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diff --git a/40967-h/40967-h.htm b/40967-h/40967-h.htm index a481bd5..d0c690b 100644 --- a/40967-h/40967-h.htm +++ b/40967-h/40967-h.htm @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ <html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> <head> - <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=UTF-8" /> <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> <title> The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Trial of Jesus, Vol. II, by Walter M. Chandler. @@ -143,45 +143,7 @@ text-align: justify; text-indent: 2em; line-height: 1em;} </style> </head> <body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Trial of Jesus from a Lawyer's -Standpoint, Vol. II (of II), by Walter M. Chandler - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: The Trial of Jesus from a Lawyer's Standpoint, Vol. II (of II) - The Roman Trial - -Author: Walter M. Chandler - -Release Date: October 7, 2012 [EBook #40967] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TRIAL OF JESUS *** - - - - -Produced by Jeff G., Eleni Christofaki and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - -</pre> - +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 40967 ***</div> <div class='tnote'> <h3>Transcriber's notes</h3> @@ -250,13 +212,13 @@ WALTER M. CHANDLER</p> <tr><td><span class="smcap"><a href="#CHRIST_BEFORE_PILATE">Christ Before Pilate</a></span> (Munkacsy)</td> <td><i>Frontispiece</i></td></tr> <tr> -<td><span class="smcap"><a href="#TIBERIUS_CAESAR">Tiberius Cæsar</a></span> (Antique Sculpture)</td> +<td><span class="smcap"><a href="#TIBERIUS_CAESAR">Tiberius Cæsar</a></span> (Antique Sculpture)</td> <td>68</td> </tr> <tr><td><span class="smcap"><a href="#PONTIUS_PILATE">Pontius Pilate</a></span> (Munkacsy)</td> <td>81</td> </tr> -<tr><td><span class="smcap"><a href="#CHRIST_LEAVING_THE_PRAETORIUM">Christ Leaving the Prætorium</a></span> (Doré)</td> +<tr><td><span class="smcap"><a href="#CHRIST_LEAVING_THE_PRAETORIUM">Christ Leaving the Prætorium</a></span> (Doré)</td> <td>141</td> </tr> <tr><td><span class="smcap"><a href="#THE_CRUCIFIXION">The Crucifixion</a></span> (Munkacsy)</td> @@ -265,7 +227,7 @@ WALTER M. CHANDLER</p> <tr><td><span class="smcap"><a href="#JUPITER">Jupiter</a></span> (Antique Sculpture)</td> <td>195</td></tr> <tr> -<td><span class="smcap"><a href="#AVE_CAESAR_IO_SATURNALIA">Ave Cæsar! Io Saturnalia</a></span> (Alma-Tadema)</td> +<td><span class="smcap"><a href="#AVE_CAESAR_IO_SATURNALIA">Ave Cæsar! Io Saturnalia</a></span> (Alma-Tadema)</td> <td>240</td> </tr> <tr><td><span class="smcap"><a href="#THE_DYING_GLADIATOR">The Dying Gladiator</a></span> (Antique Sculpture)</td> @@ -327,12 +289,12 @@ Jesus</span></td> <tr> <td><p class="center">PART II</p></td> </tr> -<tr><td><p class="center"><i>GRÆCO-ROMAN PAGANISM</i></p></td> +<tr><td><p class="center"><i>GRÆCO-ROMAN PAGANISM</i></p></td> </tr> -<tr><td>I. <span class="smcap">The Græco-Roman Religion</span></td> +<tr><td>I. <span class="smcap">The Græco-Roman Religion</span></td> <td><a href="#Page_198">198</a></td></tr> <tr> -<td>II. <span class="smcap">Græco-Roman Social Life</span></td> +<td>II. <span class="smcap">Græco-Roman Social Life</span></td> <td><a href="#Page_236">236</a></td></tr> <tr><td><p class="center"><i>APPENDICES</i></p></td></tr> @@ -384,7 +346,7 @@ The nature of the verdicts pronounced by Pilate and by Herod rendered these things unnecessary in dealing with the Roman trial.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">x</a></span>In Part II of this volume, Græco-Roman Paganism +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">x</a></span>In Part II of this volume, Græco-Roman Paganism at the time of Christ has been treated. It is evident that this part of the treatise has no legal connection with the trial of Jesus. It was added simply @@ -405,7 +367,7 @@ Chapter VI of this volume.</p> <p>Short biographical sketches of about forty members of the Great Sanhedrin who tried Jesus have been given under Appendix I at the end of this work. They were -originally written by MM. Lémann, two of the greatest +originally written by MM. Lémann, two of the greatest Hebrew scholars of France, and are doubtless authoritative and correct. These sketches will familiarize the reader with the names and characters of a majority @@ -554,15 +516,15 @@ Civilis of Justinian is a text-book in the greatest universities of the world, and Roman law is to-day the basis of the jurisprudence of nearly every state of continental Europe. The Germans never submitted to -Cæsar and his legions. They were the first to resist +Cæsar and his legions. They were the first to resist successfully, then to attack vigorously, and to overthrow finally the Roman Empire. And yet, until a few years ago, Germans obeyed implicitly the edicts -and decrees of Roman prætors and tribunes. Is it any +and decrees of Roman prætors and tribunes. Is it any wonder, then, that the lawyers of all modern centuries have looked back with filial love and veneration to the mighty jurisconsults of the imperial republic? Is it any -wonder that the tragedy of the Prætorium and Golgotha, +wonder that the tragedy of the Prætorium and Golgotha, aside from its sacred aspects, is the most notable event in history? Jesus was arraigned in one day, in one city, before the sovereign courts of the universe; @@ -574,7 +536,7 @@ Nazarene stood charged with blasphemy and with treason against the enthroned monarchs represented by these courts; blasphemy against Jehovah who, from the lightning-lit summit of Sinai, proclaimed His laws -to mankind; treason against Cæsar, enthroned and +to mankind; treason against Cæsar, enthroned and uttering his will to the world amidst the pomp and splendor of Rome. History records no other instance of a trial conducted before the courts of both Heaven @@ -698,7 +660,7 @@ terseness the struggle which we should have expected between the effort of the Jews to get a mere countersign of their sentence, and the determination of Pilate to assume the full judicial responsibility, whether of -first instance or of révision." This contention, it is believed, +first instance or of révision." This contention, it is believed, is right, and has been acted upon in dividing <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">11</a></span>the general treatise into two volumes, and in devoting each to a separate trial of the case.</p> @@ -787,7 +749,7 @@ the good will and mercy of Rome. The free states received from Rome a charter of privileges (<i>lex data</i>) which, however, the Roman senate might at any time revoke. The allied cities were bound by a sworn -treaty (<i>fædus</i>), a breach of which was a cause of war. +treaty (<i>fædus</i>), a breach of which was a cause of war. In either case, whether of charter or treaty, the grant of privileges raised the state or people on whom it was conferred to the level of the Italian communes and @@ -797,15 +759,15 @@ exempted them from the payment of tribute, and, above all, allowed them entire freedom in the administration of their local laws. The subject states were <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">14</a></span>ruled by Roman governors who administered the so-called -law of the province (<i>lex provinciæ</i>). This law +law of the province (<i>lex provinciæ</i>). This law was peculiar to each province and was framed to meet all the exigencies of provincial life. It was sometimes the work of a conquering general, assisted by a commission of ten men appointed by the senate. At other times, its character was determined by the decrees of the emperor and the senate, as well as by the edicts -of the prætor and procurator. In any case, the law of -the province (<i>lex provinciæ</i>) was the sum total of the +of the prætor and procurator. In any case, the law of +the province (<i>lex provinciæ</i>) was the sum total of the local provincial law which Rome saw fit to allow the people of the conquered state to retain, with Roman decrees and regulations superadded. These added decrees @@ -881,7 +843,7 @@ self-government; and that the Great Sanhedrin still retained judicial and administrative power, subject to Roman authority in all matters pertaining to the local affairs of the Jews, is thus clearly and pointedly stated -by Schürer: "As regards the area over which the +by Schürer: "As regards the area over which the jurisdiction of the supreme Sanhedrin extended, it has been already remarked above that its <i>civil</i> authority was restricted, in the time of Christ, to the eleven @@ -923,7 +885,7 @@ reserved for himself."<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Foo <p>The closing words of the last quotation suggest an <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">18</a></span>important fact which furnishes the answer to the question asked at the beginning of this chapter, Why were -there two trials of Jesus? Schürer declares that the +there two trials of Jesus? Schürer declares that the Sanhedrin retained judicial and administrative power in all local matters which the "procurator had not specially reserved for himself." Now, it should be @@ -945,10 +907,10 @@ however, has been opposed by both ancient and modern writers of repute; and, for this reason, it has been thought necessary to cite authorities and offer arguments in favor of the proposition that the right of -life or death, <i>jus vitæ aut necis</i>, had passed from Jewish +life or death, <i>jus vitæ aut necis</i>, had passed from Jewish into Roman hands at the time of Christ. Both sacred and profane history support the affirmative of -this proposition. Regarding this matter, Schürer +this proposition. Regarding this matter, Schürer says: "There is a special interest attaching to the question as to how far the jurisdiction of the Sanhedrin was limited by the authority of the Roman procurator. @@ -987,7 +949,7 @@ control of Roman procurators. The great Jewish historian reduced into a province, and Coponius, one of the equestrian order among the Romans, was sent as procurator, having the power of life and death put into -his hands by Cæsar."<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p> +his hands by Cæsar."<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p> <p>Again, we are informed that Annas was deposed from the high priesthood by the procurator Valerius @@ -1077,7 +1039,7 @@ before Pilate, this charge was abandoned and that of high treason against Rome was substituted. Now, it is certain that a Roman governor would not have allowed a Jewish tribunal to try an offense involving -high treason against Cæsar. This was a matter exclusively +high treason against Cæsar. This was a matter exclusively under his control. It is thus certain that Pilate did not merely review a sentence which had been passed by the Sanhedrin after a regular trial, but that @@ -1112,12 +1074,12 @@ these questions.</p> <p>The New Testament Gospels denominate Pilate the "governor" of Judea. A more exact designation is contained in the Latin phrase, -<i>procurator Cæsaris</i>; the procurator of Cæsar. By this +<i>procurator Cæsaris</i>; the procurator of Cæsar. By this is meant that Pilate was the deputy, attorney, or personal -representative of Tiberius Cæsar in the province +representative of Tiberius Cæsar in the province of Judea. The powers and duties of his office were by no means limited to the financial functions of a Roman -quæstor, a <i>procurator fiscalis</i>. "He was a procurator +quæstor, a <i>procurator fiscalis</i>. "He was a procurator <i>cum potestate</i>; a governor with civil, criminal, and military jurisdiction; subordinated no doubt in rank to the adjacent governor of Syria, but directly responsible @@ -1127,12 +1089,12 @@ to his great master at Rome."</p> is impossible unless we first thoroughly understand the official character of the man whose political substitute <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">25</a></span>he was. A thorough understanding of the official -character of Tiberius Cæsar is impossible unless we +character of Tiberius Cæsar is impossible unless we first fully comprehend the political changes wrought -by the civil wars of Rome in which Julius Cæsar defeated +by the civil wars of Rome in which Julius Cæsar defeated Cneius Pompey at the battle of Pharsalia and made himself dictator and undisputed master of the -Roman world. With the ascendency of Cæsar the ancient +Roman world. With the ascendency of Cæsar the ancient republic became extinct. But liberty was still cherished in the hearts of Romans, and the title of king was detestable. The hardy virtues and democratic @@ -1144,8 +1106,8 @@ and Roman patriotism was paralyzed. The hand of a dictator guided by a single intelligence was the natural result of the progressive degradation of the Roman state. The logical and inevitable outcome of the death -of Cæsar and the dissolution of the Triumvirate was -the régime of Augustus, a monarchy veiled under republican +of Cæsar and the dissolution of the Triumvirate was +the régime of Augustus, a monarchy veiled under republican forms. Recognizing Roman horror of absolutism, Roman love of liberty, and Roman detestation of kingly power, Augustus, while in fact an emperor, @@ -1156,7 +1118,7 @@ superiority, and exhibited extreme simplicity of manners in public and private life. This was the strategy of a successful politician who sought to conceal offensive reality under the cloak of a pleasant deception. -Great Cæsar fallen at the foot of Pompey's +Great Cæsar fallen at the foot of Pompey's <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">26</a></span>statue was a solemn reminder to Augustus that the dagger of the assassin was still ready to defend the memory of freedom, after liberty was, in reality, dead. @@ -1189,10 +1151,10 @@ all that for centuries had broadened and expanded under the magnificent abstraction of Rome." The boundless authority of Rome was thus centered <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">27</a></span>in the hands of a single person. Consuls, tribunes, -prætors, proconsuls, and procurators were merely the +prætors, proconsuls, and procurators were merely the agents and representatives of this person.</p> -<p>Tiberius Cæsar, the political master of Pontius Pilate, +<p>Tiberius Cæsar, the political master of Pontius Pilate, was the successor of Augustus and the first inheritor of his constitution. Under this constitution, Augustus had divided the provinces into two classes. @@ -1203,7 +1165,7 @@ to his personal control, and were governed by procurators who acted as his deputies or personal representatives. Judea came in his second class, and the real governor of his province was the emperor himself. -Tiberius Cæsar was thus the real procurator of Judea +Tiberius Cæsar was thus the real procurator of Judea at the time of the crucifixion and Pilate was his political substitute who did his bidding and obeyed his will. Whatever Tiberius might have done, Pilate might @@ -1220,7 +1182,7 @@ that he should summon to his aid a council of advisers. This advisory body was composed of two elements: (1) Roman citizens resident in this particular locality where the governor was holding court; and (2) members -of his personal staff known as the Prætorian +of his personal staff known as the Prætorian <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">28</a></span>Cohort. The governor, in his conduct of judicial proceedings, might solicit the opinions of the members of his council. He might require them to vote upon the @@ -1247,7 +1209,7 @@ many limitations. A few of these may be named.</p> <p>In the first place, the rights guaranteed to subject states within the provincial area by the law of the -province (<i>lex provinciæ</i>) were the first limitations +province (<i>lex provinciæ</i>) were the first limitations upon his power.</p> <p>Again, it is a well-known fact that Roman citizens @@ -1313,7 +1275,7 @@ It has been denied that Pilate had a right to apply Jewish law in the government of his province; but this denial is contrary to authority. Innes says: "The Roman governor sanctioned, or even himself administered, -the old law of the region."<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> Schürer says: +the old law of the region."<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> Schürer says: "It may be assumed that the administration of the civil law was wholly in the hands of the Sanhedrin and native or local magistrates: Jewish courts decided @@ -1325,14 +1287,14 @@ decided, if he pleased, according to Jewish law."<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FN Greenidge says: "Even the first clause of the Sicilian <i>lex</i>, if it contained no reference to jurisdiction by the local magistrate, left the interpretation of the <i>native -law</i> wholly to Roman <i>proprætors</i>."<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> It is thus clearly +law</i> wholly to Roman <i>proprætors</i>."<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> It is thus clearly evident that Roman procurators might apply either Roman or local laws in ordinary cases.</p> <p>(2) That Roman governors were empowered to apply the adjective law of Rome to the substantive law of the province. In support of this contention, Greenidge -says: "The edict of the <i>proprætor</i> or pro-consul, +says: "The edict of the <i>proprætor</i> or pro-consul, ... clearly could not express the native law of each particular state under its jurisdiction; but its generality and its expansiveness admitted, as we shall see, of @@ -1342,7 +1304,7 @@ of any particular city."<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href <p>(3) That the criminal procedure employed by Pilate in the trial of Jesus should have been the criminal procedure of a capital case tried at Rome, during the -reign of Tiberius Cæsar. This fact is very evident +reign of Tiberius Cæsar. This fact is very evident from the authorities. The trial of capital cases at Rome furnished models for similar trials in the provinces. In the exercise of the unlimited jurisdiction of @@ -1368,13 +1330,13 @@ expressed, is Geib, who says: "It is nevertheless true that the knowledge which we have, imperfect though it may be, leaves no doubt that the courts of the Italian municipalities and provinces had, in all essential elements, -the permanent tribunals (<i>quæstiones perpetuæ</i>) +the permanent tribunals (<i>quæstiones perpetuæ</i>) as models; so that, in fact, a description of the proceedings in the permanent tribunals is, at the same time, to be regarded as a description of the proceedings in the provincial courts."<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p> -<p>These permanent tribunals (<i>quæstiones perpetuæ</i>) +<p>These permanent tribunals (<i>quæstiones perpetuæ</i>) were courts of criminal jurisdiction established at Rome, and were in existence at the time of the crucifixion. Proceedings in these courts in capital cases, @@ -1428,18 +1390,18 @@ and constantly in mind the purpose of this chapter: to describe the mode of trial in capital cases at Rome during the reign of Tiberius -Cæsar; and thus to furnish +Cæsar; and thus to furnish a model of criminal procedure which Pilate should have imitated in the trial of Jesus at Jerusalem. In the last chapter, we saw that the proceedings -of the permanent tribunals (<i>quæstiones perpetuæ</i>) +of the permanent tribunals (<i>quæstiones perpetuæ</i>) at Rome furnished models for the trial of criminal cases in the provinces. It is now only necessary to determine what the procedure of the permanent tribunals at the time of Christ was, in order to understand what Pilate should have done in the trial of -Jesus. But the character of the <i>quæstiones perpetuæ</i>, +Jesus. But the character of the <i>quæstiones perpetuæ</i>, as well as the rules and regulations that governed their proceedings, cannot well be understood without reference to the criminal tribunals and modes of trial in @@ -1482,7 +1444,7 @@ and criminal matters.</p> witnessed the distribution of the powers of government formerly exercised by the king among a number of magistrates and public officers. Consuls, tribunes, -prætors, ædiles, both curule and plebeian, exercised, +prætors, ædiles, both curule and plebeian, exercised, under the republic, judicial functions in criminal matters.</p> @@ -1492,8 +1454,8 @@ power in matters of life and death. This is shown by the condemnation and execution of the sons of Brutus and their fellow-conspirators.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> Associated with the consuls were, at first, two annually appointed -quæstors whom they nominated. The functions of the -quæstors were as unlimited as those of their superiors, +quæstors whom they nominated. The functions of the +quæstors were as unlimited as those of their superiors, the consuls; but their jurisdiction was confined chiefly to criminal matters and finance.</p> @@ -1504,14 +1466,14 @@ a negative control over the regular magistracies of the community. But, finally, they became the chief public prosecutors of political criminals.</p> -<p>The prætors, whose chief jurisdiction was in civil +<p>The prætors, whose chief jurisdiction was in civil matters, were potentially as fully criminal judges as the consuls, and there may have been a time when a portion of criminal jurisdiction was actually in their hands. In the later republic, they presided over the -<i>quæstiones perpetuæ</i>, permanent criminal tribunals.</p> +<i>quæstiones perpetuæ</i>, permanent criminal tribunals.</p> -<p>The ædiles are found in Roman history exercising +<p>The ædiles are found in Roman history exercising <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">37</a></span>functions of criminal jurisdiction, although their general powers were confined to the special duties of caring for the games, the market, and the archives.</p> @@ -1657,7 +1619,7 @@ Capitol could not be seen; and that thereupon the conviction of Manlius was secured and his condemnation pronounced.</p> -<p>In the year 185 <span class="small">B.C.</span>, the tribune M. Nævius, at the +<p>In the year 185 <span class="small">B.C.</span>, the tribune M. Nævius, at the instigation of Cato, accused Scipio Africanus before the tribes of having been bribed to secure a dishonorable peace. It was clearly evident that a charge of this @@ -1705,9 +1667,9 @@ could be set in motion. This difficulty was increased with the growth of the republic, in which crimes also grew in number and magnitude. The necessity for the reform of the criminal law resulted in the institution -of permanent tribunals (<i>quæstiones perpetuæ</i>). A +of permanent tribunals (<i>quæstiones perpetuæ</i>). A series of legal enactments accomplished this result. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">43</a></span>The earliest law that created a permanent <i>quæstio</i> was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">43</a></span>The earliest law that created a permanent <i>quæstio</i> was the <i>lex Calpurnia</i> of 149 <span class="small">B.C.</span> And it was the proceedings in these courts, which we shall now describe, that should have guided Pilate in the trial of Jesus.</p> @@ -1718,9 +1680,9 @@ chapter the successive steps in the trial of criminal cases before the permanent tribunals at Rome.</p> <p><i>First Stage</i> (<i>postulatio</i>).—A Roman criminal trial -before a <i>quæstio perpetua</i> commenced with an application -to the presiding magistrate, the prætor or the -<i>iudex quæstionis</i>, for permission to bring a criminal +before a <i>quæstio perpetua</i> commenced with an application +to the presiding magistrate, the prætor or the +<i>iudex quæstionis</i>, for permission to bring a criminal charge against a certain person. The technical Latin expression for this request to prosecute is <i>postulatio</i>. It should be here noted that State's attorneys or public @@ -1762,7 +1724,7 @@ the whole proceeding known as the <i>divinatio</i> was to secure a prosecutor who was at once both able and sincere; and both these qualities were generally very strenuously urged by all those who desired to assume -the rôle of accuser. Indeed all personal qualifications +the rôle of accuser. Indeed all personal qualifications involving the mental and moral attributes of the would-be prosecutors were pointedly urged. At the hearing, the different candidates frequently became @@ -1794,7 +1756,7 @@ on the merits of different applicants, because there was only one would-be accuser; and his qualifications were beyond dispute. In such a case, when a request to bring a criminal charge against a certain person had -been presented by a citizen to the prætor, there followed, +been presented by a citizen to the prætor, there followed, after a certain interval of time, a private hearing before the president of the court for the purpose of gaining fuller and more definite information concerning @@ -1809,8 +1771,8 @@ The <i>lex Memmia</i>, passed in the year 114 <span class="small">B.C.</span>, p a delinquent to plead that he was absent from Rome on public business, as an excuse for not appearing at the <i>nominis delatio</i>. In the year 58 <span class="small">B.C.</span>, the -tribune L. Antistius impeached Julius Cæsar. But the -colleagues of Antistius excused Cæsar from personal +tribune L. Antistius impeached Julius Cæsar. But the +colleagues of Antistius excused Cæsar from personal attendance because he was absent in the service of the state in Gaul. But, if the accused appeared at the <i>nominis delatio</i>, the prosecutor interrogated him at @@ -1884,7 +1846,7 @@ the presence of the defendant was not necessary, whether he was in voluntary exile, or was obstinately absent. In 52 <span class="small">B.C.</span>, Milo was condemned in his absence; and we read in Plutarch that the assassins of -Cæsar were tried in their absence, 43 <span class="small">B.C.</span></p> +Cæsar were tried in their absence, 43 <span class="small">B.C.</span></p> <p>Excusable absence necessitated an adjournment of the case. The chief grounds for an adjournment were: @@ -1933,7 +1895,7 @@ wherein to catch another man's goods."<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_2 <p><i>Seventh Stage</i> (<i>impaneling the judges</i>).—But if <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">50</a></span>the prosecutor appeared in due time, the trial formally began by the impaneling of the judges. This was usually -done by the prætor or <i>iudex quæstionis</i> who, at the +done by the prætor or <i>iudex quæstionis</i> who, at the beginning of the trial, placed the names of the complete panel of jurors, inscribed on white tablets, into an urn, and then drew out a certain number. Both @@ -1945,10 +1907,10 @@ time.</p> <p><i>Eighth Stage</i> (<i>beginning of the trial</i>).—When the judges had been impaneled, the regular proceedings began. The place of trial was the Forum. The curule -chair of the prætor and the benches of the judges, constituting +chair of the prætor and the benches of the judges, constituting the tribunal, were here placed. On the ground in front of the raised platform upon which the -prætor and judges sat, were arranged the benches of +prætor and judges sat, were arranged the benches of the parties, their advocates and witnesses. Like the ancient Hebrew law, Roman law required that criminal cases should be tried only by daylight, that is, between @@ -2492,14 +2454,14 @@ St. Luke contains the indictment: "And they began to accuse him, saying, We found this fellow perverting the nation, and forbidding to give -tribute to Cæsar, saying that he himself is Christ a +tribute to Cæsar, saying that he himself is Christ a King." Three distinct elements are wrapped up in this general accusation; but they are all interwoven with and culminate in the great charge that Jesus claimed to be "Christ a King." Of this accusation alone, Pilate took cognizance. And there is no mistake as to its nature and meaning. It was High Treason -against Cæsar—the most awful crime known to Roman +against Cæsar—the most awful crime known to Roman law. This was the charge brought by the priests of the Sanhedrin against the Nazarene. What then was the law of Rome in relation to the crime of high treason? @@ -2537,14 +2499,14 @@ and Pilate failed to present a written charge against Jesus.</p> <hr class="l1" /> <div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i-fp068.jpg" width="410" height="642" alt="TIBERIUS CÆSAR (ANTIQUE SCULPTURE)" title="TIBERIUS CÆSAR (ANTIQUE SCULPTURE)" /> -<p class="caption"><a name="TIBERIUS_CAESAR" id="TIBERIUS_CAESAR"></a>TIBERIUS CÆSAR (ANTIQUE SCULPTURE)</p> +<img src="images/i-fp068.jpg" width="410" height="642" alt="TIBERIUS CÆSAR (ANTIQUE SCULPTURE)" title="TIBERIUS CÆSAR (ANTIQUE SCULPTURE)" /> +<p class="caption"><a name="TIBERIUS_CAESAR" id="TIBERIUS_CAESAR"></a>TIBERIUS CÆSAR (ANTIQUE SCULPTURE)</p> </div> <hr class="l1" /> <p>In studying the trial of Jesus and the charge brought <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">70</a></span>against Him, the reader should constantly remind himself that the crucifixion took place during the reign of -Tiberius Cæsar, a morbid and capricious tyrant, whose +Tiberius Cæsar, a morbid and capricious tyrant, whose fretful and suspicious temper would kindle into fire at the slightest suggestion of treason in any quarter. Tacitus records fifty-two cases of prosecution for treason @@ -2617,7 +2579,7 @@ of the Roman constitution was that the exercise of this right was not a religious but a governmental function. The modern doctrine of the separation of Church and State had no place in Roman politics at -the time of Christ. Tiberius Cæsar, at the beginning +the time of Christ. Tiberius Cæsar, at the beginning of his reign, definitely adopted the principle of a state religion, and as Pontifex Maximus, was bound to protect the ancient Roman worship as a matter of official @@ -2641,7 +2603,7 @@ Greek gods was at first vigorously opposed, but the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">73</a></span>exquisite beauty of Greek sculpture, the irresistible influence of Greek literature, and the overwhelming fascination of Greek myths, finally destroyed this -opposition, and placed Apollo and Æsculapius in the +opposition, and placed Apollo and Æsculapius in the Roman pantheon beside Jupiter and Minerva.</p> <p>At another time the senate declared war on the @@ -2650,7 +2612,7 @@ way into Rome. It had the images of Isis and Serapis thrown down; but the people set them up again. It decreed that the temples to these deities should be destroyed, but not a single workman would lay hands -upon them. Æmilius Paulus, the consul, was himself +upon them. Æmilius Paulus, the consul, was himself forced to seize an ax and break in the doors of the temple. In spite of this, the worship of Isis and Serapis was soon again practiced unrestrained at Rome.<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a></p> @@ -2695,7 +2657,7 @@ balance of the world it was the dominant cult. "The provinces," says Renan, "were entirely free to adhere to their own rights, on the sole condition of not interfering with those of others." "Such toleration or indifference, -however," says Döllinger, "found its own +however," says Döllinger, "found its own limits at once whenever the doctrine taught had a practical bearing on society, interfered with the worship of the state gods, or confronted their worship with one @@ -2705,7 +2667,7 @@ be brought into no affinity or corporate relation with <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">75</a></span>them, and would not bend to the supremacy of Jupiter Capitolinus."</p> -<p>Now, the principles declared by Renan and Döllinger +<p>Now, the principles declared by Renan and Döllinger are fundamental and pointed in the matter of the relationship between the teachings of Jesus and the theory of treason under Roman law. These principles @@ -2766,18 +2728,18 @@ of seditious atheism whose teachings and principles were destructive of the established order of things. The Roman conception of the nature of the crime committed <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">77</a></span>by an attack upon the national religion is well -illustrated by the following sentence from Döllinger: +illustrated by the following sentence from Döllinger: "If an opinion unfavorable to the apotheosis of any member of the imperial dynasty happened to be dropped, it was dangerous in itself as falling within the purview of the law of high treason; and so it fell -out in the case of Thrasea Pætus, who refused to believe -in the deification of Poppæa." If it was high +out in the case of Thrasea Pætus, who refused to believe +in the deification of Poppæa." If it was high treason to refuse to believe in the deification of an emperor or an empress, what other crime could be imputed to him whose design was to destroy an entire religious system, and to pile all the gods and goddesses—Juno -and Poppæa, Jupiter and Augustus—in common +and Poppæa, Jupiter and Augustus—in common ruin?</p> <p>From the foregoing, it may be readily seen that it is @@ -2889,7 +2851,7 @@ trial of Jesus.</p> <img src="images/letter_h-ch07.jpg" width="100" height="111" alt="H" title="H" class="floatl" /> -<i><span class="hidden">H</span>IS Name.</i>—The prænomen or +<i><span class="hidden">H</span>IS Name.</i>—The prænomen or first name of Pilate is not known. Rosadi calls him Lucius, but upon what authority is not @@ -2916,7 +2878,7 @@ The soldiers of this legion might have been of the fable."</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">82</a></span>It is historically almost certain that Pilate was a native -of Seville, one of the cities of Bætic Spain that +of Seville, one of the cities of Bætic Spain that enjoyed rights of Roman citizenship. In the war of annihilation waged by Agrippa against the Cantabrians, the father of Pilate, Marcus Pontius, acquired @@ -2959,7 +2921,7 @@ guardianship of the attentions paid her by young men was so strict that he once wrote a letter to Lucius Vinicius, a handsome young man of good family, in which he said: "You have not behaved very modestly, in -making a visit to my daughter at Baiæ." Notwithstanding +making a visit to my daughter at Baiæ." Notwithstanding this good training, Julia became one of the lewdest and coarsest women in Rome. Augustus married her first to Marcellus; then, after the death of @@ -2999,9 +2961,9 @@ This paper contained his commission as procurator of Judea; and the real object of the suit paid to Claudia was attained.</p> -<p>Pilate proceeded at once to Cæsarea, the headquarters +<p>Pilate proceeded at once to Cæsarea, the headquarters of the government of his province. His wife, who -had been left behind, joined him afterwards. Cæsar's +had been left behind, joined him afterwards. Cæsar's permission to do this was a most gracious concession, as it was not generally allowed that governors of provinces should take their wives with them. At first it was @@ -3019,7 +2981,7 @@ learn that at the time of the death of Augustus, Germanicus had his wife Agrippina with him in Germany; and afterwards, in the beginning of the reign of Tiberius, she was also with him in the East. Piso, -the præfect of Syria, took his wife with him at the same +the præfect of Syria, took his wife with him at the same time. These facts are historical corroborations of the Gospel accounts of the presence of Claudia in Jerusalem at the time of the crucifixion and of her warning @@ -3048,7 +3010,7 @@ on the other hand, in defiance of precedent and policy, city by night carrying aloft their standards, blazoned with the images of Tiberius. The news of this outrage threw the Jews into wild excitement. The people in -great numbers flocked down to Cæsarea, where Pilate +great numbers flocked down to Cæsarea, where Pilate was still stopping, and begged him to remove the standards. Pilate refused; and for five days the discussion went on. At last he became enraged, summoned @@ -3105,7 +3067,7 @@ and intensified in the hearts of the Jews.</p> <p>A third act of defiance of the religious prejudices of the inhabitants of Jerusalem illustrates not only the obstinacy -but the stupidity as well of the deputy of Cæsar +but the stupidity as well of the deputy of Cæsar in Judea. In the face of his previous experiences, he insisted on hanging up in Herod's palace certain gilt <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">88</a></span>shields dedicated to Tiberius. The Jews remonstrated @@ -3119,7 +3081,7 @@ among whom were the four sons of Herod, was addressed to the emperor, asking for the removal of the offensive decorations. Tiberius granted the request and the shields were taken from Jerusalem and deposited -in the temple of Augustus at Cæsarea—"And thus +in the temple of Augustus at Cæsarea—"And thus were preserved both the honor of the emperor and the ancient customs of the city."<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a></p> @@ -3197,7 +3159,7 @@ and had stricken with inward paralysis the moral fiber of his manhood. And now, in the supreme moment of his life and of history, from his nerveless grasp fell the reins of fate and fortune that destiny had placed within -his hands. Called upon to play a leading rôle in the +his hands. Called upon to play a leading rôle in the mighty drama of the universe, his craven cowardice made him a pitiable and contemptible figure. A splendid example this, the conduct of Pilate, for the @@ -3330,7 +3292,7 @@ officers of Lucerne. The neighboring shepherds bound themselves by a solemn oath, which they renewed annually, never to guide a stranger to it.<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> The strange <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">95</a></span>spell was broken, however, and the legend exploded in -1584, when Johannes Müller, curé of Lucerne, was +1584, when Johannes Müller, curé of Lucerne, was bold enough to throw stones into the lake, and to stand by complacently to await the consequences.<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a></p> @@ -3352,7 +3314,7 @@ It was early morning, probably between six and seven o'clock, when the accusing multitude moved from the judgment seat -of Caiaphas to the Prætorium of Pilate. Oriental +of Caiaphas to the Prætorium of Pilate. Oriental labor anticipates the day because of the excessive heat of noon; and, at daybreak, Eastern life is all astir. To accommodate the people and to enjoy the repose of @@ -3366,14 +3328,14 @@ palace of Herod, situated in the northwest quarter of the city. This probability is heightened by the fact that it was a custom born of both pride and pleasure, for Roman procurators and proconsuls to occupy the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">97</a></span>splendid edifices of the local kings. The Roman proprætor +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">97</a></span>splendid edifices of the local kings. The Roman proprætor of Sicily dwelt in the Castle of King Hiero; and it is reasonable to suppose that Pilate would have passed his time while at Jerusalem in the palace of Herod. This building was frequently called the -"King's Castle," sometimes was styled the "Prætorium," +"King's Castle," sometimes was styled the "Prætorium," and was often given the mixed name of -"Herod's Prætorium." But, by whatever name +"Herod's Prætorium." But, by whatever name known, it was of gorgeous architecture and magnificent proportions. Keim describes it as "a tyrant's stronghold and in part a fairy pleasure-house." A @@ -3381,14 +3343,14 @@ wall thirty cubits high completely encircled the buildings of the palace. Beautiful white towers crowned this wall at regular intervals. Three of these were named in honor of Mariamne, the wife; Hippicus, -the friend; and Phasælus, the brother of the king. +the friend; and Phasælus, the brother of the king. Within the inclosure of the wall, a small army could have been garrisoned. The floors and ceilings of the palace were decorated and adorned with the finest woods and precious stones. Projecting from the main building were two colossal marble wings, named for -two Roman imperial friends, the Cæsareum and the -Ægrippeum. To a person standing in one of the towers, +two Roman imperial friends, the Cæsareum and the +Ægrippeum. To a person standing in one of the towers, a magnificent prospect opened to the view. Surrounding the castle walls were beautiful green parks, intercepted with broad walks and deep canals. Here @@ -3418,7 +3380,7 @@ explanation, and a legitimate one, of their disdain and opposition. He therefore detested the Jews, and his detestation was fully reciprocated." It is not surprising, then, that he preferred to reside at -Cæsarea by the sea where were present Roman modes +Cæsarea by the sea where were present Roman modes of thought and forms of life. He visited Jerusalem as a matter of official duty, "during the festivals, and particularly at Easter with its dreaded inspirations of @@ -3430,7 +3392,7 @@ of the feast of the Passover.</p> <p>Having condemned Him to death themselves, the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">99</a></span>Sanhedrin judges were compelled to lead Jesus away -to the Prætorium of the Roman governor to see what +to the Prætorium of the Roman governor to see what he had to say about the case; whether he would reverse or affirm the condemnation which they had pronounced. Between dawn and sunrise, they were at the @@ -3456,7 +3418,7 @@ open air. Publicity was characteristic of all Roman criminal proceedings. And, in obedience to this principle, we find that the proconsul of Achaia at Corinth, the city magistrates in Macedonia, and the procurators -at Cæsarea and Jerusalem, erected their tribunals in +at Cæsarea and Jerusalem, erected their tribunals in the most conspicuous public places, such as the market, the race course, and even upon the open highway.<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a> An <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">100</a></span>example directly in point is, moreover, that of the @@ -3502,7 +3464,7 @@ trial of Christ. It is also reasonably certain that no special orator like Tertullus, who informed the governor against Paul, was present to accuse Jesus.<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a> Doubtless Caiaphas the high priest played this important -rôle.</p> +rôle.</p> <p>When Pilate had mounted the <i>bema</i>, and order had been restored, he asked:</p> @@ -3515,7 +3477,7 @@ Every word rings with Roman authority and administrative capacity. The suggestion is also prominent that accusation was a more important element in Roman criminal trials than inquisition. This -suggestion is reënforced by actual <i>dictum</i> from the lips +suggestion is reënforced by actual <i>dictum</i> from the lips of Pilate's successor in the same place: "It is not the manner of the Romans to deliver any man to die, before that he which is accused have the accusers face @@ -3662,12 +3624,12 @@ given in a single verse of St. Luke:</p> <p>"And they began to accuse him, saying, We found this fellow perverting the nation, and forbidding to -give tribute to Cæsar, saying that he himself is Christ, +give tribute to Cæsar, saying that he himself is Christ, a King."<a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a></p> <p>It is noteworthy that in this general accusation is a radical departure from the charges of the night before. -In the passage from the Sanhedrin to the Prætorium, +In the passage from the Sanhedrin to the Prætorium, the indictment had completely changed. Jesus had not been condemned on any of the charges recorded in this sentence of St. Luke. He had been convicted on the @@ -3717,40 +3679,40 @@ own tribunal, and that had been abandoned because of the contradictory testimony of these witnesses.</p> <p>The second count in the indictment, that He had forbidden -to give tribute to Cæsar, was of a more serious +to give tribute to Cæsar, was of a more serious nature than the first. A refusal, in modern times, to pay taxes or an attempt to obstruct their collection, is a mild offense compared with a similar act under ancient -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">108</a></span>Roman law. To forbid to pay tribute to Cæsar +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">108</a></span>Roman law. To forbid to pay tribute to Cæsar in Judea was a form of treason, not only because it was an open defiance of the laws of the Roman state, but also because it was a direct denial of Roman sovereignty in Palestine. Such conduct was treason under the definitions of both Ulpian and Cicero. The Jews knew the gravity of the offense when they sought to -entrap Jesus in the matter of paying tribute to Cæsar. +entrap Jesus in the matter of paying tribute to Cæsar. They believed that any answer to the question that they had asked, would be fatal to Him. If He advised to pay the imperial tribute, He could be charged with being an enemy to His countrymen, the Jews. If He advised not to pay the tribute, He would be -charged with being a rebellious subject of Cæsar. His +charged with being a rebellious subject of Cæsar. His reply disconcerted and bewildered them when He -said: "Render therefore unto Cæsar the things which -are Cæsar's; and unto God the things that are God's."<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a> +said: "Render therefore unto Cæsar the things which +are Cæsar's; and unto God the things that are God's."<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a> In this sublime declaration, the Nazarene announced the immortal principle of the separation of church and state, and of religious freedom in all the ages. And when, in the face of His answer, they still charged -Him with forbidding to pay tribute to Cæsar, they +Him with forbidding to pay tribute to Cæsar, they seem to have been guilty of deliberate falsehood. Keim calls the charge "a very flagrant lie." Both at Capernaum,<a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a> where Roman taxes were gathered, and at Jerusalem,<a name="FNanchor_75_75" id="FNanchor_75_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> where religious dues were offered, Jesus seems to have been both a good citizen and a pious -Jew. "Jésus bon citoyen" (Jesus a good citizen) is +Jew. "Jésus bon citoyen" (Jesus a good citizen) is the title of a chapter in the famous work of Bossuet -entitled "Politique tirée de l'Ecriture sainte." In it +entitled "Politique tirée de l'Ecriture sainte." In it <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">109</a></span>the great French ecclesiastic describes very beautifully the law-abiding qualities of the citizen-prophet of Galilee. In pressing the false charge that he had advised @@ -3760,7 +3722,7 @@ revealed a peculiar and wanton malignity.</p> <p>The third count in the indictment, that the prisoner had claimed to be "Christ a King," was the last and greatest of the charges. By this He was deliberately -accused of high treason against Cæsar, the gravest +accused of high treason against Cæsar, the gravest offense known to Roman law. Such an accusation could not be ignored by Pilate as a loyal deputy of Tiberius. The Roman monarch saw high treason in @@ -3813,7 +3775,7 @@ and charged Him with claiming to be a king, the recent cases of Judas, Simon, and Athronges must have arisen in his mind, quickened his interest in the pretensions of the prisoner of the Jews, and must have -awakened his sense of loyalty as Cæsar's representative. +awakened his sense of loyalty as Cæsar's representative. The lowliness of Jesus, being a carpenter, did not greatly allay his fears; for he must have remembered <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">111</a></span>that Simon was once a slave and that Athronges was @@ -3852,7 +3814,7 @@ and proceeded at once to examine the prisoner on the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">112</a></span>charge that he pretended to be a king. "If," Pilate must have said, "the fellow pretends to be a king, as Simon and Athronges did before him; if he says that -Judea has a right to have a king other than Cæsar, he +Judea has a right to have a king other than Cæsar, he is guilty of treason, and it is my solemn duty as deputy of Tiberius to ascertain the fact and have him put to death."</p> @@ -3900,7 +3862,7 @@ religious side.</p> of this world."</p> <p>By this He meant that there was no possible rivalry -between Him and Cæsar. But, in making this denial, +between Him and Cæsar. But, in making this denial, He had used two words of grave import: My Kingdom. He had used one word that struck the ear of Pilate with electric force: the word Kingdom. In the @@ -3926,9 +3888,9 @@ voice."<a name="FNanchor_84_84" id="FNanchor_84_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84_84 of the kingdom of Christ and of His title to spiritual sovereignty. His was not an empire of matter, but a realm of truth. His kingdom differed widely -from that of Cæsar. Cæsar's empire was over the +from that of Cæsar. Cæsar's empire was over the bodies of men; Christ's over their souls. The strength -of Cæsar's kingdom was in citadels, armies, navies, the +of Cæsar's kingdom was in citadels, armies, navies, the towering Alps, the all-engirdling seas. The strength of the kingdom of the Christ was and is and will ever be in sentiments, principles, ideas, and the saving @@ -3971,7 +3933,7 @@ and fruitless search, never-ending, ever beginning, across wastes of doubt and seas of speculation lighted by uncertain stars." He knew full well that Roman philosophy had been wrecked and stranded amidst the -floating débris of Grecian thought and speculation. +floating débris of Grecian thought and speculation. He had thought that the <i>ultima ratio</i> of Academicians and Peripatetics, of Stoics and Epicureans had been reached. But here was a new proposition—a kingdom @@ -3982,19 +3944,19 @@ but clouds, hopes, and dreams.</p> <p>What did Pilate think of Jesus? He evidently regarded Him as an amiable enthusiast, a harmless religious<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">116</a></span> -fanatic from whom Cæsar had nothing to fear. +fanatic from whom Cæsar had nothing to fear. While alone with Jesus in the palace, he must have reasoned thus with himself, silently and contemptuously: The mob outside tells me that this man is Rome's enemy. Foolish thought! We know who -Cæsar's enemies are. We have seen and heard and +Cæsar's enemies are. We have seen and heard and felt the enemies of Rome—barbarians from beyond the Danube and the Rhine—great strong men, who can drive a javelin not only through a man, but a horse, as -well. These are Cæsar's enemies. This strange and +well. These are Cæsar's enemies. This strange and melancholy man, whose subjects are mere abstract truths, and whose kingdom is beyond the skies, can be -no enemy of Cæsar.</p> +no enemy of Cæsar.</p> <p>Believing this, he went out to the rabble and pronounced a verdict of acquittal: "I find in him no fault @@ -4058,7 +4020,7 @@ which He belonged. He felt that fortune favored his design; for Herod, Tetrarch of Galilee, was at that very moment in Jerusalem in attendance upon the Passover feast. He acted at once upon the happy idea; -and, under the escort of a detachment of the Prætorian +and, under the escort of a detachment of the Prætorian Cohort, Jesus was led away to the palace of the Maccabees where Herod was accustomed to stop when he came to the Holy City.</p> @@ -4113,7 +4075,7 @@ upon Archelaus.</p> before whom Jesus, his subject, was now led to be judged. The pages of sacred history mention the name of no more shallow and contemptible character than -this petty princeling, this dissolute Idumæan Sadducee. +this petty princeling, this dissolute Idumæan Sadducee. Compared with him, Judas is eminently respectable. Judas had a conscience which, when smitten with remorse, drove him to suicide. It is doubtful @@ -4162,7 +4124,7 @@ province and could not afford to give way, in a matter of palatial residence, to a petty local prince. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">122</a></span>But, whatever the cause, the unfriendliness between them undoubtedly had much to do with the transfer -of Jesus from the Prætorium to the palace of the +of Jesus from the Prætorium to the palace of the Maccabees.</p> <p>"And when Herod saw Jesus, he was exceeding @@ -4195,7 +4157,7 @@ Jesus as a clever magician whose performance would make a rich and racy programme for an hour's <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">123</a></span>amusement of his court. This was no doubt his dominant feeling regarding the Nazarene. But it is nevertheless -very probable that his Idumæan cowardice +very probable that his Idumæan cowardice and superstition still conjured images of a drunken debauch, the dance of death, and the bloody head; and connected them with the strange man now before @@ -4223,7 +4185,7 @@ earthly representatives.</p> <p>Again, though weak, crafty and vacillating, he still had enough of the cunning of the fox not to wish to -excite the enmity of Cæsar by a false judgment upon +excite the enmity of Cæsar by a false judgment upon a noted character whose devoted followers might, at any moment, send an embassy to Rome to make serious<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">124</a></span> and successful charges to the Emperor. He afterwards @@ -4231,7 +4193,7 @@ lost his place as Tetrarch through the suspicions of Caligula, who received news from Galilee that Herod was conspiring against him.<a name="FNanchor_89_89" id="FNanchor_89_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a> The premonitions of that unhappy day probably now filled the -mind of the Idumæan.</p> +mind of the Idumæan.</p> <p>On the other hand, Herod was too frivolous to conduct from beginning to end a solemn judicial proceeding. @@ -4268,7 +4230,7 @@ Him at length. The Master treated his insolent questions with contemptuous scorn and withering silence. No doubt this conduct of the lowly Nazarene greatly surprised and nettled the supercilious -Idumæan. He had imagined that Jesus would +Idumæan. He had imagined that Jesus would be delighted to give an exhibition of His skill amidst royal surroundings. He could not conceive that a peasant would observe the contempt of silence in the @@ -4303,11 +4265,11 @@ the behavior of Christ at the court of Herod. "How comes it," asks Strauss, "that Jesus, not only the Jesus without sin of the orthodox school, but also the Jesus who bowed to the constituted authorities, who -says 'Give unto Cæsar that which is Cæsar's'—how +says 'Give unto Cæsar that which is Cæsar's'—how comes it that he refuses the answer due to Herod?" The trouble with this question is that it falsely assumes that there was an "answer due to Herod." In the first -place, it must be considered that Herod was not Cæsar. +place, it must be considered that Herod was not Cæsar. In the next place, we must remember that St. Luke, the sole Evangelist who records the event, does not explain the character of the questions asked by Herod. @@ -4387,7 +4349,7 @@ jurisdiction and dispose finally of the matter. On the contrary, Herod simply mocked and brutalized the prisoner and had him sent back to Pilate. -The Roman construed the action of the Idumæan to +The Roman construed the action of the Idumæan to mean an acquittal, and he so stated to the Jews.</p> <p>"And Pilate, when he had called together the chief @@ -4490,14 +4452,14 @@ Barabbas meant Jesus the Son of the Father. This frightful coincidence was so repugnant to the Gospel writers that they are generally silent upon it. In this connection, Strauss remarks: "According to one reading, -the man's complete name was <span lang="el" title="Greek: hiêsous barabbas">ἱησοῦς βαρραβας</span>, +the man's complete name was <span lang="el" title="Greek: hiêsous barabbas">ἱησοῦς βαρραβας</span>, which fact is noted only because Olshausen considers it noteworthy. Barabbas signifies 'son of the father,' and consequently Olshausen exclaims: 'All that was essential to the Redeemer appears ridiculous in the assassin!' and he deems applicable the verse: '<i>Ludit in humanis divina potentia rebus.</i>' We can see nothing -in Olshausen's remark but a <i>ludus humanæ impotentiæ</i>."<a name="FNanchor_100_100" id="FNanchor_100_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_100_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a></p> +in Olshausen's remark but a <i>ludus humanæ impotentiæ</i>."<a name="FNanchor_100_100" id="FNanchor_100_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_100_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a></p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">133</a></span>Amidst the tumult provoked by the angry passions of the mob, a messenger arrived from his wife bearing @@ -4512,7 +4474,7 @@ this day in a dream because of him."<a name="FNanchor_101_101" id="FNanchor_101_ <p>This dream of Pilate's wife is nothing strange. Profane history mentions many similar ones. Calpurnia, -Cæsar's wife, forewarned him in a dream not to +Cæsar's wife, forewarned him in a dream not to go to the senate house; and the greatest of the Romans fell beneath the daggers of Casca and Brutus, because he failed to heed the admonition of his wife.</p> @@ -4525,13 +4487,13 @@ Last night I saw him in a vision. He was walking on the waters. He was flying on the wings of the winds. He spoke to the tempest and to the fishes of the lake; all were obedient to him. Behold! the torrent in -Mount Kedron flows with blood, the statues of Cæsar -are filled with the filth of Gemoniæ, the columns of the +Mount Kedron flows with blood, the statues of Cæsar +are filled with the filth of Gemoniæ, the columns of the Interium have given away and the sun is veiled in mourning like a vestal in the tomb. O, Pilate, evil awaits thee if thou wilt not listen to the prayer of thy wife. Dread the curse of the Roman Senate, dread the -powers of Cæsar."</p> +powers of Cæsar."</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">134</a></span> This noble and lofty language, this tender and pathetic speech, may appear strange to those who remember @@ -4596,7 +4558,7 @@ scornfully and mockingly:</p> <p>The cringing, hypocritical priests shouted back their answer:</p> -<p>"We have no king but Cæsar."<a name="FNanchor_105_105" id="FNanchor_105_105"></a><a href="#Footnote_105_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a></p> +<p>"We have no king but Cæsar."<a name="FNanchor_105_105" id="FNanchor_105_105"></a><a href="#Footnote_105_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a></p> <p>And on the kingly idea of loyalty to Roman sovereignty they framed their last menace and accusation. @@ -4604,9 +4566,9 @@ From the quiver of their wrath they drew the last <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">136</a></span>arrow of spite and hate, and fired it straight at the heart of Jesus through the hands of Pilate:</p> -<p>"If thou let this man go, thou art not Cæsar's +<p>"If thou let this man go, thou art not Cæsar's friend: whosoever maketh himself a king speaketh -against Cæsar."<a name="FNanchor_106_106" id="FNanchor_106_106"></a><a href="#Footnote_106_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a></p> +against Cæsar."<a name="FNanchor_106_106" id="FNanchor_106_106"></a><a href="#Footnote_106_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a></p> <p>This last maneuver of the mob sealed the doom of the Christ. It teaches also most clearly that Pilate was @@ -4620,9 +4582,9 @@ been appropriated only after blood had been shed in the streets of Jerusalem. The gilt shields of Tiberius that he had placed in Herod's palace were taken down at the demands of the Jews and carried to the temple -of Augustus at Cæsarea. And now the same fanatical +of Augustus at Cæsarea. And now the same fanatical rabble was before him demanding the blood of the -Nazarene, and threatening to accuse him to Cæsar if +Nazarene, and threatening to accuse him to Cæsar if he released the prisoner. The position of Pilate was painfully critical. He afterwards lost his procuratorship at the instance of accusing Jews. The shadow of @@ -4743,8 +4705,8 @@ the great glory so lately His. Jesus was alone."</p> <hr class="l65" /> <div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fp141.jpg" width="600" height="413" alt="CHRIST LEAVING THE PRÆTORIUM (DORÉ)" title="CHRIST LEAVING THE PRÆTORIUM (DORÉ)" /> -<p class="caption"><a name="CHRIST_LEAVING_THE_PRAETORIUM" id="CHRIST_LEAVING_THE_PRAETORIUM"></a>CHRIST LEAVING THE PRÆTORIUM (DORÉ)</p> +<img src="images/fp141.jpg" width="600" height="413" alt="CHRIST LEAVING THE PRÆTORIUM (DORÉ)" title="CHRIST LEAVING THE PRÆTORIUM (DORÉ)" /> +<p class="caption"><a name="CHRIST_LEAVING_THE_PRAETORIUM" id="CHRIST_LEAVING_THE_PRAETORIUM"></a>CHRIST LEAVING THE PRÆTORIUM (DORÉ)</p> </div> <hr class="l65" /> @@ -4834,7 +4796,7 @@ Testament narratives nowhere discovers even an intimation that a bench of judges helped Pilate to conduct the trial of Jesus. And yet, as Geikie says, "Roman law required their presence," and the legal presumption -is that they were in and about the Prætorium +is that they were in and about the Prætorium ready to lend assistance, and that they actually took part in the proceedings. This inference is strengthened by the fact that Pilate, after he had learned the @@ -4896,7 +4858,7 @@ case of Paul before Felix and before Festus was entirely different. Paul was a Roman citizen and, as such, was entitled to all the rights involved in Roman citizenship, which included the privilege of an appeal -to Cæsar against the judgment of a provincial officer; +to Cæsar against the judgment of a provincial officer; and he actually exercised this right.<a name="FNanchor_112_112" id="FNanchor_112_112"></a><a href="#Footnote_112_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a> It was incumbent, therefore, upon Roman officials to observe due forms of law in proceeding against him. And St. @@ -4976,7 +4938,7 @@ ancient and modern criminal trials:</p> man?"</p> <p class="hang">"And they began to accuse him, saying, We <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">148</a></span>found this fellow perverting the nation, -and forbidding to give tribute to Cæsar, +and forbidding to give tribute to Cæsar, saying that he himself is Christ a King."</p> <p>2. The Examination, or <i>Interrogatio</i>.</p> @@ -5049,7 +5011,7 @@ the Jews were compelled, then, to make the formal charge, that:</p> <p>"We found this fellow perverting the nation, and -forbidding to give tribute to Cæsar, saying that he +forbidding to give tribute to Cæsar, saying that he himself is Christ a King."</p> <p>Here we have presented the indictment, the first step @@ -5097,7 +5059,7 @@ His answer seemed to say: "I recognize your authority in matters of this life and this world. If my claims to kingship were temporal, I fully appreciate that they would be treasonable; and that, as the representative of -Cæsar, you would be justified in delivering me to +Cæsar, you would be justified in delivering me to death. But my pretensions to royalty are spiritual, and this places the matter beyond your reach."</p> @@ -5136,11 +5098,11 @@ that is of the truth heareth my voice."</p> thereby made Himself momentarily liable on the charge of high treason, He at once avoids the effect of the declaration by alleging new matter which exempted -Him from the operation of the <i>crimen Læsæ +Him from the operation of the <i>crimen Læsæ Majestatis</i>. He boldly declares His kingship, but places His kingdom beyond the skies in the realm of truth and spirit. He asserts a bold antithesis between -the Empire of Cæsar and the Kingdom of God. He +the Empire of Cæsar and the Kingdom of God. He cheerfully acknowledges the procuratorship of Pilate in the first, but fearlessly proclaims His own Messiahship in the second.</p> @@ -5238,7 +5200,7 @@ connection, he says: "His prosecutors insisted tenaciously upon His answering to a charge of <i>continuous</i> sedition, as lawyers call it. This offence had been begun in Galilee and ended in Jerusalem—that is to -say, in Judæa. Now it was a rule of Roman law, +say, in Judæa. Now it was a rule of Roman law, which the procurator of Rome could neither fail to recognize nor afford to neglect, that the competence of a court territorially constituted was determined @@ -5247,7 +5209,7 @@ by the place in which the offence was committed. Jesus had been arrested at the gates of Jerusalem; His alleged offence had been committed for the most part, and as far as all the final acts were concerned, in the -city itself and in other localities of Judæa. In continuous +city itself and in other localities of Judæa. In continuous <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">156</a></span>offences competence was determined by the place in which the last acts going to constitute the offence had been committed. Thus no justification whatever @@ -5263,7 +5225,7 @@ which should only have been discussed and resolved by the Jewish judicial authorities; or else he had no intention of abdicating his power, and in this case he ought never to have raised the question of competence -between himself, Governor of Judæa, and Herod, +between himself, Governor of Judæa, and Herod, Regent of Galilee, but between himself and the Roman Vice-Governor of Galilee, his colleague, if there had been such an one. It is only between judges of the @@ -5304,7 +5266,7 @@ what evil hath he done?" The mob continues to cry: <p>And as a final assault upon his conscience and his courage, the hypocritical priests warn him that he must not release a pretender to kingship, for such a -man is an enemy to Cæsar. The doom of the Nazarene +man is an enemy to Cæsar. The doom of the Nazarene is sealed by this last maneuver of the rabble. Then, as a propitiation to the great God of truth and justice, and as balm to his hurt and wounded conscience, he @@ -5661,7 +5623,7 @@ Herod, unmanliness and cowardice begin.</p> <p>This last act of the great drama presents a pitiable spectacle of Roman degeneracy. A Roman governor of -courtly origin, clothed with <i>imperium</i>, with a Prætorian +courtly origin, clothed with <i>imperium</i>, with a Prætorian Cohort at his command, and the military authority and resources of an empire at his back, cringes and crouches before a Jerusalem mob. The early Christian @@ -5673,7 +5635,7 @@ of the man.</p> <p>There is inherent in the highest and noblest of the human species a quality of courage which knows no fear; that prefers death and annihilation to dishonor -and disgrace; that believes, with Cæsar, that it is better +and disgrace; that believes, with Cæsar, that it is better to die at once than to live always in fear of death; and, with Mahomet, that Paradise will be found in the shadow of the crossing of swords. This quality of @@ -5690,7 +5652,7 @@ when we think of his cowardly, cringing, crouching, vacillating conduct before a few fanatical priests in Jerusalem, another scene at another time comes up before us. The Tenth Legion rises in mutiny and defies -Julius Cæsar. The mighty Roman summons his rebellious +Julius Cæsar. The mighty Roman summons his rebellious soldiers to the Field of Mars, reads to them the Roman riot act, and threatens to dismiss them not only from his favor but from Roman military service. The @@ -5699,7 +5661,7 @@ and conquered by the tone and glance of a single man; and with tearful eyes, beg forgiveness, and ask to be permitted to follow once again him and his eagles to the feast of victory and of death. Imagine, if you can,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">170</a></span> -Cæsar in the place of Pilate. it is not difficult to conceive +Cæsar in the place of Pilate. it is not difficult to conceive the fare of a vulgar rabble who persisted in annoying such a Roman by demanding the blood of an innocent man.</p> @@ -5859,7 +5821,7 @@ The Jews made the complaint, and the Romans ordered and effected the arrest of the prisoner in Gethsemane. Having tried Him before their own tribunal, the Jews then led Jesus away to the Roman -governor, and in the Prætorium accused Him and furnished +governor, and in the Prætorium accused Him and furnished evidence against Him. But the final act of crucifying was a Roman act. It is true that Jewish <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">175</a></span>elements were present in the crucifixion of Jesus. The @@ -5967,7 +5929,7 @@ Roman proceeding in the case of stubborn and rebellious towns. Scipio razed Carthage and drove Carthaginians into the most remote corners of the earth. Was any Roman or Punic god interested in this -event? Cæsar destroyed many Gallic cities and scattered +event? Cæsar destroyed many Gallic cities and scattered Gauls throughout the world. Was any deity concerned about these things?</p> @@ -6036,7 +5998,7 @@ the benefits of the amnesty of the Father of mercy and forgiveness.</p> <p>If the perpetrators of the great injustice of the Sanhedrin -and of the Prætorium are to be forgiven because +and of the Prætorium are to be forgiven because they knew not what they did, is there any justice, human or divine, in persecuting their innocent descendants of all lands and ages? "When Sir Moses @@ -6242,15 +6204,15 @@ historians; Mendelssohn, Meyerbeer, Offenbach, Goldmark, Joachim, Rubinstein, and Strauss among musicians; Sonnenthal, Possart, Rachel, and Bernhardt among actors and actresses; Disraeli, Gambetta, -Castelar, Lasker, Crémieux, and Benjamin among +Castelar, Lasker, Crémieux, and Benjamin among statesmen; Halevi and Heine among poets; Karl Marx and Samuel Gompers among labor leaders and -political economists; the Rothschilds, Bleichrörders, +political economists; the Rothschilds, Bleichrörders, Schiffs, and Seligmans among financiers; Auerbach and Nordau among novelists; Sir Moses Montefiore and Baron Hirsch among philanthropists!</p> -<p>But there are no Cæsars, no Napoleons, no Shakespeares, +<p>But there are no Cæsars, no Napoleons, no Shakespeares, no Aristotles among them, you say? Maybe so; but what of that? Admitting that this is true, is anything proved by the fact? These characters represented @@ -6341,13 +6303,13 @@ comparison."<a name="FNanchor_132_132" id="FNanchor_132_132"></a><a href="#Footn <p>Throughout Napoleonic literature two names constantly recur as exhibiting the Corsican's ideals of spiritual and intellectual perfection. These names are -those of Jesus Christ and Julius Cæsar. Napoleon's +those of Jesus Christ and Julius Cæsar. Napoleon's stupendous genius and incomprehensible destiny formed the basis of a secret conviction within his soul -that with Jesus and Cæsar displaced, he himself would +that with Jesus and Cæsar displaced, he himself would be the grandest ornament of history. But in the mind of the emperor there was no element of equality or -comparison between Jesus and Cæsar. The latter he +comparison between Jesus and Cæsar. The latter he regarded as the crown and consummation of Roman manhood, the most superb character of the ancient world. The former he believed to be divine.</p> @@ -6370,7 +6332,7 @@ of the Man of Nazareth. "I think I understand somewhat of human nature," said Napoleon, "and I tell you all these were men, and I am a man, but not one is like Him; Jesus Christ was more than man. -Alexander, Cæsar, Charlemagne, and myself founded +Alexander, Cæsar, Charlemagne, and myself founded great empires; but upon what did the creations of our genius depend? Upon force. Jesus alone founded His empire upon love, and to this very day millions @@ -6418,7 +6380,7 @@ he live."</p> <h2><span class="small"> PART II</span> <br /> -<i>GRÆCO-ROMAN PAGANISM</i> +<i>GRÆCO-ROMAN PAGANISM</i> </h2> <hr class="l65" /> @@ -6430,7 +6392,7 @@ PART II</span> <hr class="l65" /> <h2>CHAPTER I</h2> -<h3>GRÆCO-ROMAN PAGANISM</h3> +<h3>GRÆCO-ROMAN PAGANISM</h3> <p> <img src="images/letter_e_ch1x.jpg" width="100" height="112" alt="E" title="E" @@ -6519,18 +6481,18 @@ which we write may be had from a perusal of the Roman satirists, Tacitus and Juvenal. The ordinary Roman debauchee was not the sole victim of their wrath. They chiseled the hideous features of the -Cæsars with a finer stroke than that employed by +Cæsars with a finer stroke than that employed by Phidias and Praxiteles in carving statues of the Olympic gods.</p> <p>The purpose of Part II of this volume is to give coloring and atmosphere to the picture of the trial and -crucifixion of Jesus by describing: (1) The Græco-Roman -religion; and (2) the Græco-Roman social<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">198</a></span> +crucifixion of Jesus by describing: (1) The Græco-Roman +religion; and (2) the Græco-Roman social<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">198</a></span> life, during the century preceding and the century following the birth of the Savior.</p> -<h4>1.—THE GRÆCO-ROMAN RELIGION</h4> +<h4>1.—THE GRÆCO-ROMAN RELIGION</h4> <p><i>Origin and Multiplicity of the Roman Gods.</i>—The Romans acquired their gods by inheritance, by importation, @@ -6551,7 +6513,7 @@ were Hellenized and received plastic form. The Greeks and Romans had a common ancestry and the amalgamation of their religions was an easy matter. The successive steps in the process of blending the two -forms of worship are historical. From Cumæ, one of +forms of worship are historical. From Cumæ, one of the oldest Greek settlements in Italy, the famous Sibylline books found their way to Rome; and through these books the Greek gods and their worship established @@ -6559,9 +6521,9 @@ themselves in Italy. The date of the arrival of several of the Hellenic deities is well ascertained. The first temple to Apollo was vowed in the year 351 <span class="small">A.U.C.</span> To check a lingering epidemic of pestilence and disease, -the worship of Æsculapius was introduced from Epidaurus<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">199</a></span> +the worship of Æsculapius was introduced from Epidaurus<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">199</a></span> into Rome in the year 463. In 549, Cybele, -the Idæan mother, was imported from Phrygia, in the +the Idæan mother, was imported from Phrygia, in the shape of a black stone, and was worshiped at Rome by order of the Sibylline books.</p> @@ -6574,7 +6536,7 @@ in Rome.</p> <p>The introduction of Greek literature also resulted in the importation of Greek gods. The tragedies of -Livius Andronicus and the comedies of Nævius, +Livius Andronicus and the comedies of Nævius, founded upon Greek legends of gods and heroes, were presented in Rome in the later years of the third century <span class="small">B.C.</span> Fragments of Greek literature also began to @@ -6600,7 +6562,7 @@ was still enamored of the beautiful myths and exquisite statues of the Greek gods. And it was only by Hellenizing their own deities that they could bring themselves into touch and communion with the Hellenic -spirit. The æsthetical and fascinating influence +spirit. The æsthetical and fascinating influence of the Greek language, literature and sculpture, was overwhelming. "At bottom, the Roman religion was based only on two ideas—the might of the gods who @@ -6673,11 +6635,11 @@ early periods of their history, the Romans used cattle as a medium of exchange in buying and bartering. Pecunia was then the goddess of such exchange. But when, in later times, copper money came into use, a -god called Æsculanus was created to preside over the +god called Æsculanus was created to preside over the finances; and when, still later, silver money began to be used, the god Argentarius was called into being to protect the coinage. This Argentarius was naturally -the son of Æsculanus.</p> +the son of Æsculanus.</p> <p>Not only the beneficent but the malign forces of nature were deified. Pests, plagues, and tempests had @@ -6783,7 +6745,7 @@ formalists and ritualists of antiquity. Every act of Roman public and private life was supposed to be framed in accordance with the will of the gods. There was a formula of prayer adapted to every vicissitude -of life. Cæsar never mounted his chariot, it is +of life. Cæsar never mounted his chariot, it is said, that he did not repeat a formula three times to avert dangers.</p> @@ -6914,7 +6876,7 @@ be buried alive in the forum as a form of constructive possession. This was nothing but a human sacrifice to the gods.</p> -<p>Again, two of Cæsar's soldiers, who had participated +<p>Again, two of Cæsar's soldiers, who had participated in a riot in Rome, were taken to the Campus Martius and sacrificed to Mars by the pontiffs and the Flamen Martialis. Their heads were fixed upon the Regia, as @@ -6931,8 +6893,8 @@ dashed it while still warm at the face of the image of the god.</p> <p>Suetonius tells us that after the capture of Perugia,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">210</a></span> -Augustus Cæsar slaughtered three hundred prisoners -as an expiatory sacrifice to Julius Cæsar.</p> +Augustus Cæsar slaughtered three hundred prisoners +as an expiatory sacrifice to Julius Cæsar.</p> <p>Thus at the beginning of the Christian era, human beings were still being sacrificed on the altars of superstition.</p> @@ -7040,7 +7002,7 @@ and sacred inclosures of these places.</p> <p>These various methods of ascertaining the will of the deities were employed in every important transaction of Roman public and private life. At times, all -of them coöperated on occasions of vast import and +of them coöperated on occasions of vast import and when the lives and destinies of great men were involved.</p> @@ -7048,11 +7010,11 @@ involved.</p> contains allusions to all the modes of divination which we have just discussed:</p> -<div class="blockquot"><p>After the death of Cæsar, upon his return from Apollonia +<div class="blockquot"><p>After the death of Cæsar, upon his return from Apollonia as he was entering the city, on a sudden, in a clear and bright sky a circle resembling the rainbow surrounded the body of the sun; and immediately afterwards, the tomb of -Julia, Cæsar's daughter, was struck by lightning. In his +Julia, Cæsar's daughter, was struck by lightning. In his first consulship whilst he was observing the auguries, twelve vultures presented themselves as they had done to Romulus. And when he offered sacrifice, the livers of all the victims @@ -7104,13 +7066,13 @@ guardian, had pointed to one amongst them, to whom they were to prefer their requests; and putting his fingers to the boy's mouth to kiss, he afterwards applied them to his own.</p> -<p>Marcus Cicero, as he was attending Caius Cæsar to the +<p>Marcus Cicero, as he was attending Caius Cæsar to the Capitol, happened to be telling some of his friends a dream which he had the preceding night, in which he saw a comely youth let down from heaven by a golden chain, who stood at the door of the Capitol, and had a whip put into his hands by Jupiter. And immediately upon sight of Augustus, -who had been sent for by his uncle Cæsar to the sacrifice, +who had been sent for by his uncle Cæsar to the sacrifice, and was as yet perfectly unknown to most of the company, he affirmed that it was the very boy he had seen in his dream. When he assumed the manly toga, his senatorian tunic becoming @@ -7119,8 +7081,8 @@ would have this to forebode, that the order of which that was the badge of distinction, would some time or other be subject to him.<a name="FNanchor_140_140" id="FNanchor_140_140"></a><a href="#Footnote_140_140" class="fnanchor">[140]</a></p></div> -<p>Omens also played an important rôle in molding the -destiny of the Roman state. In his "Life of Cæsar +<p>Omens also played an important rôle in molding the +destiny of the Roman state. In his "Life of Cæsar Augustus," Suetonius says:</p> <div class="blockquot"><p>Some signs and omens he regarded as infallible. If in @@ -7139,7 +7101,7 @@ recovered themselves upon his arrival; at which he was so <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">216</a></span>delighted, that he made an exchange with the Republic of Naples, of the Island of Ischia, for that of Capri. He likewise observed certain days; as never to go from home the -day after the Numdinæ, nor to begin any serious business +day after the Numdinæ, nor to begin any serious business upon the nones; avoiding nothing else in it, as he writes to Tiberius, than its unlucky name.<a name="FNanchor_141_141" id="FNanchor_141_141"></a><a href="#Footnote_141_141" class="fnanchor">[141]</a></p></div> @@ -7184,7 +7146,7 @@ the old gods grew stale and new deities were sought. The human soul could not forever feed upon myths, however brilliant and bewitching. The mysterious and melancholy rites of Isis came to establish -themselves by the side of those of Janus and Æsculapius. +themselves by the side of those of Janus and Æsculapius. The somber qualities of the Egyptian worship seemed to commend it. Even so good and grand a man as Marcus Aurelius avowed himself an adorer of @@ -7232,7 +7194,7 @@ were invited. These feasts were characterized at times by extreme exclusiveness. It was not right, thought the Romans, to degrade and humiliate the greater gods by seating them at the banquet board with smaller<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">219</a></span> -ones. So, a right royal fête was annually arranged in +ones. So, a right royal fête was annually arranged in the Capitol in honor of Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. The statue of the great god was placed reclining on a pillow; and the images of the two goddesses were @@ -7308,7 +7270,7 @@ of superstition to be destroyed; for that presses upon and pursues and persecutes you wherever you turn yourself, whether you consult a diviner or have heard an omen or have immolated a victim, or beheld a flight of birds; -whether you have seen a Chaldæan or a soothsayer; if it +whether you have seen a Chaldæan or a soothsayer; if it lightens or thunders, or if anything is struck by lightning; if any kind of prodigy occurs; some of which things must be frequently coming to pass, so that you can never rise with @@ -7375,7 +7337,7 @@ Greece and Italy. Pausanias, who lived about the middle of the second century of the Christian era, tells as that in his time the olden legends of god and hero were still firmly believed by the common people. As -he traveled through Greece, the cypresses of Alcmæon, +he traveled through Greece, the cypresses of Alcmæon, the stance of Amphion, and the ashes of the funeral piles of Niobe's children were pointed out to him. In Phocis, he found the belief still existing that larks laid @@ -7423,7 +7385,7 @@ the centuries were sure to bring. Natural philosophy and historical study began to dissolve the sacred<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">225</a></span> legends and to demand demonstration and proof where faith had before sufficed. Skeptical criticism -began to dissect the formulæ of prayer and to analyze +began to dissect the formulæ of prayer and to analyze the elements of augury and sacrifice. Reason began to revolt against the proposition that Jupiter was justified in rejecting a petition because a syllable had been @@ -7557,7 +7519,7 @@ gods, but also the immortality of the soul. Cicero is <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">229</a></span>said to have been the only great Roman of his time who believed that death was not the end. Students of Sallust are familiar with his account of the conspiracy -of Cataline in which it is related that Julius Cæsar, in +of Cataline in which it is related that Julius Cæsar, in a speech before the Roman senate, opposed putting the traitor to death because that form of punishment was too mild, since beyond the grave there was neither joy @@ -7706,20 +7668,20 @@ a substitute for their ancient faith and as a supplement to philosophy, they began to deify their illustrious men and women. The apotheosis of the emperors was the natural result of the progressive degradation of the -Roman religion. The deification of Julius Cæsar was +Roman religion. The deification of Julius Cæsar was the beginning of this servile form of worship; and the apotheosis of Diocletian was the fifty-third of these solemn canonizations. Of this number, fifteen were those of princesses belonging to the imperial family.</p> -<p>Divine honors began to be paid to Cæsar before he +<p>Divine honors began to be paid to Cæsar before he was dead. The anniversary of his birth became a national holiday; his bust was placed in the temple, and a month of the year was named for him. After his assassination, he was worshiped as a god under the name of Divus Julius; and sacrifices were offered upon -his altar. After Julius Cæsar, followed the deification -of Augustus Cæsar. Even before his death, Octavian +his altar. After Julius Cæsar, followed the deification +of Augustus Cæsar. Even before his death, Octavian had consented to be worshiped in the provinces,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">234</a></span> especially in Nicomedia and Pergamus. After his death, his worship was introduced into Rome and @@ -7736,7 +7698,7 @@ and received from Livia a valuable gift of money as a token of her appreciation of his kindness.</p> <p>Not only were grand and gifted men like Julius and -Augustus Cæsar, but despicable and contemptible +Augustus Cæsar, but despicable and contemptible tyrants like Nero and Commodus, raised to the rank of immortals. And, not content with making gods of emperors, the Romans made goddesses of their royal @@ -7751,7 +7713,7 @@ cowardly and obsequious Roman senate decreed him a temple in Rome. The royal rascal erected another to himself, and appointed his own private priests and priestesses, among whom were his uncle Claudius, and -the Cæsonia who afterwards became his wife. This +the Cæsonia who afterwards became his wife. This temple and its ministry were maintained at an enormous expense. Only the rarest and most costly birds<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">235</a></span> like peacocks and pheasants, were allowed to be sacrificed @@ -7790,7 +7752,7 @@ a short topical review of Roman society at the time of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">236</a></span>Christ. Only a few phases of the subject can be presented in a work of this character.</p> -<h4>II.—<span class="smcap">GRÆCO-ROMAN SOCIAL LIFE</span></h4> +<h4>II.—<span class="smcap">GRÆCO-ROMAN SOCIAL LIFE</span></h4> <p><i>Marriage and Divorce.</i>—The family is the unit of the social system; and at the hearthstone all civilization @@ -7817,7 +7779,7 @@ divorce was granted. Carvilius Ruga, the name of the first Roman to procure a divorce, has been handed down to us.<a name="FNanchor_155_155" id="FNanchor_155_155"></a><a href="#Footnote_155_155" class="fnanchor">[155]</a></p> -<p>If we are to believe Döllinger, the abandonment of +<p>If we are to believe Döllinger, the abandonment of the policy of lifelong devotion to the marriage relation <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">237</a></span>and the inauguration of the system of divorce were due not to the faults of the men but to the dangerous @@ -7831,7 +7793,7 @@ which they had themselves prepared, and were thus put to death. And, about a half century after this divorce, several wives of distinguished Romans were discovered to be participants in the bacchanalian -orgies. From all these things, Döllinger infers that +orgies. From all these things, Döllinger infers that the Roman men began to tire of their wives and to seek legal separation from them.<a name="FNanchor_156_156" id="FNanchor_156_156"></a><a href="#Footnote_156_156" class="fnanchor">[156]</a></p> @@ -7859,21 +7821,21 @@ her.</p> <p>After being several times previously divorced, Pompey put away Mucia in order that he might wed Julia, -Cæsar's daughter, who was young enough to be the +Cæsar's daughter, who was young enough to be the child of Pompey.</p> -<p>Cæsar himself was five times married. He divorced +<p>Cæsar himself was five times married. He divorced his wife, Pompeia, because of her relationship to Clodius, a dashing and dissolute young Roman, who -entered Cæsar's house on the occasion of the celebration +entered Cæsar's house on the occasion of the celebration of the feast of the Bona Dea in a woman's dress, in order that he might pay clandestine suit to the object -of his lust. Cæsar professed to believe that the charges +of his lust. Cæsar professed to believe that the charges against Pompeia were not true, but he divorced her -nevertheless, with the remark that "Cæsar's wife must +nevertheless, with the remark that "Cæsar's wife must be above suspicion." We are reminded by this that, in ancient as in modern times, society placed greater -restrictions upon women than upon men; for Cæsar, +restrictions upon women than upon men; for Cæsar, who uttered this virtuous and heroic sentiment, was a most notorious rake and profligate. Suetonius tells us that he debauched many Roman ladies of the first @@ -7884,8 +7846,8 @@ made a reproach to Pompey, "that to gratify his ambition, he married the daughter of a man upon whose account he had divorced his wife, after having had three children by her; and whom he used, with a -deep sigh, to call Ægisthus." But the favorite mistress<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">239</a></span> -of Cæsar was Servilia, the mother of Marcus Brutus. +deep sigh, to call Ægisthus." But the favorite mistress<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">239</a></span> +of Cæsar was Servilia, the mother of Marcus Brutus. To consummate an intrigue with her, he gave Servilia a pearl which cost him six millions of sesterces. And at the time of the civil war he had deeded to her @@ -7895,11 +7857,11 @@ price, Cicero humorously remarked: "To let you know the real value of the purchase, between ourselves, Tertia was deducted." It was generally suspected at Rome that Servilia had prostituted her daughter Tertia -to Cæsar; and the witticism of the orator was a +to Cæsar; and the witticism of the orator was a <i>double entendre</i>, Tertia signifying the third (of the value of the farm), as well as being the name of the girl, whose virtue had paid the price of the deduction. -Cæsar's lewdness was so flagrant and notorious that his +Cæsar's lewdness was so flagrant and notorious that his soldiers marching behind his chariot, on the occasion of his Gallic triumph, shouted in ribald jest, to the multitude along the way:</p> @@ -7913,7 +7875,7 @@ multitude along the way:</p> the world, who, at the time of his death, was Pontifex Maximus, the supreme head of the Roman religion, what must have been the social life of the average citizen -who delighted to style Cæsar the demigod while +who delighted to style Cæsar the demigod while living and to worship him as divine, when dead?</p> <p>A thorough knowledge of the details of the most @@ -7981,8 +7943,8 @@ him to think only of endowing Sparta with brave boys."<a name="FNanchor_160_160" id="FNanchor_160_160"></a><a href="#Footnote_160_160" class="fnanchor">[160]</a></p> <hr class="l1" /> <div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fp240.jpg" width="600" height="293" alt="AVE CÆSAR! IO SATURNALIA (ALMA-TADEMA)" title="AVE CÆSAR! IO SATURNALIA (ALMA-TADEMA)" /> -<p class="caption"><a name="AVE_CAESAR_IO_SATURNALIA" id="AVE_CAESAR_IO_SATURNALIA"></a>AVE CÆSAR! IO SATURNALIA (ALMA-TADEMA)</p> +<img src="images/fp240.jpg" width="600" height="293" alt="AVE CÆSAR! IO SATURNALIA (ALMA-TADEMA)" title="AVE CÆSAR! IO SATURNALIA (ALMA-TADEMA)" /> +<p class="caption"><a name="AVE_CAESAR_IO_SATURNALIA" id="AVE_CAESAR_IO_SATURNALIA"></a>AVE CÆSAR! IO SATURNALIA (ALMA-TADEMA)</p> </div> <hr class="l1" /> <p>At Athens the principle was the same, even if the @@ -8158,7 +8120,7 @@ on the guests below.</p> <p>Concerning the luxurious life of the later days of the republic, Mommsen says: "Extravagant prices, as -much as one hundred thousand sesterces (£1,000) +much as one hundred thousand sesterces (£1,000) were paid for an exquisite cook. Houses were constructed with special reference to this subject.... A dinner was already described as poor at which the @@ -8173,9 +8135,9 @@ rich silver plate."<a name="FNanchor_163_163" id="FNanchor_163_163"></a><a href= <p>But the luxury and extravagance of the Romans were nowhere so manifest as in their public bathing establishments. "The magnificence of many of the -thermæ and their luxurious arrangements were such +thermæ and their luxurious arrangements were such that some writers, as Seneca, are quite lost in their descriptions -of them. The piscinæ were often of immense +of them. The piscinæ were often of immense size—that of Diocletian being 200 feet long—and were adorned with beautiful marbles. The halls were crowded with magnificent columns, and were @@ -8207,7 +8169,7 @@ might indulge their appetite to the fullest extent, and prolong the pleasures of eating beyond the requirements and even the capacity of nature, they were in the habit of taking an emetic at meal times. We learn -from the letters of Cicero that Julius Cæsar did this on +from the letters of Cicero that Julius Cæsar did this on one occasion when he went to visit the orator at his country villa. And the degeneracy of Roman life is nowhere more clearly indicated than in the Fourth @@ -8226,7 +8188,7 @@ hardy warriors. The beginning of the empire witnessed a radical change. Hundreds of thousands of these farmers had been driven from their lands to furnish homes to the disbanded soldiers of conquerors -like Sulla, Marius, and Cæsar. Homeless and poverty-stricken, +like Sulla, Marius, and Cæsar. Homeless and poverty-stricken, they wandered away to Rome to swell the ranks of mendicants and adventurers that crowded the streets of the imperial city. The soldiers themselves, @@ -8324,12 +8286,12 @@ off, hanging from his neck, because he had stolen some trifling article of silverware. Cicero, in his prosecution of Verres, recites an instance of mean and cowardly cruelty toward a slave. "At the time," he says, -"in which L. Domitius was prætor in Sicily, a slave -killed a wild boar of extraordinary size. The prætor, +"in which L. Domitius was prætor in Sicily, a slave +killed a wild boar of extraordinary size. The prætor, struck by the dexterity and courage of the man, desired to see him. The poor wretch, highly gratified with the distinction, came to present himself before -the prætor, in hopes, no doubt, of praise and reward; +the prætor, in hopes, no doubt, of praise and reward; but Domitius, on learning that he had only a javelin to attack and kill the boar, ordered him to be instantly crucified, under the barbarous pretext that the law @@ -8441,7 +8403,7 @@ bloody butchery of the gladiatorial shows.</p> funerals, and were intended to honor the dead. In 264 <span class="small">B.C.</span>, at the burial of D. Junius Brutus, we are told, three pairs of gladiators fought in the cattle market. -Again, in 216 <span class="small">B.C.</span>, at the obsequies of M. Æmilius +Again, in 216 <span class="small">B.C.</span>, at the obsequies of M. Æmilius Lepidus, twenty-two pairs engaged in combat in the Forum. And, in 174 <span class="small">B.C.</span>, on the death of his father, Titus Flaminius caused seventy-four pairs to fight for @@ -8475,13 +8437,13 @@ had the fury of the passions reached at the beginning of the empire that Romans were no longer satisfied with small fights by single pairs. They began to demand regular battles and a larger flow of blood. And -to please the populace, Julius Cæsar celebrated his +to please the populace, Julius Cæsar celebrated his triumph by a real battle in the circus. On each side were arrayed 500 foot soldiers, 300 cavalrymen, and 20 elephants bearing soldiers in towers upon their backs. This was no mimic fray, but an actual battle in which blood was shed and men were killed. To vary the entertainment, -Cæsar also arranged a sea fight. He +Cæsar also arranged a sea fight. He caused a lake to be dug out on Mars Field, and placed battleships upon it which represented Tyrian and Egyptian fleets. These he caused to be manned by a @@ -8568,7 +8530,7 @@ of an army, through accessions of slaves and desperadoes from the neighborhood of the volcano. During two years, they terrorized all Italy, defeated two consuls, and burned many cities. Crixus was defeated and -killed at Mount Gargarus in Apulia by the prætor +killed at Mount Gargarus in Apulia by the prætor Arrius. Spartacus compelled three hundred Roman prisoners, whom he had captured, to fight as gladiators, following Roman custom, at the grave of his @@ -8646,7 +8608,7 @@ for the stormy sermons of Gavazzi, who called the people to arms from thence in the Revolution of March, 1848.</p> -<p><i>Græco-Roman Social Depravity, Born of Religion +<p><i>Græco-Roman Social Depravity, Born of Religion and Traceable to the Gods.</i>—The modern mind identifies true religion with perfect purity of heart and with boundless love. "Do unto others as you would @@ -8688,7 +8650,7 @@ showered upon him. At other times, he became an object of insane jealousy.</p> <p>An obscene couplet in Suetonius attributes this filthy -habit to Julius Cæsar in the matter of an abominable +habit to Julius Cæsar in the matter of an abominable relationship with the King of Bithynia.<a name="FNanchor_173_173" id="FNanchor_173_173"></a><a href="#Footnote_173_173" class="fnanchor">[173]</a> "So strong was the influence of the prevalent epidemic on Plato, that he had lost all sense of the love of women, and in @@ -8748,7 +8710,7 @@ god believed that he was always ready to help them in their intrigues and adventures. The same writer also tells us that young maidens of Trœzene dedicated their girdles to Athene Apaturia, the deceiver, for having -cunningly betrayed Æthra into the hands of Neptune. +cunningly betrayed Æthra into the hands of Neptune. The festivals of Bacchus were far-famed in ancient times for the drunken debauches and degrading ceremonies that accompanied them. The Attic feasts of @@ -8788,7 +8750,7 @@ and appetites of the multitude had grown so fierce and depraved that ordinary spectacles were regarded as commonplace and insipid. Lifelike realities were demanded from the actors on the stage; and accordingly, -the hero who played the rôle of the robber chief, +the hero who played the rôle of the robber chief, Laureolus, was actually crucified before the spectators, and was then torn to pieces by a hungry bear.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">267</a></span> The burning of Hercules on Mount Œta and the @@ -8845,7 +8807,7 @@ pure and virtuous thoughts in the minds and hearts of tender youths and modest maidens who looked upon and contemplated them. At Athens, especially, was the corrupting influence of painting and plastic art -most deeply felt. "At every step," says Döllinger, +most deeply felt. "At every step," says Döllinger, "which a Greek or Roman took, he was surrounded by images of his gods and memorials of their mythic history. Not the temples only, but streets and public @@ -8866,7 +8828,7 @@ of the gods, men could not deem sinful in their own behavior. Indeed, lewd and lascivious acts were frequently proclaimed not only right, but sacred, because they had been both sanctioned and committed -by the gods themselves. "As impurity," says Döllinger, +by the gods themselves. "As impurity," says Döllinger, "formed a part of religion, people had no scruples in using the temple and its adjoining buildings for the satisfaction of their lust. The construction @@ -8935,7 +8897,7 @@ of disease, spread from Etruria to Rome; where, the size of the city affording greater room for such evils, and more means of concealment, cloaked it at first; but information of it was at length brought to the consul, Postumius, -principally in the following manner. Publius Æbutius, whose +principally in the following manner. Publius Æbutius, whose father had held equestrian rank in the army, was left an orphan, and his guardians dying, he was educated under the eye of his mother Duronia, and his stepfather Titus Sempronius @@ -8958,15 +8920,15 @@ lot than the mode of life to which she had been accustomed when very young, and a slave, and by which she had maintained herself since her manumission. As they lived in the same neighborhood, an intimacy subsisted between her -and Æbutius, which was far from being injurious either to +and Æbutius, which was far from being injurious either to the young man's character or property; for he had been loved and wooed by her unsolicited; and as his friends supplied his wants illiberally, he was supported by the generosity of this woman; nay, to such a length did she go under the influence of her affection, that, on the death of her patron, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">272</a></span>because she was under the protection of no one, having petitioned -the tribunes and prætors for a guardian, when she -was making her will, she constituted Æbutius her sole heir.</p> +the tribunes and prætors for a guardian, when she +was making her will, she constituted Æbutius her sole heir.</p> <p>As such pledges of mutual love subsisted, and as neither kept anything secret from the other, the young man jokingly @@ -9020,21 +8982,21 @@ mother or stepfather, or even the gods themselves." His mother on one side and his stepfather on the other loading him with reproaches, drove him out of the house, assisted by four slaves. The youth on this repaired to his aunt -Æbutia, told her the reason of his being turned out by his +Æbutia, told her the reason of his being turned out by his mother, and the next day, by her advice, gave information of the affair to the consul Postumius, without any witnesses of the interview. The consul dismissed him, with an order to come again on the third day following. In the meantime, he inquired of his mother-in-law, Sulpicia, a woman of respectable character, "whether she knew an old matron called -Æbutia, who lived on the Aventine hill?" When she had -answered that "she knew her well, and that Æbutia was a +Æbutia, who lived on the Aventine hill?" When she had +answered that "she knew her well, and that Æbutia was a woman of virtue, and of the ancient purity of morals;" he said that he required a conference with her, and that a messenger -should be sent for her to come. Æbutia, on receiving +should be sent for her to come. Æbutia, on receiving the message, came to Sulpicia's house, and the consul, soon after, coming in, as if by accident, introduced a conversation -about Æbutius, her brother's son. The tears of the woman +about Æbutius, her brother's son. The tears of the woman burst forth, and she began to lament the unhappy lot of the youth: who after being robbed of his property by persons whom it least of all became, was then residing with her, @@ -9044,8 +9006,8 @@ to be initiated in ceremonies devoted to lewdness, as report goes.</p> <p>The consul thinking that he had made sufficient inquiries -concerning Æbutius, and that his testimony was unquestionable, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">274</a></span>having dismissed Æbutia, requested his mother-in-law +concerning Æbutius, and that his testimony was unquestionable, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">274</a></span>having dismissed Æbutia, requested his mother-in-law to send again to the Aventine, and bring from that quarter Hispala, a freedwoman, not unknown in that neighborhood; for there were some queries which he wished to make of @@ -9077,7 +9039,7 @@ that there was such a person, who had heard the whole from her, and had given him a full account of it."</p> <p>The woman, now thinking without a doubt that it must -certainly be Æbutius who had discovered the secret, threw +certainly be Æbutius who had discovered the secret, threw herself at Sulpicia's feet, and at first began to beseech her, "not to let the private conversation of a freedwoman with her lover be turned not only into a serious business, but even @@ -9085,12 +9047,12 @@ capital charge;" declaring that "she had spoken of such things merely to frighten him, and not because she knew anything of the kind." On this Postumius, growing angry, said "she seemed to imagine that then too she was wrangling -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">275</a></span>with her gallant Æbutius, and not that she was speaking in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">275</a></span>with her gallant Æbutius, and not that she was speaking in the house of a most respectable matron, and to a consul." Sulpicia raised her, terrified, from the ground, and while she encouraged her to speak out, at the same time pacified her son-in-law's anger. At length she took courage, and, having -censured severely the perfidy of Æbutius, because he had +censured severely the perfidy of Æbutius, because he had made such a return for the extraordinary kindness shown to him in that very instance, she declared that "she stood in great dread of the gods, whose secret mysteries she was to @@ -9148,7 +9110,7 @@ remove; accordingly an apartment was assigned her in the upper part of it, of which the stairs, opening into the street, were stopped up, and the entrance made from the inner court. Thither all Fecenia's effects were immediately removed, and -her domestics sent for. Æbutius, also, was ordered to remove +her domestics sent for. Æbutius, also, was ordered to remove to the house of one of the consul's clients.</p> <p>When both the informers were by these means in his power, @@ -9166,7 +9128,7 @@ matter with singular diligence, and without exciting any alarm. They then commit to the consuls the holding an inquiry, out of the common course, concerning the Bacchanals <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">277</a></span>and their nocturnal orgies. They ordered them to take care -that the informers, Æbutius and Fecenia, might suffer no +that the informers, Æbutius and Fecenia, might suffer no injury on that account; and to invite other informers in the matter, by offering rewards. They ordered that the officials in those rites, whether men or women, should be sought for, @@ -9180,10 +9142,10 @@ or to perform any such kind of worship;" and above all, that search should be made for those who had assembled or conspired for personal abuse, or for any other flagitious practices. The senate passed these decrees. The consuls directed -the curule ædiles to make strict inquiry after all the priests +the curule ædiles to make strict inquiry after all the priests of those mysteries, and to keep such as they could apprehend in custody until their trial; they at the same time charged -the plebeian ædiles to take care that no religious ceremonies +the plebeian ædiles to take care that no religious ceremonies should be performed in private. To the capital triumvirs the task was assigned to post watches in proper places in the city, and to use vigilance in preventing any meetings by @@ -9356,7 +9318,7 @@ their guilt, caused no delay to the ends of justice.</p> <p>But so great were the numbers that fled from the city, that because the lawsuits and property of many persons were going -to ruin, the prætors, Titius Mænius and Marcus Licinius +to ruin, the prætors, Titius Mænius and Marcus Licinius were obliged, under the direction of the senate, to adjourn their courts for thirty days until the inquiries should be finished by the consuls. The same deserted state of the law @@ -9391,7 +9353,7 @@ in Rome or in Italy:" and ordering that, "in case any person should believe some such kind of worship incumbent upon him, and necessary; and that he could not, without offence to religion, and incurring guilt, omit it, he -should represent this to the city prætor, and the prætor should +should represent this to the city prætor, and the prætor should lay the business before the senate. If permission were granted by the senate, when not less than one hundred members were present, then he might perform those rites, provided that no @@ -9413,13 +9375,13 @@ an opportunity of committing suicide.</p> <p>Spurius Postumius some time after came to Rome and on his proposing the question, concerning the reward to be given -to Publius Æbutius and Hispala Fecenia, because the Bacchanalian +to Publius Æbutius and Hispala Fecenia, because the Bacchanalian ceremonies were discovered by their exertions, the -senate passed a vote, that "the city quæstors should give +senate passed a vote, that "the city quæstors should give to each of them, out of the public treasury, one hundred thousand asses; and that the consuls should desire the plebeian tribunes to propose to the commons as soon as convenient, -that the campaigns of Publius Æbutius should be +that the campaigns of Publius Æbutius should be considered as served, that he should not become a soldier against his wishes, nor should any censor assign him a horse at the public charge." They voted also, that "Hispala @@ -9429,7 +9391,7 @@ choosing a guardian, as if a husband had conferred them by will; that she should be at liberty to wed a man of honorable birth, and that there should be no disgrace or ignominy to him who should marry her; and that the consuls -and prætors then in office, and their successors, should take +and prætors then in office, and their successors, should take care that no injury should be offered to that woman, and that she might live in safety. That the senate wishes, and thought proper, that all these things should be so ordered."—All @@ -9475,12 +9437,12 @@ of evil things, disobedient to parents, without understanding, covenant-breakers, without natural affection, implacable, unmerciful"?<a name="FNanchor_180_180" id="FNanchor_180_180"></a><a href="#Footnote_180_180" class="fnanchor">[180]</a></p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">285</a></span>Suffice it to say, in closing the chapter on Græco-Roman +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">285</a></span>Suffice it to say, in closing the chapter on Græco-Roman paganism, that, at the beginning of the Christian era, the Roman empire had reached the limit of physical expansion. Roman military glory had culminated in the sublime achievements of Pompey and of -Cæsar. Mountains, seas, and deserts, beyond which +Cæsar. Mountains, seas, and deserts, beyond which all was barbarous and desolate, were the natural barriers of Roman dominion. Roman arms could go no farther; and Roman ambition could be no longer @@ -9511,7 +9473,7 @@ with flowers. Earth and fire consume all that remains after death." And, finally, one of them assures us that Greek mythology is false: "Pilgrim, stay thee, listen and learn. In Hades there is no ferryboat, nor ferryman -Charon; no Æacus or Cerberus;—once dead, and +Charon; no Æacus or Cerberus;—once dead, and we are all alike."<a name="FNanchor_181_181" id="FNanchor_181_181"></a><a href="#Footnote_181_181" class="fnanchor">[181]</a></p> <p>Matthew Arnold has very graphically described the @@ -9558,7 +9520,7 @@ finest of Roman intellects. Already Cicero had pictured a glorious millennium that would follow if perfect virtue should ever enter into the flesh and come to dwell among men.<a name="FNanchor_183_183" id="FNanchor_183_183"></a><a href="#Footnote_183_183" class="fnanchor">[183]</a> Already Virgil, deriving inspiration -from the Erythræan Sibylline prophecies, had +from the Erythræan Sibylline prophecies, had sung of the advent of a heaven-born child, whose coming would restore the Golden Age, and establish enduring peace and happiness on the earth.<a name="FNanchor_184_184" id="FNanchor_184_184"></a><a href="#Footnote_184_184" class="fnanchor">[184]</a> Already a @@ -9584,9 +9546,9 @@ class="floatl" /> sketches of about forty of the members of the Sanhedrin who tried Jesus are from a work entitled -"Valeur de l'assemblée qui -prononça la peine de mort contre -Jésus Christ"—Lémann. The +"Valeur de l'assemblée qui +prononça la peine de mort contre +Jésus Christ"—Lémann. The English translation, under the title "Jesus Before the Sanhedrin," is by Julius Magath, Oxford, Georgia.</p> @@ -9664,7 +9626,7 @@ these arbitrary changes,<a name="FNanchor_188_188" id="FNanchor_188_188"></a><a of the Roman conquests the election of the high priest took place almost every year at Jerusalem, the procurators appointing and deposing them in the same manner -as the prætorians later on made and unmade +as the prætorians later on made and unmade emperors.<a name="FNanchor_189_189" id="FNanchor_189_189"></a><a href="#Footnote_189_189" class="fnanchor">[189]</a> The Talmud speaks sorrowfully of this venality and the yearly changes of the high priest.</p> @@ -9686,7 +9648,7 @@ of the intrigues by which the sovereign pontificate was surrounded in those days, it was customary for the more influential of the chief priests to bring in their sons and allies as members of their chamber. The spirit -of caste was very powerful, and as M. Dérembourg, +of caste was very powerful, and as M. Dérembourg, a modern Jewish savant, has remarked: "<i>A few priestly, aristocratic, powerful, and vain families, who cared for neither the dignity nor the interests of the altar, @@ -9819,7 +9781,7 @@ might dispose of a robe which no longer pleased her caprices. ("Talmud," "Pesachim," or "of the Passover," fol. 57, verso; "Yoma," or "the Day of Atonement," fol. 9, verso; 35, recto; Jos., "Ant.," XVIII. -II. 2; XX. VIII. 11; Bartolocci, "Grand Bibliothèque +II. 2; XX. VIII. 11; Bartolocci, "Grand Bibliothèque Rabbinique," T. III. p. 297; Munk, "Palestine," pp. 563, 575.)</p> @@ -9838,7 +9800,7 @@ circumstance, and hence unworthy to be worn during<span class="pagenum"><a name= the services of the following day. What a remarkable instance of Pharisaical purity and charity! ("Talmud," "Yoma," or "the Day of Atonement," fol. 47, -verso; Jos., "Ant.," XVIII. II. 2; Dérembourg, "Essai +verso; Jos., "Ant.," XVIII. II. 2; Dérembourg, "Essai sur l'histoire," p. 197, n. 2.)</p> <p><span class="smcap">John</span>, simple priest. He is made known to us @@ -9856,7 +9818,7 @@ very rich is to be learned from the fact that King Herod Agrippa asked and obtained from him the loan of two hundred thousand pieces of silver. (Acts iv. 6; Jos., "Ant.," XVIII. VI. 3; XX. V. 2; Petri Wesselingii, -"Diatribe de Judæorum Archontibus," Trajecti +"Diatribe de Judæorum Archontibus," Trajecti ad Rhenum, pp. 69-71.)</p> <p><span class="smcap">Ananias</span> <i>ben</i> <span class="smcap">Nebedeus</span>, simple priest at that time; @@ -9876,7 +9838,7 @@ as having been brought together for his repast. ("Talmud," Bab., "Pesachim," or "of the Passover," fol. 57, verso; "Kerihoth," or "Sins which Close the Entrance to Eternal Life," fol. 28, verso; Jos., "Ant.," XX. V. -2; Dérembourg, work quoted above, pp. 230, 234; +2; Dérembourg, work quoted above, pp. 230, 234; Munk, "Palestine," p. 573, n. 1.)</p> <p><span class="smcap">Helcias</span>, simple priest, and keeper of the treasury @@ -9893,7 +9855,7 @@ chamber of the Sanhedrin at the time of the trial of Christ.</p> <p>From the documents which we have consulted and -the résumé which we have just given, we gather:</p> +the résumé which we have just given, we gather:</p> <p>1. That several of the high priests were personally dishonorable.</p> @@ -10052,7 +10014,7 @@ Ganz, "Chronologie" to 4810; Mishna, "Aboth," or "of the Fathers," C. I.; "Talmud," Jerusalem, "Berachoth," or "of Blessings," fol. 6, verso; "Historia Docorium Misnicorum," J. H. Otthonis, pp. 110-113; -De Champagny, "Rome et la Judée," T. ii. +De Champagny, "Rome et la Judée," T. ii. 86-171.)</p> <p><span class="smcap">Onkelos</span> was born of heathen parents, but embraced @@ -10119,8 +10081,8 @@ immediately. ("Talmud," "Succa," or "the Festival of Tabernacles," fol. 28, verso; David Ganz, "Chronol." 4728; Gesenius, "Comm. on Isaiah," Part I. p. 65; Zunz, "Culte divin des Juifs," Berlin, 1832, -p. 61; Dérembourg, work quoted above, p. 276; Hanneburg, -"Révelat Bibliq.," ii. 163, 432.)</p> +p. 61; Dérembourg, work quoted above, p. 276; Hanneburg, +"Révelat Bibliq.," ii. 163, 432.)</p> <p><span class="smcap">Samuel Hakaton</span>, or <i>the Less</i>. Surnamed to distinguish him from Samuel the prophet. It was he who, @@ -10234,7 +10196,7 @@ down." (Mishna, "Shabbath," or "of the Sabbath," C. XXIV. 5 to end; "Eduth," or "of Testimony," C. VII. 1; "Aboth," or "of the Fathers of Tradition," IV. 5; David Ganz, "Chronol." 4785; Seph. -Juchasin," fol. 21, 26; Schikardi, "Jus Regium Hebræorum," +Juchasin," fol. 21, 26; Schikardi, "Jus Regium Hebræorum," p. 468; Dan. ix. 25-27; Luke xxi. 6; Matt. xxvi. 2.)</p> @@ -10287,7 +10249,7 @@ of Tabernacles," fol. 28, verso; Mishna, Chapter, of Ancestors," fol. 20, recto; "Seph. Hakkabalah";<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">313</a></span> Otthonis, "Hist. Doct. Misn.," pp. 93-103; Hosea iv. 14; Jos., "Wars," VI. V. 3; De Champagny, "Rome -et la Judée," T. i. p. 158.)</p> +et la Judée," T. i. p. 158.)</p> <p><span class="smcap">Abba Saul.</span> He was of prodigious height, and had the charge of superintending the burials of the dead, @@ -10467,9 +10429,9 @@ and deed of the others," proves that he had a right to be in the grand assembly and take part in the discussions. (Matt. xxvii. 57-59; Mark xv. 43-46; Luke xxiii. 50; John xix. 38; Jacobi Alting, "Schilo seu de -Vaticinio patriarchæ Jacobi," p. 310; Goschler, <i>Diction. +Vaticinio patriarchæ Jacobi," p. 310; Goschler, <i>Diction. Encyclopediq.</i>; word, "Arimathea"; Cornelius -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">319</a></span>Lapidus, "Comment. in Script. sac.," edition Vivés, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">319</a></span>Lapidus, "Comment. in Script. sac.," edition Vivés, T. xv. p. 638, second col.)</p> <p><span class="smcap">Nicodemus.</span> St. John the Evangelist says that he @@ -10537,8 +10499,8 @@ have belonged to the council of the Sanhedrin. Besides, his birth alone at a time when nobility of origin<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">321</a></span> constituted, as we have already said, a right to honors, would have thrown wide open to him the doors -of the assembly. (Jos., "Ant.," XIX. VII. 4; Dérembourg, -"Essai sur l'histoire et la géographie de +of the assembly. (Jos., "Ant.," XIX. VII. 4; Dérembourg, +"Essai sur l'histoire et la géographie de la Palestine," p. 207, n. 1; Frankel, <i>Monatsschrift.</i>, III. 440.)</p> @@ -10731,7 +10693,7 @@ conceded by the critics: That there are now in existence certain ancient documents called the "Acts of Pilate"; that they were probably discovered at Turin, in northern Italy, and were first used by the -noted New Testament palæographer, Dr. Constantine +noted New Testament palæographer, Dr. Constantine Tischendorf, who studied them in company with the celebrated orientalist, Victor Amadee Peyron, professor of oriental languages in the University of Turin; @@ -10895,9 +10857,9 @@ Acts of the Senate, Acts of the City, or People of Rome, Acts of other cities, and Acts of governors of provinces. Of all these we can discern clear proofs and frequent mention in ancient writers of the best -credit. Julius Cæsar ordered that Acts of the Senate, +credit. Julius Cæsar ordered that Acts of the Senate, as well as daily Acts of the People, should be published. -See Sueton. Jul. Cæs. c. xx.</p> +See Sueton. Jul. Cæs. c. xx.</p> <p>"Augustus forbade publishing Acts of the Senate.</p> @@ -10931,7 +10893,7 @@ other accounts.</p> registering all remarkable transactions and occurrences.</p> <p>"Justin Martyr and Tertullian could not be mistaken -about this; and the learned bishop of Cæsarea +about this; and the learned bishop of Cæsarea admits the truth of what they say. And in the time of the persecuting emperor Maximin, about the year of Christ 307, the heathen people forged Acts of Pilate, @@ -10966,7 +10928,7 @@ Matt. xxvii.; Mark xv.; Luke xxiii.; John xviii. Pilate was hard pressed. The rulers of the Jews vehemently accused our Lord to him. They said they had found him perverting the nation, and forbidding to -give tribute to Cæsar, saying that himself is Christ, a +give tribute to Cæsar, saying that himself is Christ, a king, and the like; and all without effect for a while.</p> <p>"Pilate still sought for expedients to set Jesus at @@ -11298,9 +11260,9 @@ inclined to be a Christian.</p> <p>"Nor did Tertullian intend to say any such thing, for immediately after the passage first cited from him, -he adds: 'But the Cæsars themselves would have believed +he adds: 'But the Cæsars themselves would have believed in Jesus Christ, if they had not been necessary -for the world, or if Christians could have been Cæsars.'</p> +for the world, or if Christians could have been Cæsars.'</p> <p>"Grotius appears to have rightly understood the importance of these passages of Tertullian; whose note @@ -11558,7 +11520,7 @@ the accused.</p> <p>"It is incorrect, moreover, to draw a conclusion from Justin's designation of the Acta which is not warranted by the whole character of the work. The Acta, the -<i><span lang="el" title="Greek: hypomnêmata">ὑπομνήματα</span></i>, are specified in Justin's account not less +<i><span lang="el" title="Greek: hypomnêmata">ὑπομνήματα</span></i>, are specified in Justin's account not less than in the manuscripts which we possess, as being written <i>under</i> Pontius Pilate, and that can signify nothing else than that they were an official production composed @@ -11573,7 +11535,7 @@ to the notable Acts of Pilate."<a name="FNanchor_214_214" id="FNanchor_214_214"> <p class="center">(<i>First Greek Form</i>)</p> -<p>I, Ananias, of the proprætor's bodyguard, being +<p>I, Ananias, of the proprætor's bodyguard, being learned in the law, knowing our Lord Jesus Christ from the Holy Scriptures, coming to Him by faith, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">352</a></span> @@ -11600,7 +11562,7 @@ to their households. Amen.</p> <p><span class="smcap">Chapter 1.</span>—Having called a council, the high priests and the scribes Annas and Caiaphas and Semes and Dathaes, and Gamaliel, Judas, Levi and Nepthalim, -Alexander and Jaïrus, and the rest of the Jews, +Alexander and Jaïrus, and the rest of the Jews, came to Pilate accusing Jesus about many things, saying: We know this man to be the son of Joseph the carpenter, born of Mary; and he says that he is the @@ -11695,7 +11657,7 @@ in again in whatever way may please thee. And Jesus and the runner went out of the Pretorium. And Pilate, summoning those who had formerly held up the standards, says to them: I have sworn by the health of -Cæsar, that if the standards do not bend down when +Cæsar, that if the standards do not bend down when Jesus comes in, I will cut off your heads. And the procurator ordered Jesus to come in the second time. And the runner did in the same manner as before, and @@ -11758,11 +11720,11 @@ Mary.</p> <p>And Pilate, calling these twelve men who said that he was not born of fornication, says to them: I adjure -you, by the health of Cæsar, to tell me whether it be +you, by the health of Cæsar, to tell me whether it be true that you say, that he was not born of fornication. They say to Pilate: We have a law against taking oaths, because it is a sin; but they will swear by the health -of Cæsar that it is not as we have said, and we are +of Cæsar that it is not as we have said, and we are liable to death. Pilate says to Annas and Caiaphas: Have you nothing to answer to this? Annas and Caiaphas say to Pilate: These twelve are believed when they @@ -11831,10 +11793,10 @@ and Levites, said to them privately: Do not act thus, because no charge that you bring against him is worthy of death; for your charge is about curing and Sabbath profanation. The elders and the priests and the Levites -say: If anyone speak evil against Cæsar, is he worthy +say: If anyone speak evil against Cæsar, is he worthy of death or not? Pilate says: He is worthy of death. The Jews say to Pilate: If anyone speak evil against -Cæsar, he is worthy of death; but this man has spoken +Cæsar, he is worthy of death; but this man has spoken evil against God.</p> <p>And the procurator ordered the Jews to go outside @@ -11962,10 +11924,10 @@ in whom I find no fault. Which of them do you wish me to release to you? And they cry out: Bar Abbas. Pilate says: What, then, shall we do to Jesus, who is called Christ? The Jews say: Let him be crucified. -And others said: Thou art no friend of Cæsar's if thou +And others said: Thou art no friend of Cæsar's if thou release this man, because he called himself the Son of God and King. You wish this man, then, to be a -king, and not Cæsar?</p> +king, and not Cæsar?</p> <p>And Pilate, in a rage, says to the Jews: Always has your nation been rebellious, and you always speak @@ -11983,7 +11945,7 @@ death. And now you charge me with hating the emperor.</p> <p>And, rising up from the tribunal, he sought to go out. And the Jews cry out and say: We know that -Cæsar is king, and not Jesus. For assuredly the magi +Cæsar is king, and not Jesus. For assuredly the magi brought gifts to him as to a king. And when Herod heard from the magi that a king had been born, he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">364</a></span> sought to slay him, and his father, Joseph, knowing @@ -12256,16 +12218,16 @@ he taught what we heard from him, and we saw him taken up into heaven. And no one asked them in what form he went up. For assuredly, as the book of the Holy Scriptures taught us, Helias also was taken up<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">372</a></span> -into heaven, and Elissæus cried out with a loud voice, -and Helias threw his sheepskin upon Elissæus, and -Elissæus threw his sheepskin upon the Jordan, and +into heaven, and Elissæus cried out with a loud voice, +and Helias threw his sheepskin upon Elissæus, and +Elissæus threw his sheepskin upon the Jordan, and crossed and came into Jericho. And the children of -the prophets met him and said, O Elissæus, where is +the prophets met him and said, O Elissæus, where is thy master Helias? And he said, He has been taken -up into heaven. And they said to Elissæus, Has not +up into heaven. And they said to Elissæus, Has not a spirit seized him, and thrown him upon one of the mountains? But let us take our servants with us and -seek him. And they persuaded Elissæus, and he went +seek him. And they persuaded Elissæus, and he went away with them. And they sought him three days, and did not find him; and they knew that he had been taken up. And now listen to me, and let us send into @@ -12490,7 +12452,7 @@ manner. And the Sanhedrin said: The law of Moses holds: At the mouth of two or three every word shall be established. Buthem, a teacher, says: It is written in the law, And Enoch walked with God, and is not, -because God took him. Jaïrus, a teacher, said: And +because God took him. Jaïrus, a teacher, said: And the death of holy Moses we have heard of, and have not seen it; for it is written in the law of the Lord, and Moses died from the mouth of the Lord, and no man @@ -12563,7 +12525,7 @@ forever and ever. Amen.</p> <div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Mommsen, "Römisches Staatsrecht," III. I. p. 748.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Mommsen, "Römisches Staatsrecht," III. I. p. 748.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> "The Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ," 2d Div., I. p. 185.</p></div> @@ -12591,7 +12553,7 @@ forever and ever. Amen.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> "The Legal Procedure of Cicero's Time," p. 413.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> "Geschichte des römischen <span class="err" title="original: criminalprocesses">Criminalprocesses</span>."</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> "Geschichte des römischen <span class="err" title="original: criminalprocesses">Criminalprocesses</span>."</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> "The Trial of Jesus," pp. 291-93.</p></div> @@ -12654,9 +12616,9 @@ forever and ever. Amen.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> "Annals," B. VI. Chap. II.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> Döllinger, "The Gentile and the Jew," vol. ii. p. 33.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> Döllinger, "The Gentile and the Jew," vol. ii. p. 33.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> Döllinger, "The Gentile and the Jew," vol. ii. p. 172.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> Döllinger, "The Gentile and the Jew," vol. ii. p. 172.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity," pp. 89, 90.</p></div> @@ -12664,7 +12626,7 @@ forever and ever. Amen.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> Correspondence between Pliny and Trajan, Letters XCVII, XCVIII.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> Suet., "Cæsar Augustus," Chap. LXIV.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> Suet., "Cæsar Augustus," Chap. LXIV.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> Philo, "De Legatione ad Cajum," Sec. 38, ed. Mangey, II. 589 <i>sq.</i></p></div> @@ -12678,7 +12640,7 @@ forever and ever. Amen.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> Scott, "Anne of Geierstein," Chap. I.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> Gessner, "Descript. Mont. Pilat," Zürich, 1555.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> Gessner, "Descript. Mont. Pilat," Zürich, 1555.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> Golbery, "Univers Pittoresque de la Suisse," p. 327.</p></div> @@ -12804,7 +12766,7 @@ forever and ever. Amen.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_120_120" id="Footnote_120_120"></a><a href="#FNanchor_120_120"><span class="label">[120]</span></a> "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity," pp. 93-95.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_121_121" id="Footnote_121_121"></a><a href="#FNanchor_121_121"><span class="label">[121]</span></a> L. 12, Cod. De pœnis, ix. 47: "Vanæ voces populi non sunt audiendæ, +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_121_121" id="Footnote_121_121"></a><a href="#FNanchor_121_121"><span class="label">[121]</span></a> L. 12, Cod. De pœnis, ix. 47: "Vanæ voces populi non sunt audiendæ, nec enim vocibus eorum credi oportet quando aut noxium crimine absolvi aut innocentem condemnari desiderant."</p></div> @@ -12822,40 +12784,40 @@ aut innocentem condemnari desiderant."</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_128_128" id="Footnote_128_128"></a><a href="#FNanchor_128_128"><span class="label">[128]</span></a> "Herzog's Encyc." vol. v. 751. Art. "Herder."</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_129_129" id="Footnote_129_129"></a><a href="#FNanchor_129_129"><span class="label">[129]</span></a> "Vergängl. u. Bleibendes im Christenthum," 132.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_129_129" id="Footnote_129_129"></a><a href="#FNanchor_129_129"><span class="label">[129]</span></a> "Vergängl. u. Bleibendes im Christenthum," 132.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_130_130" id="Footnote_130_130"></a><a href="#FNanchor_130_130"><span class="label">[130]</span></a> "Études d'Hist. Rel.," pp. 213, 214.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_130_130" id="Footnote_130_130"></a><a href="#FNanchor_130_130"><span class="label">[130]</span></a> "Études d'Hist. Rel.," pp. 213, 214.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_131_131" id="Footnote_131_131"></a><a href="#FNanchor_131_131"><span class="label">[131]</span></a> "Jesus of Nazara," vol. vi. pp. 430, 431.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_132_132" id="Footnote_132_132"></a><a href="#FNanchor_132_132"><span class="label">[132]</span></a> Montholon, "Récit de la Captivité de l'Emp. Napoleon."</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_132_132" id="Footnote_132_132"></a><a href="#FNanchor_132_132"><span class="label">[132]</span></a> Montholon, "Récit de la Captivité de l'Emp. Napoleon."</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_133_133" id="Footnote_133_133"></a><a href="#FNanchor_133_133"><span class="label">[133]</span></a> Bertrand's "Memoirs," Paris, 1844.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_134_134" id="Footnote_134_134"></a><a href="#FNanchor_134_134"><span class="label">[134]</span></a> "Je meurs dans la religion catholique, apostolique et romaine, dans le -sein de laquelle je suis né, il y a plus de cinquante ans."</p></div> +sein de laquelle je suis né, il y a plus de cinquante ans."</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_135_135" id="Footnote_135_135"></a><a href="#FNanchor_135_135"><span class="label">[135]</span></a> Döllinger, "The Gentile and the Jew," vol ii. p. 29.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_135_135" id="Footnote_135_135"></a><a href="#FNanchor_135_135"><span class="label">[135]</span></a> Döllinger, "The Gentile and the Jew," vol ii. p. 29.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_136_136" id="Footnote_136_136"></a><a href="#FNanchor_136_136"><span class="label">[136]</span></a> "Preparation of the World for Christ," pp. 380, 381.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_137_137" id="Footnote_137_137"></a><a href="#FNanchor_137_137"><span class="label">[137]</span></a> Suetonius, "Cæsar Augustus," Chap. XCV.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_137_137" id="Footnote_137_137"></a><a href="#FNanchor_137_137"><span class="label">[137]</span></a> Suetonius, "Cæsar Augustus," Chap. XCV.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_138_138" id="Footnote_138_138"></a><a href="#FNanchor_138_138"><span class="label">[138]</span></a> Matt. i. 20.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_139_139" id="Footnote_139_139"></a><a href="#FNanchor_139_139"><span class="label">[139]</span></a> Matt. ii. 13.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_140_140" id="Footnote_140_140"></a><a href="#FNanchor_140_140"><span class="label">[140]</span></a> Suetonius, "Cæsar Augustus," Chap. XCIV.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_140_140" id="Footnote_140_140"></a><a href="#FNanchor_140_140"><span class="label">[140]</span></a> Suetonius, "Cæsar Augustus," Chap. XCIV.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_141_141" id="Footnote_141_141"></a><a href="#FNanchor_141_141"><span class="label">[141]</span></a> Suetonius, "Cæsar Augustus," Chap. XCII.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_141_141" id="Footnote_141_141"></a><a href="#FNanchor_141_141"><span class="label">[141]</span></a> Suetonius, "Cæsar Augustus," Chap. XCII.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_142_142" id="Footnote_142_142"></a><a href="#FNanchor_142_142"><span class="label">[142]</span></a> Döllinger, "The Gentile and the Jew," vol. ii. p. 185.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_142_142" id="Footnote_142_142"></a><a href="#FNanchor_142_142"><span class="label">[142]</span></a> Döllinger, "The Gentile and the Jew," vol. ii. p. 185.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_143_143" id="Footnote_143_143"></a><a href="#FNanchor_143_143"><span class="label">[143]</span></a> Liv. xl. 59.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_144_144" id="Footnote_144_144"></a><a href="#FNanchor_144_144"><span class="label">[144]</span></a> Ap. Aug. C.D. VI. 2.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_145_145" id="Footnote_145_145"></a><a href="#FNanchor_145_145"><span class="label">[145]</span></a> Döllinger, vol. ii. p. 183.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_145_145" id="Footnote_145_145"></a><a href="#FNanchor_145_145"><span class="label">[145]</span></a> Döllinger, vol. ii. p. 183.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_146_146" id="Footnote_146_146"></a><a href="#FNanchor_146_146"><span class="label">[146]</span></a> Suetonius, "Caligula," Chap. V.</p></div> @@ -12865,7 +12827,7 @@ sein de laquelle je suis né, il y a plus de cinquante ans."</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_149_149" id="Footnote_149_149"></a><a href="#FNanchor_149_149"><span class="label">[149]</span></a> De Superst. 6.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_150_150" id="Footnote_150_150"></a><a href="#FNanchor_150_150"><span class="label">[150]</span></a> M. Dic, quæso, num te illa terrent? Triceps apud inferos Cerberus? +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_150_150" id="Footnote_150_150"></a><a href="#FNanchor_150_150"><span class="label">[150]</span></a> M. Dic, quæso, num te illa terrent? Triceps apud inferos Cerberus? Cocyti fremitus? travectio Acherontis? </p> <div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> @@ -12876,33 +12838,33 @@ Cocyti fremitus? travectio Acherontis? </div></div> <p> fortasse etiam inexorabiles judices Minor et Rhadamanthus? apud quos -nec te L. Crassus defendet, nec M. Antonius; nec, quoniam apud Græcos +nec te L. Crassus defendet, nec M. Antonius; nec, quoniam apud Græcos judices res agetur, poteris adhibere Demosthenen; tibi ipsi pro te erit maxima -corona causa dicenda. Hæc fortasse metuis, et idcirco mortem censes +corona causa dicenda. Hæc fortasse metuis, et idcirco mortem censes esse sempiternum malum. A. Adeone me delirare censes, ut ista esse -credam? M. An tu hæc non credis? A. Minime vero. M. Male hercule -narras. A. Cur, quæso. M. Quia disertus esse possem, si contra ista +credam? M. An tu hæc non credis? A. Minime vero. M. Male hercule +narras. A. Cur, quæso. M. Quia disertus esse possem, si contra ista dicerem.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_151_151" id="Footnote_151_151"></a><a href="#FNanchor_151_151"><span class="label">[151]</span></a> Sallust, "Bellum Catilinarium, 50."</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_152_152" id="Footnote_152_152"></a><a href="#FNanchor_152_152"><span class="label">[152]</span></a> Renan, "Les <span class="err" title="original: Apotres">Apôtres</span>."</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_152_152" id="Footnote_152_152"></a><a href="#FNanchor_152_152"><span class="label">[152]</span></a> Renan, "Les <span class="err" title="original: Apotres">Apôtres</span>."</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_153_153" id="Footnote_153_153"></a><a href="#FNanchor_153_153"><span class="label">[153]</span></a> "Hamlet," Act III, Scene i.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_154_154" id="Footnote_154_154"></a><a href="#FNanchor_154_154"><span class="label">[154]</span></a> Döllinger, vol. ii. pp. 175-79.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_154_154" id="Footnote_154_154"></a><a href="#FNanchor_154_154"><span class="label">[154]</span></a> Döllinger, vol. ii. pp. 175-79.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_155_155" id="Footnote_155_155"></a><a href="#FNanchor_155_155"><span class="label">[155]</span></a> Dion. ii. 25.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_156_156" id="Footnote_156_156"></a><a href="#FNanchor_156_156"><span class="label">[156]</span></a> Döllinger, vol. ii. pp. 267-69.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_156_156" id="Footnote_156_156"></a><a href="#FNanchor_156_156"><span class="label">[156]</span></a> Döllinger, vol. ii. pp. 267-69.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_157_157" id="Footnote_157_157"></a><a href="#FNanchor_157_157"><span class="label">[157]</span></a> Suetonius, "Julius Cæsar," l-li.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_157_157" id="Footnote_157_157"></a><a href="#FNanchor_157_157"><span class="label">[157]</span></a> Suetonius, "Julius Cæsar," l-li.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_158_158" id="Footnote_158_158"></a><a href="#FNanchor_158_158"><span class="label">[158]</span></a> Xen. de Rep. Lac. i. 8.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_159_159" id="Footnote_159_159"></a><a href="#FNanchor_159_159"><span class="label">[159]</span></a> "Polyb. Fragm." in Scr. Vet. Nov. Coll. ed. Mav. ii. 384.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_160_160" id="Footnote_160_160"></a><a href="#FNanchor_160_160"><span class="label">[160]</span></a> Döllinger, vol. ii. p. 249.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_160_160" id="Footnote_160_160"></a><a href="#FNanchor_160_160"><span class="label">[160]</span></a> Döllinger, vol. ii. p. 249.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_161_161" id="Footnote_161_161"></a><a href="#FNanchor_161_161"><span class="label">[161]</span></a> "Xen. Mem. Socr." iii. 13.</p></div> @@ -12918,7 +12880,7 @@ dicerem.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_167_167" id="Footnote_167_167"></a><a href="#FNanchor_167_167"><span class="label">[167]</span></a> Tacitus, "Annals," 42-44.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_168_168" id="Footnote_168_168"></a><a href="#FNanchor_168_168"><span class="label">[168]</span></a> De Pressensé, "The Religions Before Christ," p. 158.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_168_168" id="Footnote_168_168"></a><a href="#FNanchor_168_168"><span class="label">[168]</span></a> De Pressensé, "The Religions Before Christ," p. 158.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_169_169" id="Footnote_169_169"></a><a href="#FNanchor_169_169"><span class="label">[169]</span></a> Milman's "Gibbon's Rome," vol. i. p. 51.</p></div> @@ -12928,23 +12890,23 @@ dicerem.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_172_172" id="Footnote_172_172"></a><a href="#FNanchor_172_172"><span class="label">[172]</span></a> Pliny, Ep. X. 38.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_173_173" id="Footnote_173_173"></a><a href="#FNanchor_173_173"><span class="label">[173]</span></a> Suetonius, "Julius Cæsar," Chap. XLIX.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_173_173" id="Footnote_173_173"></a><a href="#FNanchor_173_173"><span class="label">[173]</span></a> Suetonius, "Julius Cæsar," Chap. XLIX.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_174_174" id="Footnote_174_174"></a><a href="#FNanchor_174_174"><span class="label">[174]</span></a> Döllinger, vol. ii. pp. 253, 254.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_174_174" id="Footnote_174_174"></a><a href="#FNanchor_174_174"><span class="label">[174]</span></a> Döllinger, vol. ii. pp. 253, 254.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_175_175" id="Footnote_175_175"></a><a href="#FNanchor_175_175"><span class="label">[175]</span></a> Döllinger, vol. ii. pp. 205, 206.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_175_175" id="Footnote_175_175"></a><a href="#FNanchor_175_175"><span class="label">[175]</span></a> Döllinger, vol. ii. pp. 205, 206.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_176_176" id="Footnote_176_176"></a><a href="#FNanchor_176_176"><span class="label">[176]</span></a> Döllinger, vol. ii. p. 207.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_176_176" id="Footnote_176_176"></a><a href="#FNanchor_176_176"><span class="label">[176]</span></a> Döllinger, vol. ii. p. 207.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_177_177" id="Footnote_177_177"></a><a href="#FNanchor_177_177"><span class="label">[177]</span></a> Döllinger, vol. ii. p. 208.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_177_177" id="Footnote_177_177"></a><a href="#FNanchor_177_177"><span class="label">[177]</span></a> Döllinger, vol. ii. p. 208.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_178_178" id="Footnote_178_178"></a><a href="#FNanchor_178_178"><span class="label">[178]</span></a> Livy, b. xxxix. Chaps. VII.-XX.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_179_179" id="Footnote_179_179"></a><a href="#FNanchor_179_179"><span class="label">[179]</span></a> "——non possum ferre, Quirites, Græcam urbem." (Sat. III.)</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_179_179" id="Footnote_179_179"></a><a href="#FNanchor_179_179"><span class="label">[179]</span></a> "——non possum ferre, Quirites, Græcam urbem." (Sat. III.)</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_180_180" id="Footnote_180_180"></a><a href="#FNanchor_180_180"><span class="label">[180]</span></a> Romans i. 29-31.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_181_181" id="Footnote_181_181"></a><a href="#FNanchor_181_181"><span class="label">[181]</span></a> Döllinger, vol ii. pp. 155, 156.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_181_181" id="Footnote_181_181"></a><a href="#FNanchor_181_181"><span class="label">[181]</span></a> Döllinger, vol ii. pp. 155, 156.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_182_182" id="Footnote_182_182"></a><a href="#FNanchor_182_182"><span class="label">[182]</span></a> Matthew Arnold's Poems—"Obermann Once More."</p></div> @@ -12955,7 +12917,7 @@ dicerem.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_185_185" id="Footnote_185_185"></a><a href="#FNanchor_185_185"><span class="label">[185]</span></a> Matt. ii. 4; xxi. 15; xxvi. 3, 47, 59; Mark xi. 18; xv. 11; Luke xix. 47; xx. 1; John xi. 47; xii. 20.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_186_186" id="Footnote_186_186"></a><a href="#FNanchor_186_186"><span class="label">[186]</span></a> Dérembourg, "Essai sur l'histoire et la géographie de la Palestine," p. +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_186_186" id="Footnote_186_186"></a><a href="#FNanchor_186_186"><span class="label">[186]</span></a> Dérembourg, "Essai sur l'histoire et la géographie de la Palestine," p. 231, note 1.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_187_187" id="Footnote_187_187"></a><a href="#FNanchor_187_187"><span class="label">[187]</span></a> Josephus, "Ant.," Book XX. Chap. X. 1; XV. III. 1.</p></div> @@ -12965,9 +12927,9 @@ dicerem.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_189_189" id="Footnote_189_189"></a><a href="#FNanchor_189_189"><span class="label">[189]</span></a> Josephus, "Ant.," Book XVIII. Chap. II. 3; Book XX. Chap. IX, 1, 4.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_190_190" id="Footnote_190_190"></a><a href="#FNanchor_190_190"><span class="label">[190]</span></a> See "Talmud," "Yoma," or "the Day of Atonement," fol. 35, recto; -also Dérembourg, work above quoted, p. 230, note 2.</p></div> +also Dérembourg, work above quoted, p. 230, note 2.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_191_191" id="Footnote_191_191"></a><a href="#FNanchor_191_191"><span class="label">[191]</span></a> "Essai sur l'histoire et la géographie de la Palestine," p. 232.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_191_191" id="Footnote_191_191"></a><a href="#FNanchor_191_191"><span class="label">[191]</span></a> "Essai sur l'histoire et la géographie de la Palestine," p. 232.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_192_192" id="Footnote_192_192"></a><a href="#FNanchor_192_192"><span class="label">[192]</span></a> Jos., "Ant.," XX. VIII. 8.</p></div> @@ -13095,9 +13057,9 @@ annotated by Thomas M. Cooley. Callaghan Jewish Publication Society of America, Philadelphia, 1896.</td></tr> <tr> -<td><span class="smcap">Döllinger.</span></td> +<td><span class="smcap">Döllinger.</span></td> <td>The Gentile and the Jew, by John J. I. -Döllinger. Two volumes. Gibbings & +Döllinger. Two volumes. Gibbings & Company, London, 1906.</td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="smcap">Edersheim.</span></td> @@ -13117,7 +13079,7 @@ P. Fisher. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1906.</td> </tr> <tr><td><span class="smcap">Geib.</span></td> -<td>Geschichte des römischen Criminalprocesses, +<td>Geschichte des römischen Criminalprocesses, von Dr. Gustav Geib. Weidmann'sche Buchhandlung. Leipzig, 1842.</td> </tr> @@ -13149,7 +13111,7 @@ by A. H. J. Greenidge. Stevens & Sons, London, 1901.</td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="smcap">Harnack.</span></td> -<td>Reden und Aufsätze, von Adolf Harnack. +<td>Reden und Aufsätze, von Adolf Harnack. J. Ricker'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung, Giessen, 1904.</td> </tr> @@ -13173,7 +13135,7 @@ Translation.</td> </tr> <tr><td><span class="smcap">Jost.</span></td> <td>Geschichte des Judenthums, von I. M. -Jost. Dörffling und Francke, Leipzig, +Jost. Dörffling und Francke, Leipzig, 1857.</td> </tr> <tr><td><span class="smcap">Juvenal.</span></td> @@ -13189,10 +13151,10 @@ volumes. Williams & Norgate, London, <td>Works of Nathaniel Lardner. Ten volumes. William Ball, London, 1838.</td></tr> <tr> -<td><span class="smcap">Lémann.</span></td> -<td>Valeur de l'assemblée qui prononça la -peine de mort contre Jésus-Christ, par -MM. Lémann. Translated from the +<td><span class="smcap">Lémann.</span></td> +<td>Valeur de l'assemblée qui prononça la +peine de mort contre Jésus-Christ, par +MM. Lémann. Translated from the French into English under the title "Jesus Before the Sanhedrin," by Prof. Julius Magath, of Oxford, Ga., in 1899.</td></tr> @@ -13202,7 +13164,7 @@ Magath, of Oxford, Ga., in 1899.</td></tr> George Bell & Sons, London, 1906.</td> </tr> <tr><td><span class="smcap">Loisy.</span></td> -<td>Les Évangiles Synoptiques, par Alfred +<td>Les Évangiles Synoptiques, par Alfred Loisy. Librairie Fishbacher, Paris, 1907.</td> </tr> <tr><td><span class="smcap">Mendelsohn.</span></td> @@ -13217,7 +13179,7 @@ Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1899.</td> </tr> <tr><td><span class="smcap">Montesquieu.</span></td> <td>De l'Esprit Des Lois, par Montesquieu. -Garnier Frères, Paris, 1905.</td> +Garnier Frères, Paris, 1905.</td> </tr> <tr><td><span class="smcap">Paley.</span></td> <td>Evidences of Christianity, by William @@ -13225,17 +13187,17 @@ Paley. The Religious Tract Society, London, 1794.</td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="smcap">Rabbinowicz.</span></td> -<td>Législation Criminelle du Talmud, par I. +<td>Législation Criminelle du Talmud, par I. J. M. Rabbinowicz. Chez l'auteur, Paris, 1876.</td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="smcap">Renan.</span></td> <td>Histoire des origines du christianisme, par Joseph Ernest Renan. Paris, 1863. -Livres 1-6: 1. Vie de Jésus. 2. Les -apôtres. 3. Saint Paul. 4. L'Antichrist. -5. Les évangiles et la seconde génération -chrétienne. 6. L'église chrétienne.</td> +Livres 1-6: 1. Vie de Jésus. 2. Les +apôtres. 3. Saint Paul. 4. L'Antichrist. +5. Les évangiles et la seconde génération +chrétienne. 6. L'église chrétienne.</td> </tr> <tr> <td><span class="smcap">Rosadi.</span> @@ -13245,13 +13207,13 @@ Dodd, Mead & Company, New York, 1905.</td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="smcap">Salvador.</span></td> -<td>Histoire des Institutions de Moïse, par J. -Salvador. Michel Lévy-Frères, Paris, +<td>Histoire des Institutions de Moïse, par J. +Salvador. Michel Lévy-Frères, Paris, 1862.</td></tr> <tr> -<td><span class="smcap">Schürer.</span></td> +<td><span class="smcap">Schürer.</span></td> <td>The Jewish People in the Time of Jesus -Christ, by Emil Schürer. Charles Scribner's +Christ, by Emil Schürer. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1906.</td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="smcap">Stephen.</span></td> @@ -13260,7 +13222,7 @@ Fitzjames Stephen. Henry Holt & Company, New York, 1873.</td> </tr> <tr><td><span class="smcap">Suetonius.</span></td> -<td>The Lives of the Twelve Cæsars, by C. +<td>The Lives of the Twelve Cæsars, by C. Suetonius Tranquillus. George Bell & Sons, London, 1906.</td> </tr> @@ -13307,12 +13269,12 @@ New York and London, 1901.</p> <li class="in">antiquity of, II, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></li> <li class="in">text of, II, <a href="#Page_351">351</a> <i>seq.</i></li> -<li>Æbutius, Publius, part of, in the exposure of Bacchanalian orgies, II, +<li>Æbutius, Publius, part of, in the exposure of Bacchanalian orgies, II, <a href="#Page_271">271</a> <i>seq.</i></li> -<li>Ædile, Roman, judicial powers of, II, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> +<li>Ædile, Roman, judicial powers of, II, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> -<li>Æsculapius, Græco-Roman divinity, II, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li> +<li>Æsculapius, Græco-Roman divinity, II, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li> <li>Akiba, Jewish rabbi, Mishna systematized by, I, 79</li> @@ -13354,7 +13316,7 @@ II, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li> <li>Antecedent Warning, peculiar provision of Hebrew Criminal Law regarding, I, 147-152</li> -<li>Antistius, L., Roman tribune, impeachment of Julius Cæsar by, II, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> +<li>Antistius, L., Roman tribune, impeachment of Julius Cæsar by, II, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> <li>Antoninus Pius, Roman emperor, persecution of Christians by, II, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> @@ -13395,7 +13357,7 @@ heaven, II, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li> <li>Augury, modes of, II, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li> -<li><a name="Augustus_Caesar" id="Augustus_Caesar"></a>Augustus Cæsar, Roman emperor,</li> +<li><a name="Augustus_Caesar" id="Augustus_Caesar"></a>Augustus Cæsar, Roman emperor,</li> <li class="in">reign and policy of, II, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> <li class="in">care of profligate daughter Julia, II, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> <li class="in">belief of, in omens, II, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li> @@ -13454,7 +13416,7 @@ Brothels, Roman, dedication of, to Venus, II, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li> <li class="center p2">C</li> -<li>Cæsar, Caius Julius,</li> +<li>Cæsar, Caius Julius,</li> <li class="in">10th legion cowed by, II, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li> <li class="in">superstition of, II, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li> <li class="in">disbelief of, in immortality, II, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li> @@ -13467,7 +13429,7 @@ Brothels, Roman, dedication of, to Venus, II, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li> <li class="in">accusation of, against Christ, before Sanhedrin, I, 190</li> <li class="in">erratic conduct of, at trial of Christ, I, 290</li> -<li class="in">rôle of, in trial of Jesus before Pilate, II, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> +<li class="in">rôle of, in trial of Jesus before Pilate, II, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> <li class="in">biographical note on, II, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li> <li class="in">legendary examination of Joseph of Arimathea by, II, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li> @@ -13510,7 +13472,7 @@ Christ, II, <a href="#Page_344">344</a></li> <li class="in">on Roman superstition, II, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li> <li class="in">on Roman skepticism, II, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li> <li class="in">his divorce of his wife, II, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li> -<li class="in">witticism of, upon Cæsar's gallantries, II, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li> +<li class="in">witticism of, upon Cæsar's gallantries, II, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li> <li>Cities of Refuge, Jewish, internment in, I, 96-99</li> @@ -13562,7 +13524,7 @@ Coke, Sir Edward, contrast between Pilate and, II, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>-< <li>Demosthenes, on the women of Athens, II, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li> -<li><span class="err" title="original: Derembourg">Dérembourg</span>, Joseph, on the Jewish priestly families, II, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li> +<li><span class="err" title="original: Derembourg">Dérembourg</span>, Joseph, on the Jewish priestly families, II, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li> <li>Deutsch, Emanuel,</li> <li class="in">on the Talmud, I, 74, 80</li> @@ -13577,7 +13539,7 @@ Coke, Sir Edward, contrast between Pilate and, II, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>-< <li class="in">among the Romans, II, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>-<a href="#Page_239">239</a></li> <li class="in">trivial pretexts for, II, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li> -<li>Döllinger,</li> +<li>Döllinger,</li> <li class="in">on the Roman view of Christianity and high treason, II, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> <li class="in">on divorce, and the profligacy of Roman matrons, II, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li> <li class="in">on the effect of art in corrupting Greek and Roman manners, II, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li> @@ -13691,7 +13653,7 @@ of Christ, I, 181</li> <li class="in">relation of, to Mishna, I, 83. See also <a href="#Talmud">Talmud</a> and <a href="#Mishna">Mishna</a></li> <li>Germanicus,</li> -<li class="in">Cæsar temples profaned on death of, II, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li> +<li class="in">Cæsar temples profaned on death of, II, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li> <li class="in">exposure of children born on day of death of, II, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li> <li>Gestas, legendary name of one of thieves crucified with Jesus, II, <a href="#Page_364">364</a></li> @@ -13726,7 +13688,7 @@ Christ, I, 181</li> <li class="in">Bacchanalian orgies introduced by, II, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li> <li class="in">invective of Juvenal against, II, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li> -<li>Greenidge, on the interpretation of native law by Roman proprætors, +<li>Greenidge, on the interpretation of native law by Roman proprætors, II, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> <li>Greenleaf, Simon, American jurist,</li> @@ -13981,7 +13943,7 @@ Lardner, on the authenticity of the "Acts of Pilate," II, <a href="#Page_328">32 <li class="in">slaves released at, II, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> <li class="in">indecencies of, II, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li> -<li><span class="err" title="original: Lemann">Lémann</span>, extract from work of, on Sanhedrin, II, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li> +<li><span class="err" title="original: Lemann">Lémann</span>, extract from work of, on Sanhedrin, II, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li> <li>Lepidus, Marcus, Roman patrician, magnificence of, II, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li> @@ -14082,13 +14044,13 @@ subject peoples, II, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> <li>Mosaic Code, the, a basis of Hebrew Criminal Law, I, 73, 84, 85</li> -<li>Müller, Johannes, explodes legend of Pilate and Lake Lucerne, II, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> +<li>Müller, Johannes, explodes legend of Pilate and Lake Lucerne, II, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> <li class="center p2">N</li> <li>Nachum Halbalar, Jewish scribe, biographical note on, II, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li> -<li>Nævius, Marcus, accusation of Scipio Africanus by, II, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> +<li>Nævius, Marcus, accusation of Scipio Africanus by, II, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> <li>Napoleon I,</li> <li class="in">fickleness of populace toward, I, 63, 64</li> @@ -14136,7 +14098,7 @@ subject peoples, II, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> <li class="center p2">P</li> -<li>Paganism, Græco-Roman,</li> +<li>Paganism, Græco-Roman,</li> <li class="in">conflict of, with Christianity, I, 16; II, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>-<a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> <li class="in">Hellenization of Roman religion, II, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li> <li class="in">importation of foreign gods, II, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li> @@ -14161,7 +14123,7 @@ subject peoples, II, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> <li>Paley, William, on the discrepancies of the Gospels, I, 32, 33</li> -<li>Pan, Græco-Roman divinity, feasts of, II, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li> +<li>Pan, Græco-Roman divinity, feasts of, II, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li> <li>Paul, St.,</li> <li class="in">on the depravity of Rome, II, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li> @@ -14171,7 +14133,7 @@ subject peoples, II, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> <li>Pentateuch, the, a basis of Hebrew jurisprudence, I, 73</li> -<li>Permanent Tribunals (quæstiones perpetuæ), mode of trials before, at +<li>Permanent Tribunals (quæstiones perpetuæ), mode of trials before, at Rome, II, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>-<a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> <li>Peter, St.,</li> @@ -14219,7 +14181,7 @@ Rome, II, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>-<a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> <li class="in">washes his hands of Christ's death, II, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a></li> <li class="in">releases Barabbas, II, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a></li> <li class="in">summary of his conduct of Christ's trial, II, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li> -<li class="in">conduct of, compared with Cæsar, II, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>; with Sir Edward Coke, II, +<li class="in">conduct of, compared with Cæsar, II, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>; with Sir Edward Coke, II, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>-<a href="#Page_172">172</a></li> <li>Pindar, Greek poet, denunciation of, of vulgar superstitions, II, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li> @@ -14239,7 +14201,7 @@ Rome, II, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>-<a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> <li>Polybius, on Roman pederasty, II, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li> -<li>Pompeia divorced by Cæsar, II, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li> +<li>Pompeia divorced by Cæsar, II, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li> <li>Pompey, Cneius, the Great,</li> <li class="in">conquest of Palestine by, II, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> @@ -14248,12 +14210,12 @@ Rome, II, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>-<a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> <li>Pontiffs, Roman, II, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li> -<li>Poppæa, wife of Nero, deification of, II, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> +<li>Poppæa, wife of Nero, deification of, II, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> <li>Postumius, Spurius, Roman consul, suppression of Bacchanalians by, II, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>-<a href="#Page_283">283</a></li> -<li>Prætor, Roman, judicial powers of, II, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> +<li>Prætor, Roman, judicial powers of, II, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> <li>Priesthood, Roman. See Roman religion</li> @@ -14387,7 +14349,7 @@ of Christ, I, 177</li> <li>Schenck, account of, of the bloody sweat of a nun, I, 59</li> -<li>Schürer,</li> +<li>Schürer,</li> <li class="in">on the existence of the Sanhedrin at the time of Christ, I, 176</li> <li class="in">on the jurisdiction of the Sanhedrin, II, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> <li class="in">on the administration of civil law by Sanhedrin, II, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> @@ -14406,7 +14368,7 @@ of Christ, I, 177</li> <li>Scribes, Jewish Chamber of. See <a href="#Sanhedrin">Sanhedrin</a></li> <li>Segnensis, Henricus, anecdote of, -illustrative of mediæval ignorance regarding Talmud, II, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> +illustrative of mediæval ignorance regarding Talmud, II, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> <li>Semiramis, Assyrian queen, origin of crucifixion imputed to, II, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> @@ -14427,7 +14389,7 @@ paraphrasing of anthropomorphic passages in, I, 237</li> <li class="in">images of thrown down, II, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> <li class="in">Marcus Aurelius an adorer of, II, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li> -<li>Servilia, mistress of Julius Cæsar, II, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li> +<li>Servilia, mistress of Julius Cæsar, II, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li> <li>Shammai, School of,</li> <li class="in">and the Mishna, I, 79</li> @@ -14439,7 +14401,7 @@ paraphrasing of anthropomorphic passages in, I, 237</li> <li>Sibylline Books, II, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li> -<li>Sibyl, Erythræan, Virgil inspired by, II, <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li> +<li>Sibyl, Erythræan, Virgil inspired by, II, <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li> <li>Simon, Jewish rebel, revolt of, II, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> @@ -14462,7 +14424,7 @@ Simon ben Camithus, Jewish high priest, biographical note on, II, <a href="#Page <li class="in">under Hebrew law, I, 95</li> <li class="in">account of, among Romans, II, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li> -<li>Social life, Græco-Roman,</li> +<li>Social life, Græco-Roman,</li> <li class="in">marriage and divorce, II, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>-<a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> <li class="in">prostitution, II, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>-<a href="#Page_244">244</a></li> <li class="in">luxury and extravagance, II, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>-<a href="#Page_249">249</a></li> @@ -14574,7 +14536,7 @@ against Jesus, II, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li> <li>Three, Jewish Courts of, jurisdiction of, I, 124</li> -<li>Tiberius Cæsar, Roman emperor,</li> +<li>Tiberius Cæsar, Roman emperor,</li> <li class="in">sway of, II, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> <li class="in">character of, II, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> <li class="in">prosecutions of, for treason, II, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> @@ -14593,7 +14555,7 @@ Pilate," II, <a href="#Page_345">345</a> <i>seq.</i></li> <li class="in">during the regal period, II, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> <li class="in">Roman, mode of, in the Comitia Centuriata, II, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>-<a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> <li class="in">mode of, in the Permanent Tribunals, II, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>-<a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> -<li class="in">prosecutor, rôle and selection of, II, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> +<li class="in">prosecutor, rôle and selection of, II, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> <li><a name="Trial_of_Jesus_Hebrew" id="Trial_of_Jesus_Hebrew"></a>Trial of Jesus, Hebrew,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_405" id="Page_405">405</a></span></li> <li class="in">nature of charge against Jesus before Sanhedrin, I, 187</li> @@ -14662,7 +14624,7 @@ priest, I, 290, 291</li> <li>Vitia, Roman matron, executed for treason, II, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> -<li>Voltaire, François de,</li> +<li>Voltaire, François de,</li> <li class="in">account of, of the bloody sweat of Charles IX, I, 59</li> <li class="in">on character of Christ, II, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li> @@ -14724,12 +14686,12 @@ Christ, I, 175, 179</li> <li>Dysmas, legendary name of one of <span class="u">the</span> thieves crucified with Jesus, II, 364</li> <li>Derembourg, Joseph, on the Jewish priestly families, II, 294</li> -<li><span class="u">Dérembourg</span>, Joseph, on the Jewish priestly families, II, 294</li> +<li><span class="u">Dérembourg</span>, Joseph, on the Jewish priestly families, II, 294</li> </ul> <p>p. <a href="#Page_397">397</a>:</p> <ul> <li>Lemann, extract from work of, on Sanhedrin, II, 291</li> -<li><span class="u">Lémann</span>, extract from work of, on Sanhedrin, II, 291</li></ul> +<li><span class="u">Lémann</span>, extract from work of, on Sanhedrin, II, 291</li></ul> <p>p. <a href="#Page_402">402</a>:</p> <ul> @@ -14739,391 +14701,16 @@ Christ, I, 175, 179</li> <p>Footnote <a href="#Footnote_15_15">15</a>:</p> <ul> <li> -Geschichte des römischen criminalprocesses</li> -<li>Geschichte des römischen <span class="u">Criminalprocesses</span></li> +Geschichte des römischen criminalprocesses</li> +<li>Geschichte des römischen <span class="u">Criminalprocesses</span></li> </ul> <p>Footnote <a href="#Footnote_152_152">152</a>:</p> <ul><li>Renan, "Les Apotres."</li> -<li>Renan, "Les <span class="u">Apôtres</span>."</li> +<li>Renan, "Les <span class="u">Apôtres</span>."</li> </ul> </div> - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Trial of Jesus from a Lawyer's -Standpoint, Vol. II (of II), by Walter M. 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