First of all believe that there is
+one God.... Believe therefore in Him, and fear Him, and fearing Him have
+self-mastery. For the fear of the Lord dwelleth in the good desire," and
+to "put on" this master-desire is to possess power to curb "evil desire"
+in all its shapes (_Mand._ xii. 1-2). Elsewhere "good desire" is
+analysed into the "spirits" of the several virtues, which yet are
+organically related, Faith being mother, and Self-mastery her daughter,
+and so on (_Vis._ iii. 8. 3 seq.; cf. _Sim._ ix. 15). These are the
+specific forms of the Holy Spirit power, without whose indwelling the
+mandates cannot be kept (_Sim._ x. 3; cf. ix. 13. 2, 24. 2).
+
+Thus the "moralism" sometimes traced in Hermas is apparent rather than
+real, for he has a deep sense of the enabling grace of God. His defect
+lies rather in not presenting the historic Christ as the Christian's
+chief inspiration, a fact which connects itself with the strange absence
+of the names "Jesus" and "Christ." He uses rather "the Son of God," in a
+peculiar Adoptianist sense, which, as taken for granted in a work by the
+bishop's own brother, must be held typical of the Roman Church of his
+day. But as it is implicit and not part of his distinctive message, it
+did not hinder his book from enjoying wide quasi-canonical honour during
+most of the Ante-Nicene period.
+
+  The absence of the historic names, "Jesus" and "Christ," may be due to
+  the form of the book as purporting to quote angelic communications.
+  This would also explain the absence of explicit scriptural citations
+  generally, though knowledge both of the Old Testament and of several
+  New Testament books--including the congenially symbolic Gospel of
+  John--is clear (cf. _The New Testament in the Apostolic Fathers_,
+  Oxford, 1905, 105 seq.). The one exception is a prophetic writing, the
+  apocryphal _Book of Eldad and Modad_, which is cited apparently as
+  being similar in the scope of its message. Among its non-scriptural
+  sources may be named the allegoric picture of human life known as
+  _Tabula Cebetis_ (cf. C. Taylor, as below), the _Didache_, and perhaps
+  certain "Sibylline Oracles."
+
+  Hermas regarded Christians as "justified by the most reverend Angel"
+  (i.e. the pre-existent Holy Spirit or Son, who dwelt in Christ's
+  "flesh"), in baptism, the "seal" which even Old Testament saints had
+  to receive in Hades (_Sim._ ix. 16. 3-7) and so attain to "life." Yet
+  the degree of "honour" (e.g. that of martyrs, _Vis._ iii. 2; _Sim._
+  ix. 28), the exact place in the kingdom or consummated church (the
+  Tower), is given as reward for zeal in doing God's will beyond the
+  minimum requisite in all. Here comes in Hermas's doctrine of works of
+  supererogation, in fulfilment of counsels of perfection, on lines
+  already seen in _Did._ vi. 2, cf. i. 4, and reappearing in the two
+  types of Christian recognized by Clement and Origen and in later
+  Catholicism. Again his doctrine of fasting is a spiritualizing of a
+  current _opus operatum_ conception on Jewish lines as though "keeping
+  a watch" (_statio_) in that way atoned for sins (_Sim._ v.). The
+  Shepherd enjoins instead, first, as "a perfect fast," a fast "from
+  every evil word and every evil desire, ... from all the vanities of
+  this world-age" (3. 6; cf. _Barn._ iii. and the Oxyrhynchus Saying,
+  "except ye fast from the world"); and next, as a counsel of
+  perfection, a fast to yield somewhat for the relief of the widow and
+  orphan, that this extra "service" may be to God for a "sacrifice."
+
+  Generally speaking, Hermas's piety, especially in its language,
+  adheres closely to Old Testament forms. But it is doubtful (_pace_
+  Spina and Volter, who assume a Jewish or a proselyte basis) whether
+  this means more than that the Old Testament was still _the_ Scriptures
+  of the Church. In this respect, too, Hermas faithfully reflects the
+  Roman Church of the early 2nd century (cf. the language of 1 Clem.,
+  esp. the liturgical parts, and even the Roman Mass). Indeed the prime
+  value of the _Shepherd_ is the light it casts on Christianity at Rome
+  in the otherwise obscure period c. 110-140, when it had as yet hardly
+  felt the influences converging on it from other centres of tradition
+  and thought. Thus Hermas's comparatively mild censures on Gnostic
+  teachers in _Sim._ ix. suggest that the greater systems, like the
+  Valentinian and Marcionite, had not yet made an impression there, as
+  Harnack argues that they must have done by c. 145. This date, then, is
+  a likely lower limit for Hermas's revision of his earlier prophetic
+  memoranda, and their publication in a single homogeneous work, such as
+  the _Shepherd_ appears to be. Its wider historic significance--it was
+  felt by its author to be adapted to the needs of the Church at large,
+  and was generally welcomed as such--is great but hard to determine in
+  detail.[5] What is certain is its influence on the development of the
+  Church's policy as to discipline in grave cases, like apostasy and
+  adultery--a burning question for some generations from the end of the
+  2nd century, particularly in Rome and North Africa. Indirectly, too,
+  Hermas tended to keep alive the idea of the Christian prophet, even
+  after Montanism had helped to discredit it.
+
+  LITERATURE.--The chief modern edition is by O. von Gebhardt and A.
+  Harnack, in Fasc. iii. of their _Patr. apost. opera_ (Leipzig, 1877);
+  it is edited less fully by F. X. Funk, _Patr. apost._ (Tubingen,
+  1901), and in an English trans., with Introduction and occasional
+  notes, by Dr C. Taylor (S.P.C.K., 2 vols., 1903-1906). For the wide
+  literature of the subject, see the two former editions, also Harnack's
+  _Chronologie der altchr. Lit._ i. 257 seq., and O. Bardenhewer,
+  _Gesch. der altkirchl. Lit._ i. 557 seq. For the authorship see
+  APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE, sect. III.     (J. V. B.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] More than one interpretation, typical or otherwise, of this
+    "Clement" is possible; but none justifies us in assigning even to
+    this _Vision_ a date consistent with that usually given to the
+    traditional bishop of this name (see CLEMENT I.). Yet we may have to
+    correct the dubious chronology of the first Roman bishops by this
+    datum, and prolong his life to about A.D. 110. This is Harnack's date
+    for the nucleus of _Vis._ ii., though he places our _Vis._ i.-iii.
+    later in Trajan's reign, and thinks _Vis._ iv. later still.
+
+  [2] That a prior vision in which Hermas was "delivered" to the
+    Shepherd's charge, has dropped out, seems implied by _Vis._ v. 3 f.,
+    _Sim._ x. 1. 1.
+
+  [3] Harnack places "The Shepherd" proper mostly under Hadrian
+    (117-138), and the completed work c. 140-145.
+
+  [4] A careful study of practical Christian ethics at Rome as implied
+    in the _Shepherd_, will be found in E. von Dobschutz, _Christian Life
+    in the Primitive Church_ (1904).
+
+  [5] Note the prestige of martyrs and confessors, the ways of true and
+    false prophets in _Mand._ xi., and the different types of evil and
+    good "walk" among Christians, e.g. in _Vis._ iii. 5-7; _Mand._ viii.;
+    _Sim._ viii.
+
+
+
+
+HERMENEUTICS (Gr. [Greek: hermeneutike], sc. [Greek: techne], Lat. _ars
+hermeneutica_, from [Greek: hermeneuein], to interpret, from Hermes, the
+messenger of the gods), the science or art of interpretation or
+explanation, especially of the Holy Scriptures (see THEOLOGY).
+
+
+
+
+HERMES, a Greek god, identified by the Romans with Mercury. The
+derivation of his name and his primitive character are very uncertain.
+The earliest centres of his cult were Arcadia, where Mt. Cyllene was
+reputed to be his birthplace, the islands of Lemnos, Imbros and
+Samothrace, in which he was associated with the Cabeiri and Attica. In
+Arcadia he was specially worshipped as the god of fertility, and his
+images were ithyphallic, as also were the "Hermae" at Athens. Herodotus
+(ii. 51) states that the Athenians borrowed this type from the
+Pelasgians, thus testifying to the great antiquity of the phallic
+Hermes. At Cyllene in Elis a mere phallus served as his emblem, and was
+highly venerated in the time of Pausanias (vi. 26. 3). Both in
+literature and cult Hermes was constantly associated with the protection
+of cattle and sheep; at Tanagra and elsewhere his title was [Greek:
+kriophoros], the ram-bearer. As a pastoral god he was often closely
+connected with deities of vegetation, especially Pan and the nymphs. His
+pastoral character is recognized in the _Iliad_ (xiv. 490) and the later
+epic hymn to Hermes; and his Homeric titles [Greek: akaketa, eriounios,
+dotor eaon], probably refer to him as the giver of fertility. In the
+_Odyssey_, however, he appears mainly as the messenger of the gods, and
+the conductor of the dead to Hades. Hence in later times he is often
+represented in art and mythology as a herald. The conductor of souls was
+naturally a chthonian god; at Athens there was a festival in honour of
+Hermes and the souls of the dead, and Aeschylus (_Persae_, 628) invokes
+Hermes, with Earth and Hades, in summoning a spirit from the underworld.
+The function of a messenger-god may have originated the conception of
+Hermes as a dream-god; he is called the "conductor of dreams" ([Greek:
+hegetor oneiron]), and the Greeks offered to him the last libation
+before sleep. As a messenger he may also have become the god of roads
+and doorways; he was the protector of travellers and his images were
+used for boundary-marks (see HERMAE). It was a custom to make a cairn of
+stones near the wayside statues of Hermes, each passer-by adding a
+stone; the significance of the practice, which is found in many
+countries, is discussed by Frazer (_Golden Bough_, 2nd ed., iii. 10 f.)
+and Hartland (_Legend of Perseus_, ii. 228). Treasure found in the road
+([Greek: hermaion]) was the gift of Hermes, and any stroke of good luck
+was attributed to him; but it may be doubted whether his patronage of
+luck in general was developed from his function as a god of roads. As
+the giver of luck he became a deity of gain and commerce ([Greek:
+kerdoos, agoraios]), an aspect which caused his identification with
+Mercury, the Roman god of trade. From this conception his thievish
+character may have been evolved. The trickery and cunning of Hermes is a
+prominent theme in literature from Homer downwards, although it is very
+rarely recognized in official cult.[1] In the hymn to Hermes the god
+figures as a precocious child (a type familiar in folk-lore), who when a
+new-born babe steals the cows of Apollo. In addition to these
+characteristics various other functions were assigned to Hermes, who
+developed, perhaps, into the most complete type of the versatile Greek.
+In many respects he was a counterpart of Apollo, less dignified and
+powerful, but more human than his greater brother. Hermes was a patron
+of music, like Apollo, and invented the cithara; he presided over the
+games, with Apollo and Heracles, and his statues were common in the
+stadia and gymnasia. He became, in fact, the ideal Greek youth, equally
+proficient in the "musical" and "gymnastic" branches of Greek education.
+On the "musical" side he was the special patron of eloquence ([Greek:
+logios]); in gymnastic, he was the giver of grace rather than of
+strength, which was the province of Heracles. Though athletic, he was
+one of the least militant of the gods; a title [Greek: promachos], the
+Defender, is found only in connexion with a victory of young men
+("ephebes") in a battle at Tanagra. A further point of contact between
+Hermes and Apollo may here be noted: both had prophetic powers, although
+Hermes held a place far inferior to that of the Pythian god, and
+possessed no famous oracle. Certain forms of popular divination were,
+however, under his patronage, notably the world-wide process of
+divination by pebbles ([Greek: thriai]). The "Homeric" Hymn to Hermes
+explains these minor gifts of prophecy as delegated by Apollo, who alone
+knew the mind of Zeus. Only a single oracle is recorded for Hermes, in
+the market-place of Pharae in Achaea, and here the procedure was akin to
+popular divination. An altar, furnished with lamps, was placed before
+the statue; the inquirer, after lighting the lamps and offering incense,
+placed a coin in the right hand of the god; he then whispered his
+question into the ear of the statue, and, stopping his own ears, left
+the market place. The first sound which he heard outside was an omen.
+
+From the foregoing account it will be seen that it is difficult to
+derive the many-sided character of Hermes from a single elemental
+conception. The various theories which identified him with the sun, the
+moon or the dawn, may be dismissed, as they do not rest on evidence to
+which value would now be attached. The Arcadian or "Pelasgic" Hermes may
+have been an earth-deity, as his connexion with fertility suggests; but
+his symbol at Cyllene rather points to a mere personification of
+reproductive powers. According to Plutarch the ancients "set Hermes by
+the side of Aphrodite," i.e. the male and female principles of
+generation; and the two deities were worshipped together in Argos and
+elsewhere. But this phallic character does not explain other aspects of
+Hermes, as the messenger-god, the master-thief or the ideal Greek
+ephebe. It is impossible to adopt the view that the Homeric poets turned
+the rude shepherd-god of Arcadia into a messenger, in order to provide
+him with a place in the Olympian circle. To their Achaean audience
+Hermes must have been more than a phallic god. It is more probable that
+the Olympian Hermes represents the fusion of several distinct deities.
+Some scholars hold that the various functions of Hermes may have
+originated from the idea of good luck which is so closely bound up with
+his character. As a pastoral god he would give luck to the flocks and
+herds; when worshipped by townspeople, he would give luck to the
+merchant, the orator, the traveller and the athlete. But though the
+notion of luck plays an important part in early thought, it seems
+improbable that the primitive Greeks would have personified a mere
+abstraction. Another theory, which has much to commend it, has been
+advanced by Roscher, who sees in Hermes a wind-god. His strongest
+arguments are that the wind would easily develop into the messenger of
+the gods ([Greek: Dios ouros]), and that it was often thought to promote
+fertility in crops and cattle. Thus the two aspects of Hermes which seem
+most discordant are referred to a single origin. The Homeric epithet
+[Greek: Argeiphontes], which the Greeks interpreted as "the slayer of
+Argus," inventing a myth to account for Argus, is explained as
+originally an epithet of the wind ([Greek: argestes]), which clears away
+the mists ([Greek: argos, phaino]). The uncertainty of the wind might
+well suggest the trickery of a thief, and its whistling might contain
+the germ from which a god of music should be developed. But many of
+Roscher's arguments are forced, and his method of interpretation is not
+altogether sound. For example, the last argument would equally apply to
+Apollo, and would lead to the improbable conclusion that Apollo was a
+wind-god. It must, in fact, be remembered that men make their gods after
+their own likeness; and, whatever his origin, Hermes in particular was
+endowed with many of the qualities and habits of the Greek race. If he
+was evolved from the wind, his character had become so anthropomorphic
+that the Greeks had practically lost the knowledge of his primitive
+significance; nor did Greek cult ever associate him with the wind.
+
+The oldest form under which Hermes was represented was that of the
+Hermae mentioned above. Alcamenes, the rival or pupil of Pheidias, was
+the sculptor of a herm at Athens, a copy of which, dating from Roman
+times, was discovered at Pergamum in 1903. But side by side with the
+Hermae there grew up a more anthropomorphic conception of the god. In
+archaic art he was portrayed as a full-grown and bearded man, clothed in
+a long chiton, and often wearing a cap ([Greek: kyne]) or a
+broad-brimmed hat ([Greek: petasos]), and winged boots. Sometimes he was
+represented in his pastoral character, as when he bears a sheep on his
+shoulders; at other times he appears as the messenger or herald of the
+gods with the [Greek: kerykeion], or herald's staff, which is his most
+frequent attribute. From the latter part of the 5th century his art-type
+was changed in conformity with the general development of Greek
+sculpture. He now became a nude and beardless youth, the type of the
+young athlete. In the 4th century this type was probably fixed by
+Praxiteles in his statue of Hermes at Olympia.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--F. G. Welcker, _Griech. Gotterl._ i. 342 f. (Gottingen,
+  1857-1863); L. Preller, ed. C. Robert, _Griech. Mythologie_, ii. 385
+  seq. (Berlin, 1894); W. H. Roscher, _Lex. der griech. u. rom.
+  Mythologie_, s.v. (Leipzig, 1884-1886); A. Lang, _Myth, Ritual and
+  Religion_, ii. 225 seq. (London, 1887); C. Daremberg and E. Saglio,
+  _Dict. des ant. grecques et rom._; Farnell, _Cults_ v. (1909); O.
+  Gruppe, _Griech. Mythologie u. Religionsgesch._ p. 1318 seq. (Munich,
+  1906). In the article GREEK ART, figs. 43 and 82 (Plate VI.) represent
+  the Hermes of Praxiteles; fig. 57 (Plate II.), a professed copy of the
+  Hermes of Alcamenes.     (E. E. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] We only hear of a Hermes [Greek: dolios] at Pellene (Paus. vii.
+    27. 1) and of the custom of allowing promiscuous thieving during the
+    festival of Hermes at Samos (Plut. _Quaest. Graec._ 55).
+
+
+
+
+HERMES, GEORG (1775-1831), German Roman Catholic theologian, was born on
+the 22nd of April 1775, at Dreyerwalde, in Westphalia, and was educated
+at the gymnasium and university of Munster, in both of which
+institutions he afterwards taught. In 1820 he was appointed professor of
+theology at Bonn, where he died on the 26th of May 1831. Hermes had a
+devoted band of adherents, of whom the most notable was Peter Josef
+Elvenich (1796-1886), who became professor at Breslau in 1829, and in
+1870 threw in his lot with the Old Catholic movement. His works were
+_Untersuchungen uber die innere Wahrheit des Christenthums_ (Munster,
+1805), and _Einleitung in die christkatholische Theologie_, of which the
+first part, a philosophical introduction, was published in 1819, the
+second part, on positive theology, in 1829. The _Einleitung_ was never
+completed. His _Christkatholische Dogmatik_ was published, from his
+lectures, after his death by two of his students, Achterfeld and Braun
+(3 vols., 1831-1834).
+
+The _Einleitung_ is a remarkable work, both in itself and in its effect
+upon Catholic theology in Germany. Few works of modern times have
+excited a more keen and bitter controversy. Hermes himself was very
+largely under the influence of the Kantian and Fichtean ideas, and
+though in the philosophical portion of his _Einleitung_ he criticizes
+both these thinkers severely, rejects their doctrine of the moral law as
+the sole guarantee for the existence of God, and condemns their
+restricted view of the possibility and nature of revelation, enough
+remained of purely speculative material to render his system obnoxious
+to his church. After his death, the contests between his followers and
+their opponents grew so bitter that the dispute was referred to the
+papal see. The judgment was adverse, and on the 25th of September 1835 a
+papal bull condemned both parts of the _Einleitung_ and the first volume
+of the _Dogmatik_. Two months later the remaining volumes of the
+_Dogmatik_ were likewise condemned. The controversy did not cease, and
+in 1845 a systematic attempt was made anonymously by F. X. Werner to
+examine and refute the Hermesian doctrines, as contrasted with the
+orthodox Catholic faith (_Der Hermesianismus_, 1845). In 1847 the
+condemnation of 1835 was confirmed by Pius IX.
+
+  See K. Werner, _Geschichte der katholischen Theologie_ (1866), pp. 405
+  sqq.
+
+
+
+
+HERMES TRISMEGISTUS ("the thrice greatest Hermes"), an honorific
+designation of the Egyptian Hermes, i.e. Thoth (q.v.), the god of
+wisdom. In late hieroglyphic the name of Thoth often has the epithet
+"the twice very great," sometimes "the thrice very great"; in the
+popular language (demotic) the corresponding epithet is "the five times
+very great," found as early as the 3rd century B.C. Greek translations
+give [Greek: ho megas kai megas] and [Greek: megistos: trismegas] occurs
+in a late magical text. [Greek: ho trismegistos] has not yet been found
+earlier than the 2nd century A.D., but there can now be no doubt of its
+origin in the above Egyptian epithets.
+
+Thoth was "the scribe of the gods," "Lord of divine words," and to
+Hermes was attributed the authorship of all the strictly sacred books
+generally called by Greek authors Hermetic. These, according to Clemens
+Alexandrinus, our sole ancient authority (_Strom._ vi. p. 268 et seq.),
+were forty-two in number, and were subdivided into six divisions, of
+which the first, containing ten books, was in charge of the "prophet"
+and dealt with laws, deities and the education of priests; the second,
+consisting of the ten books of the _stolistes_, the official whose duty
+it was to dress and ornament the statues of the gods, treated of
+sacrifices and offerings, prayers, hymns, festive processions; the
+third, of the "hierogrammatist," also in ten books, was called
+"hieroglyphics," and was a repertory of cosmographical, geographical and
+topographical information; the four books of the "horoscopus" were
+devoted to astronomy and astrology; the two books of the "chanter"
+contained respectively a collection of songs in honour of the gods and a
+description of the royal life and its duties; while the sixth and last
+division, consisting of the six books of the "pastophorus," was medical.
+Clemens's statement cannot be contradicted. Works are extant in papyri
+and on temple walls, treating of geography, astronomy, ritual, myths,
+medicine, &c. It is probable that the native priests would have been
+ready to ascribe the authorship or inspiration, as well as the care and
+protection of all their books of sacred lore to Thoth, although there
+were a goddess of writing (Seshit), and the ancient deified scribes
+Imuthes and Amenophis, and later inspired doctors Petosiris, Nechepso,
+&c., to be reckoned with; there are indeed some definite traces of such
+an attribution extant in individual cases. Whether a canon of such books
+was ever established, even in the latest times, may be seriously
+doubted. We know, however, that the vizier of Upper Egypt (at Thebes) in
+the eighteenth dynasty, had 40 (not 42) parchment rolls laid before him
+as he sat in the hall of audience. Unfortunately we have no hint of
+their contents. Forty-two was the number of divine assessors at the
+judgment of the dead before Osiris, and was the standard number of the
+nomes or counties in Egypt.
+
+The name of Hermes seems during the 3rd and following centuries to have
+been regarded as a convenient pseudonym to place at the head of the
+numerous syncretistic writings in which it was sought to combine
+Neo-Platonic philosophy, Philonic Judaism and cabalistic theosophy, and
+so provide the world with some acceptable substitute for the
+Christianity which had even at that time begun to give indications of
+the ascendancy it was destined afterwards to attain. Of these
+pseudepigraphic Hermetic writings some have come down to us in the
+original Greek; others survive in Latin or Arabic translations; but the
+majority appear to have perished. That which is best known and has been
+most frequently edited is the [Greek: Poimandres] _sive De potestate et
+sapientia divina_ ([Greek: Poimandres] being the Divine Intelligence,
+[Greek: poimen andron]), which consists of fifteen chapters treating of
+such subjects as the nature of God, the origin of the world, the
+creation and fall of man, and the divine illumination which is the sole
+means of his deliverance. The _editio princeps_ appeared in Paris in
+1554; there is also an edition by G. Parthey (1854); the work has also
+been translated into German by D. Tiedemann (1781). Other Hermetic
+writings which have been preserved, and which have been for the most
+part collected by Patricius in the _Nova de universis philosophia_
+(1593), are (in Greek) [Greek: Iatromathematika pros Ammona Aiguption,
+Peri katakliseos nosounton perignostika, Ek tes mathematikes epistemes
+pros Ammona]: (in Latin) _Aphorismi sive Centiloquium, Cyranides_; (in
+Arabic, but doubtless from a Greek original) an address to the human
+soul, which has been translated by H. L. Fleischer (_An die menschliche
+Seele_, 1870).
+
+The connexion of the name of Hermes with alchemy will explain what is
+meant by hermetic sealing, and will account for the use of the phrase
+"hermetic medicine" by Paracelsus, as also for the so-called "hermetic
+freemasonry" of the middle ages.
+
+Besides Thoth, Anubis (q.v.) was constantly identified with Hermes; see
+also HORUS.
+
+  See Ursinus, _De Zoroastre, Hermete_, &c. (Nuremberg, 1661); Nicolas
+  Lenglet-Dufresnoy, _L'Histoire de la philosophie hermetique_ (Paris,
+  1742); Baumgarten-Crusius, _De librorum hermeticorum origine atque
+  indole_ (Jena, 1827); B. J. Hilgers, _De Hermetis Trismegisti
+  Poemandro_ (1855); R. Menard, _Hermes Trismegiste, traduction
+  complete, precedee d'une etude sur l'origine des livres hermetiques_
+  (1866); R. Pietschmann, _Hermes Trismegistus, nach agyptischen,
+  griechischen, und orientalischen Uberlieferungen_ (1875); R.
+  Reitzenstein, _Poimandres, Studien zur griechisch-agyptischen und
+  fruhchristlichen Literatur_ (Leipzig, 1904); G. R. S. Mead, _Thrice
+  Greatest Hermes_ (1907), introduction and translation.     (F. Ll. G.)
+
+
+
+
+HERMESIANAX, of Colophon, elegiac poet of the Alexandrian school,
+flourished about 330 B.C. His chief work was a poem in three books,
+dedicated to his mistress Leontion. Of this poem a fragment of about one
+hundred lines has been preserved by Athenaeus (xiii. 597). Plaintive in
+tone, it enumerates instances, mythological and historical, of the
+irresistible power of love. Hermesianax, whose style is characterized by
+alternate force and tenderness, was exceedingly popular in his own
+times, and was highly esteemed even in the Augustan period.
+
+  Many separate editions have been published of the fragment, the text
+  of which is in a very unsatisfactory condition: by F. W. Schneidewin
+  (1838), J. Bailey (1839, with notes, glossary, and Latin and English
+  versions), and others; R. Schulze's _Quaestiones Hermesianacteae_
+  (1858), contains an account of the life and writings of the poet and a
+  section on the identity of Leontion.
+
+
+
+
+HERMIAS. (1) A Greek philosopher of the Alexandrian school. A disciple
+of Proclus, he was known best for the lucidity of his method rather than
+for any original ideas. His chief works were a study of the _Isagoge_ of
+Porphyry and a commentary on Plato's _Phaedrus_. Unlike the majority of
+logicians of the time, he admitted the absolute validity of the second
+and third figures of the syllogism.
+
+(2) A Christian apologist and philosopher who flourished probably in the
+4th and 5th centuries. Nothing is known about his life, but there has
+been preserved of his writings a small thesis entitled [Greek: Diasyrmos
+ton exophilosophon]. In this work he attacked pagan philosophy for its
+lack of logic in dealing with the root problems of life, the soul, the
+cosmos and the first cause or vital principle. There is an edition by
+von Otto published in the _Corpus apologetarum_ (Jena, 1872). It is
+interesting, but without any claim to profundity of reasoning.
+
+  Two minor philosophers of the same name are known. Of these, one was a
+  disciple of Plato and a friend of Aristotle; he became tyrant of
+  Atarneus and invited Aristotle to his court. Aristotle subsequently
+  married Pythias, who was either niece or sister of Hermias. Another
+  Hermias was a Phoenician philosopher of the Alexandrian school; when
+  Justinian closed the school of Athens, he was one of the five
+  representatives of the school who took refuge at the Persian court.
+
+
+
+
+HERMIPPUS, "the one-eyed," Athenian writer of the Old Comedy, flourished
+during the Peloponnesian War. He is said to have written 40 plays, of
+which the titles and fragments of nine are preserved. He was a bitter
+opponent of Pericles, whom he accused (probably in the [Greek: Moirai])
+of being a bully and a coward, and of carousing with his boon companions
+while the Lacedaemonians were invading Attica. He also accused Aspasia
+of impiety and offences against morality, and her acquittal was only
+secured by the tears of Pericles (Plutarch, _Pericles_, 32). In the
+[Greek: Artopolides] ("Bakeresses") he attacked the demagogue
+Hyperbolus. The [Greek: Phormophoroi] (Mat-carriers) contains many
+parodies of Homer. Hermippus also appears to have written scurrilous
+iambic poems after the manner of Archilochus.
+
+  Fragments in T. Kock, _Comicorum Atticorum fragmenta_, i. (1880), and
+  A. Meineke, _Poetarum Graecorum comicorum fragmenta_ (1855).
+
+
+
+
+HERMIT, a solitary, one who withdraws from all intercourse with other
+human beings in order to live a life of religious contemplation, and so
+marked off from a "coenobite" (Gr. [Greek: koinos], common, and [Greek:
+Bios], life), one who shares this life of withdrawal with others in a
+community (see ASCETICISM and MONASTICISM). The word "hermit" is an
+adaptation through the O. Fr. _ermite_ or _hermite_, from the Lat. form,
+_eremite_, of the Gr. [Greek: eremites], a solitary, from [Greek:
+eremia], a desert. The English form "eremite," which was used, according
+to the _New English Dictionary_, quite indiscriminately with "hermit"
+till the middle of the 17th century, is now chiefly used in poetry or
+rhetorically, except with reference to the early hermits of the Libyan
+desert, or sometimes to such particular orders as the eremites of St
+Augustine (see AUGUSTINIAN HERMITS). Another synonym is "anchoret" or
+"anchorite." This comes through the French and Latin forms from the Gr.
+[Greek: anachoretes], from [Greek: anachorein], to withdraw. A form
+nearer to the Greek original, "anachoret," is sometimes used of the
+early Christian recluses in the East.
+
+
+
+
+HERMOGENES, of Tarsus, Greek rhetorician, surnamed [Greek: Xuster] (the
+polisher), flourished in the reign of Marcus Aurelius (A.D. 161-180).
+His precocious ability secured him a public appointment as teacher of
+his art while as yet he was only a boy; but at the age of twenty-five
+his faculties gave way, and he spent the remainder of his long life in a
+state of intellectual impotence. During his early years, however, he had
+composed a series of rhetorical treatises, which became popular
+text-books, and the subject of subsequent commentaries. Of his [Greek:
+Techne rhetorike] we still possess the sections [Greek: Peri ton
+staseon] (on legal issues), [Greek: Peri heureseos] (on the invention of
+arguments), [Greek: Peri ideon] (on the various kinds of style), [Greek:
+Peri methodou deinotetos] (on the method of speaking effectively), and
+[Greek: Progymnasmata] (rhetorical exercises).
+
+  Editions by C. Walz (1832), and by L. Spengel (1854), in their
+  _Rhetores Graeci_; bibliographical note on the commentaries in W.
+  Christ, _Geschichte der griechischen Literatur_ (1898).
+
+
+
+
+HERMON, the highest mountain in Syria (estimated at 9050 to 9200 ft.),
+an outlier of the Anti-Lebanon. As the Hebrew name ([Hebrew: Hermon],
+"belonging to a sanctuary," "separate") shows, it was always a sacred
+mountain. The Sidonians called it _Sirion_, and the Amorites _Shenir_
+(Deut. iii. 9). According to one theory it is the "high mountain" near
+Caesarea Philippi, which was the scene of the Transfiguration (Mark ix.
+2). A curious reference in Enoch vi. 6, says that in the days of Jared
+the wicked angels descended on the summit of the mountain and named it
+Hermon. The modern name is _Jebel es-Sheikh_, or "mountain of the chief
+or elder." It is also called _Jebel eth-Thelj_, "snowy mountain." The
+ridge of Hermon, rising into a dome-shaped summit, is 20 m. long,
+extending north-east and south-west. The formation of the lower part is
+Nubian sandstone, that of the upper part is a hard dark-grey crystalline
+limestone belonging to the Neocomian period, and full of fossils. The
+spurs consist in some cases of white chalk covering the limestone, and
+on the south there are several basaltic outbreaks. The view from Hermon
+is very extensive, embracing all Lebanon and the plains east of
+Damascus, with Palestine as far as Carmel and Tabor. On a clear day
+Jaffa also may be seen. The mountain in spring is covered with snow, but
+in autumn there is occasionally none left, even in the ravines. To the
+height of 500 ft. it is clothed with oaks, poplars and brush, while
+luxuriant vineyards abound. Foxes, wolves and Syrian bears are not
+infrequently met with, and there is a heavy dew or night mist. Above the
+snow-limit the mountain is bare and covered with fine limestone shingle.
+The summit is a plateau from which three rocky knolls rise up, that on
+the west being the lowest, that on the south-east the highest. On the
+south slope of the latter are remains of a small temple or _sacellum_
+described by St Jerome. A semicircular dwarf wall of good masonry runs
+round this peak, and a trench excavated in the rock may perhaps indicate
+the site of an altar. On the plateau is a cave about 25 ft. sq. with the
+entrance on the east. A rock column supports the roof, and a building
+(possibly a Mithraeum) once stood above. Other small temples are found
+on the sides of Hermon, of which twelve in all have been explored. They
+face the east and are dated by architects about A.D. 200. The most
+remarkable are those of Deir el 'Ashaiyir, Hibbariyeh, Hosn Niha and
+Tell Thatha. At the ruined town called Rukleh on the northern slopes are
+remains of a temple, the stones of which have been built into a church.
+A large medallion, 5 ft. in diameter, with a head supposed to represent
+the sun-god, is built into the wall. Several Greek inscriptions occur
+among these ruins. In the 12th century Psalm lxxxix. 12 was supposed to
+indicate the proximity of Hermon to Tabor. The conical hill immediately
+south of Tabor was thus named Little Hermon, and is still so called by
+some of the inhabitants of the district.
+
+
+
+
+HERMSDORF, a village of Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia.
+Pop. (1900) 10,975. There are coal and iron mines and lime quarries in
+the vicinity, and in the town there are large iron-works. Hermsdorf is
+known as Niederhermsdorf to distinguish it from other places of the same
+name. Perhaps the most noteworthy of these is a village in Silesia at
+the foot of the Riesengebirge, chiefly famous for the ruins of the
+castle of Kynast. This castle, formerly the seat of the Schaffgotsch
+family, was destroyed by lightning in 1675. A third Hermsdorf is a
+village in Saxe-Altenburg, where porcelain is made.
+
+
+
+
+HERNE, JAMES A. [originally AHERNE] (1840-1901), American actor and
+playwright, was born in Troy, New York, and after theatrical experiences
+in various companies produced his own first play, _Hearts of Oak_, in
+1878, and his great success _Shore Acres_ in 1882. It was in rural drama
+that his humour and pathos found their proper setting, and _Shore Acres_
+was seen throughout the United States almost continuously for six
+seasons, being followed by the less successful _Sag Harbor_, 1900.
+
+
+
+
+HERNE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Westphalia, 15 m.
+by rail N.W. of Dortmund. Pop. (1905) 33,258. It has coal mines,
+boiler-works, gunpowder mills, &c. Herne was made a town in 1897.
+
+
+
+
+HERNE BAY, a seaside resort in the St Augustine's parliamentary division
+of Kent, England, 8 m. N. by E. of Canterbury, on the South Eastern and
+Chatham railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 6726. It has grown up
+since 1830, above a sandy and pebbly shore, and has a pier 3/4 m. long.
+The church of St Martin in the village of Herne, 1(1/2) m. inland, is
+Early English and later; the living was held by Nicholas Ridley (1538),
+afterwards Bishop of London. At Reculver, 3 m. E. of Herne Bay on the
+coast, is the site of the Roman station of _Regulbium_. The fortress
+occupied about 8 acres, but only traces of the south and east walls
+remain. In Saxon times it was converted into a palace by King Ethelbert,
+and in 669 a monastery was founded here by Egbert. The Early English
+church was taken down early in the 19th century owing to the
+encroachment of the sea, and parts of its fabric were preserved in the
+modern church of St Mary. But its twin towers, known as the Sisters from
+the tradition that they were built by a Benedictine abbess of Faversham
+in memory of her sister, were preserved by Trinity House as a
+conspicuous landmark.
+
+
+
+
+HERNE THE HUNTER, a legendary huntsman who was alleged to haunt Windsor
+Great Park at night, especially around an aged tree, long known as
+Herne's oak, said to be nearly 700 years old. This was blown down in
+1863, and a young oak was planted by Queen Victoria on the spot. Herne
+has his French counterpart in the _Grand Veneur_ of Fontainebleau.
+Mention is made of Herne in _The Merry Wives of Windsor_ and in Harrison
+Ainsworth's _Windsor Castle_. Nothing definite is known of the Herne
+legend. It is suggested that it originated in the life-story of some
+keeper of the forest; but more probably it is only a variant of the
+"Wild Huntsman" myth common to folk-lore, which (E. B. Tylor, _Primitive
+Culture_, 4th ed. pp. 361-362) is almost certainly the modern form of a
+prehistoric storm-myth.
+
+
+
+
+HERNIA (Lat. _hernia_, perhaps from Gr. [Greek: ernos], a sprout), in
+surgery, the protrusion of a viscus, or part of a viscus, from its
+normal cavity; thus, _hernia cerebri_ is a protrusion of
+brain-substance, _hernia pulmonum_, a protrusion of a portion of lung,
+and _hernia iridis_, a protrusion of some of the iris through an
+aperture in the cornea. But, used by itself, hernia implies a protrusion
+from the abdominal cavity, or, in common language, a "rupture." A
+rupture may occur at any weak point in the abdominal wall. The common
+situations are the groin (_inguinal hernia_), the upper part of the
+thigh (_femoral hernia_), and the navel (_umbilical hernia_). The more
+movable the viscus the greater the liability to protrusion, and
+therefore one commonly finds some of the small intestine, or of the
+fatty apron (omentum), in the hernia. The tumour may contain intestine
+alone (enterocele), omentum alone (epiplocele), or both intestine and
+omentum (entero-epiplocele). The predisposing cause of rupture is
+abnormal length of the suspensory membrane of the bowel (the mesentery),
+or of the omentum, in conjunction with some weak spot in the abdominal
+wall, as in an inguinal hernia, which descends along the canal in which
+the spermatic cord lies in the male and the round ligament of the womb
+in the female. A femoral hernia comes through a weak spot in the abdomen
+to the inner side of the great femoral vessels; a ventral hernia takes
+place by the yielding of the scar tissue left after an operation for
+appendicitis or ovarian disease. The exciting cause of hernia is
+generally some over-exertion, as in lifting a heavy weight, jumping off
+a high wall, straining (as in difficult micturition), constipation or
+excessive coughing. The pressure of the diaphragm above and the
+abdominal wall in front acting on the abdominal viscera causes a
+protrusion at the weakest point.
+
+Rupture is either congenital or acquired. A child may be born with a
+hernia in the inguinal or umbilical region, the result of an arrest of
+development in these parts; or the rupture may be acquired, first
+appearing, perhaps, in adult life as the result of a strain or hurt. Men
+suffer more frequently than women, because of their physical labours,
+because they are more liable to accidents, and because of the passage
+for the spermatic cord out of the abdomen being more spacious than that
+for the round ligament of the womb.
+
+At first the rupture is small, and it gradually increases in bulk. It
+varies from the size of a marble to a child's head. The swelling
+consists of three parts--the coverings, sac and contents. The
+"coverings" are the structures which form the abdominal wall at the part
+where the rupture occurs. In femoral hernia the coverings are the
+structures at the upper part of the thigh which are stretched, thinned
+and matted together as the result of pressure; in other cases there is
+an increase in their thickness, the result of repeated attacks of
+inflammation. The "sac" is composed of the peritoneum or membrane lining
+the abdominal cavity; in some rare cases the sac is wanting. The neck of
+the sac is the narrowed portion where the peritoneum forming the sac
+becomes continuous with the general peritoneal cavity. The neck of the
+sac is often thickened, indurated and adherent to surrounding parts, the
+result of chronic inflammation. The "contents" are bowel, omental fat,
+or, in children, an ovary.
+
+The hernia may be reducible, irreducible or strangulated. A "reducible"
+hernia is one in which the contents can be pushed back into the abdomen.
+In some cases this reduction is effected with ease, in others it is a
+matter of great difficulty. At any moment a reducible hernia may become
+"irreducible," that is to say, it cannot be pushed back into the
+abdominal cavity, perhaps because of inflammatory adhesions in and
+around the fatty contents, or because of extra fullness of the bowel in
+the sac. A "strangulated" hernia is one in which the circulation of the
+blood through the hernial contents is interfered with, by the pinching
+at the narrowest part of the passage. The interference is at first
+slight, but it quickly becomes more pronounced; the pinched bowel in the
+hernial sac swells as a finger does when a string is tightly wound round
+its base. At first there is congestion, and this may go on to
+inflammation, to infection by micro-organisms and to mortification. The
+rapidity with which the change from simple congestion to mortification
+takes place depends on the tightness of the constriction, and on the
+virulence of the bacterial infection from the bowel. As a rule, the more
+rapidly a hernia forms the greater the rapidity of serious change in the
+conditions of the bowel or omentum, and the more urgent are the
+symptoms. The constricting band may be one of the structures which form
+the boundaries of the openings through which the hernia has travelled,
+or it may be the neck of the sac, which has become thickened in
+consequence of inflammation--especially is this the case in an inguinal
+hernia.
+
+_Reducible Hernia._--With a reducible hernia there is a soft
+compressible tumour (elastic when it contains intestine, doughy when it
+contains omentum), its size increasing in the erect, and diminishing in
+the horizontal posture. As a rule, it causes no trouble during the
+night. It gives an impulse on coughing, and when the intestinal contents
+are pushed back into the abdomen a gurgling sensation is perceptible by
+the fingers. Such a tumour may be met with in any part of the abdominal
+wall, but the chief situations are as follows. The inguinal region, in
+which the neck of the tumour lies immediately above Poupart's ligament
+(a cord-like ligamentous structure which can be felt stretching from the
+front of the hip-bone to a ridge of bone immediately above the genital
+organs); the femoral region, in the upper part of the thigh, in which
+the neck of the sac lies immediately below the inner end of Poupart's
+ligament; the umbilical region, in which the tumour appears at or near
+the navel. As the inguinal hernia increases in size it passes into the
+scrotum in the male, into the labium in the female; while the femoral
+hernia gradually pushes upwards to the abdomen.
+
+The palliative treatment of a reducible hernia consists in pushing back
+the contents of the tumour into the abdomen and applying a truss or
+elastic bandage to prevent their again escaping. The younger the patient
+the more chance there is of the truss acting as a curative agent. The
+truss may generally be left off at night, but it should be put on in the
+morning before the patient leaves his bed. If, after the hernia has been
+once returned, it is not allowed again to come down, there is a
+probability of an actual cure taking place; but if it is allowed to come
+down occasionally, as it may do, even during the night, in consequence
+of a cough, or from the patient turning suddenly in bed, the weak spot
+is again opened out, and the improvement which might have been going on
+for weeks is undone. It is sometimes found impossible to keep up a
+hernia by means of a truss, and an operation becomes necessary. The
+operation is spoken of as "the radical treatment of hernia," in
+contra-distinction to the so-called "palliative treatment" by means of a
+truss. It should not be spoken of as the radical cure, for skilfully as
+the operation may have been performed it is not always a cure. The
+principles involved in the operation are the emptying of the sac and its
+entire removal, and the closure of the opening into the abdomen by
+strong sutures; and, in this way, great advance has been made by modern
+surgery. Without tiresome delay, and the tedious and sometimes
+disappointing application of trusses, the weak spot in the abdominal
+wall is exposed, the sac of the hernia is tied and removed, and the
+canal by which the rupture descended is blockaded by buried sutures, and
+with no material risk to life. Thus the patient's worries become a thing
+of the past, and he is rendered a fit and normal member of society.
+Experience has shown that very few ruptures are unsuited for successful
+treatment by operation. No boy should now be sent to school compelled to
+wear a truss, and so hindered in his games and rendered an object of
+remark.
+
+_Irreducible Hernia._--The main symptom is a tumour in one of the
+situations already referred to, of long standing and perhaps of large
+size, in which the contents of the tumour, in whole or in part, cannot
+be pushed back into the abdomen. The irreducibility is due either to its
+large size or to changes which have taken place by indurations or
+adhesions. Such a tumour is a constant source of danger: its contents
+are liable, from their exposed situation, to injury from external
+violence; it has a constant risk of increase; it may at any time become
+strangulated, or the contents may inflame, and strangulation may occur
+secondarily to the inflammation. It gives rise to dragging sensations
+(referred to the abdomen), colic, dyspepsia and constipation, which may
+lead to obstruction, that is to say, a stoppage may occur of the passage
+of the contents of that portion of the intestinal canal which lies in
+the hernia. When an irreducible hernia becomes painful and tender, a
+local peritonitis has occurred, which resembles in many of its symptoms
+a case of strangulation, and must be regarded with suspicion and
+anxiety. Indeed, the only safe treatment is by operation.
+
+The treatment of irreducible hernia may be palliative; a "bag truss" may
+be worn in the hope of preventing the hernia getting larger; the bowels
+must be kept open, and all irregularities of diet avoided. A person with
+such a hernia is in constant danger, and if his general condition does
+not contra-indicate it he should be submitted to operative treatment.
+That is to say, the surgeon should cut down on the hernia, open the sac,
+divide any omental adhesions, tie and cut away indurated omentum, return
+the bowel, and complete the radical operation by closing the aperture by
+strong sutures.
+
+In _Strangulated Hernia_ the bowel or omentum is being nipped at the
+neck of the sac, and the flow of blood into and from the delicate
+tissues is stopped. The symptoms are--nausea, vomiting of bilious
+matter, and after a time of faecal-smelling matter; a twisting, burning
+pain generally referred to the region of the navel, intestinal
+obstruction; a quick, wiry pulse and pain on pressure over the tumour;
+the expression grows anxious, the abdomen becomes tense and drum-like,
+and there is no impulse in the tumour on coughing, because its contents
+are practically pinched off from the general abdominal cavity. Sometimes
+there is complete absence of pain and tenderness in the hernia itself,
+and in an aged person all the symptoms may be very slight. Sooner or
+later, from eight hours to eight days, if the strangulation is
+unrelieved, the tumour becomes livid, crackling with gas, mortification
+of the bowel at the neck of the sac takes place, followed by
+extravasation of the intestinal contents into the abdominal cavity; the
+patient has hiccough; he becomes collapsed; and dies comatose from
+blood-poisoning.
+
+The treatment of a strangulated hernia admits of no delay; if the hernia
+does not "go back" on the surgeon trying to reduce it, it must be
+operated on at once, the constriction being relieved, the bowel returned
+and the opening closed. There should be no treatment by hot-bath or
+ice-bag: operation is urgently needed. An anaesthetic should be
+administered, and perhaps one gentle attempt to return the contents by
+pressure (termed "taxis") may be made, but no prolonged attempts are
+justifiable, because the condition of the hernial contents may be such
+that they cannot bear the pressure of the fingers. "Think well of the
+hernia," says the aphorism, "which has been little handled."
+
+The taxis to be successful should be made in a direction opposite to the
+one in which the hernia has come down. The inguinal hernia should be
+pressed upwards, outwards and backwards, the femoral hernia downwards,
+backwards and upwards. The larger the hernia the greater is the chance
+of success by taxis, and the smaller the hernia the greater the risk of
+its being injured by manipulation and delay. In every case the handling
+must be absolutely gentle. If taxis does not succeed the surgeon must at
+once cut down on the tumour, carefully dividing the different coverings
+until he reaches the sac. The sac is then opened, the constriction
+divided, care being taken not to injure the bowel. The bowel must be
+examined before it is returned into the abdomen, and if its lustreless
+appearance, its dusky colour, or its smell, suggests that it is
+mortified, or is on the point of mortifying, it must not be put back or
+perforation would give rise to septic peritonitis which would probably
+have a fatal ending. In such a case the damaged piece of bowel must be
+resected and the healthy ends of the bowel joined together by fine
+suturing. Matted or diseased omentum must be tied off and removed.
+Should peritonitis supervene after the operation on account of bacillary
+infection, the bowels should be quickly made to act by repeated doses of
+Epsom salts in hot water.
+
+A person who is the subject of a reducible hernia should take great care
+to obtain an accurately fitting truss, and should remember that whenever
+symptoms resembling in any degree those of strangulation occur, delay in
+treatment may prove fatal. A surgeon should at once be communicated
+with, and he should come prepared to operate.     (E. O.*)
+
+
+
+
+HERNICI, an ancient people of Italy, whose territory was in Latium
+between the Fucine Lake and the Trerus, bounded by the Volscian on the
+S., and by the Aequian and the Marsian on the N. They long maintained
+their independence, and in 486 B.C. were still strong enough to conclude
+an equal treaty with the Latins (Dion. Hal. viii. 64 and 68). They broke
+away from Rome in 362 (Livy vii. 6 ff.) and in 306 (Livy ix. 42), when
+their chief town Anagnia (q.v.) was taken and reduced to a praefecture,
+but Ferentinum, Aletrium and Verulae were rewarded for their fidelity by
+being allowed to remain free _municipia_, a position which at that date
+they preferred to the _civitas_. The name of the Hernici, like that of
+the Volsci, is missing from the list of Italian peoples whom Polybius
+(ii. 24) describes as able to furnish troops in 225 B.C.; by that date,
+therefore, their territory cannot have been distinguished from Latium
+generally, and it seems probable (Beloch, _Ital. Bund_, p. 123) that
+they had then received the full Roman citizenship. The oldest Latin
+inscriptions of the district (from Ferentinum, _C.I.L._ x. 5837-5840)
+are earlier than the Social War, and present no local characteristic.
+
+  For further details of their history see _C.I.L._ x. 572.
+
+There is no evidence to show that the Hernici ever spoke a really
+different dialect from the Latins; but one or two glosses indicate that
+they had certain peculiarities of vocabulary, such as might be expected
+among folk who clung to their local customs. Their name, however, with
+its _Co_-termination, classes them along with the _Co_-tribes, like the
+Volsci, who would seem to have been earlier inhabitants of the west
+coast of Italy, rather than with the tribes whose names were formed with
+the _No_-suffix. On this question see VOLSCI and SABINI.
+
+  See Conway's _Italic Dialects_ (Camb. Univ. Press, 1897), p. 306 ff.,
+  where the glosses and the local and personal names of the district
+  will be found.     (R. S. C.)
+
+
+
+
+HERNOSAND, a seaport of Sweden, chief town of the district (_lan_) of
+Vesternorrland on the Gulf of Bothnia. Pop. (1900) 7890. It stands on
+the island of Herno (which is connected with the mainland by bridges)
+near the mouth of the Angerman river, 423 m. N. of Stockholm by rail. It
+is the seat of a bishop and possesses a fine cathedral. There are
+engine-works, timber-yards and saw-mills. The harbour is good, but
+generally ice-bound from December to May. Timber, iron and wood-pulp are
+exported. There are a school of navigation and an institute for
+pisciculture. Hernosand was founded in 1584, and received its first
+town-privileges from John III. in 1587. It was the first town in Europe
+to be lighted by electricity (1885). The poet Franzen (q.v.), Bishop of
+Hernosand, is buried here.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 13, Slice 3, by Various
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 13 SLICE 3 ***
+
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