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diff --git a/41902.txt b/41902.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 12ce19d..0000000 --- a/41902.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,20827 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, -Volume 16, Slice 1, by Various - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 16, Slice 1 - "L" to "Lamellibranchia" - -Author: Various - -Release Date: January 23, 2013 [EBook #41902] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** - - - - -Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - -Transcriber's notes: - -(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally - printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an - underscore, like C_n. - -(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. - -(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective - paragraphs. - -(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not - inserted. - -(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek - letters. - -(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: - - ARTICLE LABYRINTHULIDEA: "From each cyst ultimately emerges a - single amoeba, or more rarely four (figs. 6, 7)." 'amoeba' amended - from 'amoebae'. - - ARTICLE LACE: "... upon the lace-making industry in - Buckinghamshire, Bedfordshire and Northamptonshire contains many - illustrations of laces made in these counties from the 17th century - to the present time." 'Bedfordshire' amended from 'Bedforshire'. - - ARTICLE LACONIA: "The coast, especially on the east, is rugged and - dangerous." 'especially' amended from 'expecially'. - - ARTICLE LA FARGE, JOHN: "Hokusai: A Talk about Hokusai (New York, - 1897), and An Artist's Letters from Japan (New York, 1897)." - 'Hokusai' amended from 'Hoksuai'. - - ARTICLE LAMELLIBRANCHIA: "The series of oval holes on the back of - the lamella are the water-pores which open between the filaments in - irregular rows separated horizontally by the transverse - inter-filamentar junctions." 'filamentar' amended from 'filmentar'. - - - - - THE - - ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA - - ELEVENTH EDITION - - - - - FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 1768-1771. - SECOND " " ten " 1777-1784. - THIRD " " eighteen " 1788-1797. - FOURTH " " twenty " 1801-1810. - FIFTH " " twenty " 1815-1817. - SIXTH " " twenty " 1823-1824. - SEVENTH " " twenty-one " 1830-1842. - EIGHTH " " twenty-two " 1853-1860. - NINTH " " twenty-five " 1875-1889. - TENTH " ninth edition and eleven - supplementary volumes, 1902-1903. - ELEVENTH " published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910-1911. - - - COPYRIGHT - - in all countries subscribing to the Bern Convention - - by - - THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS - of the - UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE - - _All rights reserved_ - - - - - THE - - ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA - - A DICTIONARY OF - ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION - - ELEVENTH EDITION - - VOLUME XVI - L to LORD ADVOCATE - - New York - - Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. - 342 Madison Avenue - - Copyright, in the United States of America, 1910, - by - The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company. - - - VOLUME XVI, SLICE I - - L to Lamellibranchia - - -ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: - - L LA FARINA, GIUSEPPE - LAACHER SEE LA FAYETTE, GILBERT MOTIER DE - LAAGER LA FAYETTE, LOUISE DE - LAAS, ERNST LA FAYETTE, ROCH GILBERT DU MOTIER - LA BADIE, JEAN DE LA FAYETTE, PIOCHE DE LA VERGNE - LABEL LAFAYETTE - LABEO, MARCUS ANTISTIUS LA FERTE - LABERIUS, DECIMUS LA FERTE-BERNARD - LABIATAE LA FERTE-MILON - LABICANA, VIA LAFFITTE, JACQUES - LABICHE, EUGENE MARIN LAFFITTE, PIERRE - LABICI LA FLECHE - LABID LAFONT, PIERRE CHERI - LABIENUS LA FONTAINE, JEAN DE - LABLACHE, LUIGI LAFONTAINE, SIR LOUIS HIPPOLYTE - LABOR DAY LAFOSSE, CHARLES DE - LA BOURBOULE LAGARDE, PAUL ANTON DE - LABOUR CHURCH, THE LAGASH - LA BOURDONNAIS, FRANCOIS LAGHMAN - LABOUR EXCHANGE LAGOON - LABOUR LEGISLATION LAGOS (province of Nigeria) - LABOUR PARTY LAGOS (seaport of Nigeria) - LABRADOR LAGOS (seaport of Portugal) - LABRADORITE LA GRACE - LABRADOR TEA LA GRAND' COMBE - LABRUM LAGRANGE, JOSEPH LOUIS - LA BRUYERE, JEAN DE LAGRANGE-CHANCEL, FRANCOIS JOSEPH - LABUAN LA GRANJA - LABURNUM LAGRENEE, LOUIS JEAN FRANCOIS - LABYRINTH LA GUAIRA - LABYRINTHULIDEA LA GUERONNIERE, DUBREUIL HELION - LAC LAGUERRE, JEAN HENRI GEORGES - LACAILLE, NICOLAS LOUIS DE LAGUNA - LACAITA, SIR JAMES LA HARPE, JEAN FRANCOIS DE - LA CALLE LAHIRE, LAURENT DE - LA CALPRENEDE, COSTES LAHN - LA CARLOTA LAHNDA - LACCADIVE ISLANDS LA HOGUE, BATTLE OF - LACCOLITE LAHORE - LACE LA HOZ Y MOTA, JUAN CLAUDIO DE - LACE-BARK TREE LAHR - LACEDAEMON LAIBACH - LACEPEDE, BERNARD DE LA VILLE LAIDLAW, WILLIAM - LACEWING-FLY LAING, ALEXANDER GORDON - LA CHAISE, FRANCOIS DE LAING, DAVID - LA CHAISE-DIEU LAING, MALCOLM - LA CHALOTAIS, DE CARADEUC DE LAING, SAMUEL - LA CHARITE LAING'S NEK - LA CHAUSSEE, NIVELLE DE LAIRD, MACGREGOR - LACHES LAIS - LACHINE LAISANT, CHARLES ANNE - LACHISH LAI-YANG - LACHMANN, FRIEDRICH WILHELM LAKANAL, JOSEPH - LACINIUM, PROMUNTURIUM LAKE, GERARD LAKE - LA CIOTAT LAKE - LA CLOCHE, JAMES DE LAKE CHARLES - LA CONDAMINE, CHARLES MARIE DE LAKE CITY - LACONIA (Peloponnese district) LAKE DISTRICT - LACONIA (New Hampshire, U.S.A.) LAKE DWELLINGS - LACONICUM LAKE GENEVA - LACORDAIRE, JEAN BAPTISTE HENRI LAKE OF THE WOODS - LACQUER LAKE PLACID - LACRETELLE, PIERRE LOUIS DE LAKEWOOD - LACROIX, ANTOINE FRANCOIS ALFRED LAKH - LACROIX, PAUL LAKHIMPUR - LACROMA LAKSHMI - LA CROSSE LALAING, JACQUES DE - LACROSSE LALANDE, JOSEPH JEROME LEFRANCAIS DE - LA CRUZ, RAMON DE LALIN - LACRYMATORY LA LINEA - LACTANTIUS FIRMIANUS LALITPUR - LACTIC ACID LALLY, THOMAS ARTHUR - LACTONES LALLY-TOLLENDAL, TROPHIME GERARD - LA CUEVA, JUAN DE LALO, EDOUARD - LACUNAR LA MADDALENA - LACUZON LAMAISM - LACY, FRANZ MORITZ LAMALOU-LES-BAINS - LACY, HARRIETTE DEBORAH LAMA-MIAO - LACY, MICHAEL ROPHINO LAMAR, LUCIUS QUINTUS CINCINNATUS - LACYDES OF CYRENE LAMARCK, ANTOINE DE MONET - LADAKH AND BALTISTAN LA MARGHERITA, CLEMENTE SOLARO - LADD, GEORGE TRUMBULL LA MARMORA, ALFONSO FERRERO - LADDER LAMARTINE, LOUIS DE PRAT DE - LADING LAMB, CHARLES - LADISLAUS I LAMB - LADISLAUS IV. LAMBALLE, LOUISE OF SAVOY-CARIGNANO - LADISLAUS V. LAMBALLE - LA DIXMERIE, NICOLAS BRICAIRE DE LAMBAYEQUE - LADO ENCLAVE LAMBEAUX, JEF - LADOGA LAMBERMONT, AUGUSTE - LADY LAMBERT, DANIEL - LADYBANK LAMBERT, FRANCIS - LADYBRAND LAMBERT, JOHANN HEINRICH - LADY-CHAPEL LAMBERT, JOHN (English martyr) - LADY DAY LAMBERT, JOHN (English general) - LADYSMITH LAMBERT OF HERSFELD - LAELIUS LAMBESSA - LAENAS LAMBETH - LAER, PIETER VAN LAMBETH CONFERENCES - LAESTRYGONES LAMBINUS, DIONYSIUS - LAETUS, JULIUS POMPONIUS LAMBOURN - LAEVIUS LAMECH - LAEVULINIC ACID LAMEGO - LA FARGE, JOHN LAMELLIBRANCHIA - - - - -INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XVI. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS,[1] -WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. - - - A. B. Ch. - A. B. CHATWOOD, B.SC., A.M.INST.C.E., M.INST.ELEC.E. - - Lock. - - A. B. R. - ALFRED BARTON RENDLE, M.A., D.SC, F.R.S., F.L.S. - - Keeper, Department of Botany, British Museum. Author of _Text Book - on Classification of Flowering Plants, &c._ - - Leaf. - - A. C. F. - ALEXANDER CAMPBELL FRASER, LL.D. - - See the biographical article: FRASER, A. C. - - Locke, John. - - A. C. S. - ALGERNON CHARLES SWINBURNE. - - See the biographical article: SWINBURNE, A. C. - - Landor. - - A. D. - HENRY AUSTIN DOBSON, LL.D. - - See the biographical article: Dobson, HENRY AUSTIN. - - Locker-Lampson. - - A. Fi. - PIERRE MARIE AUGUSTE FILON. - - See the biographical article: FILON, P. M. A. - - Labiche. - - A. F. P. - ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HIST.SOC. - - Professor of English History in the University of London. Fellow - of All Souls' College, Oxford. Assistant editor of the Dictionary - of National Biography, 1893-1901. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1892; - Arnold Prizeman, 1898. Author of _England under the Protector - Somerset_; _Henry VIII._; _Life of Thomas Cranmer_; &c. - - Lambert, Francis; - Lambert, Nicholson. - - A. Gl. - ARNOLD GLOVER, M.A., LL.B. (d. 1905) - - Trinity College, Cambridge; Joint-editor of _Beaumont and - Fletcher_ for the Cambridge University Press. - - Layard. - - A. Go.* - REV. ALEXANDER GORDON, M.A. - - Lecturer in Church History in the University of Manchester. - - Laurentius, Paul; - Libertines. - - A. G. D. - ARTHUR GEORGE DOUGHTY, C.M.G., M.A., LITT.D., F.R.HIST.S., - F.R.S.(Canada). - - Dominion Archivist of Canada. Member of the Geographical Board of - Canada. Author of _The Cradle of New France_; &c. Joint editor of - _Documents relating to the Constitutional History of Canada_. - - Lafontaine. - - A. H. S. - REV. ARCHIBALD HENRY SAYCE, LITT.D., LL.D. - - See the biographical article: SAYCE, A. H. - - Laodicea. - - A. J. G. - REV. ALEXANDER JAMES GRIEVE, M.A., B.D. - - Professor of New Testament and Church History, Yorkshire United - Independent College, Bradford. Sometime Registrar of Madras - University, and Member of Mysore Educational Service. - - Logos (_in part_). - - A. J. L. - ANDREW JACKSON LAMOUREUX. - - Librarian, College of Agriculture, Cornell University. Editor of - the _Rio News_ (Rio de Janeiro), 1879-1901. - - Lima (_Peru_). - - A. L. - ANDREW LANG. - - See the biographical article: LANG, ANDREW. - - La Cloche. - - A. M. An. - ADELAIDE MARY ANDERSON, M.A. - - H.M. Principal Lady Inspector of Factories, Home Office. Clerk to - the Royal Commission on Labour, 1892-1894. Gamble Gold Medallist, - Girton College, Cambridge, 1893. Author of various articles on - Industrial Life and Legislation, &c. - - Labour Legislation. - - A. M. C. - AGNES MARY CLERKE. - - See the biographical article: CLERKE, A. M. - - Lagrange; - Laplace; - Leverrier. - - A. N. - ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S. - - See the biographical article: NEWTON, ALFRED. - - Lammergeyer; - Lapwing; - Lark; - Linnet; - Loom. - - A. P. C. - ARTHUR PHILEMON COLEMAN, M.A., PH.D., F.R.S. - - Professor of Geology in the University of Toronto. Geologist, - Bureau of Mines, Toronto, 1893-1910. Author of _Reports of the - Bureau of Mines of Ontario_. - - Labrador (_in part_). - - A. P. Lo. - ALBERT PETER LOW. - - Deputy Minister of Department of Mines, Canada. Member of - Geological Survey of Canada. Author of _Report on the Exploration - in the Labrador Peninsula_; &c. - - Labrador (_in part_). - - A. Se.* - ADAM SEDGWICK, M.A., F.R.S. - - Professor of Zoology at the Imperial College of Science and - Technology, London. Fellow, and formerly Tutor, of Trinity - College, Cambridge. Professor of Zoology in the University of - Cambridge, 1907-1909. - - Larval Forms. - - A. Sl. - ARTHUR SHADWELL, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.C.P. - - Member of Council of Epidemiological Society. Author of _The - London Water-Supply_; _Industrial Efficiency_; _Drink, Temperance - and Legislation_. - - Liquor Laws. - - A. So. - ALBRECHT SOCIN, PH.D. (1844-1899). - - Formerly Professor of Semitic Philology in the Universities of - Leipzig and Tubingen. Author of _Arabische Grammatik_; &c. - - Lebanon (_in part_). - - A. S. C. - ALAN SUMMERLY COLE, C.B. - - Assistant Secretary for Art, Board of Education, 1900-1908. Author - of _Ancient Needle Point and Pillow Lace_; _Embroidery and Lace_; - _Ornament in European Silks_; &c. - - Lace. - - A. St H. G. - ALFRED ST HILL GIBBONS. - - Major, East Yorkshire Regiment. Explorer in South Central Africa. - Author of _Africa from South to North through Marotseland._ - - Lewanika. - - A. S. M. - ALEXANDER STUART MURRAY, LL.D. - - See the biographical article: MURRAY, ALEXANDER STUART. - - Lamp. - - A. S. W. - AUGUSTUS SAMUEL WILKINS, M.A., LL.D., LITT.D. (1843-1905). - - Professor of Latin, Owens College, Manchester, 1869-1905. Author - of _Roman Literature_; &c. - - Latin Language (_in part_). - - A. T. T. - A. T. THORSON. - - Official in Life Saving Service, U.S.A. - - Life-boat: _United States_. - - A. W. H.* - ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND. - - Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of - Gray's Inn, 1900. - - Leopold I. (_Roman Emperor_); - Levellers. - - A. W. Hu. - REV. ARTHUR WOLLASTON HUTTON, M.A. - - Rector of Bow Church, Cheapside. Librarian National Liberal Club, - 1889-1899. Author of _Life of Cardinal Newman_; _Life of Cardinal - Manning_; &c. - - Leo XIII. - - A. W. R. - ALEXANDER WOOD RENTON, M.A., LL.B. - - Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. Editor of - _Encyclopaedia of the Laws of England_. - - Landlord and Tenant; - Letters Patent; - Lodger and Lodgings. - - A. W. W. - ADOLPHUS WILLIAM WARD, LITT.D., LL.D. - - See the biographical article: WARD, ADOLPHUS WILLIAM. - - Lodge, Thomas. - - B. D. J. - BENJAMIN DAYDON JACKSON, PH.D. - - General Secretary of the Linnean Society. Secretary to - Departmental Committee of H.M. Treasury on Botanical Work, - 1900-1901. Author of _Glossary of Botanic Terms_; &c. - - Linnaeus. - - C. - THE RT. HON. THE EARL OF CREWE. - - See the biographical article: CREWE, 1ST EARL OF. - - Laprade. - - C. C. W. - CHARLES CRAWFORD WHINERY, A.M. - - Cornell University. Assistant editor 11th Edition of the - _Encyclopaedia Britannica_. - - La Salle; - Lincoln, Abraham (_in part_). - - C. Di. - CHARLES DIBDIN. F.R.G.S. - - Secretary of the Royal National Life-boat Institution. Hon. - Secretary of the Civil Service Life-boat Fund, 1870-1906. - - Life-boat: _British_. - - C. D. W. - HON. CARROLL DAVIDSON WRIGHT. - - See the biographical article: WRIGHT, HON. CARROLL DAVIDSON. - - Labour Legislation: _United States_. - - C. E.* - CHARLES EVERITT. M.A., F.C.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S. - - Formerly Scholar of Magdalen College, Oxford. - - Light: _Introduction and History_. - - C. F. A. - CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON. - - Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of - London (Royal Fusiliers). Author of _The Wilderness and Cold - Harbour_. - - Long Island (_Battle_). - - C. F.-Br. - CHARLES FORTESCUE-BRICKDALE. - - Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Registrar of the Office of the - Land Registry, Lincoln's Inn Fields. Author of _Registration of - Title to Land_; _The Practice of the Land Registry_; _Land - Transfer in Various Countries_; &c. - - Land Registration. - - C. H.* - SIR CHARLES HOLROYD. - - See the biographical article: HOLROYD, SIR CHARLES. - - Legros. - - C. H. Ha. - CARLTON HUNTLEY HAYES, A.M., PH.D. - - Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York - City. Member of the American Historical Association. - - Leo I.-X. (_Popes_). - - C. J. B.* - REV. CHARLES JAMES BALL, M.A. - - University Lecturer in Assyriology, Oxford. Author of _Light from - the East_. - - Lamentations. - - C. L. K. - CHARLES LETHBRIDGE KINGSFORD, MA., F.R.HIST.S., F.S.A. - - Assistant Secretary, Board of Education. Author of _Life of Henry - V._ Editor of _Chronicles of London_ and Stow's _Survey of - London_. - - Lancaster, John of Gaunt, duke of. - - C. M. - CARL THEODOR MIRBT, D.TH. - - Professor of Church History in the University of Marburg. Author - of _Publizistik im Zeitalter Gregor VII._; _Quellen zur Geschichte - des Papstthums_; &c. - - Lateran Councils. - - C. Mo. - WILLIAM COSMO MONKHOUSE. - - See the biographical article: MONKHOUSE, W. C. - - Leighton, Lord. - - C. R. B. - CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.LITT., F.R.G.S., F.R.HIST.S. - - Professor of Modem History in the University of Birmingham. - Formerly Fellow of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer - in the History of Geography. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889. - Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of _Henry the Navigator_; - _The Dawn of Modern Geography_; &c. - - Leif Ericsson; - Leo, Johannes. - - De B. - HENRI G. S. A. DE BLOWITZ. - - See the biographical article: BLOWITZ, H. DE. - - Lesseps, Ferdinand de. - - D. F. T. - DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY. - - Author of _Essays in Musical Analysis_: comprising _The Classical - Concerto_, _The Goldberg Variations_, and analysis of many other - classical works. - - Lasso, Orlando. - - D. G. H. - DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A. - - Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen - College, Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at - Paphos, 1888; Naucratis, 1899 and 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; - Assiut, 1906-1907; Director, British School at Athens, 1897-1900; - Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899. - - Latakia; - Lebanon (_in part_). - - D. H. - DAVID HANNAY. - - Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of _Short - History of the Royal Navy_; _Life of Emilio Castelar_; &c. - - La Hogue, Battle of; - Lauria, Roger de; - Lepanto, Battle of; - Lissa. - - D. Ll. T. - DANIEL LLEUFER THOMAS. - - Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Stipendiary Magistrate at - Pontypridd and Rhondda. - - Llantwit Major. - - D. Mn. - REV. DUGALD MACFADYEN, M.A. - - Minister of South Grove Congregational Church, Highgate. Author of - _Constructive Congregational Ideals_; &c. - - Leighton, Robert (_in part_). - - D. M. W. - SIR DONALD MACKENZIE WALLACE, K.C.I.E., K.C.V.O. - - Extra Groom of the Bedchamber to H.M. King George V. Director of - the Foreign Department of _The Times_, 1891-1899. Member of the - Institut de Droit International and Officier de l'Instruction - Publique (France). Joint-editor of New Volumes (10th ed.) of the - _Encyclopaedia Britannica_. Author of _Russia_; _Egypt and the - Egyptian Question_; _The Web of Empire_; &c. - - Lobanov-Rostovski. - - E. B.* - ERNEST CHARLES FRANCOIS BABELON. - - Professor at the College de France. Keeper of the department of - Medals and Antiquities at the Bibliotheque Nationale. Member of - the Academie des Inscriptions et de Belles Lettres, Paris. - Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of _Descriptions - Historiques des Monnaies de la Republique Romaine_; _Traites des - Monnaies Grecques et Romaines_; _Catalogue des Camees de la - Bibliotheque Nationale_. - - Leptis. - - E. C. B. - EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, O.S.B., M.A., D.LITT. (Dublin). - - Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of "The Lausiac History of - Palladius," in _Cambridge Texts and Studies_, vol. vi. - - Leo, Brother. - - E. Da. - EDWARD GEORGE DANNREUTHER (1844-1905). - - Member of Board of Professors, Royal College of Music, 1895-1905. - Conducted the first Wagner Concerts in London, 1873-1874. Author - of _The Music of the Future_; &c. Editor of a critical edition of - Liszt's _Etudes_. - - Liszt. - - E. D. J. W. - EDWARD D. J. WILSON. - - Formerly Leader-writer on _The Times_. - - Londonderry, 2nd Marquess of. - - E. G. - EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D., D.C.L. - - See the biographical article: GOSSE, EDMUND. - - Lampoon; - Lie, Jonas L. E. - - E. Ga. - EMILE GARCKE, M.INST.E.E. - - Managing Director of British Electric Traction Co., Ltd. Author of - _Manual of Electrical Undertakings_; &c. - - Lighting: _Electric (Commercial Aspects)_. - - E. He. - EDWARD HEAWOOD, M.A. - - Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Librarian of the Royal - Geographical Society, London. - - Livingstone Mountains. - - E. J. D. - EDWARD JOSEPH DENT, M.A., MUS.BAC. - - Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Author of _A. - Scarlatti: his Life and Works_. - - Leo, Leonardo. - - E. O.* - EDMUND OWEN, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.SC. - - Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the - Children's Hospital, Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the - Legion of Honour. Late Examiner in Surgery at the Universities of - Cambridge, London and Durham. Author of _A Manual of Anatomy for - Senior Students_. - - Liver: _Surgery of Liver and Gall Bladder_. - - E. Pr. - EDGAR PRESTAGE. - - Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of - Manchester. Examiner in Portuguese in the Universities of London, - Manchester, &c. Commendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. - Corresponding Member of Lisbon Royal Academy of Sciences, Lisbon - Geographical Society, &c. Author of _Letters of a Portuguese Nun_; - _Azurara's Chronicle of Guinea_; &c. - - Lobo, F. R.; - Lopes, Fernao. - - E. R. L. - SIR EDWIN RAY LANKESTER, K.C.B., F.R.S., D.SC. - - Hon. Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford. Director of the Natural - History Departments of the British Museum, 1898-1907. President of - the British Association, 1906. Professor of Zoology and - Comparative Anatomy in University College, London, 1874-1890. - Linacre Professor of Comparative Anatomy at Oxford, 1891-1898. - Vice-President of the Royal Society, 1896. Romanes Lecturer at - Oxford, 1905. Author of _Degeneration_; _The Advancement of - Science_; _The Kingdom of Man_; &c. - - Lamellibranchia (_in part_). - - E. V. L. - EDWARD VERRALL LUCAS. - - Editor of _Works of Charles Lamb_. Author of _Life of Charles - Lamb_. - - Lamb, Charles. - - F. E. B. - FRANK EVERS BEDDARD, M.A., F.R.S. - - Prosector of Zoological Society, London. Formerly Lecturer in - Biology at Guy's Hospital, London. Naturalist to "Challenger" - Expedition Commission, 1882-1884. Author of _Monograph of the - Oligochaeta_; _Animal Colouration_; &c. - - Leech. - - F. E. W. - REV. FREDERICK EDWARD WARREN, M.A., B.D., F.S.A. - - Rector of Bardwell, Bury St Edmunds. Fellow of St John's College, - Oxford, 1865-1882. Author of _The Old Catholic Ritual done into - English and compared with the Corresponding Offices in the Roman - and Old German Manuals_; _The Liturgy and Ritual of the Celtic - Church_; &c. - - Lection, Lectionary; - Lector; - Litany; - Liturgy. - - F. G. M. B. - FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A. - - Fellow and Lecturer in Classics, Clare College, Cambridge. - - Lombards (_in part_). - - F. G. P. - FREDERICK GYMER PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.ANTHROP.INST. - - Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. - Lecturer on Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School - of Medicine for Women. Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal - College of Surgeons. - - Liver: _Anatomy_. - - F. J. H. - FRANCIS JOHN HAVERFIELD, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A. - - Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. - Fellow of Brasenose College. Ford's Lecturer, 1906-1907. Fellow of - the British Academy. Author of Monographs on Roman History, - especially Roman Britain; &c. - - Legion (_in part_); - Limes Germanicus. - - F. L.* - SIR FRANKLIN LUSHINGTON, M.A. - - Formerly Chief Police Magistrate for London. Author of Wagers of - Battle. - - Lear, Edward. - - F. V. B. - F. VINCENT BROOKS. - - Lithography. - - F. v. H. - BARON FRIEDRICH VON HUGEL. - - Member of Cambridge Philological Society; Member of Hellenic - Society. Author of _The Mystical Element of Religion_. - - Loisy. - - F. Wa. - FRANCIS WATT, M.A. - - Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. Author of _Law's Lumber Room_; - _Scotland of to-day_; &c. - - Law, John. - - F. W. R.* - FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S. - - Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, - 1879-1902. President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889. - - Labradorite; - Lapis Lazuli. - - F. W. Ra. - FRANCIS WILLIAM RAIKES, K.C., LL.D. (1842-1906). - - Judge of County Courts, Hull, 1898-1906. Joint-author of _The New - Practice_; &c. - - Lien. - - G. A. Gr. - GEORGE ABRAHAM GRIERSON, C.I.E., PH.D., D.LITT. (Dubl.). - - Member of the Indian Civil Service, 1873-1903. In charge of - Linguistic Survey of India, 1898-1902. Gold Medallist, Royal - Asiatic Society, 1909. Vice-President of the Royal Asiatic - Society. Formerly Fellow of Calcutta University. Author of _The - Languages of India_; &c. - - Lahnda. - - G. E. - REV. GEORGE EDMUNDSON. M.A., F.R.HIST.S. - - Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. Ford's - Lecturer, 1909-1910. Employed by British Government in preparation - of the British Case in the British Guiana-Venezuelan and British - Guiana-Brazilian boundary arbitrations. - - Limburg. - - G. F. B. - GEORGE FREDERICK BARWICK. - - Assistant-Keeper of Printed Books and Superintendent of - Reading-room, British Museum. - - Lavigerie. - - G. F. K. - GEORGE FREDERICK KUNZ, A.M., PH.D., D.SC. - - Gem Expert to Messrs Tiffany & Co., New York. Hon. Curator of - Precious Stones, American Museum of Natural History, New York. - Fellow of Geological Society of America. Author of _Precious - Stones of North America_; &c. Senior Editor of _Book of the - Pearl_. - - Lapidary and Gem-cutting. - - G. H. C. - GEORGE HERBERT CARPENTER, B.SC. - - Professor of Zoology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. - Author of _Insects: Their Structure and Life_. - - Lepidoptera. - - G. Sa. - GEORGE SAINTSBURY, D.C.L., LL.D. - - See the biographical article: SAINTSBURY, GEORGE E. B. - - La Bruyere; - La Fontaine; - Lamartine; - La Rochefoucauld; - Le Sage. - - G. S. L. - GEORGE SOMES LAYARD. - - Trinity College, Cambridge. Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Author - of _Charles Keene_; _Shirley Brooks_; &c. - - Linton, William James. - - G. W. T. - REV. GRIFFITHES WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D. - - Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew - and Old Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford. - - Labid. - - H. A. L. - HENDRIK ANTOON LORENTZ. - - Professor of Physics in the University of Leiden. Author of _La - theorie electromagnetique de Maxwell et son application aux corps - mouvants_. - - Light: _Nature of_. - - H. B. W.* - HENRY BENJAMIN WHEATLEY, F.S.A. - - Assistant Secretary, Royal Society of Arts, 1879-1909. President - of the Samuel Pepys Club, 1903-1910. Vice-President of the - Bibliographical Society, 1908-1910. Author of _The Story of - London_; _London Past and Present_; &c. - - London: _History_. - - H. B. Wo. - HORACE BOLINGBROKE WOODWARD, F.R.S., F.G.S. - - Formerly Assistant Director of the Geological Survey of England - and Wales. President Geologists' Association, 1893-1894. Wollaston - Medallist, 1908. - - Logan, Sir William E.; - Lonsdale, William. - - H. Ch. - HUGH CHISHOLM, M.A. - - Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Editor of the - 11th edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_; Co-editor of the - 10th edition. - - Lloyd George, D. - - H. De. - REV. HIPPOLYTE DELEHAYE, S.J. - - Bollandist. Joint-author of the _Acta Sanctorum_. - - Lawrence, St; - Linus. - - H. F. G. - HANS FRIEDRICH GADOW, M.A., F.R.S., PH.D. - - Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of - Cambridge. Author of _Amphibia and Reptiles_ (Cambridge Natural - History). - - Lizard. - - H. F. P. - HENRY FRANCIS PELHAM, LL.D. - - See the biographical article: PELHAM, H. F. - - Livy (_in part_). - - H. H. J. - SIR HENRY HAMILTON JOHNSTON, K.C.B., G.C.M.G. - - See the biographical article: JOHNSTON, SIR HENRY HAMILTON. - - Liberia. - - H. M. S. - HENRY MORSE STEPHENS, M.A., LITT.D. - - Professor of History and Director of University Extension, - University of California. Author of _History of the French - Revolution_; _Revolutionary Europe_; &c. - - Littre. - - H. R. T. - HENRY RICHARD TEDDER, F.S.A. - - Secretary and Librarian of the Athenaeum Club, London. - - Libraries (_in part_). - - H. St. - HENRY STURT, M.A. - - Author of _Idola Theatri_; _The Idea of a Free Church_; and - _Personal Idealism_. - - Lange, Friedrich Albert. - - H. T. A. - REV. HERBERT THOMAS ANDREWS. - - Professor of New Testament Exegesis, New College, London. Author - of the "Commentary on Acts," in the _Westminster New Testament_; - _Handbook on the Apocryphal Books_ in the "Century Bible." - - Logia. - - H. W. B.* - HERBERT WILLIAM BLUNT, M.A. - - Student, Tutor, and Librarian, Christ Church, Oxford. Formerly - Fellow of All Souls' College. - - Logic: _History_. - - H. W. C. D. - HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A. - - Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls' - College, Oxford, 1895-1902. Author of _Charlemagne_; _England - under the Normans and Angevins_; &c. - - Lanfranc; - Langton, Stephen. - - H. Y. - SIR HENRY YULE, K.C.S.I. - - See the biographical article: YULE, SIR HENRY. - - Lhasa (_in part_). - - I. A. - ISRAEL ABRAHAMS. - - Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of - Cambridge. Formerly President, Jewish Historical Society of - England. Author of _A Short History of Jewish Literature_; _Jewish - Life in the Middle Ages_; _Judaism_; &c. - - Lazarus, Emma; - Leon, Moses; - Leon of Modena. - - J. An. - JOSEPH ANDERSON, LL.D. - - Keeper of the National Museum of Antiquities, Edinburgh. Assistant - Secretary to the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, and Rhind - Lecturer, 1879-1882 and 1892. Editor of Drummond's _Ancient - Scottish Weapons_; &c. - - Lake Dwellings. - - J. A. F. - JOHN AMBROSE FLEMING, M.A., D.SC., F.R.S. - - Pender Professor of Electrical Engineering in the University of - London. Fellow of University College, London. Formerly Fellow of - St John's College, Cambridge. Vice-President of the Institution of - Electrical Engineers. Author of _The Principles of Electric Wave - Telegraphy_; _Magnets and Electric Currents_; &c. - - Leyden Jar; - Lighting: _Electric_. - - J. A. F. M. - JOHN ALEXANDER FULLER MAITLAND, M.A., F.S.A. - - Musical critic of _The Times_. Author of _Life of Schumann_; _The - Musician's Pilgrimage_; _Masters of German Music_; _English Music - in the Nineteenth Century_; _The Age of Bach and Handel_. Editor - of _Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians_; &c. - - Lind, Jenny. - - J. A. H. - JOHN ALLEN HOWE, B.SC. - - Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. - Author of _The Geology of Building Stones_; &c. - - Lias; - Llandovery Group. - - J. Dr. - SIR JAMES DEWAR, F.R.S., LL.D. - - See the biographical article: DEWAR, SIR J. - - Liquid Gases. - - J. D. B. - JAMES DAVID BOURCHIER, M.A., F.R.G.S. - - King's College, Cambridge. Correspondent of _The Times_ in - South-Eastern Europe. Commander of the Orders of Prince Danilo of - Montenegro and of the Saviour of Greece, and Officer of the Order - of St Alexander of Bulgaria. - - Larissa. - - J. D. Br. - JAMES DUFF BROWN. - - Borough Librarian, Islington Public Libraries. Vice-President of - the Library Association. Author of _Guide to Librarianship_; &c. - - Libraries (_in part_). - - J. F.-K. - JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLY, LITT.D., F.R.HIST.S. - - Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool - University. Norman McColl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow - of the British Academy. Member of the Royal Spanish Academy. - Knight Commander of the Order of Alphonso XII. Author of _A - History of Spanish Literature_; &c. - - La Cueva; - Larra; - Literature. - - J. F. St. - JOHN FREDERICK STENNING, M.A. - - Dean and Fellow of Wadham College, Oxford. University Lecturer in - Aramaic, Lecturer in Divinity and Hebrew at Wadham College. - - Leviticus. - - J. Ga. - JAMES GAIRDNER, C.B., LL.D. - - See the biographical article: GAIRDNER, JAMES. - - Lancaster, House of; - Leicester, Robert Dudley, earl of. - - J. G. F. - SIR JOSHUA GIRLING FITCH, LL.D. - - See the biographical article: FITCH, SIR J. G. - - Lancaster, Joseph. - - J. G. N. - JOHN GEORGE NICOLAY (1832-1901). - - Marshal of the U.S. Supreme Court, 1872-1887. Joint-author of - _Abraham Lincoln_: &c. - - Lincoln, Abraham (_in part_). - - J. G. P.* - JAMES GORDON PARKER, D.SC., F.C.S. - - Principal of Leathersellers Technical College, London. Gold - Medallist, Society of Arts. Author of _Leather for Libraries_; - _Principles of Tanning_; &c. - - Leather. - - J. G. R. - JOHN GEORGE ROBERTSON, M.A., PH.D. - - Professor of German Language and Literature, University of London. - Editor of the _Modern Language Journal_. Author of _History of - German Literature_; _Schiller after a Century_; &c. - - Lessing (_in part_). - - J. Hn. - JUSTUUS HASHAGEN, PH.D. - - Privat-dozent in Medieval and Modern History, University of Bonn. - Author of _Das Rheinland unter der franzosische Herrschaft_. - - Lang, Karl Heinrich; - Ledochowski; - Leo, Heinrich. - - J. H. F. - JOHN HENRY FREESE, M.A. - - Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. - - Leo VI. (_Emperor of the East_). - - J. Hl. R. - JOHN HOLLAND ROSE, M.A., LITT.D. - - Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge University Local - Lectures Syndicate. Author of _Life of Napoleon I._; _Napoleonic - Studies_; _The Development of the European Nations_; _The Life of - Pitt_; &c. - - Las Casas. - - J. J. L.* - REV. JOHN JAMES LIAS, M.A. - - Chancellor of Llandaff Cathedral. Formerly Hulsean Lecturer in - Divinity and Lady Margaret Preacher, University of Cambridge. - - Langen. - - J. K. I. - JOHN KELLS INGRAM, LL.D. - - See the biographical article: INGRAM, J. K. - - Leslie, Thomas E. C. - - J. Le. - REV. JAMES LEGGE, M.A. - - See the biographical article: LEGGE, JAMES. - - Lao-Tsze. - - J. L. M. - JOHN LINTON MYRES, M.A., F.S.A., F.R.G.S. - - Wykeham Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. - Formerly Gladstone Professor of Greek and Lecturer in Ancient - Geography, University of Liverpool. Lecturer in Classical - Archaeology in University of Oxford. - - Leleges; - Locri (_Greece_). - - J. L. W. - JESSIE LAIDLAY WESTON. - - Author of _Arthurian Romances unrepresented in Malory_. - - Lancelot. - - J. Mu. - SIR JOHN MURRAY, K.C.B., F.R.S. - - See the biographical article: MURRAY, SIR JOHN. - - Lake. - - J. M. C. - REV. JAMES M. CROMBIE. - - Author of _Braemar: its Topography and Natural History_; _Lichenes - Britannici_. - - Lichens (_in part_). - - J. M. G. - JOHN MILLER GRAY (1850-1894). - - Art Critic and Curator of the Scottish National Portrait Gallery, - 1884-1894. Author of _David Scott, R.S.A._; _James and William - Tassie_. - - Leech, John. - - J. P. E. - JEAN PAUL HIPPOLYTE EMMANUEL ADHEMAR ESMEIN. - - Professor of Law in the University of Paris. Officer of the Legion - of Honour. Member of the Institute of France. Author of _Cours - elementaire d'histoire du droit francais_; &c. - - Lettres de Cachet. - - J. P. P. - JOHN PERCIVAL POSTGATE, M.A., LITT.D. - - Professor of Latin in the University of Liverpool. Fellow of - Trinity College, Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Editor - of the _Classical Quarterly_. Editor-in-chief of the _Corpus - Poetarum Latinorum_; &c. - - Latin Literature (_in part_). - - J. P. Pe. - REV. JOHN PUNNETT PETERS, PH.D., D.D. - - Canon Residentiary, P. E. Cathedral of New York. Formerly - Professor of Hebrew in the University of Pennsylvania. Director of - the University Expedition to Babylonia, 1888-1895. Author of - _Nippur, or Explorations and Adventures on the Euphrates_; - _Scriptures, Hebrew and Christian_. - - Lagash; - Larsa. - - J. S. - JAMES SULLY, LL.D. - - See the biographical article: SULLY, JAMES. - - Lewes, George Henry (_in part_). - - J. Si. - JAMES SIME, M.A. (1843-1895). - - Author of _A History of Germany_; &c. - - Lessing (_in part_). - - J. S. F. - JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.SC., F.G.S. - - Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on - Petrology in Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal - Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby Medallist of the Geological Society - of London. - - Laccolite; - Lamprophyres; - Laterite; - Leucite: _Leucite Rocks_; - Limestone. - - J. S. K. - JOHN SCOTT KELTIE, LL.D., F.S.S., F.S.A. (Scot.). - - Secretary, Royal Geographical Society. Hon. Member, Geographical - Societies of Paris, Berlin, Rome, &c. Editor of the _Statesman's - Year Book_. Editor of the _Geographical Journal_. - - Livingstone. - - J. S. W. - JOHN STEPHEN WILLISON, LL.D., F.R.S. (Canada). - - Editor of _The News_ (Toronto). Canadian Correspondent of _The - Times_. Author of _Sir Wilfrid Laurier and the Liberal Party_; &c. - - Laurier. - - J. T. Be. - JOHN THOMAS BEALBY. - - Joint-author of Stanford's _Europe_. Formerly Editor of the - _Scottish Geographical Magazine_. Translator of Sven Hedin's - _Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet_; &c. - - Ladoga (_in part_); - Livonia (_in part_); - Lop-nor. - - J. T. Br. - J. TAYLOR BROWN. - - Leighton, Robert (_in part_). - - J. T. C. - JOSEPH THOMAS CUNNINGHAM, M.A., F.Z.S. - - Lecturer on Zoology at the South-Western Polytechnic, London. - Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. Assistant Professor - of Natural History in the University of Edinburgh. Naturalist to - the Marine Biological Association. - - Lamellibranchia (_in part_). - - J. T. S.* - JAMES THOMSON SHOTWELL, PH.D. - - Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. - - Languedoc. - - J. V.* - JULES VIARD. - - Archivist at the National Archives, Paris. Officer of Public - Instruction. Author of _La France sous Philippe VI. de Valois_; - &c. - - Le Macon. - - J. W. D. - CAPTAIN J. WHITLY DIXON, R.N. - - Nautical Assessor to the Court of Appeal. - - Log. - - J. W. He. - JAMES WYCLIFFE HEADLAM, M.A. - - Staff Inspector of Secondary Schools under the Board of Education. - Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Professor of Greek - and Ancient History at Queen's College, London. Author of - _Bismarck and the Foundation of the German Empire_; &c. - - Lasker. - - J. W. L. G. - JAMES WHITBREAD LEE GLAISHER, M.A., D.SC., F.R.S. - - Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Formerly President of the - Cambridge Philosophical Society, and the Royal Astronomical - Society. Editor of _Messenger of Mathematics_ and the _Quarterly - Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics_. - - Legendre, A. M.; - Logarithm. - - K. H. - KILLINGWORTH HEDGES, M.INST.C.E., M.INST.ELECT.E. - - Hon. Secretary of the Lightning Research Committee. Author of - _Modern Lightning Conductors_; &c. - - Lightning Conductor. - - K. S. - KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER. - - Editor of _The Portfolio of Musical Archaeology_. Author of _The - Instruments of the Orchestra_. - - Lituus. - - L. A. W. - LAURENCE AUSTINE WADDELL, C.B., C.I.E., LL.D., M.B. - - Lieut.-Colonel I.M.S. (retired). Author of _Lhasa and its - Mysteries_; &c. - - Lhasa (_in part_). - - L. B. - LAURENCE BINYON. - - See the biographical article: BINYON, L. - - Lawson, Cecil Gordon. - - L. D.* - LOUIS MARIE OLIVIER DUCHESNE. - - See the biographical article: DUCHESNE, L. M. O. - - Liberius. - - L. J. S. - LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A. - - Assistant in the Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. - Formerly Scholar of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness - Scholar. Editor of the _Mineralogical Magazine_. - - Leadhillite; - Lepidolite; - Leucite (_in part_); - Liroconite. - - L. T. D. - SIR LEWIS TONNA DIBDIN, M.A., D.C.L., F.S.A. - - Dean of the Arches; Master of the Faculties; and First Church - Estates Commissioner. Bencher of Lincoln's Inn. Author of - _Monasticism in England_; &c. - - Lincoln Judgment, The. - - L. V.* - LUIGI VILLARI. - - Italian Foreign Office (Emigration Dept.). Formerly Newspaper - Correspondent in east of Europe. Italian Vice-Consul in New - Orleans, 1906, Philadelphia, 1907, and Boston, U.S.A., 1907-1910. - Author of _Italian Life in Town and Country_; &c. - - Leopold II. (_Grand Duke of Tuscany_). - - M. Br. - MARGARET BRYANT. - - Landor: _Bibliography_; - La Sale. - - M. Ca. - MORITZ CANTOR, PH.D. - - Honorary Professor of Mathematics in the University of Heidelberg. - Author of _Vorlesungen uber die Geschichte der Mathematik_; &c. - - Leonardo of Pisa. - - M. H. S. - MARION H. SPIELMANN, F.S.A. - - Formerly Editor of the _Magazine of Art_. Member of Fine Art - Committee of International Exhibitions of Brussels, Paris, Buenos - Aires, Rome, and the Franco-British Exhibition, London. Author of - _History of "Punch"_; _British Portrait Painting to the Opening of - the Nineteenth Century_; _Works of G. F. Watts, R.A._; _British - Sculpture and Sculptors of To-day_; _Henriette Ronner_; &c. - - Line Engraving (_in part_). - - M. N. T. - MARCUS NIEBUHR TOD, M.A. - - Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in - Epigraphy. Joint-author of _Catalogue of the Sparta Museum_. - - Laconia; - Leonidas; - Leotychides. - - M. O. B. C. - MAXIMILIAN OTTO BISMARCK CASPARI, M.A. - - Reader in Ancient History at London University. Lecturer in Greek - at Birmingham University, 1905-1908. - - Leo I.-V. (_Emperors of the East_); - Lesbos; - Leuctra. - - M. P.* - LEON JACQUES MAXIME PRINET. - - Formerly Archivist to the French National Archives. Auxiliary of - the Institute of France (Academy of Moral and Political Sciences). - - L'Aubespine. - - N. G. G. - NICHOLAS G. GEDYE. - - Chief Engineer to the Tyne Improvement Commission. - - Lighthouse (_in part_). - - O. Hr. - OTTO HENKER, PH.D. - - On the Staff of the Carl Zeiss Factory, Jena, Germany. - - Lens. - - P. A. K. - PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVITCH KROPOTKIN. - - See the biographical article: KROPOTKIN, PRINCE P. A. - - Ladoga (_in part_); - Lithuanians and Letts: _History_; - Livonia (_in part_). - - P. C. M. - PETER CHALMERS MITCHELL, M.A., F.R.S., D.SC., LL.D. - - Secretary to the Zoological Society of London. University - Demonstrator in Comparative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre - Professor at Oxford, 1888-1891. Lecturer on Biology at Charing - Cross Hospital, 1892-1894; at London Hospital, 1894. Examiner in - Biology to the Royal College of Physicians, 1892-1896, 1901-1903. - Examiner in Zoology to the University of London, 1903. - - Life; - Longevity. - - P. C. Y. - PHILIP CHESNEY YORKE, M.A. - - Magdalen College, Oxford. - - Laud, Archbishop; - Lauderdale, Duke of; - Leeds, 1st Duke of. - - P. G. - PERCY GARDNER. LITT.D., LL.D., F.S.A. - - See the biographical article: GARDNER, PERCY. - - Leochares. - - P. Gi. - PETER GILES, M.A., LL.D., LITT.D. - - Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and - University Reader in Comparative Philology. Late Secretary of the - Cambridge Philological Society. Author of _Manual of Comparative - Philology_; &c. - - L. - - P. G. H. - PHILIP GILBERT HAMERTON. - - See the biographical article: Hamerton, PHILIP GILBERT. - - Line Engraving (_in part_). - - R. A. S. M. - ROBERT ALEXANDER STEWART MACALISTER, M.A., F.S.A. - - St John's College, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the - Palestine Exploration Fund. - - Lachish. - - R. G. - RICHARD GARNETT, LL.D. - - See the biographical article: GARNETT, RICHARD. - - Leopardi. - - R. I. P. - REGINALD INNES POCOCK, F.Z.S. - - Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London. - - Leaf-insect; - Locust (_in part_). - - R. J. M. - RONALD JOHN MCNEILL, M.A. - - Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Editor of the - _St James's Gazette_, London. - - Lawn Tennis; - Leicester, R. Sidney, earl of; - Lockhart, George. - - R. K. D. - SIR ROBERT KENNAWAY DOUGLAS. - - Formerly Professor of Chinese, King's College, London. Keeper of - Oriental Printed Books and MSS. at British Museum, 1892-1907. - Member of the Chinese Consular Service, 1858-1865. Author of _The - Language and Literature of China_; _Europe and the Far East_; &c. - - Li Hung Chang. - - R. L.* - RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. - - Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. - Author of _Catalogue of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in the - British Museum_; _The Deer of all Lands_; _The Game Animals of - Africa_; &c. - - Langur; - Lemming (_in part_); - Lemur; - Leopard (_in part_); - Lion (_in part_); - Litopterna. - - R. M'L. - ROBERT M'LACHLAN. - - Editor of the _Entomologists' Monthly Magazine_. - - Locust (_in part_). - - R. M. B. - ROBERT MICHAEL BALLANTYNE. - - See the biographical article: BALLANTYNE, R. M. - - Life-boat: _British (in part)_. - - R. N. B. - ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909). - - Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of - _Scandinavia: the Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, - 1513-1900_; _The First Romanovs, 1613-1725_; _Slavonic Europe: the - Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469 to 1796_; &c. - - Ladislaus I. and IV. of Hungary; - Laski. - - R. S. C. - ROBERT SEYMOUR CONWAY, M.A., D.LITT. (Cantab.). - - Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the University - of Manchester. Formerly Professor of Latin in University College, - Cardiff; and Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. - Author of _The Italic Dialects_. - - Latin Language (_in part_); - Liguria: _Archaeology and Philology_. - - R. We. - RICHARD WEBSTER, A.M. - - Formerly Fellow in Classics, Princeton University. Editor of _The - Elegies of Maximianus_; &c. - - Long Island. - - R. W. C. - THE VERY REV. R. W. CHURCH, D.D. - - See the biographical article: CHURCH, R. W. - - Lombards: _The Kingdom in Italy_. - - S. A. C. - STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A. - - Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and - Caius College, Cambridge. Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund. - Examiner in Hebrew and Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908. - Author of _Glossary of Aramaic Inscriptions_; _The Laws of Moses - and the Code of Hammurabi_; _Critical Notes on Old Testament - History_; _Religion of Ancient Palestine_; &c. - - Levites. - - S. C. - SIDNEY COLVIN, LL.D. - - See the biographical article: COLVIN, SIDNEY. - - Leonardo da Vinci. - - St C. - VISCOUNT ST CYRES. - - See the biographical article: IDDESLEIGH, 1ST EARL OF. - - Liguori. - - S. D. F. S. - REV. STEWART DINGWALL FORDYCE SALMON, M.A., D.D. (1838-1905). - - Professor of Systematic Theology and Exegesis of the Epistles, - U.F.C. College Aberdeen, 1876-1905. Author of _The Parables of our - Lord_; &c. Editor of _The International Library of Theology_; &c. - - Logos (_in part_). - - S. N. - SIMON NEWCOMB, LL.D., D.SC. - - See the biographical article: NEWCOMB, SIMON. - - Latitude; - Light: _Velocity_. - - T. As. - THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.LITT., F.S.A. - - Director of the British School of Archaeology at Rome. - Corresponding Member of the Imperial German Archaeological - Institute. Formerly Scholar of Christ Church, Oxford. Craven - Fellow, Oxford, 1897. Author of _The Classical Topography of the - Roman Campagna_; &c. - - Labicana, Via; - Labici; - Lampedusa; - Lanciano; - Lanuvium; - Larino; - Latina, Via; - Latium; - Laurentina, Via; - Lavinium; - Lecce; - Leghorn; - Leontini; - Licodia Eubea; - Ligures Baebiani; - Liguria: _History_; - Locri: _Italy_. - - T. A. I. - THOMAS ALLAN INGRAM, M.A., LL.D. - - Trinity College, Dublin. - - Livery Companies; - London: _Finance_. - - T. Ca. - THOMAS CASE, M.A. - - President of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Formerly Waynflete - Professor of Moral and Metaphysical Philosophy at Oxford and - Fellow of Magdalen College. Author of _Physical Realism_; &c. - - Logic. - - T. C. A. - SIR THOMAS CLIFFORD ALLBUTT, K.C.B., M.A., M.D., D.SC., LL.D., - F.R.S. - - Regius Professor of Physic in the University of Cambridge. - Physician to Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge. Fellow of Gonville - and Caius College, Cambridge. Editor of _Systems of Medicine_. - - Lister, 1st Baron. - - T. Da. - THOMAS DAVIDSON, LL.D. - - Longfellow. - - T. F. C. - THEODORE FREYLINGHUYSEN COLLIER, PH.D. - - Assistant Professor of History, Williams College, Williamstown, - Mass., U.S.A. - - Laodicea, Synod of. - - T. F. H. - THOMAS F. HENDERSON. - - Author of _Mary Queen of Scots and the Casket Letters_; &c. - - Latimer. - - T. H. H.* - SIR THOMAS HUNGERFORD HOLDICH, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., D.SC., F.R.G.S. - - Colonel in the Royal Engineers. Superintendent, Frontier Surveys, - India, 1892-1898. Gold Medallist, R.G.S. (London), 1887. H.M. - Commissioner for the Perso-Beluch Boundary, 1896. Author of _The - Indian Borderland_; _The Gates of India_; &c. - - Ladakh and Baltistan - - T. K. - THOMAS KIRKUP, M.A., LL.D. - - Author of _An Inquiry into Socialism_; _Primer of Socialism_; &c. - - Lassalle. - - T. Mo. - THOMAS MOORE, F.L.S. (1821-1887). - - Curator of the Garden of the Apothecaries Company at Chelsea, - 1848-1887. Editor of the _Gardeners' Magazine of Botany_; Author - of _Handbook of British Ferns_; _Index Filicum_; _Illustrations of - Orchidaceous Plants_. - - Labyrinth. - - T. M. L. - REV. THOMAS MARTIN LINDSAY, LL.D., D.D. - - Principal of the United Free Church College, Glasgow. Formerly - Assistant to the Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the - University of Edinburgh. Author of _History of the Reformation_; - _Life of Luther_; &c. - - Lollards. - - T. Se. - THOMAS SECCOMBE, M.A. - - Lecturer in History, East London and Birkbeck Colleges, University - of London. Stanhope Prizeman, Oxford, 1887. Assistant Editor of - _Dictionary of National Biography_, 1891-1900. Author of _The Age - of Johnson_; &c. - - Lever, Charles. - - T. W. R. D. - THOMAS WILLIAM RHYS DAVIDS, LL.D., PH.D. - - Professor of Comparative Religion, Manchester University. - Professor of Pali and Buddhist Literature, University College, - London, 1882-1904. President of the Pali Text Society. Fellow of - the British Academy. Secretary and Librarian of Royal Asiatic - Society, 1885-1902. Author of _Buddhism_; _Sacred Books of the - Buddhists_; _Early Buddhism_; _Buddhist India_; _Dialogues of the - Buddha_; &c. - - Lamaism. - - T. Wo. - THOMAS WOODHOUSE. - - Head of the Weaving and Textile Designing Department, Technical - College, Dundee. - - Linen and Linen Manufactures. - - V. B. L. - VIVIAN BYAM LEWES, F.I.C., F.C.S. - - Professor of Chemistry, Royal Naval College. Chief Superintendent - Gas Examiner to the Corporation of the City of London. - - Lighting: _Oil and Gas_. - - V. H. B. - VERNON HERBERT BLACKMAN, M.A., D.SC. - - Professor of Botany in the University of Leeds. Formerly Fellow of - St John's College, Cambridge. - - Lichens (_in part_). - - W. A. B. C. - REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S. - - Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, - St David's College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of _Guide to - Switzerland_; _The Alps in Nature and in History_; &c. Editor of - _The Alpine Journal_, 1880-1889. - - Lausanne; - Leuk; - Liechtenstein; - Linth; - Locarno; - Locle, Le. - - W. A. P. - WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A. - - Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St - John's College, Oxford. Author of _Modern Europe_; &c. - - Laibach, Congress of; - Lights, Ceremonial use of. - - W. E. Co. - THE RT. REV. WILLIAM EDWARD COLLINS, M.A., D.D. - - Bishop of Gibraltar. Formerly Professor of Ecclesiastical History, - King's College, London. Lecturer of Selwyn and St John's Colleges, - Cambridge. Author of _The Study of Ecclesiastical History_; - _Beginnings of English Christianity_; &c. - - Libellatici. - - W. F. I. - WILLIAM FERGUSSON IRVINE, HON. M.A. (Liverpool). - - Hon. Secretary and General Editor of Historical Society of - Lancashire and Cheshire. Hon. Local Secretary for Cheshire of the - Society of Antiquaries. Author of _Liverpool in the reign of - Charles II._; _Old Halls of Wirral_; &c. - - Liverpool. - - W. H. Be. - WILLIAM HENRY BENNETT, M.A., D.D., D.LITT. (Cantab.). - - Professor of Old Testament Exegesis in New and Hackney Colleges, - London. Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. Lecturer - in Hebrew at Firth College, Sheffield. Author of _Religion of the - Post-Exilic Prophets_; &c. - - Lamech. - - W. H. F. - SIR WILLIAM HENRY FLOWER, F.R.S. - - See the biographical article: FLOWER, SIR W. H. - - Lemming (_in part_); - Leopard (_in part_); - Lion (_in part_). - - W. M. R. - WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI. - - See the biographical article: ROSSETTI, DANTE GABRIEL. - - Lely, Sir Peter; - Lippi. - - W. P. T. - WILLIAM PETERFIELD TRENT, LL.D., D.C.L. - - Professor of English Literature. Columbia University. Author of - _English Culture in Virginia_; _A Brief History of American - Literature_; &c. - - Lanier. - - W. R. So. - WILLIAM RITCHIE SORLEY, M.A., LITT.D., LL.D. - - Professor of Moral Philosophy in the University of Cambridge. - Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Fellow of the British - Academy. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College. Author of _The Ethics - of Naturalism_; _The Interpretation of Evolution_; &c. - - Leibnitz. - - W. R. S.-R. - WILLIAM RALSTON SHEDDEN-RALSTON, M.A. - - Formerly Assistant in the Department of Printed Books, British - Museum. Author of _Russian Folk Tales_; &c. - - Lermontov. - - W. T. Ca. - WILLIAM THOMAS CALMAN. D.SC., F.Z.S. - - Assistant in charge of Crustacea, Natural History Museum, South - Kensington. Author of "Crustacea" in _A Treatise on Zoology_, - edited by Sir E. Ray Lankester. - - Lobster. - - W. T. D. - WILLIAM TREGARTHEN DOUGLASS, M.INST.C.E., M.I.M.E. - - Consulting Engineer to Governments of Western Australia, New South - Wales, Victoria, Cape of Good Hope, &c. Erected the Eddystone and - Bishop Rock Lighthouses. Author of _The New Eddystone Lighthouse_; - &c. - - Lighthouse (_in part_). - - W. W. R.* - WILLIAM WALKER ROCKWELL, LIC.THEOL. - - Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, - New York. - - Leo XI. and XII. (_popes_). - - W. W. S. - WALTER WILLIAM SKEAT, LITT.D., LL.D., D.C.L. - - See the biographical article: SKEAT, W. W. - - Layamon. - - W. Y. S. - WILLIAM YOUNG SELLAR, LL.D. - - See the biographical article: SELLAR, WILLIAM YOUNG. - - Latin Literature (_in part_). - - -PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES - - Labiatae. Larch. Leprosy. - Lacrosse. Lead Poisoning. Libel. - Lagos. Leeds. Liberal Party. - Lahore. Legitimacy. Liliaceae. - Lake District. Leguminosae. Lille. - Lambeth Conferences. Leicestershire. Lily. - Lanarkshire. Leipzig. Limitation, Statutes of. - Lancashire. Leith. Lincoln. - Lantern. Lemnos. Lincolnshire. - Lapland. Lemon. Lippe. - Larceny. Lent. Lisbon. - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in - the final volume. - - - - - ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA - - ELEVENTH EDITION - - VOLUME XVI - - - - -L a letter which was the twelfth letter of the Phoenician alphabet. It -has in its history passed through many changes of form, ending curiously -enough in its usual manuscript form with a shape almost identical with -that which it had about 900 B.C. ([symbol] L). As was the case with B -and some other letters the Greeks did not everywhere keep the symbol in -the position in which they had borrowed it [symbol]. This, which was its -oldest form in Attica and in the Chalcidian colonies of Italy, was the -form adopted by the Romans, who in time converted it into the rectangle -L, which passed from them to the nations of western Europe. In the Ionic -alphabet, however, from which the ordinary Greek alphabet is derived it -appeared as [symbol]. A still more common form in other parts of Greece -was [symbol], with the legs of unequal length. The editors of Herodotus -have not always recognized that the name of Labda, the mother of -Cypselus, in the story (v. 92) of the founding of the great family of -Corinthian despots, was derived from the fact that she was lame and so -suggested the form of the Corinthian [symbol]. Another form [symbol] or -[symbol] was practically confined to the west of Argolis. The name of -the Greek letter is ordinarily given as _Lambda_, but in Herodotus -(above) and in Athenaeus x. p. 453 _e_, where the names of the letters -are given, the best authenticated form is _Labda_. The Hebrew name, -which was probably identical with the Phoenician, is _Lamed_, which, -with a final vowel added as usual, would easily become _Lambda_, _b_ -being inserted between m and another consonant. The pronunciation of _l_ -varies a great deal according to the point at which the tongue makes -contact with the roof of the mouth. The contact, generally speaking, is -at the same point as for _d_, and this accounts for an interchange -between these sounds which occurs in various languages, e.g. in Latin -_lacrima_ from the same root as the Greek [Greek: dakru] and the English -_tear_. The change in Latin occurs in a very limited number of cases and -one explanation of their occurrence is that they are borrowed (Sabine) -words. In pronunciation the breath may be allowed to escape at one or -both sides of the tongue. In most languages _l_ is a fairly stable -sound. Orientals, however, have much difficulty in distinguishing -between _l_ and _r_. In Old Persian _l_ is found in only two foreign -words, and in Sanskrit different dialects employ _r_ and _l_ differently -in the same words. Otherwise, however, the interchanges between _r_ and -_l_ were somewhat exaggerated by the older philologists. Before other -consonants _l_ becomes silent in not a few languages, notably in French, -where it is replaced by _u_, and in English where it has occasionally -been restored in recent times, e.g. in _fault_ which earlier was spelt -without _l_ (as in French whence it was borrowed), and which Goldsmith -could still rhyme with _aught_. In the 15th century the Scottish dialect -of English dropped _l_ largely both before consonants and finally after -_a_ and _u_, _a'_ = all, _fa'_ = fall, _pu'_ = pull, _'oo'_ = wool, -_bulk_ pronounced like _book_, &c., while after _o_ it appears as _w_, -_row_ (pronounced _rau_) = roll, _know_ = knoll, &c. It is to be -observed that L = 50 does not come from this symbol, but was an -adaptation of [symbol], the western Greek form of [chi], which had no -corresponding sound in Latin and was therefore not included in the -ordinary alphabet. This symbol was first rounded into [symbol] and then -changed first to [symbol], and ultimately to L. (P. Gi.) - - - - -LAACHER SEE, a lake of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine Province, 5 m. W. -of Brohl on the Rhine, and N. of the village of Niedermendig. It -occupies what is supposed to be a crater of the Eifel volcanic -formation, and the pumice stone and basalt found in great quantities -around it lend credence to this theory. It lies 850 ft. above the sea, -is 5 m. in circumference and 160 ft. deep, and is surrounded by an -amphitheatre of high hills. The water is sky blue in colour, very cold -and bitter to the taste. The lake has no natural outlet and consequently -is subjected to a considerable rise and fall. On the western side lies -the Benedictine abbey of St Maria Laach (_Abballa Lacensis_) founded in -1093 by Henry II., count palatine of the Rhine. The abbey church, dating -from the 12th century, was restored in 1838. The history of the -monastery down to modern times appears to have been uneventful. In 1802 -it was abolished and at the close of the Napoleonic wars it became a -Prussian state demesne. In 1863 it passed into the hands of the Jesuits, -who, down to their expulsion in 1873, published here a periodical, which -still appears, entitled _Stimmen aus Maria Laach_. In 1892 the monastery -was again occupied by the Benedictines. - - - - -LAAGER, a South African Dutch word (Dutch _leger_, Ger. _lager_, -connected with Eng. "lair") for a temporary defensive encampment, formed -by a circle of wagons. The English word is "leaguer," an armed camp, -especially that of a besieging or "beleaguering" army. The Ger. _lager_, -in the sense of "store," is familiar as the name of a light beer (see -BREWING). - - - - -LAAS, ERNST (1837-1885), German philosopher, was born on the 16th of -June 1837 at Furstenwalde. He studied theology and philosophy under -Trendelenburg at Berlin, and eventually became professor of philosophy -in the new university of Strassburg. In _Kant's Analogien der Erfahrung_ -(1876) he keenly criticized Kant's transcendentalism, and in his chief -work _Idealismus und Positivismus_ (3 vols., 1879-1884), he drew a -clear contrast between Platonism, from which he derived -transcendentalism, and positivism, of which he considered Protagoras the -founder. Laas in reality was a disciple of Hume. Throughout his -philosophy he endeavours to connect metaphysics with ethics and the -theory of education. - - His chief educational works were _Der deutsche Aufsatz in den obern - Gymnasialklassen_ (1868; 3rd ed., part i., 1898, part ii, 1894), and - _Der deutsche Unterricht auf hohern Lehranstalten_ (1872; 2nd ed. - 1886). He contributed largely to the _Vierteljahrsschr. f. wiss. - Philos._ (1880-1882); the _Litterarischer Nachlass_, a posthumous - collection, was published at Vienna (1887). See Hanisch, _Der - Positivismus von Ernst Laas_ (1902); Gjurits, _Die Erkenntnistheorie - des Ernst Laas_ (1903); Falckenberg, _Hist. of Mod. Philos._ (Eng. - trans., 1895). - - - - -LA BADIE, JEAN DE (1610-1674), French divine, founder of the school -known as the Labadists, was born at Bourg, not far from Bordeaux, on the -13th of February 1610, being the son of Jean Charles de la Badie, -governor of Guienne. He was sent to the Jesuit school at Bordeaux, and -when fifteen entered the Jesuit college there. In 1626 he began to study -philosophy and theology. He was led to hold somewhat extreme views about -the efficacy of prayer and the direct influence of the Holy Spirit upon -believers, and adopted Augustinian views about grace, free will and -predestination, which brought him into collision with his order. He -therefore separated from the Jesuits, and then became a preacher to the -people, carrying on this work in Bordeaux, Paris and Amiens. At Amiens -in 1640 he was appointed a canon and teacher of theology. The hostility -of Cardinal Mazarin, however, forced him to retire to the Carmelite -hermitage at Graville. A study of Calvin's _Institutes_ showed him that -he had more in common with the Reformed than with the Roman Catholic -Church, and after various adventures he joined the Reformed Church of -France and became professor of theology at Montauban in 1650. His -reasons for doing so he published in the same year in his _Declaration -de Jean de la Badie_. His accession to the ranks of the Protestants was -deemed a great triumph; no such man since Calvin himself, it was said, -had left the Roman Catholic Church. He was called to the pastorate of -the church at Orange on the Rhone in 1657, and at once became noted for -his severity of discipline. He set his face zealously against dancing, -card-playing and worldly entertainments. The unsettled state of the -country, recently annexed to France, compelled him to leave Orange, and -in 1659 he became a pastor in Geneva. He then accepted a call to the -French church in London, but after various wanderings settled at -Middelburg, where he was pastor to the French-speaking congregation at a -Walloon church. His peculiar opinions were by this time (1666) well -known, and he and his congregation found themselves in conflict with the -ecclesiastical authorities. The result was that la Badie and his -followers established a separate church in a neighbouring town. In 1669 -he moved to Amsterdam. He had enthusiastic disciples, Pierre Yvon -(1646-1707) at Montauban, Pierre Dulignon (d. 1679), Francois Menuret -(d. 1670), Theodor Untereyk (d. 1693), F. Spanheim (1632-1701), and, -more important than any, Anna Maria v. Schurman (1607-1678), whose book -_Eucleria_ is perhaps the best exposition of the tenets of her master. -At the head of his separatist congregation, la Badie developed his views -for a reformation of the Reformed Churches: the church is a communion of -holy people who have been born again from sin; baptism is the sign and -seal of this regeneration, and is to be administered only to believers; -the Holy Spirit guides the regenerate into all truth, and the church -possesses throughout all time those gifts of prophecy which it had in -the ancient days; the community at Jerusalem is the continual type of -every Christian congregation, therefore there should be a community of -goods, the disciples should live together, eat together, dance together; -marriage is a holy ordinance between two believers, and the children of -the regenerate are born without original sin, marriage with an -unregenerate person is not binding. They did not observe the Sabbath, -because--so they said--their life was a continual Sabbath. The life and -separatism of the community brought them into frequent collision with -their neighbours and with the magistrates, and in 1670 they accepted -Society is in Miss Edith Sichel's _Women and Men of the French -Renaissance_ (1901). See also J. Favre, _Olivier de Magny_ (1885). - - - - -LABEL (a French word, now represented by _lambeau_, possibly a variant; -it is of obscure origin and may be connected with a Teutonic word -appearing in the English "lap," a flap or fold), a slip, ticket, or card -of paper, metal or other material, attached to an object, such as a -parcel, bottle, &c., and containing a name, address, description or -other information, for the purpose of identification. Originally the -word meant a band or ribbon of linen or other material, and was thus -applied to the fillets (_infulae_) attached to a bishop's mitre. In -heraldry the "label" is a mark of "cadency." - -In architecture the term "label" is applied to the outer projecting -moulding over doors, windows, arches, &c., sometimes called "Dripstone" -or "Weather Moulding," or "Hood Mould." The former terms seem scarcely -applicable, as this moulding is often inside a building where no rain -could come, and consequently there is no drip. In Norman times the label -frequently did not project, and when it did it was very little, and -formed part of the series of arch mouldings. In the Early English styles -they were not very large, sometimes slightly undercut, sometimes deeply, -sometimes a quarter round with chamfer, and very frequently a "roll" or -"scroll-moulding," so called because it resembles the part of a scroll -where the edge laps over the body of the roll. Labels generally resemble -the string-courses of the period, and, in fact, often return -horizontally and form strings. They are less common in Continental -architecture than in English. - - - - -LABEO, MARCUS ANTISTIUS (c. 50 B.C.-A.D. 18), Roman jurist, was the son -of Pacuvius Antistius Labeo, a jurist who caused himself to be slain -after the defeat of his party at Philippi. A member of the plebeian -nobility, and in easy circumstances, the younger Labeo early entered -public life, and soon rose to the praetorship; but his undisguised -antipathy to the new regime, and the somewhat brusque manner in which in -the senate he occasionally gave expression to his republican -sympathies--what Tacitus (_Ann._ iii. 75) calls his _incorrupta -libertas_--proved an obstacle to his advancement, and his rival, Ateius -Capito, who had unreservedly given in his adhesion to the ruling powers, -was promoted by Augustus to the consulate, when the appointment should -have fallen to Labeo; smarting under the wrong done him, Labeo declined -the office when it was offered to him in a subsequent year (Tac. _Ann._ -iii. 75; Pompon, in fr. 47, _Dig._ i. 2). From this time he seems to -have devoted his whole time to jurisprudence. His training in the -science had been derived principally from Trebatius Testa. To his -knowledge of the law he added a wide general culture, devoting his -attention specially to dialectics, philology (_grammatica_), and -antiquities, as valuable aids in the exposition, expansion, and -application of legal doctrine (Gell. xiii. 10). Down to the time of -Hadrian his was probably the name of greatest authority; and several of -his works were abridged and annotated by later hands. While Capito is -hardly ever referred to, the dicta of Labeo are of constant recurrence -in the writings of the classical jurists, such as Gaius, Ulpian and -Paul; and no inconsiderable number of them were thought worthy of -preservation in Justinian's _Digest_. Labeo gets the credit of being the -founder of the Proculian sect or school, while Capito is spoken of as -the founder of the rival Sabinian one (Pomponius in fr. 47, _Dig._ i. -2); but it is probable that the real founders of the two _scholae_ were -Proculus and Sabinus, followers respectively of the methods of Labeo and -Capito. - - Labeo's most important literary work was the _Libri Posteriorum_, so - called because published only after his death. It contained a - systematic exposition of the common law. His _Libri ad Edictum_ - embraced a commentary, not only on the edicts of the urban and - peregrine praetors, but also on that of the curule aediles. His - _Probabilium_ ([Greek: pithanon]) _lib. VIII._, a collection of - definitions and axiomatic legal propositions, seems to have been one - of his most characteristic productions. - - See van Eck, "De vita, moribus, et studiis M. Ant. Labeonis" - (Franeker, 1692), in Oelrichs's _Thes. nov._, vol. i.; Mascovius, _De - sectis Sabinianor. et Proculianor._ (1728); Pernice, _M. Antistius - Labeo. Das rom. Privatrecht im ersten Jahrhunderte der Kaizerzeit_ - (Halle, 1873-1892). - - - - -LABERIUS, DECIMUS (c. 105-43 B.C.), Roman knight and writer of mimes. He -seems to have been a man of caustic wit, who wrote for his own pleasure. -In 45 Julius Caesar ordered him to appear in one of his own mimes in a -public contest with the actor Publilius Syrus. Laberius pronounced a -dignified prologue on the degradation thus thrust on his sixty years, -and directed several sharp allusions against the dictator. Caesar -awarded the victory to Publilius, but restored Laberius to his -equestrian rank, which he had forfeited by appearing as a mimus -(Macrobius, _Sat._ ii. 7). Laberius was the chief of those who -introduced the mimus into Latin literature towards the close of the -republican period. He seems to have been a man of learning and culture, -but his pieces did not escape the coarseness inherent to the class of -literature to which they belonged; and Aulus Gellius (xvi. 7, 1) accuses -him of extravagance in the coining of new words. Horace (_Sat._ i. 10) -speaks of him in terms of qualified praise. - - In addition to the prologue (in Macrobius), the titles of forty-four - of his mimi have been preserved; the fragments have been collected by - O. Ribbeck in his _Comicorum Latinorum reliquiae_ (1873). - - - - -LABIATAE (i.e. "lipped," Lat. _labium_, lip), in botany, a natural order -of seed-plants belonging to the series Tubiflorae of the dicotyledons, -and containing about 150 genera with 2800 species. The majority are -annual or perennial herbs inhabiting the temperate zone, becoming -shrubby in warmer climates. The stem is generally square in section and -the simple exstipulate leaves are arranged in decussating pairs (i.e. -each pair is in a plane at right angles to that of the pairs immediately -above and below it); the blade is entire, or toothed, lobed or more or -less deeply cut. The plant is often hairy, and the hairs are frequently -glandular, the secretion containing a scent characteristic of the genus -or species. The flowers are borne in the axils of the leaves or bracts; -they are rarely solitary as in _Scutellaria_ (skull-cap), and generally -form an apparent whorl (_verticillaster_) at the node, consisting of a -pair of cymose inflorescences each of which is a simple three-flowered -dichasium as in _Brunella_, _Salvia_, &c., or more generally a dichasium -passing over into a pair of monochasial cymes as in _Lamium_ (fig. 1), -_Ballota_, _Nepeta_, &c. A number of whorls may be crowded at the apex -of the stem and the subtending leaves reduced to small bracts, the whole -forming a raceme- or spike-like inflorescence as in _Mentha_ (fig. 2, 5) -_Brunella_, &c.; the bracts are sometimes large and coloured as in -_Monarda_, species of _Salvia_, &c., in the latter the apex of the stem -is sometimes occupied with a cluster of sterile coloured bracts. The -plan of the flower is remarkably uniform (fig. 1, 3); it is bisexual, -and zygomorphic in the median plane, with 5 sepals united to form a -persistent cup-like calyx, 5 petals united to form a two-lipped gaping -corolla, 4 stamens inserted on the corolla-tube, two of which, generally -the anterior pair, are longer than the other two (didynamous -arrangement)--sometimes as in _Salvia_, the posterior pair is -aborted--and two superior median carpels, each very early divided by a -constriction in a vertical plane, the pistil consisting of four cells -each containing one erect anatropous ovule attached to the base of an -axile placenta; the style springs from the centre of the pistil between -the four segments (_gynobasic_), and is simple with a bifid apex. The -fruit comprises four one-seeded nutlets included in the persistent -calyx; the seed has a thin testa and the embryo almost or completely -fills it. Although the general form and plan of arrangement of the -flower is very uniform, there are wide variations in detail. Thus the -calyx may be tubular, bell-shaped, or almost spherical, or straight or -bent, and the length and form of the teeth or lobes varies also; it may -be equally toothed as in mint (_Mentha_) (fig. 2, 3), and marjoram -(_Origanum_), or two-lipped as in thyme (_Thymus_), _Lamium_ (fig. 1) -and _Salvia_ (fig. 2, 1); the number of nerves affords useful characters -for distinction of genera, there are normally five main nerves between -which simple or forked secondary nerves are more or less developed. The -shape of the corolla varies widely, the differences being doubtless -intimately associated with the pollination of the flowers by -insect-agency. The tube is straight or variously bent and often widens -towards the mouth. Occasionally the limb is equally five-toothed, or -forms, as in _Mentha_ (fig. 2, 3, 4) an almost regular four-toothed -corolla by union of the two posterior teeth. Usually it is two-lipped, -the upper lip being formed by the two posterior, the lower lip by the -three anterior petals (see fig. 1, and fig. 2, 1, 6); the median lobe of -the lower lip is generally most developed and forms a resting-place for -the bee or other insect when probing the flower for honey, the upper lip -shows great variety in form, often, as in _Lamium_ (fig. 1), _Stachys_, -&c., it is arched forming a protection from rain for the stamens, or it -may be flat as in thyme. In the tribe _Ocimoideae_ the four upper petals -form the upper lip, and the single anterior one the lower lip, and in -_Teucrium_ the upper lip is absent, all five lobes being pushed forward -to form the lower. The posterior stamen is sometimes present as a -staminode, but generally suppressed; the upper pair are often reduced to -staminodes or more or less completely suppressed as in _Salvia_ (fig. 2, -2, 6); rarely are these developed and the anterior pair reduced. In -_Coleus_ the stamens are monadelphous. In _Nepeta_ and allied genera the -posterior pair are the longer, but this is rare, the didynamous -character being generally the result of the anterior pair being the -longer. The anthers are two-celled, each cell splitting lengthwise; the -connective may be more or less developed between the cells; an extreme -case is seen in _Salvia_ (fig. 2, 2), where the connective is filiform -and jointed to the filament, while the anterior anther-cell is reduced -to a sterile appendage. Honey is secreted by a hypogynous disk. In the -more general type of flower the anthers and stigmas are protected by the -arching upper lip as in dead-nettle (fig. 1) and many other British -genera; the lower lip affords a resting-place for the insect which in -probing the flower for the honey, secreted on the lower side of the -disk, collects pollen on its back. Numerous variations in detail are -found in the different genera; in _Salvia_ (fig. 2), for instance, there -is a lever mechanism, the barren half of each anther forming a knob at -the end of a short arm which when touched by the head of an insect -causes the anther at the end of the longer arm to descend on the -insect's back. In the less common type, where the anterior part of the -flower is more developed, as in the _Ocimoideae_, the stamens and style -lie on the under lip and honey is secreted on the upper side of the -hypogynous disk; the insect in probing the flower gets smeared with -pollen on its belly and legs. Both types include brightly-coloured -flowers with longer tubes adapted to the visits of butterflies and -moths, as species of _Salvia_, _Stachys_, _Monarda_, &c.; some South -American species of _Salvia_ are pollinated by humming-birds. In -_Mentha_ (fig. 2, 3), thyme, marjoram (_Origanum_), and allied genera, -the flowers are nearly regular and the stamens spread beyond the -corolla. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Flowering Shoot of Dead-nettle (_Lamium album_). -1, Flower cut lengthwise, enlarged; 2 calyx, enlarged; 3, floral -diagram.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.--1, Flower of Sage (_Salvia officinalis_); 2, -Corolla of same cut open showing the two stamens; 3, flower of spearmint -(_Mentha viridis_); 4, corolla of same cut open showing stamens; 5, -flowering shoot of same, reduced; 6, floral diagram of _Salvia_.] - -The persistent calyx encloses the ripe nutlets, and aids in their -distribution in various ways, by means of winged spiny or hairy lobes or -teeth; sometimes it forms a swollen bladder. A scanty endosperm is -sometimes present in the seed; the embryo is generally parallel to the -fruit axis with a short inferior radicle and generally flat cotyledons. - - The order occurs in all warm and temperate regions; its chief centre - is the Mediterranean region, where some genera such as _Lavandula_, - _Thymus_, _Rosmarinus_ and others form an important feature in the - vegetation. The tribe _Ocimoideae_ is exclusively tropical and - subtropical and occurs in both hemispheres. The order is well - represented in Britain by seventeen native genera; _Mentha_ (mint) - including also _M. piperita_ (peppermint) and _M. Pulegium_ - (pennyroyal); _Origanum vulgare_ (marjoram); _Thymus Serpyllum_ - (thyme); _Calamintha_ (calamint), including also _C. Clinopodium_ - (wild basil) and _C. Acinos_ (basil thyme); _Salvia_ (sage), including - _S. Verbenaca_ (clary); _Nepeta Cataria_ (catmint), _N. Glechoma_ - (ground-ivy); _Brunella_ (self-heal); _Scutellaria_ (skull-cap); - _Stachys (woundwort); _S. Betonica_ is wood betony; _Galeopsis_ - (hemp-nettle); Lamium_ (dead-nettle); _Ballota_ (black horehound); - _Teucrium_ (germander); and _Ajuga_ (bugle). - - Labiatae are readily distinguished from all other orders of the series - excepting Verbenaceae, in which, however, the style is terminal; but - several genera, e.g. _Ajuga_, _Teucrium_ and _Rosmarinus_, approach - Verbenaceae in this respect, and in some genera of that order the - style is more or less sunk between the ovary lobes. The - fruit-character indicates an affinity with Boraginaceae from which, - however, they differ in habit and by characters of ovule and embryo. - - The presence of volatile oil renders many genera of economic use, such - are thyme, marjoram (_Origanum_), sage (_Salvia_), lavender - (_Lavandula_), rosemary (_Rosmarinus_), patchouli (_Pogostemon_). The - tubers of _Stachys Sieboldi_ are eaten in France. - - - - -LABICANA, VIA, an ancient highroad of Italy, leading E.S.E. from Rome. -It seems possible that the road at first led to Tusculum, that it was -then prolonged to Labici, and later still became a road for through -traffic; it may even have superseded the Via Latina as a route to the -S.E., for, while the distance from Rome to their main junction at Ad -Bivium (or to another junction at Compitum Anagninum) is practically -identical, the summit level of the former is 725 ft. lower than that of -the latter, a little to the west of the pass of Algidus. After their -junction it is probable that the road bore the name Via Latina rather -than Via Labicana. The course of the road after the first six miles from -Rome is not identical with that of any modern road, but can be clearly -traced by remains of pavement and buildings along its course. - - See T. Ashby in _Papers of the British School at Rome_, i. 215 sqq. - (T. As.) - - - - -LABICHE, EUGENE MARIN (1815-1888), French dramatist, was born on the 5th -of May 1815, of _bourgeois_ parentage. He read for the bar, but -literature had more powerful attractions, and he was hardly twenty when -he gave to the _Cherubin_--an impertinent little magazine, long vanished -and forgotten--a short story, entitled, in the cavalier style of the -period, _Les plus belles sont les plus fausses_. A few others followed -much in the same strain, but failed to catch the attention of the -public. He tried his hand at dramatic criticism in the _Revue des -theatres_, and in 1838 made a double venture on the stage. The small -Theatre du Pantheon produced, amid some signs of popular favour, a drama -of his, _L'Avocat Loubet_, while a vaudeville, _Monsieur de Coislin ou -l'homme infiniment poli_, written in collaboration with Marc Michel, and -given at the Palais Royal, introduced for the first time to the -Parisians a provincial actor who was to become and to remain a great -favourite with them, Grassot, the famous low comedian. In the same year -Labiche, still doubtful about his true vocation, published a romance -called _La Cle des champs_. M. Leon Halevy, his successor at the Academy -and his panegyrist, informs us that the publisher became a bankrupt soon -after the novel was out. "A lucky misadventure, for," the biographer -concludes, "this timely warning of Destiny sent him back to the stage, -where a career of success was awaiting him." There was yet another -obstacle in the way. When he married, he solemnly promised his wife's -parents that he would renounce a profession then considered incompatible -with moral regularity and domestic happiness. But a year afterwards his -wife spontaneously released him from his vow, and Labiche recalled the -incident when he dedicated the first edition of his complete works: "To -my wife." Labiche, in conjunction with Varin,[1] Marc Michel,[2] -Clairville,[3] Dumanoir,[4] and others contributed comic plays -interspersed with couplets to various Paris theatres. The series -culminated in the memorable farce in five acts, _Un Chapeau de paille -d'Italie_ (August 1851). It remains an accomplished specimen of the -French _imbroglio_, in which some one is in search of something, but -does not find it till five minutes before the curtain falls. Prior to -that date Labiche had been only a successful _vaudevilliste_ among a -crowd of others; but a twelvemonth later he made a new departure in _Le -Misanthrope et l'Auvergnat_. All the plays given for the next -twenty-five years, although constructed on the old plan, contained a -more or less appreciable dose of that comic observation and good sense -which gradually raised the French farce almost to the level of the -comedy of character and manners. "Of all the subjects," he said, "which -offered themselves to me, I have selected the _bourgeois_. Essentially -mediocre in his vices and in his virtues, he stands half-way between the -hero and the scoundrel, between the saint and the profligate." During -the second period of his career Labiche had the collaboration of -Delacour,[5] Choler,[6] and others. When it is asked what share in the -authorship and success of the plays may be claimed for those men, we -shall answer in Emile Augier's words: "The distinctive qualities which -secured a lasting vogue for the plays of Labiche are to be found in all -the comedies written by him with different collaborators, and are -conspicuously absent from those which they wrote without him." A more -useful and more important collaborator he found in Jean Marie Michel -Geoffroy (1813-1883) whom he had known as a _debutant_ in his younger -days, and who remained his faithful interpreter to the last. Geoffroy -impersonated the _bourgeois_ not only to the public, but to the author -himself; and it may be assumed that Labiche, when writing, could see and -hear Geoffroy acting the character and uttering, in his pompous, fussy -way, the words that he had just committed to paper. _Celimare le -bien-aime_ (1863), _Le Voyage de M. Perrichon_ (1860), _La Grammaire_, -_Un Pied dans le crime_, _La Cagnotte_ (1864), may be quoted as the -happiest productions of Labiche. - -In 1877 he brought his connexion with the stage to a close, and retired -to his rural property in Sologne. There he could be seen, dressed as a -farmer, with low-brimmed hat, thick gaiters and an enormous stick, -superintending the agricultural work and busily engaged in reclaiming -land and marshes. His lifelong friend, Augier, visited him in his -principality, and, being left alone in the library, took to reading his -host's dramatic productions, scattered here and there in the shape of -theatrical _brochures_. He strongly advised Labiche to publish a -collected and revised edition of his works. The suggestion, first -declined as a joke and long resisted, was finally accepted and carried -into effect. Labiche's comic plays, in ten volumes, were issued during -1878 and 1879. The success was even greater than had been expected by -the author's most sanguine friends. It had been commonly believed that -these plays owed their popularity in great measure to the favourite -actors who had appeared in them; but it was now discovered that all, -with the exception of Geoffroy, had introduced into them a grotesque and -caricatural element, thus hiding from the spectator, in many cases, the -true comic vein and delightful delineation of human character. The -amazement turned into admiration, and the _engouement_ became so general -that very few dared grumble or appear scandalized when, in 1880, Labiche -was elected to the French Academy. It was fortunate that, in former -years, he had never dreamt of attaining this high distinction; for, as -M. Pailleron justly observed, while trying to get rid of the little -faults which were in him, he would have been in danger of losing some of -his sterling qualities. But when the honour was bestowed upon him, he -enjoyed it with his usual good sense and quiet modesty. He died in Paris -on the 23rd of January 1888. - -Some foolish admirers have placed him on a level with Moliere, but it -will be enough to say that he was something better than a public -_amuseur_. Many of his plays have been transferred to the English stage. -They are, on the whole, as sound as they are entertaining. Love is -practically absent from his theatre. In none of his plays did he ever -venture into the depths of feminine psychology, and womankind is only -represented in them by pretentious old maids and silly, insipid, almost -dumb, young ladies. He ridiculed marriage according to the invariable -custom of French playwrights, but in a friendly and good-natured manner -which always left a door open to repentance and timely amendment. He is -never coarse, never suggestive. After he died the French farce, which he -had raised to something akin to literature, relapsed into its former -grossness and unmeaning complexity. (A. Fi.) - - His _Theatre complet_ (10 vols., 1878-1879) contains a preface by - Emile Augier. - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] Victor Varin, pseudonym of Charles Voirin (1798-1869). - - [2] Marc Antoine Amedee Michel (1812-1868), vaudevillist. - - [3] Louis Francois Nicolaise, called Clairville (1811-1879), - part-author of the famous _Fille de Mme Angot_ (1872). - - [4] Philippe Francois Pinel, called Dumanoir (1806-1865). - - [5] Alfred Charlemagne Lartigue, called Delacour (1815-1885). For a - list of this author's pieces see O. Lorenz, _Catalogue General_ (vol. - ii., 1868). - - [6] Adolphe Joseph Choler (1822-1889). - - - - -LABICI, an ancient city of Latium, the modern Monte Compatri, about 17 -m. S.E. from Rome, on the northern slopes of the Alban Hills, 1739 ft. -above sea-level. It occurs among the thirty cities of the Latin League, -and it is said to have joined the Aequi in 419 B.C. and to have been -captured by the Romans in 418. After this it does not appear in history, -and in the time of Cicero and Strabo was almost entirely deserted if not -destroyed. Traces of its ancient walls have been noticed. Its place was -taken by the _respublica Lavicanorum Quintanensium_, the post-station -established in the lower ground on the Via Labicana (see LABICANA, VIA), -a little S.W. of the modern village of Colonna, the site of which is -attested by various inscriptions and by the course of the road itself. - - See T. Ashby in _Papers of the British School at Rome_, i. 256 sqq. - (T. As.) - - - - -LABID (Abu 'Aqil Labid ibn Rabi'a) (_c._ 560-_c._ 661), Arabian poet, -belonged to the Bani 'Amir, a division of the tribe of the Hawazin. In -his younger years he was an active warrior and his verse is largely -concerned with inter-tribal disputes. Later, he was sent by a sick uncle -to get a remedy from Mahomet at Medina and on this occasion was much -influenced by a part of the Koran. He accepted Islam soon after, but -seems then to have ceased writing. In Omar's caliphate he is said to -have settled in Kufa. Tradition ascribes to him a long life, but dates -given are uncertain and contradictory. One of his poems is contained in -the _Mo'allakat_ (q.v.). - - Twenty of his poems were edited by Chalidi (Vienna, 1880); another - thirty-five, with fragments and a German translation of the whole, - were edited (partly from the remains of A. Huber) by C. Brockelmann - (Leiden, 1892); cf. A. von Kremer, _Uber die Gedichte des Lebyd_ - (Vienna, 1881). Stories of Labid are contained in the - _Kitabul-Aghani_, xiv. 93 ff. and xv. 137 ff. (G. W. T.) - - - - -LABIENUS, the name of a Roman family, said (without authority) to belong -to the gens Atia. The most important member was TITUS LABIENUS. In 63 -B.C., at Caesar's instigation, he prosecuted Gaius Rabirius (q.v.) for -treason; in the same year, as tribune of the plebs, he carried a -plebiscite which indirectly secured for Caesar the dignity of pontifex -maximus (Dio Cassius xxxvii. 37). He served as a legatus throughout -Caesar's Gallic campaigns and took Caesar's place whenever he went to -Rome. His chief exploits in Gaul were the defeat of the Treviri under -Indutiomarus in 54, his expedition against Lutetia (Paris) in 52, and -his victory over Camulogenus and the Aedui in the same year. On the -outbreak of the civil war, however, he was one of the first to desert -Caesar, probably owing to an overweening sense of his own importance, -not adequately recognized by Caesar. He was rapturously welcomed on the -Pompeian side; but he brought no great strength with him, and his ill -fortune under Pompey was as marked as his success had been under Caesar. -From the defeat at Pharsalus, to which he had contributed by affecting -to despise his late comrades, he fled to Corcyra, and thence to Africa. -There he was able by mere force of numbers to inflict a slight check -upon Caesar at Ruspina in 46. After the defeat at Thapsus he joined the -younger Pompey in Spain, and was killed at Munda (March 17th, 45). - - - - -LABLACHE, LUIGI (1794-1858), Franco-Italian singer, was born at Naples -on the 6th of December 1794, the son of a merchant of Marseilles who had -married an Irish lady. In 1806 he entered the Conservatorio della Pieta -de Turchini, where he studied music under Gentili and singing under -Valesi, besides learning to play the violin and violoncello. As a boy he -had a beautiful alto voice, and by the age of twenty he had developed a -magnificent bass with a compass of two octaves from E[flat] below to -E[flat] above the bass stave. After making his first appearance at -Naples he went to Milan in 1817, and subsequently travelled to Turin, -Venice and Vienna. His first appearances in London and Paris in 1830 led -to annual engagements in both the English and French capitals. His -reception at St Petersburg a few years later was no less enthusiastic. -In England he took part in many provincial musical festivals, and was -engaged by Queen Victoria to teach her singing. On the operatic stage he -was equally successful in comic or tragic parts, and with his -wonderfully powerful voice he could express either humour or pathos. -Among his friends were Rossini, Bellini, Donizetti and Mercadante. He -was one of the thirty-two torch-bearers chosen to surround the coffin at -Beethoven's funeral in 1827. He died at Naples on the 23rd of January -1858 and was buried at Maison Lafitte, Paris. Lablache's Leporello in -_Don Giovanni_ was perhaps his most famous impersonation; among his -principal other roles were Dandini in _Cenerentola_ (Rossini), Assur in -_Semiramide_ (Rossini), Geronimo in _La Gazza Ladra_ (Rossini), Henry -VIII. in _Anna Bolena_ (Donizetti), the Doge in _Marino Faliero_ -(Donizetti), the title-role in _Don Pasquale_ (Donizetti), Geronimo in -_Il Matrimonio Segreto_ (Cimarosa), Gritzenko in _L'Etoile du Nord_ -(Meyerbeer), Caliban in _The Tempest_ (Halevy). - - - - -LABOR DAY, in the United States, a legal holiday in nearly all of the -states and Territories, where the first Monday in September is observed -by parades and meetings of labour organizations. In 1882 the Knights of -Labor paraded in New York City on this day; in 1884 another parade was -held, and it was decided that this day should be set apart for this -purpose. In 1887 Colorado made the first Monday in September a legal -holiday; and in 1909 Labor Day was observed as a holiday throughout the -United States, except in Arizona and North Dakota; in Louisiana it is a -holiday only in New Orleans (Orleans parish), and in Maryland, Wyoming -and New Mexico it is not established as a holiday by statute, but in -each may be proclaimed as such in any year by the governor. - - - - -LA BOURBOULE, a watering-place of central France, in the department of -Puy-de-Dome, 4(1/2) m. W. by N. of Mont-Dore by road. Pop. (1906) 1401. -La Bourboule is situated on the right bank of the Dordogne at a height -of 2790 ft. Its waters, of which arsenic is the characteristic -constituent, are used in cases of diseases of the skin and respiratory -organs, rheumatism, neuralgia, &c. Though known to the Romans they were -not in much repute till towards the end of the 19th century. The town -has three thermal establishments and a casino. - - - - -LABOUR CHURCH, THE, an organization intended to give expression to the -religion of the labour movement. This religion is not theological--it -leaves theological questions to private individual conviction--but -"seeks the realization of universal well-being by the establishment of -Socialism--a commonwealth founded upon justice and love." It asserts -that "improvement of social conditions and the development of personal -character are both essential to emancipation from social and moral -bondage, and to that end insists upon the duty of studying the economic -and moral forces of society." The first Labour Church was founded at -Manchester (England) in October 1891 by a Unitarian minister, John -Trevor. This has disappeared, but vigorous successors have been -established not only in the neighbourhood, but in Bradford, Birmingham, -Nottingham, London, Wolverhampton and other centres of industry, about -30 in all, with a membership of 3000. Many branches of the Independent -Labour Party and the Social Democratic Federation also hold Sunday -gatherings for adults and children, using the Labour Church hymn-book -and a similar form of service, the reading being chosen from Dr Stanton -Coit's _Message of Man_. There are special forms for child-naming, -marriages and burials. The separate churches are federated in a Labour -Church Union, which holds an annual conference and business meeting in -March. At the conference of 1909, held in Ashton-under-Lyne, the name -"Labour Church" was changed to "Socialist Church." - - - - -LA BOURDONNAIS, BERTRAND FRANCOIS, COUNT MAHE de (1699-1753), French -naval commander, was born at Saint Malo on the 11th of February 1699. He -went to sea when a boy, and in 1718 entered the service of the French -India Company as a lieutenant. In 1724 he was promoted captain, and -displayed such bravery in the capture of Mahe of the Malabar coast that -the name of the town was added to his own. For two years he was in the -service of the Portuguese viceroy of Goa, but in 1735 he returned to -French service as governor of the Ile de France and the Ile de Bourbon. -His five years' administration of the islands was vigorous and -successful. A visit to France in 1740 was interrupted by the outbreak of -hostilities with Great Britain, and La Bourdonnais was put at the head -of a fleet in Indian waters. He saved Mahe, relieved General Dupleix at -Pondicherry, defeated Lord Peyton, and in 1746 participated in the siege -of Madras. He quarrelled with Dupleix over the conduct of affairs in -India, and his anger was increased on his return to the Ile de France at -finding a successor to himself installed there by his rival. He set sail -on a Dutch vessel to present his case at court, and was captured by the -British, but allowed to return to France on parole. Instead of securing -a settlement of his quarrel with Dupleix, he was arrested (1748) on a -charge of gubernatorial peculation and maladministration, and secretly -imprisoned for over two years in the Bastille. He was tried in 1751 and -acquitted, but his health was broken by the imprisonment and by chagrin -at the loss of his property. To the last he made unjust accusations -against Dupleix. He died at Paris on the 10th of November 1753. The -French government gave his widow a pension of 2400 livres. - -La Bourdonnais wrote _Traite de la mature des vaisseaux_ (Paris 1723), -and left valuable memoirs which were published by his grandson, a -celebrated chess player, Count L. C. Mahe de la Bourdonnais (1795-1840) -(latest edition, Paris, 1890). His quarrel with Dupleix has given rise -to much debate; for a long while the fault was generally laid to the -arrogance and jealousy of Dupleix, but W. Cartwright and Colonel -Malleson have pointed out that La Bourdonnais was proud, suspicious and -over-ambitious. - - See P. de Gennes, _Memoire pour le sieur de la Bourdonnais, avec les - pieces justificatives_ (Paris, 1750); _The Case of Mde la Bourdonnais, - in a Letter to a Friend_ (London, 1748); Fantin des Odoards, - _Revolutions de l'Inde_ (Paris, 1796); Collin de Bar, _Histoire de - l'Inde ancienne et moderne_ (Paris, 1814); Barchou de Penhoen, - _Histoire de la conquete et de la fondation de l'empire anglais dans - l'Inde_ (Paris, 1840); Margry, "Les Isles de France et de Bourbon sous - le gouvernement de La Bourdonnais," in _La Revue maritime et - coloniale_ (1862); W. Cartwright, "Dupleix et l'Inde francaise," in - _La Revue britannique_ (1882); G. B. Malleson, _Dupleix_ (Oxford, - 1895); Anandaranga Pillai, _Les Francais dans l'Inde_, _Dupleix et - Labourdonnais, extraits du journal d'Anandaran-gappoulle 1736-1748_, - trans. in French by Vinsor in _Ecole speciale des langues orientales - vivantes_, series 3, vol. xv. (Paris, 1894). - - - - -LABOUR EXCHANGE, a term very frequently applied to registries having for -their principal object the better distribution of labour (see -UNEMPLOYMENT). Historically the term is applied to the system of -equitable labour exchanges established in England between 1832 and 1834 -by Robert Owen and his followers. The idea is said to have originated -with Josiah Warren, who communicated it to Owen. Warren tried an -experiment in 1828 at Cincinnati, opening an exchange under the title of -a "time store." He joined in starting another at Tuscarawas, Ohio, and a -third at Mount Vernon, Indiana, but none were quite on the same line as -the English exchanges. The fundamental idea of the English exchanges was -to establish a currency based upon labour; Owen in _The Crisis_ for June -1832 laid down that all wealth proceeded from labour and knowledge; that -labour and knowledge were generally remunerated according to the time -employed, and that in the new exchanges it was proposed to make _time_ -the standard or measure of wealth. This new currency was represented by -"labour notes," the notes being measured in hours, and the hour reckoned -as being worth sixpence, this figure being taken as the mean between the -wage of the best and the worst paid labour. Goods were then to be -exchanged for the new currency. The exchange was opened in extensive -premises in the Gray's Inn Road, near King's Cross, London, on the 3rd -of September 1832. For some months the establishment met with -considerable success, and a considerable number of tradesmen agreed to -take labour notes in payment for their goods. At first, an enormous -number of deposits was made, amounting in seventeen weeks to 445,501 -hours. But difficulties soon arose from the lack of sound practical -valuators, and from the inability of the promoters to distinguish -between the labour of the highly skilled and that of the unskilled. -Tradesmen, too, were quick to see that the exchange might be worked to -their advantage; they brought unsaleable stock from their shops, -exchanged it for labour notes, and then picked out the best of the -saleable articles. Consequently the labour notes began to depreciate; -trouble also arose with the proprietors of the premises, and the -experiment came to an untimely end early in 1834. - - See F. Podmore's _Robert Owen_, ii. c. xvii. (1906); B. Jones, - _Co-operative Production_, c. viii. (1894); G. J. Holyoake, _History - of Co-operation_, c. viii. (1906). - - - - -LABOUR LEGISLATION. Regulation of labour,[1] in some form or another, -whether by custom, royal authority, ecclesiastical rules or by formal -legislation in the interests of a community, is no doubt as old as the -most ancient forms of civilization. And older than all civilization is -the necessity for the greater part of mankind to labour for maintenance, -whether freely or in bonds, whether for themselves and their families or -for the requirements or superfluities of others. Even while it is clear, -however, that manual labour, or the application of the bodily -forces--with or without mechanical aid--to personal maintenance and the -production of goods, remains the common lot of the majority of citizens -of the most developed modern communities, still there is much risk of -confusion if modern technical terms such as "labour," "employer," -"labour legislation" are freely applied to conditions in bygone -civilizations with wholly different industrial organization and social -relationships. In recent times in England there has been a notable -disappearance from current use of correlative terms implying a social -relationship which is greatly changed, for example, in the rapid passage -from the Master and Servant Act 1867 to the Employer and Workman Act -1875. In the 18th century the term "manufacturer" passed from its -application to a working craftsman to its modern connotation of at least -some command of capital, the employer being no longer a small working -master. An even more significant later change is seen in the steady -development of a labour legislation, which arose in a clamant social -need for the care of specially helpless "protected" persons in factories -and mines, into a wider legislation for the promotion of general -industrial health, safety and freedom for the worker from fraud in -making or carrying out wage contracts. - -If, then, we can discern these signs of important changes within so -short a period, great caution is needed in rapidly reviewing long -periods of time prior to that industrial revolution which is traced -mainly to the application of mechanical power to machinery in aid of -manual labour, practically begun and completed within the second half of -the 18th century. "In 1740 save for the fly-shuttle the loom was as it -had been since weaving had begun ... and the law of the land was" (under -the Act of Apprentices of 1503) "that wages in each district should be -assessed by Justices of the Peace."[2] Turning back to still earlier -times, legislation--whatever its source or authority--must clearly be -devoted to aims very different from modern aims in regulating labour, -when it arose before the labourer, as a man dependent on an "employer" -for the means of doing work, had appeared, and when migratory labour was -almost unknown through the serfdom of part of the population and the -special status secured in towns to the artisan. - -In the great civilizations of antiquity there were great aggregations of -labour which was not solely, though frequently it was predominantly, -slave labour; and some of the features of manufacture and mining on a -great scale arose, producing the same sort of evils and industrial -maladies known and regulated in our own times. Some of the maladies were -described by Pliny and classed as "diseases of slaves." And he gave -descriptions of processes, for example in the metal trades, as belonging -entirely to his own day, which modern archaeological discoveries trace -back through the earliest known Aryan civilizations to a prehistoric -origin in the East, and which have never died out in western Europe, but -can be traced in a concentrated manufacture with almost unchanged -methods, now in France, now in Germany, now in England. - -Little would be gained in such a sketch as this by an endeavour to piece -together the scattered and scanty materials for a comparative history of -the varying conditions and methods of labour regulation over so enormous -a range. While our knowledge continually increases of the remains of -ancient craft, skill and massed labour, much has yet to be discovered -that may throw light on methods of organization of the labourers. While -much, and in some civilizations most, of the labour was compulsory or -forced, it is clear that too much has been sometimes assumed, and it is -by no means certain that even the pyramids of Egypt, much less the -beautiful earliest Egyptian products in metal work, weaving and other -skilled craft work, were typical products of slave labour. Even in Rome -it was only at times that the proportion of slaves valued as property -was greater than that of hired workers, or, apart from capture in war or -self-surrender in discharge of a debt, that purchase of slaves by the -trader, manufacturer or agriculturist was generally considered the -cheapest means of securing labour. As in early England the various -stages of village industrial life, medieval town manufacture, and -organization in craft gilds, and the beginnings of the mercantile -system, were parallel with a greater or less prevalence of serfdom and -even with the presence in part of slavery, so in other ages and -civilizations the various methods of organization of labour are found to -some extent together. The Germans in their primitive settlements were -accustomed to the notion of slavery, and in the decline of the Roman -Empire Roman captives from among the most useful craftsmen were carried -away by their northern conquerors. - -The history and present details of the labour laws of various countries -are dealt with below in successive sections: (1) history of legislation -in the United Kingdom; (2) the results as shown by the law in force in -1909, with the corresponding facts for (3) Continental Europe and (4) -the United States. Under other headings (TRADE-UNIONS, STRIKES AND -LOCK-OUTS, ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION, &c., &c.) are many details on -cognate subjects. - - -I. HISTORY IN THE UNITED KINGDOM - -1. _Until the Close of the 15th Century._--Of the main conditions of -industrial labour in early Anglo-Saxon England details are scanty. -Monastic industrial communities were added in Christian times to village -industrial communities. While generally husbandry was the first object -of toil, and developed under elaborate regulation in the manorial -system, still a considerable variety of industries grew up, the aim -being expressly to make each social group self-sufficing, and to protect -and regulate village artisans in the interest of village resources. This -protective system, resting on a communal or co-operative view of labour -and social life, has been compared as analogous to the much later and -wider system under which the main purpose was to keep England as a whole -self-sufficing.[3] It has also been shown how greatly a fresh spirit of -enterprise in industry and trade was stimulated first by the Danish and -next by the Norman invasion; the former brought in a vigour shown in -growth of villages, increase in number of freemen, and formation of -trading towns; the latter especially opened up new communications with -the most civilized continental people, and was followed by a -considerable immigration of artisans, particularly of Flemings. In Saxon -England slavery in the strictest sense existed, as is shown in the -earliest English laws, but it seems that the true slave class as -distinct from the serf class was comparatively small, and it may well be -that the labour of an ordinary serf was not practically more severe, and -the remuneration in maintenance and kind not much less than that of -agricultural labourers in recent times. In spite of the steady protest -of the Church, slavery (as the exception, not the general rule) did not -die out for many centuries, and was apt to be revived as a punishment -for criminals, e.g. in the fierce provisions of the statute of Edward -VI. against beggars, not repealed until 1597. At no time, however, was -it general, and as the larger village and city populations grew the -ratio of serfs and slaves to the freemen in the whole population rapidly -diminished, for the city populations "had not the habit and use of -slavery," and while serfs might sometimes find a refuge in the cities -from exceptionally severe taskmasters, "there is no doubt that freemen -gradually united with them under the lord's protection, that strangers -engaged in trade sojourned among them, and that a race of artisans -gradually grew up in which original class feelings were greatly -modified." From these conditions grew two parallel tendencies in -regulation of labour. On the one hand there was, under royal charters, -the burgh or municipal organization and control of artisan and craft -labour, passing later into the more specialized organization in craft -gilds; on the other hand, there was a necessity, sometimes acute, to -prevent undue diminution in the numbers available for husbandry or -agricultural labour. To the latter cause must be traced a provision -appearing in a succession of statutes (see especially an act of Richard -II., 1388), that a child under twelve years once employed in agriculture -might never be transferred to apprenticeship in a craft. The steady -development of England, first as a wool-growing, later as a -cloth-producing country, would accentuate this difficulty. During the -13th century, side by side with development of trading companies for the -export of wool from England, may be noted many agreements on the part of -monasteries to sell their wool to Florentines, and during the same -century absorption of alien artisans into the municipal system was -practically completed. Charters of Henry I. provided for naturalization -of these aliens. From the time of Edward I. to Edward III. a gradual -transference of burgh customs, so far as recognized for the common good, -to statute law was in progress, together with an assertion of the rights -of the crown against ecclesiastical orders. "The statutes of Edward I.," -says Dr. Cunningham, "mark the first attempt to deal with Industry and -Trade as a public matter which concerns the whole state, not as the -particular affair of leading men in each separate locality." The first -direct legislation for labour by statute, however, is not earlier than -the twenty-third year of the reign of Edward III., and it arose in an -attempt to control the decay and ruin, both in rural and urban -districts, which followed the Hundred Years' War, and the pestilence -known as the Black Death. This first "Statute of Labourers" was designed -for the benefit of the community, not for the protection of labour or -prevention of oppression, and the policy of enforcing customary wages -and compelling the able-bodied labourer, whether free or bond, not -living in merchandise or exercising any craft, to work for hire at -recognized rates of pay, must be reviewed in the circumstances and -ideals of the time. Regulation generally in the middle ages aimed at -preventing any individual or section of the community from making what -was considered an exceptional profit through the necessity of others.[4] -The scarcity of labour by the reduction of the population through -pestilence was not admitted as a justification for the demands for -increased pay, and while the unemployed labourer was liable to be -committed to gaol if he refused service at current rates, the lords of -the towns or manors who promised or paid more to their servants were -liable to be sued treble the sum in question. Similar restrictions were -made applicable to artificers and workmen. By another statute, two years -later, labourers or artificers who left their work and went into another -county were liable to be arrested by the sheriff and brought back. These -and similar provisions with similar aims were confirmed by statutes of -1360, 1368 and 1388, but the act of 1360, while prohibiting "all -alliances and covins of masons, carpenters, congregations, chapters, -ordinances and oaths betwixt them made," allowed "every lord to bargain -or covenant for their works in gross with such labourers and artificers -when it pleaseth them, so that they perform such works well and lawfully -according to the bargain and covenant with them thereof made." Powers -were given by the acts of 1368 and 1388 to justices to determine matters -under these statutes and to fix wages. Records show that workmen of -various descriptions were pressed by writs addressed to sheriffs to work -for their king at wages regardless of their will as to terms and place -of work. These proceedings were founded on notions of royal prerogative, -of which impressment of seamen survived as an example to a far later -date. By an act of 1388 no servant or labourer, man or woman, however, -could depart out of the hundred to serve elsewhere unless bearing a -letter patent under the king's seal stating the cause of going and time -of return. Such provisions would appear to have widely failed in their -purpose, for an act of 1414 declares that the servants and labourers -fled from county to county, and justices were empowered to send writs to -the sheriffs for fugitive labourers as for felons, and to examine -labourers, servants and their masters, as well as artificers, and to -punish them on confession. An act of 1405, while putting a property -qualification on apprenticeship and requiring parents under heavy -penalties to put their children to such labour as their estates -required, made a reservation giving freedom to any person "to send their -children to school to learn literature." Up to the end of the 15th -century a monotonous succession of statutes strengthening, modifying, -amending the various attempts (since the first Statute of Labourers) to -limit free movement of labour, or demands by labourers for increased -wages, may be seen in the acts of 1411, 1427, 1444, 1495. It was clearly -found extremely difficult, if not impracticable, to carry out the minute -control of wages considered desirable, and exceptions in favour of -certain occupations were in some of the statutes themselves. In 1512 the -penalties for giving wages contrary to law were repealed so far as -related to masters, but it also appears that London workmen would not -endure the prevalent restrictions as to wages, and that they secured in -practice a greater freedom to arrange rates when working within the -city. Several of these statutes, and especially one of 1514, fixed the -hours of labour when limiting wages. During March to September the -limits were 5 A.M. to 7 or 8 P.M., with half an hour off for breakfast -and an hour and a half off for mid-day dinner. In winter the outside -limits were fixed by the length of daylight. - -Throughout the 15th century the rapidly increasing manufacture of cloth -was subject to a regulation which aimed at maintaining the standard of -production and prevention of bad workmanship, and the noteworthy statute -4 Edward IV. c. 1, while giving power to royal officers to supervise -size of cloths, modes of sealing, &c., also repressed payment to workers -in "pins, girdles and unprofitable wares," and ordained payment in true -and lawful money. This statute (the first against "Truck") gives an -interesting picture of the way in which clothiers--or, as we should call -them, wholesale merchants and manufacturers--delivered wool to spinners, -carders, &c., by weight, and paid for the work when brought back -finished. It appears that the work was carried on in rural as well as -town districts. While this industry was growing and thriving other -trades remained backward, and agriculture was in a depressed condition. -Craft gilds had primarily the same purpose as the Edwardian statutes, -that is, of securing that the public should be well served with good -wares, and that the trade and manufacture itself should be on a sound -basis as to quality of products and should flourish. Incidentally there -was considerable regulation by the gilds of the conditions of labour, -but not primarily in the interests of the labourer. Thus night work was -prohibited because it tended to secrecy and so to bad execution of work; -working on holidays was prohibited to secure fair play between craftsmen -and so on. The position of apprentices was made clear through -indentures, but the position of journeymen was less certain. Signs are -not wanting of a struggle between journeymen and masters, and towards -the end of the 15th century masters themselves, in at least the great -wool trade, tended to develop from craftsmen into something more like -the modern capitalist employer; from an act of 1555 touching weavers it -is quite clear that this development had greatly advanced and that -cloth-making was carried on largely by employers with large capitals. -Before this, however, while a struggle went on between the town -authorities and the craft gilds, journeymen began to form companies of -their own, and the result of the various conflicts may be seen in an act -of Henry VI., providing that in future new ordinances of gilds shall be -submitted to justices of the peace--a measure which was strengthened in -1503. - -2. _From Tudor Days until the Close of the 18th Century._--A detailed -history of labour regulation in the 16th century would include some -account of the Tudor laws against vagrancy and methods of dealing with -the increase of pauperism, attributable, at least in part, to the -dissolution of the monasteries under Henry VIII., and to the -confiscation of craft gild funds, which proceeded under Somerset and -Edward VI. It is sufficient here to point to the general recognition of -the public right to compel labourers to work and thus secure control of -unemployed as well as employed. The statutes of Henry VIII. and Edward -VI. against vagrancy differed rather in degree of severity than in -principle from legislation for similar purposes in previous and -subsequent reigns. The Statute of Labourers, passed in the fifth year of -Elizabeth's reign (1562), as well as the poor law of the same year, was -to a considerable extent both a consolidating and an amending code of -law, and was so securely based on public opinion and deeply rooted -custom that it was maintained in force for two centuries. It avowedly -approves of principles and aims in earlier acts, regulating wages, -punishing refusal to work, and preventing free migration of labour. It -makes, however, a great advance in its express aim of protecting the -poor labourer against insufficient wages, and of devising a machinery, -by frequent meeting of justices, which might yield "unto the hired -person both in time of scarcity and in time of plenty a convenient -proportion of wages." Minute regulations were made governing the -contract between master and servant, and their mutual rights and -obligations on parallel lines for (a) artificers, (b) labourers in -husbandry. Hiring was to be by the year, and any unemployed person -qualified in either calling was bound to accept service on pain of -imprisonment, if required, unless possessed of property of a specified -amount or engaged in art, science or letters, or being a "gentleman." -Persons leaving a service were bound to obtain a testimonial, and might -not be taken into fresh employment without producing such testimonial, -or, if in a new district, until after showing it to the authorities of -the place. A master might be fined L5, and a labourer imprisoned, and if -contumacious, whipped, for breach of this rule. The carefully devised -scheme for technical training of apprentices embodied to a considerable -extent the methods and experiences of the craft gilds. Hours of labour -were as follows: "All artificers and labourers being hired for wages by -the day or week shall, betwixt the midst of the months of March and -September, be and continue at their work at or before 5 o'clock in the -morning and continue at work and not depart until betwixt 7 and 8 -o'clock at night, except it be in the time of breakfast, dinner or -drinking, the which time at the most shall not exceed two hours and a -half in a day, that is to say, at every drinking half an hour, for his -dinner one hour and for his sleep when he is allowed to sleep, the which -is from the midst of May to the midst of August, half an hour; and all -the said artificers and labourers betwixt the midst of September and the -midst of March shall be and continue at their work from the spring of -the day in the morning until the night of the same day, except it be in -time afore appointed for breakfast and dinner, upon pain to lose and -forfeit one penny for every hour's absence, to be deducted and defaulked -out of his wages that shall so offend." Although the standpoint of the -Factory Act and Truck Act in force at the beginning of the 20th century -as regards hours of labour or regulation of fines deducted from wages is -completely reversed, yet the difference is not great between the average -length of hours of labour permissible under the present law for women -and those hours imposed upon the adult labourer in Elizabeth's statute. -Apart from the standpoint of compulsory imposition of fines, one -advantage in the definiteness of amount deductable from wages would -appear to lie on the side of the earlier statute. - -Three points remain to be touched on in connexion with the Elizabethan -poor law. In addition to (a) consolidation of measures for setting -vagrants to work, we find the first compulsory contributions from the -well-to-do towards poor relief there provided for, (b) at least a -theoretical recognition of a right as well as an obligation on the part -of the labourer to be hired, (c) careful provision for the apprenticing -of destitute children and orphans to a trade. - -One provision of considerable interest arose in Scotland, which was -nearly a century later in organizing provisions for fixing conditions of -hire and wages of workmen, labourers and servants, similar to those -consolidated in the Elizabethan Statute of Labourers. In 1617 it was -provided (and reaffirmed in 1661) that power should be given to the -sheriffs to compel payment of wages, "that servants may be the more -willing to obey the ordinance." The difficulties in regulation of -compulsory labour in Scotland must, however, have been great, for in -1672 houses of correction were erected for disobedient servants, and -masters of these houses were empowered to force them to work and to -correct them according to their demerits. While servants in manufacture -were compelled to work at reasonable rates they might not enter on a new -hire without their previous master's consent. - -Such legislation continued, at least theoretically, in force until the -awakening effected by the beginning of the industrial revolution--that -is, until the combined effects of steady concentration of capital in the -hands of employers and expansion of trade, followed closely by an -unexampled development of invention in machinery and application of -power to its use. completely altered the face of industrial England. -From time to time, in respect of particular trades, provisions against -truck and for payment of wages in current coin, similar to the act of -Edward IV. in the woollen industry, were found necessary, and this -branch of labour legislation developed through the reigns of Anne and -the four Georges until consolidation and amendment were effected, after -the completion of the industrial revolution, in the Truck Act of 1831. -From the close of the 17th century and during the 18th century the -legislature is no longer mainly engaged in devising means for compelling -labourers and artisans to enter into involuntary service, but rather in -regulating the summary powers of justices of the peace in the matter of -dispute between masters and servants in relation to contracts and -agreements, express or implied, presumed to have been entered into -voluntarily on both sides. While the movement to refer labour questions -to the jurisdiction of the justices thus gradually developed, the main -subject matter for their exercise of jurisdiction in regard to labour -also changed, even when theoretically for a time the two sets of -powers--such as (a) moderation of craft gild ordinances and punishment -of workers refusing hire, or (b) fixing scales of wages and enforcement -of labour contracts--might be concurrently exercised. Even in an act of -George II. (1746) for settlement of disputes and differences as to wages -or other conditions under a contract of labour, power was retained for -the justices, on complaint of the masters of misdemeanour or -ill-behaviour on the part of the servant, to discharge the latter from -service or to send him to a house of correction "there to be corrected," -that is, to be held to hard labour for a term not exceeding a month or -to be corrected by whipping. In an act with similar aims of George IV. -(1823), with a rather wider scope, the power to order corporal -punishment, and in 1867 to hard labour, for breach of labour contracts -had disappeared, and soon after the middle of the 19th century the right -to enforce contracts of labour also disappeared. Then breach of such -labour contracts became simply a question of recovery of damages, unless -both parties agreed that security for performance of the contract shall -be given instead of damages. - -While the endeavour to enforce labour apart from a contract died out in -the latter end of the 18th century, sentiment for some time had strongly -grown in favour of developing early industrial training of children. It -appears to have been a special object of charitable and philanthropic -endeavour in the 17th century, as well as the 18th, to found houses of -industry, in which little children, even under five years of age, might -be trained for apprenticeship with employers. Connected as this -development was with poor relief, one of its chief aims was to prevent -future unemployment and vagrancy by training in habits and knowledge of -industry, but not unavowed was another motive: "from children thus -trained up to constant labour we may venture to hope the lowering of its -price."[5] The evils and excesses which lay enfolded within such a -movement gave the first impulse to the new ventures in labour -legislation which are specially the work of the 19th century. Evident as -it is "that before the Industrial Revolution very young children were -largely employed both in their own homes and as apprentices under the -Poor Law," and that "long before Peel's time there were misgivings about -the apprenticeship system," still it needed the concentration and -prominence of suffering and injury to child life in the factory system -to lead to parliamentary intervention. - -3. _From 1800 to the Codes of 1872 and 1878._--A serious outbreak of -fever in 1784 in cotton mills near Manchester appears to have first -drawn widespread and influential public opinion to the overwork of -children, under terribly dangerous and insanitary conditions, on which -the factory system was then largely being carried on. A local inquiry, -chiefly by a group of medical men presided over by Dr Percival, was -instituted by the justices of the peace for Lancashire, and in the -forefront of the resulting report stood a recommendation for limitation -and control of the working hours of the children. A resolution by the -county justices followed, in which they declared their intention in -future to refuse "indentures of parish Apprentices whereby they shall be -bound to Owners of Cotton Mills and other works in which children are -obliged to work in the night or more than ten hours in the day." In 1795 -the Manchester Board of Health was formed, which, with fuller -information, more definitely advised legislation for the regulation of -the hours and conditions of labour in factories. In 1802 the Health and -Morals of Apprentices Act was passed, which in effect formed the first -step towards prevention of injury to and protection of labour in -factories. It was directly aimed only at evils of the apprentice system, -under which large numbers of pauper children were worked in cotton and -woollen mills without education, for excessive hours, under wretched -conditions. It did not apply to places employing fewer than twenty -persons or three apprentices, and it applied the principle of limitation -of hours (to twelve a day) and abolition of night work, as well as -educational requirements, only to apprentices. Religious teaching and -suitable sleeping accommodation and clothing were provided for in the -act, also as regards apprentices. Lime-washing and ventilation -provisions applied to all cotton and woollen factories employing more -than twenty persons. "Visitors" were to be appointed by county justices -for repression of contraventions, and were empowered to "direct the -adoption of such sanitary regulations as they might on advice think -proper." The mills were to be registered by the clerk of the peace, and -justices had power to inflict fines of from L2 to L5 for contraventions. -Although enforcement of the very limited provisions of the act was in -many cases poor or non-existent, in some districts excellent work was -done by justices, and in 1803 the West Riding of Yorkshire justices -passed a resolution substituting the ten hours' limit for the twelve -hours' limit of the act, as a condition of permission for indenturing of -apprentices in mills. - -Rapid development of the application of steam power to manufacture led -to growth of employment of children in populous centres, otherwise than -on the apprenticeship system, and before long the evils attendant on -this change brought the general question of regulation and protection of -child labour in textile factories to the front. The act of 1819, limited -as it was, was a noteworthy step forward, in that it dealt with this -wider scope of employment of children in cotton factories, and it is -satisfactory to record that it was the outcome of the efforts and -practical experiments of a great manufacturer, Robert Owen. Its -provisions fell on every point lower than the aims he put forward on his -own experience as practicable, and notably in its application only to -cotton mills instead of all textile factories. Prohibition of child -labour under nine years of age and limitation of the working day to -twelve in the twenty-four (without specifying the precise hour of -beginning and closing) were the main provisions of this act. No -provision was made for enforcement of the law beyond such as was -attempted in the act of 1802. Slight amendments were attempted in the -acts of 1825 and 1831, but the first really important factory act was in -1833 applying to textile factories generally, limiting employment of -young persons under eighteen years of age, as well as children, -prohibiting night work between 8.30 P.M. and 5.30 A.M., and first -providing for "inspectors" to enforce the law. This is the act which was -based on the devoted efforts of Michael Sadler, with whose name in this -connexion that of Lord Ashley, afterwards earl of Shaftesbury, was from -1832 associated. The importance of this act lay in its provision for -skilled inspection and thus for enforcement of the law by an independent -body of men unconnected with the locality in which the manufactures lay, -whose specialization in their work enabled them to acquire information -needed for further development of legislation for protection of labour. -Their powers were to a certain extent judicial, being assimilated to -those possessed by justices; they could administer oaths and make such -"rules, regulations and orders" as were necessary for execution of the -act, and could hear complaints and impose penalties under the act. In -1844 a textile factory act modified these extensive inspectoral powers, -organizing the service on lines resembling those of our own time, and -added provision for certifying surgeons to examine workers under sixteen -years of age as to physical fitness for employment and to grant -certificates of age and ordinary strength. Hours of labour, by the act -of 1833, were limited for children under eleven to 9 a day or 48 in the -week, and for young persons under eighteen to 12 a day or 69 in the -week. Between 1833 and 1844 the movement in favour of a ten hours' day, -which had long been in progress, reached its height in a time of great -commercial and industrial distress, but could not be carried into effect -until 1847. By the act of 1844 the hours of adult women were first -regulated, and were limited (as were already those of "young persons") -to 12 a day; children were permitted either to work the same hours on -alternate days or "half-time," with compulsory school attendance as a -condition of their employment. The aim in thus adjusting the hours of -the three classes of workers was to provide for a practical standard -working-day. For the first time detailed provisions for health and -safety began to make their appearance in the law. Penal compensation for -preventible injuries due to unfenced machinery was also provided, and -appears to have been the outcome of a discussion by witnesses before the -Royal Commission on Labour of Young Persons in Mines and Manufactures in -1841. - -From this date, 1841, begin the first attempts at protective legislation -for labour in mining. The first Mines Act of 1842 following the terrible -revelations of the Royal Commission referred to excluded women and girls -from underground working, and limited the employment of boys, excluding -from underground working those under ten years, but it was not until -1850 that systematic reporting of fatal accidents and until 1855 that -other safeguards for health, life and limb in mines were seriously -provided by law. With the exception of regulations against truck there -was no protection for the miner before 1842; before 1814 it was not -customary to hold inquests on miners killed by accidents in mines. From -1842 onwards considerable interaction in the development of the two sets -of acts (mines and factories), as regards special protection against -industrial injury to health and limb, took place, both in parliament and -in the department (Home Office) administering them. Another strong -influence tending towards ultimate development of scientific protection -of health and life in industry began in the work and reports of the -series of sanitary commissions and Board of Health reports from 1843 -onwards. In 1844 the mines inspector made his first report, but two -years later women were still employed to some extent underground. -Organized inspection began in 1850, and in 1854 the Select Committee on -Accidents adopted a suggestion of the inspectors for legislative -extension of the practice of several colliery owners in framing special -safety rules for working in mines. The act of 1855 provided seven -general rules, relating to ventilation, fencing of disused shafts, -proper means for signalling, proper gauges and valve for steam-boiler, -indicator and brake for machine lowering and raising; also it provided -that detailed special rules submitted by mine-owners to the secretary of -state, might, on his approval, have the force of law and be enforceable -by penalty. The Mines Act of 1860, besides extending the law to -ironstone mines, following as it did on a series of disastrous accidents -and explosions, strengthened some of the provisions for safety. At -several inquests strong evidence was given of incompetent management and -neglect of rules, and a demand was made for enforcing employment only of -certificated managers of coal mines. This was not met until the act of -1872, but in 1860 certain sections relating to wages and education were -introduced. Steady development of the coal industry, increasing -association among miners, and increased scientific knowledge of means of -ventilation and of other methods for securing safety, all paved the way -to the Coal Mines Act of 1872, and in the same year health and safety in -metalliferous mines received their first legislative treatment in a code -of similar scope and character to that of the Coal Mines Act. This act -was amended in 1886, and repealed and recodified in 1887; its principal -provisions are still in force, with certain revised special rules and -modifications as regards reporting of accidents (1906) and employment of -children (1903). It was based on the recommendations of a Royal -Commission, which had reported in 1864, and which had shown the grave -excess of mortality and sickness among metalliferous miners, attributed -to the inhalation of gritty particles, imperfect ventilation, great -changes of temperature, excessive physical exertion, exposure to wet, -and other causes. The prohibition of employment of women and of boys -under ten years underground in this class of mines, as well as in coal -mines, had been effected by the act of 1842, and inspection had been -provided for in the act of 1860; these were in amended form included in -the code of 1872, the age of employment of boys underground being raised -to twelve. In the Coal Mines Act of 1872 we see the first important -effort to provide a complete code of regulation for the special dangers -to health, life and limb in coal mines apart from other mines; it -applied to "mines of coal, mines of stratified ironstone, mines of shale -and mines of fire-clay." Unlike the companion act--applying to all other -mines--it maintained the age limit of entering underground employment -for boys at ten years, but for those between ten and twelve it provided -for a system of working analogous to the half-time system in factories, -including compulsory school attendance. The limits of employment for -boys from twelve to sixteen were 10 hours in any one day and 54 in -anyone week. The chief characteristics of the act lay in extension of -the "general" safety rules, improvement of the method of formulating -"special" safety rules, provision for certificated and competent -management, and increased inspection. Several important matters were -transferred from the special to the general rules, such as compulsory -use of safety lamps where needed, regulation of use of explosives, and -securing of roofs and sides. Special rules, before being submitted to -the secretary of state for approval, must be posted in the mine for two -weeks, with a notice that objections might be sent by any person -employed to the district inspector. Wilful neglect of safety provisions -became punishable in the case of employers as well as miners by -imprisonment with hard labour. But the most important new step lay in -the sections relating to daily control and supervision of every mine by -a manager holding a certificate of competency from the secretary of -state, after examination by a board of examiners appointed by the -secretary of state, power being retained for him to cause later inquiry -into competency of the holder of the certificate, and to cancel or -suspend the certificate in case of proved unfitness. - -Returning to the development of factory and workshop law from the year -1844, the main line of effort--after the act of 1847 had restricted -hours of women and young persons to 10 a day and fixed the daily limits -between 6 A.M. and 6 P.M. (Saturday 6 A.M. to 2 P.M.)--lay in bringing -trade after trade in some degree under the scope of this branch of law, -which had hitherto only regulated conditions in textile factories. -Bleaching and dyeing works were included by the acts of 1860 and 1862; -lace factories by that of 1861; calendering and finishing by acts of -1863 and 1864; bakehouses became partially regulated by an act of 1863, -with special reference to local authorities for administration of its -clauses. The report of the third Children's Employment Commission -brought together in accessible form the miserable facts relating to -child labour in a number of unregulated industries in the year 1862, and -the act of 1864 brought some of (these earthenware-making, lucifer -match-making, percussion cap and cartridge making, paper-staining, and -fustian cutting) partly under the scope of the various textile factory -acts in force. A larger addition of trades was made three years later, -but the act of 1864 is particularly interesting in that it first -embodied some of the results of inquiries of expert medical and sanitary -commissioners, by requiring ventilation to be applied to the removal of -injurious gases, dust, and other impurities generated in manufacture, -and made a first attempt to engraft part of the special rules system -from the mines acts. The provisions for framing such rules disappeared -in the Consolidating Act of 1878, to be revived in a better form later. -The Sanitary Act of 1866, administered by local authorities, provided -for general sanitation in any factories and workshops not under existing -factory acts, and the Workshops Regulation Act of 1867, similarly to be -administered by local authorities, amended in 1870, practically -completed the application of the main principle of the factory acts to -all places in which manual labour was exercised for gain in the making -or finishing of articles or parts of articles for sale. A few specially -dangerous or injurious trades brought under regulation in 1864 and 1867 -(e.g. earthenware and lucifer match making, glass-making) ranked as -"factories," although not using mechanical power, and for a time -employment of less than fifty persons relegated certain workplaces to -the category of "workshops," but broadly the presence or absence of such -motor power in aid of process was made and has remained the distinction -between factories and workshops. The Factory Act of 1874, the last of -the series before the great Consolidating Act of 1878, raised the -minimum age of employment for children to ten years in textile -factories. In most of the great inquiries into conditions of child -labour the fact has come clearly to light, in regard to textile and -non-textile trades alike, that parents as much as any employers have -been responsible for too early employment and excessive hours of -employment of children, and from early times until to-day in factory -legislation it has been recognized that they must to some extent be held -responsible for due observation of the limits imposed. For example, in -1831 it was found necessary to protect occupiers against parental -responsibility for false certificates of age, and in 1833 parents of a -child or "any Person having any benefit from the wages of such child" -were made to share responsibility for employment of children without -school attendance or beyond legal hours. - -During the discussions on the bill which became law in 1874, it had -become apparent that revision and consolidation of the multiplicity of -statutes then regulating manufacturing industry had become pressingly -necessary; modifications and exceptions for exceptional conditions in -separate industries needed reconsideration and systematization on clear -principles, and the main requirements of the law could with great -advantage be applied more generally to all the industries. In -particular, the daily limits as to period of employment, pauses for -meals, and holidays, needed to be unified for non-textile factories and -workshops, so as to bring about a standard working-day, and thus prevent -the tendency in "the larger establishments to farm out work among the -smaller, where it is done under less favourable conditions both sanitary -and educational."[6] In these main directions, and that of simplifying -definitions, summarizing special sanitary provisions that had been -gradually introduced for various trades, and centralizing and improving -the organization of the inspectorate, the Commission of 1876 on the -Factory Acts made its recommendations, and the Factory Act of 1878 took -effect. In the fixed working-day, provisions for pauses, holidays, -general and special exceptions, distinctions between systems of -employment for children, young persons and women, education of children -and certificates of fitness for children and young persons, limited -regulation of domestic workshops, general principles of administration -and definitions, the law of 1878 was made practically the same as that -embodied in the later principal act of 1901. More or less completely -revised are: (a) the sections in the 1878 act relating to mode of -controlling sanitary conditions in workshops (since 1891 primarily -enforced by the local sanitary authority); (b) provision for reporting -accidents and for enforcing safety (other than fencing of mill gearing -and dangerous machinery); (c) detailed regulation of injurious and -dangerous process and trades; (d) powers of certifying surgeons; (e) -amount of overtime permissible (greatly reduced in amount and now -confined to adults); (f) age for permissible employment of a child has -been raised from ten years to twelve years. Entirely new since the act -of 1878 are the provisions: (a) for control of outwork; (b) for -supplying particulars of work and wages to piece-workers, enabling them -to compute the total amount of wages payable to them; (e) extension of -the act to laundries; (f) a tentative effort to limit the too early -employment of mothers after childbirth. - - -II. LAW OF UNITED KINGDOM, 1910 - -_Factories and Workshops._--The act of 1878 remained until 1901, -although much had been meanwhile superimposed, a monument to the efforts -of the great factory reformers of the first half of the 19th century, -and the general groundwork of safety for workers in factories and -workshops in the main divisions of sanitation, security against -accidents, physical fitness of workers, general limitation of hours and -times of employment for young workers and women. The act of 1901, which -came into force 1st January 1902 (and became the principal act), was an -amending as well as a consolidating act. Comparison of the two acts -shows, however, that, in spite of the advantages of further -consolidation and helpful changes in arrangement of sections and -important additions which tend towards a specialized hygiene for factory -life, the fundamental features of the law as fought out in the 19th -century remain undisturbed. So far as the law has altered in character, -it has done so chiefly by gradual development of certain sanitary -features, originally subordinate, and by strengthening provision for -security against accidents and not by retreat from its earlier aims. At -the same time a basis for possible new developments can be seen in the -protection of "outworkers" as well as factory workers against fraudulent -or defective particulars of piece-work rates of wages. - -Later acts directly and indirectly affecting the law are certain acts of -1903, 1906, 1907, to be touched on presently. - - - Additions to act of 1878. - -The act of 1878, in a series of acts from 1883 to 1895, received -striking additions, based (1) on the experience gained in other branches -of protective legislation, e.g. development of the method of regulation -of dangerous trades by "special rules" and administrative inquiry into -accidents under Coal Mines Acts; (2) on the findings of royal -commissions and parliamentary inquiries, e.g. increased control of -"outwork" and domestic workshops, and limitation of "overtime"; (3) on -the development of administrative machinery for enforcing the more -modern law relating to public health, e.g. transference of -administration of sanitary provisions in workshops to the local sanitary -authorities; (4) on the trade-union demand for means for securing -trustworthy records of wage-contracts between employer and workman, e.g. -the section requiring particulars of work and wages for piece-workers. -The first additions to the act of 1878 were, however, almost purely -attempts to deal more adequately than had been attempted in the code of -1878 with certain striking instances of trades injurious to health. Thus -the Factory and Workshop Act of 1883 provided that white-lead factories -should not be carried on without a certificate of conformity with -certain conditions, and also made provision for special rules, on lines -later superseded by those laid down in the act of 1891, applicable to -any employment in a factory or workshop certified as dangerous or -injurious by the secretary of state. The act of 1883 also dealt with -sanitary conditions in bakehouses. Certain definitions and explanations -of previous enactments touching overtime and employment of a child in -any factory or workshop were also included in the act. A class of -factories in which excessive heat and humidity seriously affected the -health of operatives was next dealt with in the Cotton Cloth Factories -Act 1889. This provided for special notice to the chief inspector from -all occupiers of cotton cloth factories (i.e. any room, shed, or -workshop or part thereof in which weaving of cotton cloth is carried on) -who intend to produce humidity by artificial means; regulated both -temperature of workrooms and amount of moisture in the atmosphere, and -provided for tests and records of the same; and fixed a standard minimum -volume of fresh air (600 cub. ft.) to be admitted in every hour for -every person employed in the factory. Power was retained for the -secretary of state to modify by order the standard for the maximum limit -of humidity of the atmosphere at any given temperature. A short act in -1870 extended this power to other measures for the protection of -health. - -The special measures from 1878 to 1889 gave valuable precedents for -further developments of special hygiene in factory life, but the next -advance in the Factory and Workshop Act 1891, following the House of -Lords Committee on the sweating system and the Berlin International -Labour Conference, extended over much wider ground. Its principal -objects were: (a) to render administration of the law relating to -workshops more efficient, particularly as regards sanitation; with this -end in view it made the primary controlling authority for sanitary -matters in workshops the local sanitary authority (now the district -council), acting by their officers, and giving them the powers of the -less numerous body of factory inspectors, while at the same time the -provisions of the Public Health Acts replaced in workshops the very -similar sanitary provisions of the Factory Acts; (b) to provide for -greater security against accidents and more efficient fencing of -machinery in factories; (c) to extend the method of regulation of -unhealthy or dangerous occupations by application of special rules and -requirements to any incident of employment (other than in a domestic -workshop) certified by the secretary of state to be dangerous or -injurious to health or dangerous to life or limb; (d) to raise the age -of employment of children and restrict the employment of women -immediately after childbirth; (e) to require particulars of rate of -wages to be given with work to piece-workers in certain branches of the -textile industries; (f) to amend the act of 1878 in various subsidiary -ways, with the view of improving the administration of its principles, -e.g. by increasing the means of checking the amount of overtime worked, -empowering inspectors to enter workplaces used as dwellings without a -justice's warrant, and the imposition of minimum penalties in certain -cases. On this act followed four years of greatly accelerated -administrative activity. No fewer than sixteen trades were scheduled by -the secretary of state as dangerous to health. The manner of preparing -and establishing suitable rules was greatly modified by the act of 1901 -and will be dealt with in that connexion. - -The Factory and Workshop Act 1895 followed thus on a period of exercise -of new powers of administrative regulation (the period being also that -during which the Royal Commission on Labour made its wide survey of -industrial conditions), and after two successive annual reports of the -chief inspector of factories had embodied reports and recommendations -from the women inspectors, who in 1893 were first added to the -inspectorate. Again, the chief features of an even wider legislative -effort than that of 1891 were the increased stringency and definiteness -of the measures for securing hygienic and safe conditions of work. Some -of these measures, however, involved new principles, as in the provision -for the prohibition of the use of a dangerous machine or structure by -the order of a magistrate's court, and the power to include in the -special rules drawn up in pursuance of section 8 of the act of 1891, the -prohibition of the employment of any class of persons, or the limitation -of the period of employment of any class of persons in any process -scheduled by order of the secretary of state. These last two powers have -both been exercised, and with the exercise of the latter passed away, -without opposition, the absolute freedom of the employer of the adult -male labourer to carry on his manufacture without legislative limitation -of the hours of labour. Second only in significance to these new -developments was the addition, for the first time since 1867, of new -classes of workplaces not covered by the general definitions in section -93 of the Consolidating Act of 1878, viz.: (a) laundries (with special -conditions as to hours, &c.); (b) docks, wharves, quays, warehouses and -premises on which machinery worked by power is temporarily used for the -purpose of the construction of a building or any structural work in -connexion with the building (for the purpose only of obtaining security -against accidents). Other entirely new provisions in the act of 1895, -later strengthened by the act of 1901, were the requirement of a -reasonable temperature in workrooms, the requirement of lavatories for -the use of persons employed in any department where poisonous substances -are used, the obligation on occupiers and medical practitioners to -report cases of industrial poisoning; and the penalties imposed on an -employer wilfully allowing wearing apparel to be made, cleaned or -repaired in a dwelling-house where an inmate is suffering from -infectious disease. Another provision empowered the secretary of state -to specify classes of outwork and areas with a view to the regulation of -the sanitary condition of premises in which outworkers are employed. -Owing to the conditions attached to its exercise, no case was found in -which this power could come into operation, and the act of 1901 deals -with the matter on new lines. The requirement of annual returns from -occupiers of persons employed, and the competency of the person charged -with infringing the act to give evidence in his defence, were important -new provisions, as was also the adoption of the powers to direct a -formal investigation of any accident on the lines laid down in section -45 of the Coal Mines Regulation Act 1887. Other sections, relating to -sanitation and safety, were developments of previous regulations, e.g. -the fixing of a standard of overcrowding, provision of sanitary -accommodation separate for each sex where the standard of the Public -Health Act Amendment Act of 1890 had not been adopted by the competent -local sanitary authority, power to order a fan or other mechanical means -to carry off injurious gas, vapour or other impurity (the previous power -covering only dust). The fencing of machinery and definition of -accidents were made more precise, young persons were prohibited from -cleaning dangerous machinery, and additional safeguards against risk of -injury by fire or panic were introduced. On the question of employment -the foremost amendments lay in the almost complete prohibition of -overtime for young persons, and the restriction of the power of an -employer to employ protected persons outside his factory or workshop on -the same day that he had employed them in the factory or workshop. Under -the head of particulars of work and wages to piece-workers an important -new power, highly valued by the workers, was given to apply the -principle with the necessary modifications by order of the secretary of -state to industries other than textile and to outworkers as well as to -those employed inside factories and workshops. - - - The act of 1901. - -In 1899 an indirect modification of the limitation to employment of -children was effected by the Elementary Education Amendment Act, which, -by raising from eleven to twelve the minimum age at which a child may, -by the by-laws of a local authority, obtain total or partial exemption -from the obligation to attend school, made it unlawful for an occupier -to take into employment any child under twelve in such a manner as to -prevent full-time attendance at school. The age of employment became -generally thereby the same as it has been for employment at a mine above -ground since 1887. The act of 1901 made the prohibition of employment of -a child under twelve in a factory or workshop direct and absolute. Under -the divisions of sanitation, safety, fitness for employment, special -regulation of dangerous trades, special control of bakehouses, -exceptional treatment of creameries, new methods of dealing with home -work and outworkers, important additions were made to the general law by -the act of 1901, as also in regulations for strengthened administrative -control. New general sanitary provisions were those prescribing: (a) -ventilation _per se_ for every workroom, and empowering the secretary of -state to fix a standard of sufficient ventilation; (b) drainage of wet -floors; (c) the power of the secretary of state to define in certain -cases what shall constitute sufficient and suitable sanitary -accommodation. New safety provisions were those relating to--(a) -Examination and report on steam boilers; (b) prohibition of employment -of a child in cleaning below machinery in motion; (c) power of the -district council to make by-laws for escape in case of fire. The most -important administrative alterations were: (a) a justice engaged in the -same trade as, or being officer of an association of persons engaged in -the same trade as, a person charged with an offence may not act at the -hearing and determination of the charge; (b) ordinary supervision of -sanitary conditions under which outwork is carried on was transferred to -the district council, power being reserved to the Home Office to -intervene in case of neglect or default by any district council. - - - Acts of 1903, 1906, 1907. - -The Employment of Children Act 1903, while primarily providing for -industries outside the scope of the Factory Act, incidentally secured -that children employed as half-timers should not also be employed in -other occupations. The Notice of Accidents Act 1906 amended the whole -system of notification of accidents, simultaneously in mines, quarries, -factories and workshops, and will be set out in following paragraphs. -The Factory and Workshop Act of 1907 amended the law in respect of -laundries by generally applying the provisions of 1901 to trade -laundries while granting them choice of new exceptional periods, and by -extending the provisions of the act (with certain powers to the Home -Office by Orders laid before parliament to allow variations) to -institution laundries carried on for charitable or reformatory purposes. -The Employment of Women Act 1907 repealed an exemption in the act of -1901 (and earlier acts) relating to employment of women in flax scutch -mills, thus bringing this employment under the ordinary provisions as to -period of employment. - -The following paragraphs aim at presenting an idea of the scope of the -modified and amended law, as a whole, adding where clearly necessary -reference to the effect of acts, which ceased to apply after the 31st of -December 1901:-- - - - Definitions. - - The workplaces to which the act applies are, first, "factories" and - "workshops"; secondly, laundries, docks, wharves, &c., enumerated - above as introduced and regulated partially only by the act of 1895 - and subsequent acts. Apart from this secondary list, and having regard - to workplaces which remain undefined by the law, the act may broadly - be said to apply to premises, rooms or places in which manual labour, - with or without the aid of mechanical power, is exercised for gain in - or incidental to the making, altering, repairing, ornamenting, - washing, cleaning or finishing or adapting for sale of any article or - part of any article. If steam, water or other mechanical power is used - in aid of the manufacturing process, the workplace is a factory; if - not, it is a workshop. There is, however, a list of eighteen classes - of works (brought under the factory law for reasons of safety, &c., - before workshops generally were regulated) which are defined as - factories whether power is used in them or not. Factories are, again, - subdivided into textile and non-textile: they are textile if the - machinery is employed in preparing, manufacturing or finishing cotton, - wool, hair, silk, flax, hemp, jute, tow, China grass, cocoanut fibre - or other like material either separately or mixed together, or mixed - with any other material, or any fabric made thereof; all other - factories are non-textile. The distinction turns on the historical - origin of factory regulation and the regulations in textile factories - remain in some respects slightly more stringent than in the - non-textile factories and workshops, though the general provisions are - almost the same. Three special classes of workshops have for certain - purposes to be distinguished from ordinary workshops, which include - tenement workshops: (a) Domestic workshops, i.e. any private house, - room or place, which, though used as a dwelling, is by reason of the - work carried on there a workshop, and in which the only persons - employed are members of the same family, dwelling there alone--in - these women's hours are unrestricted; (b) Women's workshops, in which - neither children nor young persons are employed--in these a more - elastic arrangement of hours is permissible than in ordinary - workshops; (c) Workshops in which men only are employed--these come - under the same general regulations in regard to sanitation as other - workshops, also under the provisions of the Factory Act as regards - security, and, if certified by the secretary of state, may be brought - under special regulations. They are otherwise outside the scope of the - act of 1901. - - The person to whom the regulations apply in the above-defined - workplaces are _children_, i.e. persons between the ages of twelve and - fourteen, _young persons_, i.e. boys or girls between the ages of - fourteen (or if an educational certificate has been obtained, - thirteen) and eighteen years of age, and _women_, i.e. females above - the age of eighteen; these are all "protected" persons to whom the - general provisions of the act, inclusive of the regulation of hours - and times of employment, apply. To adult men generally those - provisions broadly only apply which are aimed at securing sanitation - and safety in the conduct of the manufacturing process. - - The person generally responsible for observance of the provisions of - the law, whether these relate to health, safety, limitation of the - hours of labour or other matters, is the _occupier_ (a term undefined - in the act) of the factory, workshop or laundry. There are, however, - limits to his responsibility: (a) generally, where the occupier has - used due diligence to enforce the execution of the act, and can show - that another person, whether agent, servant, workman or other person, - is the real offender; (b) specially in a factory the sections relating - to employment of protected persons, where the owner or hirer of a - machine or implement driven by mechanical power is some person other - than the occupier of the factory, the owner or hirer, so far as - respects any offence against the act committed in relation to a person - who is employed in connexion with the machine or implement, and is in - the employment or pay of the owner or hirer, shall be deemed to be the - occupier of the factory; (c) for the one purpose of reporting - accidents, the actual employer of the person injured in any factory or - workshop is bound under penalty immediately to report the same to the - occupier; (d) so far as relates to sanitary conditions, fencing of - machinery, affixing of notices in _tenement_ factories, the _owner_ - (as defined by the Public Health Act 1875), generally speaking, takes - the place of the occupier. - - Employment in a factory or workshop includes work whether for wages or - not: (a) in a manufacturing process or handicraft, (b) in cleaning any - place used for the same, (c) in cleaning or oiling any part of the - machinery, (d) any work whatsoever incidental to the process or - handicraft, or connected with the article made. Persons found in any - part of the factory or workshop, where machinery is used or - manufacture carried on, except at meal-times, or when machinery is - stopped, are deemed to be employed until the contrary is proved. The - act, however, does not apply to employment for the sole purpose of - repairing the premises or machinery, nor to the process of preserving - and curing fish immediately upon its arrival in the fishing boats in - order to prevent the fish from being destroyed or spoiled, nor to the - process of cleaning and preparing fruit so far as is necessary to - prevent it from spoiling during the months of June, July, August and - September. Certain light handicrafts carried on by a family only in a - private house or room at irregular intervals are also outside the - scope of the act. - - - Sanitation. - - The foremost provisions are those relating to the sanitary condition - of the workplaces and the general security of every class of worker. - Every factory must be kept in a cleanly condition, free from noxious - effluvia, ventilated in such a manner as to render harmless, so far as - practicable, gases, vapours, dust or other impurities generated in the - manufacture; must be provided with sufficient and suitable sanitary - conveniences separate for the sexes; must not be overcrowded (not less - than 250 cubic ft. during the day, 400 during overtime, for each - worker). In these matters the law of public health takes in workshops - the place of the Factory Act, the requirements being substantially the - same. Although, however, primarily the officers of the district - council enforce the sanitary provisions in workshops, the government - factory inspectors may give notice of any defect in them to the - district council in whose district they are situate; and if - proceedings are not taken within one month by the latter, the factory - inspector may act in default and recover expenses from the district - council. This power does not extend to domestic workshops which are - under the law relating to public health so far as general sanitation - is concerned. General powers are reserved to the secretary of state, - where he is satisfied that the Factory Act or law relating to public - health as regards workplaces has not been carried out by any district - council, to authorize a factory inspector during a period named in his - order to act instead of the district council. Other general sanitary - provisions administered by the government inspectors are the - requirement in factories and workshops of washing conveniences where - poisonous substances are used; adequate measures for securing and - maintaining a reasonable temperature of such a kind as will not - interfere with the purity of the air in each room in which any person - is employed; maintenance of sufficient means of ventilation in every - room in a factory or workshop (in conformity with such standard as may - be prescribed by order of the secretary of state); provision of a fan - to carry off injurious dust, gas or other impurity, and prevent their - inhalation in any factory or workshop; drainage of floors where wet - processes are carried on. For laundries and bakehouses there are - further sanitary regulations; e.g. in laundries all stoves for heating - irons shall be sufficiently separated from any ironing-room or - ironing-table, and the floors shall be "drained in such a manner as - will allow the water to flow off freely"; and in bakehouses a cistern - supplying water to a bakehouse must be quite separate from that - supplying water to a water-closet, and the latter may not communicate - directly with the bakehouse. Use of underground bakehouses (i.e. a - baking room with floor more than 3 ft. below the ground adjoining) is - prohibited, except where already used at the passing of the act; - further, in these cases, after 1st January 1904, a certificate as to - suitability in light, ventilation, &c., must be obtained from the - district council. In other trades certified by the secretary of state - further sanitary regulations may be made to increase security for - health by special rules to be presently touched on. The secretary of - state may also make sanitary requirements a condition of granting such - exceptions to the general law as he is empowered to grant. In - factories, as distinct from workshops, a periodical lime washing (or - washing with hot water and soap where paint and varnish have been - used) of all inside walls and ceilings once at least in every fourteen - months is generally required (in bakehouses once in six months). As - regards sufficiency and suitability of sanitary accommodation, the - standards determined by order of the secretary of state shall be - observed in the districts to which it is made applicable. An order was - made called the Sanitary Accommodation Order, on the 4th of February - 1903, the definitions and standards in which have also been widely - adopted by local sanitary authorities in districts where the Order - itself has no legal force, the local authority having parallel power - under the Public Health Act of 1890. - - - Security and accidents. - - Security in the use of machinery is provided for by precautions as - regards the cleaning of machinery in motion and working between the - fixed and traversing parts of self-acting machines driven by power, by - fencing of machinery, and by empowering inspectors to obtain an order - from a court of summary jurisdiction to prohibit the use, temporarily - or absolutely, of machinery, ways, works or plant, including use of a - steam boiler, which cannot be used without danger to life and limb. - Every hoist and fly-wheel directly connected with mechanical power, - and every part of a water-wheel or engine worked by mechanical power, - and every wheel race, must be fenced, whatever its position, and every - part of mill-gearing or dangerous machinery must either be fenced or - be in such position that it is as safe as if fenced. No protected - persons may clean any part of mill-gearing in motion, and children may - further not clean any part of or below manufacturing machinery in - motion by aid of mechanical power; young persons further may not clean - any machinery if the inspector notifies it to the occupier as - dangerous. Security as regards the use of dangerous premises is - provided for by empowering courts of summary jurisdiction, on the - application of an inspector, to prohibit their use until the danger - has been removed. The district council, or, in London, the county - council, or in case of their default the factory inspector, can - require certain provisions for escape in case of fire in factories and - workshops in which more than forty persons are employed; special - powers to make by-laws for means of escape from fire in any factory or - workshop are, in addition to any powers for prevention of fire that - they possess, given to every district council, in London to the county - council. The means of escape must be kept free from obstruction. - Provisions are made for doors to open outwards in each room in which - more than ten persons are employed, and to prevent the locking, - bolting or fastening of doors so that they cannot easily be opened - from inside when any person is employed or at meals inside the - workplace. Further, provisions for security may be provided in special - regulations. Every boiler for generating steam in a factory or - workshop or place where the act applies must have a proper safety - valve, a steam gauge, and a water gauge, and every such boiler, valve - and gauge must be maintained in proper condition. Examination by a - competent person must take place at least once in every fourteen - months. The occupier of any factory or workshop may be liable for - penal compensation not exceeding L100 in case of injury or death due - to neglect of any provision or special rule, the whole or any part of - which may be applied for the benefit of the injured person or his - family, as the secretary of state determines. When a death has - occurred by accident in a factory or workshop, the coroner must advise - the factory inspector for the district of the place and time of the - inquest. The secretary of state may order a formal investigation of - the circumstances of any accident as in the case of mines. Careful and - detailed provisions are made for the reporting by occupiers to - inspectors, and entry in the registers at factories and workshops of - accidents which occur in a factory or workshop and (a) cause loss of - life to a person employed there, or (b) are due to machinery moved by - mechanical power, molten metal, hot liquid, explosion, escape of gas - or steam, electricity, so disabling any person employed in the factory - or workshop as to cause him to be absent throughout at least one whole - day from his ordinary work, (c) are due to any other special cause - which the secretary of state may determine, (d) not falling under the - previous heads and yet cause disablement for more than seven days' - ordinary work to any person working in the factory or workshop. In the - case of (a) or (b) notice has also to be sent to the certifying - surgeon by the occupier. Cases of lead, phosphorus, arsenical and - mercurial poisoning, or anthrax, contracted in any factory or workshop - must similarly be reported and registered by the occupier, and the - duty of reporting these cases is also laid on medical practitioners - under whose observation they come. The list of classes of poisoning - can be extended by the secretary of state's order. - - - Physical fitness of workers. - - Certificates of physical fitness for employment must be obtained by - the occupier from the certifying surgeon for the district for all - persons under sixteen years of age employed in a factory, and in any - class of workshops to which the requirement has been extended by order - of the secretary of state, and an inspector may suspend any such - persons for re-examination in a factory, or for examination in a - workshop, when "disease or bodily infirmity" unfits the person, in his - opinion, for the work of the place. The certifying surgeon may examine - the process as well as the person submitted, and may qualify the - certificate he grants by conditions as to the work on which the person - is fit to be employed. An occupier of a factory or workshop or laundry - shall not knowingly allow a woman to be employed therein within four - weeks after childbirth. - - - Hours of protected persons. - - The employment of children, young persons and women is regulated as - regards ordinary and exceptional hours of work, ordinary and - exceptional meal-times, length of spells and holidays. The outside - limits of ordinary periods of employment and holidays are, broadly, - the same for textile factories as for non-textile factories and - workshops; the main difference lies in the requirement of not less - than a total two hours' interval for meals out of the twelve, and a - limit of four and a half hours for any spell of work, a longer weekly - half holiday, and a prohibition of overtime, in textile factories, as - compared with a total one and a half hours' interval for meals and a - limit of five hours for spells and (conditional) permission of - overtime in non-textile factories. The hours of work must be - specified, and from Monday to Friday may be between 6 A.M. and 6 P.M., - or 7 A.M. to 7 P.M.; in non-textile factories and workshops the hours - also may be taken between 8 A.M. and 8 P.M. or by order of the - secretary of state for special industries 9 A.M. to 9 P.M. Between - these outside limits, with the proviso that meal-times must be fixed - and limits as to spells observed, women and young persons may be - employed the full time, children on the contrary only half time, on - alternate days, or in alternate sets attending school half time - regularly. On Saturdays, in textile factories in which the period - commences at 6 A.M. all manufacturing work must cease at 12 if not - less than one hour is given for meals, or 11.30 if less than one hour - is given for meals (half an hour extra allowed for cleaning), and in - non-textile factories and workshops at 2 P.M., 3 P.M. or 4 P.M., - according as the hour of beginning is 6 A.M., 7 A.M. or 8 A.M. In - "domestic workshops" the total number of hours for young persons and - children must not exceed those allowed in ordinary workshops, but the - outside limits for beginning and ending are wider; and the case is - similar as regards hours of women in "women's workshops." Employment - outside a factory or workshop in the business of the same is limited - in a manner similar to that laid down in the Shop Hours Act, to be - touched on presently. Overtime in certain classes of factories, - workshops and warehouses attached to them is permitted, under - conditions specified in the acts, for women, to meet seasonal or - unforeseen pressure of business, or where goods of a perishable nature - are dealt with, for young persons only in a very limited degree in - factories liable to stoppage for drought or flood, or for an - unfinished process. These and other cases of exceptional working are - under minute and careful administrative regulations. Broadly these - same regulations as to exceptional overtime may apply in _laundries_ - but the act of 1907 granted to laundries not merely ancillary to the - manufacture carried on in a factory or workshop (e.g. shirt and collar - factories), additional power to fix different periods of employment - for different days of the week, and to make use of one or other of two - exceptional methods of arranging the daily periods so as to permit of - periods of different length on different days; these exceptional - periods cannot be worked in addition to overtime permissible under the - general law. Laundries carried on in connexion with charitable or - reformatory institutions were brought in 1907 within the scope of the - law, but special schemes for regulation as to hours, meals, holidays, - &c., may be submitted by the managers to the secretary of state, who - is empowered to approve them if he is satisfied that they are not less - favourable than the corresponding provisions of the principal act; - such schemes shall be laid as soon as possible before both Houses of - Parliament. - - - Dangerous and unhealthy industries. - - Night work is allowed in certain specified industries, under - conditions, for male young persons, but for no other workers under - eighteen, and overtime for women may never be later than 10 P.M. or - before 6 A.M. Sunday work is prohibited except, under conditions, for - Jews; and in factories, workshops and laundries six holidays - (generally the Bank holidays) must be allowed in the year. In - creameries in which women and young persons are employed the secretary - of state may by special order vary the beginning and end of the daily - period of employment, and allow employment for not more than three - hours on Sundays and holidays. - - The general provisions of the act may be supplemented where specially - dangerous or unhealthy trades are carried on, by special regulations. - This was provided for in the law in force until 31st December 1901, as - in the existing principal act, and the power to establish rules had - been exercised between 1892 and 1901 in twenty-two trades or processes - where injury arose either from handling of dangerous substances, such - as lead and lead compounds, phosphorus, arsenic or various chemicals, - or where there is inhalation of irritant dust or noxious fumes, or - where there is danger of explosion or infection of anthrax. Before the - rule could be drawn up under the acts of 1891 to 1895, the secretary - of state had to certify that in the particular case or class of cases - in question (e.g. process or machinery), there was, in his opinion, - danger to life or limb or risk of injury to health; thereupon the - chief inspector might propose to the occupier of the factory or - workshop such special rules or measures as he thought necessary to - meet the circumstances. The occupier might object or propose - modifications, but if he did not the rules became binding in - twenty-one days; if he objected, and the secretary of state did not - assent to any proposed modification, the matters in difference had to - be referred to arbitration, the award in which finally settled the - rules or requirement to be observed. In November 1901, in the case of - the earthenware and china industry, the last arbitration of the kind - was opened and was finally concluded in 1903. The parties to the - arbitration were the chief inspector, on behalf of the secretary of - state, and the occupier or occupiers, but the workmen interested might - be and were represented on the arbitration. In the establishing of the - twenty-two sets of existing special rules only thrice has arbitration - been resorted to, and only on two of these occasions were workmen - represented. The provisions as to the arbitration were laid down in - the first schedule to the Act of 1891, and were similar to those under - the Coal Mines Regulation Acts. Many of these codes have still the - force of law and will continue until in due course revised under the - amended procedure of the act of 1901. They might not only regulate - conditions of employment, but also restrict or prohibit employment of - any class of workers; where such restriction or prohibition affected - adult workers the rules had to be laid for forty days before both - Houses of Parliament before coming into operation. The obligation to - observe the rules in detail lies on workers as well as on occupiers, - and the section in the act of 1891 providing a penalty for - non-observance was drafted, as in the case of the mines, so as to - provide for a simultaneous fine for each (not exceeding two pounds for - the worker, not exceeding ten pounds for the employer). - - The provisions as to special regulations of the act of 1901 touch - primarily the method of procedure for making the regulations, but they - also covered for the first time domestic workshops and added a power - as to the kind of regulations that may be made; further, they - strengthened the sanction for observance of any rules that may be - established, by placing the occupier in the same general position as - regards penalty for non-observance as in other matters under the act. - On the certificate of the secretary of state that any manufacture, - machinery, plant, process or manual labour used in factories or - workshops is dangerous or injurious to life, health or limb, such - regulations as appear to the secretary of state to meet the necessity - of the case may be made by him after he has duly published notice: (1) - of his intention; (2) of the place where copies of the draft - regulations can be obtained; and (3) of the time during which - objections to them can be made by persons affected. The secretary of - state may modify the regulations to meet the objections made. If not, - unless the objection is withdrawn or appears to him frivolous, he - shall, before making the regulations, appoint a competent person to - hold a public inquiry with regard to the draft regulations and to - report to him thereon. The inquiry is to be made under such rules as - the secretary of state may lay down, and when the regulations are - made, they must be laid as soon as possible before parliament. Either - House may annul these regulations or any of them, without prejudice to - the power of the secretary of state to make new regulations. The - regulations may apply to all factories or workshops in which the - certified manufacture, process, &c., is used, or to a specified class. - They may, among other things, (a) prohibit or limit employment of any - person or class of persons; (b) prohibit, limit, or control use of any - material or process; (c) modify or extend special regulations - contained in the Act. Regulations have been established among others - in the following trades and processes: felt hat-making where any - inflammable solvent is used; file-cutting by hand; manufacture of - electric accumulators; docks, processes of loading, unloading, &c.; - tar distilling; factories in which self-acting mules are used; use of - locomotives; spinning and weaving of flax, hemp and jute; manufacture - of paints and colours; heading of yarn dyed by means of lead - compounds. - - - Measures and particulars to piece-workers. - - Although the Factory and Workshop Acts have not directly regulated - wages, they have made certain provision for securing to the worker - that the amount agreed upon shall be received: (a) by extending every - act in force relating to the inspection of weights, measures and - weighing machines for use in the sale of goods to those used in a - factory or workshop for checking or ascertaining the wages of persons - employed; (b) by ensuring that piece-workers in the textile trades - (and other trades specified by the secretary of state) shall receive, - before commencing any piece of work, clear particulars of the wages - applicable to the work to be done and of the work to which that rate - is to be applied. Unless the particulars of work are ascertainable by - an automatic indicator, they must be given to textile workers in - writing, and in the case of weavers in the cotton, worsted and woollen - trades the particulars of wages must be supplied separately to each - worker, and also shown on a placard in a conspicuous position. In - other textile processes, it is sufficient to furnish the particulars - separately to each worker. The secretary of state has used his powers - to extend this protection to non-textile workers, with suitable - modifications, in various hardware industries, including pen-making, - locks, chains, in wholesale tailoring and making of wearing apparel, - in fustian cutting, umbrella-making, brush-making and a number of - other piece-work trades. He further has in most of these and other - trades used his power to extend this protection to outworkers. - - - Administration. - - With a view to efficient administration of the act (a) certain notices - have to be conspicuously exhibited at the factory or workshop, (b) - registers and lists kept, and (c) notices sent to the inspector by the - occupier. Among the first the most important are the prescribed - abstract of the act, the names and addresses of the inspector and - certifying surgeon, the period of employment, and specified meal-times - (which may not be changed without fresh notice to the inspector), the - air space and number of persons who may legally be employed in each - room, and prescribed particulars of exceptional employment; among the - second are the general registers of children and young persons - employed, of accidents, of lime-washing, of overtime, and lists of - outworkers; among the third are the notice of beginning to occupy a - factory or workshop, which the occupier must send within one month, - report of overtime employment, notice of accident, poisoning or - anthrax, and returns of persons employed, with such other particulars - as may be prescribed. These must be sent to the chief inspector at - intervals of not less than one and not more than three years, as may - be directed by the secretary of state. - - The secretary of state for the Home Department controls the - administration of the acts, appoints the inspectors referred to in the - acts, assigns to them their duties, and regulates the manner and cases - in which they are to exercise the powers of inspectors. The act, - however, expressly assigns certain duties and powers to a chief - inspector and certain to district inspectors. Many provisions of the - acts depend as to their operation on the making of orders by the - secretary of state. These orders may impose special obligations on - occupiers and increase the stringency of regulations, may apply - exceptions as to employment, and may modify or relax regulations to - meet special classes of circumstances. In certain cases, already - indicated, his orders guide or determine the action of district - councils, and, generally, in case of default by a council he may - empower his inspectors to act as regards workplaces, instead of the - council, both under the Factory Acts and Public Health Acts. - - The powers of an inspector are to enter, inspect and examine, by day - or by night, at any reasonable time, any factory or workshop (or - laundry, dock, &c.), or part of one, when he has reason to believe - that any person is employed there; to take with him a constable if he - has reasonable cause to expect obstruction; to require production of - registers, certificates, &c., under the acts; to examine, alone or in - the presence of any other person, as he sees fit, every person in the - factory or workshop, or in a school where the children employed are - being educated; to prosecute, conduct or defend before a court of - summary jurisdiction any proceeding under the acts; and to exercise - such other powers as are necessary for carrying the act into effect. - The inspector has also the duty of enforcing the Truck Acts in places, - and in respect of persons, under the Factory Acts. Certifying surgeons - are appointed by the chief inspector subject to the regulations of the - secretary of state, and their chief duties are (a) to examine workers - under sixteen, and persons under special rules, as to physical fitness - for the daily work during legal periods, with power to grant qualified - certificates as to the work for which the young worker is fit, and (b) - to investigate and report on accidents and cases of lead, phosphorus - or other poisoning and anthrax. - -In 1907 there were registered as under inspection 110,276 factories, -including laundries with power, 146,917 workshops (other than men's -workshops), including laundries without power; of works under special -rules or regulations (included in the figures just given) there were -10,586 and 19,687 non-textile works under orders for supply of -particulars to piece-workers. Of notices of accidents received there -were 124,325, of which 1179 were fatal; of reported cases of poisoning -there were 653, of which 40 were fatal. Prosecutions were taken by -inspectors in 4474 cases and convictions obtained in 4211 cases. Of -persons employed there were, according to returns of occupiers, 1904, -4,165,791 in factories and 688,756 in workshops. - -_Coal Mines._--The mode of progress to be recorded in the regulation of -coal mines since 1872 can be contrasted in one aspect with the progress -just recorded of factory legislation since 1878. Consolidation was again -earlier adopted when large amendments were found necessary, with the -result that by far the greater part of the law is to be found in the act -of 1887, which repealed and re-enacted, with amendments, the Coal Mines -Acts of 1872 and 1886, and the Stratified Ironstone Mines (Gunpowder) -Act, 1881. The act of 1881 was simply concerned with rules relating to -the use of explosives underground. The act of 1886 dealt with three -questions: (a) The election and payment of checkweighers (i.e. the -persons appointed and paid by miners in pursuance of section 13 of the -act of 1887 for the purpose of taking a correct account on their behalf -of the weight of the mineral gotten by them, and for the correct -determination of certain deductions for which they may be liable); (b) -provision for new powers of the secretary of state to direct a formal -investigation of any explosion or accident, and its causes and -circumstances, a provision which was later adopted in the law relating -to factories; (c) provision enabling any relatives of persons whose -death may have been caused by explosions or accidents in or about mines -to attend in person, or by agent, coroners' inquests thereon, and to -examine witnesses. The act of 1887, which amended, strengthened and -consolidated these acts and the earlier Consolidating Act of 1872, may -also be contrasted in another aspect with the general acts of factory -legislation. In scope it formed, as its principal forerunner had done, a -general code; and in some measure it went farther in the way of -consolidation than the Factory Acts had done, inasmuch as certain -questions, which in factories are dealt with by statutes distinct from -the Factory Acts, have been included in the Mines Regulation Acts, e.g. -the prohibition of the payment of wages in public-houses, and the -machinery relating to weights and measures whereby miners control their -payment; further, partly from the less changing nature of the industry, -but probably mainly from the power of expression gained for miners by -their organization, the code, so far as it went, at each stage answered -apparently on the whole more nearly to the views and needs of the -persons protected than the parallel law relating to factories. This was -strikingly seen in the evidence before the Royal Commission on Labour in -1892-1894, where the repeated expression of satisfaction on the part of -the miners with the provisions as distinct from the administration of -the code ("with a few trifling exceptions") is in marked contrast with -the long and varied series of claims and contentions put forward for -amendment of the Factory Acts. - -Since the act of 1887 there have followed five minor acts, based on the -recommendation of the officials acting under the acts, while two of them -give effect to claims made by the miners before the Royal Commission on -Labour. Thus, in 1894, the Coal Mines (Checkweigher) Act rendered it -illegal for an employer ("owner, agent, or manager of any mine, or any -person employed by or acting under the instructions of any such owner, -agent, or manager") to make the removal of a particular checkweigher a -condition of employment, or to exercise improper influence in the -appointment of a checkweigher. The need for this provision was -demonstrated by a decision of the Court of Session in Edinburgh, which -upheld an employer in his claim to the right of dismissing all the -workmen and re-engaging them on condition that they would dismiss a -particular checkweigher. In 1896 a short act extended the powers to -propose, amend and modify special rules, provided for representation of -workmen on arbitration under the principal act on any matter in -difference, modified the provision for plans of mines in working and -abandoned mines, amended three of the general rules (inspection before -commencing work, use of safety lamp and non-inflammable substances for -stemming), and empowered the secretary of state by order to prohibit or -regulate the use of any explosive likely to become dangerous. In 1900 -another brief act raised the age of employment of boys underground from -twelve to thirteen. In 1903 another amending act allowed as an -alternative qualification for a manager's certificate a diploma in -scientific and mining training after at least two years' study at a -university mining school or other educational institution approved by -the secretary of state, coupled with practical experience of at least -three years in a mine. In the same year the Employment of Children Act -affected children in mines to the extent already indicated in connexion -with factories. In 1905 a Coal Mines (Weighing of Minerals) Act improved -some provisions relating to appointment and pay of checkweighers and -facilities for them and their duly appointed deputies in carrying out -their duties. In 1906 the Notice of Accidents Act provided for improved -annual returns of accidents and for immediate reporting to the district -inspector of accidents under newly-defined conditions as they arise in -coal and metalliferous mines. - - - Act of 1887. - - While the classes of mines regulated by the act of 1887 are the same - as those regulated by the act of 1872 (i.e. mines of coal, of - stratified ironstone, of shale and of fire-clay, including works above - ground where the minerals are prepared for use by screening, washing, - &c.) the interpretation of the term "mine" is wider and simpler, - including "every shaft in the course of being sunk, and every level - and inclined plane in the course of being driven, and all the shafts, - levels, planes, works, tramways and sidings, both below ground and - above ground, in and adjacent to and belonging to the mine." Of the - persons responsible under penalty for the observance of the acts the - term "owner" is defined precisely as in the act of 1872, but the term - "agent" is modified to mean "any person appointed as the - representative of the owner in respect of any mine or any part - thereof, and, as such, superior to a manager appointed in pursuance of - this act." Of the persons protected, the term "young person" - disappeared from the act, and "boy," i.e. "a male under the age of - sixteen years," and "girl," i.e. "a female under the age of sixteen - years," take their place, and the term "woman" means, as before, "a - female of the age of sixteen years and upwards." The prohibition of - employment underground of women and girls remains untouched, and the - prohibition of employment underground of boys has been successively - extended from boys of the age of ten in 1872 to boys of twelve in 1887 - and to boys of thirteen in 1900. The age of employment of boys and - girls above ground in connexion with any mine is raised from ten years - in 1872 to twelve years since 1887. The hours of employment of a boy - below ground may not exceed fifty-four in any one week, nor ten in any - one day from the time of leaving the surface to the time of returning - to the surface. Above ground any boy or girl under thirteen (and over - twelve) may not be employed on more than six days in any one week; if - employed on more than three days in one week, the daily total must not - exceed six hours, or in any other case ten hours. Protected persons - above thirteen are limited to the same daily and weekly total of hours - as boys below ground, but there are further provisions with regard to - intervals for meals and prohibiting employment for more than five - hours without an interval of at least half an hour for a meal. - Registers must be kept of all protected persons, whether employed - above or below ground. Section 38 of the Public Health Act 1875, which - requires separate and sufficient sanitary conveniences for persons of - each sex, was first extended by the act of 1887 to the portions of - mines above ground in which girls and women are employed; underground - this matter is in metalliferous mines in Cornwall now provided for by - special rules. Ventilation, the only other requirement in the acts - that can be classed as sanitary, is provided for in every mine in the - "general rules" which are aimed at securing safety of mines, and - which, so far as ventilation is concerned, seek to dilute and render - harmless noxious or inflammable gases. The provision which prohibits - employment of any persons in mines not provided with at least two - shafts is made much more stringent by the act of 1887 than in the - previous code, by increasing the distance between the two shafts from - 10 to 15 yds., and increasing the height of communications between - them. Other provisions amended or strengthened are those relating to - the following points: (a) Daily personal supervision of the mine by - the certificated manager; (b) classes of certificates and constitution - of board for granting certificates of competency; (c) plan of workings - of any mine to be kept up to a date not more than three months - previously at the office of the mine; (d) notice to be given to the - inspector of the district by the owner, agent or manager, of accidents - in or about any mine which cause loss of life or serious personal - injury, or are caused by explosion of coal or coal dust or any - explosive or electricity or any other special cause that the secretary - of state specifies by order, and which causes any personal injury to - any person employed in or about the mine; it is provided that the - place where an explosion or accident occurs causing loss of life or - serious personal injury shall be left for inspection for at least - three days, unless this would tend to increase or continue a danger or - impede working of the mine: this was new in the act of 1887; (e) - notice to be given of opening and abandonment of any mine: this was - extended to the opening or abandonment of any seam; (f) plan of an - abandoned mine or seam to be sent within three months; (g) formal - investigation of any explosion or accident by direction of the - secretary of state: this provision, first introduced by the act of - 1886, was modified in 1887 to admit the appointment by the secretary - of state of "any competent person" to hold the investigation, whereas - under the earlier section only an inspector could be appointed. - - - General rules. - - The "general rules" for safety in mines have been strengthened in many - ways since the act of 1872. Particular mention may be made of rule 4 - of the act of 1887, relating to the inspection of conditions as to gas - ventilation beyond appointed stations at the entrance to the mine or - different parts of the mine; this rule generally removed the earlier - distinction between mines in which inflammable gas has been found - within the preceding twelve months, and mines in which it has not been - so found; of rules 8, 9, 10 and 11, relating to the construction, use, - &c., of safety lamps, which are more detailed and stringent than rule - 7 of the act of 1872, which they replaced; of rule 12, relating to the - use of explosives below ground; of rule 24, which requires the - appointment of a competent male person not less than twenty-two years - of age for working the machinery for lowering and raising persons at - the mine; of rule 34, which first required provision of ambulances or - stretchers with splints and bandages at the mine ready for immediate - use; of rule 38, which strengthened the provision for periodical - inspection of the mine by practical miners on behalf of the workmen at - their own cost. With reference to the last-cited rule, during 1898 a - Prussian mining commission visited Great Britain, France and Belgium, - to study and compare the various methods of inspection by working - miners established in these three countries. They found that, so far - as the method had been applied, it was most satisfactory in Great - Britain, where the whole cost is borne by the workers' own - organizations, and they attributed part of the decrease in number of - accidents per thousand employed since 1872 to the inauguration of this - system. - - - Special rules. - - The provisions as to the proposal, amendment and modification of - "special rules," last extended by the act of 1896, may be contrasted - with those of the Factory Act. In the latter it is not until an - industry or process has been scheduled as dangerous or injurious by - the secretary of state's order that occasion arises for the formation - of special rules, and then the initiative rests with the Factory - Department whereas in mines it is incumbent in every case on the - owner, agent or manager to propose within three months of the - commencement of any working, for the approval of the secretary of - state, special rules best calculated to prevent dangerous accidents, - and to provide for the safety, convenience and proper discipline of - the persons employed in or about the mine. These rules may, if they - relate to lights and lamps used in the mine, description of - explosives, watering and damping of the mine, or prevention of - accidents from inflammable gas or coal dust, supersede any general - rule in the principal act. Apart from the initiation of the rules, the - methods of establishing them, whether by agreement or by resort to - arbitration of the parties (i.e. the mine owners and the secretary of - state), are practically the same as under the Factory Act, but there - is special provision in the Mines Acts for enabling the persons - working in the mine to transmit objections to the proposed rules, in - addition to their subsequent right to be represented on the - arbitration, if any. - - Of the sections touching on wages questions, the prohibition of the - payment of wages in public-houses remains unaltered, being re-enacted - in 1887; the sections relating to payment by weight for amount of - mineral gotten by persons employed, and for checkweighing the amount - by a "checkweigher" stationed by the majority of workers at each place - appointed for the weighing of the material, were revised, particularly - as to the determination of deductions by the act of 1887, with a view - to meeting some problems raised by decisions on cases under the act of - 1872. The attempt seems not to have been wholly successful, the - highest legal authorities having expressed conflicting opinions on the - precise meaning of the terms "mineral contracted to be gotten." The - whole history of the development of this means of securing the - fulfilment of wage contract to the workers may be compared with the - history of the sections affording protection to piece-workers by - particulars of work and wages in the textile trades since the Factory - Act of 1891. - - - Administration. - - As regards legal proceedings, the chief amendments of the act of 1872 - are: the extension of the provision that the "owner, agent, or - manager" charged in respect of any contravention by another person - might be sworn and examined as an ordinary witness, to any person - charged with any offence under the act. The result of the proceedings - against workmen by the owner, agent or manager in respect of an - offence under the act is to be reported within twenty-one days to the - inspector of the district. The powers of inspectors were extended to - cover an inquiry as to the care and treatment of horses and other - animals in the mine, and as to the control, management or direction of - the mine by the manager. - -An important act was passed in 1908 (Coal Mines Regulation Act 1908) -limiting the hours of work for workmen below ground. It enacted that, -subject to various provisions, a workman was not to be below ground in a -mine for the purpose of his work, and of going to and from his work, for -more than eight hours in any consecutive twenty-four hours. Exception -was made in the case of those below ground for the purpose of rendering -assistance in the event of an accident, or for meeting any danger, or -for dealing with any emergency or work incompleted, through unforeseen -circumstances, which requires to be dealt with to avoid serious -interference in the work of the mine. The authorities of every mine must -fix the times for the lowering and raising of the men to begin and be -completed, and such times must be conspicuously posted at the pit head. -These times must be approved by an inspector. The term "workman" in the -act means any person employed in a mine below ground who is not an -official of the mine (other than a fireman, examiner or deputy), or a -mechanic or a horse keeper or a person engaged solely in surveying or -measuring. In the case of a fireman, examiner, deputy, onsetter, pump -minder, fanman or furnace man, the maximum period for which he may be -below ground is nine hours and a half. A register must be kept by the -authorities of the mine of the times of descent and ascent, while the -workmen may, at their own cost, station persons (whether holding the -office of checkweigher or not) at the pit head to observe the times. The -authorities of the mine may extend the hours of working by one hour a -day on not more than sixty days in one calendar year (s. 3). The act may -be suspended by order in council in the event of war or of imminent -national danger or great emergency, or in the event of any grave -economic disturbance due to the demand for coal exceeding the supply -available at any time. The act came into force on the 1st of July 1909 -except for the counties of Northumberland and Durham where its operation -was postponed until the 1st of January 1910. - - In 1905 the number of coal-mines reported on was 3126, and the number - of persons employed below ground was 691,112 of whom 43,443 were under - 16 years of age. Above ground 167,261 were employed, of whom 6154 were - women and girls. The number of separate fatal accidents was 1006, - causing the loss of 1205 lives. Of prosecutions by far the greater - number were against workmen, numbering in coal and metalliferous mines - 953; owners and managers were prosecuted in 72 cases, and convictions - obtained in 43 cases. - -_Quarries._--From 1878 until 1894 open quarries (as distinct from -underground quarries regulated by the Metalliferous Mines Regulation -Act) were regulated only by the Factory Acts so far as they then -applied. It was laid down in section 93 of the act of 1878 (41 Vict. c. -16), that "any premises or place shall not be excluded from the -definition of a factory or workshop by reason only that such premises, -&c., are or is in the open air," thereby overruling the decision in -_Kent_ v. _Astley_ that quarries in which the work, as a whole, was -carried on in the open air were not factories; in a schedule to the same -act quarries were defined as "any place not being a mine in which -persons work in getting slate, stone, coprolites or other minerals." The -Factory Act of 1891 made it possible to bring these places in part under -"special rules" adapted to meet the special risks and dangers of the -operations carried on in them, and by order of the secretary of state -they were certified, December 1892, as dangerous, and thereby subject to -special rules. Until then, as reported by one of the inspectors of -factories, quarries had been placed under the Factory Acts without -insertion of appropriate rules for their safe working, and many of them -were "developed in a most dangerous manner without any regard for -safety, but merely for economy," and managers of many had "scarcely seen -a quarry until they became managers." In his report for 1892 it was -recommended by the chief inspector of factories that quarries should be -subject to the jurisdiction of the government inspectors of mines. At -the same time currency was given, by the published reports of the -evidence before the Royal Commission on Labour, to the wish of large -numbers of quarrymen that open as well as underground quarries should -come under more specialized government inspection. In 1893 a committee -of experts, including inspectors of mines and of factories, was -appointed by the Home Office to investigate the conditions of labour in -open quarries, and in 1894 the Quarries Act brought every quarry, as -defined in the Factory Act 1878, any part of which is more than 20 ft. -deep, under certain of the provisions of the Metalliferous Mines Acts, -and under the inspection of the inspectors appointed under those acts; -further, it transferred the duty of enforcing the Factory and Workshop -Acts, so far as they apply in quarries over 20 ft. deep, from the -Factory to the Metalliferous Mines inspectors. - -The provisions of the Metalliferous Mines Acts 1872 and 1875, applied to -quarries, are those relating to payment of wages in public-houses, -notice of accidents to the inspector, appointment and powers of -inspectors, arbitration, coroners' inquests, special rules, penalties, -certain of the definitions, and the powers of the secretary of state -finally to decide disputed questions whether places come within the -application of the acts. For other matters, and in particular fencing of -machinery and employment of women and young persons, the Factory Acts -apply, with a proviso that nothing shall prevent the employment of young -persons (boys) in three shifts for not more than eight hours each. In -1899 it was reported by the inspectors of mines that special rules for -safety had been established in over 2000 quarries. In the reports for -1905 it was reported that the accounts of blasting accidents indicated -that there was "still much laxity in observance of the Special rules, -and that many irregular and dangerous practices are in vogue." The -absence or deficiency of external fencing to a quarry dangerous to the -public has been since 1887 (50 & 51 Vict. c. 19) deemed a nuisance -liable to be dealt with summarily in the manner provided by the Public -Health Act 1875. - - In 1905, 94,819 persons were employed, of whom 59,978 worked inside - the actual pits or excavations, and 34,841 outside. Compared with - 1900, there was a total increase of 924 in the number of persons - employed. Fatal accidents resulted in 1900 in 127 deaths; compared - with 1899 there was an increase of 10 in the number of deaths, and, as - Professor Le Neve Foster pointed out, this exceeded the average - death-rate of underground workers at mines under the Coal Mines Acts - during the previous ten years, in spite of the quarrier "having - nothing to fear from explosions of gas, underground fires or - inundations." He attributed the difference to a lax observance of - precautions which might in time be remedied by stringent - administration of the law. In 1905 there were 97 fatal accidents - resulting in 99 deaths. In 1900 there were 92 prosecutions against - owners or agents, with 67 convictions, and 13 prosecutions of workers, - with 12 convictions, and in 1905 there were 45 prosecutions of owners - or agents with 43 convictions and 9 prosecutions of workmen with 5 - convictions. - - - Payment of wages in public-houses. - - In 1883 a short act extended to all "workmen" who are manual labourers - other than miners, with the exception of domestic or menial servants, - the prohibition of payment of wages in public-houses, beer-shops and - other places for the sale of spirituous or fermented liquor, laid down - in the Coal Mines Regulations and Metalliferous Mines Regulation Acts. - The places covered by the prohibition include any office, garden or - place belonging to or occupied with the places named, but the act does - not apply to such wages as are paid by the resident, owner or occupier - of the public-house, beer-shop and other places included in the - prohibition to any workman _bona fide_ employed by him. The penalty - for an offence against this act is one not exceeding L10 (compare the - limit of L20 for the corresponding offence under the Coal Mines Act), - and all offences may be prosecuted and penalties recovered in England - and Scotland under the Summary Jurisdiction Acts. The act does not - apply to Ireland, and no special inspectorate is charged with the duty - of enforcing its provisions. - -_Shop Hours._--In four brief acts, 1892 to 1899, still in force, the -first very limited steps were taken towards the positive regulation of -the employment of shop assistants. In the act of 1904 certain additional -optional powers were given to any local authority making a "closing -order" fixing the hour (not earlier than 7 P.M. or on one day in the -week 1 P.M.) at which shops shall cease to serve customers throughout -the area of the authority or any specified part thereof as regards all -shops or as regards any specified class of shops. Before such an order -can be made (1) a prima facie case for it must appear to the local -authority; (2) the local authority must inquire and agree; (3) the order -must be drafted and sent for confirmation or otherwise to the central -authority, that is, the secretary of state for the Home Department; (4) -the order must be laid before both Houses of Parliament. The Home Office -has given every encouragement to the making of such orders, but their -number in England is very small, and the act is practically inoperative -in London and many large towns where the need is greatest. As the -secretary of state pointed out in the House of Commons on the 1st of May -1907, the local authorities have not taken enough initiative, but at the -same time there is a great difficulty for them in obtaining the required -two-thirds majority, among occupiers of the shops to be affected, in -favour of the order, and at the same time shop assistants have no power -to set the law in motion. In England 364 local authorities have taken no -steps, but in Scotland rather better results have been obtained. The -House resolved, on the date named, that more drastic legislation is -required. As regards shops, therefore, in place of such general codes as -apply to factories, laundries, mines--only three kinds of protective -requirement are binding on employers of shop assistants: (1) Limitation -of the weekly total of hours of work of persons under eighteen years of -age to seventy-four inclusive of meal-times; (2) prohibition of the -employment of such persons in a shop on the same day that they have, to -the knowledge of the employer, been employed in any factory or workshop -for a longer period than would, in both classes of employment together, -amount to the number of hours permitted to such persons in a factory or -workshop; (3) provision for the supply of seats by the employer, in all -rooms of a shop or other premises where goods are retailed to the -public, for the use of female assistants employed in retailing the -goods--the seats to be in the proportion of not fewer than one to every -three female assistants. The first two requirements are contained in the -act of 1892, which also prescribed that a notice, referring to the -provisions of the act, and stating the number of hours in the week -during which a young person may be lawfully employed in the shop, shall -be kept exhibited by the employer; the third requirement was first -provided by the act of 1899. The intervening acts of 1893 and 1895 are -merely supplementary to the act of 1892; the former providing for the -salaries and expenses of the inspectors which the council of any county -or borough (and in the City of London the Common Council) were -empowered by the act of 1892 to appoint; the latter providing a penalty -of 40s. for failure of an employer to keep exhibited the notice of the -provisions of the acts, which in the absence of a penalty it had been -impossible to enforce. The penalty for employment contrary to the acts -is a fine not exceeding L1 for each person so employed, and for failure -to comply with the requirements as to seats, a fine not exceeding L3 for -a first offence, and for any subsequent offence a fine of not less than -L1 and not exceeding L5. - - - Meaning of "shop." - - A wide interpretation is given by the act of 1892 to the class of - workplace to which the limitation of hours applies. "Shop" means - retail and wholesale shops, markets, stalls and warehouses in which - assistants are employed for hire, and includes licensed public-houses - and refreshment houses of any kind. The person responsible for the - observance of the acts is the "employer" of the "young persons" (i.e. - persons under the age of eighteen years), whose hours are limited, and - of the "female assistants" for whom seats must be provided. Neither - the term "employer" nor "shop assistant" (used in the title of the act - of 1899) is defined; but other terms have the meaning assigned to them - in the Factory and Workshop Act 1878. The "employer" has, in case of - any contravention alleged, the same power as the "occupier" in the - Factory Acts to exempt himself from fine on proof of due diligence and - of the fact that some other person is the actual offender. The - provisions of the act of 1892 do not apply to members of the same - family living in a house of which the shop forms part, or to members - of the employer's family, or to any one wholly employed as a domestic - servant. - - In London, where the County Council has appointed men and women - inspectors to apply the acts of 1892 to 1899, there were, in 1900, - 73,929 premises, and in 1905, 84,269, under inspection. In the latter - year there were 22,035 employing persons under 18 years of age. In - 1900 the number of young persons under the acts were: indoors, 10,239 - boys and 4428 girls; outdoors, 35,019 boys, 206 girls. In 1905 the - ratio between boys and girls had decidedly altered: indoors, 6602 - boys, 4668 girls; outdoors, 22,654 boys, 308 girls. The number of - irregularities reported in 1900 were 9204 and the prosecutions were - 117; in 1905 the irregularities were 6966 and the prosecutions - numbered 34. As regards the act of 1899, in only 1088 of the 14,844 - shops affected in London was there found in 1900 to be failure to - provide seats for the women employed in retailing goods. The chief - officer of the Public Control Department reported that with very few - exceptions the law was complied with at the end of the first year of - its application. - - As regards cleanliness, ventilation, drainage, water-supply and - sanitary condition generally, shops have been since 1878 (by 41 Vict. - c. 16, s. 101) subject to the provisions of the Public Health Act - 1875, which apply to all buildings, except factories under the Factory - Acts, in which any persons, whatever their number be, are employed. - Thus, broadly, the same sanitary provisions apply in shops as in - workshops, but in the former these are enforced solely by the officers - of the local authority, without reservation of any power, as in - workshops for the Home Office inspectorate, to act in default of the - local authority. - - Shop assistants, so far as they are engaged in manual, not merely - clerical labour, come under the provisions of the Truck Acts 1831 to - 1887, and in all circumstances they fall within the sections directed - against unfair and unreasonable fines in the Truck Act of 1896; but, - unlike employes in factories, workshops, laundries and mines, they are - left to apply these provisions so far as they can themselves, since - neither Home Office inspectors nor officers of the local authority - have any specially assigned powers to administer the Truck Acts in - shops. - - - The Truck Act 1887. - - Persons benefited by Truck Acts. - -_Truck._--Setting aside the special Hosiery Manufacture (Wages) Act -1874, aimed at a particular abuse appearing chiefly in the hosiery -industry--the practice of making excessive charges on wages for -machinery and frame rents--only two acts, those of 1887 and 1896, have -been added to the general law against truck since the act of 1831, which -repealed all prior Truck Acts and which remains the principal act. -Further amendments of the law have been widely and strenuously demanded, -and are hoped for as the result of the long inquiry by a departmental -committee appointed early in 1906. The Truck Act Amendment Act 1887, -amended and extended the act without adding any distinctly new -principle; the Truck Act of 1896 was directed towards providing remedies -for matters shown by decisions under the earlier Truck Acts to be -outside the scope of the principles and provisions of those acts. Under -the earlier acts the main objects were: (1) to make the wages of -workmen, i.e. the reward of labour, payable only in current coin of the -realm, and to prohibit whole or part payment of wages in food or drink -or clothes or any other articles; (2) to forbid agreements, express or -implied, between employer and workmen as to the manner or place in -which, or articles on which, a workman shall expend his wages, or for -the deduction from wages of the price of articles (other than materials -to be used in the labour of the workmen) supplied by the employer. The -act of 1887 added a further prohibition by making it illegal for an -employer to charge interest on any advance of wages, "whenever by -agreement, custom, or otherwise a workman is entitled to receive in -anticipation of the regular period of the payment of his wages an -advance as part or on account thereof." Further, it strengthened the -section of the principal act which provided that no employer shall have -any action against his workman for goods supplied at any shop belonging -to the employer, or in which the employer is interested, by (a) securing -any workman suing an employer for wages against any counter-claim in -respect of goods supplied to the workman by any person under any order -or direction of the employer, and (b) by expressly prohibiting an -employer from dismissing any worker on account of any particular time, -place or manner of expending his wages. Certain exemptions to the -prohibition of payment otherwise than in coin were provided for in the -act of 1831, if an agreement were made in writing and signed by the -worker, viz. rent, victuals dressed and consumed under the employer's -roof, medicine, fuel, provender for beasts of burden used in the trade, -materials and tools for use by miners, advances for friendly societies -or savings banks; in the case of fuel, provender and tools there was -also a proviso that the charge should not exceed the real and true -value. The act of 1887 amended these provisions by requiring a correct -annual audit in the case of deductions for medicine or tools, by -permitting part payment of servants in husbandry in food, drink (not -intoxicants) or other allowances, and by prohibiting any deductions for -sharpening or repairing workmen's tools except by agreement not forming -part of the condition of hiring. Two important administrative amendments -were made by the act of 1887: (1) a section similar to that in the -Factory and Mines Acts was added, empowering the employer to exempt -himself from penalty for contravention of the acts on proof that any -other person was the actual offender and of his own due diligence in -enforcing the execution of the acts; (2) the duty of enforcing the acts -in factories, workshops, and mines was imposed upon the inspectors of -the Factory and Mines Departments, respectively, of the Home Office, and -to their task they were empowered to bring all the authorities and -powers which they possessed in virtue of the acts under which they are -appointed; these inspectors thus prosecute defaulting employers and -recover penalties under the Summary Jurisdiction Acts, but they do not -undertake civil proceedings for improper deductions or payments, -proceedings for which would lie with workmen under the Employers and -Workmen Act 1875. The persons to whom the benefits of the act applied -were added to by the act of 1887, which repealed the complicated list of -trades contained in the principal act and substituted the simpler -definition of the Employers and Workmen Act, 1875. Thus the acts 1831 to -1887, and also the act of 1896, apply to all workers (men, women and -children) engaged in manual labour, except domestic servants; they apply -not only in mines, factories and workshops, but, to quote the published -Home Office Memorandum on the acts, "in all places where workpeople are -engaged in manual labour under a contract with an employer, whether or -no the employer be an owner or agent or a parent, or be himself a -workman; and therefore a workman who employs and pays others under him -must also observe the Truck Acts." The law thus in certain circumstances -covers outworkers for a contractor or sub-contractor. A decision of the -High Court at Dublin in 1900 (_Squire_ v. _Sweeney_) strengthened the -inspectors in investigation of offences committed amongst outworkers by -supporting the contention that inquiry and exercise of all the powers of -an inspector could legally take place in parts of an employer's premises -other than those in which the work is given out. It defined for Ireland, -in a narrower sense than had hitherto been understood and acted upon by -the Factory Department, the classes of outworkers protected, by -deciding that only such as were under a contract personally to execute -the work were covered. In 1905 the law in England was similarly declared -in the decided case of _Squire_ v. _The Midland Lace Co._ The judges -(Lord Alverstone, C.J.; and Kennedy and Ridley, J.J.) stated that they -came to the conclusion with "reluctance," and said: "We venture to -express the hope that some amendment of the law may be made so as to -extend the protection of the Truck Act to a class of workpeople -indistinguishable from those already within its provisions." The workers -in question were lace-clippers taking out work to do in their homes, and -in the words of the High Court decision "though they do sometimes employ -assistants are evidently, as a class, wage-earning manual labourers and -not contractors in the ordinary and popular sense." The principle relied -on in the decision was that in the case of _Ingram_ v. _Barnes_. - - - Meaning of "wages." - - The Truck Act 1896. - - At the time of the passing of the act of 1887 it seems to have been - generally believed that the obligation under the principal act to pay - the "entire amount of wages earned" in coin rendered illegal any - deductions from wages in respect of fines. Important decisions in 1888 - and 1889 showed this belief to have been ill-founded. The essential - point lies in the definition of the word "wages" as the "recompense, - reward or remuneration of labour," which implies not necessarily any - gross sum in question between employer and workmen where there is a - contract to perform a certain piece of work, but that part of it, the - real _net_ wage, which the workman was to get as his _recompense_ for - the labour performed. As soon as it became clear that excessive - deductions from wages as well as payments by workers for materials - used in the work were not illegal, and that deductions or payments by - way of compensation to employers or by way of discipline might legally - (with the single exception of fines for lateness for women and - children, regulated by the Employers and Workmen Act 1875) even exceed - the degree of loss, hindrance or damage to the employer, it also came - clearly into view that further legislation was desirable to extend the - principles at the root of the Truck Acts. It was desirable, that is to - say, to hinder more fully the unfair dealing that may be encouraged by - half-defined customs in workplaces, on the part of the employer in - making a contract, while at the same time leaving the principle of - freedom of contract as far as possible untouched. The Truck Act of - 1896 regulates the conditions under which deductions can be made by or - payments made to the employer, out of the "sum contracted to be paid - to the worker," i.e. out of any gross sum whatever agreed upon between - employer and workman. It makes such deductions or payments illegal - unless they are in pursuance of a contract; and it provides that - deductions (or payments) for (a) fines, (b) bad work and damaged - goods, (c) materials, machines, and any other thing provided by the - employer in relation to the work shall be reasonable, and that - particulars of the same in writing shall be given to the workman. In - none of the cases mentioned is the employer to make any profit; - neither by fines, for they may only be imposed in respect of acts or - omissions which cause, or are likely to cause, loss or damage; nor by - sale of materials, for the price may not exceed the cost to the - employer; nor by deductions or payments for damage, for these may not - exceed the actual or estimated loss to the employer. Fines and charges - for damage must be "fair and reasonable having regard to all the - circumstances of the case," and no contract could make legal a fine - which a court held to be unfair to the workman in the sense of the - act. The contract between the employer and workman must either be in - writing signed by the workman, or its terms must be clearly stated in - a notice constantly affixed in a place easily accessible to the - workman to whom, if a party to the contract, a copy shall be given at - the time of making the contract, and who shall be entitled, on - request, to obtain from the employer a copy of the notice free of - charge. On each occasion when a deduction or payment is made, full - particulars in writing must be supplied to the workman. The employer - is bound to keep a register of deductions or payments, and to enter - therein particulars of any fine made under the contract, specifying - the amount and nature of the act or omission in respect of which the - fine was imposed. This register must be at all times open to - inspectors of mines or factories, who are entitled to make a copy of - the contract or any part of it. This act as a whole applies to all - workmen included under the earlier Truck Acts; the sections relating - to fines apply also to shop assistants. The latter, however, - apparently are left to enforce the provisions of the law themselves, - as no inspectorate is empowered to intervene on their behalf. In these - and other cases a prosecution under the Truck Acts may be instituted - by any person. Any workman or shop assistant may recover any sum - deducted by or paid to his employer contrary to the act of 1896, - provided that proceedings are commenced within six months, and that - where he has acquiesced in the deduction or payment he shall only - recover the excess over the amount which the court may find to have - been fair and reasonable in all the circumstances of the case. It is - expressly declared in the act that nothing in it shall affect the - provisions of the Coal Mines Acts with reference to payment by - weight, or legalize any deductions, from payments made, in pursuance - of those provisions. The powers and duties of inspectors are extended - to cover the case of a laundry, and of any place where work is given - out by the occupier of a factory or workshop or by a contractor or - sub-contractor. Power is reserved for the secretary of state to exempt - by order specified trades or branches of them in specified areas from - the provisions of the act of 1896, if he is satisfied that they are - unnecessary for the protection of the workmen. This power has been - exercised only in respect of one highly organized industry, the - Lancashire cotton industry. The effect of the exemption is not to - prevent fines and deductions from being made, but the desire for it - demonstrated that there are cases where leaders among workers have - felt competent to make their own terms on their own lines without the - specific conditions laid down in this act. The reports of the - inspectors of factories have demonstrated that in other industries - much work has had to be done under this act, and knowledge of a highly - technical character to be gradually acquired, before opinions could be - formed as to the reasonableness and fairness, or the contrary, of many - forms of deduction. Owing partly to difficulties of legal - interpretation involving the necessity of taking test cases into - court, partly to the margin for differences of opinion as to what - constitutes "reasonableness" in a deduction, the average number of - convictions obtained on prosecutions is not so high as under the - Factory Acts, though the average penalty imposed is higher. In 1904, - 61 cases were taken into court resulting in 34 convictions with an - average penalty of L1, 10s. In 1905, 38 cases resulting in 34 - convictions were taken with an average penalty of L1, 3s. In 1906, 37 - cases resulting in 25 convictions were taken with an average penalty - of L1, 10s. - - Reference should here be made to the Shop Clubs Act of 1902 as closely - allied with some of the provisions of the Truck Acts by its provision - that employers shall not make it a condition of employment that any - workman shall become a member of a shop club unless it is registered - under the Friendly Societies Act of 1896. As in the case of payment of - wages in Public Houses Act, no special inspectorate has the duty of - enforcing this act. - - -III. CONTINENTAL EUROPE - -In comparing legislation affecting factories, mines, shops and truck in -the chief industrial countries of the continent with that of Great -Britain, it is essential to a just view that inquiry should be extended -beyond the codes themselves to the general social order and system of -law and administration in each country. Further, special comparison of -the definitions and the sanctions of each industrial code must be -recognized as necessary, for these vary in all. In so brief a summary as -is appended here no more is possible than an outline indication of the -main general requirements and prohibitions of the laws as regards: (1) -hours and times of employment, (2) ordinary sanitation and special -requirements for unhealthy and dangerous industries, (3) security -against accidents, and (4) prevention of fraud and oppression in -fulfilment of wage contracts. As regards the first of these -subdivisions, in general in Europe the ordinary legal limit is rather -wider than in Great Britain, being in several countries not less than 11 -hours a day, and while in some, as in France, the normal limit is 10 -hours daily, yet the administrative discretion in granting exceptions is -rather more elastic. The weekly half-holiday is a peculiarly British -institution. On the other hand, in several European countries, notably -France, Austria, Switzerland and Russia, the legal maximum day applies -to adult as well as youthful labour, and not only to specially protected -classes of persons. As regards specialized sanitation for unhealthy -factory industries, German regulations appear to be most nearly -comparable with British. Mines' labour regulation in several countries, -having an entirely different origin linked with ownership of mines, is -only in few and most recent developments comparable with British Mines -Regulation Acts. In regulation of shops, Germany, treating this matter -as an integral part of her imperial industrial code, has advanced -farther than has Great Britain. In truck legislation most European -countries (with the exception of France) appear to have been influenced -by the far earlier laws of Great Britain, although in some respects -Belgium, with her rapid and recent industrial development, has made -interesting original experiments. The rule of Sunday rest (see SUNDAY) -has been extended in several countries, most recently in Belgium and -Spain. In France this partially attempted rule has been so modified as -to be practically a seventh day rest, not necessarily Sunday. - - _France._--Hours of labour were, in France, first limited in factories - (_usines et manufactures_) for adults by the law of the 9th of - September 1848 to 12 in the 24. Much uncertainty existed as to the - class of workplaces covered. Finally, in 1885, an authoritative - decision defined them as including: (1) Industrial establishments with - motor power or continual furnaces, (2) workshops employing over 20 - workers. In 1851, under condition of notification to the local - authorities, exceptions, still in force, were made to the general - limitation, in favour of certain industries or processes, among others - for letterpress and lithographic printing, engineering works, work at - furnaces and in heating workshops, manufacture of projectiles of war, - and any work for the government in the interests of national defence - or security. The limit of 12 hours was reduced, as regards works in - which women or young workers are employed, in 1900 to 11, and was to - be successively reduced to 10(1/2) hours and to 10 hours at intervals - of two years from April 1900. This labour law for adults was preceded - in 1841 by one for children, which prevented their employment in - factories before 8 years of age and prohibited night labour for any - child under 13. This was strengthened in 1874, particularly as regards - employment of girls under 21, but it was not until 1892 that the - labour of women was specially regulated by a law, still in force, with - certain amendments in 1900. Under this law factory and workshop labour - is prohibited for children under 13 years, though they may begin at 12 - if qualified by the prescribed educational certificate and medical - certificate of fitness. The limit of daily hours of employment is the - same as for adult labour, and, similarly, from the 1st of April 1902 - was 10(1/2), and two years later became 10 hours in the 24. Notice of - the hours must be affixed, and meal-times or pauses with absolute - cessation of work of at least one hour must be specified. By the act - of 1892 one day in the week, not necessarily Sunday, had to be given - for entire absence from work, in addition to eight recognized annual - holidays, but this was modified by a law of 1906 which generally - requires Sunday rest, but allows substitution of another day in - certain industries and certain circumstances. Night labour--work - between 9 P.M. and 5 A.M.--is prohibited for workers under 18, and - only exceptionally permitted, under conditions, for girls and women - over 18 in specified trades. In mines and underground quarries - employment of women and girls is prohibited except at surface works, - and at the latter is subject to the same limits as in factories. Boys - of 13 may be employed in certain work underground, but under 16 may - not be employed more than 8 hours in the 24 from bank to bank. A law - of 1905 provided for miners a 9 hours' day and in 1907 an 8 hours' day - from the foot of the entrance gallery back to the same point. - - As in Great Britain, distinct services of inspection enforce the law - in factories and mines respectively. In factories and workshops an - inspector may order re-examination as to physical fitness for the work - imposed of any worker under 16; certain occupations and processes are - prohibited--e.g. girls under 16 at machines worked by treadles, and - the weights that may be lifted, pushed or carried by girls or boys - under 18 are carefully specified. The law applies generally to - philanthropic and religious institutions where industrial work is - carried on, as in ordinary trading establishments; and this holds good - even if the work is by way of technical instruction. Domestic - workshops are not controlled unless the industry is classed as - dangerous or unhealthy; introduction of motor power brings them under - inspection. General sanitation in industrial establishments is - provided for in a law of 1893, amended in 1903, and is supplemented by - administrative regulations for special risks due to poisons, dust, - explosive substances, gases, fumes, &c. Ventilation, both general and - special, lighting, provision of lavatories, cloakrooms, good drinking - water, drainage and cleanliness are required in all workplaces, shops, - warehouses, restaurant kitchens, and where workers are lodged by their - employers hygienic conditions are prescribed for dormitories. In many - industries women, children and young workers are either absolutely - excluded from specified unhealthy processes, or are admitted only - under conditions. As regards shops and offices, the labour laws are: - one which protects apprentices against overwork (law of 22nd February - 1851), one (law of 29th December 1900) which requires that seats shall - be provided for women and girls employed in retail sale of articles, - and a decree of the 28th of July 1904 defining in detail conditions of - hygiene in dormitories for workmen and shop assistants. The law - relating to seats is enforced by the inspectors of factories. In - France there is no special penal legislation against abuses of the - truck system, or excessive fines and deductions from wages, although - bills with that end in view have frequently been before parliament. - Indirect protection to workers is no doubt in many cases afforded in - organized industries by the action of the _Conseils de Prud'hommes_. - - _Belgium._--In 1848 in Belgium the Commission on Labour proposed - legislation to limit, as in France, the hours of labour for adults, - but this proposal was never passed. Belgian regulation of labour in - industry remains essentially, in harmony with its earliest beginnings - in 1863 and onwards, a series of specialized provisions to meet - particular risks of individual trades, and did not, until 1889, give - any adherence to a common principle of limitation of hours and times - of labour for "protected" persons. This was in the law of the 13th of - December 1889, which applies to mines, quarries, factories, workshops - classed as unhealthy, wharves and docks, transports. As in France, - industrial establishments having a charitable or philanthropic or - educational character are included. The persons protected are girls - and women under 21 years, and boys under 16; and women over 21 only - find a place in the law through the prohibition of their employment - within four weeks after childbirth. As the hours of labour of adult - women remain ordinarily unlimited by law, so are the hours of boys - from 16 to 21. The law of Sunday rest dated the 17th of July 1905, - however, applies to labour generally in all industrial and commercial - undertakings except transport and fisheries, with certain regulated - exceptions for (a) cases of breakdown or urgency due to _force - majeure_, (b) certain repairs and cleaning, (c) perishable materials, - (d) retail food supply. Young workers are excluded from the - exceptions. The absolute prohibitions of employment are: for children - under 12 years in any industry, manufacturing or mining or transport, - and for women and girls under 21 years below the surface in working of - mines. Boys under 16 years and women and girls under 21 years may in - general not be employed before 5 A.M. or after 9 P.M., and one day in - the seven is to be set apart for rest from employment; to these rules - exception may be made either by royal decree for classes or groups of - processes, or by local authorities in exceptional cases. The - exceptions may be applied, generally, only to workers over 14 years, - but in mines, by royal decree, boys over 12 years may be employed from - 4 A.M. The law of 1889 fixes only a maximum of 12 hours of effective - work, to be interrupted by pauses for rest of not less than 1(1/2) - hours, empowering the king by decree to formulate more precise limits - suited to the special circumstances of individual industries. Royal - decrees have accordingly laid down the conditions for many groups, - including textile trades, manufacture of paper, pottery, glass, - clothing, mines, quarries, engineering and printing works. In some the - daily limit is 10 hours, but in more 10(1/2) or 11 hours. In a few - exceptionally unhealthy trades, such as the manufacture of lucifer - matches, vulcanization of india-rubber by means of carbon bi-sulphide, - the age of exclusion from employment has been raised, and in the - last-named process hours have been reduced to 5, broken into two - spells of 2(1/2) hours each. As a rule the conditions of health and - safeguarding of employments in exceptionally injurious trades have - been sought by a series of decrees under the law of 1863 relating to - public health in such industries. Special regulations for safety of - workers have been introduced in manufactures of white-lead, oxides of - lead, chromate of lead, lucifer match works, rag and shoddy works; and - for dangers common to many industries, provisions against dust, - poisons, accidents and other risks to health or limb have been - codified in a decree of 1896. A royal decree of the 31st of March 1903 - prohibits employment of persons under 16 years in fur-pulling and in - carotting of rabbit skins, and another of the 13th of May 1905 - regulates use of lead in house-painting. In 1898 a law was passed to - enable the authorities to deal with risks in quarries under the same - procedure. Safety in mines (which are not private property, but state - concessions to be worked under strict state control) has been provided - for since 1810. In matters of hygiene, until 1899 the powers of the - public health authorities to intervene were insufficient, and a law - was passed authorizing the government to make regulations for every - kind of risk in any undertaking, whether classed under the law of - public health or not. By a special law of 1888 children and young - persons under 18 years are excluded from employment as pedlars, - hawkers or in circuses, except by their parents, and then only if they - have attained 14 years. Abuses of the truck system have, since 1887, - been regulated with care. The chief objects of the law of 1887 were to - secure payment in full to all workers, other than those in agriculture - or domestic service, of wages in legal tender, to prohibit payment of - wages in public-houses, and to secure prompt payment of wages. Certain - deductions were permitted under careful control for specific customary - objects: lodging, use of land, uniforms, food, firing. A royal order - of the 10th of October 1903 required use of automatic indicators for - estimating wages in certain cases in textile processes. The law of the - 15th of June 1896 regulates the affixing in workplaces, where at least - five workers are employed, of a notice of the working rules, the - nature and rate of fines, if any, and the mode of their application. - Two central services the mines inspectorate and the factory and - workshop inspectorate, divide the duties above indicated. There is - also a system of local administration of the regulations relating to - industries classed as unhealthy, but the tendency has been to give the - supreme control in these matters to the factory service, with its - expert staff. - - _Holland._--The first law for regulation of labour in manufacture was - passed in 1874, and this related only to employment of children. The - basis of all existing regulations was established in the law of the - 5th of May 1889, which applies to all industrial undertakings, - excluding agriculture and forestry, fishing, stock-rearing. Employment - of children under 12 years is prohibited, and hours are limited for - young persons under 16 and for women of any age. These protected - persons may be excluded by royal decree from unhealthy industries, and - such industries are specified in a decree of 1897 which supersedes - other earlier regulations. Hours of employment must not exceed 11 in - the 24, and at least one hour for rest must be given between 11 A.M. - and 3 P.M., which hour must not be spent in a workroom. Work before 5 - A.M. or after 7 P.M., Sunday work, and work on recognized holidays is - generally prohibited, but there are exceptions. Overtime from 7 to 10 - P.M., under conditions, is allowed for women and young workers, and - Sunday work for women, for example, in butter and cheese making, and - night work for boys over 14 in certain industries. Employment of women - within four weeks of childbirth is prohibited. Notices of working - hours must be affixed in workplaces. Underground work in mines is - prohibited for women and young persons under 16, but in Holland mining - is a very small industry. In 1895 the first legislative provision was - made for protection of workers against risk of accident or special - injury to health. Sufficient cubic space, lighting, ventilation, - sanitary accommodation, reasonable temperature, removal of noxious - gases or dust, fencing of machinery, precautions against risk from - fire and other matters are provided for. The manufacture of lucifer - matches by means of white phosphorus was forbidden and the export, - importation and sale was regulated by a law of the 28th of May 1901. - By a regulation of the 16th of March 1904 provisions for safety and - health of women and young workers were strengthened in processes where - lead compounds or other poisons are used, and their employment at - certain dangerous machines and in cleaning machinery or near driving - belts was prohibited. No penal provision against truck exists in - Holland, but possibly abuses of the system are prevented by the - existence of industrial councils representing both employers and - workers, with powers to mediate or arbitrate in case of disputes. - - _Switzerland._--In Switzerland separate cantonal legislation prepared - the way for the general Federal labour law of 1877 on which subsequent - legislation rests. Such legislation is also cantonal as well as - Federal, but in the latter there is only amplification or - interpretation of the principles contained in the law of 1877, whereas - cantonal legislation covers industries not included under the Federal - law, e.g. single workers employed in a trade (_metier_) and employment - in shops, offices and hotels. The Federal law is applied to factories, - workshops employing young persons under 18 or more than 10 workers, - and workshops in which unhealthy or dangerous processes are carried - on. Mines are not included, but are regulated in some respects as - regards health and safety by cantonal laws. Further, the Law of - Employers' Liability 1881-1887, which requires in all industries - precautions against accidents and reports of all serious accidents to - the cantonal governments, applies to mines. This led, in 1896, to the - creation of a special mining department, and mines, of which there are - few, have to be inspected once a year by a mining engineer. The - majority of the provisions of the Federal labour law apply to adult - workers of both sexes, and the general limit of the 11-hours' day, - exclusive of at least one hour for meals, applies to men as well as - women. The latter have, however, a legal claim, when they have a - household to manage, to leave work at the dinner-hour half an hour - earlier than the men. Men and unmarried women may be employed in such - subsidiary work as cleaning before or after the general legal limits. - On Saturdays and eves of the eight public holidays the 11-hours' day - is reduced to 10. Sunday work and night work are forbidden, but - exceptions are permitted conditionally. Night work is defined as 8 - P.M. to 5 A.M. in summer, 8 P.M. to 6 A.M. in winter. Children are - excluded from employment in workplaces under the law until 14 years of - age, and until 16 must attend continuation schools. Zurich canton has - fixed the working day for women at 10 hours generally, and 9 hours on - Saturdays and eves of holidays. Bale-Ville canton has the same limits - and provides that the very limited Sunday employment permitted shall - be compensated by double time off on another day. In the - German-speaking cantons girls under 18 are not permitted to work - overtime; in all cantons except Glarus the conditional overtime of 2 - hours must be paid for at an enhanced wage. - - Sanitary regulations and fencing of machinery are provided for with - considerable minuteness in a Federal decree of 1897. The plans of - every new factory must be submitted to the cantonal government. In the - case of lucifer match factories, not only the building but methods of - manufacture must be submitted. Since 1901 the manufacture, sale and - import of matches containing white phosphorus have been forbidden. - Women must be absent from employment during eight weeks before and - after childbirth. In certain dangerous occupations, e.g. where lead or - lead compounds are in use, women may not legally be employed during - pregnancy. A resolution of the federal council in 1901 classed - thirty-four different substances in use in industry as dangerous and - laid down that in case of clearly defined illness of workers directly - caused by use of any of these substances the liability provided by - article 3 of the law of the 25th of June 1881, and article 1 of the - law of the 26th of April 1887, should apply to the manufacture. - Legislative provision against abuses of the truck system appears to be - of earlier origin in Switzerland (17th century) than any other - European country outside England (15th century). The Federal Labour - Law 1877 generally prohibits payment of wages otherwise than in - current coin, and provides that no deduction shall be made without an - express contract. Some of the cantonal laws go much farther than the - British act of 1896 in forbidding certain deductions; e.g. Zurich - prohibits any charge for cleaning, warming or lighting workrooms or - for hire of machinery. By the Federal law fines may not exceed half a - day's wage. Administration of the Labour laws is divided between - inspectors appointed by the Federal Government and local authorities, - under supervision of the cantonal governments. The Federal Government - forms a court of appeal against decisions of the cantonal - governments. - - _Germany._--Regulation of the conditions of labour in industry - throughout the German empire is provided for in the Imperial - Industrial Code and the orders of the Federal Council based thereon. - By far the most important recent amendment socially is the law - regulating child-labour, dated the 30th of March 1903, which relates - to establishments having industrial character in the sense of the - Industrial Code. This Code is based on earlier industrial codes of the - separate states, but more especially on the Code of 1869 of the North - German Confederation. It applies in whole or in part to all trades and - industrial occupations, except transport, fisheries and agriculture. - Mines are only included so far as truck, Sunday and holiday rest, - prohibition of employment underground of female labour, limitation of - the hours of women and young workers are concerned; otherwise the - regulations for protection of life and limb of miners vary, as do the - mining laws of the different states. To estimate the force of the - Industrial Code in working, it is necessary to bear in mind the - complicated political history of the empire, the separate - administration by the federated states, and the generally considerable - powers vested in administration of initiating regulations. The - Industrial Code expressly retains power for the states to initiate - certain additions or exceptions to the Code which in any given state - may form part of the law regulating factories there. The Code (unlike - the Austrian Industrial Code) lays down no general limit for a normal - working day for adult male workers, but since 1891 full powers were - given to the Imperial government to limit hours for any classes of - workers in industries where excessive length of the working day - endangers the health of the worker (R.G.O. S 120e). Previously - application had been made of powers to reduce the working day in such - unhealthy industries as silvering of mirrors by mercury and the - manufacture of white-lead. Separate states had, under mining laws, - also limited hours of miners. Sunday rest was, in 1891, secured for - every class of workers, commercial, industrial and mining. Annual - holidays were also secured on church festivals. These provisions, - however, are subject to exceptions under conditions. An important - distinction has to be shown when we turn to the regulations for hours - and times of labour for protected persons (women, young persons and - children). Setting aside for the moment hours of shop assistants - (which are under special sections since 1900), it is to "factory - workers" and not to industrial workers in general that these limits - apply, although they may be, and in some instances have been, further - extended--for instance, in ready-made clothing trades--by imperial - decree to workshops, and by the Child Labour Law of 1903 regulation of - the scope and duration of employment of children is much strengthened - in workshops, commerce, transport and domestic industries. The term - "factory" (_Fabrik_) is not defined in the Code, but it is clear from - various decisions of the supreme court that it only in part coincides - with the English term, and that some workplaces, where processes are - carried on by aid of mechanical power, rank rather as English - workshops. The distinction is rather between wholesale manufacturing - industry, with subdivision of labour, and small industry, where the - employer works himself. Certain classes of undertaking, viz. forges, - timber-yards, dockyards, brickfields and open quarries, are - specifically ranked as factories. Employment of protected persons at - the surface of mines and underground quarries, and in salt works and - ore-dressing works, and of boys underground comes under the factory - regulations. These exclude children from employment under 13 years, - and even later if an educational certificate has not been obtained; - until 14 years hours of employment may not exceed 6 in the 24. In - processes and occupations under the scope of the Child Labour Law - children may not be employed by their parents or guardians before 10 - years of age or by other employers before 12 years of age; nor between - the hours of 8 P.M. and 8 A.M., nor otherwise than in full compliance - with requirements of educational authorities for school attendance and - with due regard to prescribed pauses. In school term time the daily - limit of employment for children is three hours, in holiday time three - hours. As regards factories Germany, unlike Great Britain, France and - Switzerland, requires a shorter day for young persons than for - women--10 hours for the former, 11 hours for the latter. Women over 16 - years may be employed 11 hours. Night work is forbidden, i.e. work - between 8.30 P.M. and 5.30 A.M. Overtime may be granted to meet - unforeseen pressure or for work on perishable articles, under - conditions, by local authorities and the higher administrative - authorities. Prescribed meal-times are--an unbroken half-hour for - children in their 6 hours; for young persons a mid-day pause of one - hour, and half an hour respectively in the morning and afternoon - spells; for women, an hour at mid-day, but women with the care of a - household have the claim, on demand, to an extra half-hour, as in - Switzerland. No woman may be employed within four weeks after - childbirth, and unless a medical certificate can then be produced, the - absence must extend to six weeks. Notice of working periods and - meal-times must be affixed, and copies sent to the local authorities. - Employment of protected persons in factory industries where there are - special risks to health or morality may be forbidden or made dependent - on special conditions. By the Child Labour Law employment of children - is forbidden in brickworks, stone breaking, chimney sweeping, street - cleaning and other processes and occupations. By an order of the - Federal Council in 1902 female workers were excluded from main - processes in forges and rolling mills. All industrial employers alike - are bound to organize labour in such a manner as to secure workers - against injury to health and to ensure good conduct and propriety. - Sufficient light, suitable cloakrooms and sanitary accommodation, and - ventilation to carry off dust, vapours and other impurities are - especially required. Dining-rooms may be ordered by local authorities. - Fencing and provision for safety in case of fire are required in - detail. The work of the trade accident insurance associations in - preventing accidents is especially recognized in provisions for - special rules in dangerous or unhealthy industries. Officials of the - state factory departments are bound to give opportunity to trustees of - the trade associations to express an opinion on special rules. In a - large number of industries the Federal Council has laid down special - rules comparable with those for unhealthy occupations in Great - Britain. Among the regulations most recently revised and strengthened - are those for manufacture of lead colours and lead compounds, and for - horse-hair and brush-making factories. The relations between the state - inspectors of factories and the ordinary police authorities are - regulated in each state by its constitution. Prohibitions of truck in - its original sense--that is, payment of wages otherwise than in - current coin--apply to any persons under a contract of service with an - employer for a specified time for industrial purposes; members of a - family working for a parent or husband are not included; outworkers - are covered. Control of fines and deductions from wages applies only - in factory industries and shops employing at least 20 workers. Shop - hours are regulated by requiring shops to be closed generally between - 9 P.M. and 5 A.M., by requiring a fixed mid-day rest of 1(1/2) hours - and at least 10 hours' rest in the 24 for assistants. These limits can - be modified by administrative authority. Notice of hours and working - rules must be affixed. During the hours of compulsory closing sale of - goods on the streets or from house to house is forbidden. Under the - Commercial Code, as under the Civil Code, every employer is bound to - adopt every possible measure for maintaining the safety, health and - good conduct of his employes. By an order of the Imperial Chancellor - under the Commercial Code seats must be provided for commercial - assistants and apprentices. - - _Austria._--The Industrial Code of Austria, which in its present - outline (modified by later enactments) dates from 1883, must be - carefully distinguished from the Industrial Code of the kingdom of - Hungary. The latter is, owing to the predominantly agricultural - character of the population, of later origin, and hardly had practical - force before the law of 1893 provided for inspection and prevention of - accidents in factories. No separate mining code exists in Hungary, and - conditions of labour are regulated by the Austrian law of 1854. The - truck system is repressed on lines similar to those in Austria and - Germany. As regards limitation of hours of adult labour, Hungary may - be contrasted with both those empires in that no restriction of hours - applies either to men's or women's hours, whereas in Austrian - factories both are limited to an 11-hours' day with exceptional - overtime for which payment must always be made to the worker. The - Austrian Code has its origin, however, like the British Factory Acts, - in protection of child labour. Its present scope is determined by the - Imperial "Patent" of 1859, and all industrial labour is included - except mining, transport, fisheries, forestry, agriculture and - domestic industries. Factories are defined as including industries in - which a "manufacturing process is carried on in an enclosed place by - the aid of not less than twenty workers working with machines, with - subdivision of labour, and under an employer who does not himself - manually assist in the work." In smaller handicraft industries the - compulsory gild system of organization still applies. In every - industrial establishment, large or small, the sanitary and safety - provisions, general requirement of Sunday rest, and annual holidays - (with conditional exceptions), prohibition of truck and limitation of - the ages of child labour apply. Night work for women, 8 P.M. to 5 - A.M., is prohibited only in factory industries; for young workers it - is prohibited in any industry. Pauses in work are required in all - industries; one hour at least must be given at mid-day, and if the - morning and afternoon spells exceed 5 hours each, another half-hour's - rest at least must be given. Children may not be employed in - industrial work before 12 years, and then only 8 hours a day at work - that is not injurious and if educational requirements are observed. - The age of employment is raised to 14 for "factories," and the work - must be such as will not hinder physical development. Women may not be - employed in regular industrial occupation within one month after - childbirth. In certain scheduled unhealthy industries, where - certificates of authorization from local authorities must be obtained - by intending occupiers, conditions of health and safety for workers - can be laid down in the certificate. The Minister of the Interior is - empowered to draw up regulations prohibiting or making conditions for - the employment of young workers or women in dangerous or unhealthy - industries. The provisions against truck cover not only all industrial - workers engaged in manual labour under a contract with an employer, - but also shop-assistants; the special regulations against fines and - deductions apply to factory workers and shops where at least 20 - workers are employed. In mines under the law of 1884, which - supplements the general mining law, employment of women and girls - underground is prohibited; boys from 12 to 16 and girls from 12 to 18 - may only be employed at light work above ground; 14 is the earliest - age of admission for boys underground. The shifts from bank to bank - must not exceed 12 hours, of which not more than 10 may be effective - work. Sunday rest must begin not later than 6 A.M., and must be of 24 - hours' duration. These last two provisions do not hold in case of - pressing danger for safety, health or property. Sick and accident - funds and mining associations are legislated for in minutest detail. - The general law provides for safety in working, but special rules - drawn up by the district authorities lay down in detail the conditions - of health and safety. As regards manufacturing industry, the - Industrial Code lays no obligation on employers to report accidents, - and until the Accident Insurance Law of 1889 came into force no - statistics were available. In Austria, unlike Germany, the factory - inspectorate is organized throughout under a central chief inspector. - - _Scandinavian Countries._--In Sweden the Factory Law was amended in - January 1901; in Denmark in July 1901. Until that year, however, - Norway was in some respects in advance of the other two countries by - its law of 1892, which applied to industrial works, including metal - works of all kinds and mining. Women were thereby prohibited from - employment: (a) underground; (b) in cleaning or oiling machinery in - motion; (c) during six weeks after childbirth, unless provided with a - medical certificate stating that they might return at the end of four - weeks without injury to health; (d) in dangerous, unhealthy or - exhausting trades during pregnancy. Further, work on Sundays and - public holidays is prohibited to all workers, adult and youthful, with - conditional exceptions under the authority of the inspectors. Children - over 12 are admitted to industrial work on obtaining certificates of - birth, of physical fitness and of elementary education. The hours of - children are limited to 6, with pauses, and of young persons (of 14 to - 18 years) to 10, with pauses. Night work between 8 P.M. and 6 A.M. is - prohibited. All workers are entitled to a copy of a code of factory - rules containing the terms of the contract of work drawn up by - representatives of employes with the employers and sanctioned by the - inspector. Health and safety in working are provided for in detail in - the same law of 1892. Special rules may be made for dangerous trades, - and in 1899 such rules were established for match factories, similar - to some of the British rules, but notably providing for a dental - examination four times yearly by a doctor. In Denmark, regulation - began with unhealthy industries, and it was not until the law of 1901 - came into force, on the 1st of January 1902, that children under 12 - years have been excluded from factory labour. Control of child labour - can be strengthened by municipal regulation, and this has been done in - Copenhagen by an order of the 23rd of May 1903. In Sweden the 12 - years' limit had for some time held in the larger factories; the scope - has been extended so that it corresponds with the Norwegian law. The - hours of children are, in Denmark, 6(1/2) for those under 14 years; in - Sweden 6 for those under 13 years. Young persons may not in either - country work more than 10 hours daily, and night work, which is - forbidden for persons under 18 years, is now defined as in Norway. - Women may not be employed in industry within four weeks of childbirth, - except on authority of a medical certificate. All factories in Sweden - where young workers are employed are subject to medical inspection - once a year. Fencing of machinery and hygienic conditions - (ventilation, cubic space, temperature, light) are regulated in - detail. In Denmark the use of white phosphorus in manufacture of - lucifer matches has been prohibited since 1874, and special - regulations have been drawn up by administrative orders which - strengthen control of various unhealthy or dangerous industries, e.g. - dry-cleaning works, printing works and type foundries, iron foundries - and engineering works. A special act of the 6th of April 1906 - regulates labour and sanitary conditions in bakehouses and - confectionery works. - - _Italy and Spain._--The wide difference between the industrial - development of these southern Latin countries and the two countries - with which this summary begins, and the far greater importance of the - agricultural interests, produced a situation, as regards labour - legislation until as recently as 1903, which makes it convenient to - touch on the comparatively limited scope of their regulations at the - close of the series. It was stated by competent and impartial - observers from each of the two countries, at the International - Congress on Labour Laws held at Brussels in 1897, that the lack of - adequate measures for protection of child labour and inefficient - administration of such regulations as exist was then responsible for - abuse of their forces that could be found in no other European - countries. "Their labour in factories, workshops, and mines - constitutes a veritable martyrdom" (Spain). "I believe that there is - no country where a sacrifice of child life is made that is comparable - with that in certain Italian factories and industries" (Italy). In - both countries important progress has since been made in organizing - inspection and preventing accidents. In Spain the first step in the - direction of limitation of women's hours of labour was taken by a law - of 1900, which took effect in 1902, in regulations for reduction of - hours of labour for adults to 11, normally, in the 24. Hours of - children under 14 must not exceed 6 in any industrial work nor 8 in - any commercial undertaking. Labour before the age of 10 years and - night work between 6 P.M. and 5 A.M. was prohibited, and powers were - taken to extend the prohibition of night work to young persons under - 16 years. The labour of children in Italy was until 1902 regulated in - the main by a law of 1886, but a royal decree of 1899 strengthened it - by classing night work for children under 12 years as "injurious," - such work being thereby generally prohibited for them, though - exceptions are admitted; at the same time it was laid down that - children from 12 to 15 years might not be employed for more than 6 - hours at night. The law of 1886 prohibits employment of children - under 9 years in industry and under 10 years in underground mining. - Night work for women was in Italy first prohibited by the law of the - 19th of June 1902, and at the same time also for boys under 15, but - this regulation was not to take full effect for 5 years as regards - persons already so employed; by the same law persons under 15 and - women of any age were accorded the claim to one day's complete rest of - 24 hours in the week; the age of employment of children in factories, - workshops, laboratories, quarries, mines, was raised to 12 years - generally and 14 years for underground work; the labour of female - workers of any age was prohibited in underground work, and power was - reserved to further restrict and regulate their employment as well as - that of male workers under 15. Spain and Italy, the former by the law - of the 13th of March 1900, the latter by the law of the 19th of June - 1902, prohibit the employment of women within a fixed period of - childbirth; in Spain the limit is three weeks, in Italy one month, - which may be reduced to three weeks on a medical certificate of - fitness. Sunday rest is secured in industrial works, with regulated - exceptions in Spain by the law of the 3rd of March 1904. It is in the - direction of fencing and other safeguards against accidents and as - regards sanitary provisions, both in industrial workplaces and in - mines, that Italy has made most advance since her law of 1890 for - prevention of accidents. Special measures for prevention of malaria - are required in cultivation of rice by a ministerial circular of the - 23rd of April 1903; work may not begin until an hour after sunrise and - must cease an hour before sunset; children under 13 may not be - employed in this industry. (A. M, An.) - - -IV. UNITED STATES - - History. - -Under the general head of Labour Legislation all American statute laws -regulating labour, its conditions, and the relation of employer and -employe must be classed. It includes what is properly known as factory -legislation. Labour legislation belongs to the latter half of the 19th -century, so far as the United States is concerned. Like England in the -far past, the Americans in colonial days undertook to regulate wages and -prices, and later the employment of apprentices. Legislation relating to -wages and prices was long ago abandoned, but the laws affecting the -employment of apprentices still exist in some form, although conditions -of employment have changed so materially that apprenticeships are not -entered as of old; but the laws regulating the employment of apprentices -were the basis on which English legislation found a foothold when -parliament wished to regulate the labour of factory operatives. The code -of labour laws of the present time is almost entirely the result of the -industrial revolution during the latter part of the 18th century, under -which the domestic or hand-labour system was displaced through the -introduction of power machinery. As this revolution took place in the -United States at a somewhat later date than in England, the labour -legislation necessitated by it belongs to a later date. The factory, so -far as textiles are concerned, was firmly established in America during -the period from 1820 to 1840, and it was natural that the English -legislation found friends and advocates in the United States, although -the more objectionable conditions accompanying the English factory were -not to be found there. - - - Early attempts to regulate hours. - -The first attempt to secure legislation regulating factory employment -related to the hours of labour, which were very long--from twelve to -thirteen hours a day. As machinery was introduced it was felt that the -tension resulting from speeded machines and the close attention required -in the factory ought to be accompanied by a shorter work-day. This view -took firm hold of the operatives, and was the chief cause of the -agitation which has resulted in a great body of laws applying in very -many directions. As early as 1806 the caulkers and shipbuilders of New -York City agitated for a reduction of hours to ten per day, but no -legislation followed. There were several other attempts to secure some -regulation relative to hours, but there was no general agitation prior -to 1831. As Massachusetts was the state which first recognized the -necessity of regulating employment (following in a measure, and so far -as conditions demanded, the English labour or factory legislation), the -history of such legislation in that state is indicative of that in the -United States, and as it would be impossible in this article to give a -detailed history of the origin of laws in the different states, the -dates of their enactment, and their provisions, it is best to follow -primarily the course of the Eastern states, and especially that of -Massachusetts, where the first general agitation took place and the -first laws were enacted. That state in 1836 regulated by law the -question of the education of young persons employed in manufacturing -establishments. The regulation of hours of labour was warmly discussed -in 1832, and several legislative committees and commissions reported -upon it, but no specific action on the general question of hours of -labour secured the indorsement of the Massachusetts legislature until -1874, although the day's labour of children under twelve years of age -was limited to ten hours in 1842. Ten hours constituted a day's labour, -on a voluntary basis, in many trades in Massachusetts and other parts of -the country as early as 1853, while in the shipbuilding trades this was -the work-day in 1844. In April 1840 President Van Buren issued an order -"that all public establishments will hereafter be regulated, as to -working hours, by the ten-hours system." The real aggressive movement -began in 1845, through numerous petitions to the Massachusetts -legislature urging a reduction of the day's labour to eleven hours, but -nothing came of these petitions at that time. Again, in 1850, a similar -effort was made, and also in 1851 and 1852, but the bills failed. Then -there was a period of quiet until 1865, when an unpaid commission made a -report relative to the hours of labour, and recommended the -establishment of a bureau of statistics for the purpose of collecting -data bearing upon the labour question. This was the first step in this -direction in any country. The first bureau of the kind was established -in Massachusetts in 1869, but meanwhile, in accordance with reports of -commissions and the address of Governor Bullock in 1866, and the general -sentiment which then prevailed, the legislature passed an act regulating -in a measure the conditions of the employment of children in -manufacturing establishments; and this is one of the first laws of the -kind in the United States, although the first legislation in the United -States relating to the hours of labour which the writer has been able to -find, and for which he can fix a date, was enacted by the state of -Pennsylvania in 1849, the law providing that ten hours should be a day's -work in cotton, woollen, paper, bagging, silk and flax factories. - - - Employment of children. - -The Massachusetts law of 1866 provided, firstly, that no child under ten -should be employed in any manufacturing establishment, and that no child -between ten and fourteen should be so employed unless he had attended -some public or private school at least six months during the year -preceding such employment, and, further, that such employment should not -continue unless the child attended school at least six months in each -and every year; secondly, a penalty not exceeding $50 for every owner or -agent or other person knowingly employing a child in violation of the -act; thirdly, that no child under the age of fourteen should be employed -in any manufacturing establishment more than eight hours in any one day; -fourthly, that any parent or guardian allowing or consenting to -employment in violation of the act should forfeit a sum not to exceed -$50 for each offence; fifthly, that the Governor instruct the state -constable and his deputies to enforce the provisions of all laws for -regulating the employment of children in manufacturing establishments. -The same legislature also created a commission of three persons, whose -duty it was to investigate the subject of hours of labour in relation to -the social, educational and sanitary condition of the working classes. -In 1867 a fundamental law relating to schooling and hours of labour of -children employed in manufacturing and mechanical establishments was -passed by the Massachusetts legislature. It differed from the act of the -year previous in some respects, going deeper into the general question. -It provided that no child under ten should be employed in any -manufacturing or mechanical establishment of the commonwealth, and that -no child between ten and fifteen should be so employed unless he had -attended school, public or private, at least three months during the -year next preceding his employment. There were provisions relating to -residence, &c., and a further provision that no time less than 120 -half-days of actual schooling should be deemed an equivalent of three -months, and that no child under fifteen should be employed in any -manufacturing or mechanical establishment more than sixty hours any one -week. The law also provided penalties for violation. It repealed the -act of 1866. - -In 1869 began the establishment of that chain of offices in the United -States, the principle of which has been adopted by other countries, -known as bureaus of statistics of labour, their especial purpose being -the collection and dissemination of information relating to all features -of industrial employment. As a result of the success of the first -bureau, bureaus are in existence in thirty-three states, in addition to -the United States Bureau of Labour. - -A special piece of legislation which belongs to the commonwealth of -Massachusetts, so far as experience shows, was that in 1872, providing -for cheap morning and evening trains for the accommodation of working -men living in the vicinity of Boston. Great Britain had long had such -trains, which were called parliamentary trains. Under the Massachusetts -law some of the railways running out of Boston furnished the -accommodation required, and the system has since been in operation. - - - Factory legislation, 1877. - -In different parts of the country the agitation to secure legislation -regulating the hours of labour became aggressive again in 1870 and the -years immediately following, there being a constant repetition of -attempts to secure the enactment of a ten-hours law, but in -Massachusetts all the petitions failed till 1874, when the legislature -of that commonwealth established the hours of labour at sixty per week -not only for children under eighteen, but for women, the law providing -that no minor under eighteen and no woman over that age should be -employed by any person, firm or corporation in any manufacturing -establishment more than ten hours in any one day. In 1876 Massachusetts -reconstructed its laws relating to the employment of children, although -it did not abrogate the principles involved in earlier legislation, -while in 1877 the commonwealth passed Factory Acts covering the general -provisions of the British laws. It provided for the general inspection -of factories and public buildings, the provisions of the law relating to -dangerous machinery, such as belting, shafting, gearing, drums, &c., -which the legislature insisted must be securely guarded, and that no -machinery other than steam engines should be cleaned while running. The -question of ventilation and cleanliness was also attended to. Dangers -connected with hoistways, elevators and well-holes were minimized by -their protection by sufficient trap-doors, while fire-escapes were made -obligatory on all establishments of three or more storeys in height. All -main doors, both inside and outside, of manufacturing establishments, as -well as those of churches, school-rooms, town halls, theatres and every -building used for public assemblies, should open outwardly whenever the -factory inspectors of the commonwealth deemed it necessary. These -provisions remain in the laws of Massachusetts, and other states have -found it wise to follow them. - - The labour legislation in force in 1910 in the various states of the - Union might be classified in two general branches: (A) protective - labour legislation, or laws for the aid of workers who, on account of - their economic dependence, are not in a position fully to protect - themselves; (B) legislation having for its purpose the fixing of the - legal status of the worker as an employe, such as laws relating to the - making and breaking of the labour contract, the right to form - organizations and to assemble peaceably, the settlement of labour - disputes, the licensing of occupations, &c. - - - Factory and workshop acts. - - (A) The first class includes factory and workshop acts, laws relating - to hours of labour, work on Sundays and holidays, the payment of - wages, the liability of employers for injuries to their employes, &c. - Factory acts have been passed by nearly all the states of the Union. - These may be considered in two groups--first, laws which relate to - conditions of employment and affect only children, young persons and - women; and second, laws which relate to the sanitary condition of - factories and workshops and to the safety of employes generally. The - states adopting such laws have usually made provision for factory - inspectors, whose duties are to enforce these laws and who have power - to enter and inspect factories and workshops. The most common - provisions of the factory acts in the various states are those which - fix an age limit below which employment is unlawful. All but five - states have enacted such provisions, and these five states have - practically no manufacturing industries. In some states the laws - fixing an age limit are restricted in their application to factories, - while in others they extend also to workshops, bakeries, mercantile - establishments and other work places where children are employed. The - prescribed age limit varies from ten to fourteen years. Provisions - concerning the education of children in factories and workshops may be - considered in two groups, those relating to apprenticeship and those - requiring a certain educational qualification as a pre-requisite to - employment. Apprenticeship laws are numerous, but they do not now have - great force, because of the practical abrogation of the apprenticeship - system through the operation of modern methods of production. Most - states have provisions prohibiting illiterates under a specified age, - usually sixteen, from being employed in factories and workshops. The - provisions of the factory acts relating to hours of labour and night - work generally affect only the employment of women and young persons. - Most of the states have enacted such provisions, those limiting the - hours of children occurring more frequently than those limiting the - hours of women. The hour limit for work in such cases ranges from six - per day to sixty-six per week. Where the working time of children is - restricted, the minimum age prescribed for such children ranges from - twelve to twenty-one years. In some cases the restriction of the hours - of labour of women and children is general, while in others it applies - only to employment in one or more classes of industries. Other - provisions of law for the protection of women and children, but not - usually confined in their operation to factories and workshops, are - such as require seats for females and separate toilet facilities for - the sexes, and prohibit employment in certain occupations as in mines, - places where intoxicants are manufactured or sold, in cleaning or - operating dangerous machinery, &c. Provisions of factory acts relating - to the sanitary condition of factories and workshops and the safety of - employes have been enacted in nearly all the manufacturing states of - the Union. They prohibit overcrowding, and require proper ventilation, - sufficient light and heat, the lime-washing or painting of walls and - ceilings, the provision of exhaust fans and blowers in places where - dust or dangerous fumes are generated, guards on machinery, mechanical - belts and gearing shifters, guards on elevators and hoistways, - hand-rails on stairs, fire-escapes, &c. - - - Hours of labour. - - The statutes relating to hours of labour may be considered under five - groups, namely: (1) general laws which merely fix what shall be - regarded as a day's labour in the absence of a contract; (2) laws - defining what shall constitute a day's work on public roads; (3) laws - limiting the hours of labour per day on public works; (4) laws - limiting the hours of labour in certain occupations; and (5) laws - which specify the hours per day or per week during which women and - children may be employed. The statutes included in the first two - groups place no restrictions upon the number of hours which may be - agreed upon between employers and employes, while those in the other - three groups usually limit the freedom of contract and provide - penalties for their violation. A considerable number of states have - enacted laws which fix a day's labour in the absence of any contract, - some at eight and others at ten hours, so that when an employer and an - employe make a contract and they do not specify what shall constitute - a day's labour, eight or ten hours respectively would be ruled as the - day's labour in an action which might come before the courts. In a - number of the states it is optional with the citizens to liquidate - certain taxes either by cash payments or by rendering personal - service. In the latter case the length of the working day is defined - by law, eight hours being usually specified. The Federal government - and nearly one-half of the states have laws providing that eight hours - shall constitute a day's work for employes on public works. Under the - Federal Act it is unlawful for any officer of the government or of any - contractor or sub-contractor for public works to permit labourers and - mechanics to work longer than eight hours per day. The state laws - concerning hours of labour have similar provisions. Exceptions are - provided for cases of extraordinary emergencies, such as danger to - human life or property. In many states the hours of labour have been - limited by law in occupations in which, on account of their dangerous - or insanitary character, the health of the employes would be - jeopardized by long hours of labour, or in which the fatigue - occasioned by long hours would endanger the lives of the employes or - of the public. The occupations for which such special legislation has - been enacted are those of employes on steam and street railways, in - mines and other underground workings, smelting and refining works, - bakeries and cotton and woollen mills. Laws limiting the hours of - labour of women and children have been considered under factory and - workshop acts. - - - Sunday labour. - - Nearly all states and Territories of the Union have laws prohibiting - the employment of labour on Sunday. These laws usually make it a - misdemeanour for persons either to labour themselves or to compel or - permit their apprentices, servants or other employes, to labour on the - first day of the week. Exceptions are made in the case of household - duties or works of necessity or charity, and in the case of members of - religious societies who observe some other than the first day of the - week. - - - Payment of wages. - - Statutes concerning the payment of wages of employes may be considered - in two groups: (1) those which relate to the employment contract, such - as laws fixing the maximum period of wage payments, prohibiting the - payment of wages in scrip or other evidences of indebtedness in lieu - of lawful money, prohibiting wage deductions on account of fines, - breakage of machinery, discounts for prepayments, medical attendance, - relief funds or other purposes, requiring the giving of notice of - reduction of wages, &c.; (2) legislation granting certain privileges - or affording special protection to working people with respect to - their wages, such as laws exempting wages from attachment, preferring - wage claims in assignments, and granting workmen liens upon buildings - and other constructions on which they have been employed. - - - Employers' liability. - - Employers' liability laws have been passed to enable an employe to - recover damages from his employer under certain conditions when he has - been injured through accident occurring in the works of the employer. - The common-law maxim that the principal is responsible for the acts of - his agent does not apply where two or more persons are working - together under the same employer and one of the employes is injured - through the carelessness of his fellow-employe, although the one - causing the accident is the agent of the principal, who under the - common law would be responsible. The old Roman law and the English and - American practice under it held that the co-employe was a party to the - accident. The injustice of this rule is seen by a single illustration. - A weaver in a cotton factory, where there are hundreds of operatives, - is injured by the neglect or carelessness of the engineer in charge of - the motive power. Under the common law the weaver could not recover - damages from the employer, because he was the co-employe of the - engineer. So, one of thousands of employes of a railway system, - sustaining injuries through the carelessness of a switchman whom he - never saw, could recover no damages from the railway company, both - being co-employes of the same employer. The injustice of this - application of the common-law rule has been recognized, but the only - way to avoid the difficulty was through specific legislation providing - that under such conditions as those related, and similar ones, the - doctrine of co-employment should not apply, and that the workman - should have the same right to recover damages as a passenger upon a - railway train. This legislation has upset some of the most notable - distinctions of law. - - The first agitation for legislation of this character occurred in - England in 1880. A number of states in the Union have now enacted - statutes fixing the liability of employers under certain conditions - and relieving the employe from the application of the common-law rule. - Where the employe himself is contributory to the injuries resulting - from an accident he cannot recover, nor can he recover in some cases - where he knows of the danger from the defects of tools or implements - employed by him. The legislation upon the subject involves many - features of legislation which need not be described here, such as - those concerning the power of employes to make a contract, and those - defining the conditions, often elaborate, which lead to the liability - of the employer and the duties of the employe, and the relations in - which damages for injuries sustained in employment may be recovered - from the employer. - - (B) The statutes thus far considered may be regarded as protective - labour legislation. There is, besides, a large body of statutory laws - enacted in the various states for the purpose of fixing the legal - status of employers and employes and defining their rights and - privileges as such. - - - Labour contract. - - A great variety of statutes have been enacted in the various states - relating to the labour contract. Among these are laws defining the - labour contract, requiring notice of termination of contract, making - it a misdemeanour to break a contract of service and thereby endanger - human life or expose valuable property to serious injury, or to make a - contract of service and accept transportation or pecuniary - advancements with intent to defraud, prohibiting contracts of - employment whereby employes waive the right to damages in case of - injury, &c. A Federal statute makes it a misdemeanour for any one to - prepay the transportation or in any way assist or encourage the - importation of aliens under contract to perform labour or service of - any kind in the United States, exceptions being made in the case of - skilled labour that cannot otherwise be obtained, domestic servants - and persons belonging to any of the recognized professions. - - - Licensed occupations. - - The Federal government and nearly all the states and territories have - statutory provisions requiring the examination and licensing of - persons practising certain trades other than those in the class of - recognized professions. The Federal statute relates only to engineers - on steam vessels, masters, mates, pilots, &c. The occupations for - which examinations and licences are required by the various state laws - are those of barbers, horseshoers, elevator operators, plumbers, - stationary firemen, steam engineers, telegraph operators on railroads - and certain classes of mine workers and steam and street railway - employes. - - - Labour organizations. - -The right of combination and peaceable assembly on the part of employes -is recognized at common law throughout the United States. Organizations -of working-men formed for their mutual benefit, protection and -improvement, such as for endeavouring to secure higher wages, shorter -hours of labour or better working conditions, are nowhere regarded as -unlawful. A number of states and the Federal government have enacted -statutes providing for the incorporation of trade unions, but owing to -the freedom from regulation or inspection enjoyed by unincorporated -trade unions, very few have availed themselves of this privilege. A -number of states have enacted laws tending to give special protection to -and encourage trade unions. Thus, nearly one-half of the states have -passed acts declaring it unlawful for employers to discharge workmen for -joining labour organizations, or to make it a condition of employment -that they shall not belong to such bodies. Laws of this kind have -generally been held to be unconstitutional. Nearly all the states have -laws protecting trade unions in the use of the union label, insignia of -membership, credentials, &c., and making it a misdemeanour to -counterfeit or fraudulently use them. A number of the states exempt -labour organizations from the operations of the anti-trust and insurance -acts. - - - Labour disputes. - -Until recent years all legal action concerning labour disturbances was -based upon the principles of the common law. Some of the states have now -fairly complete statutory enactments concerning labour disturbances, -while others have little or no legislation of this class. The right of -employes to strike for any cause or for no cause is sustained by the -common law everywhere in the United States. Likewise an employer has a -right to discharge any or all of his employes when they have no contract -with him, and he may refuse to employ any person or class of persons for -any reason or for no reason. Agreements among strikers to take peaceable -means to induce others to remain away from the works of an employer -until he yields to the demands of the strikers are not held to be -conspiracies under the common law, and the carrying out of such a -purpose by peaceable persuasion and without violence, intimidation or -threats, is not unlawful. However, any interference with the -constitutional rights of another to employ whom he chooses or to labour -when, where or on what terms he pleases, is illegal. The boycott has -been held to be an illegal conspiracy in restraint of trade. The -statutory enactments of the various states concerning labour -disturbances are in part re-enactments of the rules of common law and in -part more or less departures from or additions to the established -principles. The list of such statutory enactments is a large one, and -includes laws relating to blacklisting, boycotting, conspiracy against -working-men, interference with employment, intimidation, picketing and -strikes of railway employes; laws requiring statements of causes of -discharge of employes and notice of strikes in advertisements for -labour; laws prohibiting deception in the employment of labour and the -hiring of armed guards by employers; and laws declaring that certain -labour agreements do not constitute conspiracy. Some of these laws have -been held to be unconstitutional, and some have not yet been tested in -the courts. - - - Arbitration and conciliation. - - The laws just treated relate almost entirely to acts either of - employers or of employes, but there is another form of law, namely, - that providing for action to be taken by others in the effort to - prevent working people from losing employment, either by their own - acts or by those of their employers, or to settle any differences - which arise out of controversies relating to wages, hours of labour, - terms and conditions of employment, rules, &c. These laws provide for - the mediation and the arbitration of labour disputes (see ARBITRATION - AND CONCILIATION). Twenty-three states and the Federal government have - laws or constitutional provisions of this nature. In some cases they - provide for the appointment of state boards, and in others of local - boards only. A number of states provide for local or special boards in - addition to the regular state boards. In some states it is required - that a member of a labour organization must be a member of the board, - and, in general, both employers and employes must be represented. - Nearly all state boards are required to attempt to mediate between the - parties to a dispute when information is received of an actual or - threatened labour trouble. Arbitration may be undertaken in some - states on application from either party, in others on the application - of both parties. An agreement to maintain the _status quo_ pending - arbitration is usually required. The modes of enforcement of obedience - to the awards of the boards are various. Some states depend on - publicity alone, some give the decisions the effect of judgments of - courts of law which may be enforced by execution, while in other - states disobedience to such decisions is punishable as for contempt of - court. The Federal statute applies only to common carriers engaged in - interstate commerce, and provides for an attempt to be made at - mediation by two designated government officials in controversies - between common carriers and their employes, and, in case of the - failure of such an attempt, for the formation of a board of - arbitration consisting of the same officials together with certain - other parties to be selected. Such arbitration boards are to be formed - only at the request or upon the consent of both parties to the - controversy. - - - The judicial enforcement of labour laws. - -The enforcement of laws by executive or judicial action is an important -matter relating to labour legislation, for without action such laws -would remain dead letters. Under the constitutions of the states, the -governor is the commander-in-chief of the military forces, and he has -the power to order the militia or any part of it into active service in -case of insurrection, invasion, tumult, riots or breaches of the peace -or imminent danger thereof. Frequent action has been taken in the case -of strikes with the view of preventing or suppressing violence -threatened or happening to persons or property, the effect being, -however, that the militia protects those working or desiring to work, or -the employers. The president of the United States may use the land and -naval forces whenever by reason of insurrection, domestic violence, -unlawful obstructions, conspiracy, combinations or assemblages of -persons it becomes impracticable to enforce the laws of the land by the -ordinary course of judicial proceedings, or when the execution of the -laws is so hindered by reason of such events that any portion or class -of the people are deprived thereby of their rights and privileges under -the constitution and laws of the country. Under this general power the -United States forces have been used for the protection of both employers -and employes indirectly, the purpose being to protect mails and, as in -the states, to see that the laws are carried out. - -The power of the courts to interfere in labour disputes is through the -injunction and punishment thereunder for contempt of court. It is a -principle of law that when there are interferences, actual or -threatened, with property or with rights of a pecuniary nature, and the -common or statute law offers no adequate and immediate remedy for the -prevention of injury, a court of equity may interpose and issue its -order or injunction as to what must or must not be done, a violation of -which writ gives the court which issued it the power to punish for -contempt. The doctrine is that something is necessary to be done to stop -at once the destruction of property and the obstruction of business, and -the injunction is immediate in its action. This writ has been resorted -to frequently for the indirect protection of employes and of employers. - (C. D. W.) - - AUTHORITIES.--ENGLISH: (a) Factory Legislation: Abraham and Davies, - _Law relating to Factories and Workshops_ (London, 1897 and 1902); - Redgrave, _Factory Acts_ (London, 1897); Royal Commission on Labour, - _Minutes of Evidence and Digests_, Group "C" (3 vols., 1892-1893), - _Assistant Commissioner's Report on Employment of Women_ (1893), - _Fifth and Final Report of the Commission_ (1894); International - Labour Conference at Berlin, _Correspondence, Commercial Series_ (C, - 6042) (1890); House of Lords Committee on the Sweating System, - _Report_ (1891); _Home Office Reports_: Annual Reports of H.M. Chief - Inspector of Factories (1879 to 1901), Committee on White Lead and - Various Lead Industries (1894), Working of the Cotton Cloth Factories - Acts (1897), Dangerous Trades (Anthrax) Committee, Do., Miscellaneous - Trades (1896-97-98-99), Conditions of Work in Fish-Curing Trade - (1898), Lead Compounds in Pottery (1899), Phosphorus in Manufacture of - Lucifer Matches (1899), &c., &c.; Whately Cooke-Taylor, _Modern - Factory System_ (London, 1891); Oliver, _Dangerous Trades_ (London, - 1902); Cunningham, _Growth of English Commerce and Industry_ (1907); - Hutchins and Harrison, _History of Factory Legislation_ (1903); - Traill, _Social England, &c., &c._ (b) Mines and Quarries: _Statutes_: - Coal Mines Regulation Acts 1886, 1894, 1896, 1899; Metalliferous Mines - Regulation Acts 1872, 1875; Quarries Act 1894; Royal Commission on - Labour, _Minutes of Evidence and Digests_, Group "A" (1892-1893, 3 - vols.); Royal Commission on Mining Royalties, _Appendices_ (1894); - _Home Office Reports_: Annual General Report upon the Mining Industry - (1894-1897), Mines and Quarries, General Reports and Statistics (1898 - to 1899), Annual Reports of H.M. Chief Inspector of Factories - (1893-1895) (Quarries); Macswinney and Bristowe, _Coal Mines - Regulation Act_ 1887 (London, 1888). (c) Shops: _Statutes_: Shop Hours - Acts 1892, 1893, 1896, Seats for Shop Assistants Act 1899; _Report of - Select Committee of House of Commons on the Shop Hours Regulation Bill - 1886_ (Eyre and Spottiswoode). (d) Truck: _Home Office Reports_: - Annual Reports of H.M. Chief Inspector of Factories, especially - 1895-1900, Memorandum on the Law relating to Truck and Checkweighing - Clauses of the Coal Mines Acts 1896, Memorandum relating to the Truck - Acts, by Sir Kenelm Digby, with text of Acts (1897). - - CONTINENTAL EUROPE: _Annuaire de la legislation du travail_ - (Bruxelles, 1898-1905); _Hygiene et securite des travailleurs dans les - ateliers industriels_ (Paris, 1895); _Bulletin de l'inspection du - travail_ (Paris, 1895-1902); _Bulletin de l'office international du - travail_ (Paris, 1902-1906); _Congres international de legislation du - travail_ (1898); _Die Gewerbeordnung fur das deutsche Reich_. (1) - Landmann (1897); (2) Neukamp (1901); _Gesetz betr. Kinderarbeit in - gewerblichen Betrieben_, 30. _Marz 1903_; Konrad Agahd, _Manz'sche - Gesetzausgabe_, erster Band und siebenter Band (Wien, 1897-1898); - _Legge sugli infortunii del lavoro_ (Milan, 1900). - - UNITED STATES: See the _Twenty-Second Annual Report of the - Commissioner of Labor_ (1907) giving all labour laws in force in the - United States in 1907, with annotations of decisions of courts; - bimonthly _Bulletins_ of the U.S. Bureau of Labor, containing laws - passed since those published in the foregoing, and decisions of courts - relating to employers and employes; also special articles in these - _Bulletins_ on "Employer and Employe under the Common Law" (No. 1), - "Protection of Workmen in their Employment" (No. 26), "Government - Industrial Arbitration" (No. 60), "Laws relating to the Employment of - Women and Children, and to Factory Inspection and the Health and - Safety of Employes" (No. 74), "Wages and Hours of Labor in - Manufacturing Industries, 1890 to 1907" (No. 77), "Review of Labor - Legislation of 1908 and 1909" (No. 85); also "Report of the Industrial - Commission on Labor Legislation" (vol. v., _U.S. Commission's - Report_); C. D. Wright, _Industrial Evolution in the United States_ - (1887); Stimson, _Handbook to the Labor Laws of the United States_, - and _Labor in its Relation to Law_; Adams and Sumner, _Labor - Problems_; Labatt, _Commentaries on the Law of Master and Servant_. - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] The term "labour" (Lat. _labor_) means strictly any energetic - work, though in general it implies hard work, but in modern parlance - it is specially confined to industrial work of the kind done by the - "working-classes." - - [2] H. D. Traill, _Social England_, v. 602 (1896). - - [3] W. Cunningham, _Growth of English Commerce and Industry_. - - [4] W. Cunningham, _Growth of English Commerce and Industry_. - - [5] From an "Essay on Trade" (1770), quoted in _History of Factory - Legislation_, by B. L. Hutchins and A. Harrison (1903), pp. 5, 6. - - [6] Minutes of Evidence, House of Commons, 1876; quoted in _History - of Factory Legislation_, by Harrison and Hutchinson, p. 179. - - - - -LABOUR PARTY, in Great Britain, the name given to the party in -parliament composed of working-class representatives. As the result of -the Reform Act of 1884, extending the franchise to a larger new -working-class electorate, the votes of "labour" became more and more a -matter of importance for politicians; and the Liberal party, seeking for -the support of organized labour in the trade unions, found room for a -few working-class representatives, who, however, acted and voted as -Liberals. It was not till 1893 that the Independent Labour party, -splitting off under Mr J. Keir Hardie (b. 1856) from the socialist -organization known as the Social Democratic Federation (founded 1881), -was formed at Bradford, with the object of getting independent -candidates returned to parliament on a socialist programme. In 1900 Mr -Keir Hardie, who as secretary of the Lanarkshire Miners' Union had stood -unsuccessfully as a labour candidate for Mid-Lanark in 1888, and sat as -M.P. for West Ham in 1892-1895, was elected to parliament for -Merthyr-Tydvil by its efforts, and in 1906 it obtained the return of 30 -members, Mr Keir Hardie being chairman of the group. Meanwhile in 1899 -the Trade Union Congress instructed its parliamentary committee to call -a conference on the question of labour representation; and in February -1900 this was attended by trade union delegates and also by -representatives of the Independent Labour party, the Social Democratic -Federation and the Fabian Society. A resolution was carried "to -establish a distinct labour group in parliament, who shall have their -own whips, and agree upon their own policy, which must embrace a -readiness to co-operate with any party which for the time being may be -engaged in promoting legislation in the direct interest of labour," and -the committee (the Labour Representation Committee) was elected for the -purpose. Under their auspices 29 out of 51 candidates were returned at -the election of 1906. These groups were distinct from the Labour members -("Lib.-Labs") who obeyed the Liberal whips and acted with the Liberals. -In 1908 the attempts to unite the parliamentary representatives of the -Independent Labour party with the Trades Union members were successful. -In June of that year the Miners' Federation, returning 15 members, -joined the Independent Labour party, now known for parliamentary -purposes as the "Labour Party"; other Trades Unions, such as the -Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants, took the same step. This -arrangement came into force at the general election of 1910, when the -bulk of the miners' representatives signed the constitution of the -Labour party, which after the election numbered 40 members of -parliament. - - - - -LABRADOR,[1] a great peninsula in British North America, bounded E. by -the North Atlantic, N. by Hudson Strait, W. by Hudson and James Bays, -and S. by an arbitrary line extending eastwards from the south-east -corner of Hudson Bay, near 51 deg. N., to the mouth of the Moisie river, -on the Gulf of St Lawrence, in 50 deg. N., and thence eastwards by the -Gulf of St Lawrence. It extends from 50 deg. to 63 deg. N., and from 55 -deg. to 80 deg. W., and embraces an approximate area of 511,000 sq. m. -Recent explorations and surveys have added greatly to the knowledge of -this vast region, and have shown that much of the peninsula is not a -land of "awful desolation," but a well-wooded country, containing latent -resources of value in its forests, fisheries and minerals. - - _Physical Geography._--Labrador forms the eastern limb of the V in the - Archaean protaxis of North America (see CANADA), and includes most of - the highest parts of that area. Along some portions of the coasts of - Hudson and also of Ungava Bay there is a fringe of lowland, but most - of the interior is a plateau rising toward the south and east. The - highest portion extends east and west between 52 deg. and 54 deg. N., - where an immense granite area lies between the headwaters of the - larger rivers of the four principal drainage basins; the lowest area - is between Hudson Bay and Ungava Bay in the north-west, where the - general level is not more than 500 ft. above the sea. The only - mountains are the range along the Atlantic coast, extending from the - Strait of Belle Isle to Cape Chidley; in their southern half they - rarely exceed 1500 ft., but increase in the northern half to a general - elevation of upwards of 2000 ft., with numerous sharp peaks between - 3000 and 5000 ft., some say 7000 or 8000 ft. The coasts are deeply - indented by irregular bays and fringed with rocky islands, especially - along the high Atlantic coast, where long narrow fiords penetrate - inland. Hamilton Inlet, 250 m. north of the Strait of Belle Isle, is - the longest of these bays, with a length of 150 m. and a breadth - varying from 2 to 30 m. The surface of the outer portions of the - plateau is deeply seamed by valleys, cut into the crystalline rocks by - the natural erosion of rivers, depending for their length and depth - upon the volume of water flowing through them. The valley of the - Hamilton river is the greatest, forms a continuation of the valley of - the Inlet and extends 300 m. farther inland, while its bottom lies - from 500 to 1500 ft. below the surface of the plateau into which it is - cut. The depressions between the low ridges of the interior are - occupied by innumerable lakes, many of great size, including - Mistassini, Mishikamau, Clearwater, Kaniapiskau and Seal, all from 50 - to 100 m. long. The streams discharging these lakes, before entering - their valleys, flow on a level with the country and occupy all - depressions, so that they frequently spread out into lake-expansions - and are often divided into numerous channels by large islands. The - descent into the valleys is usually abrupt, being made by heavy rapids - and falls; the Hamilton, from the level interior, in a course of 12 m. - falls 760 ft. into the head of its valley, this descent including a - sheer drop of 315 ft. at the Grand Falls, which, taken with the large - volume of the river, makes it the greatest fall in North America. The - rivers of the northern and western watersheds drain about two-thirds - of the peninsula; the most important of the former are the Koksoak, - the largest river of Labrador (over 500 m. long), the George, Whale - and Payne rivers, all flowing into Ungava Bay. The large rivers - flowing westwards into Hudson Bay are the Povungnituk, Kogaluk, Great - Whale, Big, East Main and Rupert, varying in length from 300 to 500 m. - The rivers flowing south are exceedingly rapid, the Moisie, Romaine, - Natashkwan and St Augustine being the most important; all are about - 300 m. long. The Atlantic coast range throws most of the drainage - northwards into the Ungava basin, and only small streams fall into the - ocean, except the Hamilton, North-west and Kenamou, which empty into - the head of Hamilton Inlet. - - _Geology._--The peninsula is formed largely of crystalline schists and - gneisses associated with granites and other igneous rocks, all of - archaean age; there are also large areas of non-fossiliferous, - stratified limestones, cherts, shales and iron ores, the unaltered - equivalents of part of the schists and gneisses. Narrow strips of - Animikie (Upper Huronian or perhaps Cambrian) rocks occur along the - low-lying southern and western shores, but there are nowhere else - indications of the peninsula having been below sea-level since an - exceedingly remote time. During the glacial period the country was - covered by a thick mantle of ice, which flowed out radially from a - central collecting-ground. Owing to the extremely long exposure to - denudation, to the subsequent removal of the greater part of the - decomposed rock by glaciers, and to the unequal weathering of the - component rocks, it is now a plateau, which ascends somewhat abruptly - within a few miles of the coast-line to heights of between 500 and - 2000 ft. The interior is undulating, and traversed by ridges of low, - rounded hills, seldom rising more than 500 ft. above the surrounding - general level. - - _Minerals._--The mineral wealth is undeveloped. Thick beds of - excellent iron ore cover large areas in the interior and along the - shores of Hudson and Ungava Bays. Large areas of mineralized Huronian - rocks have also been discovered, similar to areas in other parts of - Canada, where they contain valuable deposits of gold, copper, nickel - and lead; good prospects of these metals have been found. - - _Climate._--The climate ranges from cold temperate on the southern - coasts to arctic on Hudson Strait, and is generally so rigorous that - it is doubtful if the country is fit for agriculture north of 51 deg., - except on the low grounds near the coast. On James Bay good crops of - potatoes and other roots are grown at Fort George, 54 deg. N., while - about the head of Hamilton Inlet, on the east coast, and in nearly the - same latitude, similar crops are easily cultivated. On the outer - coasts the climate is more rigorous, being affected by the floating - ice borne southwards on the Arctic current. In the interior at - Mistassini, 50 deg. 30' N, a crop of potatoes is raised annually, but - they rarely mature. No attempts at agriculture have been made - elsewhere inland. Owing to the absence of grass plains, there is - little likelihood that it will ever be a grazing district. There are - only two seasons in the interior: winter begins early in October, with - the freezing of the small lakes, and lasts until the middle of June, - when the ice on rivers and lakes melts and summer suddenly bursts - forth. From unconnected observations the lowest temperatures of the - interior range from -50 deg. F. to -60 deg. F., and are slightly - higher along the coast. The mean summer temperature of the interior is - about 55 deg. F., with frosts during every month in the northern - portion. On the Atlantic coast and in Hudson Bay the larger bays - freeze solid between the 1st and 15th of December, and these coasts - remain ice-bound until late in June. Hudson Strait is usually - sufficiently open for navigation about the 10th of July. - - _Vegetation._--The southern half is included in the sub-Arctic forest - belt, and nine species of trees constitute the whole arborescent flora - of this region; these species are the white birch, poplar, aspen, - cedar. Banksian pine, white and black spruce, balsam fir and larch. - The forest is continuous over the southern portion to 53 deg. N., the - only exceptions being the summits of rocky hills and the outer islands - of the Atlantic and Hudson Bay, while the low margins and river - valleys contain much valuable timber. To the northward the size and - number of barren areas rapidly increase, so that in 55 deg. N. more - than half the country is treeless, and two degrees farther north the - limit of trees is reached, leaving, to the northward, only barrens - covered with low Arctic flowering plants, sedges and lichens. - - _Fisheries._--The fisheries along the shores of the Gulf of St - Lawrence and of the Atlantic form practically the only industry of the - white population scattered along the coasts, as well as of a large - proportion of the inhabitants of Newfoundland. The census (1891) of - Newfoundland gave 10,478 men, 2081 women and 828 children employed in - the Labrador fishery in 861 vessels, of which the tonnage amounted to - 33,689; the total catch being 488,788 quintals of cod, 1275 tierces of - salmon and 3828 barrels of herring, which, compared with the customs - returns for 1880, showed an increase of cod and decreases of salmon - and herring. The salmon fishery along the Atlantic coast is now very - small, the decrease being probably due to excessive use of cod-traps. - The cod fishery is now carried on along the entire Atlantic coast and - into the eastern part of Ungava Bay, where excellent catches have been - made since 1893. The annual value of the fisheries on the Canadian - portion of the coast is about $350,000. The fisheries of Hudson Bay - and of the interior are wholly undeveloped, though both the bay and - the large lakes of the interior are well stocked with several species - of excellent fish, including Arctic trout, brook trout, lake trout, - white fish, sturgeon and cod. - -_Population._--The population is approximately 14,500, or about one -person to every 35 sq. m.; it is made up of 3500 Indians, 2000 Eskimo -and 9000 whites. The last are confined to the coasts and to the Hudson -Bay Company's trading posts of the interior. On the Atlantic coast they -are largely immigrants from Newfoundland, together with descendants of -English fishermen and Hudson Bay Company's servants. To the north of -Hamilton Inlet they are of more or less mixed blood from marriage with -Eskimo women. The Newfoundland census of 1901 gave 3634 as the number of -permanent white residents along the Atlantic coast, and the Canadian -census (1891) gave a white population of 5728, mostly French Canadians, -scattered along the north shore of the Gulf of St Lawrence, while the -whites living at the inland posts did not exceed fifty persons. It is -difficult to give more than a rough approximation of the number of the -native population, owing to their habits of roving from one trading post -to another, and the consequent liability of counting the same family -several times if the returns are computed from the books of the various -posts, the only available data for an enumeration. The following -estimate is arrived at in this manner: Indians--west coast, 1200; -Ungava Bay, 200; east coast, 200; south coast, 1900. Eskimo--Atlantic -coast, 1000; south shore of Hudson Strait, 800; east coast of Hudson -Bay, 500. The Indians roam over the southern interior in small bands, -their northern limit being determined by that of the trees on which they -depend for fuel. They live wholly by the chase, and their numbers are -dependent upon the deer and other animals; as a consequence there is a -constant struggle between the Indian and the lower animals for -existence, with great slaughter of the latter, followed by periodic -famines among the natives, which greatly reduce their numbers and -maintain an equilibrium. The native population has thus remained about -stationary for the last two centuries. The Indians belong to the -Algonquin family, and speak dialects of the Cree language. By contact -with missionaries and fur-traders they are more or less civilized, and -the great majority of them are Christians. Those living north of the St -Lawrence are Roman Catholic, while the Indians of the western watershed -have been converted by the missionaries of the Church Mission Society; -the eastern and northern bands have not yet been reached by the -missionaries, and are still pagans. The Eskimo of the Atlantic coast -have long been under the guidance of the Moravian missionaries, and are -well advanced in civilization; those of Hudson Bay have been taught by -the Church Mission Society, and promise well; while the Eskimo of Hudson -Strait alone remain without teachers, and are pagans. The Eskimo live -along the coasts, only going inland for short periods to hunt the -barren-ground caribou for their winter clothing; the rest of the year -they remain on the shore or the ice, hunting seals and porpoises, which -afford them food, clothing and fuel. The christianized Indians and -Eskimo read and write in their own language; those under the teaching of -the Church Mission Society use a syllabic character, the others make use -of the ordinary alphabet. - -_Political Review._--The peninsula is divided politically between the -governments of Canada, Newfoundland and the province of Quebec. The -government of Newfoundland, under Letters Patent of the 28th of March -1876, exercises jurisdiction along the Atlantic coast; the boundary -between its territory and that of Canada is a line running due north and -south from Anse Sablon, on the north shore of the Strait of Belle Isle, -to 52 deg. N., the remainder of the boundary being as yet undetermined. -The northern boundary of the province of Quebec follows the East Main -river to its source in Patamisk lake, thence by a line due east to the -Ashuanipi branch of the Hamilton river; it then follows that river and -Hamilton Inlet to the coast area under the jurisdiction of Newfoundland. -The remainder of the peninsula, north of the province of Quebec, by -order in council dated the 18th of December 1897, was constituted Ungava -District, an unorganized territory under the jurisdiction of the -government of the Dominion of Canada. - - AUTHORITIES.--W. T. Grenfell and others, _Labrador: the Country and - the People_ (New York, 1909); R. F. Holmes, "A Journey in the Interior - of Labrador," Proc. _R.G.S._ x. 189-205 (1887); A. S. Packard, _The - Labrador Coast_ (New York, 1891); Austen Cary, "Exploration on Grand - River, Labrador," _Bul. Am. Geo. Soc._ vol. xxiv., 1892; R. Bell, "The - Labrador Peninsula," _Scottish Geo. Mag._ July 1895. Also the - following reports by the Geological Survey of Canada:--R. Bell, - "Report on an Exploration of the East Coast of Hudson Bay," 1877-1878; - "Observations on the Coast of Labrador and on Hudson Strait and Bay," - 1882-1884; A. P. Low, "Report on the Mistassini Expedition," 1885; - "Report on James Bay and the Country East of Hudson Bay," 1887-1888; - "Report on Explorations in the Labrador Peninsula, 1892-1895," 1896; - "Report on a Traverse of the Northern Part of the Labrador Peninsula," - 1898; "Report on the South Shore of Hudson Strait," 1899. For History: - W. G. Gosling, _Labrador_ (1910). (A. P. Lo.; A. P. C.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] From the Portuguese _llavrador_ (a yeoman farmer). The name was - originally given to Greenland (1st half of 16th century) and was - transferred to the peninsula in the belief that it formed part of the - same country as Greenland. The name was bestowed "because he who - first gave notice of seeing it [Greenland] was a farmer (_llavrador_) - from the Azores." See the historical sketch of Labrador by W. S. - Wallace in Grenfell's _Labrador, &c._, 1909. - - - - -LABRADORITE, or LABRADOR SPAR, a lime-soda felspar of the plagioclase -(q.v.) group, often cut and polished as an ornamental stone. It takes -its name from the coast of Labrador, where it was discovered, as -boulders, by the Moravian Mission about 1770, and specimens were soon -afterwards sent to the secretary in London, the Rev. B. Latrobe. The -felspar itself is generally of a dull grey colour, with a rather greasy -lustre, but many specimens exhibit in certain directions a magnificent -play of colours--blue, green, orange, purple or red; the colour in some -specimens changing when the stone is viewed in different directions. -This optical effect, known sometimes as "labradorescence," seems due in -some cases to the presence of minute laminae of certain minerals, like -gothite or haematite, arranged parallel to the surface which reflects -the colour; but in other cases it may be caused not so much by -inclusions as by a delicate lamellar structure in the felspar. An -aventurine effect is produced by the presence of microscopic enclosures. -The original labradorite was found in the neighbourhood of Nain, notably -in a lagoon about 50 m. inland, and in St Paul's Island. Here it occurs -with hypersthene, of a rich bronzy sheen, forming a coarse-grained -norite. When wet, the stones are remarkably brilliant, and have been -called by the natives "fire rocks." Russia has also yielded chatoyant -labradorite, especially near Kiev and in Finland; a fine blue -labradorite has been brought from Queensland; and the mineral is also -known in several localities in the United States, as at Keeseville, in -Essex county, New York. The ornamental stone from south Norway, now -largely used as a decorative material in architecture, owes its beauty -to a felspar with a blue opalescence, often called labradorite, but -really a kind of orthoclase which Professor W. C. Brogger has termed -cryptoperthite, whilst the rock in which it occurs is an augite-syenite -called by him laurvigite, from its chief locality, Laurvik in Norway. -Common labradorite, without play of colour, is an important constituent -of such rocks as gabbro, diorite, andesite, dolerite and basalt. (See -PLAGIOCLASE.) Ejected crystals of labradorite are found on Monti Rossi, -a double parasitic cone on Etna. - -The term labradorite is unfortunately used also as a rock-name, having -been applied by Fouque and Levy to a group of basic rocks rich in augite -and poor in olivine. (F. W. R.*) - - - - -LABRADOR TEA, the popular name for a species of _Ledum_, a small -evergreen shrub growing in bogs and swamps in Greenland and the more -northern parts of North America. The leaves are tough, densely covered -with brown wool on the under face, fragrant when crushed and have been -used as a substitute for tea. The plant is a member of the heath family -(Ericaceae). - - - - -LABRUM (Lat. for "lip"), the large vessel of the warm bath in the Roman -thermae. These were cut out of great blocks of marble and granite, and -have generally an overhanging lip. There is one in the Vatican of -porphyry over 12 ft. in diameter. The term _labrum_ is used in zoology, -of a lip or lip-like part; in entomology it is applied specifically to -the upper lip of an insect, the lower lip being termed _labium_. - - - - -LA BRUYERE, JEAN DE (1643-1696), French essayist and moralist, was born -in Paris on the 16th of August 1645, and not as was once the common -statement, at Dourdan (Seine-et-Oise) in 1639. His family was of the -middle class, and his reference to a certain Geoffroy de la Bruyere, a -crusader, is only a satirical illustration of a method of -self-ennoblement common in France as in some other countries. Indeed he -himself always signed the name Delabruyere in one word, thus avowing his -_roture_. His progenitors, however, were of respectable position, and he -could trace them back at least as far as his great-grandfather, who had -been a strong Leaguer. La Bruyere's own father was controller-general of -finance to the Hotel de Ville. The son was educated by the Oratorians -and at the university of Orleans; he was called to the bar, and in 1673 -bought a post in the revenue department at Caen, which gave the status -of noblesse and a certain income. In 1687 he sold this office. His -predecessor in it was a relation of Bossuet, and it is thought that the -transaction was the cause of La Bruyere's introduction to the great -orator. Bossuet, who from the date of his own preceptorship of the -dauphin, was a kind of agent-general for tutorships in the royal family, -introduced him in 1684 to the household of the great Conde, to whose -grandson Henri Jules de Bourbon as well as to that prince's girl-bride -Mlle de Nantes, one of Louis XIV.'s natural children, La Bruyere became -tutor. The rest of his life was passed in the household of the prince or -else at court, and he seems to have profited by the inclination which -all the Conde family had for the society of men of letters. Very little -is known of the events of this part--or, indeed, of any part--of his -life. The impression derived from the few notices of him is of a silent, -observant, but somewhat awkward man, resembling in manners Joseph -Addison, whose master in literature La Bruyere undoubtedly was. Yet -despite the numerous enemies which his book raised up for him, most of -these notices are favourable--notably that of Saint-Simon, an acute -judge and one bitterly prejudiced against _roturiers_ generally. There -is, however, a curious passage in a letter from Boileau to Racine in -which he regrets that "nature has not made La Bruyere as agreeable as he -would like to be." His _Caracteres_ appeared in 1688, and at once, as -Nicolas de Malezieu had predicted, brought him "bien des lecteurs et -bien des ennemis." At the head of these were Thomas Corneille, -Fontenelle and Benserade, who were pretty clearly aimed at in the book, -as well as innumerable other persons, men and women of letters as well -as of society, on whom the cap of La Bruyere's fancy-portraits was -fitted by manuscript "keys" compiled by the scribblers of the day. The -friendship of Bossuet and still more the protection of the Condes -sufficiently defended the author, and he continued to insert fresh -portraits of his contemporaries in each new edition of his book, -especially in the 4th (1689). Those, however, whom he had attacked were -powerful in the Academy, and numerous defeats awaited La Bruyere before -he could make his way into that guarded hold. He was defeated thrice in -1691, and on one memorable occasion he had but seven votes, five of -which were those of Bossuet, Boileau, Racine, Pellisson and -Bussy-Rabutin. It was not till 1693 that he was elected, and even then -an epigram, which, considering his admitted insignificance in -conversation, was not of the worst, _haesit lateri_:-- - - "Quand la Bruyere se presente - Pourquoi faut il crier haro? - Pour faire un nombre de quarante - Ne falloit il pas un zero?" - -His unpopularity was, however, chiefly confined to the subjects of his -sarcastic portraiture, and to the hack writers of the time, of whom he -was wont to speak with a disdain only surpassed by that of Pope. His -description of the _Mercure galant_ as "_immediatement au dessous de -rien_" is the best-remembered specimen of these unwise attacks; and -would of itself account for the enmity of the editors, Fontenelle and -the younger Corneille. La Bruyere's discourse of admission at the -Academy, one of the best of its kind, was, like his admission itself, -severely criticized, especially by the partisans of the "Moderns" in the -"Ancient and Modern" quarrel. With the _Caracteres_, the translation of -Theophrastus, and a few letters, most of them addressed to the prince de -Conde, it completes the list of his literary work, with the exception of -a curious and much-disputed posthumous treatise. La Bruyere died very -suddenly, and not long after his admission to the Academy. He is said to -have been struck with dumbness in an assembly of his friends, and, being -carried home to the Hotel de Conde, to have expired of apoplexy a day or -two afterwards, on the 10th of May 1696. It is not surprising that, -considering the recent panic about poisoning, the bitter personal -enmities which he had excited and the peculiar circumstances of his -death, suspicions of foul play should have been entertained, but there -was apparently no foundation for them. Two years after his death -appeared certain _Dialogues sur le Quietisme_, alleged to have been -found among his papers incomplete, and to have been completed by the -editor. As these dialogues are far inferior in literary merit to La -Bruyere's other works, their genuineness has been denied. But the -straightforward and circumstantial account of their appearance given by -this editor, the Abbe du Pin, a man of acknowledged probity, the -intimacy of La Bruyere with Bossuet, whose views in his contest with -Fenelon these dialogues are designed to further, and the entire absence, -at so short a time after the alleged author's death, of the least -protest on the part of his friends and representatives, seem to be -decisive in their favour. - -Although it is permissible to doubt whether the value of the -_Caracteres_ has not been somewhat exaggerated by traditional French -criticism, they deserve beyond all question a high place. The plan of -the book is thoroughly original, if that term may be accorded to a novel -and skilful combination of existing elements. The treatise of -Theophrastus may have furnished the first idea, but it gave little more. -With the ethical generalizations and social Dutch painting of his -original La Bruyere combined the peculiarities of the Montaigne essay, -of the _Pensees_ and _Maximes_ of which Pascal and La Rochefoucauld are -the masters respectively, and lastly of that peculiar 17th-century -product, the "portrait" or elaborate literary picture of the personal -and mental characteristics of an individual. The result was quite unlike -anything that had been before seen, and it has not been exactly -reproduced since, though the essay of Addison and Steele resembles it -very closely, especially in the introduction of fancy portraits. In the -titles of his work, and in its extreme desultoriness, La Bruyere reminds -the reader of Montaigne, but he aimed too much at sententiousness to -attempt even the apparent continuity of the great essayist. The short -paragraphs of which his chapters consist are made up of maxims proper, -of criticisms literary and ethical, and above all of the celebrated -sketches of individuals baptized with names taken from the plays and -romances of the time. These last are the great feature of the work, and -that which gave it its immediate if not its enduring popularity. They -are wonderfully piquant, extraordinarily life-like in a certain sense, -and must have given great pleasure or more frequently exquisite pain to -the originals, who were in many cases unmistakable and in most -recognizable. - -But there is something wanting in them. The criticism of Charpentier, -who received La Bruyere at the Academy, and who was of the opposite -faction, is in fact fully justified as far as it goes. La Bruyere -literally "est [trop] descendu dans le particulier." He has neither, -like Moliere, embodied abstract peculiarities in a single life-like -type, nor has he, like Shakespeare, made the individual pass _sub -speciem aeternitatis_, and serve as a type while retaining his -individuality. He is a photographer rather than an artist in his -portraiture. So, too, his maxims, admirably as they are expressed, and -exact as their truth often is, are on a lower level than those of La -Rochefoucauld. Beside the sculpturesque precision, the Roman brevity, -the profoundness of ethical intuition "piercing to the accepted hells -beneath," of the great Frondeur, La Bruyere has the air of a literary -_petit-maitre_ dressing up superficial observation in the finery of -_esprit_. It is indeed only by comparison that he loses, but then it is -by comparison that he is usually praised. His abundant wit and his -personal "malice" have done much to give him his rank in French -literature, but much must also be allowed to his purely literary merits. -With Racine and Massillon he is probably the very best writer of what is -somewhat arbitrarily styled classical French. He is hardly ever -incorrect--the highest merit in the eyes of a French academic critic. He -is always well-bred, never obscure, rarely though sometimes "precious" -in the turns and niceties of language in which he delights to indulge, -in his avowed design of attracting readers by form, now that, in point -of matter, "tout est dit." It ought to be added to his credit that he -was sensible of the folly of impoverishing French by ejecting old words. -His chapter on "Les ouvrages de l'esprit" contains much good criticism, -though it shows that, like most of his contemporaries except Fenelon, he -was lamentably ignorant of the literature of his own tongue. - - The editions of La Bruyere, both partial and complete, have been - extremely numerous. _Les Caracteres de Theophraste traduits du Grec, - avec les caracteres et les moeurs de ce siecle_, appeared for the - first time in 1688, being published by Michallet, to whose little - daughter, according to tradition, La Bruyere gave the profits of the - book as a dowry. Two other editions, little altered, were published in - the same year. In the following year, and in each year until 1694, - with the exception of 1693, a fresh edition appeared, and, in all - these five, additions, omissions and alterations were largely made. A - ninth edition, not much altered, was put forth in the year of the - author's death. The Academy speech appeared in the eighth edition. The - Quietist dialogues were published in 1699; most of the letters, - including those addressed to Conde, not till 1867. In recent times - numerous editions of the complete works have appeared, notably those - of Walckenaer (1845), Servois (1867, in the series of _Grands - ecrivains de la France_), Asselineau (a scholarly reprint of the last - original edition, 1872) and finally Chassang (1876); the last is one - of the most generally useful, as the editor has collected almost - everything of value in his predecessors. The literature of "keys" to - La Bruyere is extensive and apocryphal. Almost everything that can be - done in this direction and in that of general illustration was done by - Edouard Fournier in his learned and amusing _Comedie de La Bruyere_ - (1866); M. Paul Morillot contributed a monograph on La Bruyere to the - series of _Grands ecrivains francais_ in 1904. (G. Sa.) - - - - -LABUAN (a corruption of the Malay word _labuh-an_, signifying an -"anchorage"), an island of the Malay Archipelago, off the north-west -coast of Borneo in 5 deg. 16' N., 115 deg. 15' E. Its area is 30.23 sq. -m.; it is distant about 6 m. from the mainland of Borneo at the nearest -point, and lies opposite to the northern end of the great Brunei Bay. -The island is covered with low hills rising from flats near the shore to -an irregular plateau near the centre. About 1500 acres are under rice -cultivation, and there are scattered patches of coco-nut and sago palms -and a few vegetable gardens, the latter owned for the most part by -Chinese. For the rest Labuan is covered over most of its extent by -vigorous secondary growth, amidst which the charred trunks of trees rise -at frequent intervals, the greater part of the forest of the island -having been destroyed by great accidental conflagrations. Labuan was -ceded to Great Britain in 1846, chiefly through the instrumentality of -Sir James Brooke, the first raja of Sarawak, and was occupied two years -later. - -At the time of its cession the island was uninhabited, but in 1881 the -population numbered 5731, though it had declined to 5361 in 1891. The -census returns for 1901 give the population at 8411. The native -population consists of Malay fishermen, Chinese, Tamils and small -shifting communities of Kadayans, Tutongs and other natives of the -neighbouring Bornean coast. There are about fifty European residents. At -the time of its occupation by Great Britain a brilliant future was -predicted for Labuan, which it was thought would become a second -Singapore. These hopes have not been realized. The coal deposits, which -are of somewhat indifferent quality, have been worked with varying -degrees of failure by a succession of companies, one of which, the -Labuan & Borneo Ltd., liquidated in 1902 after the collapse of a shaft -upon which large sums had been expended. It was succeeded by the Labuan -Coalfields Ltd. The harbour is a fine one, and the above-named company -possesses three wharves capable of berthing the largest Eastern-going -ocean steamers. To-day Labuan chiefly exists as a trading depot for the -natives of the neighbouring coast of Borneo, who sell their -produce--beeswax, edible birds-nests, camphor, gutta, trepang, &c.,--to -Chinese shopkeepers, who resell it in Singapore. There is also a -considerable trade in sago, much of which is produced on the mainland, -and there are three small sago-factories on the island where the raw -product is converted into flour. The Eastern Extension Telegraph Company -has a central station at Labuan with cables to Singapore, Hong-Kong and -British North Borneo. Monthly steam communication is maintained by a -German firm between Labuan, Singapore and the Philippines. The colony -joined the Imperial Penny Postage Union in 1889. There are a few miles -of road on the island and a metre-gauge railway from the harbour to the -coal mines, the property of the company. There is a Roman Catholic -church with a resident priest, an Anglican church, visited periodically -by a clergyman from the mainland, two native and Chinese schools, and a -sailors' club, built by the Roman Catholic mission. The bishop of -Singapore and Sarawak is also bishop of Labuan. The European graveyard -has repeatedly been the scene of outrages perpetrated, it is believed, -by natives from the mainland of Borneo, the graves being rifled and the -hair of the head and other parts of the corpses being carried off to -furnish ornaments to weapons and ingredients in the magic philtres of -the natives. Pulau Dat, a small island in the near neighbourhood of -Labuan, is the site of a fine coco-nut plantation whence nuts and copra -are exported in bulk. The climate is hot and very humid. - - Until 1869 the expenditure of the colony was partly defrayed by - imperial grants-in-aid, but after that date it was left to its own - resources. A garrison of imperial troops was maintained until 1871, - when the troops were withdrawn after many deaths from fever and - dysentery had occurred among them. Since then law and order have been - maintained without difficulty by a small mixed police force of - Punjabis and Malays. From the 1st of January 1890 to the 1st of - January 1906 Labuan was transferred for administrative purposes to the - British North Borneo Company, the governor for the time being of the - company's territories holding also the royal commission as governor of - Labuan. This arrangement did not work satisfactorily and called forth - frequent petitions and protests from the colonists. Labuan was then - placed under the government of the Straits Settlements, and is - administered by a deputy governor who is a member of the Straits Civil - Service. - - - - -LABURNUM, known botanically as _Laburnum vulgare_ (or _Cytisus -Laburnum_), a familiar tree of the pea family (Leguminosae); it is also -known as "golden chain" and "golden rain." It is a native of the -mountains of France, Switzerland, southern Germany, northern Italy, &c., -has long been cultivated as an ornamental tree throughout Europe, and -was introduced into north-east America by the European colonists. Gerard -records it as growing in his garden in 1597 under the names of anagyris, -laburnum or beane trefoyle (_Herball_, p. 1239), but the date of its -introduction into England appears to be unknown. In France it is called -_l'aubour_--a corruption from laburnum according to Du Hamel--as also -_arbois_, i.e. _arc-bois_, "the wood having been used by the ancient -Gauls for bows. It is still so employed in some parts of the Maconnois, -where the bows are found to preserve their strength and elasticity for -half a century" (Loudon, _Arboretum_, ii. 590). - -Several varieties of this tree are cultivated, differing in the size of -the flowers, in the form of the foliage, &c., such as the "oak-leafed" -(_quercifolium_), _pendulum_, _crispum_, &c.; var. _aureum_ has golden -yellow leaves. One of the most remarkable forms is _Cytisus Adami (C. -purpurascens)_, which bears three kinds of blossoms, viz. racemes of -pure yellow flowers, others of a purple colour and others of an -intermediate brick-red tint. The last are hybrid blossoms, and are -sterile, with malformed ovules, though the pollen appears to be good. -The yellow and purple "reversions" are fertile. It originated in Paris -in 1828 by M. Adam, who inserted a "shield" of the bark of Cytisus -purpureus into a stock of Laburnum. A vigorous shoot from this bud was -subsequently propagated. Hence it would appear that the two distinct -species became united by their cambium layers, and the trees propagated -therefrom subsequently reverted to their respective parentages in -bearing both yellow and purple flowers, but produce as well blossoms of -an intermediate or hybrid character. Such a result may be called a -"graft-hybrid." For full details see Darwin's _Animals and Plants under -Domestication_. - -The laburnum has highly poisonous properties. The roots taste like -liquorice, which is a member of the same family as the laburnum. It has -proved fatal to cattle, though hares and rabbits eat the bark of it with -avidity (_Gardener's Chronicle_, 1881, vol. xvi. p. 666). The seeds also -are highly poisonous, possessing emetic as well as acrid narcotic -principles, especially in a green state. Gerard (loc. cit.) alludes to -the powerful effect produced on the system by taking the bruised leaves -medicinally. Pliny states that bees will not visit the flowers (_N.H._ -xvi. 31), but this is an error, as bees and butterflies play an -important part in the fertilization of the flowers, which they visit for -the nectar. - -The heart wood of the laburnum is of a dark reddish-brown colour, hard -and durable, and takes a good polish. Hence it is much prized by -turners, and used with other coloured woods for inlaying purposes. The -laburnum has been called false ebony from this character of its wood. - - - - -LABYRINTH (Gr. [Greek: labyrinthos], Lat. _labyrinthus_), the name given -by the Greeks and Romans to buildings, entirely or partly subterranean, -containing a number of chambers and intricate passages, which rendered -egress puzzling and difficult. The word is considered by some to be of -Egyptian origin, while others connect it with the Gr. [Greek: laura], -the passage of a mine. Another derivation suggested is from [Greek: -labrys], a Lydian or Carian word meaning a "double-edged axe" (_Journal -of Hellenic Studies_, xxi. 109, 268), according to which the Cretan -labyrinth or palace of Minos was the house of the double axe, the symbol -of Zeus. - -Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ xxxvi. 19, 91) mentions the following as the four -famous labyrinths of antiquity. - -1. The Egyptian: of which a description is given by Herodotus (ii. 148) -and Strabo (xvii. 811). It was situated to the east of Lake Moeris, -opposite the ancient site of Arsinoe or Crocodilopolis. According to -Egyptologists, the word means "the temple at the entrance of the lake." -According to Herodotus, the entire building, surrounded by a single -wall, contained twelve courts and 3000 chambers, 1500 above and 1500 -below ground. The roofs were wholly of stone, and the walls covered with -sculpture. On one side stood a pyramid 40 orgyiae, or about 243 ft. -high. Herodotus himself went through the upper chambers, but was not -permitted to visit those underground, which he was told contained the -tombs of the kings who had built the labyrinth, and of the sacred -crocodiles. Other ancient authorities considered that it was built as a -place of meeting for the Egyptian nomes or political divisions; but it -is more likely that it was intended for sepulchral purposes. It was the -work of Amenemhe III., of the 12th dynasty, who lived about 2300 B.C. It -was first located by the Egyptologist Lepsius to the north of Hawara in -the Fayum, and (in 1888) Flinders Petrie discovered its foundation, the -extent of which is about 1000 ft. long by 800 ft. wide. Immediately to -the north of it is the pyramid of Hawara, in which the mummies of the -king and his daughter have been found (see W. M. Flinders Petrie, -_Hawara, Biahmu, and Arsinoe_, 1889). - -2. The Cretan: said to have been built by Daedalus on the plan of the -Egyptian, and famous for its connexion with the legend of the Minotaur. -It is doubtful whether it ever had any real existence and Diodorus -Siculus says that in his time it had already disappeared. By the older -writers it was placed near Cnossus, and is represented on coins of that -city, but nothing corresponding to it has been found during the course -of the recent excavations, unless the royal palace was meant. The rocks -of Crete are full of winding caves, which gave the first idea of the -legendary labyrinth. Later writers (for instance, Claudian, _De sexto -Cons. Honorii_, 634) place it near Gortyna, and a set of winding -passages and chambers close to that place is still pointed out as the -labyrinth; these are, however, in reality ancient quarries. - -3. The Lemnian: similar in construction to the Egyptian. Remains of it -existed in the time of Pliny. Its chief feature was its 150 columns. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Labyrinth of London and Wise.] - -4. The Italian: a series of chambers in the lower part of the tomb of -Porsena at Clusium. This tomb was 300 ft. square and 50 ft. high, and -underneath it was a labyrinth, from which it was exceedingly difficult -to find an exit without the assistance of a clew of thread. It has been -maintained that this tomb is to be recognized in the mound named Poggio -Gajella near Chiusi. - -Lastly, Pliny (xxxvi. 19) applies the word to a rude drawing on the -ground or pavement, to some extent anticipating the modern or garden -maze. - - On the Egyptian labyrinth see A. Wiedemann, _Agyptische Geschichte_ - (1884), p. 258, and his edition of the second book of Herodotus - (1890); on the Cretan, C. Hock, _Kreta_ (1823-1829), and A. J. Evans - in _Journal of Hellenic Studies_; on the subject generally, articles - in Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_ and Daremberg and Saglio's - _Dictionnaire des antiquites_. - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Labyrinth of Batty Langley.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Labyrinth at Versailles.] - -In gardening, a labyrinth or _maze_ means an intricate network of -pathways enclosed by hedges or plantations, so that those who enter -become bewildered in their efforts to find the centre or make their -exit. It is a remnant of the old geometrical style of gardening. There -are two methods of forming it. That which is perhaps the more common -consists of walks, or alleys as they were formerly called, laid out and -kept to an equal width or nearly so by parallel hedges, which should be -so close and thick that the eye cannot readily penetrate them. The task -is to get to the centre, which is often raised, and generally contains -a covered seat, a fountain, a statue or even a small group of trees. -After reaching this point the next thing is to return to the entrance, -when it is found that egress is as difficult as ingress. To every design -of this sort there should be a key, but even those who know the key are -apt to be perplexed. Sometimes the design consists of alleys only, as in -fig. 1, published in 1706 by London and Wise. In such a case, when the -farther end is reached, there only remains to travel back again. Of a -more pretentious character was a design published by Switzer in 1742. -This is of octagonal form, with very numerous parallel hedges and paths, -and "six different entrances, whereof there is but one that leads to the -centre, and that is attended with some difficulties and a great many -stops." Some of the older designs for labyrinths, however, avoid this -close parallelism of the alleys, which, though equally involved and -intricate in their windings, are carried through blocks of thick -planting, as shown in fig. 2, from a design published in 1728 by Batty -Langley. These blocks of shrubbery have been called wildernesses. To -this latter class belongs the celebrated labyrinth at Versailles (fig. -3), of which Switzer observes, that it "is allowed by all to be the -noblest of its kind in the world." - -[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Maze at Hampton Court.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Maze at Somerleyton Hall.] - - Whatever style be adopted, it is essential that there should be a - thick healthy growth of the hedges or shrubberies that confine the - wanderer. The trees used should be impenetrable to the eye, and so - tall that no one can look over them; and the paths should be of gravel - and well kept. The trees chiefly used for the hedges, and the best for - the purpose, are the hornbeam among deciduous trees, or the yew among - evergreens. The beech might be used instead of the hornbeam on - suitable soil. The green holly might be planted as an evergreen with - very good results, and so might the American arbor vitae if the - natural soil presented no obstacle. The ground must be well prepared, - so as to give the trees a good start, and a mulching of manure during - the early years of their growth would be of much advantage. They must - be kept trimmed in or clipped, especially in their earlier stages; - trimming with the knife is much to be preferred to clipping with - shears. Any plants getting much in advance of the rest should be - topped, and the whole kept to some 4 ft. or 5 ft. in height until the - lower parts are well thickened, when it may be allowed to acquire the - allotted height by moderate annual increments. In cutting, the hedge - (as indeed all hedges) should be kept broadest at the base and - narrowed upwards, which prevents it from getting thin and bare below - by the stronger growth being drawn to the tops. - - The maze in the gardens at Hampton Court Palace (fig. 4) is considered - one of the finest examples in England. It was planted in the early - part of the reign of William III., though it has been supposed that a - maze had existed there since the time of Henry VIII. It is constructed - on the hedge and alley system, and was, it is believed, originally - planted with hornbeam, but many of the plants have been replaced by - hollies, yews, &c., so that the vegetation is mixed. The walks are - about half a mile in length, and the ground occupied is a little over - a quarter of an acre. The centre contains two large trees, with a seat - beneath each. The key to reach this resting place is to keep the right - hand continuously in contact with the hedge from first to last, going - round all the stops. - - [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Labyrinth in Horticultural Society's Garden.] - - The maze in the gardens at Somerleyton Hall, near Lowestoft (fig. 5), - was designed by Mr John Thomas. The hedges are of English yew, are - about 6(1/2) ft. high, and have been planted about sixty years. In the - centre is a grass mound, raised to the height of the hedges, and on - this mound is a pagoda, approached by a curved grass path. At the two - corners on the western side are banks of laurels 15 or 16 ft. high. On - each side of the hedges throughout the labyrinth is a small strip of - grass. - - There was also a labyrinth at Theobald's Park, near Cheshunt, when - this place passed from the earl of Salisbury into the possession of - James I. Another is said to have existed at Wimbledon House, the seat - of Earl Spencer, which was probably laid out by Brown in the 18th - century. There is an interesting labyrinth, somewhat after the plan of - fig. 2, at Mistley Place, Manningtree. - - When the gardens of the Royal Horticultural Society at South - Kensington were being planned, Albert, Prince Consort, the president - of the society, especially desired that there should be a maze formed - in the ante-garden, which was made in the form shown in fig. 6. This - labyrinth, designed by Lieut. W. A. Nesfield, was for many years the - chief point of attraction to the younger visitors to the gardens; but - it was allowed to go to ruin, and had to be destroyed. The gardens - themselves are now built over. (T. Mo.) - - - - -LABYRINTHULIDEA, the name given by Sir Ray Lankester (1885) to Sarcodina -(q.v.) forming a reticulate plasmodium, the denser masses united by fine -pseudopodical threads, hardly distinct from some Proteomyxa, such as -_Archerina_. - -This is a small and heterogeneous group. _Labyrinthula_, discovered by -L. Cienkowsky, forms a network of relatively stiff threads on which are -scattered large spindle-shaped enlargements, each representing an -amoeba, with a single nucleus. The threads are pseudopods, very slowly -emitted and withdrawn. The amoebae multiply by fission in the active -state. The nearest approach to a "reproductive" state is the -approximation of the amoebae, and their separate encystment in an -irregular heap, recalling the Acrasieae. From each cyst ultimately -emerges a single amoeba, or more rarely four (figs. 6, 7). The -saprophyte _Diplophrys (?) stercorea_ (Cienk.) appears closely allied to -this. - -[Illustration: Labyrinthulidea. - - 1. A colony or "cell-heap" of _Labyrinthula vitellina_, Cienk., - crawling upon an Alga. - - 2. A colony or "cell-heap" of _Chlamydomyxa labyrinthuloides_, Archer, - with fully expanded network of threads on which the oat-shaped - corpuscles (cells) are moving. o, Is an ingested food particle; at c a - portion of the general protoplasm has detached itself and become - encysted. - - 3 A portion of the network of _Labyrinthula vitellina_, Cienk., more - highly magnified. p, Protoplasmic mass apparently produced by fusion - of several filaments. p', Fusion of several cells which have lost - their definite spindle-shaped contour. s, Corpuscles which have become - spherical and are no longer moving (perhaps about to be encysted). - - 4. A single spindle cell and threads of _Labyrinthula macrocystis_, - Cienk. n, Nucleus. - - 5. A group of encysted cells of _L. Macrocystis_, embedded in a tough - secretion. - - 6, 7. Encysted cells of _L. macrocystis_, with enclosed protoplasm - divided into four spores. - - 8, 9. Transverse division of a non-encysted spindle-cell of _L. - macrocystis_.] - -_Chlamydomyxa_ (W. Archer) resembles _Labyrinthula_ in its freely -branched plasmodium, but contains yellowish chromatophores, and minute -oval vesicles ("physodes") filled with a substance allied to -tannin--possibly phloroglucin--which glide along the plasmodial tracks. -The cell-body contains numerous nuclei; but in its active state is not -resolvable into distinct oval amoeboids. It is amphitrophic, ingesting -and digesting other Protista, as well as "assimilating" by its -chromatophores, the product being oil, not starch. The whole body may -form a laminated cellulose resting cyst, from which it may only -temporarily emerge (fig. 2), or it may undergo resolution into nucleate -cells which then encyst, and become multinucleate before rupturing the -cyst afresh. - -_Leydenia_ (F. Schaudinn) is a parasite in malignant diseases of the -pleura. The pseudopodia of adjoining cells unite to form a network; but -its affinities seem to such social naked Foraminifera as _Mikrogromia_. - - See Cienkowsky, _Archiv f. Microscopische Anatomie_, iii. 274 (1867), - xii. 44 (1876); W. Archer, _Quart. Jour. Microscopic Science_, xv. 107 - (1875); E. R. Lankester, _Ibid._, xxxix., 233 (1896); Hieronymus and - Jenkinson, _Ibid._, xiii. 89 (1899); W. Zopf, _Beitrage zur - Physiologie und Morphologie niederer Organismen_, ii. 36 (1892), iv. - 60 (1894); Penard, _Archiv fur Protistenkunde_, iv. 296 (1904); F. - Schaudinn and Leyden, _Sitzungsberichte der Koniglich preussischen - Akademie der Wissenschaft_, vi. (1896). - - - - -LAC, a resinous incrustation formed on the twigs and young branches of -various trees by an insect, _Coccus lacca_, which infests them. The term -lac (_laksha_, Sanskrit; _lakh_, Hindi) is the same as the numeral -lakh--a hundred thousand--and is indicative of the countless hosts of -insects which make their appearance with every successive generation. -Lac is a product of the East Indies, coming especially from Bengal, -Pegu, Siam and Assam, and is produced by a number of trees of the -species _Ficus_, particularly _F. religiosa_. The insect which yields it -is closely allied to the cochineal insect, _Coccus cacti_; kermes, _C. -ilicis_ and Polish grains, _C. polonicus_, all of which, like the lac -insect, yield a red colouring matter. The minute larval insects fasten -in myriads on the young shoots, and, inserting their long proboscides -into the bark, draw their nutriment from the sap of the plant. The -insects begin at once to exude the resinous secretion over their entire -bodies; this forms in effect a cocoon, and, the separate exudations -coalescing, a continuous hard resinous layer regularly honeycombed with -small cavities is deposited over and around the twig. From this living -tomb the female insects, which form the great bulk of the whole, never -escape. After their impregnation, which takes place on the liberation of -the males, about three months from their first appearance, the females -develop into a singular amorphous organism consisting in its main -features of a large smooth shining crimson-coloured sac--the ovary--with -a beak stuck into the bark, and a few papillary processes projected -above the resinous surface. The red fluid in the ovary is the substance -which forms the lac dye of commerce. To obtain the largest amount of -both resin and dye-stuff it is necessary to gather the twigs with their -living inhabitants in or near June and November. Lac encrusting the -twigs as gathered is known in commerce as "stick lac"; the resin crushed -to small fragments and washed in hot water to free it from colouring -matter constitutes "seed lac"; and this, when melted, strained through -thick canvas, and spread out into thin layers, is known as "shellac," -and is the form in which the resin is usually brought to European -markets. Shellac varies in colour from a dark amber to an almost pure -black; the palest, known as "orange-lac," is the most valuable; the -darker varieties--"liver-coloured," "ruby," "garnet," &c.--diminish in -value as the colour deepens. Shellac may be bleached by dissolving it in -a boiling lye of caustic potash and passing chlorine through the -solution till all the resin is precipitated, the product being known as -white shellac. Bleached lac takes light delicate shades of colour, and -dyed a golden yellow it is much used in the East Indies for working into -chain ornaments for the head and for other personal adornments. Lac is -a principal ingredient in sealing-wax, and forms the basis of some of -the most valuable varnishes, besides being useful in various cements, -&c. Average stick lac contains about 68% of resin, 10 of lac dye and 6 -of a waxy substance. Lac dye is obtained by evaporating the water in -which stick lac is washed, and comes into commerce in the form of small -square cakes. It is in many respects similar to, although not identical -with, cochineal. - - - - -LACAILLE, NICOLAS LOUIS DE (1713-1762), French astronomer, was born at -Rumigny, in the Ardennes, on the 15th of March 1713. Left destitute by -the death of his father, who held a post in the household of the duchess -of Vendome, his theological studies at the College de Lisieux in Paris -were prosecuted at the expense of the duke of Bourbon. After he had -taken deacon's orders, however, he devoted himself exclusively to -science, and, through the patronage of J. Cassini, obtained employment, -first in surveying the coast from Nantes to Bayonne, then, in 1739, in -remeasuring the French arc of the meridian. The success of this -difficult operation, which occupied two years, and achieved the -correction of the anomalous result published by J. Cassini in 1718, was -mainly due to Lacaille's industry and skill. He was rewarded by -admission to the Academy and the appointment of mathematical professor -in Mazarin college, where he worked in a small observatory fitted for -his use. His desire to observe the southern heavens led him to propose, -in 1750, an astronomical expedition to the Cape of Good Hope, which was -officially sanctioned, and fortunately executed. Among its results were -determinations of the lunar and of the solar parallax (Mars serving as -an intermediary), the first measurement of a South African arc of the -meridian, and the observation of 10,000 southern stars. On his return to -Paris in 1754 Lacaille was distressed to find himself an object of -public attention; he withdrew to Mazarin college, and there died, on the -21st of March 1762, of an attack of gout aggravated by unremitting toil. -Lalande said of him that, during a comparatively short life, he had made -more observations and calculations than all the astronomers of his time -put together. The quality of his work rivalled its quantity, while the -disinterestedness and rectitude of his moral character earned him -universal respect. - - His principal works are: _Astronomiae Fundamenta_ (1757), containing a - standard catalogue of 398 stars, re-edited by F. Baily (_Memoirs Roy. - Astr. Society_, v. 93); Tabulae Solares (1758); _Coelum australe - stelliferum_ (1763) (edited by J. D. Maraldi), giving - zone-observations of 10,000 stars, and describing fourteen new - constellations; "Observations sur 515 etoiles du Zodiaque" (published - in t. vi. of his _Ephemerides_, 1763); _Lecons elementaires de - Mathematiques_ (1741), frequently reprinted; ditto _de Mecanique_ - (1743), &c.; ditto _d'Astronomie_ (1746), 4th edition augmented by - Lalande (1779); ditto _d'Optique_ (1750), &c. Calculations by him of - eclipses for eighteen hundred years were inserted in _L'Art de - verifier les dates_ (1750); he communicated to the Academy in 1755 a - classed catalogue of forty-two southern nebulae, and gave in t. ii. of - his _Ephemerides_ (1755) practical rules for the employment of the - lunar method of longitudes, proposing in his additions to Pierre - Bouguer's _Traite de Navigation_ (1760) the model of a nautical - almanac. - - See G. de Fouchy, "Eloge de Lacaille," _Hist. de l'Acad. des - Sciences_, p. 197 (1762); G. Brotier, Preface to Lacaille's _Coelum - australe_; Claude Carlier, _Discours historique_, prefixed to - Lacaille's _Journal historique du voyage fait au Cap_ (1763); J. J. - Lalande, _Connoissance des temps_, p. 185 (1767); _Bibl. astr._ pp. - 422, 456, 461, 482; J. Delambre, _Hist. de l'astr. au XVIII^e siecle_, - pp. 457-542; J. S. Bailly, _Hist. de l'astr. moderne_, tomes ii., - iii., _passim_; J. C. Poggendorff, _Biog. Lit. Handworterbuch_; R. - Grant, _Hist. of Physical Astronomy_, pp. 486, &c.; R. Wolf, - _Geschichte der Astronomie_. A catalogue of 9766 stars, reduced from - Lacaille's observations by T. Henderson, under the supervision of F. - Baily, was published in London in 1847. - - - - -LACAITA, SIR JAMES [GIACOMO] (1813-1895), Anglo-Italian politician and -writer. Born at Manduria in southern Italy, he practised law in Naples, -and having come in contact with a number of prominent Englishmen and -Americans in that city, he acquired a desire to study the English -language. Although a moderate Liberal in politics, he never joined any -secret society, but in 1851 after the restoration of Bourbon autocracy -he was arrested for having supplied Gladstone with information on -Bourbon misrule. Through the intervention of the British and Russian -ministers he was liberated, but on the publication of Gladstone's -famous letters to Lord Aberdeen he was obliged to leave Naples. He first -settled in Edinburgh, where he married Maria Carmichael, and then in -London where he made numerous friends in literary and political circles, -and was professor of Italian at Queen's College from 1853 to 1856. In -the latter year he accompanied Lord Minto to Italy, on which occasion he -first met Cavour. From 1857 to 1863 he was private secretary -(non-political) to Lord Lansdowne, and in 1858 he accompanied Gladstone -to the Ionian Islands as secretary, for which services he was made a -K.C.M.G. the following year. In 1860 Francis II. of Naples had implored -Napoleon III. to send a squadron to prevent Garibaldi from crossing over -from Sicily to Calabria; the emperor expressed himself willing to do so -provided Great Britain co-operated, and Lord John Russell was at first -inclined to agree. At this juncture Cavour, having heard of the scheme, -entrusted Lacaita, at the suggestion of Sir James Hudson, the British -minister at Turin, with the task of inducing Russell to refuse -co-operation. Lacaita, who was an intimate friend both of Russell and -his wife, succeeded, with the help of the latter, in winning over the -British statesman just as he was about to accept the Franco-Neapolitan -proposal, which was in consequence abandoned. He returned to Naples late -in 1860 and the following year was elected member of parliament for -Bitonto, although he had been naturalized a British subject in 1855. He -took little part in parliamentary politics, but in 1876 was created -senator. He was actively interested in a number of English companies -operating in Italy, and was made one of the directors of the Italian -Southern Railway Co. He had a wide circle of friends in many European -countries and in America, including a number of the most famous men in -politics and literature. He died in 1895 at Posilipo near Naples. - - An authority on Dante, he gave many lectures on Italian literature and - history while in England; and among his writings may be mentioned a - large number of articles on Italian subjects in the _Encyclopaedia - Britannica_ (1857-1860), and an edition of Benvenuto da Imola's Latin - lectures on Dante delivered in 1375; he co-operated with Lord Vernon - in the latter's great edition of Dante's _Inferno_ (London, - 1858-1865), and he compiled a catalogue in four volumes of the duke of - Devonshire's library at Chatsworth (London, 1879). - - - - -LA CALLE, a seaport of Algeria, in the arrondissement of Bona, -department of Constantine, 56 m. by rail E. of Bona and 10 m. W. of the -Tunisian frontier. It is the centre of the Algerian and Tunisian coral -fisheries and has an extensive industry in the curing of sardines; but -the harbour is small and exposed to the N.E. and W. winds. The old -fortified town, now almost abandoned, is built on a rocky peninsula -about 400 yds. long, connected with the mainland by a bank of sand. -Since the occupation of La Calle by the French in 1836 a new town has -grown up along the coast. Pop. (1906) of the town, 2774; of the commune, -4612. - -La Calle from the times of its earliest records in the 10th century has -been the residence of coral merchants. In the 16th century exclusive -privileges of fishing for coral were granted by the dey of Algiers to -the French, who first established themselves on a bay to the westward of -La Calle, naming their settlement Bastion de France; many ruins still -exist of this town. In 1677 they moved their headquarters to La Calle. -The company--_Compagnie d'Afrique_--who owned the concession for the -fishery was suppressed in 1798 on the outbreak of war between France and -Algeria. In 1806 the British consul-general at Algiers obtained the -right to occupy Bona and La Calle for an annual rent of L11,000; but -though the money was paid for several years no practical effect was -given to the agreement. The French regained possession in 1817, were -expelled during the wars of 1827, when La Calle was burnt, but returned -and rebuilt the place in 1836. The boats engaged in the fishery were -mainly Italian, but the imposition, during the last quarter of the 19th -century, of heavy taxes on all save French boats drove the foreign -vessels away. For some years the industry was abandoned, but was -restarted on a small scale in 1903. - - See Abbe Poiret, _Voyage en Barbarie_ ... (Paris, 1789); E. Broughton, - _Six Years' Residence in Algiers_ (London, 1839) and Sir R. L. - Playfair, _Travels in the Footsteps of Bruce_ (London, 1877). - - - - -LA CALPRENEDE, GAUTHIER DE COSTES, SEIGNEUR DE (_c._ 1610-1663), French -novelist and dramatist, was born at the Chateau of Tolgou, near Sarlat -(Dordogne), in 1609 or 1610. After studying at Toulouse, he came to -Paris and entered the regiment of the guards, becoming in 1650 -gentleman-in-ordinary of the royal household. He died in 1663 in -consequence of a kick from his horse. He was the author of several long -heroic romances ridiculed by Boileau. They are: _Cassandre_ (10 vols., -1642-1650); _Cleopatre_ (1648); _Faramond_ (1661); and _Les Nouvelles, -ou les Divertissements de la princesse Alcidiane_ (1661) published under -his wife's name, but generally attributed to him. His plays lack the -spirit and force that occasionally redeem the novels. The best is _Le -Comte d'Essex_, represented in 1638, which supplied some ideas to Thomas -Corneille for his tragedy of the same name. - - - - -LA CARLOTA, a town of the province of Negros Occidental, Philippine -Islands, on the W. coast of the island and the left bank of San Enrique -river, about 18 m. S. of Bacolod, the capital of the province. Pop. -(1903), after the annexation of San Enrique, 19,192. There are -fifty-four villages or barrios in the town; the largest had a population -in 1903 of 3254 and two others had each more than 1000 inhabitants. The -Panayano dialect of the Visayan language is spoken by most of the -inhabitants. At La Carlota the Spanish government established a station -for the study of the culture of sugar-cane; by the American government -this has been converted into a general agricultural experiment station, -known as "Government Farm." - - - - -LACCADIVE ISLANDS, a group of coral reefs and islands in the Indian -Ocean, lying between 10 deg. and 12 deg. 20' N. and 71 deg. 40' and 74 -deg. E. The name Laccadives (_laksha dwipa_, the "hundred thousand -isles") is that given by the people of the Malabar coast, and was -probably meant to include the Maldives; they are called by the natives -simply _Divi_, "islands," or _Amendivi_, from the chief island. There -are seventeen separate reefs, "round each of which the 100-fathom line -is continuous" (J. S. Gardiner). There are, however, only thirteen -islands, and of these only eight are inhabited. They fall into two -groups--the northern, belonging to the collectorate of South Kanara, and -including the inhabited islands of Amini, Kardamat, Kiltan and Chetlat; -and the southern, belonging to the administrative district of Malabar, -and including the inhabited islands of Agatti, Kavaratti, Androth and -Kalpeni. Between the Laccadives and the Maldives to the south lies the -isolated Minikoi, which physically belongs to neither group, though -somewhat nearer to the Maldives (q.v.). The principal submerged banks -lie north of the northern group of islands; they are Munyal, Coradive -and Sesostris, and are of greater extent than those on which the islands -lie. The general depth over these is from 23 to 28 fathoms, but -Sesostris has shallower soundings "indicating patches growing up, and -some traces of a rim" (J. S. Gardiner). The islands have in nearly all -cases emerged from the eastern and protected side of the reef, the -western being completely exposed to the S.W. monsoon. The islands are -small, none exceeding a mile in breadth, while the total area is only -about 80 sq. m. They lie so low that they would be hardly discernible -but for the coco-nut groves with which they are thickly covered. The -soil is light coral sand, beneath which, a few feet down, lies a stratum -of coral stretching over the whole of the islands. This coral, generally -a foot to a foot and a half in thickness, has been in the principal -islands wholly excavated, whereby the underlying damp sand is rendered -available for cereals. These excavations--a work of vast labour--were -made at a remote period, and according to the native tradition by -giants. In these spaces (_totam_, "garden") coarse grain, pulse, bananas -and vegetables are cultivated; coco-nuts grow abundantly everywhere. For -rice the natives depend upon the mainland. - -_Population and Trade._--The population in 1901 was 10,274. The people -are Moplas, i.e. of mixed Hindu and Arab descent, and are Mahommedans. -Their manners and customs are similar to those of the coast Moplas; but -they maintain their own ancient caste distinctions. The language spoken -is Malayalim, but it is written in the Arabic character. Reading and -writing are common accomplishments among the men. The chief industry is -the manufacture of coir. The various processes are entrusted to the -women. The men employ themselves with boatbuilding and in conveying the -island produce to the coast. The exports from the Laccadives are of the -annual value of about L17,000. - - _History._--No data exist for determining at what period the - Laccadives were first colonized. The earliest mention of them as - distinguished from the Maldives seems to be by Albiruni (c. 1030), who - divides the whole archipelago (Dibajat) into the _Divah Kuzah_ or - Cowrie Islands (the Maldives), and the _Divah Kanbar_ or Coir Islands - (the Laccadives). (See _Journ. Asiat. Soc._, September 1844, p. 265). - The islanders were converted to Islam by an Arab apostle named Mumba - Mulyaka, whose grave at Androth still imparts a peculiar sanctity to - that island. The kazee of Androth was in 1847 still a member of his - family, and was said to be the twenty-second who had held the office - in direct line from the saint. This gives colour to the tradition that - the conversion took place about 1250. It is also further corroborated - by the story given by the Ibn Batuta of the conversion of the - Maldives, which occurred, as he heard, four generations (say one - hundred and twenty years) before his visit to these islands in 1342. - The Portuguese discovered the Laccadives in May 1498, and built forts - upon them, but about 1545 the natives rose upon their oppressors. The - islands subsequently became a suzerainty of the raja of Cannanore, and - after the peace of Seringapatam, 1792 the southern group was permitted - to remain under the management of the native chief at a yearly - tribute. This was often in arrear, and on this account these islands - were sequestrated by the British government in 1877. - - See _The Fauna and Geography of the Maldive and Laccadive - Archipelagoes_, ed. J. Stanley Gardiner (Cambridge 1901-1905); - _Malabar District Gazetteer_ (Madras, 1908); G. Pereira, "As Ilhas de - Dyve" (_Boletim da Soc. Geog._, Lisbon, 1898-1899) gives details - relating to the Laccadives from the 16th-century MS. volume _De - insulis et peregrinatione lusitanorum_ in the National Library, - Lisbon. - - - - -LACCOLITE (Gr. [Greek: lakkos], cistern, [Greek: lithos], stone), in -geology, the name given by Grove K. Gilbert to intrusive masses of -igneous rock possessing a cake-like form, which he first described from -the Henry Mountains of southern Utah. Their characteristic is that they -have spread out along the bedding planes of the strata, but are not so -broad and thin as the sheets or intrusive sills which, consisting -usually of basic rocks, have spread over immense distances without -attaining any great thickness. Laccolites cover a comparatively small -area and have greater thickness. Typically they have a domed upper -surface while their base is flat. In the Henry Mountains they are from 1 -to 5 m. in diameter and range in thickness up to about 5000 ft. The -cause of their peculiar shape appears to be the viscosity of the rock -injected, which is usually of intermediate character and comparatively -rich in alkalis, belonging to the trachytes and similar lithological -types. These are much less fluid than the basalts, and the latter in -consequence spread out much more readily along the bedding planes, -forming thin flat-topped sills. At each side the laccolites thin out -rapidly so that their upper surface slopes steeply to the margins. The -strata above them which have been uplifted and bent are often cracked by -extension, and as the igneous materials well into the fissures a large -number of dikes is produced. At the base of the laccolite, on the other -hand, the strata are flat and dikes are rare, though there may be a -conduit up which the magma has flowed into the laccolite. The rocks -around are often much affected by contact alteration, and great masses -of them have sometimes sunk into the laccolite, where they may be partly -melted and absorbed. - -Gilbert obtained evidence that these laccolites were filled at depths of -7000 to 10,000 ft. and did not reach the surface, giving rise to -volcanoes. From the effects on the drainage of the country it seemed -probable that above the laccolites the strata swelled up in flattish -eminences. Often they occur side by side in groups belonging to a single -period, though all the members of each group are not strictly of the -same age. One laccolite may be formed on the side of an earlier one, and -compound laccolites also occur. When exposed by erosion they give rise -to hills, and their appearance varies somewhat with the stage of -development. - - In the western part of South America laccolites agreeing in all - essential points with those described by Gilbert occur in considerable - numbers and present some diversity of types. Occasionally they are - asymmetrical, or have one steep or vertical side while the other is - gently inclined. In other cases they split into a number of sheets - spreading outwards through the rocks around. But the term laccolite - has also been adopted by geologists in Britain and elsewhere to - describe a variety of intrusive masses not strictly identical in - character with those of the Henry Mountains. Some of these rest on a - curved floor, like the gabbro masses of the Cuillin Hills in Skye; - others are injected along a flattish plane of unconformability where - one system of rocks rests on the upturned and eroded edges of an older - series. An example of the latter class is furnished by the felsite - mass of the Black Hill in the Pentlands, near Edinburgh, which has - followed the line between the Silurian and the Old Red Sandstone, - forcing the rocks upwards without spreading out laterally to any great - extent. - - The term laccolite has also been applied to many granite intrusions, - such as those of Cornwall. We know from the evidence of mining shafts - which have been sunk in the country near the edge of these granites - that they slope downwards underground with an angle of twenty to - thirty degrees. They have been proved also to have been injected along - certain wall-marked horizons; so that although the rocks of the - country have been folded in a very complicated manner the granite can - often be shown to adhere closely to certain members of the - stratigraphical sequence for a considerable distance. Hence it is - clear that their upper surfaces are convex and gently arched, and it - is conjectured that the strata must extend below them, though at a - great depth, forming a floor. The definite proof of this has not been - attained for no borings have penetrated the granites and reached - sedimentary rocks beneath them. But often in mountainous countries - where there are deep valleys the bases of great granite laccolites are - exposed to view in the hill sides. These granite sills have a - considerable thickness in proportion to their length, raise the rocks - above them and fill them with dikes, and behave generally like typical - laccolites. In contradistinction to intrusions of this type with a - well-defined floor we may place the batholiths, bysmaliths, plutonic - plugs and stocks, which have vertical margins and apparently descend - to unknown depths. It has been conjectured that masses of this type - eat their way upwards by dissolving the rock above them and absorbing - it, or excavate a passage by breaking up the roof of the space they - occupy while the fragments detached sink downwards and are lost in the - ascending magma. (J. S. F.) - - - - -LACE (corresponding to Ital. _merletto_, _trina_; Genoese _pizzo_; Ger. -_spitzen_; Fr. _dentelle_; Dutch _kanten_; Span. _encaje_; the English -word owes something to the Fr. _lassis_ or _lacis_, but both are -connected with the earlier Lat. _laqueus_; early French laces were also -called _passements_ or insertions and _dents_ or edgings), the name -applied to ornamental open work formed of threads of flax, cotton, silk, -gold or silver, and occasionally of mohair or aloe fibre, looped or -plaited or twisted together by hand, (1) with a needle, when the work is -distinctively known as "needlepoint lace"; (2) with bobbins, pins and a -pillow or cushion, when the work is known as "pillow lace"; and (3) by -steam-driven machinery, when imitations of both needlepoint and pillow -laces are produced. Lace-making implies the production of ornament and -fabric concurrently. Without a pattern or design the fabric of lace -cannot be made. - -The publication of patterns for needlepoint and pillow laces dates from -about the middle of the 16th century. Before that period lace described -such articles as cords and narrow braids of plaited and twisted threads, -used not only to fasten shoes, sleeves and corsets together, but also in -a decorative manner to braid the hair, to wind round hats, and to be -sewn as trimmings upon costumes. In a Harleian MS. of the time of Henry -VI. and Edward IV., about 1471, directions are given for the making of -"lace Bascon, lace indented, lace bordered, lace covert, a brode lace, a -round lace, a thynne lace, an open lace, lace for hattys," &c. The MS. -opens with an illuminated capital letter, in which is the figure of a -woman making these articles. The MS. supplies a clear description how -threads in combinations of twos, threes, fours, fives, to tens and -fifteens, were to be twisted and plaited together. Instead of the -pillow, bobbins and pins with which pillow lace soon afterwards was -made, the hands were used, each finger of a hand serving as a peg upon -which was placed a "bowys" or "bow," or little ball of thread. Each ball -might be of different colour from the other. The writer of the MS. says -that the first finger next the thumb shall be called A, the next B, and -so on. According to the sort of cord or braid to be made, so each of the -four fingers, A, B, C, D might be called into service. A "thynne lace" -might be made with three threads, and then only fingers A, B, C would be -required. A "round" lace, stouter than the "thynne" lace, might require -the service of four or more fingers. By occasionally dropping the use of -threads from certain fingers a sort of indented lace or braid might be -made. But when laces of more importance were wanted, such as a broad -lace for "hattys," the fingers on the hands of assistants were required. -The smaller cords or "thynne laces," when fastened in simple or -fantastic loops along the edges of collars and cuffs, were called -"purls" (see the small edge to the collar worn by Catherine de' Medici, -Pl. II. fig. 4). In another direction from which some suggestion may be -derived as to the evolution of lace-making, notice should be taken of -the fact that at an early period the darning of varied ornamental -devices, stiff and geometric in treatment into hand-made network of -small square meshes (see squares of "lacis," Pl. I. fig. 1) became -specialized in many European countries. This is held by some writers to -be "opus filatorium," or "opus araneum" (spider work). Examples of this -"opus filatorium," said to date from the 13th century exist in public -collections. The productions of this darning in the early part of the -16th century came to be known as "punto a maglia quadra" in Italy and as -"lacis" in France, and through a growing demand for household and -wearing linen, very much of the "lacis" was made in white threads not -only in Italy and France but also in Spain. In appearance it is a filmy -fabric. With white threads also were the "purlings" above mentioned -made, by means of leaden bobbins or "fuxii," and were called "merletti a -piombini" (see lower border, Pl. II. fig. 3). Cut and drawn thread linen -work (the latter known as "tela tirata" in Italy and as "deshilado" in -Spain) were other forms of embroidery as much in vogue as the darning on -net and the "purling." The ornament of much of this cut and drawn linen -work (see collar of Catherine de' Medici, Pl. II. fig. 4), more -restricted in scope than that of the darning on net, was governed by the -recurrence of open squares formed by the withdrawal of the threads. -Within these squares and rectangles radiating devices usually were -worked by means of whipped and buttonhole stitches (Pl. fig. 5). The -general effect in the linen was a succession of insertions or borders of -plain or enriched reticulations, whence the name "punto a reticella" -given to this class of embroidery in Italy. Work of similar style and -especially that with whipped stitches was done rather earlier in the -Grecian islands, which derived it from Asia Minor and Persia. The close -connexion of the Venetian republic with Greece and the eastern islands, -as well as its commercial relations with the East, sufficiently explains -an early transplanting of this kind of embroidery into Venice, as well -as in southern Spain. At Venice besides being called "reticella," cut -work was also called "punto tagliato." Once fairly established as home -industries such arts were quickly exploited with a beauty and variety of -pattern, complexity of stitch and delicacy of execution, until -insertions and edgings made independently of any linen as a starting -base (see first two borders, Pl. II. fig. 3) came into being under the -name of "Punto in aria" (Pl. II. fig. 7). This was the first variety of -Venetian and Italian needlepoint lace in the middle of the 16th -century,[1] and its appearance then almost coincides in date with that -of the "merletti a piombini," which was the earliest Italian cushion or -pillow lace (see lower edging, Pl. II. fig. 3). - -The many varieties of needlepoint and pillow laces will be touched on -under the heading allotted to each of these methods of making lace. -Here, however, the general circumstances of their genesis may be briefly -alluded to. The activity in cord and braid-making and in the particular -sorts of ornamental needlework already mentioned clearly postulated such -special labour as was capable of being converted into lace-making. And -from the 16th century onwards the stimulus to the industry in Europe was -afforded by regular trade demand, coupled with the exertions of those -who encouraged their dependents or proteges to give their spare time to -remunerative home occupations. Thus the origin and perpetuation of the -industry have come to be associated with the women folk of peasants and -fishermen in circumstances which present little dissimilarity whether in -regard to needle lace workers now making lace in whitewashed cottages -and cabins at Youghal and Kenmare in the south of Ireland, or those who -produced their "punti in aria" during the 16th century about the lagoons -of Venice, or Frenchwomen who made the sumptuous "Points de France" at -Alencon and elsewhere in the 17th and 18th centuries; or pillow lace -workers to be seen at the present day at little seaside villages tucked -away in Devonshire dells, or those who were engaged more than four -hundred years ago in "merletti a piombini" in Italian villages or on -"Dentelles au fuseau" in Flemish lowlands. The ornamental character, -however, of these several laces would be found to differ much; but -methods, materials, appliances and opportunities of work would in the -main be alike. As fashion in wearing laces extended, so workers came to -be drawn together into groups by employers who acted as channels for -general trade.[2] Nuns in the past as in the present have also devoted -attention to the industry, often providing in the convent precincts -workrooms not only for peasant women to carry out commissions in the -service of the church or for the trade, but also for the purpose of -training children in the art. Elsewhere lace schools have been founded -by benefactors or organized by some leading local lace-maker[3] as much -for trading as for education. In all this variety of circumstance, -development of finer work has depended upon the abilities of the workers -being exercised under sound direction, whether derived through their own -intuitions, or supplied by intelligent and tasteful employers. Where any -such direction has been absent the industry viewed commercially has -suffered, its productions being devoid of artistic effect or -adaptability to the changing tastes of demand. - -It is noteworthy that the two widely distant regions of Europe where -pictorial art first flourished and attained high perfection, north Italy -and Flanders, were precisely the localities where lace-making first -became an industry of importance both from an artistic and from a -commercial point of view. Notwithstanding more convincing evidence as to -the earlier development of pillow lace making in Italy the invention of -pillow lace is often credited to the Flemings; but there is no distinct -trace of the time or the locality. In a picture said to exist in the -church of St Gomar at Lierre, and sometimes attributed to Quentin Matsys -(1495), is introduced a girl apparently working at some sort of lace -with pillow, bobbins, &c., which are somewhat similar to the implements -in use in more recent times.[4] From the very infancy of Flemish art an -active intercourse was maintained between the Low Countries and the -great centres of Italian art; and it is therefore only what might be -expected that the wonderful examples of the art and handiwork of Venice -in lace-making should soon have come to be known to and rivalled among -the equally industrious, thriving and artistic Flemings. At the end of -the 16th century pattern-books were issued in Flanders having the same -general character as those published for the guidance of the Venetian -and other Italian lace-makers. - -[Illustration: PLATE I. - - FIG. 1.--PORTION OF A COVERLET COMPOSED OF SQUARES OF "LACIS" OR - DARNED NETTING, DIVIDED BY LINEN CUT-WORK BANDS. - - The squares are worked with groups representing the twelve months, and - with scenes from the old Spanish dramatic story "Celestina." Spanish - or Portuguese. 16th century. (Victoria and Albert Museum.) - - FIG. 2.--CORNER OF A BED-COVER OF PILLOW-MADE LACE OF A TAPE-LIKE - TEXTURE WITH CHARACTERISTICS IN THE TWISTED AND PLAITED THREADS - RELATING THE WORK TO ITALIAN "MERLETTI A PIOMBINI" OR EARLY ENGLISH - "BONE LACE." - - Possibly made in Flanders or Italy during the early part of the 17th - or at the end of the 16th century. The design includes the Imperial - double-headed eagle of Austria with the ancient crown of the German - Empire. (Victoria and Albert Museum.)] - -[Illustration: PLATE II. - - FIG. 3.--THREE VANDYKE OR DENTATED BORDERS OF ITALIAN LACE OF THE LATE - 16TH CENTURY. - - Style usually called "Reticella" on account of the patterns being - based on repeated squares or reticulations. The two first borders are - of needlepoint work; the lower border is of such pillow lace as was - known in Italy as "merletti a piombini." - - FIG. 4.--CATHERINE DE MEDICI, WEARING A LINEN UPTURNED COLLAR OF CUT - WORK AND NEEDLEPOINT LACE. - - Louvre. About 1540. - - FIG. 5.--CORNER OF A NAPKIN OR HANDKERCHIEF BORDERED WITH "RETICELLA" - NEEDLEPOINT LACE IN THE DESIGN OF WHICH ACORNS AND CARNATIONS ARE - MINGLED WITH GEOMETRIC RADIATIONS. - - Probably of English early 17th century. - - FIG. 6.--AMELIE ELISABETH, COMTESSE DE HAINAULT, WEARING A RUFF OF - NEEDLEPOINT RETICELLA LACE. - - By Morcelse. The Hague. About 1600. - - FIG. 7.--BORDER OF FLAT NEEDLEPOINT LACE OF FULLER TEXTURE THAN THAT - OF FIG. 3, AND FROM A FREER STYLE OF DESIGN IN WHICH CONVENTIONALIZED - FLORAL FORMS HELD TOGETHER BY SMALL BARS OR TYES ARE USED. - - Style called "Punto in Aria," chiefly on account of its independence - of squares or reticulations. Italian. Early 17th century. - - (_Figs._ 4 _and_ 6 _by permission of Messrs Braun, Clement & Co., - Dornach (Alsace), and Paris_.)] - -[Illustration: FIG. 24.--Portion of a Flounce of Needlepoint Lace, -French, early 18th century, "Point de France." The honeycomb ground is -considered to be a peculiarity of "Point d'Argentan": some of the -fillings are made in the manner of the "Point d'Alencon" _reseau_.] - -France and England were not far behind Venice and Flanders in making -needle and pillow lace. Henry III. of France (1574-1589) appointed a -Venetian, Frederic Vinciolo, pattern maker for varieties of linen needle -works and laces to his court. Through the influence of this fertile -designer the seeds of a taste for lace in France were principally sown. -But the event which _par excellence_ would seem to have fostered the -higher development of the French art of lace-making was the aid -officially given it in the following century by Louis XIV., acting on -the advice of his minister Colbert. Intrigue and diplomacy were put into -action to secure the services of Venetian lace-workers; and by an edict -dated 1665 the lace-making centres at Alencon, Quesnoy, Arras, Reims, -Sedan, Chateau Thierry, Loudun and elsewhere were selected for the -operations of a company in aid of which the state made a contribution of -36,000 francs; at the same time the importation of Venetian, Flemish and -other laces was strictly forbidden.[5] The edict contained instructions -that the lace-makers should produce all sorts of thread work, such as -those done on a pillow or cushion and with the needle, in the style of -the laces made at Venice, Genoa, Ragusa and other places; these French -imitations were to be called "points de France." By 1671 the Italian -ambassador at Paris writes, "Gallantly is the minister Colbert on his -way to bring the 'lavori d'aria' to perfection." Six years later an -Italian, Domenigo Contarini, alludes to the "punto in aria," "which the -French can now do to admiration." The styles of design which emanated -from the chief of the French lace centre, Alencon, were more fanciful -and less severe than the Venetian, and it is evident that the Flemish -lace-makers later on adopted many of these French patterns for their own -use. The provision of French designs (fig. 24) which owes so much to the -state patronage, contrasts with the absence of corresponding provision -in England and was noticed early in the 18th century by Bishop Berkeley. -"How," he asks, "could France and Flanders have drawn so much money from -other countries for figured silk, lace and tapestry, if they had not had -their academies of design?" - -The humble endeavours of peasantry in England (which could boast of no -schools of design), Germany, Sweden, Russia and Spain could not result -in work of so high artistic pretension as that of France and Flanders. -In the 18th century good lace was made in Devonshire, but it is only in -recent years that to some extent the hand lace-makers of England and -Ireland have become impressed with the necessity of well-considered -designs for their work. Pillow lace making under the name of "bone lace -making" was pursued in the 17th century in Buckinghamshire, -Hertfordshire and Bedfordshire, and in 1724 Defoe refers to the -manufacture of bone lace in which villagers were "wonderfully exercised -and improved within these few years past." "Bone" lace dates from the -17th century in England and was practically the counterpart of Flemish -"dentelles au fuseau," and related also to the Italian "merletti a -piombini" (see Pl. fig. 10). In Germany, Barbara Uttmann, a native of -Nuremberg, instructed peasants of the Harz mountains to twist and plait -threads in 1561. She was assisted by certain refugees from Flanders. A -sort of "purling" or imitation of the Italian "merletti a piombini" was -the style of work produced then. - -Lace of comparatively simple design has been made for centuries in -villages of Andalusia as well as in Spanish conventual establishments. -The "point d'Espagne," however, appears to have been a commercial name -given by French manufacturers of a class of lace made in France with -gold or silver threads on the pillow and greatly esteemed by Spaniards -in the 17th century. No lace pattern-books have been found to have been -published in Spain. The needle-made laces which came out of Spanish -monasteries in 1830, when these institutions were dissolved, were mostly -Venetian needle-made laces. The lace vestments preserved at the -cathedral at Granada hitherto presumed to be of Spanish work are -verified as being Flemish of the 17th century (similar in style to Pl. -fig. 14). The industry is not alluded to in Spanish ordinances of the -15th, 16th or 17th centuries, but traditions which throw its origin back -to the Moors or Saracens are still current in Seville and its -neighbourhood, where a twisted and knotted arrangement of fine cords is -often worked[6] under the name of "Morisco" fringe, elsewhere called -macrame lace. Black and white silk pillow laces, or "blondes," date from -the 18th century. They were made in considerable quantity in the -neighbourhood of Chantilly, and imported for mantillas by Spain, where -corresponding silk lace making was started. Although after the 18th -century the making of silk laces more or less ceased at Chantilly and -the neighbourhood, the craft is now carried on in Normandy--at Bayeux -and Caen--as well as in Auvergne, which is also noted for its simple -"torchon" laces. Silk pillow lace making is carried on in Spain, -especially at Barcelona. The patterns are almost entirely imitations -from 18th-century French ones of a large and free floral character. -Lace-making is said to have been promoted in Russia through the -patronage of the court, after the visit of Peter the Great to Paris in -the early days of the 18th century. Peasants in the districts of -Vologda, Balakhua (Nijni-Novgorod), Bieleff (Tula) and Mzensk (Orel) -make pillow laces of simple patterns. Malta is noted for producing a -silk pillow lace of black or white, or red threads, chiefly of patterns -in which repetitions of circles, wheels and radiations of shapes -resembling grains of wheat are the main features. This characteristic of -design, appearing in white linen thread laces of similar make which have -been identified as Genoese pillow laces of the early 17th century, -reappears in Spanish and Paraguayan work. Pillow lace in imitation of -Maltese, Buckinghamshire and Devonshire laces is made to a small extent -in Ceylon, in different parts of India and in Japan. A successful effort -has also been made to re-establish the industry in the island of Burano -near Venice, and pillow and needlepoint lace of good design is made -there. - -At present the chief sources of hand-made lace are France, Belgium, -Ireland and England. - -France is faithful to her traditions in maintaining a lively and -graceful taste in lace-making. Fashion of late years has called for -ampler and more boldly effective laces, readily produced with both -braids and cords and far less intricate needle or pillow work than was -required for the dainty and smaller laces of earlier date. - -[Illustration: FIG. 25.--Collar and Berthe of Irish Crochet Lace.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 26.--Collar of Irish Crochet Lace.] - -In Belgium the social and economic conditions are, as they have been in -the past, more conducive and more favourable than elsewhere to -lace-making at a sufficiently remunerative rate of wages. The production -of hand-made laces in Belgium was in 1900 greater than that of France. -The principal modern needle-made lace of Belgium is the "Point de Gaze"; -"Duchesse" and Bruges laces are the chief pillow-made laces; whilst -"Point Applique" and "Plat Applique" are frequently the results not only -of combining needle-made and pillow work, but also of using them in -conjunction with machine-made net. Ireland is the best producer of that -substantial looped-thread work known as crochet (see figs. 25, 26, 27), -which must be regarded as a hand-made lace fabric although not -classifiable as a needlepoint or pillow lace. It is also quite distinct -in character from pseudo-laces, which are really embroideries with a -lace-like appearance, e.g. embroideries on net, cut and embroidered -cambrics and fine linen. For such as these Ireland maintains a -reputation in its admirable Limerick and Carrickmacross laces, made not -only in Limerick and Carrickmacross, but also in Kinsale, Newry, -Crossmaglen and elsewhere. The demand from France for Irish crochet is -now far beyond the supply, a condition which leads not only to the rapid -repetition by Irish workers of old patterns, but tends also to a gradual -debasement of both texture and ornament. Attempts have been made to -counteract this tendency, with some success, as the specimens of Irish -crochet in figs. 25, 26 and 27 indicate. - -[Illustration: PLATE III. - - FIG. 8.--MARY, COUNTESS OF PEMBROKE, WEARING A COIF AND CUFFS OF - RETICELLA LACE. - - National Portrait Gallery. Dated 1614. - - FIG. 9.--HENRI II., DUC DE MONTMORENCY, WEARING A FALLING LACE COLLAR. - By LE NAIN. Louvre. About 1628. - - (_By permission of Messrs Braun, Clement & Co., Dornach (Alsace), and - Paris_.) - - FIG. 10.--SCALLOPPED COLLAR OF TAPE-LIKE PILLOW-MADE LACE. - - Possibly of English early 17th-century work. Its texture is typical of - a development in pillow-lace-making later than that of the lower edge - of "merletti a piombini" in Pl. II. fig. 3. - - FIG. 11.--JAMES II. WEARING A JABOT AND CUFFS OF RAISED NEEDLEPOINT - LACE. - - By RILEY. National Portrait Gallery. About 1685. - - FIG. 12.--JABOT OF NEEDLEPOINT LACE WORKED PARTLY IN RELIEF, AND - USUALLY KNOWN AS "GROS POINT DE VENISE." - - Middle of 17th century. Conventional scrolling stems with off-shooting - pseudo-blossoms and leafs are specially characteristic. - - (_Figs._ 8 _and_ 11, _photo by Emery Walker_.)] - -[Illustration: PLATE IV. - - FIG. 13.--MME VERBIEST, WEARING PILLOW-MADE LACE _A RESEAU_. - - From the family group by GONZALES COQUER. Buckingham Palace. About - 1664. - - (_By permission of Messrs Braun, Clement & Co., Dornach (Alsace), and - Paris_.) - - FIG. 14.--PIECE OF PILLOW-MADE LACE USUALLY KNOWN AS "POINT DE - FLANDRES A BRIDES." - - Of the middle of the 17th century, the designs for which were often - adaptations from those made for such needlepoint lace as that of the - Jabot in fig. 12. - - FIG. 15.--PRINCESS MARIA TERESA STUART, WEARING A FLOUNCE OR TABLIER - OF LACE SIMILAR TO THAT IN FIG. 17. Dated 1695. - - From a group by LARGILLIERE. National Portrait Gallery. (_Photo by - Emery Walker_.) - - FIG. 16.--FLOUNCE OF PILLOW-MADE LACE _A RESEAU_. - - Flemish, of the middle of the 17th century. This lace is usually - thought to be the earliest type of "Point d'Angleterre" in - contradistinction to the "Point de Flandres" (fig. 14). - - FIG. 17--VERY DELICATE NEEDLEPOINT LACE WITH CLUSTERS OF SMALL RELIEF - WORK. - - Venetian, middle of the 17th century, and often called "rose-point - lace," and sometimes "Point de Neige."] - -[Illustration: FIG. 27.--Lady's Sleeve of Irish Crochet Lace.] - -An appreciable amount of pillow-made lace is annually supplied from -Devonshire, Buckinghamshire, Bedfordshire and Northampton, but it is -bought almost wholly for home use. The English laces are made almost -entirely in accordance with the precedents of the 19th century--that is -to say, in definite lengths and widths, as for borders, insertions and -flounces, although large shaped articles, such as panels for dresses, -long sleeves complete skirts, jackets, blouses, and fancifully shaped -collars of considerable dimensions have of late been freely made -elsewhere. To make such things entirely of lace necessitates many -modifications in the ordinary methods; the English lace-workers are slow -to adapt their work in the manner requisite, and hence are far behind in -the race to respond to the fashionable demand. No countries succeed so -well in promptly answering the variable call of fashion as France and -Belgium. - - As regards trade in lace, America probably buys more from Belgium than - from France; France and England come next as purchasers of nearly - equal quantities, after which come Russia and Italy. - - The greatest amount of lace now made is that which issues from - machines in England, France and Germany. The total number of persons - employed in the lace industry in England in 1871 was 49,370, and in - 1901 about 34,929, of whom not more than 5000 made lace by hand. - -The early history[7] of the lace-making machine coincides with that of -the stocking frame, that machine having been adapted about the year 1768 -for producing open-looped fabrics which had a net-like appearance. About -1786 frames for making point nets by machinery first appear at Mansfield -and later at Ashbourne and Nottingham and soon afterwards modifications -were introduced into such frames in order to make varieties of meshes in -the point nets which were classed as figured nets. In 1808 and 1809 John -Heathcoat of Nottingham obtained patents for machines for making bobbin -net with a simpler and more readily produced mesh than that of the point -net just mentioned. For at least thirty years thousands of women had -been employed in and about Nottingham in the embroidery of simple -ornament on net. In 1813 John Leavers began to improve the figured net -weaving machines above mentioned, and from these the lace-making -machines in use at the present time were developed. But it was the -application of the celebrated Jacquard apparatus to such machines that -enabled manufacturers to produce all sorts of patterns in thread-work in -imitation of the patterns for hand-made lace. A French machine called -the "dentelliere" was devised (see La Nature for the 3rd of March 1881), -and the patterns produced by it were of plaited threads. The expense, -however, attending the production of plaited lace by the "dentelliere" -is as great as that of pillow lace made by the hand, and so the machine -has not succeeded for ordinary trade purposes. More successful results -have been secured by the new patent circular lace machine of Messrs. -Birkin & Co. of Nottingham, the productions of which, all of simple -design, cannot be distinguished from hand-made pillow lace of the same -style (see figs. 57, 58, 59). - -Before dealing with technical details in processes of making lace -whether by hand or by the machine, the component parts of different -makes of lace may be considered. These are governed by the ornaments or -patterns, which may be so designed, as they were in the earlier laces, -that the different component parts may touch one another without any -intervening groundwork. But as a wish arose to vary the effect of the -details in a pattern ground-works were gradually developed and at first -consisted of links or ties between the substantial parts of the pattern. -The bars or ties were succeeded by grounds of meshes, like nets. -Sometimes the substantial parts of a pattern were outlined with a single -thread or by a strongly marked raised edge of buttonhole-stitched or of -plaited work. Minute fanciful devices were then introduced to enrich -various portions of the pattern. Some of the heavier needle-made laces -resemble low relief carving in ivory, and the edges of the relief -portions are often decorated with clusters of small loops. For the most -part all this elaboration was brought to a high pitch of variety and -finish by French designers and workers; and French terms are more usual -in speaking of details in laces. Thus the solid part of the pattern is -called the _toile_ or clothing, the links or ties are called _brides_, -the meshed grounds are called _reseaux_, the outline to the edges of a -pattern is called _cordonnet_ or _brode_, the insertions of fanciful -devices _modes_, the little loops _picots_. These terms are applicable -to the various portions of laces made with the needle, on the pillow or -by the machine. - -The sequence of patterns in lace (which may be verified upon referring -to figs. 1 to 23) is roughly as follows. From about 1540 to 1590 they -were composed of geometric forms set within squares, or of crossed and -radiating line devices, resulting in a very open fabric, stiff and -almost wiry in effect, without _brides_ or _reseaux_. From 1590 may be -dated the introduction into patterns of very conventional floral and -even human and animal forms and slender scrolls, rendered in a tape-like -texture, held together by _brides_. To the period from 1620 to 1670 -belongs the development of long continuous scroll patterns with -_reseaux_ and _brides_, accompanied in the case of needle-made laces -with an elaboration of details, e.g. _cordonnet_ with massings of -_picots_. Much of these laces enriched with fillings or _modes_ was made -at this time. From 1650 to 1700 the scroll patterns gave way to -arrangements of detached ornamental details (as in Pl. VI. fig. 22): and -about 1700 to 1760 more important schemes or designs were made (as in -Pl. fig. 19, and in fig. 24 in text), into which were introduced -naturalistic renderings of garlands, flowers, birds, trophies, -architectural ornament and human figures. Grounds composed entirely of -varieties of _modes_ as in the case of the _reseau rosace_ (Pl. V. fig. -21) were sometimes made then. From 1760 to 1800 small details consisting -of bouquets, sprays of flowers, single flowers, leaves, buds, spots and -such like were adopted, and sprinkled over meshed grounds, and the -character of the texture was gauzy and filmy (as in figs. 40 and 42). -Since that time variants of the foregoing styles of pattern and textures -have been used according to the bent of fashion in favour of simple or -complex ornamentation, or of stiff, compact or filmy textures. - -[Illustration: FIG. 28.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 29.] - -_Needlepoint Lace._--The way in which the early Venetian "punto in aria" -was made corresponds with that in which needlepoint lace is now worked. -The pattern is first drawn upon a piece of parchment. The parchment is -then stitched to two pieces of linen. Upon the leading lines drawn on -the parchment a thread is laid, and fastened through to the parchment -and linen by means of stitches, thus constructing a skeleton thread -pattern (see left-hand part of fig. 30). Those portions which are to be -represented as the "clothing" or _toile_ are usually worked as indicated -in the enlarged diagram (fig. 29), and then edged as a rule with -buttonhole stitching (fig. 28). Between these _toile_ portions of the -pattern are worked ties (_brides_) or meshes (_reseaux_), and thus the -various parts united into one fabric are wrought on to the face of the -parchment pattern and reproducing it (see right-hand part of fig. 30). A -knife is passed between the two pieces of linen at the back of the -parchment, cutting the stitches which have passed through the parchment -and linen, and so releasing the lace itself from its pattern parchment. -In the earlier stages, the lace was made in lengths to serve as -insertions (_passements_) and also in vandykes (_dentelles_) to serve as -edgings. Later on insertions and vandykes were made in one piece. All of -such were at first of a geometric style of pattern (Pl. figs. 3-5 and -6). - -[Illustration: FIG. 30.--Parchment Pattern showing work in progress: the -more complete lace is on the right half of the pattern.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 31.] - -Following closely upon them came the freer style of design already -mentioned, without and then with links or ties--_brides_--interspersed -between the various details of the patterns (Pl. II. fig. 7), which were -of flat tape-like texture. In elaborate specimens of this flat point -lace some lace workers occasionally used gold thread with the white -thread. These flat laces ("Punto in Aria") are also called "flat -Venetian point." About 1640 "rose (raised) point" laces began to be made -(Pl. III. fig. 12). They were done in relief and those of bold design -with stronger reliefs are called "gros point de Venise." Lace of this -latter class was used for altar cloths, flounces, _jabots_ or neckcloths -which hung beneath the chin over the breast (Pl. III. fig. 11), as well -as for trimming the turned-over tops of jack boots. _Tabliers_ and -ladies' aprons were also made of such lace. In these no regular ground -was introduced. All sorts of minute embellishments, like little knots, -stars and loops or _picots_, were worked on to the irregularly arranged -_brides_ or ties holding the main patterns together, and the more dainty -of these raised laces (Pl. fig. 17) exemplify the most subtle uses to -which the buttonhole stitch appears capable of being put in making -ornaments. But about 1660 came laces with _brides_ or ties arranged in a -honeycomb reticulation or regular ground. To them succeeded lace in -which the compact relief gave place to daintier and lighter material -combined with a ground of meshes or _reseau_. The needle-made meshes -were sometimes of single and sometimes of double threads. A diagram is -given of an ordinary method of making such meshes (fig. 31). At the end -of the 17th century the lightest of the Venetian needlepoint laces were -made; and this class which was of the filmiest texture is usually known -as "point de Venise a reseau" (Pl. V. fig. 20a). It was contemporary -with the needle-made French laces of Alencon and Argentan[8] that became -famous towards the latter part of the 17th century (Pl. V. fig. 20b). -"Point d'Argentan" has been thought to be especially distinguished on -account of its delicate honeycomb ground of hexagonally arranged -_brides_ (fig. 32), a peculiarity already referred to in certain -antecedent Venetian point laces. Often intermixed with this hexagonal -_brides_ ground is the fine-meshed ground or _reseau_ (fig. 20b), which -has been held to be distinctive of "point d'Alencon." But the styles of -patterns and the methods of working them, with rich variety of -insertions or _modes_, with the _brode_ or _cordonnet_ of raised -buttonhole stitched edging, are alike in Argentan and Alencon -needle-made laces (Pl. V. fig. 20b and fig. 32). Besides the hexagonal -_brides_ ground and the ground of meshes another variety of grounding -(_reseau rosace_) was used in certain Alencon designs. This ground -consisted of buttonhole-stitched skeleton hexagons within each of which -was worked a small hexagon of _toile_ connected with the outer -surrounding hexagon by means of six little ties or _brides_ (Pl. V. fig. -21). Lace with this particular ground has been called "Argentella," and -some writers have thought that it was a specialty of Genoese or Venetian -work. But the character of the work and the style of the floral patterns -are those of Alencon laces. The industry at Argentan was virtually an -offshoot of that nurtured at Alencon, where "lacis," "cut work" and -"velin" (work on parchment) had been made for years before the -well-developed needle-made "point d'Alencon" came into vogue under the -favouring patronage of the state-aided lace company mentioned as having -been formed in 1665. Madame Despierre in her _Histoire du point -d'Alencon_ gives an interesting and trustworthy account of the industry. - -[Illustration: FIG. 32.--Border of Needlepoint Lace made in France about -1740-1750, the clear hexagonal mesh ground, which is compactly stitched, -being usually regarded as characteristic of the point de France made at -Argentan.] - -In Belgium, Brussels has acquired some celebrity for needle-made laces. -These, however, are chiefly in imitation of those made at Alencon, but -the _toile_ is of less compact texture and sharpness in definition of -pattern. Brussels needlepoint lace is often worked with meshed grounds -made on a pillow, and a plain thread is used as a _cordonnet_ for their -patterns instead of a thread overcast with buttonhole stitches as in the -French needlepoint laces. Note the bright sharp outline to the various -ornamental details in Pl. V. fig. 20b. - -[Illustration: FIG. 33.--Shirt decorated with Insertions of Flat -Needlepoint Lace. (English, 17th century. Victoria and Albert Museum.)] - -[Illustration: PLATE IV. - - FIG. 18.--CHARLES GASPARD GUILLAUME DE VINTI-MILLE, WEARING LACE - SIMILAR IN STYLE OF DESIGN SHOWN IN FIG. 19. About 1730. - - FIG. 19.--PORTION OF FLOUNCE, NEEDLEPOINT LACE COPIED AT THE BURANO - LACE SCHOOL FROM THE ORIGINAL OF THE SO-CALLED "POINT DE VENISE A - BRIDES PICOTEES." - - 17th century. Formerly belonging to Pope Clement XIII., but now the - property of the queen of Italy. The design and work, however, are - indistinguishable from those of important flounces of "Point de - France." The pattern consists of repetitions of two - vertically-arranged groups of fantastic pine-apples and vases with - flowers, intermixed with bold rococo bands and large leaf devices. The - hexagonal meshes of the ground, although similar to the Venetian - "brides picotees," are much akin to the buttonhole stitched ground of - "Point d'Argentan." (Victoria and Albert Museum.) - - FIG. 20. - - A.--A LAPPET OF "POINT DE VENISE A RESEAU." - - The conventional character of the pseudo-leaf and floral forms - contrasts with that of the realistic designs of contemporary French - laces. Italian. Early 18th century. - - B.--A LAPPET OF FINE "POINT D'ALENCON." Louis XV. period. The variety - of the fillings of geometric design is particularly remarkable in this - specimen, as is the buttonhole stitched cordonnat or outline to the - various ornamental forms. - - FIG. 21.--BORDER OF FRENCH NEEDLEPOINT LACE, WITH GROUND OF "RESEAU - ROSACE." 18th century.] - -[Illustration: PLATE VI. - - FIG. 22.--JABOT OR CRAVAT OF PILLOW-MADE LACE. Brussels. Late 17th - century. (Victoria and Albert Museum.) - - FIG. 23.--JABOT OR CRAVAT OF PILLOW-MADE LACE OF FANTASTIC FLORAL - DESIGN, THE GROUND OF WHICH IS COMPOSED OF LITTLE FLOWERS AND LEAVES - ARRANGED WITHIN SMALL OPENWORK VERTICAL STRIPS. - - Brussels. 18th century. (Victoria and Albert Museum.)] - -Needlepoint lace has also been occasionally produced in England. Whilst -the character of its design in the early 17th century was rather more -primitive, as a rule, than that of the contemporary Italian, the method -of its workmanship is virtually the same and an interesting specimen of -English needle-made lace inset into an early 17th-century shirt is -illustrated in fig. 33. Specimens of needle-made work done by English -school children may be met with in samplers of the 17th and 18th -centuries. Needlepoint lace is successfully made at Youghal, Kenmare and -New Ross in Ireland, where of late years attention has been given to the -study of designs for it. The lace-making school at Burano near Venice -produces hand-made laces which are, to a great extent, careful -reproductions of the more celebrated classes of point laces, such as -"punto in aria," "rose point de Venise," "point de Venise a reseau," -"point d'Alencon," "point d'Argentan" and others. Some good needlepoint -lace is made in Bohemia and elsewhere in the Austrian empire. - -_Pillow-made Lace._--Pillow-made lace is built upon no substructure -corresponding with a skeleton thread pattern such as is used for -needlepoint lace, but is the representation of a pattern obtained by -twisting and plaiting threads. - -These patterns were never so strictly geometric in style as those -adopted for the earliest point lace making from the antecedent cut linen -and drawn thread embroideries. Curved forms, almost at the outset of -pillow lace, seem to have been found easy of execution (see lower -border, Pl. II. fig. 3); its texture was more lissom and less crisp and -wiry in appearance than that of contemporary needle-made lace. The early -twisted and plaited thread laces, which had the appearance of small -cords merging into one another, were soon succeeded by laces of similar -make but with flattened and broader lines more like fine braids or tapes -(Pl. I. fig. 2, and Pl. fig. 10). But pillow laces of this tapey -character must not be confused with laces in which actual tape or braid -is used. That peculiar class of lace-work does not arise until after the -beginning of the 17th century when the weaving of tape is said to have -commenced in Flanders. In England this sort of tape-lace dates no -farther back than 1747, when two Dutchmen named Lanfort were invited by -an English firm to set up tape looms in Manchester. - -[Illustration: FIG. 34.--Diagram showing six Bobbins in use.] - -The process by which lace is made on the pillow is roughly and briefly -as follows. A pattern is first drawn upon a piece of paper or parchment. -It is then pricked with holes by a skilled "pattern pricker," who -determines where the principal pins shall be stuck for guiding the -threads. This pricked pattern is then fastened to the pillow. The pillow -or cushion varies in shape in different countries. Some lace-makers use -a circular pad, backed with a flat board, in order that it may be placed -upon a table and easily moved. Other lace-workers use a well-stuffed -round pillow or short bolster, flattened at the two ends, so that they -may hold it conveniently on their laps. From the upper part of pillow -with the pattern fastened on it hang the threads from the bobbins. The -bobbin threads thus hang across the pattern. Fig. 34 shows the -commencement, for instance, of a double set of three-thread plaitings. -The compact portion in a pillow lace has a woven appearance (fig. 35). - -[Illustration: FIG. 35.] - -About the middle of the 17th century pillow lace of formal scroll -patterns somewhat in imitation of those for point lace was made, chiefly -in Flanders. The earlier of these had grounds of ties or _brides_ and -was often called "point de Flandres" (Pl. fig. 14) in contradistinction -to scroll patterns with a mesh ground, which were called "point -d'Angleterre" (Pl. fig. 16). Into Spain and France much lace from Venice -and Flanders was imported as well as into England, where from the 16th -century the manufacture of the simple pattern "bone lace" by peasants in -the midland and southern counties was still being carried on. In Charles -II.'s time its manufacture was threatened with extinction by the -preference given to the more artistic and finer Flemish laces. The -importation of the latter was accordingly prohibited. Dealers in Flemish -lace sought to evade the prohibitions by calling certain of their laces -"point d'Angleterre," and smuggling them into England. But smuggling was -made so difficult that English dealers were glad to obtain the services -of Flemish lace-makers and to induce them to settle in England. It is -from some such cause that the better 17th- and 18th-century English -pillow laces bear resemblance to pillow laces of Brussels, of Mechlin -and of Valenciennes. - -[Illustration: FIG. 36.--Border of English Pillow-made (Devonshire) Lace -in the style of a Brussels design of the middle of the 18th century.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 37--Border of English (Bucks. or Beds.) Pillow-made -Lace in the Style of a Mechlin design of the latter part of the 18th -century.] - -As skill in the European lace-making developed soon after the middle of -the 17th century, patterns and particular plaitings came to be -identified with certain localities. Mechlin, for instance, enjoyed a -high reputation for her productions. The chief technical features of -this pillow lace lie in the plaiting of the meshes, and the outlining of -the clothing or _toile_ with a thread _cordonnet_. The ordinary Mechlin -mesh is hexagonal in shape. Four of the sides are of double twisted -threads, two are of four threads plaited three times (fig. 39). - -[Illustration: FIG. 38--Border of Pillow-made Lace, Mechlin, from a -design similar to such as was used for point d'Alencon of the Louis XV. -period.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 39.--Mechlin Mesh.] - -In Brussels pillow lace, which has greater variety of design, the mesh -is also hexagonal; but in contrast with the Mechlin mesh whilst four of -its sides are of double-twisted threads the other two are of four -threads plaited four times (fig. 41). The finer specimens of Brussels -lace are remarkable for the fidelity and grace with which the botanical -forms in many of its patterns are rendered (Pl. VI. fig. 23). These are -mainly reproductions or adaptations of designs for point d'Alencon, and -the soft quality imparted to them in the texture of pillow-made lace -contrasts with the harder and more crisp appearance in needlepoint -lace. An example of dainty Brussels pillow lace is given in fig. 42. In -the Brussels pillow lace a delicate modelling effect is often imparted -to the close textures of the flowers by means of pressing them with a -bone instrument which gives concave shapes to petals and leaves, the -edges of which consist in part of slightly raised _cordonnet_ of compact -plaited work. - -[Illustration: FIG. 40.--Border of Pillow-made Lace, Mechlin, end of the -18th century.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 41.--Enlargement of Brussels Mesh.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 42.--Portion of a Wedding Veil, 7 ft. 6 in. X 6 ft. -6 in., of Pillow-made Lace, Brussels, late 18th century. The design -consists of light leafy garlands of orange blossoms and other flowers -daintily festooned. Little feathery spirals and stars are powdered over -the ground, which is of Brussels _vrai reseau_. In the centre upon a -more open ground of pillow-made hexagonal _brides_ is a group of two -birds, one flying towards the other which appears ready to take wing -from its nest; an oval frame containing two hearts pierced by an arrow, -and a hymeneal torch. Throughout this veil is a profusion of pillow -renderings of various _modes_, the _reseau rosace_, star devices, &c. -The ornamental devices are partly applied and partly worked into the -ground (Victoria and Albert Museum).] - -Honiton pillow lace resembles Brussels lace, but in most of the English -pillow laces (Devonshire, Buckinghamshire, Bedfordshire) the _reseau_ is -of a simple character (fig. 43). As a rule, English lace is made with a -rather coarser thread than that used in the older Flemish laces. In real -Flemish Valenciennes lace there are no twisted sides to the mesh; all -are closely plaited (fig. 44) and as a rule the shape of the mesh is -diamond but without the openings as shown in fig. 44. No outline or -_cordonnet_ to define the pattern is used in Valenciennes lace (see fig. -45). Much lace of the Valenciennes type (fig. 54) is made at Ypres. -Besides these distinctive classes of pillow-like laces, there are others -in which equal care in plaiting and twisting threads is displayed, -though the character of the design is comparatively simple, as for -instance in ordinary pillow laces from Italy, from the Auvergne, from -Buckinghamshire, or rude and primitive as in laces from Crete, southern -Spain and Russia. Pillow lace-making in Crete is now said to be extinct. -The laces were made chiefly of silk. The patterns in many specimens are -outlined with one, two or three bright-coloured silken threads. -Uniformity in simple character of design may also be observed in many -Italian, Spanish, Bohemian, Swedish and Russian pillow laces (see the -lower edge of fig. 46). - -[Illustration: FIG. 43.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 44.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 45.--Lappet of delicate Pillow-made Lace, -Valenciennes, about 1750. The peculiarity of Valenciennes lace is the -filmy cambric-like texture and the absence of any cordonnet to define -the separate parts of the ornament such as is used in needlepoint lace -of Alencon, and in pillow Mechlin and Brussels lace.] - -_Guipure._--This name is often applied to needlepoint and pillow laces -in which the ground consists of ties or _brides_, but it more properly -designates a kind of lace or "passementerie," made with gimp of fine -wires whipped round with silk, and with cotton thread. An earlier kind -of gimp was formed with "Cartisane," a little strip of thin parchment or -vellum covered with silk, gold or silver thread. These stiff gimp -threads, formed into a pattern, were held together by stitches worked -with the needle. Gold and silver thread laces have been usually made on -the pillow, though gold thread has been used with fine effect in -17th-century Italian needlepoint laces. - -[Illustration: FIG. 46.--Border to a Cloth. The wide part bearing the -double-headed eagle of Russia is of drawn thread embroidery: the -scalloped edging is of Russian pillow-made lace, though the style of its -pattern is often seen in pillow laces made by peasants in Danubian -provinces as well as in the south of Spain.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 47.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 48.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 49.--Section of Lace Machine.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 50.--Machine-made Lace in imitation of 16th-century -Needlepoint "Reticella" Lace.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 51.--Border of Machine-made Lace in the style of -17th-century Pillow Guipure Lace.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 52.--Border of Machine-made Lace in imitation of -17th-century Pillow Lace.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 53.--Machine-made Trimming Border in imitation of -Irish Crochet Lace.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 54.--A Piece of Hand-made Pillow Lace, Belgian -(Ypres), 20th century. (The machine imitation is given in fig. 55.)] - -[Illustration: FIG. 55.--Machine-made Lace in imitation of the Hand-made -Specimen of fig. 54. (Nottingham, 20th century.)] - -[Illustration: FIG. 56.--Small Borders (a) Hand-made and (b) -Machine-made Lace Valenciennes. (Nottingham, 20th century.)] - -[Illustration: FIG. 57.--Specimen of Hand-made Pillow Lace.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 58.--Specimen of Machine-made Lace in which the -twisting and plaiting of the threads are identical with those of the -hand-made specimen of fig. 57. (Nottingham, 20th century.)] - -_Machine-made Lace._--We have already seen that a technical peculiarity -in making needlepoint lace is that a single thread and needle are alone -used to form the pattern, and that the buttonhole stitch and other -loopings which can be worked by means of a needle and thread mark a -distinction between lace made in this manner and lace made on the -pillow. For the process of pillow lace making a series of threads are in -constant employment, plaited and twisted the one with another. A -buttonhole stitch is not producible by it. The Leavers lace machine does -not make either a buttonhole stitch or a plait. An essential principle -of this machine-made work is that the threads are twisted together as in -stocking net. The Leavers lace machine is that generally in use at -Nottingham and Calais. French ingenuity has developed improvements in -this machine whereby laces of delicate thread are made; but as fast as -France makes an improvement England follows with another, and both -countries virtually maintain an equal position in this branch of -industry. The number of threads brought into operation in a Leavers -machine is regulated by the pattern to be produced, the threads being of -two sorts, beam or warp threads and bobbin or weft threads. Upwards of -8880 are sometimes used, sixty pieces of lace being made simultaneously, -each piece requiring 148 threads--100 beam threads and 48 bobbin -threads. The ends of both sets of threads are fixed to a cylinder upon -which as the manufacture proceeds the lace becomes wound. The supply of -the beam or warp threads is held upon reels, and that of the bobbins or -weft threads is held in bobbins. The beam or warp thread reels are -arranged in frames or trays beneath the stage, above which and between -it and the cylinder the twisting of the bobbin or weft with beam or warp -threads takes place. The bobbins containing the bobbin or weft threads -are flattened in shape so as to pass conveniently between the stretched -beam or warp threads. Each bobbin can contain about 120 yds. of thread. -By most ingenious mechanism varying degrees of tension can be imparted -to warp and weft threads as required. As the bobbins or weft threads -pass like pendulums between the warp threads the latter are made to -oscillate, thus causing them to become twisted with the bobbin threads. -As the twistings take place, combs passing through both warp and weft -threads compress the twistings. Thus the texture of the clothing or -_toile_ in machine-made lace may generally be detected by its ribbed -appearance, due to the compressed twisted threads. Figs. 47 and 48 are -intended to show effects obtained by varying the tensions of weft and -warp threads. For instance, if the weft, as threads b, b, b, b in fig. -47, be tight and the warp thread slack, the warp thread a will be -twisted upon the weft threads. But if the warp thread a be tight and the -weft threads b, b, b, b, be slack, as in fig. 48, then the weft threads -will be twisted on the warp thread. At the same time the twisting in -both these cases arises from the conjunction of movements given to the -two sets of threads, namely, an oscillation or movement from side to -side of the beam or warp threads, and the swinging or pendulum-like -movement of the bobbin or weft threads between the warp threads. Fig. 49 -is a diagram of a sectional elevation of a lace machine representing its -more essential parts. E is the cylinder or beam upon which the lace is -rolled as made, and upon which the ends of both warp and weft threads -are fastened at starting. Beneath are w, w, w, a series of trays or -beams, one above the other, containing the reels of the supplies of warp -threads; c, c represent the slide bars for the passage of the bobbin b -with its thread from k to k, the landing bars, one on each side of the -rank of warp threads; s, t are the combs which take it in turns to press -together the twistings as they are made. The combs come away clear from -the threads as soon as they have pressed them together and fall into -positions ready to perform their pressing operations again. The -contrivances for giving each thread a particular tension and movement at -a certain time are connected with an adaptation of the Jacquard system -of pierced cards. The machine lace pattern drafter has to calculate how -many holes shall be punched in a card, and to determine the position of -such holes. Each hole regulates the mechanism for giving movement to a -thread. Fig. 54 displays a piece of hand-made Valenciennes (Ypres) lace -and fig. 55 a corresponding piece woven by the machine. The latter shows -the advantage that can be gained by using very fine gauge machines, thus -enabling a very close imitation of the real lace to be made by securing -a very open and clear _reseau_ or net, such as would be made on a coarse -machine, and at the same time to keep the pattern fine and solid and -standing out well from the net, as is the case with the real lace, which -cannot be done by using a coarse gauge machine. In this example the -machine used is a 16 point (that is 32 carriages to the inch), and the -ground is made half gauge, that is 8 point, and the weaving is made the -full gauge of the machine, that is 16 point. Fig. 56 gives other -examples of hand- and machine-made Valenciennes lace. The machine-made -lace (b) imitating the real (a) is made on a 14-point machine (that is -28 carriages to the inch), the ground being 7 point and the pattern -being full gauge or 14 point. Although the principle in these examples -of machine work is exactly the same, in so far that they use half gauge -net and full gauge clothing to produce the contrast as mentioned above, -the fabrication of these two examples is quite different, that in fig. -55 being an example of tight bobbins or weft, and slack warp threads as -shown in fig. 47. Whereas the example in fig. 56 is made with slack -bobbins or weft threads and tight warp threads as in fig. 48. In fig. 57 -is a piece of hand-made lace of stout thread, very similar to much Cluny -lace made in the Auvergne and to the Buckinghamshire "Maltese" lace. -Close to it are specimens of lace (figs. 58 and 59) made by the new -patent circular lace machine of Messrs Birkin of Nottingham. This -machine although very slow in production actually reproduces the real -lace, at a cost slightly below that of the hand-made lace. In another -branch of lace-making by machinery, mechanical ingenuity, combined with -chemical treatment, has led to surprising results (figs. 53 and 50). -Swiss, German and other manufacturers use machines in which a principle -of the sewing-machine is involved. A fine silken tissue is thereby -enriched with an elaborately raised cotton or thread embroidery. The -whole fabric is then treated with chemical mordants which, whilst -dissolving the silky web, do not attack the cotton or thread embroidery. -A relief embroidery possessing the appearance of hand-made raised -needlepoint lace is thus produced. Figs. 60 and 61 give some idea of -the high quality to which this admirable counterfeit has been brought. - -[Illustration: FIG. 59.--Specimens of Machine-made Torchon Lace, in the -same manner as such lace is made on the pillow by hand. (Nottingham, -20th century.)] - -[Illustration: FIG. 60.--Machine-made Lace of Modern Design.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 61.--Machine-made Lace in imitation of 17th-century -Needlepoint Lace, "Gros point de Venise."] - -Collections of hand-made lace chiefly exist in museums and technical -institutions, as for instance the Victoria and Albert Museum in London, -the Musee des Arts Decoratifs in Paris, and museums at Lyons, Nuremberg, -Berlin, Turin and elsewhere. In such places the opportunity is presented -of tracing in chronological sequence the stages of pattern and texture -development. - - _Literature._--The literature of the art of lace-making is - considerable. The series of 16th- and 17th-century lace pattern-books, - of which the more important are perhaps those by F. Vinciolo (Paris, - 1587), Cesare Vecellio (Venice, 1592), and Isabetta Catanea Parasole - (Venice, 1600), not to mention several kindred works of earlier and - later date published in Germany and the Netherlands, supplies a large - field for exploration. Signor Ongania of Venice published a limited - number of facsimiles of the majority of such works. M. Alvin of - Brussels issued a brochure in 1863 upon these patterns, and in the - same year the marquis Girolamo d'Adda contributed two bibliographical - essays upon the same subject to the _Gazette des Beaux-Arts_ (vol. xv. - p. 342 seq., and vol. xvii. p. 421 seq.). In 1864 Cavaliere A. Merli - wrote a pamphlet (with illustrations) entitled _Origine ed uso delle - trine a filo di rete_; Mons F. de Fertiault compiled a brief and - rather fanciful _Histoire de la dentelle_ in 1843, in which he - reproduced statements to be found in Diderot's _Encyclopedie_, - subsequently quoted by Roland de la Platiere. The first _Report of the - Department of Practical Art_ (1853) contains a "Report on Cotton - Print Works and Lace-Making" by Octavius Hudson, and in the first - _Report of the Department of Science and Art_ are some "Observations - on Lace." Reports upon the International Exhibitions of 1851 (London) - and 1867 (Paris), by M. Aubry, Mrs Palliser and others contain - information concerning lace-making. The most important work first - issued upon the history of lace-making is that by Mrs Bury Palliser - (_History of Lace_, 1869). In this work the history is treated rather - from an antiquarian than a technical point of view; and wardrobe - accounts, inventories, state papers, fashionable journals, diaries, - plays, poems, have been laid under contribution with surprising - diligence. A new edition published in 1902 presents the work as - entirely revised, rewritten and enlarged under the editorship of M. - Jourdain and Alice Dryden. In 1875 the Arundel Society brought out - _Ancient Needlepoint and Pillow Lace_, a folio volume of permanently - printed photographs taken from some of the finest specimens of ancient - lace collected for the International Exhibition of 1874. These were - accompanied by a brief history of lace, written from the technical - aspect of the art, by Alan S. Cole. At the same time appeared a bulky - imperial 4to volume by Seguin, entitled _La Dentelle_, illustrated - with wood-cuts and fifty photo-typographical plates. Seguin divides - his work into four sections. The first is devoted to a sketch of the - origin of laces; the second deals with pillow laces, bibliography of - lace and a review of sumptuary edicts; the third relates to - needle-made lace; and the fourth contains an account of places where - lace has been and is made, remarks upon commerce in lace, and upon the - industry of lace makers. Without sufficient conclusive evidence Seguin - accords to France the palm for having excelled in producing - practically all the richer sorts of laces, notwithstanding that both - before and since the publication of his otherwise valuable work, many - types of them have been identified as being Italian in origin. - Descriptive catalogues are issued of the lace collections at South - Kensington Museum, at the Science and Art Museum, Dublin, and at the - Industrial Museum, Nuremberg. In 1881 a series of four Cantor Lectures - on the art of lace-making were delivered before the Society of Arts by - Alan S. Cole. - - _A Technical History of the Manufacture of Venetian Laces_, by G. M. - Urbani de Gheltof, with plates, was translated by Lady Layard, and - published at Venice by Signor Ongania. The _History of Machine-wrought - Hosiery and Lace Manufacture_ (London, 1867), by Felkin, has already - been referred to. There is also a technological essay upon lace made - by machinery, with diagrams of lace stitches and patterns - (_Technologische Studien im sachsischen Erzgebirge_, Leipzig, 1878), - by Hugo Fischer. In 1886 the Libraire Renouard, Paris, published a - _History of Point d'Alencon_, written by Madame G. Despierres, which - gives a close and interesting account of the industry, together with a - list, compiled from local records, of makers and dealers from 1602 - onwards.--_Embroidery and Lace: their manufacture and history from the - remotest antiquity to the present day_, by Ernest Lefebure, lace-maker - and administrator of the Ecole des Arts Decoratifs, translated and - enlarged with notes by Alan S. Cole, was published in London in 1888. - It is a well-illustrated handbook for amateurs, collectors and general - readers.--Irish laces made from modern designs are illustrated in a - _Renascence of the Irish Art of Lace-making_, published in 1888 - (London).--_Anciennes Dentelles belges formant la collection de feue - madame Augusta Baronne Liedts et donnees au Musee de Grunthuis a - Bruges_, published at Antwerp in 1889, consists of a folio volume - containing upwards of 181 phototypes--many full size--of fine - specimens of lace. The ascriptions of country and date of origin are - occasionally inaccurate, on account of a too obvious desire to credit - Bruges with being the birthplace of all sorts of lace-work, much of - which shown in this work is distinctly Italian in style.--The - _Encyclopaedia of Needlework_, by Therese de Dillmont-Dornach (Alsace, - 1891), is a detailed guide to several kinds of embroidery, knitting, - crochet, tatting, netting and most of the essential stitches for - needlepoint lace. It is well illustrated with wood-cuts and process - blocks.--An exhaustive history of Russian lace-making is given in _La - Dentelle russe_, by Madame Sophie Davidoff, published at Leipzig, - 1895. Russian lace is principally pillow-work with rather heavy - thread, and upwards of eighty specimens are reproduced by - photo-lithography in this book. - - A short account of the best-known varieties of _Point and Pillow - Lace_, by A. M. S. (London, 1899), is illustrated with typical - specimens of Italian, Flemish, French and English laces, as well as - with magnified details of lace, enabling any one to identify the - plaits, the twists and loops of threads in the actual making of the - fabric.--_L'Industrie des tulles et dentelles mecaniques dans le - Pas de Calais_, 1815-1900, by Henri Henon (Paris, 1900), is an - important volume of over 600 pages of letterpress, interspersed with - abundant process blocks of the several kinds of machine nets and laces - made at Calais since 1815. It opens with a short account of the Arras - hand-made laces, the production of which is now almost extinct. The - book was sold for the benefit of a public subscription towards the - erection of a statue in Calais to Jacquard, the inventor of the - apparatus by means of which all figured textile fabrics are - manufactured. It is of some interest to note that machine net and - lace-making at Calais owe their origin to Englishmen, amongst whom "le - sieur R. Webster arrive a St Pierre-les-Calais en Decembre, 1816, - venant d'Angleterre, est l'un des premiers qui ont etabli dans la - communaute une fabrique de tulles," &c. _Lace-making in the Midlands: - Past and Present_, by C. C. Channer and M. E. Roberts (London, 1900) - upon the lace-making industry in Buckinghamshire, Bedfordshire and - Northamptonshire contains many illustrations of laces made in these - counties from the 17th century to the present time. _Musee - retrospectif. Dentelles a l'exposition universelle internationale de - 1900 a Paris. Rapport de Mons. E. Lefebvre_ contains several good - illustrations, especially of important specimens of Point de France of - the 17th and 18th centuries. _Le Point de France et les autres - dentelliers au XVII^e et au XVIII^e siecles_, by Madame Laurence de - Laprade (Paris, 1905), brings together much hitherto scattered - information throwing light upon operations in many localities in - France where the industry has been carried on for considerable - periods. The book is well and usefully illustrated. - - See also _Irische Spitzen_ (30 half-tone plates), with a short - historical introduction by Alan S. Cole (Stuttgart, 1902); _Pillow - Lace_, a practical handbook by Elizabeth Mincoff and Margaret S. - Marriage (London, 1907); _The Art of Bobbin Lace_, a practical - text-book of workmanship, &c., by Louisa Tebbs (London, 1907); - _Antiche trine italiane_, by Elisa Ricci (Bergamo, 1908), well - illustrated; _Seven Centuries of Lace_, by Mrs John Hungerford Pollen - (London and New York, 1908), very fully illustrated. (A. S. C.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] The prevalence of fashion in the above-mentioned sorts of - embroidery during the 16th century is marked by the number of - pattern-books then published. In Venice a work of this class was - issued by Alessandro Pagannino in 1527; another of a similar nature, - printed by Pierre Quinty, appeared in the same year at Cologne; and - La _Fleur de la science de pourtraicture et patrons de broderie, - facon arabicque et ytalique_, was published at Paris in 1530. From - these early dates until the beginning of the 17th century - pattern-books for embroidery in Italy, France, Germany and England - were published in great abundance. The designs contained in many of - those dating from the early 16th century were to be worked for - costumes and hangings, and consisted of scrolls, arabesques, birds, - animals, flowers, foliage, herbs and grasses. So far, however, as - their reproduction as laces might be concerned, the execution of - complicated work was involved which none but practised lace-workers, - such as those who arose a century later, could be expected to - undertake. - - [2] A very complete account of how these conditions began and - developed at Alencon, for instance, is given in Madame Despierre's - _Histoire du Point d'Alencon_ (1886) to which is appended an - interesting and annotated list of merchants, designers and makers of - Point d'Alencon. - - [3] _E.g._ The family of Camusat at Alencon from 1602 until 1795. - - [4] The picture, however, as Seguin has pointed out, was probably - painted some thirty years later, and by Jean Matsys. - - [5] See the poetical skit _Revolte des passements et broderies_, - written by Mademoiselle de la Tousse, cousin of Madame de Sevigne, in - the middle of the 17th century, which marks the favour which foreign - laces at that time commanded amongst the leaders of French fashion. - It is fairly evident too that the French laces themselves, known as - "bisette," "gueuse," "campane" and "mignonette," were small and - comparatively insignificant works, without pretence to design. - - [6] Useful information has been communicated to the writer of the - present article on lace by Mrs B. Wishaw of Seville. - - [7] See Felkin's _Machine-wrought Hosiery and Lace Manufactures_. - - [8] After 1650 the lace-workers at Alencon and its neighbourhood - produced work of a daintier kind than that which was being made by - the Venetians. As a rule the hexagonal _bride_ grounds of Alencon - laces are smaller than similar details in Venetian laces. The average - size of a diagonal taken from angle to angle in an Alencon (or - so-called Argentan) hexagon was about one-sixth of an inch, and each - side of the hexagon was about one-tenth of an inch. An idea of the - minuteness of the work can be formed from the fact that a side of a - hexagon would be overcast with some nine or ten buttonhole stitches. - - - - -LACE-BARK TREE, a native of Jamaica, known botanically as _Lagetta -lintearia_, from its native name lagetto. The inner bark consists of -numerous concentric layers of interlacing fibres resembling in -appearance lace. Collars and other articles of apparel have been made of -the fibre, which is also used in the manufacture of whips, &c. The tree -belongs to the natural order Thymelaeaceae, and is grown in hothouses in -Britain. - - - - -LACEDAEMON, in historical times an alternative name of LACONIA (q.v.). -Homer uses only the former, and in some passages seems to denote by it -the Achaean citadel, the Therapnae of later times, in contrast to the -lower town Sparta (G. Gilbert, _Studien zur altspartanischen -Geschichte_, Gottingen, 1872, p. 34 foll.). It is described by the -epithets [Greek: koile] (hollow) and [Greek: ketoessa] (spacious or -hollow), and is probably connected etymologically with [Greek: lakkos], -_lacus_, any hollow place. Lacedaemon is now the name of a separate -department, which had in 1907 a population of 87,106. - - - - -LACEPEDE, BERNARD GERMAIN ETIENNE DE LA VILLE, COMTE DE (1756-1825), -French naturalist, was born at Agen in Guienne on the 26th of December -1756. His education was carefully conducted by his father, and the early -perusal of Buffon's _Natural History_ awakened his interest in that -branch of study, which absorbed his chief attention. His leisure he -devoted to music, in which, besides becoming a good performer on the -piano and organ, he acquired considerable mastery of composition, two of -his operas (which were never published) meeting with the high approval -of Gluck; in 1781-1785 he also brought out in two volumes his _Poetique -de la musique_. Meantime he wrote two treaties, _Essai sur -l'electricite_ (1781) and _Physique generale et particuliere_ -(1782-1784), which gained him the friendship of Buffon, who in 1785 -appointed him subdemonstrator in the Jardin du Roi, and proposed to him -to become the continuator of his _Histoire naturelle_. This continuation -was published under the titles _Histoire des quadrupedes ovipares et des -serpents_ (2 vols., 1788-1789) and _Histoire naturelle des reptiles_ -(1789). After the Revolution Lacepede became a member of the legislative -assembly, but during the Reign of Terror he left Paris, his life having -become endangered by his disapproval of the massacres. When the Jardin -du Roi was reorganized as the Jardin des Plantes, Lacepede was appointed -to the chair allocated to the study of reptiles and fishes. In 1798 he -published the first volume of _Histoire naturelle des poissons_, the -fifth volume appearing in 1803; and in 1804 appeared his _Histoire des -cetaces_. From this period till his death the part he took in politics -prevented him making any further contribution of importance to science. -In 1799 he became a senator, in 1801 president of the senate, in 1803 -grand chancellor of the legion of honour, in 1804 minister of state, and -at the Restoration in 1819 he was created a peer of France. He died at -Epinay on the 6th of October 1825. During the latter part of his life he -wrote _Histoire generale physique et civile de l'Europe_, published -posthumously in 18 vols., 1826. - - A collected edition of his works on natural history was published in - 1826. - - - - -LACEWING-FLY, the name given to neuropterous insects of the families -_Hemerobiidae_ and _Chrysopidae_, related to the ant-lions, -scorpion-flies, &c., with long filiform antennae, longish bodies and two -pairs of large similar richly veined wings. The larvae are short grubs -beset with hair-tufts and tubercles. They feed upon _Aphidae_ or "green -fly" and cover themselves with the emptied skins of their prey. -Lacewing-flies of the genus _Chrysopa_ are commonly called golden-eye -flies. - - - - -LA CHAISE, FRANCOIS DE (1624-1709), father confessor of Louis XIV., was -born at the chateau of Aix in Forey on the 25th of August 1624, being -the son of Georges d'Aix, seigneur de la Chaise, and of Renee de -Rochefort. On his mother's side he was a grandnephew of Pere Coton, the -confessor of Henry IV. He became a novice of the Society of Jesus before -completing his studies at the university of Lyons, where, after taking -the final vows, he lectured on philosophy to students attracted by his -fame from all parts of France. Through the influence of Camille de -Villeroy, archbishop of Lyons, Pere de la Chaise was nominated in 1674 -confessor of Louis XIV., who intrusted him during the lifetime of Harlay -de Champvallon, archbishop of Paris, with the administration of the -ecclesiastical patronage of the crown. The confessor united his -influence with that of Madame de Maintenon to induce the king to abandon -his liaison with Madame de Montespan. More than once at Easter he is -said to have had a convenient illness which dispensed him from granting -absolution to Louis XIV. With the fall of Madame de Montespan and the -ascendancy of Madame de Maintenon his influence vastly increased. The -marriage between Louis XIV. and Madame de Maintenon was celebrated in -his presence at Versailles, but there is no reason for supposing that -the subsequent coolness between him and Madame de Maintenon arose from -his insistence on secrecy in this matter. During the long strife over -the temporalities of the Gallican Church between Louis XIV. and Innocent -XI. Pere de la Chaise supported the royal prerogative, though he used -his influence at Rome to conciliate the papal authorities. He must be -held largely responsible for the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, but -not for the brutal measures applied against the Protestants. He -exercised a moderating influence on Louis XIV.'s zeal against the -Jansenists, and Saint-Simon, who was opposed to him in most matters, -does full justice to his humane and honourable character. Pere de la -Chaise had a lasting and unalterable affection for Fenelon, which -remained unchanged by the papal condemnation of the _Maximes_. In spite -of failing faculties he continued his duties as confessor to Louis XIV. -to the end of his long life. He died on the 20th of January 1709. The -cemetery of Pere-la-Chaise in Paris stands on property acquired by the -Jesuits in 1826, and not, as is often stated, on property personally -granted to him. - - See R. Chantelauze, _Le Pere de la Chaize. Etudes d'histoire - religieuse_ (Paris and Lyons, 1859). - - - - -LA CHAISE-DIEU, a town of central France, in the department of Haute -Loire, 29 m. N.N.W. of Le Puy by rail. Pop. (1906) 1203. The town, which -is situated among fir and pine woods, 3500 ft. above the sea, preserves -remains of its ramparts and some houses of the 14th and 15th centuries, -but owes its celebrity to a church, which, after the cathedral of -Clermont-Ferrand, is the most remarkable Gothic building in Auvergne. -The west facade, approached by a flight of steps, is flanked by two -massive towers. The nave and aisles are of equal height and are -separated from the choir by a stone rood screen. The choir, terminating -in an apse with radiating chapel, contains the fine tomb and statue of -Clement VI., carved stalls and some admirable Flemish tapestries of the -early 16th century. There is a ruined cloister on the south side. The -church, which dates from the 14th century, was built at the expense of -Pope Clement VI., and belonged to a powerful Benedictine abbey founded -in 1043. There are spacious monastic buildings of the 18th century. The -abbey was formerly defended by fortifications, the chief survival of -which is a lofty rectangular keep to the south of the choir. Trade in -timber and the making of lace chiefly occupy the inhabitants of the -town. - - - - -LA CHALOTAIS, LOUIS RENE DE CARADEUC DE (1701-1785), French jurist, was -born at Rennes, on the 6th of March 1701. He was for 60 years procureur -general at the parliament of Brittany. He was an ardent opponent of the -Jesuits; drew up in 1761 for the parliament a memoir on the -constitutions of the Order, which did much to secure its suppression in -France; and in 1763 published a remarkable "Essay on National -Education," in which he proposed a programme of scientific studies as a -substitute for those taught by the Jesuits. The same year began the -conflict between the Estates of Brittany and the governor of the -province, the duc d'Aiguillon (q.v.). The Estates refused to vote the -extraordinary imposts demanded by the governor in the name of the king. -La Chalotais was the personal enemy of d'Aiguillon, who had served him -an ill turn with the king, and when the parliament of Brittany sided -with the Estates, he took the lead in its opposition. The parliament -forbade by decrees the levy of imposts to which the Estates had not -consented. The king annulling these decrees, all the members of the -parliament but twelve resigned (October 1764 to May 1765). The -government considered La Chalotais one of the authors of this affair. At -this time the secretary of state who administered the affairs of the -province, Louis Philypeaux, duc de la Vrilliere, comte de -Saint-Florentin (1705-1777), received two anonymous and abusive letters. -La Chalotais was suspected of having written them, and three experts in -handwriting declared that they were by him. The government therefore -arrested him, his son and four other members of the parliament. The -arrest made a great sensation. There was much talk of "despotism." -Voltaire stated that the procureur general, in his prison of Saint Malo, -was reduced, for lack of ink, to write his defence with a toothpick -dipped in vinegar--which was apparently pure legend; but public opinion -all over France was strongly aroused against the government. On the 16th -of November 1765 a commission of judges was named to take charge of the -trial. La Chalotais maintained that the trial was illegal; being -procureur general he claimed the right to be judged by the parliament of -Rennes, or failing this by the parliament of Bordeaux, according to the -custom of the province. The judges did not dare to pronounce a -condemnation on the evidence of experts in handwriting, and at the end -of a year, things remained where they were at the first. Louis XV. then -decided on a sovereign act, and brought the affair before his council, -which without further formality decided to send the accused into exile. -That expedient but increased the popular agitation; _philosophes_, -members of the parliament, patriot Bretons and Jansenists all declared -that La Chalotais was the victim of the personal hatred of the duc -d'Aiguillon and of the Jesuits. The government at last gave way, and -consented to recall the members of the parliament of Brittany who had -resigned. This parliament, when it met again, after the formal -accusation of the duc d'Aiguillon, demanded the recall of La Chalotais. -This was accorded in 1775, and La Chalotais was allowed to transmit his -office to his son. In this affair public opinion showed itself stronger -than the absolutism of the king. The opposition to the royal power -gained largely through it, and it may be regarded as one of the preludes -to the revolution of 1789. La Chalotais, who was personally a violent, -haughty and unsympathetic character, died at Rennes on the 12th of July -1785. - - See, besides the _Comptes-Rendus des Constitutions des Jesuites_ and - the _Essai d'education nationale_, the _Memoires de la Chalotais_ (3 - vols., 1766-1767). Two works containing detailed bibliographies are - Marion, _La Bretagne et le duc d'Aiguillon_ (Paris, 1893), and B. - Pocquet, _Le Duc d'Aiguillon et La Chalotais_ (Paris, 1901). See also - a controversy between these two authors in the _Bulletin critique_ for - 1902. - - - - -LA CHARITE, a town of central France in the department of Nievre, on the -right bank of the Loire, 17 m. N.N.W. of Nevers on the -Paris-Lyon-Mediterranee railway. Pop. (1906) 3990. La Charite possesses -the remains of a fine Romanesque basilica, the church of Sainte-Croix, -dating from the 11th and early 12th centuries. The plan consists of a -nave, rebuilt at the end of the 17th century, transept and choir with -ambulatory and side chapels. Surmounting the transept is an octagonal -tower of one story, and a square Romanesque tower of much beauty flanks -the main portal. There are ruins of the ramparts, which date from the -14th century. The manufacture of hosiery, boots and shoes, files and -iron goods, lime and cement and woollen and other fabrics are among the -industries; trade is chiefly in wood and iron. - - La Charite owes its celebrity to its priory, which was founded in the - 8th century and reorganized as a dependency of the abbey of Cluny in - 1052. It became the parent of many priories and monasteries, some of - them in England and Italy. The possession of the town was hotly - contested during the wars of religion of the 16th century, at the end - of which its fortifications were dismantled. - - - - -LA CHAUSSEE, PIERRE CLAUDE NIVELLE DE (1692-1754), French dramatist, was -born in Paris in 1692. In 1731 he published an _Epitre a Clio_, a -didactic poem in defence of Leriget de la Faye in his dispute with -Antoine Houdart de la Motte, who had maintained that verse was useless -in tragedy. La Chaussee was forty years old before he produced his first -play, _La Fausse Antipathie_ (1734). His second play, _Le Prejuge a la -mode_ (1735) turns on the fear of incurring ridicule felt by a man in -love with his own wife, a prejudice dispelled in France, according to La -Harpe, by La Chaussee's comedy. _L'Ecole des amis_ (1737) followed, and, -after an unsuccessful attempt at tragedy in _Maximinien_, he returned to -comedy in _Melanide_ (1741). In _Melanide_ the type known as _comedie -larmoyante_ is fully developed. Comedy was no longer to provoke -laughter, but tears. The innovation consisted in destroying the sharp -distinction then existing between tragedy and comedy in French -literature. Indications of this change had been already offered in the -work of Marivaux, and La Chaussee's plays led naturally to the domestic -drama of Diderot and of Sedaine. The new method found bitter enemies. -Alexis Piron nicknames the author "_le Reverend Pere Chaussee_," and -ridiculed him in one of his most famous epigrams. Voltaire maintained -that the _comedie larmoyante_ was a proof of the inability of the author -to produce either of the recognized kinds of drama, though he himself -produced a play of similar character in _L'Enfant prodigue_. The -hostility of the critics did not prevent the public from shedding tears -nightly over the sorrows of La Chaussee's heroine. _L'Ecole des meres_ -(1744) and _La Gouvernante_ (1747) form, with those already mentioned, -the best of his work. The strict moral aims pursued by La Chaussee in -his plays seem hardly consistent with his private preferences. He -frequented the same gay society as did the comte de Caylus and -contributed to the _Recueils de ces messieurs_. La Chaussee died on the -14th of May 1754. Villemain said of his style that he wrote prosaic -verses with purity, while Voltaire, usually an adverse critic of his -work, said he was "_un des premiers apres ceux qui ont du genie_." - - For the _comedie larmoyante_ see G. Lanson, _Nivelle de la Chaussee et - la comedie larmoyante_ (1887). - - - - -LACHES (from Anglo-French _lachesse_, negligence, from _lasche_, modern -_lache_, unloosed, slack), a term for slackness or negligence, used -particularly in law to signify negligence on the part of a person in -doing that which he is by law bound to do, or unreasonable lapse of time -in asserting a right, seeking relief, or claiming a privilege. Laches is -frequently a bar to a remedy which might have been had if prosecuted in -proper time. Statutes of limitation specify the time within which -various classes of actions may be brought. Apart from statutes of -limitation courts of equity will often refuse relief to those who have -allowed unreasonable time to elapse in seeking it, on the principle -_vigilantibus ac non dormientibus jura subveniunt_. - - - - -LACHINE, an incorporated town in Jacques Cartier county, Quebec, Canada, -8 m. W. of Montreal, on Lake St Louis, an expansion of the St Lawrence -river, and at the upper end of the Lachine canal. Pop. (1901) 5561. It -is a station on the Grand Trunk railway and a port of call for steamers -plying between Montreal and the Great Lakes. It is a favourite summer -resort for the people of Montreal. It was named in 1669 in mockery of -its then owner, Robert Cavelier de la Salle (1643-1687), who dreamed of -a westward passage to China. In 1689 it was the scene of a terrible -massacre of the French by the Iroquois. - - - - -LACHISH, a town of great importance in S. Palestine, often mentioned in -the Tell el-Amarna tablets. It was destroyed by Joshua for joining the -league against the Gibeonites (Joshua x. 31-33) and assigned to the -tribe of Judah (xv. 39). Rehoboam fortified it (2 Chron. xi. 9). King -Amaziah having fled hither, was here murdered by conspirators (2 Kings -xiv. 19). Sennacherib here conducted a campaign (2 Kings xviii. 13) -during which Hezekiah endeavoured to make terms with him: the campaign -is commemorated by bas-reliefs found in Nineveh, now in the British -Museum (see G. Smith's _History of Sennacherib_, p. 69). It was one of -the last cities that resisted Nebuchadnezzar (Jer. xxxiv. 7). The -meaning of Micah's denunciation (i. 13) of the city is unknown. The -_Onomasticon_ places it 7 m. from Eleutheropolis on the S. road, which -agrees with the generally received identification, Tell el-Hesi, an -important mound excavated for the Palestine Exploration Fund by Petrie -and Bliss, 1890-1893. The name is preserved in a small Roman site in the -neighbourhood, Umm Lakis, which probably represents a later -dwelling-place of the descendants of the ancient inhabitants of the -city. - - See W. M. Flinders Petrie, _Tell el-Hesy_, and F. J. Bliss, _A Mound - of many Cities_, both published by the Palestine Exploration Fund. - (R. A. S. M.) - - - - -LACHMANN, KARL KONRAD FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1793-1851), German philologist -and critic, was born at Brunswick on the 4th of March 1793. He studied at -Leipzig and Gottingen, devoting himself mainly to philological studies. -In 1815 he joined the Prussian army as a volunteer _chasseur_ and -accompanied his detachment to Paris, but did not encounter the enemy. In -1816 he became an assistant master in the Friedrich Werder gymnasium at -Berlin, and a _privat-docent_ at the university. The same summer he -became one of the principal masters in the Friedrichs-Gymnasium of -Konigsberg, where he assisted his colleague, the Germanist Friedrich Karl -Kopke (1785-1865) with his edition of Rudolf von Ems' _Barlaam und -Josaphat_ (1818), and also assisted his friend in a contemplated edition -of the works of Walther von der Vogelweide. In January 1818 he became -professor extraordinarius of classical philology in the university of -Konigsberg, and at the same time began to lecture on Old German grammar -and the Middle High German poets. He devoted himself during the following -seven years to an extraordinarily minute study of those subjects, and in -1824 obtained leave of absence in order that he might search the -libraries of middle and south Germany for further materials. In 1825 -Lachmann was nominated extraordinary professor of classical and German -philology in the university of Berlin (ordinary professor 1827); and in -1830 he was admitted a member of the Academy of Sciences. The remainder -of his laborious and fruitful life as an author and a teacher was -uneventful. He died on the 13th of March 1851. - - Lachmann, who was the translator of the first volume of P. E. Muller's - _Sagabibliothek des skandinavischen Altertums_ (1816), is a figure of - considerable importance in the history of German philology (see Rudolf - von Raumer, _Geschichte der germanischen Philologie_, 1870). In his - "Habilitationsschrift" _Uber die ursprungliche Gestalt des Gedichts - der Nibelunge Not_ (1816), and still more in his review of Hagen's - _Nibelungen_ and Benecke's _Bonerius_, contributed in 1817 to the - _Jenaische Literaturzeitung_ he had already laid down the rules of - textual criticism and elucidated the phonetic and metrical principles - of Middle High German in a manner which marked a distinct advance in - that branch of investigation. The rigidly scientific character of his - method becomes increasingly apparent in the _Auswahl aus den - hochdeutschen Dichtern des dreizehnten Jahrhunderts_ (1820), in the - edition of Hartmann's _Iwein_ (1827), in those of Walther von der - Vogelweide (1827) and Wolfram von Eschenbach (1833), in the papers - "Uber das Hildebrandslied," "Uber althochdeutsche Betonung und - Verskunst," "Uber den Eingang des Parzivals," and "Uber drei - Bruchstucke niederrheinischer Gedichte" published in the - _Abhandlungen_ of the Berlin Academy, and in _Der Nibelunge Not und - die Klage_ (1826, 11th ed., 1892), which was followed by a critical - commentary in 1836. Lachmann's _Betrachtungen uber Homer's Ilias_, - first published in the _Abhandlungen_ of the Berlin Academy in 1837 - and 1841, in which he sought to show that the _Iliad_ consists of - sixteen independent "lays" variously enlarged and interpolated, have - had considerable influence on modern Homeric criticism (see HOMER), - although his views are no longer accepted. His smaller edition of the - New Testament appeared in 1831, 3rd ed. 1846; the larger, in two - volumes, in 1842-1850. The plan of Lachmann's edition, explained by - himself in the _Stud. u. Krit._ of 1830, is a modification of the - unaccomplished project of Bentley. It seeks to restore the most - ancient reading current in Eastern MSS., using the consent of the - Latin authorities (Old Latin and Greek Western Uncials) as the main - proof of antiquity of a reading where the oldest Eastern authorities - differ. Besides _Propertius_ (1816), Lachmann edited _Catullus_ - (1829); _Tibullus_ (1829); _Genesius_ (1834); _Terentianus Maurus_ - (1836); _Babrius_ (1845); _Avianus_ (1845); _Gaius_ (1841-1842); the - _Agrimensores Romani_ (1848-1852); _Lucilius_ (edited after his death - by Vahlen, 1876); and _Lucretius_ (1850). The last, which was the main - occupation of the closing years of his life, from 1845, was perhaps - his greatest achievement, and has been characterized by Munro as "a - work which will be a landmark for scholars as long as the Latin - language continues to be studied." Lachmann also translated - Shakespeare's sonnets (1820) and _Macbeth_ (1829). - - See M. Hertz, _Karl Lachmann, eine Biographie_ (1851), where a full - list of Lachmann's works is given; F. Leo, _Rede zur Sacularfeier K. - Lachmanns_ (1893); J. Grimm, biography in _Kleine Schriften_; W. - Scherer in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, xvii., and J. E. Sandys, - _Hist. of Classical Scholarship_, iii. (1908), pp. 127-131. - - - - -LACINIUM, PROMUNTURIUM (mod. Capo delle Colonne), 7 m S.E. of Crotona -(mod. Cotrone); the easternmost point of Bruttii (mod. Calabria). On the -cape still stands a single column of the temple erected to Hera Lacinia, -which is said to have been fairly complete in the 16th century, but to -have been destroyed to build the episcopal palace at Cotrone. It is a -Doric column with capital, about 27 ft. in height. Remains of marble -roof-tiles have been seen on the spot (Livy xlii. 3) and architectural -fragments were excavated in 1886-1887 by the Archaeological Institute of -America. The sculptures found were mostly buried again, but a few -fragments, some decorative terra-cottas and a dedicatory inscription to -Hera of the 6th century B.C., in private possession at Cotrone, are -described by F. von Duhn in _Notizie degli scavi_, 1897, 343 seq. The -date of the erection of the temple may be given as 480-440 B.C.; it is -not recorded by any ancient writer. - - See R. Koldewey and O. Puchstein, _Die griechischen Tempel in - Unteritalien und Sicilien_ (Berlin 1899, 41). - - - - -LA CIOTAT, a coast town of south-eastern France in the department of -Bouches-du-Rhone, on the west shore of the Bay of La Ciotat, 26 m. S.E. -of Marseilles by rail. Pop. (1906) 10,562. The port is easily accessible -and well sheltered. The large shipbuilding yards and repairing docks of -the Messageries Maritimes Company give employment to between 2000 and -3000 workmen. Fishing and an active coasting trade are carried on; the -town is frequented for sea-bathing. La Ciotat was in ancient times the -port of the neighbouring town of _Citharista_ (now the village of -Ceyreste). - - - - -LA CLOCHE, JAMES DE ["Prince James Stuart"] (1644?-1669), a character -who was brought into the history of England by Lord Acton in 1862 (_Home -and Foreign Review_, i. 146-174: "The Secret History of Charles II."). -From information discovered by Father Boero in the archives of the -Jesuits in Rome, Lord Acton averred that Charles II., when a lad at -Jersey, had a natural son, James. The evidence follows. On the 2nd of -April 1668, as the register of the Jesuit House of Novices at Rome -attests, "there entered Jacobus de la Cloche." His baggage was exiguous, -his attire was clerical. He is described as "from the island of Jersey, -under the king of England, aged 24." He possessed two documents in -French, purporting to have been written by Charles II. at Whitehall, on -the 25th of September 1665, and on the 7th of February 1667. In both -Charles acknowledges James to be his natural son, he styles him "James -de la Cloche de Bourg du Jersey," and avers that to recognize him -publicly "would imperil the peace of the kingdoms"--why is not apparent. -A third certificate of birth, in Latin, undated, was from Christina of -Sweden, who declares that James, previously a Protestant, has been -received into the church of Rome at Hamburg (where in 1667-1668 she was -residing) on the 29th of July 1667. The next paper purports to be a -letter from Charles II. of August 3/13 to Oliva, general of the Jesuits. -The king writes, in French, that he has long wished to be secretly -received into the church. He therefore desires that James, his son by a -young lady "of the highest quality," and born to him when he was about -sixteen, should be ordained a priest, come to England and receive him. -Charles alludes to previous attempts of his own to be secretly admitted -(1662). James must be sent secretly to London at once, and Oliva must -say nothing to Christina of Sweden (then meditating a journey to Rome), -and must never write to Charles except when James carries the letter. -Charles next writes on August 29/September 9. He is most anxious that -Christina should not meet James; if she knows Charles's design of -changing his creed she will not keep it secret, and Charles will -infallibly lose his life. With this letter there is another, written -when the first had been sealed. Charles insists that James must not be -accompanied, as novices were, when travelling, by a Jesuit socius or -guardian. Charles's wife and mother have just heard that this is the -rule, but the rule must be broken. James, who is to travel as "Henri de -Rohan," must not come by way of France. Oliva will supply him with -funds. On the back of this letter Oliva has written the draft of his -brief reply to Charles (from Leghorn, October 14, 1668). He merely says -that the bearer, a French gentleman (James spoke only French), will -inform the king that his orders have been executed. Besides these two -letters is one from Charles to James, of date August 4/14. It is -addressed to "Le Prince Stuart," though none of Charles's bastards was -allowed to bear the Stuart name. James is told that he may desert the -clerical profession if he pleases. In that case "you may claim higher -titles from us than the duke of Monmouth." (There was no higher title -save prince of Wales!) If Charles and his brother, the duke of York, die -childless, "the kingdoms belong to you, and parliament cannot legally -oppose you, unless as, at present, they can only elect Protestant -kings." This letter ought to have opened the eyes of Lord Acton and -other historians who accept the myth of James de la Cloche. Charles knew -that the crown of England was not elective, that there was no Exclusion -Act, and that there were legal heirs if he and his brother died without -issue. The last letter of Charles is dated November 18/28, and purports -to have been brought from England to Oliva by James de la Cloche on his -return to Rome. It reveals the fact that Oliva, despite Charles's -orders, did send James by way of France, with a _socius_ or guardian -whom he was to pick up in France on his return to England. Charles says -that James is to communicate certain matters to Oliva, and come back at -once. Oliva is to give James all the money he needs, and Charles will -later make an ample donation to the Jesuits. He acknowledges a debt to -Oliva of L800, to be paid in six months. The reader will remark that the -king has never paid a penny to James or to Oliva, and that Oliva has -never communicated directly with Charles. The truth is that all of -Charles's letters are forgeries. This is certain because in all he -writes frequently as if his mother, Henrietta Maria, were in London, and -constantly in company with him. Now she had left England for France in -1665, and to England she never returned. As the letters--including that -to "Prince Stuart"--are all forged, it is clear that de la Cloche was an -impostor. His aim had been to get money from Oliva, and to pretend to -travel to England, meaning to enjoy himself. He did not quite succeed, -for Oliva sent a socius with him into France. His precautions to avoid a -meeting with Christina of Sweden were necessary. She knew no more of him -than did Charles, and would have exposed him. - -The name of James de la Cloche appears no more in documents. He reached -Rome in December 1668, and in January a person calling himself "Prince -James Stuart" appears in Naples, accompanied by a _socius_ styling -himself a French knight of Malta. Both are on their way to England, but -Prince James falls ill and stays in Naples, while his companion departs. -The knight of Malta may be a Jesuit. In Naples, Prince James marries a -girl of no position, and is arrested on suspicion of being a coiner. To -his confessors (he had two in succession) he says that he is a son of -Charles II. Our sources are the despatches of Kent, the English agent at -Naples, and the _Lettere_, vol. iii., of Vincenzo Armanni (1674), who -had his information from one of the confessors of the "Prince." The -viceroy of Naples communicated with Charles II., who disowned the -impostor; Prince James, however, was released, and died at Naples in -August 1669, leaving a wild will, in which he claims for his son, still -unborn, the "apanage" of Monmouth or Wales, "which it is usual to bestow -on natural sons of the king." The son lived till about 1750, a penniless -pretender, and writer of begging letters. - -It is needless to pursue Lord Acton's conjectures about later mysterious -appearances of James de la Cloche at the court of Charles, or to discuss -the legend that his mother was a lady of Jersey--or a sister of Charles! -The Jersey myths may be found in _The Man of the Mask_ (1908), by -Monsignor Barnes, who argued that James was the man in the iron mask -(see IRON MASK). Later Monsignor Barnes, who had observed that the -letter of Charles to Prince James Stuart is a forgery, noticed the -impossibility that Charles, in 1668, should constantly write of his -mother as resident in London, which she left for ever in 1665. - -Who de la Cloche really was it is impossible to discover, but he was a -bold and successful swindler, who took in, not only the general of the -Jesuits, but Lord Acton and a generation of guileless historians. - (A. L.) - - - - -LA CONDAMINE, CHARLES MARIE DE (1701-1774), French geographer and -mathematician, was born at Paris on the 28th of January 1701. He was -trained for the military profession, but turned his attention to science -and geographical exploration. After taking part in a scientific -expedition in the Levant (1731), he became a member with Louis Godin and -Pierre Bouguer of the expedition sent to Peru in 1735 to determine the -length of a degree of the meridian in the neighbourhood of the equator. -His associations with his principals were unhappy; the expedition was -beset by many difficulties, and finally La Condamine separated from the -rest and made his way from Quito down the Amazon, ultimately reaching -Cayenne. His was the first scientific exploration of the Amazon. He -returned to Paris in 1744 and published the results of his measurements -and travels with a map of the Amazon in _Mem. de l'academie des -sciences_, 1745 (English translation 1745-1747). On a visit to Rome La -Condamine made careful measurements of the ancient buildings with a view -to a precise determination of the length of the Roman foot. The journal -of his voyage to South America was published in Paris in 1751. He also -wrote in favour of inoculation, and on various other subjects, mainly -connected with his work in South America. He died at Paris on the 4th of -February 1774. - - - - -LACONIA (Gr. [Greek: Lakonike]), the ancient name of the south-eastern -district of the Peloponnese, of which Sparta was the capital. It has an -area of some 1,048,000 acres, slightly greater than that of -Somersetshire, and consists of three well-marked zones running N. and S. -The valley of the Eurotas, which occupies the centre, is bounded W. by -the chain of Taygetus (mod. Pentedaktylon, 7900 ft.), which starts from -the Arcadian mountains on the N., and at its southern extremity forms -the promontory of Taenarum (Cape Matapan). The eastern portion of -Laconia consists of a far more broken range of hill country, rising in -Mt. Parnon to a height of 6365 ft. and terminating in the headland of -Malea. The range of Taygetus is well watered and was in ancient times -covered with forests which afforded excellent hunting to the Spartans, -while it had also large iron mines and quarries of an inferior bluish -marble, as well as of the famous _rosso antico_ of Taenarum. Far poorer -are the slopes of Parnon, consisting for the most part of barren -limestone uplands scantily watered. The Eurotas valley, however, is -fertile, and produces at the present day maize, olives, oranges and -mulberries in great abundance. Laconia has no rivers of importance -except the Eurotas and its largest tributary the Oenus (mod. Kelefina). -The coast, especially on the east, is rugged and dangerous. Laconia has -few good harbours, nor are there any islands lying off its shores with -the exception of Cythera (Cerigo), S. of Cape Malea. The most important -towns, besides Sparta and Gythium, were Bryseae, Amyclae and Pharis in -the Eurotas plain, Pellana and Belbina on the upper Eurotas, Sellasia on -the Oenus, Caryae on the Arcadian frontier, Prasiae, Zarax and Epidaurus -Limera on the east coast, Geronthrae on the slopes of Parnon, Boeae, -Asopus, Helos, Las and Teuthrone on the Laconian Gulf, and Hippola, -Messa and Oetylus on the Messenian Gulf. - -The earliest inhabitants of Laconia, according to tradition, were the -autochthonous Leleges (q.v.). Minyan immigrants then settled at various -places on the coast and even appear to have penetrated into the interior -and to have founded Amyclae. Phoenician traders, too, visited the shores -of the Laconian Gulf, and there are indications of trade at a very early -period between Laconia and Crete, e.g. a number of blocks of green -Laconian porphyry from the quarries at Croceae have been found in the -palace of Minos at Cnossus. In the Homeric poems Laconia appears as the -realm of an Achaean prince, Menelaus, whose capital was perhaps Therapne -on the left bank of the Eurotas, S.E. of Sparta; the Achaean conquerors, -however, probably contented themselves with a suzerainty over Laconia -and part of Messenia (q.v.) and were too few to occupy the whole land. -The Achaean kingdom fell before the incoming Dorians, and throughout the -classical period the history of Laconia is that of its capital Sparta -(q.v.). In 195 B.C. the Laconian coast towns were freed from Spartan -rule by the Roman general T. Quinctius Flamininus, and became members of -the Achaean League. When this was dissolved in 146 B.C., they remained -independent under the title of the "Confederation of the Lacedaemonians" -or "of the Free-Laconians" ([Greek: koinon ton Lakedaimonion] or [Greek: -Eleutherolakonon]), the supreme officer of which was a [Greek: -strategos] (general) assisted by a [Greek: tamias] (treasurer). Augustus -seems to have reorganized the league in some way, for Pausanias (iii. -21, 6) speaks of him as its founder. Of the twenty-four cities which -originally composed the league, only eighteen remained as members by the -reign of Hadrian (see ACHAEAN LEAGUE). In A.D. 395 a Gothic horde under -Alaric devastated Laconia, and subsequently it was overrun by large -bands of Slavic immigrants. Throughout the middle ages it was the scene -of vigorous struggles between Slavs, Byzantines, Franks, Turks and -Venetians, the chief memorials of which are the ruined strongholds of -Mistra near Sparta, Geraki (anc. Geronthrae) and Monemvasia, "the -Gibraltar of Greece," on the east coast, and Passava near Gythium. A -prominent part in the War of Independence was played by the Maniates or -Mainotes, the inhabitants of the rugged peninsula formed by the southern -part of Taygetus. They had all along maintained a virtual independence -of the Turks and until quite recently retained their medieval customs, -living in fortified towers and practising the vendetta or blood-feud. - -The district has been divided into two departments (nomes), Lacedaemon -and Laconia, with their capitals at Sparta and Gythium respectively. -Pop. of Laconia (1907) 61,522. - -_Archaeology._--Until 1904 archaeological research in Laconia was -carried on only sporadically. Besides the excavations undertaken at -Sparta, Gythium and Vaphio (q.v.), the most important were those at the -Apollo sanctuary of Amyclae carried out by C. Tsountas in 1890 ([Greek: -Ephem. archaiol.] 1892, 1 ff.) and in 1904 by A. Furtwangler. At Kampos, -on the western side of Taygetus, a small domed tomb of the "Mycenean" -age was excavated in 1890 and yielded two leaden statuettes of great -interest, while at Arkina a similar tomb of poor construction was -unearthed in the previous year. Important inscriptions were found at -Geronthrae (Geraki), notably five long fragments of the _Edictum -Diocletiani_, and elsewhere. In 1904 the British Archaeological school -at Athens undertook a systematic investigation of the ancient and -medieval remains in Laconia. The results, of which the most important -are summarized in the article SPARTA, are published in the British -School _Annual_, x. ff. The acropolis of Geronthrae, a hero-shrine at -Angelona in the south-eastern highlands, and the sanctuary of -Ino-Pasiphae at Thalamae have also been investigated. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Besides the Greek histories and many of the works cited - under SPARTA, see W. M. Leake, _Travels in the Morea_ (London, 1830), - cc. iv.-viii., xxii., xxiii.; E. Curtius, _Peloponnesos_ (Gotha, - 1852), ii. 203 ff.; C. Bursian, _Geographie von Griechenland_ - (Leipzig, 1868), ii. 102 ff.; Strabo viii. 5; Pausanias iii. and the - commentary in J. G. Frazer, _Pausanias's Description of Greece_ - (London, 1898), vol. iii.; W. G. Clark, _Peloponnesus_ (London, 1858), - 155 ff.; E. P. Boblaye, _Recherches geographiques sur les ruines de la - Moree_ (Paris, 1835), 65 ff.; L. Ross, _Reisen im Peloponnes_ (Berlin, - 1841), 158 ff.; W. Vischer, _Erinnerungen u. Eindrucke aus - Griechenland_ (Basel, 1857), 360 ff.; J. B. G. M. Bory de - Saint-Vincent, _Relation du voyage de l'expedition scientifique de - Moree_ (Paris, 1836), cc. 9, 10; G. A. Blouet, _Expedition - scientifique de Moree_ (Paris, 1831-1838), ii. 58 ff.; A. Philippson, - _Der Peloponnes_ (Berlin, 1892), 155 ff.; _Annual_ of British School - at Athens, 1907-8. - - _Inscriptions_: Le Bas-Foucart, _Voyage archeologique: Inscriptions_, - Nos. 160-290; _Inscriptiones Graecae_, v.; _Corpus Inscriptionum - Graecarum_ (Berlin, 1828), Nos. 1237-1510; Collitz-Bechtel, _Sammlung - der griech. Dialektinschriften_, iii. 2 (Gottingen, 1898), Nos. - 4400-4613. _Coins: Catalogue of Greek Coins in the British Museum: - Peloponnesus_ (London, 1887), xlvi. ff., 121 ff.; B. V. Head, - _Historia Numorum_ (Oxford, 1887), 363 ff. _Cults_: S. Wide, - _Lakonische Kulte_ (Leipzig, 1893). _Ancient roads_: W. Loring, "Some - Ancient Routes in the Peloponnese" in _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, - xv. 25 ff. (M. N. T.) - - - - -LACONIA, a city and the county-seat of Belknap county, New Hampshire, -U.S.A., on both sides of the Winnepesaukee river, 28 m. N.N.E. of -Concord. Pop. (1900) 8042 (1770 foreign-born); (1910) 10,183. Laconia is -served by two divisions of the Boston & Maine railway, which has a very -handsome granite passenger station (1892) and repair shops here. It is -pleasantly situated in the lake district of central New Hampshire, and -in the summer season Lake Winnisquam on the S. and W. and Lake -Winnepesaukee on the N.E. attract many visitors. The city covers an area -of 24.65 sq. m. (5.47 sq. m. annexed since 1890). Within the city -limits, and about 6 m. from its centre, are the grounds of the -Winnepesaukee Camp-Meeting Association, and the camping place for the -annual reunions of the New Hampshire Veterans of the Civil War, both at -The Weirs, the northernmost point in the territory claimed by colonial -Massachusetts; about 2 m. from the centre of Laconia is Lakeport (pop. -1900, 2137), which, like The Weirs, is a summer resort and a ward in the -city of Laconia. Among the public institutions are the State School for -Feeble-minded Children, a cottage hospital and the Laconia Public -Library, lodged in the Gale Memorial Library building (1903). Another -fine building is the Congregational Church (1906). The New Hampshire -State Fish Hatchery is in Laconia. Water-power is furnished by the -river. In 1905 Laconia ranked first among the cities of the state in the -manufacture of hosiery and knit goods, and the value of these products -for the year was 48.4% of the total value of the city's factory product; -among its other manufactures are yarn, knitting machines, needles, -sashes and blinds, axles, paper boxes, boats, gas and gasolene engines, -and freight, passenger and electric cars. The total value of the factory -products increased from $2,152,379 in 1900 to $3,096,878 in 1905, or -43.9%. The portion of the city N. of the river, formerly known as -Meredith Bridge, was set apart from the township of Meredith and -incorporated as a township under the name of Laconia in 1855; a section -S. of the river was taken from the township of Gilford in 1874; and -Lakeport was added in 1893, when Laconia was chartered as a city. The -same Laconia was first applied in New England to the region granted in -1629 to Mason and Gorges (see MASON, JOHN). - - - - -LACONICUM (i.e. Spartan, _sc. balneum_, bath), the dry sweating room of -the Roman thermae, contiguous to the caldarium or hot room. The name was -given to it as being the only form of warm bath that the Spartans -admitted. The laconicum was usually a circular room with niches in the -axes of the diagonals and was covered by a conical roof with a circular -opening at the top, according to Vitruvius (v. 10), "from which a -brazen shield is suspended by chains, capable of being so lowered and -raised as to regulate the temperature." The walls of the laconicum were -plastered with marble stucco and polished, and the conical roof covered -with plaster and painted blue with gold stars. Sometimes, as in the old -baths at Pompeii, the laconicum was provided in an apse at one end of -the caldarium, but as a rule it was a separate room raised to a higher -temperature and had no bath in it. In addition to the hypocaust under -the floor the wall was lined with flue tiles. The largest laconicum, -about 75 ft. in diameter, was that built by Agrippa in his thermae on -the south side of the Pantheon, and is referred to by Cassius (liii. -23), who states that, in addition to other works, "he constructed the -hot bath chamber which he called the Laconicum Gymnasium." All traces of -this building are lost; but in the additions made to the thermae of -Agrippa by Septimius Severus another laconicum was built farther south, -portions of which still exist in the so-called Arco di Giambella. - - - - -LACORDAIRE, JEAN BAPTISTE HENRI (1802-1861), French ecclesiastic and -orator, was born at Recey-sur-Ource, Cote d'Or, on the 12th of March -1802. He was the second of a family of four, the eldest of whom, Jean -Theodore (1801-1870), travelled a great deal in his youth, and was -afterwards professor of comparative anatomy at Liege. For several years -Lacordaire studied at Dijon, showing a marked talent for rhetoric; this -led him to the pursuit of law, and in the local debates of the advocates -he attained a high celebrity. At Paris he thought of going on the stage, -but was induced to finish his legal training and began to practise as an -advocate (1817-1824). Meanwhile Lamennais had published his _Essai sur -l'Indifference_,--a passionate plea for Christianity and in particular -for Roman Catholicism as necessary for the social progress of mankind. -Lacordaire read, and his ardent and believing nature, weary of the -theological negations of the Encyclopaedists, was convinced. In 1823 he -became a theological student at the seminary of Saint Sulpice; four -years later he was ordained and became almoner of the college Henri IV. -He was called from it to co-operate with Lamennais in the editorship of -_L'Avenir_, a journal established to advocate the union of the -democratic principle with ultramontanism. Lacordaire strove to show that -Catholicism was not bound up with the idea of dynasty, and definitely -allied it with a well-defined liberty, equality and fraternity. But the -new propagandism was denounced from Rome in an encyclical. In the -meantime Lacordaire and Montalembert, believing that, under the charter -of 1830, they were entitled to liberty of instruction, opened an -independent free school. It was closed in two days, and the teachers -fined before the court of peers. These reverses Lacordaire accepted with -quiet dignity; but they brought his relationship with Lamennais to a -close. He now began the course of Christian _conferences_ at the College -Stanislas, which attracted the art and intellect of Paris; thence he -went to Notre Dame, and for two years his sermons were the delight of -the capital. His presence was dignified, his voice capable of indefinite -modulation, and his gestures animated and attractive. He still preached -the gospel of the people's sovereignty in civil life and the pope's -supremacy in religion, but brought to his propagandism the full -resources of a mind familiar with philosophy, history and literature, -and indeed led the reaction against Voltairean scepticism. He was asked -to edit the _Univers_, and to take a chair in the university of Louvain, -but he declined both appointments, and in 1838 set out for Rome, -revolving a great scheme for christianizing France by restoring the old -order of St Dominic. At Rome he donned the habit of the preaching friar -and joined the monastery of Minerva. His _Memoire pour le retablissement -en France de l'ordre des freres precheurs_ was then prepared and -dedicated to his country; at the same time he collected the materials -for the life of St Dominic. When he returned to France in 1841 he -resumed his preaching at Notre Dame, but he had small success in -re-establishing the order of which he ever afterwards called himself -monk. His funeral orations are the most notable in their kind of any -delivered during his time, those devoted to Marshal Drouet and Daniel -O'Connell being especially marked by point and clearness. He next -thought that his presence in the National Assembly would be of use to -his cause; but being rebuked by his ecclesiastical superiors for -declaring himself a republican, he resigned his seat ten days after his -election. In 1850 he went back to Rome and was made provincial of the -order, and for four years laboured to make the Dominicans a religious -power. In 1854 he retired to Sorreze to become director of a private -lyceum, and remained there until he died on the 22nd of November 1861. -He had been elected to the Academy in the preceding year. - - The best edition of Lacordaire's works is the _Oeuvres completes_ (6 - vols., Paris, 1872-1873), published by C. Poussielgue, which contains, - besides the _Conferences_, the exquisitely written, but uncritical, - Vie de Saint Dominique and the beautiful _Lettres a un jeune homme sur - la vie chretienne_. For a complete list of his published - correspondence see L. Petit de Julleville's _Histoire de la langue et - de la litterature francaise_, vii. 598. - - The authoritative biography is by Ch. Foisset (2 vols., Paris, 1870). - The religious aspect of his character is best shown in Pere B. - Chocarne's _Vie du Pere Lacordaire_ (2 vols., Paris, 1866--English - translation by A. Th. Drane, London, 1868); see also Count C. F. R. de - Montalembert's _Un Moine au XIX^(eme) siecle_ (Paris, 1862--English - translation by F. Aylward, London, 1867). There are lives by Mrs H. L. - Lear (London, 1882); by A. Ricard (1 vol. of _L'Ecole menaisienne_, - Paris, 1883); by Comte O. d'Haussonville (1 vol., _Les Grands - ecrivains Francais_ series, Paris, 1897); by Gabriel Ledos (Paris, - 1901); by Dora Greenwell (1867); and by the duc de Broglie (Paris, - 1889). The _Correspondance inedite du Pere Lacordaire_, edited by H. - Villard (Paris, 1870), may also be consulted. See also Saint-Beuve in - _Causeries de Lundi_. Several of Lacordaire's _Conferences_ have been - translated into English, among these being, _Jesus Christ_ (1869); - _God_ (1870); _God and Man_ (1872); _Life_ (1875). For a theological - study of the _Conferences de Notre Dame_, see an article by Bishop J. - C. Hedley in _Dublin Review_ (October 1870). - - - - -LACQUER, or LACKER, a general term for coloured and frequently opaque -varnishes applied to certain metallic objects and to wood. The term is -derived from the resin lac, which substance is the basis of lacquers -properly so called. Technically, among Western nations, lacquering is -restricted to the coating of polished metals or metallic surfaces, such -as brass, pewter and tin, with prepared varnishes which will give them a -golden, bronze-like or other lustre as desired. Throughout the East -Indies the lacquering of wooden surfaces is universally practised, large -articles of household furniture, as well as small boxes, trays, toys and -papier-mache objects, being decorated with bright-coloured and -variegated lacquer. The lacquer used in the East is, in general, -variously coloured sealing-wax, applied, smoothed and polished in a -heated condition; and by various devices intricate marbled, streaked and -mottled designs are produced. Quite distinct from these, and from all -other forms of lacquer, is the lacquer work of Japan, for which see -JAPAN, S _Art_. - - - - -LACRETELLE, PIERRE LOUIS DE (1751-1824), French politician and writer, -was born at Metz on the 9th of October 1751. He practised as a barrister -in Paris; and under the Revolution was elected as a _depute suppleant_ -in the Constituent Assembly, and later as deputy in the Legislative -Assembly. He belonged to the moderate party known as the "Feuillants," -but after the 10th of August 1792 he ceased to take part in public life. -In 1803 he became a member of the Institute, taking the place of La -Harpe. Under the Restoration he was one of the chief editors of the -_Minerve francaise_; he wrote also an essay, _Sur le 18 Brumaire_ -(1799), some _Fragments politiques et litteraires_ (1817), and a -treatise _Des partis politiques et des factions de la pretendue -aristocratie d'aujourd'hui_ (1819). - -His younger brother, JEAN CHARLES DOMINIQUE DE LACRETELLE, called -Lacretelle _le jeune_ (1766-1855), historian and journalist, was also -born at Metz on the 3rd of September 1766. He was called to Paris by his -brother in 1787, and during the Revolution belonged, like him, to the -party of the _Feuillants_. He was for some time secretary to the duc de -la Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, the celebrated philanthropist, and -afterwards joined the staff of the _Journal de Paris_, then managed by -Suard, and where he had as colleagues Andre Chenier and Antoine Roucher. -He made no attempt to hide his monarchist sympathies, and this, together -with the way in which he reported the trial and death of Louis XVI., -brought him in peril of his life; to avoid this danger he enlisted in -the army, but after Thermidor he returned to Paris and to his newspaper -work. He was involved in the royalist movement of the 13th Vendemiaire, -and condemned to deportation after the 18th Fructidor; but, thanks to -powerful influence, he was left "forgotten" in prison till after the -18th Brumaire, when he was set at liberty by Fouche. Under the Empire he -was appointed a professor of history in the _Faculte des lettres_ of -Paris (1809), and elected as a member of the Academie francaise (1811). -In 1827 he was prime mover in the protest made by the French Academy -against the minister Peyronnet's law on the press, which led to the -failure of that measure, but this step cost him, as it did Villemain, -his post as _censeur royal_. Under Louis Philippe he devoted himself -entirely to his teaching and literary work. In 1848 he retired to Macon; -but there, as in Paris, he was the centre of a brilliant circle, for he -was a wonderful causeur, and an equally good listener, and had many -interesting experiences to recall. He died on the 26th of March 1855. -His son Pierre Henri (1815-1899) was a humorous writer and politician of -purely contemporary interest. - - J. C. Lacretelle's chief work is a series of histories of the 18th - century, the Revolution and its sequel: _Precis historique de la - Revolution francaise_, appended to the history of Rabaud St Etienne, - and partly written in the prison of La Force (5 vols., 1801-1806); - _Histoire de France pendant le XVIII^e siecle_ (6 vols., 1808); - _Histoire de l'Assemblee Constituante_ (2 vols., 1821); _L'Assemblee - Legislative_ (1822); _La Convention Nationale_ (3 vols., 1824-1825); - _Histoire de France depuis la restauration_ (1829-1835); _Histoire du - consulat et de l'empire_ (4 vols., 1846). The author was a moderate - and fair-minded man, but possessed neither great powers of style, nor - striking historical insight, nor the special historian's power of - writing minute accuracy of detail with breadth of view. Carlyle's - sarcastic remark on Lacretelle's history of the Revolution, that it - "exists, but does not profit much," is partly true of all his books. - He had been an eyewitness of and an actor in the events which he - describes, but his testimony must be accepted with caution. - - - - -LACROIX, ANTOINE FRANCOIS ALFRED (1863- ), French mineralogist and -geologist, was born at Macon, Saone et Loire, on the 4th of February -1863. He took the degree of D. es Sc. in Paris, 1889. In 1893 he was -appointed professor of mineralogy at the _Jardin des Plantes_, Paris, -and in 1896 director of the mineralogical laboratory in the _Ecole des -Hautes Etudes_. He paid especial attention to minerals connected with -volcanic phenomena and igneous rocks, to the effects of metamorphism, -and to mineral veins, in various parts of the world, notably in the -Pyrenees. In his numerous contributions to scientific journals he dealt -with the mineralogy and petrology of Madagascar, and published an -elaborate and exhaustive volume on the eruptions in Martinique, _La -Montagne Pelee et ses eruptions_ (1904). He also issued an important -work entitled _Mineralogie de la France et de ses Colonies_ (1893-1898), -and other works in conjunction with A. Michel Levy. He was elected -member of the Academie des sciences in 1904. - - - - -LACROIX, PAUL (1806-1884), French author and journalist, was born in -Paris on the 27th of April 1806, the son of a novelist. He is best known -under his pseudonym of P. L. Jacob, _bibliophile_, or "Bibliophile -Jacob," suggested by the constant interest he took in public libraries -and books generally. Lacroix was an extremely prolific and varied -writer. Over twenty historical romances alone came from his pen, and he -also wrote a variety of serious historical works, including a history of -Napoleon III., and the life and times of the Tsar Nicholas I. of Russia. -He was the joint author with Ferdinand Sere of a five-volume work, _Le -Moyen Age et La Renaissance_ (1847), a standard work on the manners, -customs and dress of those times, the chief merit of which lies in the -great number of illustrations it contains. He also wrote many monographs -on phases of the history of culture. Over the signature Pierre Dufour -was published an exhaustive _Histoire de la Prostitution_ (1851-1852), -which has always been attributed to Lacroix. His works on bibliography -were also extremely numerous. In 1885 he was appointed librarian of the -Arsenal Library, Paris. He died in Paris on the 16th of October 1884. - - - - -LACROMA (Serbo-Croatian _Lokrum_), a small island in the Adriatic Sea, -forming part of the Austrian kingdom of Dalmatia, and lying less than -half a mile south of Ragusa. Though barely 1(1/4) m. in length, Lacroma -is remarkable for the beauty of its subtropical vegetation. It was a -favourite resort of the archduke Maximilian, afterwards emperor of -Mexico (1832-1867), who restored the chateau and park; and of the -Austrian crown prince Rudolph (1857-1889). It contains an 11th-century -Benedictine monastery; and the remains of a church, said by a very -doubtful local tradition to have been founded by Richard I. of England -(1157-1199), form part of the imperial chateau. - - See _Lacroma_, an illustrated descriptive work by the crown princess - Stephanie (afterwards Countess Lonyay) (Vienna, 1892). - - - - -LA CROSSE, a city and the county-seat of La Crosse county, Wisconsin, -U.S.A., about 180 m. W.N.W. of Milwaukee, and about 120 m. S.E. of St -Paul, Minnesota, on the E. bank of the Mississippi river, at the mouth -of the Black and of the La Crosse rivers. Pop. (1900) 28,895; (1910 -census) 30,417. Of the total population in 1900, 7222 were foreign-born, -3130 being German and 2023 Norwegian, and 17,555 were of -foreign-parentage (both parents foreign-born), including 7853 of German -parentage, 4422 of Norwegian parentage, and 1062 of Bohemian parentage. -La Crosse is served by the Chicago & North Western, the Chicago, -Milwaukee & St Paul, the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the La Crosse & -South Eastern, and the Green Bay & Western railways, and by river -steamboat lines on the Mississippi. The river is crossed here by a -railway bridge (C.M. & St P.) and wagon bridge. The city is situated on -a prairie, extending back from the river about 2(1/2) m. to bluffs, from -which fine views may be obtained. Among the city's buildings and -institutions are the Federal Building (1886-1887), the County Court -House (1902-1903), the Public Library (with more than 20,000 volumes), -the City Hall (1891), the High School Building (1905-1906), the St -Francis, La Crosse and Lutheran hospitals, a Young Men's Christian -Association Building, a Young Women's Christian Association Building, a -U.S. Weather Station (1907), and a U.S. Fish Station (1905). La Crosse -is the seat of a state Normal School (1909). Among the city's parks are -Pettibone (an island in the Mississippi), Riverside, Burns, Fair Ground -and Myrick. The city is the see of a Roman Catholic bishop. La Crosse is -an important lumber and grain market, and is the principal wholesale -distributing centre for a large territory in S.W. Wisconsin, N. Iowa and -Minnesota. Proximity to both pine and hardwood forests early made it one -of the most important lumber manufacturing places in the North-west; but -this industry has now been displaced by other manufactures. The city has -grain elevators, flour mills (the value of flour and grist mill products -in 1905 was $2,166,116), and breweries (product value in 1905, -$1,440,659). Other important manufactures are agricultural implements -($542,425 in 1905), lumber and planing mill products, leather, woollen, -knit and rubber goods, tobacco, cigars and cigarettes, carriages, -foundry and machine-shop products, copper and iron products, cooperage, -pearl buttons, brooms and brushes. The total value of the factory -product in 1905 was $8,139,432, as against $7,676,581 in 1900. The city -owns and operates its water-works system, the wagon bridge (1890-1891) -across the Mississippi, and a toll road (2(1/2) m. long) to the village -of La Crescent, Minn. - -Father Hennepin and du Lhut visited or passed the site of La Crosse as -early as 1680, but it is possible that adventurous _coureurs-des-bois_ -preceded them. The first permanent settlement was made in 1841, and La -Crosse was made the county-seat in 1855 and was chartered as a city in -1856. - - - - -LACROSSE, the national ball game of Canada. It derives its name from the -resemblance of its chief implement used, the curved netted stick, to a -bishop's crozier. It was borrowed from the Indian tribes of North -America. In the old days, according to Catlin, the warriors of two -tribes in their war-paint would form the sides, often 800 or 1000 -strong. The goals were placed from 500 yds. to 1/2 m. apart with -practically no side boundaries. A solemn dance preceded the game, after -which the ball was tossed into the air and the two sides rushed to catch -it on "crosses," similar to those now in use. The medicine-men acted as -umpires, and the squaws urged on the men by beating them with switches. -The game attracted much attention from the early French settlers in -Canada. In 1763, after Canada had become British, the game was used by -the aborigines to carry out an ingenious piece of treachery. On the 4th -of June, when the garrison of Fort Michilimackinac (now Mackinac) was -celebrating the king's birthday, it was invited by the Ottawas, under -their chief Pontiac, to witness a game of "baggataway" (lacrosse). The -players gradually worked their way close to the gates, when, throwing -aside their crosses and seizing their tomahawks which the squaws -suddenly produced from under their blankets, they rushed into the fort -and massacred all the inmates except a few Frenchmen. - -The game found favour among the British settlers, but it was not until -1867, the year in which Canada became a Dominion, that G. W. Beers, a -prominent player, suggested that Lacrosse should be recognized as the -national game, and the National Lacrosse Association of Canada was -formed. From that time the game has flourished vigorously in Canada and -to a less extent in the United States. In 1868 an English Lacrosse -Association was formed, but, although a team of Indians visited the -United Kingdom in 1867, it was not until sometime later that the game -became at all popular in Great Britain. Its progress was much encouraged -by visits of teams representing the Toronto Lacrosse Club in 1888 and -1902, the methods of the Canadians and their wonderful "short-passing" -exciting much admiration. In 1907 the Capitals of Ottawa visited -England, playing six matches, all of which were won by the Canadians. -The match North v. South has been played annually in England since 1882. -A county championship was inaugurated in 1905. A North of England -League, embracing ten clubs, began playing league matches in 1897; and a -match between the universities of Oxford and Cambridge has been played -annually since 1903. A match between England and Ireland was played -annually from 1881 to 1904. - -[Illustration: The Crosse.] - - _Implements of the Game._--The ball is made of india-rubber sponge, - weighs between 4(1/4) and 4(1/2) oz., and measures 8 to 8(1/2) in. in - circumference. The "crosse" is formed of a light staff of hickory - wood, the top being bent to form a kind of hook, from the tip of which - a thong is drawn and made fast to the shaft about 2 ft. from the other - end. The oval triangle thus formed is covered with a network of gut or - rawhide, loose enough to hold the ball but not to form a bag. At no - part must the crosse measure more than 12 in. in breadth, and no metal - must be used in its manufacture. It may be of any length to suit the - player. The goals are set up not less than 100 nor more than 150 yds. - apart, the goal-posts being 6 ft. high and the same distance apart. - They are set up in the middle of the "goal-crease," a space of 12 ft. - square marked with chalk. A net extends from the top rail and sides of - the posts back to a point 6 ft. behind the middle of the line between - the posts. Boundaries are agreed upon by the captains. Shoes may have - india-rubber soles, but must be without spikes. - - _The Game._--The object of the game is to send the ball, by means of - the crosse, through the enemy's goal-posts as many times as possible - during the two periods of play, precisely as in football and hockey. - There are twelve players of each side. In every position save that of - goal there are two men, one of each side, whose duties are to "mark" - and neutralize each other's efforts. The game is opened by the act of - "facing," in which the two centres, each with his left shoulder - towards his opponents' goal, hold their crosses, wood downwards, on - the ground, the ball being placed between them. When the signal is - given the centres draw their crosses sharply inwards in order to gain - possession of the ball. The ball may be kicked or struck with the - crosse, as at hockey, but the goal-keeper alone may handle it, and - then only to block and not to throw it. Although the ball may be - thrown with the crosse for a long distance--220 yds. is about the - limit--long throws are seldom tried, it being generally more - advantageous for a player to run with the ball resting on the crosse, - until he can pass it to a member of his side who proceeds with the - attack, either by running, passing to another, or trying to throw the - ball through the opponents' goal. The crosse, usually held in both - hands, is made to retain the ball by an ingenious rocking motion only - acquired by practice. As there is no "off-side" in Lacrosse, a player - may pass the ball to the front, side or rear. No charging is allowed, - but one player may interfere with another by standing directly in - front of him ("body-check"), though without holding, tripping or - striking with the crosse. No one may interfere with a player who is - not in possession of the ball. Fouls are penalized either by the - suspension of the offender until a goal has been scored or until the - end of the game; or by allowing the side offended against a "free - position." When a "free position" is awarded each player must stand in - the position where he is, excepting the goal-keeper who may get back - to his goal, and any opponent who may be nearer the player getting the - ball than 5 yds.; this player must retire to that distance from the - one who has been given the "free position," who then proceeds with the - game as he likes when the referee says "play." This penalty may not be - carried out nearer than 10 yds. from the goal. If the ball crosses a - boundary the referee calls "stand," and all players stop where they - are, the ball being then "faced" not less than 4 yds. within the - boundary line by the two nearest players. - - See the official publications of the English Lacrosse Union; and - _Lacrosse_ by W. C. Schmeisser, in Spalding's "Athletic Library." Also - _Manners, Customs and Condition of the North American Indians_, by - George Catlin. - - - - -LA CRUZ, RAMON DE (1731-1794), Spanish dramatist, was born at Madrid on -the 28th of March 1731. He was a clerk in the ministry of finance, and -is the author of three hundred _sainetes_, little farcical sketches of -city life, written to be played between the acts of a longer play. He -published a selection in ten volumes (Madrid, 1786-1791), and died on -the 5th of March 1794. The best of his pieces, such as _Las Tertulias de -Madrid_, are delightful specimens of satiric observation. - - See E. Cotardo y Mori, _Don Ramon de la Cruz y sus obras_ (Madrid, - 1899); C. Cambronero, _Sainetes inedites existentes en la Biblioteca - Municipal de Madrid_ (Madrid, 1900). - - - - -LACRYMATORY (from Lat. _lacrima_, a tear), a class of small vessels of -terra-cotta, or, more frequently, of glass, found in Roman and late -Greek tombs, and supposed to have been bottles into which mourners -dropped their tears. They contained unguents, and to the use of unguents -at funeral ceremonies the finding of so many of these vessels in tombs -is due. They are shaped like a spindle, or a flask with a long small -neck and a body in the form of a bulb. - - - - -LACTANTIUS FIRMIANUS (c. 260-c. 340), also called Lucius Caelius (or -Caecilius) Lactantius Firmianus, was a Christian writer who from the -beauty of his style has been called the "Christian Cicero." His history -is very obscure. He was born of heathen parents in Africa about 260, and -became a pupil of Arnobius, whom he far excelled in style though his -knowledge of the Scriptures was equally slight. About 290 he went to -Nicomedia in Bithynia while Diocletian was emperor, to teach rhetoric, -but found little work to do in that Greek-speaking city. In middle age -he became a convert to Christianity, and about 306 he went to Gaul -(Treves) on the invitation of Constantine the Great, and became tutor to -his eldest son, Crispus. He probably died about 340. - -Lactantius' chief work, _Divinarum Institutionum Libri Septem_, is an -"apology" for and an introduction to Christianity, written in exquisite -Latin, but displaying such ignorance as to have incurred the charge of -favouring the Arian and Manichaean heresies. It seems to have been begun -in Nicomedia about 304 and finished in Gaul before 311. Two long -eulogistic addresses and most of the brief apostrophes to the emperor -are from a later hand, which has added some dualistic touches. The seven -books of the institutions have separate titles given to them either by -the author or by a later editor. The first, _De Falsa Religione_, and -the second, _De Origine Erroris_, attack the polytheism of heathendom, -show the unity of the God of creation and providence, and try to explain -how men have been corrupted by demons. The third book, _De Falsa -Sapientia_, describes and criticizes the various systems of prevalent -philosophy. The fourth book, _De Vera Sapientia et Religione_, insists -upon the inseparable union of true wisdom and true religion, and -maintains that this union is made real in the person of Christ. The -fifth book, _De Justitia_, maintains that true righteousness is not to -be found apart from Christianity, and that it springs from piety which -consists in the knowledge of God. The sixth book, _De Vero Cultu_, -describes the true worship of God, which is righteousness, and consists -chiefly in the exercise of Christian love towards God and man. The -seventh book, _De Vita Beata_, discusses, among a variety of subjects, -the chief good, immortality, the second advent and the resurrection. -Jerome states that Lactantius wrote an epitome of these _Institutions_, -and such a work, which may well be authentic, was discovered in MS. in -the royal library at Turin in 1711 by C. M. Pfaff. - -Besides the _Institutions_ Lactantius wrote several treatises: (1) _De -Ira Dei_, addressed to one Donatus and directed against the Epicurean -philosophy. (2) _De Opificio Dei sive de Formatione Hominis_, his -earliest work, and one which reveals very little Christian influence. He -exhorts a former pupil, Demetrianus, not to be led astray by wealth from -virtue; and he demonstrates the providence of God from the adaptability -and beauty of the human body. (3) A celebrated incendiary treatise, _De -Mortibus Persecutorum_, which describes God's judgments on the -persecutors of his church from Nero to Diocletian, and has served as a -model for numberless writings. _De Mort. Persecut._ is not in the -earlier editions of Lactantius; it was discovered and printed by Baluze -in 1679. Many critics ascribe it to an unknown Lucius Caecilius; there -are certainly serious differences of grammar, style and temper between -it and the writings already mentioned. It was probably composed in -Nicomedia, c. 315. Jerome speaks of Lactantius as a poet, and several -poems have been attributed to him:--_De Ave Phoenice_ (which Harnack -thinks makes use of 1 Clement), _De Passione Domini_ and _De -Resurrectione (Domini)_ or _De Pascha ad Felicem Episcopum_. The first -of these may belong to Lactantius's heathen days, the second is a -product of the Renaissance (c. 1500), the third was written by Venantius -Fortunatus in the 6th century. - - Editions: O. F. Fritzsche in E. G. Gersdorf's _Bibl. patr. eccl._ x., - xi. (Leipzig, 1842-1844); Migne, _Patr. Lat._ vi., vii.; S. Brandt and - G. Laubmann in the Vienna _Corpus Script. Eccles. Lat._ xix., xxvii. 1 - and 2 (1890-93-97). Translation: W. Fletcher in _Ante-Nicene Fathers_, - vii. Literature: the German histories of early Christian literature, - by A. Harnack, O. Bardenhewer, A. Ebert, A. Ehrhard, G. Kruger's - _Early Chr. Lit._ p. 307 and Hauck-Herzog's R_ealencyk._ vol. xi., - give guides to the copious literature on the subject. - - - - -LACTIC ACID (hydroxypropionic acid), C3H6O3. Two lactic acids are known, -differing from each other in the position occupied by the hydroxyl group -in the molecule; they are known respectively as [alpha]-hydroxypropionic -acid (fermentation or inactive lactic acid), CH3.CH(OH).CO2H, and -[beta]-hydroxypropionic acid (hydracrylic acid), (q.v.), -CH2(OH).CH2.CO2H. Although on structural grounds there should be only -two hydroxypropionic acids, as a matter of fact four lactic acids are -known. The third isomer (sarcolactic acid) is found in meat extract (J. -v. Liebig), and may be prepared by the action of _Penicillium glaucum_ -on a solution of ordinary ammonium lactate. It is identical with -[alpha]-hydroxypropionic acid in almost every respect, except with -regard to its physical properties. The fourth isomer, formed by the -action of _Bacillus laevo-lacti_ on cane-sugar, resembles sarcolactic -acid in every respect, except in its action on polarized light (see -STEREOISOMERISM). - - _Fermentation_, or _ethylidene lactic acid_, was isolated by K. W. - Scheele (_Trans. Stockholm Acad._ 1780) from sour milk (Lat. _lac_, - _lactis_, milk, whence the name). About twenty-four years later - Bouillon Lagrange, and independently A. F. de Fourcroy and L. N. - Vauquelin, maintained that Scheele's new acid was nothing but impure - acetic acid. This notion was combated by J. Berzelius, and finally - refuted (in 1832) by J. v. Liebig and E. Mitscherlich, who, by the - elementary analyses of lactates, proved the existence of this acid as - a distinct compound. It may be prepared by the lactic fermentation of - starches, sugars, gums, &c., the sugar being dissolved in water and - acidified by a small quantity of tartaric acid and then fermented by - the addition of sour milk, with a little putrid cheese. Zinc carbonate - is added to the mixture (to neutralize the acid formed), which is kept - warm for some days and well stirred. On boiling and filtering the - product, zinc lactate crystallizes out of the solution. The acid may - also be synthesized by the decomposition of alanine - ([alpha]-aminopropionic acid) by nitrous acid (K. Strecker, _Ann._, - 1850, 75, p. 27); by the oxidation of propylene glycol (A. Wurtz); by - boiling [alpha]-chlorpropionic acid with caustic alkalis, or with - silver oxide and water; by the reduction of pyruvic acid with sodium - amalgam; or from acetaldehyde by the cyanhydrin reaction (J. - Wislicenus, _Ann._, 1863, 128, p. 13) - - CH3.CHO --> CH3.CH(OH).CN --> CH3.CH(OH).CO2H. - - It forms a colourless syrup, of specific gravity 1.2485 (15 deg./4 - deg.), and decomposes on distillation under ordinary atmospheric - pressure; but at very low pressures (about 1 mm.) it distils at about - 85 deg. C., and then sets to a crystalline solid, which melts at about - 18 deg. C. It possesses the properties both of an acid and of an - alcohol. When heated with dilute sulphuric acid to 130 deg. C., under - pressure, it is resolved into formic acid and acetaldehyde. Chromic - acid oxidizes it to acetic acid and carbon dioxide; potassium - permanganate oxidizes it to pyruvic acid; nitric acid to oxalic acid, - and a mixture of manganese dioxide and sulphuric acid to acetaldehyde - and carbon dioxide. Hydrobromic acid converts it into - [alpha]-brompropionic acid, and hydriodic acid into propionic acid. - - CH(CH3).CO - / \ - _Lactide_, O O, - \ / - CO.CH(CH3) - - a crystalline solid, of melting-point 124 deg. C., is one of the - products obtained by the distillation of lactic acid. - - - - -LACTONES, the cyclic esters of hydroxy acids, resulting from the -internal elimination of water between the hydroxyl and carboxyl groups, -this reaction taking place when the hydroxy acid is liberated from its -salts by a mineral acid. The [alpha] and [beta]-hydroxy acids do not -form lactones, the tendency for lactone formation appearing first with -the [gamma]-hydroxy acids, thus [gamma]-hydroxybutyric acid, -CH2OH.CH2.CH2.CO2H, yields [gamma]-butyrolactone, - - +--------------+ - | | - CH2.CH2.CH2.CO.O. - -These compounds may also be prepared by the distillation of the -[gamma]-halogen fatty acids, or by the action of alkaline carbonates on -these acids, or from [beta][gamma]- or [gamma][delta]-unsaturated acids -by digestion with hydrobromic acid or dilute sulphuric acid. The -lactones are mostly liquids which are readily soluble in alcohol, ether -and water. On boiling with water, they are partially reconverted into -the hydroxy acids. They are easily saponified by the caustic alkalis. - - On the behaviour of lactones with ammonia, see H. Meyer, - _Monatshefte_, 1899, 20, p. 717; and with phenylhydrazine and - hydrazine hydrate, see R. Meyer, _Ber._, 1893, 26, p. 1273; L. - Gattermann, _Ber._, 1899, 32, p. 1133, E. Fischer, Ber., 1889, 22, p. - 1889. - - [gamma]-_Butyrolactone_ is a liquid which boils at 206 deg. C. It is - miscible with water in all proportions and is volatile in steam, - [gamma]-_valerolactone_, - - +-----------------+ - | | - CH3.CH.CH2.CH2.CO.O, - - is a liquid which boils at 207-208 deg. C. [delta]-_lactones_ are also - known, and may be prepared by distilling the [delta]-chlor acids. - - - - -LA CUEVA, JUAN DE (1550?-1609?), Spanish dramatist and poet, was born at -Seville, and towards 1579 began writing for the stage. His plays, -fourteen in number, were published in 1588, and are the earliest -manifestations of the dramatic methods developed by Lope de Vega. -Abandoning the Senecan model hitherto universal in Spain, Cueva took for -his themes matters of national legend, historic tradition, recent -victories and the actualities of contemporary life: this amalgam of -epical and realistic elements, and the introduction of a great variety -of metres, prepared the way for the Spanish romantic drama of the 17th -century. A peculiar interest attaches to _El Infamador_, a play in which -the character of Leucino anticipates the classic type of Don Juan. As an -initiative force, Cueva is a figure of great historical importance; his -epic poem, _La Conquista de Betica_ (1603), shows his weakness as an -artist. The last work to which his name is attached is the _Ejemplar -poetico_ (1609), and he is believed to have died shortly after its -publication. - - See the editions of _Saco de Roma_ and _El Infamador_, by E. de Ochoa, - in the _Tesoro del teatro espanol_ (Paris, 1838), vol. i. pp. 251-285; - and of _Ejemplar poetico_, by J. J. Lopez de Sedano, in the _Parnaso - espanol_, vol. viii. pp. 1-68; also E. Walberg, "Juan de la Cueva et - son Ejemplar poetico" in the _Acta Universitatis Lundensis_ (Lund, - 1904), vol. xxix.; "Poemes inedits de Juan de la Cueva (Viaje de - Sannio,)" edited by F. A. Wulff, in the _Acta Universitatis Lundensis_ - (Lund, 1886-1887), vol. xxiii.; F. A. Wulff, "De la rimas de Juan de - la Cueva, Primera Parte" in the _Homenaje a Menendez y Pelayo_ - (Madrid, 1899), vol. ii. pp. 143-148. (J. F.-K.) - - - - -LACUNAR, the Latin name in architecture for a panelled or coffered -ceiling or soffit. The word is derived from _lacuna_, a cavity or -hollow, a blank, hiatus or gap. The panels or coffers of a ceiling are -by Vitruvius called _lacunaria_. - - - - -LACUZON (O. Fr. _la cuzon_, disturbance), the name given to the -Franc-Comtois leader CLAUDE PROST (1607-1681), who was born at -Longchaumois (department of Jura) on the 17th of June 1607. He gained -his first military experience when the French invaded Burgundy in 1636, -harrying the French troops from the castles of Montaigu and St -Laurent-la-Roche, and devastating the frontier districts of Bresse and -Bugey with fire and sword (1640-1642). In the first invasion of -Franche-Comte by Louis XIV. in 1668 Lacuzon was unable to make any -effective resistance, but he played an important part in Louis's second -invasion. In 1673 he defended Salins for some time; after the -capitulation of the town he took refuge in Italy. He died at Milan on -the 21st of December 1681. - - - - -LACY, FRANZ MORITZ, Count (1725-1801), Austrian field marshal, was born -at St Petersburg on the 21st of October 1725. His father, Peter, Count -Lacy, was a distinguished Russian soldier, who belonged to an Irish -family, and had followed the fortunes of the exiled James II. Franz -Moritz was educated in Germany for a military career, and entered the -Austrian service. He served in Italy, Bohemia, Silesia and the -Netherlands during the War of the Austrian Succession, was twice -wounded, and by the end of the war was a lieut.-colonel. At the age of -twenty-five he became full colonel and chief of an infantry regiment. In -1756 with the opening of the Seven Years' War he was again on active -service, and in the first battle (Lobositz) he distinguished himself so -much that he was at once promoted major-general. He received his third -wound on this occasion and his fourth at the battle of Prague in 1757. -Later in 1757 Lacy bore a conspicuous part in the great victory of -Breslau, and at Leuthen, where he received his fifth wound, he covered -the retreat of the defeated army. Soon after this began his association -with Field-Marshal Daun, the new generalissimo of the empress's forces, -and these two commanders, powerfully assisted later by the genius of -Loudon, made head against Frederick the Great for the remainder of the -war. A general staff was created, and Lacy, a lieutenant field-marshal -at thirty-two, was made chief of staff (quartermaster-general) to Daun. -That their cautiousness often degenerated into timidity may be -admitted--Leuthen and many other bitter defeats had taught the Austrians -to respect their great opponent--but they showed at any rate that, -having resolved to wear out the enemy by Fabian methods, they were -strong enough to persist in their resolve to the end. Thus for some -years the life of Lacy, as of Daun and Loudon, is the story of the war -against Prussia (see Seven Years' War). After Hochkirch (October 15, -1758) Lacy received the grand cross of the Maria Theresa order. In 1759 -both Daun and Lacy fell into disfavour for failing to win victories, and -Lacy owed his promotion to Feldzeugmeister only to the fact that Loudon -had just received this rank for the brilliant conduct of his detachment -at Kunersdorf. His responsibilities told heavily on Lacy in the ensuing -campaigns, and his capacity for supreme command was doubted even by -Daun, who refused to give him the command when he himself was wounded at -the battle of Torgau. - -After the peace of Hubertusburg a new sphere of activity was opened, in -which Lacy's special gifts had the greatest scope. Maria Theresa having -placed her son, the emperor Joseph II., at the head of Austrian military -affairs, Lacy was made a field-marshal, and given the task of reforming -and administering the army (1766). He framed new regulations for each -arm, a new code of military law, a good supply system. As the result of -his work the Austrian army was more numerous, far better equipped, and -cheaper than it had ever been before. Joseph soon became very intimate -with his military adviser, but this did not prevent his mother, after -she became estranged from the young emperor, from giving Lacy her full -confidence. His activities were not confined to the army. He was in -sympathy with Joseph's innovations, and was regarded by Maria Theresa as -a prime mover in the scheme for the partition of Poland. But his -self-imposed work broke down Lacy's health, and in 1773, in spite of the -remonstrances of Maria Theresa and of the emperor, he laid down all his -offices and went to southern France. On returning he was still unable to -resume office, though as an unofficial adviser in political and military -matters he was far from idle. In the brief and uneventful War of the -Bavarian Succession, Lacy and Loudon were the chief Austrian commanders -against the king of Prussia, and when Joseph II. at Maria Theresa's -death, became the sovereign of the Austrian dominions as well as -emperor, Lacy remained his most trusted friend. More serious than the -War of the Bavarian Succession was the Turkish war which presently broke -out. Lacy was now old and worn out, and his tenure of command therein -was not marked by any greater measure of success than in the case of the -other Austrian generals. His active career was at an end, although he -continued his effective interest in the affairs of the state and the -army throughout the reign of Joseph's successor, Leopold I. His last -years were spent in retirement at his castle of Neuwaldegg near Vienna. -He died at Vienna on the 24th of November 1801. - - See memoir by A. v. Arneth in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_ - (Leipzig, 1883). - - - - -LACY, HARRIETTE DEBORAH (1807-1874), English actress, was born in -London, the daughter of a tradesman named Taylor. Her first appearance -on the stage was at Bath in 1827 as Julia in _The Rivals_, and she was -immediately given leading parts there in both comedy and tragedy. Her -first London appearance was in 1830 as Nina, in Dimond's _Carnival of -Naples_. Her Rosalind, Aspatia (to Macready's Melantius) in _The -Bridal_, and Lady Teazle to the Charles Surface of Walter Lacy -(1809-1898)--to whom she was married in 1839--confirmed her position and -popularity. She was the original Helen in _The Hunchback_ (1832), and -also created Nell Gwynne in Jerrold's play of that name, and the heroine -in his _Housekeeper_. She was considered the first Ophelia of her day. -She retired in 1848. - - - - -LACY, MICHAEL ROPHINO (1795-1867), Irish musician, son of a merchant, -was born at Bilbao and appeared there in public as a violinist in 1801. -He was sent to study in Paris under Kreutzer, and soon began a -successful career, being known as "_Le Petit Espagnol_." He played in -London for some years after 1805, and then became an actor, but in 1818 -resumed the musical profession, and in 1820 became leader of the ballet -at the King's theatre, London. He composed or adapted from other -composers a number of operas and an oratorio, _The Israelites in Egypt_. -He died in London on the 20th of September 1867. - - - - -LACYDES OF CYRENE, Greek philosopher, was head of the Academy at Athens -in succession to Arcesilaus about 241 B.C. Though some regard him as the -founder of the New Academy, the testimony of antiquity is that he -adhered in general to the theory of Arcesilaus, and, therefore, that he -belonged to the Middle Academy. He lectured in a garden called the -Lacydeum, which was presented to him by Attalus I. of Pergamum, and for -twenty-six years maintained the traditions of the Academy. He is said to -have written treatises, but nothing survives. Before his death he -voluntarily resigned his position to his pupils, Euander and Telecles. -Apart from a number of anecdotes distinguished rather for sarcastic -humour than for probability, Lacydes exists for us as a man of refined -character, a hard worker and an accomplished orator. According to -Athenaeus (x. 438) and Diogenes Laertius (iv. 60) he died from excessive -drinking, but the story is discredited by the eulogy of Eusebius -(_Praep. Ev._ xiv. 7), that he was in all things moderate. - - See Cicero, _Acad._ ii. 6; and Aelian, _V.H._ ii. 41; also articles - ACADEMY, ARCESILAUS, CARNEADES. - - - - -LADAKH AND BALTISTAN, a province of Kashmir, India. The name Ladak, -commonly but less correctly spelt Ladakh, and sometimes Ladag, belongs -primarily to the broad valley of the upper Indus in West Tibet, but -includes several surrounding districts in political connexion with it; -the present limits are between 75 deg. 40' and 80 deg. 30' E., and -between 32 deg. 25' and 36 deg. N. It is bounded N. by the Kuenlun range -and the slopes of the Karakoram, N.W. and W. by the dependency of -Baltistan or Little Tibet, S.W. by Kashmir proper, S. by British -Himalayan territory, and E. by the Tibetan provinces of Ngari and Rudok. -The whole region lies very high, the valleys of Rupshu in the south-east -being 15,000 ft., and the Indus near Leh 11,000 ft., while the average -height of the surrounding ranges is 19,000 ft. The proportion of arable -and even possible pasture land to barren rock and gravel is very small. -Pop., including Baltistan (1901) 165,992, of whom 30,216 in Ladakh -proper are Buddhists, whereas the Baltis have adopted the Shiah form of -Islam. - -The natural features of the country may be best explained by reference -to two native terms, under one or other of which every part is included; -viz. _changtang_, i.e. "northern, or high plain," where the amount of -level ground is considerable, and _rong_, i.e. "deep valley," where the -contrary condition prevails. The former predominates in the east, -diminishing gradually westwards. There, although the vast alluvial -deposits which once filled the valley to a remarkably uniform height of -about 15,000 ft. have left their traces on the mountain sides, they have -undergone immense denudation, and their debris now forms secondary -deposits, flat bottoms or shelving slopes, the only spots available for -cultivation or pasture. These masses of alluvium are often either -metamorphosed to a subcrystalline rock still showing the composition of -the strata, or simply consolidated by lime. - -Grand scenery is exceptional, for the valleys are confined, and from the -higher points the view is generally of a confused mass of brown or -yellow hills, absolutely barren, and of no great apparent height. The -parallelism characteristic of the Himalayan ranges continues here, the -direction being north-west and south-east. A central range divides the -Indus valley, here 4 to 8 m. wide, from that of its north branch the -Shyok, which with its fertile tributary valley of Nubra is again bounded -on the north by the Karakoram. This central ridge is mostly syenitic -gneiss, and north-east from it are found, successively, Silurian slates, -Carboniferous shales and Triassic limestones, the gneiss recurring at -the Turkestan frontier. The Indus lies along the line which separates -the crystalline rocks from the Eocene sandstones and shales of the lower -range of hills on the left bank, the lofty mountains behind them -consisting of parallel bands of rocks from Silurian to Cretaceous. - -Several lakes in the east districts at about 14,000 ft. have been of -much greater extent, and connected with the river systems of the -country, but they are now mostly without outlet, saline, and in process -of desiccation. - -Leh is the capital of Ladakh, and the road to Leh from Srinagar lies up -the lovely Sind valley to the sources of the river at the Zoji La Pass -(11,300 ft.) in the Zaskar range. This is the range which, skirting the -southern edge of the upland plains of Deosai in Baltistan, divides them -from the valley of Kashmir, and then continues to Nanga Parbat (26,620 -ft.) and beyond that mountain stretches to the north of Swat and Bajour. -To the south-east it is an unbroken chain till it merges into the line -of snowy peaks seen from Simla and the plains of India--the range which -reaches past Chini to the famous peaks of Gangotri, Nandadevi and Nampa. -It is the most central and conspicuous range in the Himalaya. The Zoji -La, which curves from the head of the Sind valley on to the bleak -uplands of Dras (where lies the road to the trough of the Indus and -Leh), is, in spite of its altitude, a pass on which little snow lies; -but for local accumulations, it would be open all the year round. It -affords a typical instance of that cutting-back process by which a -river-head may erode a channel through a watershed into the plateau -behind, there being no steep fall towards the Indus on the northern side -of the range. From the Zoji La the road continues by easy gradients, -following the line of the Dras drainage, to the Indus, when it turns up -the valley to Leh. From Leh there are many routes into Tibet, the best -known being that from the Indus valley to the Tibetan plateau, by the -Chang La, to Lake Pangkong and Rudok (14,000 ft.). Rudok occupies a -forward position on the western Tibetan border analogous to that of Leh -in Kashmir. The chief trade route to Lhasa from Leh, however, follows -the line offered by the valleys of the Indus and the Brahmaputra (or -Tsanpo), crossing the divide between these rivers north of Lake -Manasarowar. - -The observatory at Leh is the most elevated observatory in Asia. "The -atmosphere of the Indus valley is remarkably clear and transparent, and -the heat of the sun is very great. There is generally a difference of -more than 60 deg. between the reading of the exposed sun thermometer _in -vacuo_ and the air temperature in the shade, and this difference has -occasionally exceeded 90 deg.... The mean annual temperature at Leh is -40 deg., that of the coldest months (January and February) only 18 deg. -and 19 deg., but it rises rapidly from February to July, in which month -it reaches 62 deg. with a mean diurnal maximum of 80 deg. both in that -month and August, and an average difference of 29 deg. or 30 deg. -between the early morning and afternoon. The mean highest temperature of -the year is 90 deg., varying between 84 deg. and 93 deg. in the twelve -years previous to 1893. On the other hand, in the winter the minimum -thermometer falls occasionally below 0 deg., and in 1878 reached as low -as 17 deg. below zero. The extreme range of recorded temperature is -therefore not less than 110 deg. The air is as dry as Quetta, and rather -more uniformly so.... The amount of rain and snow is insignificant. The -average rain (and snow) fall is only 2.7 in. in the year."[1] The winds -are generally light, and depend on the local direction of the valleys. -At Leh, which stands at the entrance of the valley leading to the -Kardang Pass, the most common directions are between south and west in -the daytime and summer, and from north-east in the night, especially in -the later months of the year. In January and February the air is -generally calm, and April and May are the most windy months of the year. - - Vegetation is confined to valleys and sheltered spots, where a stunted - growth of tamarisk and _Myricaria_, _Hippophae_ and _Elaeagnus_, - furze, and the roots of _burtsi_, a salsolaceous plant, supply the - traveller with much-needed firewood. The trees are the pencil cedar - (_Juniperus excelsa_), the poplar and willow (both extensively - planted, the latter sometimes wild), apple, mulberry, apricot and - walnut. Irrigation is skilfully managed, the principal products being - wheat, a beardless variety of barley called _grim_, millet, buckwheat, - pease, beans and turnips. Lucerne and prangos (an umbelliferous plant) - are used as fodder. - - Among domestic animals are the famous shawl goat, two kinds of sheep, - of which the larger (_huniya_) is used for carrying burdens, and is a - principal source of wealth, the yak and the dso, a valuable hybrid - between the yak and common cow. Among wild animals are the kiang or - wild ass, ibex, several kinds of wild sheep, antelope (_Pantholops_), - marmot, hare and other Tibetan fauna. - - The present value of the trade between British India and Tibet passing - through Ladakh is inconsiderable. Ladakh, however, is improving in its - trade prospects apart from Tibet. It is curious that both Ladakh and - Tibet import a considerable amount of treasure, for on the borders of - western Tibet and within a radius of 100 or 200 m. of Leh there - centres a gold-mining industry which apparently only requires - scientific development to render it enormously productive. Here the - surface soil has been for many centuries washed for gold by bands of - Tibetan miners, who never work deeper than 20 to 50 ft., and whose - methods of washing are of the crudest description. They work in - winter, chiefly because of the binding power of frost on the friable - soil, suffering great hardships and obtaining but a poor return for - their labour. But the remoteness of Ladakh and its extreme altitude - still continue to bar the way to substantial progress, though its - central position naturally entitles it to be a great trade mart. - - The adjoining territory of Baltistan forms the west extremity of - Tibet, whose natural limits here are the Indus from its abrupt - southward bend in 74 deg. 45' E., and the mountains to the north and - west, separating a comparatively peaceful Tibetan population from the - fiercer Aryan tribes beyond. Mahommedan writers about the 16th century - speak of Baltistan as "Little Tibet," and of Ladakh as "Great Tibet," - thus ignoring the really Great Tibet altogether. The Balti call Gilgit - "a Tibet," and Dr Leitner says that the Chilasi call themselves Bot or - Tibetans; but, although these districts may have been overrun by the - Tibetans, or have received rulers of that race, the ethnological - frontier coincides with the geographical one given. Baltistan is a - mass of lofty mountains, the prevailing formation being gneiss. In the - north is the Baltoro glacier, the largest out of the arctic regions, - 35 m. long, contained between two ridges whose highest peaks to the - south are 25,000 and to the north 28,265 ft. The Indus, as in Lower - Ladakh, runs in a narrow gorge, widening for nearly 20 m. after - receiving the Shyok. The capital, Skardu, a scattered collection of - houses, stands here, perched on a rock 7250 ft. above the sea. The - house roofs are flat, occupied only in part by a second story, the - remaining space being devoted to drying apricots, the chief staple of - the main valley, which supports little cultivation. But the rapid - slope westwards is seen generally in the vegetation. Birch, plane, - spruce and _Pinus excelsa_ appear; the fruits are finer, including - pomegranate, pear, peach, vine and melon, and where irrigation is - available, as in the North Shigar, and at the deltas of the tributary - valleys, the crops are more luxuriant and varied. - -_History._--The earliest notice of Ladakh is by the Chinese pilgrim -Fa-hien, A.D. 400, who, travelling in search of a purer faith, found -Buddhism flourishing there, the only novelty to him being the -prayer-cylinder, the efficacy of which he declares is incredible. Ladakh -formed part of the Tibetan empire until its disruption in the 10th -century, and since then has continued ecclesiastically subject, and -sometimes tributary, to Lhasa. Its inaccessibility saved it from any -Mussulman invasion until 1531, when Sultan Said of Kashgar marched an -army across the Karakoram, one division fighting its way into Kashmir -and wintering there. Next year they invaded eastern Tibet, where nearly -all perished from the effects of the climate. - -Early in the 17th century Ladakh was invaded by its Mahommedan -neighbours of Baltistan, who plundered and destroyed the temples and -monasteries; and again, in 1685-1688, by the Sokpa, who were expelled -only by the aid of the lieutenant of Aurangzeb in Kashmir, Ladakh -thereafter becoming tributary. The gyalpo or king then made a nominal -profession of Islam, and allowed a mosque to be founded at Leh, and the -Kashmiris have ever since addressed his successors by a Mahommedan -title. When the Sikhs took Kashmir, Ladakh, dreading their approach, -offered allegiance to Great Britain. It was, however, conquered and -annexed in 1834-1841 by Gulab Singh of Jammu--the unwar-like Ladakhis, -even with nature fighting on their side, and against indifferent -generalship, being no match for the Dogra troops. These next turned -their arms successfully against the Baltis (who in the 18th century were -subject to the Mogul), and were then tempted to revive the claims of -Ladakh to the Chinese provinces of Rudok and Ngari. This, however, -brought down an army from Lhasa, and after a three days' fight the -Indian force was almost annihilated--chiefly indeed by frostbite and -other sufferings, for the battle was fought in mid-winter, 15,000 ft. -above the sea. The Chinese then marched on Leh, but were soon driven out -again, and peace was finally made on the basis of the old frontier. The -widespread prestige of China is illustrated by the fact that tribute, -though disguised as a present, is paid to her, for Ladakh, by the -maharaja of Kashmir. - - The principal works to be consulted are F. Drew, _The Jummoo and - Kashmir Territories_; Cunningham, _Ladak_; Major J. Biddulph, _The - Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh_; Ramsay, _Western Tibet_; Godwin-Austen, - "The Mountain Systems of the Himalaya," vol. vi., _Proc. R.G.S._ - (1884); W. Lawrence, _The Valley of Kashmir_ (1895); H. F. Blandford, - _The Climate and Weather of India_ (1889). (T. H. H.*) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] H. F. Blandford, _Climate and Weather of India_ (London, 1889). - - - - -LADD, GEORGE TRUMBULL (1842- ), American philosopher, was born in -Painesville, Lake county, Ohio, on the 19th of January 1842. He -graduated at Western Reserve College in 1864 and at Andover Theological -Seminary in 1869; preached in Edinburg, Ohio, in 1869-1871, and in the -Spring Street Congregational Church of Milwaukee in 1871-1879; and was -professor of philosophy at Bowdoin College in 1879-1881, and Clark -professor of metaphysics and moral philosophy at Yale from 1881 till -1901, when he took charge of the graduate department of philosophy and -psychology; he became professor emeritus in 1905. In 1879-1882 he -lectured on theology at Andover Theological Seminary, and in 1883 at -Harvard, where in 1895-1896 he conducted a graduate seminary in ethics. -He lectured in Japan in 1892, 1899 (when he also visited the -universities of India) and 1906-1907. He was much influenced by Lotze, -whose _Outlines of Philosophy_ he translated (6 vols., 1877), and was -one of the first to introduce (1879) the study of experimental -psychology into America, the Yale psychological laboratory being founded -by him. - - PUBLICATIONS.--_The Principles of Church Polity_ (1882); _The Doctrine - of Sacred Scripture_ (1884); _What is the Bible?_ (1888); _Essays on - the Higher Education_ (1899), defending the "old" (Yale) system - against the Harvard or "new" education, as praised by George H. - Palmer; _Elements of Physiological Psychology_ (1889, rewritten as - _Outlines of Physiological Psychology_, in 1890); _Primer of - Psychology_ (1894); _Psychology, Descriptive and Explanatory_ (1894); - and _Outlines of Descriptive Psychology_ (1898); in a "system of - philosophy," _Philosophy of the Mind_ (1891); _Philosophy of - Knowledge_ (1897); _A Theory of Reality_ (1899); _Philosophy of - Conduct_ (1902); and _Philosophy of Religion_ (2 vols., 1905); _In - Korea with Marquis Ito_ (1908); and _Knowledge, Life and Reality_ - (1909). - - - - -LADDER, (O. Eng. _hlaeder_; of Teutonic origin, cf. Dutch _leer_, Ger. -_Leiter_; the ultimate origin is in the root seen in "lean," Gr. [Greek: -klimax]), a set of steps or "rungs" between two supports to enable one -to get up and down; usually made of wood and sometimes of metal or rope. -Ladders are generally movable, and differ from a staircase also in -having only treads and no "risers." The term "Jacob's ladder," taken -from the dream of Jacob in the Bible, is applied to a rope ladder with -wooden steps used at sea to go aloft, and to a common garden plant of -the genus _Polemonium_ on account of the ladder-like formation of the -leaves. The flower known in England as Solomon's seal is in some -countries called the "ladder of heaven." - - - - -LADING (from "to lade," O. Eng. _hladan_, to put cargo on board; cf. -"load"), BILL OF, the document given as receipt by the master of a -merchant vessel to the consignor of goods, as a guarantee for their safe -delivery to the consignee. (See AFFREIGHTMENT.) - - - - -LADISLAUS I, Saint (1040-1095), king of Hungary, the son of Bela I., -king of Hungary, and the Polish princess Richeza, was born in Poland, -whither his father had sought refuge, but was recalled by his elder -brother Andrew I. to Hungary (1047) and brought up there. He succeeded -to the throne on the death of his uncle Geza in 1077, as the eldest -member of the royal family, and speedily won for himself a reputation -scarcely inferior to that of Stephen I., by nationalizing Christianity -and laying the foundations of Hungary's political greatness. -Instinctively recognizing that Germany was the natural enemy of the -Magyars, Ladislaus formed a close alliance with the pope and all the -other enemies of the emperor Henry IV., including the anti-emperor -Rudolph of Swabia and his chief supporter Welf, duke of Bavaria, whose -daughter Adelaide he married. She bore him one son and three daughters, -one of whom, Piriska, married the Byzantine emperor John Comnenus. The -collapse of the German emperor in his struggle with the pope left -Ladislaus free to extend his dominions towards the south, and colonize -and Christianize the wildernesses of Transylvania and the lower Danube. -Hungary was still semi-savage, and her native barbarians were being -perpetually recruited from the hordes of Pechenegs, Kumanians and other -races which swept over her during the 11th century. Ladislaus himself -had fought valiantly in his youth against the Pechenegs, and to defend -the land against the Kumanians, who now occupied Moldavia and Wallachia -as far as the Alt, he built the fortresses of Turnu-Severin and Gyula -Fehervar. He also planted in Transylvania the Szeklers, the supposed -remnant of the ancient Magyars from beyond the Dnieper, and founded the -bishoprics of Nagy-Varad, or Gross-Wardein, and of Agram, as fresh foci -of Catholicism in south Hungary and the hitherto uncultivated districts -between the Drave and the Save. He subsequently conquered Croatia, -though here his authority was questioned by the pope, the Venetian -republic and the Greek emperor. Ladislaus died suddenly in 1095 when -about to take part in the first Crusade. No other Hungarian king was so -generally beloved. The whole nation mourned for him for three years, and -regarded him as a saint long before his canonization. A whole cycle of -legends is associated with his name. - - See J. Babik, _Life of St Ladislaus_ (Hung.) (Eger, 1892); Gyorgy - Pray, _Dissertatio de St Ladislao_ (Pressburg, 1774); Antal Ganoczy, - _Diss. hist. crit. de St Ladislao_ (Vienna, 1775). (R. N. B.) - - - - -LADISLAUS IV., The Kumanian (1262-1290), king of Hungary, was the son of -Stephen V., whom he succeeded in 1272. From his tenth year, when he was -kidnapped from his father's court by the rebellious vassals, till his -assassination eighteen years later, his whole life, with one bright -interval of military glory was unrelieved tragedy. His minority, -1272-1277, was an alternation of palace revolutions and civil wars, in -the course of which his brave Kumanian mother Elizabeth barely contrived -to keep the upper hand. In this terrible school Ladislaus matured -precociously. At fifteen he was a man, resolute, spirited, enterprising, -with the germs of many talents and virtues, but rough, reckless and very -imperfectly educated. He was married betimes to Elizabeth of Anjou, who -had been brought up at the Hungarian court. The marriage was a purely -political one, arranged by his father and a section of the Hungarian -magnates to counterpoise hostile German and Czech influences. During -the earlier part of his reign, Ladislaus obsequiously followed the -direction of the Neapolitan court in foreign affairs. In Hungary itself -a large party was in favour of the Germans, but the civil wars which -raged between the two factions from 1276 to 1278 did not prevent -Ladislaus, at the head of 20,000 Magyars and Kumanians, from -co-operating with Rudolph of Habsburg in the great battle of Durnkrut -(August 26th, 1278), which destroyed, once for all, the empire of the -Premyslidae. A month later a papal legate arrived in Hungary to inquire -into the conduct of the king, who was accused by his neighbours, and -many of his own subjects, of adopting the ways of his Kumanian kinsfolk -and thereby undermining Christianity. Ladislaus was not really a pagan, -or he would not have devoted his share of the spoil of Durnkrut to the -building of the Franciscan church at Pressburg, nor would he have -venerated as he did his aunt St Margaret. Political enmity was largely -responsible for the movement against him, yet the result of a very -careful investigation (1279-1281) by Philip, bishop of Fermo, more than -justified many of the accusations brought against Ladislaus. He clearly -preferred the society of the semi-heathen Kumanians to that of the -Christians; wore, and made his court wear, Kumanian dress; surrounded -himself with Kumanian concubines, and neglected and ill-used his -ill-favoured Neapolitan consort. He was finally compelled to take up -arms against his Kumanian friends, whom he routed at Hodmezo (May 1282) -with fearful loss; but, previously to this, he had arrested the legate, -whom he subsequently attempted to starve into submission, and his -conduct generally was regarded as so unsatisfactory that, after repeated -warnings, the Holy See resolved to supersede him by his Angevin -kinsfolk, whom he had also alienated, and on the 8th of August 1288 Pope -Nicholas IV. proclaimed a crusade against him. For the next two years -all Hungary was convulsed by a horrible civil war, during which the -unhappy young king, who fought for his heritage to the last with -desperate valour, was driven from one end of his kingdom to the other -like a hunted beast. On the 25th of December 1289 he issued a manifesto -to the lesser gentry, a large portion of whom sided with him, urging -them to continue the struggle against the magnates and their foreign -supporters; but on the 10th of July 1290 he was murdered in his camp at -Korosszeg by the Kumanians, who never forgave him for deserting them. - - See Karoly Szabo, _Ladislaus the Cumanian_ (Hung.), (Budapest, 1886); - and Acsady, _History of the Hungarian Realm_, i. 2 (Budapest, 1903). - The latter is, however, too favourable to Ladislaus. (R. N. B.) - - - - -LADISLAUS V. (1440-1457), king of Hungary and Bohemia, the only son of -Albert, king of Hungary, and Elizabeth, daughter of the emperor -Sigismund, was born at Komarom on the 22nd of February 1440, four months -after his father's death, and was hence called Ladislaus Posthumus. The -estates of Hungary had already elected Wladislaus III. of Poland their -king, but Ladislaus's mother caused the holy crown to be stolen from its -guardians at Visegrad, and compelled the primate to crown the infant -king at Szekesfejervar on the 15th of May 1440; whereupon, for safety's -sake, she placed the child beneath the guardianship of his uncle the -emperor Frederick III. On the death of Wladislaus III. (Nov. 10th, -1444), Ladislaus V. was elected king by the Hungarian estates, though -not without considerable opposition, and a deputation was sent to Vienna -to induce the emperor to surrender the child and the holy crown; but it -was not till 1452 that Frederick was compelled to relinquish both. The -child was then transferred to the pernicious guardianship of his -maternal grandfather Ulrich Cillei, who corrupted him soul and body and -inspired him with a jealous hatred of the Hunyadis. On the 28th of -October 1453 he was crowned king of Bohemia, and henceforth spent most -of his time at Prague and Vienna. He remained supinely indifferent to -the Turkish peril; at the instigation of Cillei did his best to hinder -the defensive preparations of the great Hunyadi, and fled from the -country on the tidings of the siege of Belgrade. On the death of Hunyadi -he made Cillei governor of Hungary at the diet of Futtak (October 1456), -and when that traitor paid with his life for his murderous attempt on -Laszlo Hunyadi at Belgrade, Ladislaus procured the decapitation of young -Hunyadi (16th of March 1457), after a mock trial which raised such a -storm in Hungary that the king fled to Prague, where he died suddenly -(Nov. 23rd, 1457), while making preparations for his marriage with -Magdalena, daughter of Charles VII. of France. He is supposed to have -been poisoned by his political opponents in Bohemia. - - See F. Palacky, _Zeugenverhor uber den Tod Konig Ladislaus von Ungarn - u. Bohmen_ (Prague, 1856); Ignacz Acsady, _History of the Hungarian - State_ (Hung.), vol. i. (Budapest, 1903). - - - - -LA DIXMERIE, NICOLAS BRICAIRE DE (c. 1730-1791), French man of letters, -was born at Lamothe (Haute-Marne). While still young he removed to -Paris, where the rest of his life was spent in literary activity. He -died on the 26th of November 1791. His numerous works include _Contes -philosophiques et moraux_ (1765), _Les Deux Ages du gout et du genie -sous Louis XIV. et sous Louis XV._ (1769), a parallel and contrast, in -which the decision is given in favour of the latter; _L'Espagne -litteraire_ (1774); _Eloge de Voltaire_ (1779) and _Eloge de Montaigne_ -(1781). - - - - -LADO ENCLAVE, a region of the upper Nile formerly administered by the -Congo Free State, but since 1910 a province of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. -It has an area of about 15,000 sq. m., and a population estimated at -250,000 and consisting of Bari, Madi, Kuku and other Nilotic Negroes. -The enclave is bounded S.E. by the north-west shores of Albert -Nyanza--as far south as the port of Mahagi--E. by the western bank of -the Nile (Bahr-el-Jebel) to the point where the river is intersected by -5 deg. 30' N., which parallel forms its northern frontier from the Nile -westward to 30 deg. E. This meridian forms the west frontier to 4 deg. -N., the frontier thence being the Nile-Congo watershed to the point -nearest to Mahagi and from that point direct to Albert Nyanza. - -The country is a moderately elevated plateau sloping northward from the -higher ground marking the Congo-Nile watershed. The plains are mostly -covered with bush, with stretches of forest in the northern districts. -Traversing the plateau are two parallel mountainous chains having a -general north to south direction. One chain, the Kuku Mountains (average -height 2000 ft.), approaches close to the Nile and presents, as seen -from the river, several apparently isolated peaks. At other places these -mountains form precipices which stretch in a continuous line like a huge -wall. From Dufile in 3 deg. 34' N. to below the Bedden Rapids in 4 deg. -40' N. the bed of the Nile is much obstructed and the river throughout -this reach is unnavigable (see Nile). Below the Bedden Rapids rises the -conical hill of Rejaf, and north of that point the Nile valley becomes -flat. Ranges of hill, however, are visible farther westwards, and a -little north of 5 deg. N. is Jebel Lado, a conspicuous mountain 2500 ft. -high and some 12 m. distant from the Nile. It has given its name to the -district, being the first hill seen from the Nile in the ascent of some -1000 m. from Khartum. On the river at Rejaf, at Lado, and at Kiro, 28 m. -N. of Lado, are government stations and trading establishments. The -western chain of hills has loftier peaks than those of Kuku, Jebel Loka -being about 3000 ft. high. This western chain forms a secondary -watershed separating the basin of the Yei, a large river, some 400 m. in -length, which runs almost due north to join the Nile, from the other -streams of the enclave, which have an easterly or north-easterly -direction and join the Nile after comparatively short courses. - -The northern part of the district was first visited by Europeans in -1841-1842, when the Nile was ascended by an expedition despatched by -Mehemet Ali to the foot of the rapids at Bedden. The neighbouring posts -of Gondokoro, on the east bank of the Nile, and Lado, soon became -stations of the Khartum ivory and slave traders. After the discovery of -Albert Nyanza by Sir Samuel Baker in 1864, the whole country was overrun -by Arabs, Levantines, Turks and others, whose chief occupation was slave -raiding. The region was claimed as part of the Egyptian Sudan, but it -was not until the arrival of Sir Samuel Baker at Gondokoro in 1870 as -governor of the equatorial provinces, that any effective control of the -slave traders was attempted. Baker was succeeded by General C. G. -Gordon, who established a separate administration for the -Bahr-el-Ghazal. In 1878 Emin Pasha became governor of the Equatorial -Province, a term henceforth confined to the region adjoining the main -Nile above the Sobat confluence, and the region south of the -Bahr-el-Ghazal province. (The whole of the Lado Enclave thus formed part -of Emin's old province.) Emin made his headquarters at Lado, whence he -was driven in 1885 by the Mahdists. He then removed to Wadelai, a -station farther south, but in 1889 the pasha, to whose aid H. M. Stanley -had conducted an expedition from the Congo, evacuated the country and -with Stanley made his way to the east coast. While the Mahdists remained -in possession at Rejaf, Great Britain in virtue of her position in -Uganda claimed the upper Nile region as within the British sphere; a -claim admitted by Germany in 1890. In February 1894 the union jack was -hoisted at Wadelai, while in May of the same year Great Britain granted -to Leopold II., as sovereign of the Congo State, a lease of large areas -lying west of the upper Nile inclusive of the Bahr-el-Ghazal and -Fashoda. Pressed however by France, Leopold II. agreed to occupy only -that part of the leased area east of 30 deg. E. and south of 5 deg. 30' -N., and in this manner the actual limits of the Lado Enclave, as it was -thereafter called, were fixed. Congo State forces had penetrated to the -Nile valley as early as 1891, but it was not until 1897, when on the -17th of February Commandant Chaltin inflicted a decisive defeat on the -Mahdists at Rejaf, that their occupation of the Lado Enclave was -assured. After the withdrawal of the French from Fashoda, Leopold II. -revived (1899) his claim to the whole of the area, leased to him in -1894. In this claim he was unsuccessful, and the lease, by a new -agreement made with Great Britain in 1906, was annulled (see AFRICA, S -5). The king however retained the enclave, with the stipulation that six -months after the termination of his reign it should be handed over to -the Anglo-Sudanese government (see _Treaty Series_, No. 4, 1906). - - See _Le Mouvement geographique_ (Brussels) _passim_, and especially - articles in the 1910 issues. - - - - -LADOGA (formerly NEVO), a lake of northern Russia, between 59 deg. 56' -and 61 deg. 46' N., and 29 deg. 53' and 32 deg. 50' E., surrounded by -the governments of St Petersburg and Olonets, and of Viborg in Finland. -It has the form of a quadrilateral, elongated from N.W. to S.E. Its -eastern and southern shores are flat and marshy, the north-western -craggy and fringed by numerous small rocky islands, the largest of which -are Valamo and Konnevitz, together having an area of 14 sq. m. Ladoga is -7000 sq. m. in area, that is, thirty-one times as large as the Lake of -Geneva; but, its depth being less, it contains only nineteen times as -much water as the Swiss lake. The greatest depth, 730 ft., is in a -trough in the north-western part, the average depth not exceeding 250 to -350 ft. The level of Lake Ladoga is 55 ft. above the Gulf of Finland, -but it rises and falls about 7 ft., according to atmospheric conditions, -a phenomenon very similar to the _seiches_ of the Lake of Geneva being -observed in connexion with this. - - The western and eastern shores consist of boulder clay, as well as a - narrow strip on the southern shore, south of which runs a ridge of - crags of Silurian sandstones. The hills of the north-western shore - afford a variety of granites and crystalline slates of the Laurentian - system, whilst Valamo island is made up of a rock which Russian - geologists describe as orthoclastic hypersthenite. The granite and - marble of Serdobol, and the sandstone of Putilovo, are much used for - buildings at St Petersburg; copper and tin from the Pitkaranta mine - are exported. - - No fewer than seventy rivers enter Ladoga, pouring into it the waters - of numberless smaller lakes which lie at higher levels round it. The - Volkhov, which conveys the waters of Lake Ilmen, is the largest; Lake - Onega discharges its waters by the Svir; and the Saima system of lakes - of eastern Finland contributes the Vuoxen and Taipale rivers; the Syas - brings the waters from the smaller lakes and marshes of the Valdai - plateau. Ladoga discharges its surplus water by means of the Neva, - which flows from its south-western corner into the Gulf of Finland, - rolling down its broad channel 104,000 cubic ft. of water per second. - - The water of Ladoga is very pure and cold; in May the surface - temperature does not exceed 36 deg. Fahr., and even in August it - reaches only 50 deg. and 53 deg., the average yearly temperature of - the air at Valamo being 36.8 deg. The lake begins to freeze in - October, but it is only about the end of December that it is frozen in - its deeper parts; and it remains ice-bound until the end of March, - though broad icefields continue to float in the middle of the lake - until broken up by gales. Only a small part of the Ladoga ice is - discharged by the Neva; but it is enough to produce in the middle of - June a return of cold in the northern capital. The thickness of the - ice does not exceed 3 or 4 ft.; but during the alternations of cold - and warm weather, with strong gales, in winter, stacks of ice, 70 and - 80 ft. high, are raised on the shores and on the icefields. The water - is in continuous rotatory motion, being carried along the western - shore from north to south, and along the eastern from south to north. - The vegetation on the shores is poor; immense forests, which formerly - covered them, are now mostly destroyed. But the fauna of the lake is - somewhat rich; a species of seal which inhabits its waters, as well as - several species of arctic crustaceans, recall its former connexion - with the Arctic Ocean. The sweet water _Diatomaceae_ which are found - in great variety in the ooze of the deepest parts of the lake also - have an arctic character. - - Fishing is very extensively carried on. Navigation, which is - practicable for only one hundred and eighty days in the year, is - rather difficult owing to fogs and gales, which are often accompanied, - even in April and September, with snow-storms. The prevailing winds - blow from N.W. and S.W.; N.E. winds cause the water to rise in the - south-western part, sometimes 3 to 5 ft. Steamers ply regularly in two - directions from St Petersburg--to the monasteries of Konnevitz and - Valamo, and to the mouth of the Svir, whence they go up that river to - Lake Onega and Petrozavodsk; and small vessels transport timber, - firewood, planks, iron, kaolin, granite, marble, fish, hay and various - small wares from the northern shore to Schlusselburg, and thence to St - Petersburg. Navigation on the lake being too dangerous for small - craft, canals with an aggregate length of 104 m. were dug in - 1718-1731, and others in 1861-1886 having an aggregate length of 101 - m. along its southern shore, uniting with the Neva at Schlusselburg - the mouths of the rivers Volkhov, Syas and Svir, all links in the - elaborate system of canals which connect the upper Volga with the Gulf - of Finland. - - The population (35,000) on the shores of the lake is sparse, and the - towns--Schlusselburg (5285 inhabitants in 1897); New Ladoga (4144); - Kexholm (1325) and Serdobol--are small. The monasteries of Valamo, - founded in 992, on the island of the same name, and Konnevskiy, on - Konnevitz island, founded in 1393, are visited every year by many - thousands of pilgrims. (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.) - - - - -LADY (O. Eng. _hlaefdige_, Mid. Eng. _lafdi_, _lavedi_; the first part -of the word is _hlaf_, loaf, bread, as in the corresponding _hlaford_, -lord; the second part is usually taken to be from the root dig-, to -knead, seen also in "dough"; the sense development from bread-kneader, -bread-maker, to the ordinary meaning, though not clearly to be traced -historically, may be illustrated by that of "lord"), a term of which the -main applications are two, (1) as the correlative of "lord" (q.v.) in -certain of the usages of that word, (2) as the correlative of -"gentleman" (q.v.). The primary meaning of mistress of a household is, -if not obsolete, in present usage only a vulgarism. The special use of -the word as a title of the Virgin Mary, usually "Our Lady," represents -the Lat. _Domina Nostra_. In Lady Day and Lady Chapel the word is -properly a genitive, representing the O. Eng. _hlaefdigan_. As a title -of nobility the uses of "lady" are mainly paralleled by those of "lord." -It is thus a less formal alternative to the full title giving the -specific rank, of marchioness, countess, viscountess or baroness, -whether as the title of the husband's rank by right or courtesy, or as -the lady's title in her own right. In the case of the younger sons of a -duke or marquess, who by courtesy have lord prefixed to their Christian -and family name, the wife is known by the husband's Christian and family -name with Lady prefixed, e.g. Lady John B.; the daughters of dukes, -marquesses and earls are by courtesy Ladies; here that title is prefixed -to the Christian and family name of the lady, e.g. Lady Mary B., and -this is preserved if the lady marry a commoner, e.g. Mr and Lady Mary C. -"Lady" is also the customary title of the wife of a baronet or knight; -the proper title, now only used in legal documents or on sepulchral -monuments, is "dame" (q.v.); in the latter case the usage is to prefix -Dame to the Christian name of the wife followed by the surname of the -husband, thus Dame Eleanor B., but in the former, Lady with the surname -of the husband only, Sir A. and Lady B. During the 15th and 16th -centuries "princesses" or daughters of the blood royal were usually -known by their Christian names with "the Lady" prefixed, e.g. the Lady -Elizabeth. - -While "lord" has retained its original application as a title of -nobility or rank without extension, an example which has been followed -in Spanish usage by "don," "lady" has been extended in meaning to be the -feminine correlative of "gentleman" throughout its sense developments, -and in this is paralleled by _Dame_ in German, _madame_ in French, -_donna_ in Spanish, &c. It is the general word for any woman of a -certain social position (see GENTLEMAN). - - - - -LADYBANK, a police burgh of Fifeshire, Scotland, 5(1/2) m. S.W. of Cupar -by the North British railway, 1/2 m. from the left bank of the Eden. -Pop. (1901) 1340. Besides having a station on the main line to Dundee, -it is also connected with Perth and Kinross and is a railway junction of -some importance and possesses a locomotive depot. It is an industrial -centre, linen weaving, coal mining and malting being the principal -industries. KETTLE, a village 1 m. S., has prehistoric barrows and a -fort. At COLLESSIE, 2(1/2) m. N. by W., a standing stone, a mound and -traces of ancient camps exist, while urns and coins have been found. -Between the parishes of Collessie and Monimail the boundary line takes -the form of a crescent known as the Bow of Fife. MONIMAIL contains the -Mount, the residence of Sir David Lindsay the poet (1490-1555). Its -lofty site is now marked by a clump of trees. Here, too, is the Doric -pillar, 100 ft. high, raised to the memory of John Hope, 4th earl of -Hopetoun. Melville House, the seat of the earls of Leven, lies amidst -beautiful woods. - - - - -LADYBRAND, a town of the Orange Free State, 80 m. E. of Bloemfontein by -rail. Another railway connects it with Natal via Harrismith. Pop. (1904) -3862, of whom 2334 were whites. The town is pleasantly situated at the -foot of a flat-topped hill (the Platberg), about 4 m. W. of the Caledon -river, which separates the province from Basutoland. Ladybrand is the -centre of a rich arable district, has a large wheat market and is also a -health resort, the climate, owing to the proximity of the Maluti -Mountains, being bracing even during the summer months (November-March). -Coal and petroleum are found in the neighbourhood. It is named after the -wife of Sir J. H. Brand, president of the Orange Free State. - - - - -LADY-CHAPEL, the chapel dedicated to the Blessed Virgin and attached to -churches of large size. Generally the chapel was built eastward of the -high altar and formed a projection from the main building, as in -Winchester, Salisbury, Exeter, Wells, St Albans, Chichester, -Peterborough and Norwich cathedrals,--in the two latter cases now -destroyed. The earliest Lady-chapel built was that in the Saxon -cathedral of Canterbury; this was transfered in the rebuilding by -Archbishop Lanfranc to the west end of the nave, and again shifted in -1450 to the chapel on the east side of the north transept. The -Lady-chapel at Ely cathedral is a distinct building attached to the -north transept; at Rochester the Lady-chapel is west of the south -transept. Probably the largest Lady-chapel was that built by Henry III. -in 1220 at Westminster Abbey, which was 30 ft. wide, much in excess of -any foreign example, and extended to the end of the site now occupied by -Henry VII.'s chapel. Among other notable English examples of -Lady-chapels are those at Ottery-St-Mary, Thetford, Bury St Edmund's, -Wimborne, Christ-church, Hampshire; in Compton Church, Surrey, and -Compton Martin, Somersetshire, and Darenth, Kent, it was built over the -chancel. At Croyland Abbey there were two Lady-chapels. Lady-chapels -exist in most of the French cathedrals and churches, where they form -part of the chevet; in Belgium they were not introduced before the 14th -century; in some cases they are of the same size as the other chapels of -the chevet, but in others, probably rebuilt at a later period, they -became much more important features, and in Italy and Spain during the -Renaissance period constitute some of its best examples. - - - - -LADY DAY, originally the name for all the days in the church calendar -marking any event in the Virgin Mary's life, but now restricted to the -feast of the Annunciation, held on the 25th of March in each year. Lady -Day was in medieval and later times the beginning of the legal year in -England. In 1752 this was altered to the 1st of January, but the 25th of -March remains one of the Quarter Days; though in some parts old Lady -Day, on the 6th of April, is still the date for rent paying. See -Annunciation. - - - - -LADYSMITH, a town of Natal, 189 m. N.W. of Durban by rail, on the left -bank of the Klip tributary of the Tugela. Pop. (1904) 5568, of whom 2269 -were whites. It lies 3284 ft. above the sea and is encircled by hills, -while the Drakensberg are some 30 m. distant to the N.W. Ladysmith is -the trading centre of northern Natal, and is the chief railway junction -in the province, the main line from the south dividing here. One line -crosses Van Reenen's pass into the Orange Free State, the other runs -northwards to the Transvaal. There are extensive railway workshops. -Among the public buildings are the Anglican church and the town hall. -The church contains tablets with the names of 3200 men who perished in -the defence and relief of the town in the South African War (see below), -while the clock tower of the town hall, partially destroyed by a Boer -shell, is kept in its damaged condition. - -Ladysmith, founded in 1851, is named after Juana, Lady Smith, wife of -Sir Harry Smith, then governor of Cape Colony. It stands near the site -of the camp of the Dutch farmers who in 1848 assembled for the purpose -of trekking across the Drakensberg. Here they were visited by Sir Harry -Smith, who induced the majority of the farmers to remain in Natal. The -growth of the town, at first slow, increased with the opening of the -railway from Durban in 1886 and the subsequent extension of the line to -Johannesburg. - -In the first and most critical stage of the South African War of -1899-1902 (see TRANSVAAL) Ladysmith was the centre of the struggle. -During the British concentration on the town there were fought the -actions of Talana (or Dundee) on the 20th, Elandslaagte on the 21st and -Rietfontein on the 24th of October 1899. On the 30th of October the -British sustained a serious defeat in the general action of Lombard's -Kop or Farquhar's Farm, and Sir George White decided to hold the town, -which had been fortified, against investment and siege until he was -relieved directly or indirectly by Sir Redvers Buller's advance. The -greater portion of Buller's available troops were despatched to Natal in -November, with a view to the direct relief of Ladysmith, which meantime -the Boers had closely invested. His first attempt was repelled on the -15th of December in the battle of Colenso, his second on the 24th of -January 1900 by the successful Boer counterstroke against Spion Kop, and -his third was abandoned without serious fighting (Vaalkranz, Feb. 5). -But two or three days after Vaalkranz, almost simultaneously with Lord -Roberts's advance on Bloemfontein Sir Redvers Buller resumed the -offensive in the hills to the east of Colenso, which he gradually -cleared of the enemy, and although he was checked after reaching the -Tugela below Colenso (Feb. 24) he was finally successful in carrying the -Boer positions (Pieter's Hill) on the 27th and relieving Ladysmith, -which during these long and anxious months (Nov. 1-Feb. 28) had suffered -very severely from want of food, and on one occasion (Caesar's Camp, -Jan. 6, 1900) had only with heavy losses and great difficulty repelled a -powerful Boer assault. The garrison displayed its unbroken resolution on -the last day of the investment by setting on foot a mobile column, -composed of all men who were not too enfeebled to march out, in order to -harass the Boer retreat. This expedition was however countermanded by -Buller. - - - - -LAELIUS, the name of a Roman plebeian family, probably settled at Tibur -(Tivoli). The chief members were:-- - -GAIUS LAELIUS, general and statesman, was a friend of the elder Scipio, -whom he accompanied on his Spanish campaign (210-206 B.C.). In Scipio's -consulship (205), Laelius went with him to Sicily, whence he conducted -an expedition to Africa. In 203 he defeated the Massaesylian prince -Syphax, who, breaking his alliance with Scipio, had joined the -Carthaginians, and at Zama (202) rendered considerable service in -command of the cavalry. In 197 he was plebeian aedile and in 196 praetor -of Sicily. As consul in 190 he was employed in organizing the recently -conquered territory in Cisalpine Gaul. Placentia and Cremona were -repeopled, and a new colony founded at Bononia. He is last heard of in -170 as ambassador to Transalpine Gaul. Though little is known of his -personal qualities, his intimacy with Scipio is proof that he must have -been a man of some importance. Silius Italicus (_Punica_, xv. 450) -describes him as a man of great endowments, an eloquent orator and a -brave soldier. - - See Index to Livy; Polybius x. 3. 9, 39, xi. 32, xiv. 4. 8, xv. 9. 12, - 14; Appian, _Hisp._ 25-29; Cicero, _Philippica_, xi. 7. - -His son, GAIUS LAELIUS, is known chiefly as the friend of the younger -Scipio, and as one of the speakers in Cicero's _De senectute_, _De -amicitia_ (or _Laelius_) and _De Republica_. He was surnamed _Sapiens_ -("the wise"), either from his scholarly tastes or because, when tribune, -he "prudently" withdrew his proposal (151 B.C.) for the relief of the -farmers by distributions of land, when he saw that it was likely to -bring about disturbances. In the third Punic War (147) he accompanied -Scipio to Africa, and distinguished himself at the capture of the -Cothon, the military harbour of Carthage. In 145 he carried on -operations with moderate success against Viriathus in Spain; in 140 he -was elected consul. During the Gracchan period, as a staunch supporter -of Scipio and the aristocracy, Laelius became obnoxious to the -democrats. He was associated with P. Popillius Laenas in the prosecution -of those who had supported Tiberius Gracchus, and in 131 opposed the -bill brought forward by C. Papirius Carbo to render legal the election -of a tribune to a second year of office. The attempts of his enemies, -however, failed to shake his reputation. He was a highly accomplished -man and belonged to the so-called "Scipionic circle." He studied -philosophy under the Stoics Diogenes Babylonius and Panaetius of Rhodes; -he was a poet, and the plays of Terence, by reason of their elegance of -diction, were sometimes attributed to him. With Scipio he was mainly -instrumental in introducing the study of the Greek language and -literature into Rome. He was a gifted orator, though his refined -eloquence was perhaps less suited to the forum than to the senate. He -delivered speeches _De Collegiis_ (145) against the proposal of the -tribune C. Licinius Crassus to deprive the priestly colleges of their -right of co-optation and to transfer the power of election to the -people; _Pro Publicanis_ (139), on behalf of the farmers of the revenue; -against the proposal of Carbo noticed above; _Pro Se_, a speech in his -own defence, delivered in answer to Carbo and Gracchus; funeral -orations, amongst them two on his friend Scipio. Much information is -given concerning him in Cicero, who compares him to Socrates. - - See Index to Cicero; Plutarch, _Tib. Gracchus_, 8; Appian, _Punica_, - 126; Horace, _Sat._ ii. 1. 72; Quintilian, _Instit._ xii. 10. 10; - Suetonius, _Vita Terentii_; Terence, _Adelphi_, Prol. 15, with the - commentators. - - - - -LAENAS, the name of a plebeian family in ancient Rome, notorious for -cruelty and arrogance. The two most famous of the name[1] are:-- - -GAIUS POPILLIUS LAENAS, consul in 172 B.C. He was sent to Greece in 174 -to allay the general disaffection, but met with little success. He took -part in the war against Perseus, king of Macedonia (Livy xliii. 17, 22). -When Antiochus Epiphanes, king of Syria, invaded Egypt, Laenas was sent -to arrest his progress. Meeting him near Alexandria, he handed him the -decree of the senate, demanding the evacuation of Egypt. Antiochus -having asked time for consideration, Laenas drew a circle round him with -his staff, and told him he must give an answer before he stepped out of -it. Antiochus thereupon submitted (Livy xlv. 12; Polybius xxix. 11; -Cicero, _Philippica_, viii. 8; Vell. Pat. i. 10). - -PUBLIUS POPILLIUS LAENAS, son of the preceding. When consul in 132 B.C. -he incurred the hatred of the democrats by his harsh measures as head of -a special commission appointed to take measures against the accomplices -of Tiberius Gracchus. In 123 Gaius Gracchus brought in a bill -prohibiting all such commissions, and declared that, in accordance with -the old laws of appeal, a magistrate who pronounced sentence of death -against a citizen, without the people's assent, should be guilty of -high treason. It is not known whether the bill contained a retrospective -clause against Laenas, but he left Rome and sentence of banishment from -Italy was pronounced against him. After the restoration of the -aristocracy the enactments against him were cancelled, and he was -recalled (121). - - See Cicero, _Brutus_, 25. 34, and _De domo sua_, 31; Vell. Pat. ii. 7; - Plutarch, _C. Gracchus_, 4. - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] The name is said by Cicero to be derived from _laena_, the - sacerdotal cloak carried by Marcus Popillius (consul 359) when he - went to the forum to quell a popular rising. - - - - -LAER (or LAAR), PIETER VAN (1613-c. 1675), Dutch painter, was born at -Laaren in Holland. The influence of a long stay in Rome begun at an -early age is seen in his landscape and backgrounds, but in his subjects -he remained true to the Dutch tradition, choosing generally lively -scenes from peasant life, as markets, feasts, bowling scenes, farriers' -shops, robbers, hunting scenes and peasants with cattle. From this -taste, or from his personal deformity, he was nicknamed Bamboccio by the -Italians. On his return to Holland about 1639, he lived chiefly at -Amsterdam and Haarlem, in which latter city he died in 1674 or 1675. His -pictures are marked by skilful composition and good drawing; he was -especially careful in perspective. His colouring, according to Crowe, is -"generally of a warm, brownish tone, sometimes very clear, but oftener -heavy, and his execution broad and spirited." Certain etched plates are -also attributed to him. - - - - -LAESTRYGONES, a mythical race of giants and cannibals. According to the -_Odyssey_ (x. 80) they dwelt in the farthest north, where the nights -were so short that the shepherd who was driving out his flock met -another driving it in. This feature of the tale contains some hint of -the long nightless summer in the Arctic regions, which perhaps reached -the Greeks through the merchants who fetched amber from the Baltic -coasts. Odysseus in his wanderings arrived at the coast inhabited by the -Laestrygones, and escaped with only one ship, the rest being sunk by the -giants with masses of rock. Their chief city was Telepylus, founded by a -former king Lamus, their ruler at that time being Antiphates. This is a -purely fanciful name, but Lamus takes us into a religious world where we -can trace the origin of the legend, and observe the god of an older -religion becoming the subject of fairy tales (see LAMIA) in a later -period. - - The later Greeks placed the country of the Laestrygones in Sicily, to - the south of Aetna, near Leontini; but Horace (_Odes_, iii. 16. 34) - and other Latin authors speak of them as living in southern Latium, - near Formiae, which was supposed to have been founded by Lamus. - - - - -LAETUS, JULIUS POMPONIUS [Giulio Pomponio Leto], (1425-1498), Italian -humanist, was born at Salerno. He studied at Rome under Laurentius -Valla, whom he succeeded (1457) as professor of eloquence in the -Gymnasium Romanum. About this time he founded an academy, the members of -which adopted Greek and Latin names, met on the Quirinal to discuss -classical questions and celebrated the birthday of Romulus. Its -constitution resembled that of an ancient priestly college, and Laetus -was styled pontifex maximus. The pope (Paul II.) viewed these -proceedings with suspicion, as savouring of paganism, heresy and -republicanism. In 1468 twenty of the academicians were arrested during -the carnival; Laetus, who had taken refuge in Venice, was sent back to -Rome, imprisoned and put to the torture, but refused to plead guilty to -the charges of infidelity and immorality. For want of evidence, he was -acquitted and allowed to resume his professorial duties; but it was -forbidden to utter the name of the academy even in jest. Sixtus IV. -permitted the resumption of its meetings, which continued to be held -till the sack of Rome (1527) by Constable Bourbon during the papacy of -Clement VII. Laetus continued to teach in Rome until his death on the -9th of June 1498. As a teacher, Laetus, who has been called the first -head of a philological school, was extraordinarily successful; in his -own words, like Socrates and Christ, he expected to live on in the -person of his pupils, amongst whom were many of the most famous scholars -of the period. His works, written in pure and simple Latin, were -published in a collected form (_Opera Pomponii Laeti varia_, 1521). They -contain treatises on the Roman magistrates, priests and lawyers, and a -compendium of Roman history from the death of the younger Gordian to -the time of Justin III. Laetus also wrote commentaries on classical -authors, and promoted the publication of the editio princeps of Virgil -at Rome in 1469. - - See _The Life of Leto_ by Sabellicus (Strassburg, 1510); G. Voigt, - _Die Wiederbelebung des klassischen Alterthums_, ii.; F. Gregorovius, - _Geschichte der Stadt Rom im Mittelalter_, vii. (1894), p. 576, for an - account of the academy; Sandys, _History of Classical Scholarship_ - (1908), ii. 92. - - - - -LAEVIUS (? c. 80 B.C.), a Latin poet of whom practically nothing is -known. The earliest reference to him is perhaps in Suetonius (_De -grammaticis_, 3), though it is not certain that the Laevius Milissus -there referred to is the same person. Definite references do not occur -before the 2nd century (Fronto, _Ep. ad M. Caes._ i. 3; Aulus Gellius, -_Noct. Att._ ii. 24, xii. 10, xix. 9; Apuleius, _De magia_, 30; -Porphyrion, _Ad Horat. carm._ iii. 1, 2). Some sixty miscellaneous lines -are preserved (see Bahrens, _Fragm. poet. rom._ pp. 287-293), from which -it is difficult to see how ancient critics could have regarded him as -the master of Ovid or Catullus. Gellius and Ausonius state that he -composed an _Erotopaegnia_, and in other sources he is credited with -_Adonis_, _Alcestis_, _Centauri_, _Helena_, _Ino_, _Protesilaudamia_, -_Sirenocirca_, _Phoenix_, which may, however, be only the parts of the -_Erotopaegnia_. They were not serious poems, but light and often -licentious skits on the heroic myths. - - See O. Ribbeck, _Geschichte der romischen Dichtung_, i.; H. de la - Ville de Mirmont, _Etude biographique et litteraire sur le poete - Laevius_ (Paris, 1900), with critical ed. of the fragments, and - remarks on vocabulary and syntax; A. Weichert, _Poetarum latinorum - reliquiae_ (Leipzig, 1830); M. Schanz, _Geschichte der romischen - Litteratur_ (2nd ed.), pt. i. p. 163; W. Teuffel, _Hist. of Roman - Literature_ (Eng. tr.), S 150, 4; a convenient summary in F. Plessis, - _La Poesie latine_ (1909), pp. 139-142. - - - - -LAEVULINIC ACID ([beta]-acetopropionic acid), C5H8O3 or -CH3CO.CH2.CH2.CO2H, a ketonic acid prepared from laevulose, inulin, -starch, &c., by boiling them with dilute hydrochloric or sulphuric -acids. It may be synthesized by condensing sodium acetoacetate with -monochloracetic ester, the acetosuccinic ester produced being then -hydrolysed with dilute hydrochloric acid (M. Conrad, _Ann._, 1877, 188, -p. 222). - - CH3.CO.CH.Na CH3.CO.CH.CH2.CO2R - | --> | -->CH3COCH2.CH2.CO2OH. - CO2R CO2R - -It may also be prepared by heating the anhydride of -[gamma]-methyloxy-glutaric acid with concentrated sulphuric acid, and by -oxidation of methyl heptenone and of geraniol. It crystallizes in -plates, which melt at 32.5-33 deg. C. and boil at 148-149 deg. (15 mm.) -(A. Michael, _Jour. prak. Chem._, 1891 [2], 44, p. 114). It is readily -soluble in alcohol, ether and water. The acid, when distilled slowly, is -decomposed and yields [alpha]- and [beta]-angelica lactones. When heated -with hydriodic acid and phosphorus, it yields n-valeric acid; and with -iodine and caustic soda solution it gives iodoform, even in the cold. -With hydroxylamine it yields an oxime, which by the action of -concentrated sulphuric acid rearranges itself to N-methylsuccinimide -[CH2.CO]2N.CH3. - - - - -LA FARGE, JOHN (1835-1910), American artist, was born in New York, on -the 31st of March 1835, of French parentage. He received instruction in -drawing from his grandfather, Binsse de St Victor, a painter of -miniatures; studied law and architecture; entered the atelier of Thomas -Couture in Paris, where he remained a short time, giving especial -attention to the study and copying of old masters at the Louvre; and -began by making illustrations to the poets (1859). An intimacy with the -artist William M. Hunt had a strong influence on him, the two working -together at Newport, Rhode Island. La Farge painted landscape, still -life and figure alike in the early sixties. But from 1866 on he was for -some time incapacitated for work, and when he regained strength he did -some decorative work for Trinity church, Boston, in 1876, and turned his -attention to stained glass, becoming president of the Society of Mural -Painters. Some of his important commissions include windows for St -Thomas's church (1877), St Peter's church, the Paulist church, the Brick -church (1882), the churches of the Incarnation (1885) and the Ascension -(1887), New York; Trinity church, Buffalo, and the "Battle Window" in -Memorial Hall at Harvard; ceilings and windows for the house of -Cornelius Vanderbilt, windows for the houses of W. H. Vanderbilt and D. -O. Mills, and panels for the house of Whitelaw Reid, New York; panels -for the Congressional Library, Washington; Bowdoin College, the Capitol -at St Paul, Minn., besides designs for many stained glass windows. He -was also a prolific painter in oil and water colour, the latter seen -notably in some water-colour sketches, the result of a voyage in the -South Seas, shown in 1895. His influence on American art was powerfully -exhibited in such men as Augustus St Gaudens, Wilton Lockwood, Francis -Lathrop and John Humphreys Johnston. He became president of the Society -of American Artists, a member of the National Academy of Design in 1869; -an officer of the Legion of Honour of France; and received many medals -and decorations. He published _Considerations on Painting_ (New York, -1895), _Hokusai: A Talk about Hokusai_ (New York, 1897), and _An -Artist's Letters from Japan_ (New York, 1897). - - See Cecilia Waern, _John La Farge, Artist and Writer_ (London, 1896, - No. 26 of _The Portfolio_). - - - - -LA FARINA, GIUSEPPE (1815-1863), Italian author and politician, was born -at Messina. On account of the part he took in the insurrection of 1837 -he had to leave Sicily, but returning in 1839 he conducted various -newspapers of liberal tendencies, until his efforts were completely -interdicted, when he removed to Florence. In 1840 he had published -_Messina ed i suoi monumenti_, and after his removal to Florence he -brought out _La Germania coi suoi monumenti_ (1842), _L' Italia coi suoi -monumenti_ (1842), _La Svizzera storica ed artistica_ (1842-1843), La -China, 4 vols. (1843-1847), and _Storia d' Italia_, 7 vols. (1846-1854). -In 1847 he established at Florence a democratic journal, _L' Alba_, in -the interests of Italian freedom and unity, but on the outbreak of the -revolution in Sicily in 1848 he returned thither and was elected deputy -and member of the committee of war. In August of that year he was -appointed minister of public instruction and later of war and marine. -After vigorously conducting a campaign against the Bourbon troops, he -was forced into exile, and repaired to France in 1849. In 1850 he -published his _Storia documentata della Rivoluzione Siciliana del -1848-1849_, and in 1851-1852 his _Storia d' Italia dal 1815 al 1848_, in -6 vols. He returned to Italy in 1854 and settled at Turin, and in 1856 -he founded the _Piccolo Corriere d' Italia_, an organ which had great -influence in propagating the political sentiments of the Societa -Nazionale Italiana, of which he ultimately was chosen president. With -Daniele Manin (q.v.), one of the founders of that society, he advocated -the unity of Italy under Victor Emmanuel even before Cavour, with whom -at one time he had daily interviews, and organized the emigration of -volunteers from all parts of Italy into the Piedmontese army. He also -negotiated an interview between Cavour and Garibaldi, with the result -that the latter was appointed commander of the Cacciatori delle Alpi in -the war of 1859. Later he supported Garibaldi's expedition to Sicily, -where he himself went soon after the occupation of Palermo, but he -failed to bring about the immediate annexation of the island to Piedmont -as Cavour wished. In 1860 he was chosen a member of the first Italian -parliament and was subsequently made councillor of state. He died on the -5th of September 1863. - - See A. Franchi, _Epistolario di Giuseppe La Farina_ (2 vols., 1869) - and L. Carpi, _Il Risorgimento Italiano_, vol. i. (Milan, 1884). - - - - -LA FAYETTE, GILBERT MOTIER DE (1380-1462), marshal of France, was -brought up at the court of Louis II., 3rd duke of Bourbon. He served -under Marshal Boucicaut in Italy, and on his return to France after the -evacuation of Genoa in 1409 became seneschal of the Bourbonnais. In the -English wars he was with John I., 4th duke of Bourbon, at the capture of -Soubise in 1413, and of Compiegne in 1415. The duke then made him -lieutenant-general in Languedoc and Guienne. He failed to defend Caen -and Falaise in the interest of the dauphin (afterwards Charles VII.) -against Henry V. in 1417 and 1418, but in the latter year he held Lyons -for some time against Jean sans Peur, duke of Burgundy. A series of -successes over the English and Burgundians on the Loire was rewarded in -1420 with the government of Dauphiny and the office of marshal of -France. La Fayette commanded the Franco-Scottish troops at the battle of -Bauge (1422), though he did not, as has been sometimes stated, slay -Thomas, duke of Clarence, with his own hand. In 1424 he was taken -prisoner by the English at Verneuil, but was released shortly -afterwards, and fought with Joan of Arc at Orleans and Patay in 1429. -The marshal had become a member of the grand council of Charles VII., -and with the exception of a short disgrace about 1430, due to the -ill-will of Georges de la Tremouille, he retained the royal favour all -his life. He took an active part in the army reform initiated by Charles -VII., and the establishment of military posts for the suppression of -brigandage. His last campaign was against the English in Normandy in -1449. He died on the 23rd of February 1462. His line was continued by -Gilbert IV. de La Fayette, son of his second marriage with Jeanne de -Joyeuse. - - - - -LA FAYETTE, LOUISE DE (c. 1616-1665), was one of the fourteen children -of John, comte de La Fayette, and Marguerite de Bourbon-Busset. Louise -became maid of honour to Anne of Austria, and Richelieu sought to -attract the attention of Louis XIII. to her in the hope that she might -counterbalance the influence exercised over him by Marie de Hautefort. -The affair did not turn out as the minister wished. The king did indeed -make her the confidante of his affairs and of his resentment against the -cardinal, but she, far from repeating his confidences to the minister, -set herself to encourage the king in his resistance to Richelieu's -dominion. She refused, nevertheless, to become Louis's mistress, and -after taking leave of the king in Anne of Austria's presence retired to -the convent of the Filles de Sainte-Marie in 1637. Here she was -repeatedly visited by Louis, with whom she maintained a correspondence. -Richelieu intercepted the letters, and by omissions and falsifications -succeeded in destroying their mutual confidence. The cessation of their -intercourse was regretted by the queen, who had been reconciled with her -husband through the influence of Louise. At the time of her death in -January 1665 Mlle de La Fayette was superior of a convent of her order -which she had founded at Chaillot. - - See _Memoires de Madame de Motteville_; Victor Cousin, _Madame de - Hautefort_ (Paris, 1868); L'Abbe Sorin, _Louise-Angele de La Fayette_ - (Paris, 1893). - - - - -LA FAYETTE, MARIE JOSEPH PAUL YVES ROCH GILBERT DU MOTIER. MARQUIS DE -(1757-1834), was born at the chateau of Chavaniac in Auvergne, France, -on the 6th of September 1757. His father[1] was killed at Minden in -1759, and his mother and his grandfather died in 1770, and thus at the -age of thirteen he was left an orphan with a princely fortune. He -married at sixteen Marie Adrienne Francoise de Noailles (d. 1807), -daughter of the duc d'Ayen and granddaughter of the duc de Noailles, -then one of the most influential families in the kingdom. La Fayette -chose to follow the career of his father, and entered the Guards. - -La Fayette was nineteen and a captain of dragoons when the English -colonies in America proclaimed their independence. "At the first news of -this quarrel," he afterwards wrote in his memoirs, "my heart was -enrolled in it." The count de Broglie, whom he consulted, discouraged -his zeal for the cause of liberty. Finding his purpose unchangeable, -however, he presented the young enthusiast to Johann Kalb, who was also -seeking service in America, and through Silas Deane, American agent in -Paris, an arrangement was concluded, on the 7th of December 1776, by -which La Fayette was to enter the American service as major-general. At -this moment the news arrived of grave disasters to the American arms. La -Fayette's friends again advised him to abandon his purpose. Even the -American envoys, Franklin and Arthur Lee, who had superseded Deane, -withheld further encouragement and the king himself forbade his leaving. -At the instance of the British ambassador at Versailles orders were -issued to seize the ship La Fayette was fitting out at Bordeaux, and La -Fayette himself was arrested. But the ship was sent from Bordeaux to a -neighbouring port in Spain, La Fayette escaped from custody in disguise, -and before a second _lettre de cachet_ could reach him he was afloat -with eleven chosen companions. Though two British cruisers had been sent -in pursuit of him, he landed safely near Georgetown, S.C., after a -tedious voyage of nearly two months, and hastened to Philadelphia, then -the seat of government of the colonies. - -When this lad of nineteen, with the command of only what little English -he had been able to pick up on his voyage, presented himself to Congress -with Deane's authority to demand a commission of the highest rank after -the commander-in-chief, his reception was a little chilly. Deane's -contracts were so numerous, and for officers of such high rank, that it -was impossible for Congress to ratify them without injustice to -Americans who had become entitled by their service to promotion. La -Fayette appreciated the situation as soon as it was explained to him, -and immediately expressed his desire to serve in the American army upon -two conditions--that he should receive no pay, and that he should act as -a volunteer. These terms were so different from those made by other -foreigners, they had been attended with such substantial sacrifices, and -they promised such important indirect advantages, that Congress passed a -resolution, on the 31st of July 1777, "that his services be accepted, -and that, in consideration of his zeal, illustrious family and -connexions, he have the rank and commission of major-general of the -United States." Next day La Fayette met Washington, whose lifelong -friend he became. Congress intended his appointment as purely honorary, -and the question of giving him a command was left entirely to -Washington's discretion. His first battle was Brandywine (q.v.) on the -11th of September 1777, where he showed courage and activity and -received a wound. Shortly afterwards he secured what he most desired, -the command of a division--the immediate result of a communication from -Washington to Congress of November 1, 1777, in which he said:-- - - "The marquis de La Fayette is extremely solicitous of having a command - equal to his rank. I do not know in what light Congress will view the - matter, but it appears to me, from a consideration of his illustrious - and important connexions, the attachment which he has manifested for - our cause, and the consequences which his return in disgust might - produce, that it will be advisable to gratify his wishes, and the more - so as several gentlemen from France who came over under some - assurances have gone back disappointed in their expectations. His - conduct with respect to them stands in a favourable point of - view--having interested himself to remove their uneasiness and urged - the impropriety of their making any unfavourable representations upon - their arrival at home. Besides, he is sensible, discreet in his - manners, has made great proficiency in our language, and from the - disposition he discovered at the battle of Brandywine possesses a - large share of bravery and military ardour." - -Of La Fayette's military career in the United States there is not much -to be said. Though the commander of a division, he never had many troops -in his charge, and whatever military talents he possessed were not of -the kind which appeared to conspicuous advantage on the theatre to which -his wealth and family influence rather than his soldierly gifts had -called him. In the first months of 1778 he commanded troops detailed for -the projected expedition against Canada. His retreat from Barren Hill -(May 28, 1778) was commended as masterly; and he fought at the battle of -Monmouth (June 28,) and received from Congress a formal recognition of -his services in the Rhode Island expedition (August 1778). - -The treaties of commerce and defensive alliance, signed by the -insurgents and France on the 6th of February 1778, were promptly -followed by a declaration of war by England against the latter, and La -Fayette asked leave to revisit France and to consult his king as to the -further direction of his services. This leave was readily granted; it -was not difficult for Washington to replace the major-general, but it -was impossible to find another equally competent, influential and -devoted champion of the American cause near the court of Louis XVI. In -fact, he went on a mission rather than a visit. He embarked on the 11th -of January 1779, was received with enthusiasm, and was made a colonel in -the French cavalry. On the 4th of March following Franklin wrote to the -president of Congress: "The marquis de La Fayette ... is infinitely -esteemed and beloved here, and I am persuaded will do everything in his -power to merit a continuance of the same affection from America." He won -the confidence of Vergennes. - -La Fayette was absent from America about six months, and his return was -the occasion of a complimentary resolution of Congress. From April until -October 1781 he was charged with the defence of Virginia, in which -Washington gave him the credit of doing all that was possible with the -forces at his disposal; and he showed his zeal by borrowing money on his -own account to provide his soldiers with necessaries. The battle of -Yorktown, in which La Fayette bore an honourable if not a distinguished -part, was the last of the war, and terminated his military career in the -United States. He immediately obtained leave to return to France, where -it was supposed he might be useful in negotiations for a general peace. -He was also occupied in the preparations for a combined French and -Spanish expedition against some of the British West India Islands, of -which he had been appointed chief of staff, and a formidable fleet -assembled at Cadiz, but the armistice signed on the 20th of January 1783 -between the belligerents put a stop to the expedition. He had been -promoted (1781) to the rank of _marechal de camp_ (major-general) in the -French army, and he received every token of regard from his sovereign -and his countrymen. He visited the United States again in 1784, and -remained some five months as the guest of the nation. - -La Fayette did not appear again prominently in public life until 1787, -though he did good service to the French Protestants, and became -actively interested in plans to abolish slavery. In 1787 he took his -seat in the Assembly of Notables. He demanded, and he alone signed the -demand, that the king convoke the states-general, thus becoming a leader -in the French Revolution. He showed Liberal tendencies both in that -assembly and after its dispersal, and in 1788 was deprived, in -consequence, of his active command. In 1789 La Fayette was elected to -the states-general, and took a prominent part in its proceedings. He was -chosen vice-president of the National Assembly, and on the 11th of July -1789 presented a declaration of rights, modelled on Jefferson's -Declaration of Independence in 1776. On the 15th of July, the second day -of the new regime, La Fayette was chosen by acclamation colonel-general -of the new National Guard of Paris. He also proposed the combination of -the colours of Paris, red and blue, and the royal white, into the famous -tricolour cockade of modern France (July 17). For the succeeding three -years, until the end of the constitutional monarchy in 1792, his history -is largely the history of France. His life was beset with very great -responsibility and perils, for he was ever the minister of humanity and -order among a frenzied people who had come to regard order and humanity -as phases of treason. He rescued the queen from the hands of the -populace on the 5th and 6th of October 1789, saved many humbler victims -who had been condemned to death, and he risked his life in many -unsuccessful attempts to rescue others. Before this, disgusted with -enormities which he was powerless to prevent, he had resigned his -commission; but so impossible was it to replace him that he was induced -to resume it. In the Constituent Assembly he pleaded for the abolition -of arbitrary imprisonment, for religious tolerance, for popular -representation, for the establishment of trial by jury, for the gradual -emancipation of slaves, for the freedom of the press, for the abolition -of titles of nobility, and the suppression of privileged orders. In -February 1790 he refused the supreme command of the National Guard of -the kingdom. In May he founded the "Society of 1789" which afterwards -became the Feuillants Club. He took a prominent part in the celebration -of July 14, 1790, the first anniversary of the destruction of the -Bastille. After suppressing an _emeute_ in April 1791 he again resigned -his commission, and was again compelled to retain it. He was the friend -of liberty as well as of order, and when Louis XVI. fled to Varennes he -issued orders to stop him. Shortly afterwards he was made -lieutenant-general in the army. He commanded the troops in the -suppression of another _emeute_, on the occasion of the proclamation of -the constitution (September 18, 1791), after which, feeling that his -task was done, he retired into private life. This did not prevent his -friends from proposing him for the mayoralty of Paris in opposition to -Petion. - -When, in December 1791, three armies were formed on the western frontier -to attack Austria, La Fayette was placed in command of one of them. But -events moved faster than La Fayette's moderate and humane republicanism, -and seeing that the lives of the king and queen were each day more and -more in danger, he definitely opposed himself to the further advance of -the Jacobin party, intending eventually to use his army for the -restoration of a limited monarchy. On the 19th of August 1792 the -Assembly declared him a traitor. He was compelled to take refuge in the -neutral territory of Liege, whence as one of the prime movers in the -Revolution he was taken and held as a prisoner of state for five years, -first in Prussian and afterwards in Austrian prisons, in spite of the -intercession of America and the pleadings of his wife. Napoleon, -however, though he had a low opinion of his capacities, stipulated in -the treaty of Campo Formio (1797) for La Fayette's release. He was not -allowed to return to France by the Directory. He returned in 1799; in -1802 voted against the life consulate of Napoleon; and in 1804 he voted -against the imperial title. He lived in retirement during the First -Empire, but returned to public affairs under the First Restoration and -took some part in the political events of the Hundred Days. From 1818 to -1824 he was deputy for the Sarthe, speaking and voting always on the -Liberal side, and even becoming a _carbonaro_. He then revisited America -(July 1824-September 1825) where he was overwhelmed with popular -applause and voted the sum of $200,000 and a township of land. From 1825 -to his death he sat in the Chamber of Deputies for Meaux. During the -revolution of 1830 he again took command of the National Guard and -pursued the same line of conduct, with equal want of success, as in the -first revolution. In 1834 he made his last speech--on behalf of Polish -political refugees. He died at Paris on the 20th of May 1834. In 1876 in -the city of New York a monument was erected to him, and in 1883 another -was erected at Puy. - -Few men have owed more of their success and usefulness to their family -rank than La Fayette, and still fewer have abused it less. He never -achieved distinction in the field, and his political career proved him -to be incapable of ruling a great national movement; but he had strong -convictions which always impelled him to study the interests of -humanity, and a pertinacity in maintaining them, which, in all the -strange vicissitudes of his eventful life, secured him a very unusual -measure of public respect. No citizen of a foreign country has ever had -so many and such warm admirers in America, nor does any statesman in -France appear to have ever possessed uninterruptedly for so many years -so large a measure of popular influence and respect. He had what -Jefferson called a "canine appetite" for popularity and fame, but in him -the appetite only seemed to make him more anxious to merit the fame -which he enjoyed. He was brave to rashness; and he never shrank from -danger or responsibility if he saw the way open to spare life or -suffering, to protect the defenceless, to sustain the law and preserve -order. - -His son, GEORGES WASHINGTON MOTIER DE LA FAYETTE (1779-1849), entered -the army and was aide-de-camp to General Grouchy through the Austrian, -Prussian and Polish (1805-07) campaigns. Napoleon's distrust of his -father rendering promotion improbable, Georges de La Fayette retired -into private life in 1807 until the Restoration, when he entered the -Chamber of Representatives and voted consistently on the Liberal side. -He was away from Paris during the revolution of July 1830, but he took -an active part in the "campaign of the banquets," which led up to that -of 1848. He died in December of the next year. His son, OSCAR THOMAS -GILBERT MOTIER DE LA FAYETTE (1815-1881), was educated at the Ecole -Polytechnique, and served as an artillery officer in Algeria. He entered -the Chamber of Representatives in 1846 and voted, like his father, with -the extreme Left. After the revolution of 1848 he received a post in the -provisional government, and as a member of the Constituent Assembly he -became secretary of the war committee. After the dissolution of the -Legislative Assembly in 1851, he retired from public life, but emerged -on the establishment of the third republic, becoming a life senator in -1875. His brother EDMOND MOTIER DE LA FAYETTE (1818-1890) shared his -political opinions. He was one of the secretaries of the Constituent -Assembly, and a member of the senate from 1876 to 1888. - - See _Memoires historiques et pieces authentiques sur M. de La Fayette - pour servir a l'histoire des revolutions_ (Paris, An II., 1793-1794); - B. Sarrans, _La Fayette et la Revolution de 1830, histoire des choses - et des hommes de Juillet_ (Paris, 1834); _Memoires, correspondances et - manuscrits de La Fayette_, published by his family (6 vols., Paris, - 1837-1838); Regnault Warin, _Memoires pour servir a la vie du general - La Fayette_ (Paris, 1824); A. Bardoux, _La jeunesse de La Fayette_ - (Paris, 1892); _Les Dernieres annees de La Fayette_ (Paris, 1893); E. - Charavaray, _Le General La Fayette_ (Paris, 1895); A. Levasseur, _La - Fayette en Amerique_ 1824 (Paris, 1829); J. Cloquet, _Souvenirs de la - vie privee du general La Fayette_ (Paris, 1836); Max Budinger, _La - Fayette in Oesterreich_ (Vienna, 1898); and M. M. Crawford, _The Wife - of Lafayette_ (1908); Bayard Tuckerman, _Life of Lafayette_ (New York, - 1889); Charlemagne Tower, _The Marquis de La Fayette in the American - Revolution_ (Philadelphia, 1895). - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] The family of La Fayette, to the cadet branch of which he - belonged, received its name from an estate in Aix, Auvergne, which - belonged in the 13th century to the Motier family. - - - - -LA FAYETTE, MARIE-MADELEINE PIOCHE DE LA VERGNE, COMTESSE DE -(1634-1692), French novelist, was baptized in Paris, on the 18th of -March 1634. Her father, Marc Pioche de la Vergne, commandant of Havre, -died when she was sixteen, and her mother seems to have been more -occupied with her own than her daughter's interests. Mme de la Vergne -married in 1651 the chevalier de Sevigne, and Marie thus became -connected with Mme de Sevigne, who was destined to be a lifelong friend. -She studied Greek, Latin and Italian, and inspired in one of her tutors, -Gilles de Menage, an enthusiastic admiration which he expressed in verse -in three or four languages. Marie married in 1655 Francois Motier, comte -de La Fayette. They lived on the count's estates in Auvergne, according -to her own account (in a letter to Menage) quite happily; but after the -birth of her two sons her husband disappeared so effectually that it was -long supposed that he died about 1660, though he really lived until -1683. Mme de La Fayette had returned to Paris, and about 1665 contracted -an intimacy with the duc de la Rochefoucauld, then engaged on his -_Maximes_. The constancy and affection that marked this liaison on both -sides justified it in the eyes of society, and when in 1680 La -Rochefoucauld died Mme de La Fayette received the sincerest sympathy. -Her first novel, _La Princesse de Montpensier_, was published -anonymously in 1662; _Zayde_ appeared in 1670 under the name of J. R. de -Segrais; and in 1678 her masterpiece, _La Princesse de Cleves_, also -under the name of Segrais. The history of the modern novel of sentiment -begins with the _Princesse de Cleves_. The interminable pages of Mlle de -Scudery with the _Precieuses_ and their admirers masquerading as -Persians or ancient Romans had already been discredited by the -burlesques of Paul Scarron and Antoine Furetiere. It remained for Mme de -La Fayette to achieve the more difficult task of substituting something -more satisfactory than the disconnected episodes of the _roman comique_. -This she accomplished in a story offering in its shortness and -simplicity a complete contrast to the extravagant and lengthy romances -of the time. The interest of the story depends not on incident but on -the characters of the personages. They act in a perfectly reasonable way -and their motives are analysed with the finest discrimination. No doubt -the semi-autobiographical character of the material partially explains -Mme de La Fayette's refusal to acknowledge the book. Contemporary -critics, even Mme de Sevigne amongst them, found fault with the avowal -made by Mme de Cleves to her husband. In answer to these criticisms, -which her anonymity prevented her from answering directly, Mme de La -Fayette wrote her last novel, the _Comtesse de Tende_. - -The character of her work and her history have combined to give an -impression of melancholy and sweetness that only represents one side of -her character, for a correspondence brought to light comparatively -recently showed her as the acute diplomatic agent of Jeanne de Nemours, -duchess of Savoy, at the court of Louis XIV. She had from her early days -also been intimate with Henrietta of England, duchess of Orleans, under -whose immediate direction she wrote her _Histoire de Madame Henriette -d'Angleterre_, which only appeared in 1720. She wrote memoirs of the -reign of Louis XIV., which, with the exception of two chapters, for the -years 1688 and 1689 (published at Amsterdam, 1731), were lost through -her son's carelessness. Madame de La Fayette died on the 25th of May -1692. - - See Sainte-Beuve, _Portraits de femmes_; the comte d'Haussonville, - _Madame de La Fayette_ (1891), in the series of _Grands ecrivains - francais_; M. de Lescure's notice prefixed to an edition of the - _Princesse de Cleves_ (1881); and a critical edition of the historical - memoirs by Eugene Asse (1890). See also L. Rea, _Marie Madeleine, - comtesse de La Fayette_ (1908). - - - - -LAFAYETTE, a city and the county-seat of Tippecanoe county, Indiana, -U.S.A., situated at the former head of navigation on the Wabash river, -about 64 m. N.W. of Indianapolis. Pop. (1900) 18,116, of whom 2266 were -foreign-born; (1910 census) 20,081. It is served by the Chicago, -Indianapolis & Louisville, the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St -Louis, the Lake Erie & Western, and the Wabash railways, and by the -Terre Haute, Indianapolis & Eastern (electric), and the Fort Wayne & -Wabash Valley (electric) railways. The river is not now navigable at -this point. Lafayette is in the valley of the Wabash river, which is -sunk below the normal level of the plain, the surrounding heights being -the walls of the Wabash basin. The city has an excellent system of -public schools, a good public library, two hospitals, the Wabash Valley -Sanitarium (Seventh Day Adventist), St Anthony's Home for old people and -two orphan asylums. It is the seat of Purdue University, a -co-educational, technical and agricultural institution, opened in 1874 -and named in honour of John Purdue (1802-1876), who gave it $150,000. -This university is under state control, and received the proceeds of the -Federal agricultural college grant of 1862 and of the second Morrill Act -of 1890; in connexion with it there is an agricultural experiment -station. It had in 1908-1909 180 instructors, 1900 students, and a -library of 25,000 volumes and pamphlets. Just outside the city is the -State Soldiers' Home, where provision is also made for the wives and -widows of soldiers; in 1908 it contained 553 men and 700 women. The city -lies in the heart of a rich agricultural region, and is an important -market for grain, produce and horses. Among its manufactures are beer, -foundry and machine shop products (the Chicago, Indianapolis & -Louisville railway has shops here), straw board, telephone apparatus, -paper, wagons, packed meats, canned goods, flour and carpets; the value -of the factory product increased from $3,514,276 in 1900 to $4,631,415 -in 1905, or 31.8%. The municipality owns its water works. - -Lafayette is about 5 m. N.E. of the site of the ancient Wea (Miami) -Indian village known as Ouiatanon, where the French established a post -about 1720. The French garrison gave way to the English about 1760; the -stockade fort was destroyed during the conspiracy of Pontiac, and was -never rebuilt. The headquarters of Tecumseh and his brother, the -"Prophet," were established 7 m. N. of Lafayette near the mouth of the -Tippecanoe river, and the settlement there was known as the "Prophet's -Town." Near this place, and near the site of the present village of -Battle Ground (where the Indiana Methodists now have a summer encampment -and a camp meeting in August), was fought on the 7th of November 1811 -the battle of Tippecanoe, in which the Indians were decisively defeated -by Governor William Henry Harrison, the whites losing 188 in killed and -wounded and the Indians about an equal number. The battle ground is -owned by the state; in 1907 the state legislature and the United States -Congress each appropriated $12,500 for a monument, which took the form -of a granite shaft 90 ft. high. The first American settlers on the site -of Lafayette appeared about 1820, and the town was laid out in 1825, but -for many years its growth was slow. The completion of the Wabash and -Erie canal marked a new era in its development, and in 1854 Lafayette -was incorporated. - - - - -LA FERTE, the name of a number of localities in France, differentiated -by agnomens. La Ferte Imbault (department of Loir-et-Cher) was in the -possession of Jacques d'Etampes (1590-1668), marshal of France and -ambassador in England, who was known as the marquis of La Ferte -Imbault. La Ferte Nabert (the modern La Ferte Saint Aubin, department of -Loiret) was acquired in the 16th century by the house of Saint Nectaire -(corrupted to Senneterre), and erected into a duchy in the peerage of -France (_duche-pairie_) in 1665 for Henri de Saint Nectaire, marshal of -France. It was called La Ferte Lowendal after it had been acquired by -Marshal Lowendal in 1748. - - - - -LA FERTE-BERNARD, a town of western France, in the department of Sarthe, -on the Huisne, 27 m. N.E. of Le Mans, on the railway from Paris to that -town. Pop. (1906) 4358. La Ferte carries on cloth manufacture and -flour-milling and has trade in horses and cattle. Its church of Notre -Dame has a choir (16th century) with graceful apse-chapels of -Renaissance architecture and remarkable windows of the same period; the -remainder of the church is in the Flamboyant Gothic style. The town hall -occupies the superstructure and flanking towers of a fortified gateway -of the 15th century. - -La Ferte-Bernard owes its origin and name to a stronghold (_fermete_) -built about the 11th century and afterwards held by the family of -Bernard. In 1424 it did not succumb to the English troops till after a -four months' siege. It belonged in the 16th century to the family of -Guise and supported the League, but was captured by the royal forces in -1590. - - - - -LA FERTE-MILON, a town of northern France in the department of Aisne on -the Ourcq, 47 m. W. by S. of Reims by rail. Pop. (1906) 1563. The town -has imposing remains comprising one side flanked by four towers of an -unfinished castle built about the beginning of the 15th century by Louis -of Orleans, brother of Charles VI. The churches of St Nicholas and -Notre-Dame, chiefly of the 16th century, both contain fine old stained -glass. Jean Racine, the poet, was born in the town, and a statue by -David d'Augers has been erected to him. - - - - -LAFFITTE, JACQUES (1767-1844), French banker and politician, was born at -Bayonne on the 24th of October 1767, one of the ten children of a -carpenter. He became clerk in the banking house of Perregaux in Paris, -was made a partner in the business in 1800, and in 1804 succeeded -Perregaux as head of the firm. The house of Perregaux, Laffitte et Cie. -became one of the greatest in Europe, and Laffitte became regent (1809), -then governor (1814) of the Bank of France and president of the Chamber -of Commerce (1814). He raised large sums of money for the provisional -government in 1814 and for Louis XVIII. during the Hundred Days, and it -was with him that Napoleon deposited five million francs in gold before -leaving France for the last time. Rather than permit the government to -appropriate the money from the Bank he supplied two million from his own -pocket for the arrears of the imperial troops after Waterloo. He was -returned by the department of the Seine to the Chamber of Deputies in -1816, and took his seat on the Left. He spoke chiefly on financial -questions; his known Liberal views did not prevent Louis XVIII. from -insisting on his inclusion on the commission on the public finances. In -1818 he saved Paris from a financial crisis by buying a large amount of -stock, but next year, in consequence of his heated defence of the -liberty of the press and the electoral law of 1867, the governorship of -the Bank was taken from him. One of the earliest and most determined of -the partisans of a constitutional monarchy under the duke of Orleans, he -was deputy for Bayonne in July 1830, when his house in Paris became the -headquarters of the revolutionary party. When Charles X., after -retracting the hated ordinances, sent the comte d'Argout[1] to Laffitte -to negotiate a change of ministry, the banker replied, "It is too late. -There is no longer a Charles X.," and it was he who secured the -nomination of Louis Philippe as lieutenant-general of the kingdom. On -the 3rd of August he became president of the Chamber of Deputies, and on -the 9th he received in this capacity Louis Philippe's oath to the new -constitution. The clamour of the Paris mob for the death of the -imprisoned ministers of Charles X., which in October culminated in -riots, induced the more moderate members of the government--including -Guizot, the duc de Broglie and Casimir-Perier--to hand over the -administration to a ministry which, possessing the confidence of the -revolutionary Parisians, should be in a better position to save the -ministers from their fury. On the 5th of November, accordingly, Laffitte -became minister-president of a government pledged to progress -(_mouvement_), holding at the same time the portfolio of finance. The -government was torn between the necessity for preserving order and the -no less pressing necessity (for the moment) of conciliating the Parisian -populace; with the result that it succeeded in doing neither one nor the -other. The impeached ministers were, indeed, saved by the courage of the -Chamber of Peers and the attitude of the National Guard; but their -safety was bought at the price of Laffitte's popularity. His policy of a -French intervention in favour of the Italian revolutionists, by which he -might have regained his popularity, was thwarted by the diplomatic -policy of Louis Philippe. The resignation of Lafayette and Dupont de -l'Eure still further undermined the government, which, incapable even of -keeping order in the streets of Paris, ended by being discredited with -all parties. At length Louis Philippe, anxious to free himself from the -hampering control of the agents of his fortune, thought it safe to -parade his want of confidence in the man who had made him king. -Thereupon, in March 1831, Laffitte resigned, begging pardon of God and -man for the part he had played in raising Louis Philippe to the throne. -He left office politically and financially a ruined man. His affairs -were wound up in 1836, and next year he created a credit bank, which -prospered as long as he lived, but failed in 1848. He died in Paris on -the 26th of May 1844. - - See P. Thureau-Dangin, _La Monarchie de Juillet_ (vol. i. 1884). - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] Apollinaire Antoine Maurice, comte d'Argout (1782-1858), - afterwards reconciled to the July monarchy, and a member of the - Laffitte Casimir-Perier and Thiers cabinets. - - - - -LAFFITTE, PIERRE (1823-1903), French Positivist, was born on the 21st of -February 1823 at Beguey (Gironde). Residing at Paris as a teacher of -mathematics, he became a disciple of Comte, who appointed him his -literary executor. On the schism of the Positivist body which followed -Comte's death, he was recognized as head of the section which accepted -the full Comtian doctrine; the other section adhering to Littre, who -rejected the religion of humanity as inconsistent with the materialism -of Comte's earlier period. From 1853 Laffitte delivered Positivist -lectures in the room formerly occupied by Comte in the rue Monsieur le -Prince. He published _Les Grands Types de l'humanite_ (1875) and _Cours -de philosophie premiere_ (1889). In 1893 he was appointed to the new -chair founded at the College de France for the exposition of the general -history of science, and it was largely due to his inspiration that a -statue to Comte was erected in the Place de la Sorbonne in 1902. He died -on the 4th of January 1903. - - - - -LA FLECHE, a town of western France, capital of an arrondissement in the -department of Sarthe on the Loire, 31 m. S.S.W. of Le Mans by rail. Pop. -(1906) town 7800; commune 10,663. The chief interest of the town lies in -the Prytanee, a famous school for the sons of officers, originally a -college founded for the Jesuits in 1607 by Henry IV. The buildings, -including a fine chapel, were erected from 1620 to 1653 and are -surrounded by a park. A bronze statue of Henry IV. stands in the -marketplace. La Fleche is the seat of a sub-prefect and of a tribunal of -first instance, and carries on tanning, flour-milling, and the -manufacture of paper, starch, wooden shoes and gloves. It is an -agricultural market. - -The lords of La Fleche became counts of Maine about 1100, but the -lordship became separate from the county and passed in the 16th century -to the family of Bourbon and thus to Henry IV. - - - - -LAFONT, PIERRE CHERI (1797-1873), French actor, was born at Bordeaux on -the 15th of May 1797. Abandoning his profession as assistant ship's -doctor in the navy, he went to Paris to study singing and acting. He had -some experience at a small theatre, and was preparing to appear at the -Opera Comique when the director of the Vaudeville offered him an -engagement. Here he made his _debut_ in 1821 in _La Somnambule_, and his -good looks and excellent voice soon brought him into public favour. -After several years at the Nouveautes and the Vaudeville, on the burning -of the latter in 1838 he went to England, and married, at Gretna Green, -Jenny Colon, from whom he was soon divorced. On his return to Paris he -joined the Varietes, where he acted for fifteen years in such plays as -_Le Chevalier de Saint Georges_, _Le Lion empaille_, _Une derniere -conquete_, &c. Another engagement at the Vaudeville followed, and one at -the Gaiete, and he ended his brilliant career at the Gymnase in the part -of the noble father in such plays as Les _Vieux Garcons_ and _Nos bons -villageois_. He died in Paris on the 19th of April 1873. - - - - -LA FONTAINE, JEAN DE (1621-1695), French poet, was born at Chateau -Thierry in Champagne, probably on the 8th of July 1621. His father was -Charles de La Fontaine, "maitre des eaux et forets"--a kind of -deputy-ranger--of the duchy of Chateau Thierry; his mother was Francoise -Pidoux. On both sides his family was of the highest provincial middle -class, but was not noble; his father was also fairly wealthy. Jean, the -eldest child, was educated at the _college_ (grammar-school) of Reims, -and at the end of his school days he entered the Oratory in May 1641, -and the seminary of Saint-Magloire in October of the same year; but a -very short sojourn proved to him that he had mistaken his vocation. He -then apparently studied law, and is said to have been admitted as -_avocat_, though there does not seem to be actual proof of this. He was, -however, settled in life, or at least might have been so, somewhat -early. In 1647 his father resigned his rangership in his favour, and -arranged a marriage for him with Marie Hericart, a girl of sixteen, who -brought him twenty thousand livres, and expectations. She seems to have -been both handsome and intelligent, but the two did not get on well -together. There appears to be absolutely no ground for the vague scandal -as to her conduct, which was, for the most part long afterwards, raised -by gossips or personal enemies of La Fontaine. All that is positively -said against her is that she was a negligent housewife and an inveterate -novel reader; La Fontaine himself was constantly away from home, was -certainly not strict in point of conjugal fidelity, and was so bad a man -of business that his affairs became involved in hopeless difficulty, and -a _separation de biens_ had to take place in 1658. This was a perfectly -amicable transaction for the benefit of the family; by degrees, however, -the pair, still without any actual quarrel, ceased to live together, and -for the greater part of the last forty years of La Fontaine's life he -lived in Paris while his wife dwelt at Chateau Thierry, which, however, -he frequently visited. One son was born to them in 1653, and was -educated and taken care of wholly by his mother. - -Even in the earlier years of his marriage La Fontaine seems to have been -much at Paris, but it was not till about 1656 that he became a regular -visitor to the capital. The duties of his office, which were only -occasional, were compatible with this non-residence. It was not till he -was past thirty that his literary career began. The reading of Malherbe, -it is said, first awoke poetical fancies in him, but for some time he -attempted nothing but trifles in the fashion of the time--epigrams, -ballades, rondeaux, &c. His first serious work was a translation or -adaptation of the _Eunuchus of Terence_ (1654). At this time the -Maecenas of French letters was the Superintendant Fouquet, to whom La -Fontaine was introduced by Jacques Jannart, a connexion of his wife's. -Few people who paid their court to Fouquet went away empty-handed, and -La Fontaine soon received a pension of 1000 livres (1659), on the easy -terms of a copy of verses for each quarter's receipt. He began too a -medley of prose and poetry, entitled _Le Songe de Vaux_, on Fouquet's -famous country house. It was about this time that his wife's property -had to be separately secured to her, and he seems by degrees to have had -to sell everything of his own; but, as he never lacked powerful and -generous patrons, this was of small importance to him. In the same year -he wrote a ballad, _Les Rieurs du Beau-Richard_, and this was followed -by many small pieces of occasional poetry addressed to various -personages from the king downwards. Fouquet soon incurred the royal -displeasure, but La Fontaine, like most of his literary proteges, was -not unfaithful to him, the well-known elegy _Pleurez, nymphes de Vaux_, -being by no means the only proof of his devotion. Indeed it is thought -not improbable that a journey to Limoges in 1663 in company with -Jannart, and of which we have an account written to his wife, was not -wholly spontaneous, as it certainly was not on Jannart's part. Just at -this time his affairs did not look promising. His father and himself had -assumed the title of esquire, to which they were not strictly entitled, -and, some old edicts on the subject having been put in force, an -informer procured a sentence against the poet fining him 2000 livres. He -found, however, a new protector in the duke and still more in the -duchess of Bouillon, his feudal superiors at Chateau Thierry, and -nothing more is heard of the fine. Some of La Fontaine's liveliest -verses are addressed to the duchess, Anne Mancini, the youngest of -Mazarin's nieces, and it is even probable that the taste of the duke and -duchess for Ariosto had something to do with the writing of his first -work of real importance, the first book of the _Contes_, which appeared -in 1664. He was then forty-three years old, and his previous printed -productions had been comparatively trivial, though much of his work was -handed about in manuscript long before it was regularly published. It -was about this time that the quartette of the Rue du Vieux Colombier, so -famous in French literary history, was formed. It consisted of La -Fontaine, Racine, Boileau and Moliere, the last of whom was almost of -the same age as La Fontaine, the other two considerably younger. -Chapelle was also a kind of outsider in the coterie. There are many -anecdotes, some pretty obviously apocryphal, about these meetings. The -most characteristic is perhaps that which asserts that a copy of -Chapelain's unlucky _Pucelle_ always lay on the table, a certain number -of lines of which was the appointed punishment for offences against the -company. The coterie furnished under feigned names the personages of La -Fontaine's version of the Cupid and Psyche story, which, however, with -_Adonis_, was not printed till 1669. Meanwhile the poet continued to -find friends. In 1664 he was regularly commissioned and sworn in as -gentleman to the duchess dowager of Orleans, and was installed in the -Luxembourg. He still retained his rangership, and in 1666 we have -something like a reprimand from Colbert suggesting that he should look -into some malpractices at Chateau Thierry. In the same year appeared the -second book of the _Contes_, and in 1668 the first six books of the -_Fables_, with more of both kinds in 1671. In this latter year a curious -instance of the docility with which the poet lent himself to any -influence was afforded by his officiating, at the instance of the -Port-Royalists, as editor of a volume of sacred poetry dedicated to the -prince de Conti. A year afterwards his situation, which had for some -time been decidedly flourishing, showed signs of changing very much for -the worse. The duchess of Orleans died, and he apparently had to give up -his rangership, probably selling it to pay debts. But there was always a -providence for La Fontaine. Madame de la Sabliere, a woman of great -beauty, of considerable intellectual power and of high character, -invited him to make his home in her house, where he lived for some -twenty years. He seems to have had no trouble whatever about his affairs -thenceforward; and could devote himself to his two different lines of -poetry, as well as to that of theatrical composition. - -In 1682 he was, at more than sixty years of age, recognized as one of -the first men of letters of France. Madame de Sevigne, one of the -soundest literary critics of the time, and by no means given to praise -mere novelties, had spoken of his second collection of _Fables_ -published in the winter of 1678 as divine; and it is pretty certain that -this was the general opinion. It was not unreasonable, therefore, that -he should present himself to the Academy, and, though the subjects of -his _Contes_ were scarcely calculated to propitiate that decorous -assembly, while his attachment to Fouquet and to more than one -representative of the old Frondeur party made him suspect to Colbert and -the king, most of the members were his personal friends. He was first -proposed in 1682, but was rejected for Dangeau. The next year Colbert -died and La Fontaine was again nominated. Boileau was also a candidate, -but the first ballot gave the fabulist sixteen votes against seven only -for the critic. The king, whose assent was necessary, not merely for -election but for a second ballot in case of the failure of an absolute -majority, was ill-pleased, and the election was left pending. Another -vacancy occurred, however, some months later, and to this Boileau was -elected. The king hastened to approve the choice effusively, adding, -"Vous pouvez incessamment recevoir La Fontaine, il a promis d'etre -sage." His admission was indirectly the cause of the only serious -literary quarrel of his life. A dispute took place between the Academy -and one of its members, Antoine Furetiere, on the subject of the -latter's French dictionary, which was decided to be a breach of the -Academy's corporate privileges. Furetiere, a man of no small ability, -bitterly assailed those whom he considered to be his enemies, and among -them La Fontaine, whose unlucky _Contes_ made him peculiarly vulnerable, -his second collection of these tales having been the subject of a police -condemnation. The death of the author of the _Roman Bourgeois_, however, -put an end to this quarrel. Shortly afterwards La Fontaine had a share -in a still more famous affair, the celebrated Ancient-and-Modern -squabble in which Boileau and Perrault were the chiefs, and in which La -Fontaine (though he had been specially singled out by Perrault for -favourable comparison with Aesop and Phaedrus) took the Ancient side. -About the same time (1685-1687) he made the acquaintance of the last of -his many hosts and protectors, Monsieur and Madame d'Hervart, and fell -in love with a certain Madame Ulrich, a lady of some position but of -doubtful character. This acquaintance was accompanied by a great -familiarity with Vendome, Chaulieu and the rest of the libertine coterie -of the Temple; but, though Madame de la Sabliere had long given herself -up almost entirely to good works and religious exercises, La Fontaine -continued an inmate of her house until her death in 1693. What followed -is told in one of the best known of the many stories bearing on his -childlike nature. Hervart on hearing of the death, had set out at once -to find La Fontaine. He met him in the street in great sorrow, and -begged him to make his home at his house. "J'y allais" was La Fontaine's -answer. He had already undergone the process of conversion during a -severe illness the year before. An energetic young priest, M. Poucet, -had brought him, not indeed to understand, but to acknowledge the -impropriety of the _Contes_, and it is said that the destruction of a -new play of some merit was demanded and submitted to as a proof of -repentance. A pleasant story is told of the young duke of Burgundy, -Fenelon's pupil, who was then only eleven years old, sending 50 louis to -La Fontaine as a present of his own motion. But, though La Fontaine -recovered for the time, he was broken by age and infirmity, and his new -hosts had to nurse rather than to entertain him, which they did very -carefully and kindly. He did a little more work, completing his _Fables_ -among other things; but he did not survive Madame de la Sabliere much -more than two years, dying on the 13th of April 1695, at the age of -seventy-three. He was buried in the cemetery of the Holy Innocents. His -wife survived him nearly fifteen years. - -The curious personal character of La Fontaine, like that of some other -men of letters, has been enshrined in a kind of legend by literary -tradition. At an early age his absence of mind and indifference to -business gave a subject to Tallemant des Reaux. His later contemporaries -helped to swell the tale, and the 18th century finally accepted it, -including the anecdotes of his meeting his son, being told who he was, -and remarking, "Ah, yes, I thought I had seen him somewhere!" of his -insisting on fighting a duel with a supposed admirer of his wife, and -then imploring him to visit at his house just as before; of his going -into company with his stockings wrong side out, &c., with, for a -contrast, those of his awkwardness and silence, if not positive -rudeness, in company. It ought to be remembered, as a comment on the -unfavourable description by La Bruyere, that La Fontaine was a special -friend and ally of Benserade, La Bruyere's chief literary enemy. But -after all deductions much will remain, especially when it is remembered -that one of the chief authorities for these anecdotes is Louis Racine, a -man who possessed intelligence and moral worth, and who received them -from his father, La Fontaine's attached friend for more than thirty -years. Perhaps the best worth recording of all these stories is one of -the Vieux Colombier quartette, which tells how Moliere, while Racine and -Boileau were exercising their wits upon "le bonhomme" or "le bon" (by -both which titles La Fontaine was familiarly known), remarked to a -bystander, "Nos beaux esprits ont beau faire, ils n'effaceront pas le -bonhomme." They have not. - - The works of La Fontaine, the total bulk of which is considerable, - fall no less naturally than traditionally into three divisions, the - _Fables_, the _Contes_ and the miscellaneous works. Of these the first - may be said to be known universally, the second to be known to all - lovers of French literature, the third to be with a few exceptions - practically forgotten. This distribution of the judgment of posterity - is as usual just in the main, but not wholly. There are excellent - things in the _Oeuvres Diverses_, but their excellence is only - occasional, and it is not at the best equal to that of the _Fables_ or - the _Contes_. It was thought by contemporary judges who were both - competent and friendly that La Fontaine attempted too many styles, and - there is something in the criticism. His dramatic efforts are - especially weak. The best pieces usually published under his - name--_Ragotin_, _Le Florentin_, _La Coupe enchantee_, were originally - fathered not by him but by Champmesle, the husband of the famous - actress who captivated Racine and Charles de Sevigne. His avowed work - was chiefly in the form of opera, a form of no great value at its - best. _Psyche_ has all the advantages of its charming story and of La - Fontaine's style, but it is perhaps principally interesting nowadays - because of the framework of personal conversation already alluded to. - The mingled prose and verse of the _Songe de Vaux_ is not - uninteresting, but its best things, such as the description of night-- - - "Laissant tomber les fleurs et ne les semant pas," - - which has enchanted French critics, are little more than conceits, - though as in this case sometimes very beautiful conceits. The elegies, - the epistles, the epigrams, the ballades, contain many things which - would be very creditable to a minor poet or a writer of vers de - societe, but even if they be taken according to the wise rule of - modern criticism, each in its kind, and judged simply according to - their rank in that kind, they fall far below the merits of the two - great collections of verse narratives which have assured La Fontaine's - immortality. - - Between the actual literary merits of the two there is not much to - choose, but the change of manners and the altered standard of literary - decency have thrown the _Contes_ into the shade. These tales are - identical in general character with those which amused Europe from the - days of the early _fabliau_ writers. Light love, the misfortunes of - husbands, the cunning of wives, the breach of their vows by - ecclesiastics, constitute the staple of their subject. In some - respects La Fontaine is the best of such tale-tellers, while he is - certainly the latest who deserves such excuse as may be claimed by a - writer who does not choose indecent subjects from a deliberate - knowledge that they are considered indecent, and with a deliberate - desire to pander to a vicious taste. No one who followed him in the - style can claim this excuse; he can, and the way in which - contemporaries of stainless virtue such as Madame de Sevigne speak of - his work shows that, though the new public opinion was growing up, it - was not finally accepted. In the _Contes_ La Fontaine for the most - part attempts little originality of theme. He takes his stories - (varying them, it is true, in detail not a little) from Boccaccio, - from Marguerite, from the _Cent Nouvelles Nouvelles_, &c. He applies - to them his marvellous power of easy sparkling narration, and his - hardly less marvellous faculty of saying more or less outrageous - things in the most polite and gentlemanly manner. These _Contes_ have - indeed certain drawbacks. They are not penetrated by the half pagan - ardour for physical beauty and the delights of sense which animates - and excuses the early Italian Renaissance. They have not the subtle - mixture of passion and sensuality, of poetry and appetite, which - distinguishes the work of Marguerite and of the Pleiade. They are - emphatically _contes pour rire_, a genuine expression of the _esprit - gaulois_ of the fabliau writers and of Rabelais, destitute of the - grossness of envelope which had formerly covered that spirit. A - comparison of "La Fiancee du roi de Garbe" with its original in - Boccaccio (especially if the reader takes M. Emile Montegut's - admirable essay as a commentary) will illustrate better than anything - else what they have and what they have not. Some writers have pleaded - hard for the admission of actual passion of the poetical sort in such - pieces as "La Courtisane amoureuse," but as a whole it must be - admitted to be absent. - - The _Fables_, with hardly less animation and narrative art than the - _Contes_, are free from disadvantages (according to modern notions) of - subject, and exhibit the versatility and fecundity of the author's - talent perhaps even more fully. La Fontaine had many predecessors in - the fable and especially in the beast fable. In his first issue, - comprising what are now called the first six books, he adhered to the - path of these predecessors with some closeness; but in the later - collections he allowed himself far more liberty, and it is in these - parts that his genius is most fully manifested. The boldness of the - politics is as much to be considered as the ingenuity of the - moralizing, as the intimate knowledge of human nature displayed in the - substance of the narratives, or as the artistic mastery shown in - their form. It has sometimes been objected that the view of human - character which La Fontaine expresses is unduly dark, and resembles - too much that of La Rochefoucauld, for whom the poet certainly had a - profound admiration. The discussion of this point would lead us too - far here. It may only be said that satire (and La Fontaine is - eminently a satirist) necessarily concerns itself with the darker - rather than with the lighter shades. Indeed the objection has become - pretty nearly obsolete with the obsolescence of what may be called the - sentimental-ethicalschool of criticism. Its last overt expression was - made by Lamartine, excellently answered by Sainte-Beuve. Exception has - also been taken to the _Fables_ on more purely literary, but hardly - less purely arbitrary grounds by Lessing. Perhaps the best criticism - ever passed upon La Fontaine's _Fables_ is that of Silvestre de Sacy, - to the effect that they supply three several delights to three several - ages: the child rejoices in the freshness and vividness of the story, - the eager student of literature in the consummate art with which it is - told, the experienced man of the world in the subtle reflections on - character and life which it conveys. Nor has any one, with the - exception of a few paradoxers like Rousseau and a few sentimentalists - like Lamartine, denied that the moral tone of the whole is as fresh - and healthy as its literary interest is vivid. The book has therefore - naturally become the standard reading book of French both at home and - abroad, a position which it shares in verse with the _Telemaque_ of - Fenelon in prose. It is no small testimony to its merit that not even - this use or misuse has interfered with its popularity. - - The general literary character of La Fontaine is, with allowance made - for the difference of subject, visible equally in the _Fables_ and in - the _Contes_. Perhaps one of the hardest sayings in French literature - for an English student is the dictum of Joubert to the effect that - "_Il y a dans La Fontaine une plenitude de poesie qu'on ne trouve - nulle part dans les autres auteurs francais._" The difficulty arises - from the ambiguity of the terms. For inventiveness of fancy and for - diligent observation of the rules of art La Fontaine deserves, if not - the first, almost the first place among French poets. In his hands the - oldest story becomes novel, the most hackneyed moral piquant, the most - commonplace details fresh and appropriate. As to the second point - there has not been such unanimous agreement. It used to be considered - that La Fontaine's ceaseless diversity of metre, his archaisms, his - licences in rhyme and orthography, were merely ingenious devices for - the sake of easy writing, intended to evade the trammels of the - stately couplet and _rimes difficiles_ enjoined by Boileau. Lamartine - in the attack already mentioned affects contempt of the "vers boiteux, - disloques, inegaux, sans symmetrie ni dans l'oreille ni sur la page." - This opinion may be said to have been finally exploded by the most - accurate metrical critic and one of the most skilful metrical - practitioners that France has ever had, Theodore de Banville; and it - is only surprising that it should ever have been entertained by any - professional maker of verse. La Fontaine's irregularities are strictly - regulated, his cadences carefully arranged, and the whole effect may - be said to be (though, of course, in a light and tripping measure - instead of a stately one) similar to that of the stanzas of the - English pindaric ode in the hands of Dryden or Collins. There is - therefore nothing against La Fontaine on the score of invention and - nothing on the score of art. But something more, at least according to - English standards, is wanted to make up a "plenitude of poesy," and - this something more La Fontaine seldom or never exhibits. In words - used by Joubert himself elsewhere, he never "transports." The faculty - of transporting is possessed and used in very different manners by - different poets. In some it takes the form of passion, in some of half - mystical enthusiasm for nature, in some of commanding eloquence, in - some of moral fervour. La Fontaine has none of these things: he is - always amusing, always sensible, always clever, sometimes even - affecting, but at the same time always more or less prosaic, were it - not for his admirable versification. He is not a great poet, perhaps - not even a great humorist; but he is the most admirable teller of - light tales in verse that has ever existed in any time or country; and - he has established in his verse-tale a model which is never likely to - be surpassed. - - La Fontaine did not during his life issue any complete edition of his - works, nor even of the two greatest and most important divisions of - them. The most remarkable of his separate publications have already - been noticed. Others were the _Poeme de la captivite de St Malc_ - (1673), one of the pieces inspired by the Port-Royalists, the _Poeme - du Quinquina_ (1692), a piece of task work also, though of a very - different kind, and a number of pieces published either in small - pamphlets or with the works of other men. Among the latter may be - singled out the pieces published by the poet with the works of his - friend Maucroix (1685). The year after his death some posthumous works - appeared, and some years after his son's death the scattered poems, - letters, &c., with the addition of some unpublished work bought from - the family in manuscript, were carefully edited and published as - _Oeuvres diverses_ (1729). During the 18th century two of the most - magnificent illustrated editions ever published of any poet reproduced - the two chief works of La Fontaine. The _Fables_ were illustrated by - Oudry (1755-1759), the _Contes_ by Eisen (1762). This latter under the - title of "Edition des Fermiers-Generaux" fetches a high price. During - the first thirty years of the 19th century Walckenaer, a great student - of French 17th-century classics, published for the house of Didot - three successive editions of La Fontaine, the last (1826-1827) being - perhaps entitled to the rank of the standard edition, as his _Histoire - de la vie et des ouvrages de La Fontaine_ is the standard biography - and bibliography. The later editions of M. Marty-Laveaux in the - _Bibliotheque elzevirienne_, A. Pauly in the _Collection des - classiques francaises_ of M. Lemerre and L. Moland in that of M. - Garnier supply in different forms all that can be wished. The second - is the handsomest, the third, which is complete, perhaps the most - generally useful. Editions, selections, translations, &c., of the - _Fables_, especially for school use, are innumerable; but an - illustrated edition published by the _Librairie des Bibliophiles_ - (1874) deserves to be mentioned as not unworthy of its 18th-century - predecessors. The works of M. Grouchy, _Documents inedits sur La - Fontaine_ (1893); of G. Lafenestre, _Jean de La Fontaine_ (1895); and - of Emile Faguet, _Jean de La Fontaine_ (1900), should be mentioned. - (G. Sa.) - - - - -LAFONTAINE, SIR LOUIS HIPPOLYTE, BART. (1807-1864), Canadian statesman -and judge, third son of Antoine Menard LaFontaine (1772-1813) and -Marie-J-Fontaine Bienvenue, was born at Boucherville in the province of -Quebec on the 4th of October 1807. LaFontaine was educated at the -College de Montreal under the direction of the Sulpicians, and was -called to the bar of the province of Lower Canada on the 18th of August -1829. He married firstly Adele, daughter of A. Berthelot of Quebec; and, -secondly, Jane, daughter of Charles Morrison, of Berthier, by whom he -had two sons. In 1830 he was elected a member of the House of Assembly -for the county of Terrebonne, and became an ardent supporter of Louis -Joseph Papineau in opposing the administration of the governor-in-chief, -which led to the rebellion of 1837. LaFontaine, however, did not approve -the violent methods of his leader, and after the hostilities at Saint -Denis he presented a petition to Lord Gosford requesting him to summon -the assembly and to adopt measures to stem the revolutionary course of -events in Lower Canada. The rebellion broke out afresh in the autumn of -1838; the constitution of 1791 was suspended; LaFontaine was imprisoned -for a brief period; and Papineau, who favoured annexation by the United -States, was in exile. At this crisis in Lower Canada the French -Canadians turned to LaFontaine as their leader, and under his direction -maintained their opposition to the special council, composed of nominees -of the crown. In 1839 Lord Sydenham, the governor-general, offered the -solicitor generalship to LaFontaine, which he refused; and after the -Union of 1841 LaFontaine was defeated in the county of Terrebonne -through the governor's influence. During the next year he obtained a -seat in the assembly of the province of Canada, and on the death of -Sydenham he was called by Sir Charles Bagot to form an administration -with Robert Baldwin. The ministry resigned in November 1843, as a -protest against the actions of Lord Metcalfe, who had succeeded Bagot. -In 1848 LaFontaine formed a new administration with Baldwin, and -remained in office until 1851, when he retired from public life. It was -during the ministry of LaFontaine-Baldwin that the Amnesty Bill was -passed, which occasioned grave riots in Montreal, personal violence to -Lord Elgin and the destruction of the parliament buildings. After the -death of Sir James Stuart in 1853 LaFontaine was appointed chief justice -of Lower Canada and president of the seigneurial court, which settled -the vexed question of land tenure in Canada; and in 1854 he was created -a baronet. He died at Montreal on the 26th of February 1864. - - LaFontaine was well versed in constitutional history and French law; - he reasoned closely and presented his conclusions with directness. He - was upright in his conduct, sincerely attached to the traditions of - his race, and laboured conscientiously to establish responsible - government in Canada. His principal works are: _L'Analyse de - l'ordonnance du conseil special sur les bureaux d'hypotheques_ - (Montreal, 1842); _Observations sur les questions seigneuriales_ - (Montreal, 1854); see _LaFontaine_, by A. DeCelles (Toronto, 1906). - (A. G. D.) - - - - -LAFOSSE, CHARLES DE (1640-1716), French painter, was born in Paris. He -was one of the most noted and least servile pupils of Le Brun, under -whose direction he shared in the chief of the great decorative works -undertaken in the reign of Louis XIV. Leaving France in 1662, he spent -two years in Rome and three in Venice, and the influence of his -prolonged studies of Veronese is evident in his "Finding of Moses" -(Louvre), and in his "Rape of Proserpine" (Louvre), which he presented -to the Royal Academy as his diploma picture in 1673. He was at once -named assistant professor, and in 1674 the full responsibilities of the -office devolved on him, but his engagements did not prevent his -accepting in 1689 the invitation of Lord Montagu to decorate Montagu -House. He visited London twice, remaining on the second -occasion--together with Rousseau and Monnoyer--more than two years. -William III. vainly strove to detain him in England by the proposal that -he should decorate Hampton Court, for Le Brun was dead, and Mansart -pressed Lafosse to return to Paris to take in hand the cupola of the -Invalides. The decorations of Montagu House are destroyed, those of -Versailles are restored, and the dome of the Invalides (engraved, Picart -and Cochin) is now the only work existing which gives a full measure of -his talent. During his latter years Lafosse executed many other -important decorations in public buildings and private houses, notably in -that of Crozat, under whose roof he died on the 13th of December 1716. - - - - -LAGARDE, PAUL ANTON DE (1827-1891), German biblical scholar and -orientalist, was born at Berlin on the 2nd of November 1827. His real -name was Botticher, Lagarde being his mother's name. At Berlin -(1844-1846) and Halle (1846-1847) he studied theology, philosophy and -oriental languages. In 1852 his studies took him to London and Paris. In -1854 he became a teacher at a Berlin public school, but this did not -interrupt his biblical studies. He edited the _Didascalia apostolorum -syriace_ (1854), and other Syriac texts collected in the British Museum -and in Paris. In 1866 he received three years' leave of absence to -collect fresh materials, and in 1869 succeeded Heinrich Ewald as -professor of oriental languages at Gottingen. Like Ewald, Lagarde was an -active worker in a variety of subjects and languages; but his chief aim, -the elucidation of the Bible, was almost always kept in view. He edited -the Aramaic translation (known as the Targum) of the Prophets according -to the Codex Reuchlinianus preserved at Carlsruhe, _Prophetae chaldaice_ -(1872), the _Hagiographa chaldaice_ (1874), an Arabic translation of the -Gospels, _Die vier Evangelien, arabisch aus der Wiener Handschrift -herausgegeben_ (1864), a Syriac translation of the Old Testament -Apocrypha, _Libri V. T. apocryphi syriace_ (1861), a Coptic translation -of the Pentateuch, _Der Pentateuch koptisch_ (1867), and a part of the -Lucianic text of the Septuagint, which he was able to reconstruct from -manuscripts for nearly half the Old Testament. He devoted himself -ardently to oriental scholarship, and published _Zur Urgeschichte der -Armenier_ (1854) and _Armenische Studien_ (1877). He was also a student -of Persian, publishing _Isaias persice_ (1883) and _Persische Studien_ -(1884). He followed up his Coptic studies with _Aegyptiaca_ (1883), and -published many minor contributions to the study of oriental languages in -_Gesammelte Abhandlungen_ (1866), _Symmicta_ (i. 1877, ii. 1880), -_Semitica_ (i. 1878, ii. 1879), _Orientalia_ (1879-1880) and -_Mittheilungen_ (1884). Mention should also be made of the valuable -_Onomastica sacra_ (1870; 2nd ed., 1887). Lagarde also took some part in -politics. He belonged to the Prussian Conservative party, and was a -violent anti-Semite. The bitterness which he felt appeared in his -writings. He died at Gottingen on the 22nd of December 1891. - - See the article in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_; and cf. Anna de - Lagarde, _Paul de Lagarde_ (1894). - - - - -LAGASH, or SIRPURLA, one of the oldest centres of Sumerian civilization -in Babylonia. It is represented by a rather low, long line of ruin -mounds, along the dry bed of an ancient canal, some 3 m. E. of the -Shatt-el-Hai and a little less than 10 m. N. of the modern Turkish town -of Shatra. These ruins were discovered in 1877 by Ernest de Sarzec, at -that time French consul at Basra, who was allowed, by the Montefich -chief, Nasir Pasha, the first Wali-Pasha, or governor-general, of Basra, -to excavate at his pleasure in the territories subject to that official. -At the outset on his own account, and later as a representative of the -French government, under a Turkish firman, de Sarzec continued -excavations at this site, with various intermissions, until his death in -1901, after which the work was continued under the supervision of the -Commandant Cros. The principal excavations were made in two larger -mounds, one of which proved to be the site of the temple, E-Ninnu, the -shrine of the patron god of Lagash, Nin-girsu or Ninib. This temple had -been razed and a fortress built upon its ruins, in the Greek or Seleucid -period, some of the bricks found bearing the inscription in Aramaic and -Greek of a certain Hadad-nadin-akhe, king of a small Babylonian kingdom. -It was beneath this fortress that the numerous statues of Gudea were -found, which constitute the gem of the Babylonian collections at the -Louvre. These had been decapitated and otherwise mutilated, and thrown -into the foundations of the new fortress. From this stratum came also -various fragments of bas reliefs of high artistic excellence. The -excavations in the other larger mound resulted in the discovery of the -remains of buildings containing objects of all sorts in bronze and -stone, dating from the earliest Sumerian period onward, and enabling us -to trace the art history of Babylonia to a date some hundreds of years -before the time of Gudea. Apparently this mound had been occupied -largely by store houses, in which were stored not only grain, figs, &c., -but also vessels, weapons, sculptures and every possible object -connected with the use and administration of palace and temple. In a -small outlying mound de Sarzec discovered the archives of the temple, -about 30,000 inscribed clay tablets, containing the business records, -and revealing with extraordinary minuteness the administration of an -ancient Babylonian temple, the character of its property, the method of -farming its lands, herding its flocks, and its commercial and industrial -dealings and enterprises; for an ancient Babylonian temple was a great -industrial, commercial, agricultural and stock-raising establishment. -Unfortunately, before these archives could be removed, the galleries -containing them were rifled by the Arabs, and large numbers of the -tablets were sold to antiquity dealers, by whom they have been scattered -all over Europe and America. From the inscriptions found at Tello, it -appears that Lagash was a city of great importance in the Sumerian -period, some time probably in the 4th millennium B.C. It was at that -time ruled by independent kings, Ur-Nina and his successors, who were -engaged in contests with the Elamites on the east and the kings of Kengi -and Kish on the north. With the Semitic conquest it lost its -independence, its rulers becoming _patesis_, dependent rulers, under -Sargon and his successors; but it still remained Sumerian and continued -to be a city of much importance, and, above all, a centre of artistic -development. Indeed, it was in this period and under the immediately -succeeding supremacy of the kings of Ur, Ur-Gur and Dungi, that it -reached its highest artistic development. At this period, also, under -its _patesis_, Ur-bau and Gudea, Lagash had extensive commercial -communications with distant realms. According to his own records, Gudea -brought cedars from the Amanus and Lebanon mountains in Syria, diorite -or dolorite from eastern Arabia, copper and gold from central and -southern Arabia and from Sinai, while his armies, presumably under his -overlord, Ur-Gur, were engaged in battles in Elam on the east. His was -especially the era of artistic development. Some of the earlier works of -Ur-Nina, En-anna-tum, Entemena and others, before the Semitic conquest, -are also extremely interesting, especially the famous stele of the -vultures and a great silver vase ornamented with what may be called the -coat of arms of Lagash, a lion-headed eagle with wings outspread, -grasping a lion in each talon. After the time of Gudea, Lagash seems to -have lost its importance; at least we know nothing more about it until -the construction of the Seleucid fortress mentioned, when it seems to -have become part of the Greek kingdom of Characene. The objects found at -Tello are the most valuable art treasures up to this time discovered in -Babylonia. - - See E. de Sarzec, _Decouvertes en Chaldee_ (1887 foll.). - (J. P. Pe.) - - - - -LAGHMAN, a district of Afghanistan, in the province of Jalalabad, -between Jalalabad and Kabul, on the northern side of the Peshawar road, -one of the richest and most fertile tracts in Afghanistan. It is the -valley of the Kabul river between the Tagao and the Kunar and merges on -the north into Kafiristan. The inhabitants, Ghilzais and Tajiks, are -supposed to be the cleverest business people in the country. Sugar, -cotton and rice are exported to Kabul. The Laghman route between Kabul -and India crossing the Kunar river into the Mohmand country is the -route followed by Alexander the Great and Baber; but it has now been -supplanted by the Khyber. - - - - -LAGOON (Fr. _lagune_, Lat. _lacuna_, a pool), a term applied to (1) a -sheet of salt or brackish water near the sea, (2) a sheet of fresh water -of no great depth or extent, (3) the expanse of smooth water enclosed by -an atoll. Sea lagoons are formed only where the shores are low and -protected from wave action. Under these conditions a bar may be raised -above sea-level or a spit may grow until its end touches the land. The -enclosed shallow water is then isolated in a wide stretch, the seaward -banks broaden, and the lagoon becomes a permanent area of still shallow -water with peculiar faunal features. In the old lake plains of Australia -there are occasional wide and shallow depressions where water collects -permanently. Large numbers of aquatic birds, black swans, wild duck, -teal, migrant spoon-bills or pelicans, resort to these fresh-water -lagoons. - - - - -LAGOS, the western province of Southern Nigeria, a British colony and -protectorate in West Africa. The province consists of three divisions: -(1) the coast region, including Lagos Island, being the former colony of -Lagos; (2) small native states adjacent to the colony; and (3) the -Yoruba country, farther inland. The total area is some 27,000 sq. m., or -about the size of Scotland. The province is bounded S. by the Gulf of -Guinea, (from 2 deg. 46' 55" to 4 deg. 30' E.); W. by the French colony -of Dahomey; N. and E. by other provinces of Nigeria. - - _Physical Features._--The coast is low, marshy and malarious, and all - along the shore the great Atlantic billows cause a dangerous surf. - Behind the coast-line stretches a series of lagoons, in which are - small islands, that of Lagos having an area of 3(3/4) sq. m. Beyond the - lagoons and mangrove swamps is a broad zone of dense primeval - forest--"the bush"--which completely separates the arable lands from - the coast lagoons. The water-parting of the streams flowing north to - the Niger, and south to the Gulf of Guinea, is the main physical - feature. The general level of Yorubaland is under 2000 ft. But towards - the east, about the upper course of the river Oshun, the elevation is - higher. Southward from the divide the land, which is intersected by - the nearly parallel courses of the rivers Ogun, Omi, Oshun, Oni and - Oluwa, falls in continuous undulations to the coast, the open - cultivated ground gradually giving place to forest tracts, where the - most characteristic tree is the oil-palm. Flowering trees, certain - kinds of rubber vines, and shrubs are plentiful. In the northern - regions the shea-butter tree is found. The fauna resembles that of the - other regions of the Guinea coast, but large game is becoming scarce. - Leopards, antelopes and monkeys are common, and alligators infest the - rivers. - - The lagoons, lying between the outer surf-beaten beach and the inner - shore line, form a navigable highway of still waters, many miles in - extent. They are almost entirely free from rock, though they are often - shallow, with numerous mud banks. The most extensive are Lekki in the - east, and Ikoradu (Lagos) in the west. At its N.W. extremity the Lagos - lagoon receives the Ogun, the largest river in Yorubaland, whose - current is strong enough to keep the seaward channel open throughout - the year. Hence the importance of the port of Lagos, which lies in - smooth water at the northern end of this channel. The outer entrance - is obstructed by a dangerous sand bar. - - _Climate and Health._--The climate is unhealthy, especially for - Europeans. The rainfall has not been ascertained in the interior. In - the northern districts it is probably considerably less than at Lagos, - where it is about 70 in. a year. The variation is, however, very - great. In 1901 the rainfall was 112 in., in 1902 but 47, these figures - being respectively the highest and lowest recorded in a period of - seventeen years. The mean temperature at Lagos is 82.5 deg. F., the - range being from 68 deg. to 91 deg. At certain seasons sudden heavy - squalls of wind and rain that last for a few hours are common. The - hurricane and typhoon are unknown. The principal diseases are malarial - fever, smallpox, rheumatism, peripheral neuritis, dysentery, chest - diseases and guinea-worm. Fever not unfrequently assumes the dangerous - form known as "black-water fever." The frequency of smallpox is being - much diminished outside the larger towns in the interior, in which - vaccination is neglected. The absence of plague, yellow fever, - cholera, typhoid fever and scarlatina is noteworthy. A mild form of - yaws is endemic. - -_Inhabitants._--The population is estimated at 1,750,000. The Yoruba -people, a Negro race divided into many tribes, form the majority of the -inhabitants. Notwithstanding their political feuds and their proved -capacity as fighting men, the Yoruba are distinguished above all the -surrounding races for their generally peaceful disposition, industry, -friendliness, courtesy and hospitality towards strangers. They are also -intensely patriotic. Physically they resemble closely their Ewe and -Dahomey neighbours, but are of somewhat lighter complexion, taller and -of less pronounced Negro features. They exhibit high administrative -ability, possess a marked capacity for trade, and have made remarkable -progress in the industrial arts. The different tribes are distinguished -by tattoo markings, usually some simple pattern of two or more parallel -lines, disposed horizontally or vertically on the cheeks or other parts -of the face. The feeling for religion is deeply implanted among the -Yoruba. The majority are pagans, or dominated by pagan beliefs, but -Islam has made great progress since the cessation of the Fula wars, -while Protestant and Roman Catholic missions have been at work since -1848 at Abeokuta, Oyo, Ibadan and other large towns. Samuel Crowther, -the first Negro bishop in the Anglican church, who was distinguished as -an explorer, geographer and linguist, was a native of Yorubaland, -rescued (1822) by the English from slavery and educated at Sierra Leone -(see YORUBAS). - -_Towns._--Besides Lagos (q.v.), pop. about 50,000, the chief towns in -the colony proper are Epe, pop. 16,000, on the northern side of the -lagoons, and Badagry (a notorious place during the slave-trade period) -and Lekki, both on the coast. Inland the chief towns are Abeokuta -(q.v.), pop. about 60,000, and Ibadan (q.v.), pop. estimated at 150,000. - -_Agriculture and Trade._--The chief wealth of the country consists in -forest produce, the staple industries being the collection of -palm-kernels and palm oil. Besides the oil-palm forests large areas are -covered with timber trees, the wood chiefly cut for commercial purposes -being a kind of mahogany. The destruction of immature trees and the -fluctuations in price render this a very uncertain trade. The rubber -industry was started in 1894, and in 1896 the rubber exported was valued -at L347,000. In 1899, owing to reckless methods of tapping the vines, -75% of the rubber plants died. Precautions were then taken to preserve -the remainder and allow young plants to grow. The collection of rubber -recommenced in 1904 and the industry again became one of importance. A -considerable area is devoted to cocoa plantations, all owned by native -cultivators. Coffee and tobacco of good quality are cultivated and -shea-butter is largely used as an illuminant. The Yoruba country is the -greatest agricultural centre in West Africa. For home consumption the -Yoruba grow yams, maize and millet, the chief articles of food, cassava, -sweet potatoes, sesame and beans. Model farms have been established for -experimental culture and for the tuition of the natives. A palatable -wine is obtained from the _Raphia vinifera_ and native beers are also -brewed. Imported spirits are largely consumed. There are no manufactures -on a large scale save the making of "country cloths" (from cotton grown, -spun and woven in the country) and mats. Pottery and agricultural -implements are made, and tanning, dyeing and forging practised in the -towns, and along the rivers and lagoons boats and canoes are built. -Fishing is extensively engaged in, the fish being dried and sent up -country. Except iron there are no valuable minerals in the country. - -The cotton plant from which the "country cloths" are made is native to -the country, the soil of which is capable of producing the very finest -grades of cotton. The Egba branch of the Yoruba have always grown the -plant. In 1869 the cotton exported was valued at L76,957, but owing to -low prices the natives ceased to grow cotton for export, so that in 1879 -the value of exported cotton was only L526. In 1902 planting for export -was recommenced by the Egba on scientific lines, and was started in the -Abeokuta district with encouraging results. - -The Yoruba profess to be unable to alienate land in perpetuity, but -native custom does not preclude leasing, and land concessions have been -taken up by Europeans on long leases. Some concessions are only for -cutting and removing timber; others permit of cultivation. The northern -parts of the protectorate are specially suitable for stock raising and -poultry culture. - -The chief exports are palm-kernels, palm-oil, timber, rubber and cocoa. -Palm-kernels alone constitute more than a half in value of the total -exports, and with palm-oil over three-fourths. The trade in these -products is practically confined to Great Britain and Germany, the share -of the first-named being 25% to Germany's 75%. Minor exports are coffee, -"country cloths," maize, shea-butter and ivory. - -Cotton goods are the most important of the imports, spirits coming next, -followed by building material, haberdashery and hardware and tobacco. -Over 90% of the cotton goods are imported from Great Britain, whilst -nearly the same proportion of the spirit imports come from Germany. -Nearly all the liquors consist of "Trade Spirits," chiefly gin, rum and -a concoction called "alcohol," introduced (1901) to meet the growing -taste of the people for stronger liquor. This stuff contained 90% of -pure alcohol and sometimes over 4% of fusel oil. To hinder the sale of -this noxious compound legislation was passed in 1903 prohibiting the -import of liquor containing more than (1/2)% of fusel oil, whilst the -states of Abeokuta and Ibadan prohibited the importation of liquor -stronger than proof. The total trade of the country in 1905 was valued -at L2,224,754, the imports slightly exceeding the exports. There is a -large transit trade with Dahomey. - - _Communications._--Lagos is well supplied with means of communication. - A 3 ft. 6 in. gauge railway starts from Iddo Island, and extends past - Abeokuta, 64 m. from Lagos, Ibadan (123 m.), Oshogbo (175 m.), to - Illorin (247 m.) in Northern Nigeria, whence the line is continued to - Jebba and Zunguru (see NIGERIA). Abeokuta is served by a branch line, - 1(1/2) m. long, from Aro on the main line. Railway bridges connect Iddo - Island both with the mainland and with Lagos Island (see Lagos, town). - This line was begun in 1896 and opened to Ibadan in 1901. In 1905 the - building of the section Ibadan-Illorin was undertaken. The railway was - built by the government and cost about L7000 per mile. The lagoons - offer convenient channels for numerous small craft, which, with the - exception of steam-launches, are almost entirely native-built canoes. - Branch steamers run between the Forcados mouth of the Niger and Lagos, - and also between Lagos and Porto Novo, in French territory, and do a - large transit trade. Various roads through the bush have been made by - the government. There is telegraphic communication with Europe, - Northern Nigeria and South Africa, and steamships ply regularly - between Lagos and Liverpool, and Lagos and Hamburg (see LAGOS, town). - - _Administration, Justice, Education, &c._--The small part of the - province which constitutes "the colony of Southern Nigeria" is - governed as a crown colony. Elsewhere the native governments are - retained, the chiefs and councils of elders receiving the advice and - support of British commissioners. There is also an advisory native - central council which meets at Lagos. The great majority of the civil - servants are natives of the country, some of whom have been educated - in England. The legal status of slavery is not recognized by the law - courts and dealing in slaves is suppressed. As an institution slavery - is dying out, and only exists in a domestic form. - - The cost of administration is met, mainly, by customs, largely derived - from the duties on imported spirits. From the railways, a government - monopoly, a considerable net profit is earned. Expenditure is mainly - under the heads of railway administration, other public works, - military and police, health, and education. The revenue increased in - the ten years 1895-1905 from L142,049 to L410,250. In the same period - the expenditure rose from L144,484 to L354,254. - - The defence of the province is entrusted to the Lagos battalion of the - West African Frontier Force, a body under the control of the Colonial - Office in London and composed of Hausa (four-fifths) and Yoruba. It is - officered from the British army. - - The judicial system in the colony proper is based on that of England. - The colonial supreme court, by agreement with the rulers of Abeokuta, - Ibadan and other states in the protectorate, tries, with the aid of - native assessors, all cases of importance in those countries. Other - cases are tried by mixed courts, or, where Yoruba alone are concerned, - by native courts. - - There is a government board of education which maintains a few schools - and supervises those voluntarily established. These are chiefly those - of various missionary societies, who, besides primary schools, have a - few secondary schools. The Mahommedans have their own schools. Grants - from public funds are made to the voluntary schools. Considerable - attention is paid to manual training, the laws of health and the - teaching of English, which is spoken by about one-fourth of the native - population. - -_History._--Lagos Island was so named by the Portuguese explorers of the -15th century, because of the numerous lagoons or lakes on this part of -the coast. The Portuguese, and after them the French, had settlements -here at various points. In the 18th century Lagos Lagoon became the -chief resort of slavers frequenting the Bight of Benin, this portion of -the Gulf of Guinea becoming known pre-eminently as the Slave Coast. -British traders established themselves at Badagry, 40 m. W. of Lagos, -where in 1851 they were attacked by Kosoko, the Yoruba king of Lagos -Island. As a result a British naval force seized Lagos after a sharp -fight and deposed the king, placing his cousin, Akitoye, on the throne. -A treaty was concluded under which Akitoye bound himself to put down the -slave trade. This treaty was not adhered to, and in 1861 Akitoye's son -and successor, King Docemo, was induced to give up his territorial -jurisdiction and accept a pension of 1200 bags of cowries, afterwards -commuted to L1000 a year, which pension he drew until his death in 1885. -Immediately after the proclamation of the British annexation, a steady -current of immigration from the mainland set in, and a flourishing town -arose on Lagos Island. Iddo Island was acquired at the same time as -Lagos Island, and from 1862 to 1894 various additions by purchase or -cession were made to the colony. In 1879 the small kingdom of Kotonu was -placed under British protection. Kotonu lies south and east of the -Denham Lagoon (see DAHOMEY). In 1889 it was exchanged with the French -for the kingdom of Pokra which is to the north of Badagry. In the early -years of the colony Sir John Glover, R.N., who was twice governor -(1864-1866 and 1871-1872), did much pioneer work and earned the -confidence of the natives to a remarkable degree. Later Sir C. A. -Moloney (governor 1886-1890) opened up relations with the Yoruba and -other tribes in the hinterland. He despatched two commissioners whose -duty it was to conclude commercial treaties and use British influence to -put a stop to inter-tribal fighting and the closing of the trade routes. -In 1892 the Jebu, who acted as middlemen between the colony and the -Yoruba, closed several trade routes. An expedition sent against them -resulted in their subjugation and the annexation of part of their -country. An order in council issued in 1899 extended the protectorate -over Yorubaland. The tribes of the hinterland have largely welcomed the -British protectorate and military expeditions have been few and -unimportant. (For the history of the Yoruba states see YORUBAS.) - -Lagos was made a separate government in 1863; in 1866 it was placed in -political dependence upon Sierra Leone; in 1874 it became (politically) -an integral part of the Gold Coast Colony, whilst in 1886 it was again -made a separate government, administered as a crown colony. In Sir -William Macgregor, M.D., formerly administrator of British New Guinea, -governor 1899-1904, the colony found an enlightened ruler. He -inaugurated the railway system, and drew much closer the friendly ties -between the British and the tribes of the protectorate. Meantime, since -1884, the whole of the Niger delta, lying immediately east of Lagos, as -well as the Hausa states and Bornu, had been acquired by Great Britain. -Unification of the British possessions in Nigeria being desirable, the -delta regions and Lagos were formed in 1906 into one government (see -NIGERIA). - - See C. P. Lucas, _Historical Geography of the British Colonies_, vol. - iii. _West Africa_ (Oxford, 1896); the annual _Reports_ issued by the - Colonial Office, London; A. B. Ellis, _The Yoruba-speaking Peoples_ - (London, 1894); Lady Glover, _The Life of Sir John Hawley Glover_ - (London, 1897). Consult also the works cited under NIGERIA and - DAHOMEY. - - - - -LAGOS, a seaport of West Africa, capital of the British colony and -protectorate of Southern Nigeria, in 6 deg. 26' N., 3 deg. 23' E. on an -island in a lagoon named Lagos also. Between Lagos and the mainland is -Iddo Island. An iron bridge for road and railway traffic 2600 ft. long -connects Lagos and Iddo Islands, and another iron bridge, 917 ft. long, -joins Iddo Island to the mainland. The town lies but a foot or two above -sea-level. The principal buildings are a large government house, the law -courts, the memorial hall erected to commemorate the services of Sir -John Glover, used for public meetings and entertainments, an elaborate -club-house provided from public funds, and the police quarters. There -are many substantial villas that serve as quarters for the officers of -the civil service, as well as numerous solidly-built handsome private -buildings. The streets are well kept; the town is supplied with electric -light, and there is a good water service. The chief stores and depots -for goods are all on the banks of the lagoon. The swamps of which -originally Lagos Island entirely consisted have been reclaimed. In -connexion with this work a canal, 25 ft. wide, has been cut right -through the island and a sea-wall built round its western half. There is -a commodious public hospital, of the cottage type, on a good site. There -is a racecourse, which also serves as a general public recreation -ground. Shifting banks of sand form a bar at the sea entrance of the -lagoon. Extensive works were undertaken in 1908 with a view to making -Lagos an open port. A mole has been built at the eastern entrance to the -harbour and dredgers are at work on the bar, which can be crossed by -vessels drawing 13 ft. Large ocean-going steamers anchor not less than 2 -m. from land, and goods and passengers are there transhipped into -smaller steamers for Lagos. Heavy cargo is carried by the large steamers -to Forcados, 200 m. farther down the coast, transhipped there into -branch boats, and taken via the lagoons to Lagos. The port is 4279 m. -from Liverpool, 1203 from Freetown, Sierra Leone (the nearest safe port -westward), and 315 from Cape Coast. - -The inhabitants, about 50,000, include, besides the native tribes, -Sierra Leonis, Fanti, Krumen and the descendants of some 6000 Brazilian -_emancipados_ who were settled here in the early days of British rule. -The Europeans number about 400. Rather more than half the populace are -Moslems. - - - - -LAGOS, a seaport of southern Portugal, in the district of Faro (formerly -the province of Algarve); on the Atlantic Ocean, and on the estuary of -the small river Lagos, here spanned by a fine stone bridge. Pop. (1900) -8291. The city is defended by fortifications erected in the 17th -century. It is supplied with water by an aqueduct 800 yds. long. The -harbour is deep, capacious, and completely sheltered on the north and -west; it is frequently visited by the British Channel fleet. Vines and -figs are extensively cultivated in the neighbourhood, and Lagos is the -centre of important sardine and tunny fisheries. Its trade is chiefly -carried on by small coasting vessels, as there is no railway. Lagos is -on or near the site of the Roman _Lacobriga_. Since the 15th century it -has held the formal rank and title of city. Cape St Vincent, the ancient -_Promontorium Sacrum_, and the south-western extremity of the kingdom, -is 22 m. W. It is famous for its connexion with Prince Henry (q.v.), the -Navigator, who here founded the town of Sagres in 1421; and for several -British naval victories, the most celebrated of which was won in 1797 by -Admiral Jervis (afterwards Earl St Vincent) over a larger Spanish -squadron. In 1759 Admiral Boscawen defeated a French fleet off Lagos. -The great earthquake of 1755 destroyed a large part of the city. - - - - -LA GRACE, or LES GRACES, a game invented in France during the first -quarter of the 19th century and called there _le jeu des Graces_. It is -played with two light sticks about 16 in. long and a wicker ring, which -is projected into the air by placing it over the sticks crossed and then -separating them rapidly. The ring is caught upon the stick of another -player and thrown back, the object being to prevent it from falling to -the ground. - - - - -LA GRAND' COMBE, a town of southern France, in the department of Gard on -the Gardon, 39 m. N.N.W. of Nimes by rail. Pop. (1906) town, 6406; -commune, 11,292. There are extensive coal mines in the vicinity. - - - - -LAGRANGE, JOSEPH LOUIS (1736-1813), French mathematician, was born at -Turin, on the 25th of January 1736. He was of French extraction, his -great grandfather, a cavalry captain, having passed from the service of -France to that of Sardinia, and settled in Turin under Emmanuel II. His -father, Joseph Louis Lagrange, married Maria Theresa Gros, only daughter -of a rich physician at Cambiano, and had by her eleven children, of whom -only the eldest (the subject of this notice) and the youngest survived -infancy. His emoluments as treasurer at war, together with his wife's -fortune, provided him with ample means, which he lost by rash -speculations, a circumstance regarded by his son as the prelude to his -own good fortune; for had he been rich, he used to say, he might never -have known mathematics. - -The genius of Lagrange did not at once take its true bent. His earliest -tastes were literary rather than scientific, and he learned the -rudiments of geometry during his first year at the college of Turin, -without difficulty, but without distinction. The perusal of a tract by -Halley (_Phil. Trans._ xviii. 960) roused his enthusiasm for the -analytical method, of which he was destined to develop the utmost -capabilities. He now entered, unaided save by his own unerring tact and -vivid apprehension, upon a course of study which, in two years, placed -him on a level with the greatest of his contemporaries. At the age of -nineteen he communicated to Leonhard Euler his idea of a general method -of dealing with "isoperimetrical" problems, known later as the Calculus -of Variations. It was eagerly welcomed by the Berlin mathematician, who -had the generosity to withhold from publication his own further -researches on the subject, until his youthful correspondent should have -had time to complete and opportunity to claim the invention. This -prosperous opening gave the key-note to Lagrange's career. Appointed, in -1754, professor of geometry in the royal school of artillery, he formed -with some of his pupils--for the most part his seniors--friendships -based on community of scientific ardour. With the aid of the marquis de -Saluces and the anatomist G. F. Cigna, he founded in 1758 a society -which became the Turin Academy of Sciences. The first volume of its -memoirs, published in the following year, contained a paper by Lagrange -entitled _Recherches sur la nature et la propagation du son_, in which -the power of his analysis and his address in its application were -equally conspicuous. He made his first appearance in public as the -critic of Newton, and the arbiter between d'Alembert and Euler. By -considering only the particles of air found in a right line, he reduced -the problem of the propagation of sound to the solution of the same -partial differential equations that include the motions of vibrating -strings, and demonstrated the insufficiency of the methods employed by -both his great contemporaries in dealing with the latter subject. He -further treated in a masterly manner of echoes and the mixture of -sounds, and explained the phenomenon of grave harmonics as due to the -occurrence of beats so rapid as to generate a musical note. This was -followed, in the second volume of the _Miscellanea Taurinensia_ (1762) -by his "Essai d'une nouvelle methode pour determiner les maxima et les -minima des formules integrales indefinies," together with the -application of this important development of analysis to the solution of -several dynamical problems, as well as to the demonstration of the -mechanical principle of "least action." The essential point in his -advance on Euler's mode of investigating curves of maximum or minimum -consisted in his purely analytical conception of the subject. He not -only freed it from all trammels of geometrical construction, but by the -introduction of the symbol [delta] gave it the efficacy of a new -calculus. He is thus justly regarded as the inventor of the "method of -variations"--a name supplied by Euler in 1766. - -By these performances Lagrange found himself, at the age of twenty-six, -on the summit of European fame. Such a height had not been reached -without cost. Intense application during early youth had weakened a -constitution never robust, and led to accesses of feverish exaltation -culminating, in the spring of 1761, in an attack of bilious -hypochondria, which permanently lowered the tone of his nervous system. -Rest and exercise, however, temporarily restored his health, and he gave -proof of the undiminished vigour of his powers by carrying off, in 1764, -the prize offered by the Paris Academy of Sciences for the best essay on -the libration of the moon. His treatise was remarkable, not only as -offering a satisfactory explanation of the coincidence between the lunar -periods of rotation and revolution, but as containing the first -employment of his radical formula of mechanics, obtained by combining -with the principle of d'Alembert that of virtual velocities. His success -encouraged the Academy to propose, in 1766, as a theme for competition, -the hitherto unattempted theory of the Jovian system. The prize was -again awarded to Lagrange; and he earned the same distinction with -essays on the problem of three bodies in 1772, on the secular equation -of the moon in 1774, and in 1778 on the theory of cometary -perturbations. - -He had in the meantime gratified a long felt desire by a visit to Paris, -where he enjoyed the stimulating delight of conversing with such -mathematicians as A. C. Clairault, d'Alembert, Condorcet and the Abbe -Marie. Illness prevented him from visiting London. The post of director -of the mathematical department of the Berlin Academy (of which he had -been a member since 1759) becoming vacant by the removal of Euler to St -Petersburg, the latter and d'Alembert united to recommend Lagrange as -his successor. Euler's eulogium was enhanced by his desire to quit -Berlin, d'Alembert's by his dread of a royal command to repair thither; -and the result was that an invitation, conveying the wish of the -"greatest king in Europe" to have the "greatest mathematician" at his -court, was sent to Turin. On the 6th of November 1766, Lagrange was -installed in his new position, with a salary of 6000 francs, ample -leisure for scientific research, and royal favour sufficient to secure -him respect without exciting envy. The national jealousy of foreigners, -was at first a source of annoyance to him; but such prejudices were -gradually disarmed by the inoffensiveness of his demeanour. We are told -that the universal example of his colleagues, rather than any desire for -female society, impelled him to matrimony; his choice being a lady of -the Conti family, who, by his request, joined him at Berlin. Soon after -marriage his wife was attacked by a lingering illness, to which she -succumbed, Lagrange devoting all his time, and a considerable store of -medical knowledge, to her care. - -The long series of memoirs--some of them complete treatises of great -moment in the history of science--communicated by Lagrange to the Berlin -Academy between the years 1767 and 1787 were not the only fruits of his -exile. His _Mecanique analytique_, in which his genius most fully -displayed itself, was produced during the same period. This great work -was the perfect realization of a design conceived by the author almost -in boyhood, and clearly sketched in his first published essay.[1] Its -scope may be briefly described as the reduction of the theory of -mechanics to certain general formulae, from the simple development of -which should be derived the equations necessary for the solution of each -separate problem.[2] From the fundamental principle of virtual -velocities, which thus acquired a new significance, Lagrange deduced, -with the aid of the calculus of variations, the whole system of -mechanical truths, by processes so elegant, lucid and harmonious as to -constitute, in Sir William Hamilton's words, "a kind of scientific -poem." This unification of method was one of matter also. By his mode of -regarding a liquid as a material system characterized by the unshackled -mobility of its minutest parts, the separation between the mechanics of -matter in different forms of aggregation finally disappeared, and the -fundamental equation of forces was for the first time extended to -hydrostatics and hydrodynamics.[3] Thus a universal science of matter -and motion was derived, by an unbroken sequence of deduction, from one -radical principle; and analytical mechanics assumed the clear and -complete form of logical perfection which it now wears. - -A publisher having with some difficulty been found, the book appeared at -Paris in 1788 under the supervision of A. M. Legendre. But before that -time Lagrange himself was on the spot. After the death of Frederick the -Great, his presence was competed for by the courts of France, Spain and -Naples, and a residence in Berlin having ceased to possess any -attraction for him, he removed to Paris in 1787. Marie Antoinette warmly -patronized him. He was lodged in the Louvre, received the grant of an -income equal to that he had hitherto enjoyed, and, with the title of -"veteran pensioner" in lieu of that of "foreign associate" (conferred in -1772), the right of voting at the deliberations of the Academy. In the -midst of these distinctions, a profound melancholy seized upon him. His -mathematical enthusiasm was for the time completely quenched, and during -two years the printed volume of his _Mecanique_, which he had seen only -in manuscript, lay unopened beside him. He relieved his dejection with -miscellaneous studies, especially with that of chemistry, which, in the -new form given to it by Lavoisier, he found "aisee comme l'algebre." The -Revolution roused him once more to activity and cheerfulness. Curiosity -impelled him to remain and watch the progress of such a novel -phenomenon; but curiosity was changed into dismay as the terrific -character of the phenomenon unfolded itself. He now bitterly regretted -his temerity in braving the danger. "Tu l'as voulu" he would repeat -self-reproachfully. Even from revolutionary tribunals, however, the name -of Lagrange uniformly commanded respect. His pension was continued by -the National Assembly, and he was partially indemnified for the -depreciation of the currency by remunerative appointments. Nominated -president of the Academical commission for the reform of weights and -measures, his services were retained when its "purification" by the -Jacobins removed his most distinguished colleagues. He again sat on the -commission of 1799 for the construction of the metric system, and by his -zealous advocacy of the decimal principle largely contributed to its -adoption. - -Meanwhile, on the 31st of May 1792 he married Mademoiselle Lemonnier, -daughter of the astronomer of that name, a young and beautiful girl, -whose devotion ignored disparity of years, and formed the one tie with -life which Lagrange found it hard to break. He had no children by either -marriage. Although specially exempted from the operation of the decree -of October 1793, imposing banishment on foreign residents, he took alarm -at the fate of J. S. Bailly and A. L. Lavoisier, and prepared to resume -his former situation in Berlin. His design was frustrated by the -establishment of and his official connexion with the Ecole Normale, and -the Ecole Polytechnique. The former institution had an ephemeral -existence; but amongst the benefits derived from the foundation of the -Ecole Polytechnique one of the greatest, it has been observed,[4] was -the restoration of Lagrange to mathematics. The remembrance of his -teachings was long treasured by such of his auditors--amongst whom were -J. B. J. Delambre and S. F. Lacroix--as were capable of appreciating -them. In expounding the principles of the differential calculus, he -started, as it were, from the level of his pupils, and ascended with -them by almost insensible gradations from elementary to abstruse -conceptions. He seemed, not a professor amongst students, but a learner -amongst learners; pauses for thought alternated with luminous -exposition; invention accompanied demonstration; and thus originated his -_Theorie des fonctions analytiques_ (Paris, 1797). The leading idea of -this work was contained in a paper published in the _Berlin Memoirs_ for -1772.[5] Its object was the elimination of the, to some minds, -unsatisfactory conception of the infinite from the metaphysics of the -higher mathematics, and the substitution for the differential and -integral calculus of an analogous method depending wholly on the serial -development of algebraical functions. By means of this "calculus of -derived functions" Lagrange hoped to give to the solution of all -analytical problems the utmost "rigour of the demonstrations of the -ancients";[6] but it cannot be said that the attempt was successful. The -validity of his fundamental position was impaired by the absence of a -well-constituted theory of series; the notation employed was -inconvenient, and was abandoned by its inventor in the second edition of -his _Mecanique_; while his scruples as to the admission into analytical -investigations of the idea of limits or vanishing ratios have long since -been laid aside as idle. Nowhere, however, were the keenness and -clearness of his intellect more conspicuous than in this brilliant -effort, which, if it failed in its immediate object, was highly -effective in secondary results. His purely abstract mode of regarding -functions, apart from any mechanical or geometrical considerations, led -the way to a new and sharply characterized development of the higher -analysis in the hands of A. Cauchy, C. G. Jacobi, and others.[7] The -_Theorie des fonctions_ is divided into three parts, of which the first -explains the general doctrine of functions, the second deals with its -application to geometry, and the third with its bearings on mechanics. - -On the establishment of the Institute, Lagrange was placed at the head -of the section of geometry; he was one of the first members of the -Bureau des Longitudes; and his name appeared in 1791 on the list of -foreign members of the Royal Society. On the annexation of Piedmont to -France in 1796, a touching compliment was paid to him in the person of -his aged father. By direction of Talleyrand, then minister for foreign -affairs, the French commissary repaired in state to the old man's -residence in Turin, to congratulate him on the merits of his son, whom -they declared "to have done honour to mankind by his genius, and whom -Piedmont was proud to have produced, and France to possess." Bonaparte, -who styled him "la haute pyramide des sciences mathematiques," loaded -him with personal favours and official distinctions. He became a -senator, a count of the empire, a grand officer of the legion of honour, -and just before his death received the grand cross of the order of -reunion. - -The preparation of a new edition of his _Mecanique_ exhausted his -already falling powers. Frequent fainting fits gave presage of a speedy -end, and on the 8th of April 1813 he had a final interview with his -friends B. Lacepede, G. Monge and J. A. Chaptal. He spoke with the -utmost calm of his approaching death; "c'est une derniere fonction," he -said, "qui n'est ni penible ni desagreable." He nevertheless looked -forward to a future meeting, when he promised to complete the -autobiographical details which weakness obliged him to interrupt. They -remained untold, for he died two days later on the 10th of April, and -was buried in the Pantheon, the funeral oration being pronounced by -Laplace and Lacepede. - - Amongst the brilliant group of mathematicians whose magnanimous - rivalry contributed to accomplish the task of generalization and - deduction reserved for the 18th century, Lagrange occupies an eminent - place. It is indeed by no means easy to distinguish and apportion the - respective merits of the competitors. This is especially the case - between Lagrange and Euler on the one side, and between Lagrange and - Laplace on the other. The calculus of variations lay undeveloped in - Euler's mode of treating isoperimetrical problems. The fruitful - method, again, of the variation of elements was introduced by Euler, - but adopted and perfected by Lagrange, who first recognized its - supreme importance to the analytical investigation of the planetary - movements. Finally, of the grand series of researches by which the - stability of the solar system was ascertained, the glory must be - almost equally divided between Lagrange and Laplace. In analytical - invention, and mastery over the calculus, the Turin mathematician was - admittedly unrivalled. Laplace owned that he had despaired of - effecting the integration of the differential equations relative to - secular inequalities until Lagrange showed him the way. But Laplace - unquestionably surpassed his rival in practical sagacity and the - intuition of physical truth. Lagrange saw in the problems of nature so - many occasions for analytical triumphs; Laplace regarded analytical - triumphs as the means of solving the problems of nature. One mind - seemed the complement of the other; and both, united in honourable - rivalry, formed an instrument of unexampled perfection for the - investigation of the celestial machinery. What may be called - Lagrange's first period of research into planetary perturbations - extended from 1774 to 1784 (see ASTRONOMY: _History_). The notable - group of treatises communicated, 1781-1784, to the Berlin Academy was - designed, but did not prove to be his final contribution to the theory - of the planets. After an interval of twenty-four years the subject, - re-opened by S. D. Poisson in a paper read on the 20th of June 1808, - was once more attacked by Lagrange with all his pristine vigour and - fertility of invention. Resuming the inquiry into the invariability of - mean motions, Poisson carried the approximation, with Lagrange's - formulae, as far as the squares of the disturbing forces, hitherto - neglected, with the same result as to the stability of the system. He - had not attempted to include in his calculations the orbital - variations of the disturbing bodies; but Lagrange, by the happy - artifice of transferring the origin of coordinates from the centre of - the sun to the centre of gravity of the sun and planets, obtained a - simplification of the formulae, by which the same analysis was - rendered equally applicable to each of the planets severally. It - deserves to be recorded as one of the numerous coincidences of - discovery that Laplace, on being made acquainted by Lagrange with his - new method, produced analogous expressions, to which his independent - researches had led him. The final achievement of Lagrange in this - direction was the extension of the method of the variation of - arbitrary constants, successfully used by him in the investigation of - periodical as well as of secular inequalities, to any system whatever - of mutually interacting bodies.[8] "Not without astonishment," even - to himself, regard being had to the great generality of the - differential equations, he reached a result so wide as to include, as - a particular case, the solution of the planetary problem recently - obtained by him. He proposed to apply the same principles to the - calculation of the disturbances produced in the rotation of the - planets by external action on their equatorial protuberances, but was - anticipated by Poisson, who gave formulae for the variation of the - elements of rotation strictly corresponding with those found by - Lagrange for the variation of the elements of revolution. The revision - of the _Mecanique analytique_ was undertaken mainly for the purpose of - embodying in it these new methods and final results, but was - interrupted, when two-thirds completed, by the death of its author. - - In the advancement of almost every branch of pure mathematics Lagrange - took a conspicuous part. The calculus of variations is indissolubly - associated with his name. In the theory of numbers he furnished - solutions of many of P. Fermat's theorems, and added some of his own. - In algebra he discovered the method of approximating to the real roots - of an equation by means of continued fractions, and imagined a general - process of solving algebraical equations of every degree. The method - indeed fails for equations of an order above the fourth, because it - then involves the solution of an equation of higher dimensions than - they proposed. Yet it possesses the great and characteristic merit of - generalizing the solutions of his predecessors, exhibiting them all as - modifications of one principle. To Lagrange, perhaps more than to any - other, the theory of differential equations is indebted for its - position as a science, rather than a collection of ingenious artifices - for the solution of particular problems. To the calculus of finite - differences he contributed the beautiful formula of interpolation - which bears his name; although substantially the same result seems to - have been previously obtained by Euler. But it was in the application - to mechanical questions of the instrument which he thus helped to form - that his singular merit lay. It was his just boast to have transformed - mechanics (defined by him as a "geometry of four dimensions") into a - branch of analysis, and to have exhibited the so-called mechanical - "principles" as simple results of the calculus. The method of - "generalized coordinates," as it is now called, by which he attained - this result, is the most brilliant achievement of the analytical - method. Instead of following the motion of each individual part of a - material system, he showed that, if we determine its configuration by - a sufficient number of variables, whose number is that of the degrees - of freedom to move (there being as many equations as the system has - degrees of freedom), the kinetic and potential energies of the system - can be expressed in terms of these, and the differential equations of - motion thence deduced by simple differentiation. Besides this most - important contribution to the general fabric of dynamical science, we - owe to Lagrange several minor theorems of great elegance,--among which - may be mentioned his theorem that the kinetic energy imparted by given - impulses to a material system under given constraints is a maximum. To - this entire branch of knowledge, in short, he successfully imparted - that character of generality and completeness towards which his - labours invariably tended. - - His share in the gigantic task of verifying the Newtonian theory would - alone suffice to immortalize his name. His co-operation was indeed - more indispensable than at first sight appears. Much as was done _by_ - him, what was done _through_ him was still more important. Some of his - brilliant rival's most conspicuous discoveries were implicitly - contained in his writings, and wanted but one step for completion. But - that one step, from the abstract to the concrete, was precisely that - which the character of Lagrange's mind indisposed him to make. As - notable instances may be mentioned Laplace's discoveries relating to - the velocity of sound and the secular acceleration of the moon, both - of which were led close up to by Lagrange's analytical demonstrations. - In the _Berlin Memoirs_ for 1778 and 1783 Lagrange gave the first - direct and theoretically perfect method of determining cometary - orbits. It has not indeed proved practically available; but his system - of calculating cometary perturbations by means of "mechanical - quadratures" has formed the starting-point of all subsequent - researches on the subject. His determination[9] of maximum and minimum - values for the slowly varying planetary eccentricities was the - earliest attempt to deal with the problem. Without a more accurate - knowledge of the masses of the planets than was then possessed a - satisfactory solution was impossible; but the upper limits assigned by - him agreed closely with those obtained later by U. J. J. - Leverrier.[10] As a mathematical writer Lagrange has perhaps never - been surpassed. His treatises are not only storehouses of ingenious - methods, but models of symmetrical form. The clearness, elegance and - originality of his mode of presentation give lucidity to what is - obscure, novelty to what is familiar, and simplicity to what is - abstruse. His genius was one of generalization and abstraction; and - the aspirations of the time towards unity and perfection received, by - his serene labours, an embodiment denied to them in the troubled world - of politics. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Lagrange's numerous scattered memoirs have been - collected and published in seven 4to volumes, under the title - _Oeuvres de Lagrange, publiees sous les soins de M. J. A. Serret_ - (Paris, 1867-1877). The first, second and third sections of this - publication comprise respectively the papers communicated by him to - the Academies of Sciences of Turin, Berlin and Paris; the fourth - includes his miscellaneous contributions to other scientific - collections, together with his additions to Euler's _Algebra_, and his - _Lecons elementaires_ at the Ecole Normale in 1795. Delambre's notice - of his life, extracted from the _Mem. de l'Institut_, 1812, is - prefixed to the first volume. Besides the separate works already named - are _Resolution des equations numeriques_ (1798, 2nd ed., 1808, 3rd - ed., 1826), and _Lecons sur le calcul des fonctions_ (1805, 2nd ed., - 1806), designed as a commentary and supplement to the first part of - the _Theorie des fonctions_. The first volume of the enlarged edition - of the _Mecanique_ appeared in 1811, the second, of which the revision - was completed by MM Prony and Binet, in 1815. A third edition, in 2 - vols., 4to, was issued in 1853-1855, and a second of the _Theorie des - fonctions_ in 1813. - - See also J. J. Virey and Potel, _Precis historique_ (1813); Th. - Thomson's _Annals of Philosophy_ (1813-1820), vols. ii. and iv.; H. - Suter, _Geschichte der math. Wiss._ (1873); E. Duhring, _Kritische - Gesch. der allgemeinen Principien der Mechanik_ (1877, 2nd ed.); A. - Gautier, _Essai historique sur le probleme des trois corps_ (1817); R. - Grant, _History of Physical Astronomy_, &c.; Pietro Cossali, _Eloge_ - (Padua, 1813); L. Martini, _Cenni biografici_ (1840); _Moniteur du 26 - Fevrier_ (1814); W. Whewell, _Hist. of the Inductive Sciences_, ii. - _passim_; J. Clerk Maxwell, _Electricity and Magnetism_, ii. 184; A. - Berry, _Short Hist. of Astr._, p. 313; J. S. Bailly, _Hist. de l'astr. - moderne_, iii. 156, 185, 232; J. C. Poggendorff, _Biog. Lit. - Handworterbuch_. (A. M. C.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] _Oeuvres_, i. 15. - - [2] _Mec. An._, Advertisement to 1st ed. - - [3] E. Duhring, _Kritische Gesch. der Mechanik_, 220, 367; Lagrange, - _Mec. An._ i. 166-172, 3rd ed. - - [4] Notice by J. Delambre, _Oeuvres de Lagrange_, i. p. xlii. - - [5] _Oeuvres_, iii. 441. - - [6] _Theorie des fonctions_, p. 6. - - [7] H. Suter, _Geschichte der math. Wiss._ ii. 222-223. - - [8] _Oeuvres_, vi. 771. - - [9] _Oeuvres_, v. 211 seq. - - [10] Grant, _History of Physical Astronomy_, p. 117. - - - - -LAGRANGE-CHANCEL [CHANCEL], FRANCOIS JOSEPH (1677-1758), French -dramatist and satirist, was born at Perigueux on the 1st of January -1677. He was an extremely precocious boy, and at Bordeaux, where he was -educated, he produced a play when he was nine years old. Five years -later his mother took him to Paris, where he found a patron in the -princesse de Conti, to whom he dedicated his tragedy of _Jugurtha_ or, -as it was called later, _Adherbal_ (1694). Racine had given him advice -and was present at the first performance, although he had long lived in -complete retirement. Other plays followed: _Oreste et Pylade_ (1697), -_Meleagre_ (1699), _Amasis_ (1701), and _Ino et Melicerte_ (1715). -Lagrange hardly realized the high hopes raised by his precocity, -although his only serious rival on the tragic stage was Campistron, but -he obtained high favour at court, becoming _maitre d'hotel_ to the -duchess of Orleans. This prosperity ended with the publication in 1720 -of his _Philippiques_, odes accusing the regent, Philip, duke of -Orleans, of the most odious crimes. He might have escaped the -consequences of this libel but for the bitter enmity of a former patron, -the duc de La Force. Lagrange found sanctuary at Avignon, but was -enticed beyond the boundary of the papal jurisdiction, when he was -arrested and sent as a prisoner to the isles of Sainte Marguerite. He -contrived, however, to escape to Sardinia and thence to Spain and -Holland, where he produced his fourth and fifth _Philippiques_. On the -death of the Regent he was able to return to France. He was part author -of a _Histoire de Perigord_ left unfinished, and made a further -contribution to history, or perhaps, more exactly, to romance, in a -letter to Elie Freron on the identity of the Man with the Iron Mask. -Lagrange's family life was embittered by a long lawsuit against his son. -He died at Perigueux at the end of December 1758. - - He had collected his own works (5 vols., 1758) some months before his - death. His most famous work, the _Philippiques_, was edited by M. de - Lescure in 1858, and a sixth philippic by M. Diancourt in 1886. - - - - -LA GRANJA, or SAN ILDEFONSO, a summer palace of the kings of Spain; on -the south-eastern border of the province of Segovia, and on the western -slopes of the Sierra de Guadarrama, 7 m. by road S.E. of the city of -Segovia. The royal estate is 3905 ft. above sea-level. The scenery of -this region, especially in the gorge of the river Lozoya, with its -granite rocks, its dense forest of pines, firs and birches, and its -red-tiled farms, more nearly resembles the highlands of northern Europe -than any other part of Spain. La Granja has an almost alpine climate, -with a clear, cool atmosphere and abundant sunshine. Above the palace -rise the wooded summits of the Guadarrama, culminating in the peak of -Penalara (7891 ft.); in front of it the wide plains of Segovia extend -northwards. The village of San Ildefonso, the oldest part of the estate, -was founded in 1450 by Henry IV., who built a hunting lodge and chapel -here. In 1477 the chapel was presented by Ferdinand and Isabella to the -monks of the Parral, a neighbouring Hieronymite monastery. The original -_granja_ (i.e. grange or farm), established by the monks, was purchased -in 1719 by Philip V., after the destruction of his summer palace at -Valsain, the ancient _Vallis Sapinorum_, 2 m. S. Philip determined to -convert the estate into a second Versailles. The palace was built -between 1721 and 1723. Its facade is fronted by a colonnade in which the -pillars reach to the roof. The state apartments contain some valuable -18th-century furniture, but the famous collection of sculptures was -removed to Madrid in 1836, and is preserved there in the Museo del -Prado. At La Granja it is represented by facsimiles in plaster. The -collegiate church adjoining the palace dates from 1724, and contains the -tombs of Philip V. and his consort Isabella Farnese. An artificial lake -called El Mar, 4095 ft. above sea-level, irrigates the gardens, which -are imitated from those of Versailles, and supplies water for the -fountains. These, despite the antiquated and sometimes tasteless style -of their ornamentation, are probably the finest in the world; it is -noteworthy that, owing to the high level of the lake, no pumps or other -mechanism are needed to supply pressure. There are twenty-six fountains -besides lakes and waterfalls. Among the most remarkable are the group of -"Perseus, Andromeda and the Sea-Monster," which sends up a jet of water -110 ft. high, the "Fame," which reaches 125 ft., and the very elaborate -"Baths of Diana." It is of the last that Philip V. is said to have -remarked, "It has cost me three millions and amused me three minutes." -Most of the fountains were made by order of Queen Isabella in 1727, -during the king's absence. The glass factory of San Ildefonso was -founded by Charles III. - - It was in La Granja that Philip V. resigned the crown to his son in - January 1724, to resume it after his son's death seven months later; - that the treaties of 1777, 1778, 1796 and 1800 were signed (see SPAIN: - _History_); that Ferdinand VII. summoned Don Carlos to the throne in - 1832, but was induced to alter the succession in favour of his own - infant daughter Isabella, thus involving Spain in civil war; and that - in 1836 a military revolt compelled the Queen-regent Christina to - restore the constitution of 1812. - - - - -LAGRENEE, LOUIS JEAN FRANCOIS (1724-1805), French painter, was a pupil -of Carle Vanloo. Born at Paris on the 30th of December 1724, in 1755 he -became a member of the Royal Academy, presenting as his diploma picture -the "Rape of Deianira" (Louvre). He visited St Petersburg at the call of -the empress Elizabeth, and on his return was named in 1781 director of -the French Academy at Rome; he there painted the "Indian Widow," one of -his best-known works. In 1804 Napoleon conferred on him the cross of the -legion of honour, and on the 19th of June 1805 he died in the Louvre, of -which he was honorary keeper. - - - - -LA GUAIRA, or LA GUAYRA (sometimes LAGUAIRA, &c.), a town and port of -Venezuela, in the Federal district, 23 m. by rail and 6(1/2) m. in a -direct line N. of Caracas. Pop. (1904, estimate) 14,000. It is situated -between a precipitous mountain side and a broad, semicircular -indentation of the coast line which forms the roadstead of the port. The -anchorage was long considered one of the most dangerous on the Caribbean -coast, and landing was attended with much danger. The harbour has been -improved by the construction of a concrete breakwater running out from -the eastern shore line 2044 ft., built up from an extreme depth of 46 -ft. or from an average depth of 29(1/2) ft., and rising 19(1/2) ft. -above sea-level. This encloses an area of 76(1/2) acres, having an -average depth of nearly 28 ft. The harbour is further improved by 1870 -ft. of concrete quays and 1397 ft. of retaining sea-wall, with several -piers (three covered) projecting into deep water. These works were -executed by a British company, known as the La Guaira Harbour -Corporation, Ltd., and were completed in 1891 at a cost of about one -million sterling. The concession is for 99 years and the additional -charges which the company is authorized to impose are necessarily heavy. -These improvements and the restrictions placed upon the direct trade -between West Indian ports and the Orinoco have greatly increased the -foreign trade of La Guaira, which in 1903 was 52% of that of the four -_puertos habilitados_ of the republic. The shipping entries of that -year numbered 217, of which 203 entered with general cargo and 14 with -coal exclusively. The exports included 152,625 bags coffee, 114,947 bags -cacao and 152,891 hides. For 1905-1906 the imports at La Guaira were -valued officially at L767,365 and the exports at L663,708. The city -stands on sloping ground stretching along the circular coast line with a -varying width of 130 to 330 ft. and having the appearance of an -amphitheatre. The port improvements added 18 acres of reclaimed land to -La Guaira's area, and the removal of old shore batteries likewise -increased its available breadth. In this narrow space is built the town, -composed in great part of small, roughly-made cabins, and narrow, -badly-paved streets, but with good business houses on its principal -street. From the mountain side, reddish-brown in colour and bare of -vegetation, the solar heat is reflected with tremendous force, the mean -annual temperature being 84 deg. F. The seaside towns of Maiquetia, 2 m. -W. and Macuto, 3 m. E., which have better climatic and sanitary -conditions and are connected by a narrow-gauge railway, are the -residences of many of the wealthier merchants of La Guaira. - -La Guaira was founded in 1588, was sacked by filibusters under Amias -Preston in 1595, and by the French under Grammont in 1680, was destroyed -by the great earthquake of the 26th of March 1812, and suffered severely -in the war for independence. In 1903, pending the settlement of claims -of Great Britain, Germany and Italy against Venezuela, La Guaira was -blockaded by a British-German-Italian fleet. - - - - -LA GUERONNIERE, LOUIS ETIENNE ARTHUR DUBREUIL HELION, VICOMTE DE -(1816-1875), French politician, was the scion of a noble Poitevin -family. Although by birth and education attached to Legitimist -principles, he became closely associated with Lamartine, to whose organ, -_Le Bien Public_, he was a principal contributor. After the stoppage of -this paper he wrote for _La Presse_, and in 1850 edited _Le Pays_. A -character sketch of Louis Napoleon in this journal caused differences -with Lamartine, and La Gueronniere became more and more closely -identified with the policy of the prince president. Under the Empire he -was a member of the council of state (1853), senator (1861), ambassador -at Brussels (1868), and at Constantinople (1870), and grand officer of -the legion of honour (1866). He died in Paris on the 23rd of December -1875. Besides his _Etudes et portraits politiques contemporains_ (1856) -his most important works are those on the foreign policy of the Empire: -_La France, Rome et Italie_ (1851), _L'Abandon de Rome_ (1862), _De la -politique interieure et exterieure de la France_ (1862). - -His elder brother, ALFRED DUBREUIL HELION, Comte de La Gueronniere -(1810-1884), who remained faithful to the Legitimist party, was also a -well-known writer and journalist. He was consistent in his opposition to -the July Monarchy and the Empire, but in a series of books on the crisis -of 1870-1871 showed a more favourable attitude to the Republic. - - - - -LAGUERRE, JEAN HENRI GEORGES (1858- ), French lawyer and politician, was -born in Paris on the 24th of June 1858. Called to the bar in 1879, he -distinguished himself by brilliant pleadings in favour of socialist and -anarchist leaders, defending Prince Kropotkine at Lyons in 1883, Louise -Michel in the same year; and in 1886, with A. Millerand as colleague he -defended Ernest Roche and Duc Quercy, the instigators of the Decazeville -strike. His strictures on the _procureur de la Republique_ on this -occasion being declared libellous he was suspended for six months and in -1890 he again incurred suspension for an attack on the attorney-general, -Quesnay de Beaurepaire. He also pleaded in the greatest criminal cases -of his time, though from 1893 onwards exclusively in the provinces, his -exclusion from the Parisian bar having been secured on the pretext of -his connexion with _La Presse_. He entered the Chamber of Deputies for -Apt in 1883 as a representative of the extreme revisionist programme, -and was one of the leaders of the Boulangist agitation. He had formerly -written for Georges Clemenceau's organ _La Justice_, but when Clemenceau -refused to impose any shibboleth on the radical party he became director -of _La Presse_. He rallied to the republican party in May 1801, some -months before General Boulanger's suicide. He was not re-elected to the -Chamber in 1893. Laguerre was an excellent lecturer on the revolutionary -period of French history, concerning which he had collected many -valuable and rare documents. He interested himself in the fate of the -"Little Dauphin" (Louis XVII.), whose supposed remains, buried at Ste -Marguerite, he proved to be those of a boy of fourteen. - - - - -LAGUNA, or LA LAGUNA, an episcopal city and formerly the capital of the -island of Teneriffe, in the Spanish archipelago of the Canary Islands. -Pop. (1900) 13,074. Laguna is 4 m. N. by W. of Santa Cruz, in a plain -1800 ft. above sea-level, surrounded by mountains. Snow is unknown here, -and the mean annual temperature exceeds 63 deg. F.; but the rainfall is -very heavy, and in winter the plain is sometimes flooded. The humidity -of the atmosphere, combined with the warm climate and rich volcanic -soil, renders the district exceptionally fertile; wheat, wine and -tobacco, oranges and other fruits, are produced in abundance. Laguna is -the favourite summer residence of the wealthier inhabitants of Santa -Cruz. Besides the cathedral, the city contains several picturesque -convents, now secularized, a fine modern town hall, hospitals, a large -public library and some ancient palaces of the Spanish nobility. Even -the modern buildings have often an appearance of antiquity, owing to the -decay caused by damp, and the luxuriant growth of climbing plants. - - - - -LA HARPE, JEAN FRANCOIS DE (1739-1803), French critic, was born in Paris -of poor parents on the 20th of November 1739. His father, who signed -himself Delharpe, was a descendant of a noble family originally of Vaud. -Left an orphan at the age of nine, La Harpe was taken care of for six -months by the sisters of charity, and his education was provided for by -a scholarship at the College d'Harcourt. When nineteen he was imprisoned -for some months on the charge of having written a satire against his -protectors at the college. La Harpe always denied his guilt, but this -culminating misfortune of an early life spent entirely in the position -of a dependent had possibly something to do with the bitterness he -evinced in later life. In 1763 his tragedy of _Warwick_ was played -before the court. This, his first play, was perhaps the best he ever -wrote. The many authors whom he afterwards offended were always able to -observe that the critic's own plays did not reach the standard of -excellence he set up. _Timoleon_ (1764), _Pharamond_ (1765) and _Gustave -Wasa_ (1766) were failures. _Melanie_ was a better play, but was never -represented. The success of _Warwick_ led to a correspondence with -Voltaire, who conceived a high opinion of La Harpe, even allowing him to -correct his verses. In 1764 La Harpe married the daughter of a coffee -house keeper. This marriage, which proved very unhappy and was -dissolved, did not improve his position. They were very poor, and for -some time were guests of Voltaire at Ferney. When, after Voltaire's -death, La Harpe in his praise of the philosopher ventured on some -reasonable, but rather ill-timed, criticism of individual works, he was -accused of treachery to one who had been his constant friend. In 1768 he -returned from Ferney to Paris, where he began to write for the -_Mercure_. He was a born fighter and had small mercy on the authors -whose work he handled. But he was himself violently attacked, and -suffered under many epigrams, especially those of Lebrun-Pindare. No -more striking proof of the general hostility can be given than his -reception (1776) at the Academy, which Sainte-Beuve calls his -"execution." Marmontel, who received him, used the occasion to eulogize -La Harpe's predecessor, Charles Pierre Colardeau, especially for his -pacific, modest and indulgent disposition. The speech was punctuated by -the applause of the audience, who chose to regard it as a series of -sarcasms on the new member. Eventually La Harpe was compelled to resign -from the _Mercure_, which he had edited from 1770. On the stage he -produced _Les Barmecides_ (1778), _Philoctete_, _Jeanne de Naples_ -(1781), _Les Brames_ (1783), _Coriolan_ (1784), _Virginie_ (1786). In -1786 he began a course of literature at the newly-established Lycee. In -these lectures, published as the _Cours de litterature ancienne et -moderne_, La Harpe is at his best, for he found a standpoint more or -less independent of contemporary polemics. He is said to be inexact in -dealing with the ancients, and he had only a superficial knowledge of -the middle ages, but he is excellent in his analysis of 17th-century -writers. Sainte-Beuve found in him the best critic of the French school -of tragedy, which reached its perfection in Racine. La Harpe was a -disciple of the "_philosophes_"; he supported the extreme party through -the excesses of 1792 and 1793. In 1793 he edited the _Mercure de France_ -which adhered blindly to the revolutionary leaders. But in April 1794 he -was nevertheless seized as a "suspect." In prison he underwent a -spiritual crisis which he described in convincing language, and he -emerged an ardent Catholic and a reactionist in politics. When he -resumed his chair at the Lycee, he attacked his former friends in -politics and literature. He was imprudent enough to begin the -publication (1801-1807) of his _Correspondance litteraire_ (1774-1791) -with the grand-duke, afterwards the emperor Paul of Russia. In these -letters he surpassed the brutalities of the _Mercure_. He contracted a -second marriage, which was dissolved after a few weeks by his wife. He -died on the 11th of February 1803 in Paris, leaving in his will an -incongruous exhortation to his fellow countrymen to maintain peace and -concord. Among his posthumous works was a _Prophetie de Cazotte_ which -Sainte-Beuve pronounces his best work. It is a sombre description of a -dinner-party of notables long before the Revolution, when Jacques -Cazotte is made to prophesy the frightful fates awaiting the various -individuals of the company. - - Among his works not already mentioned are:--_Commentaire sur Racine_ - (1795-1796), published in 1807; _Commentaire sur le theatre de - Voltaire_ of earlier date (published posthumously in 1814), and an - epic poem _La Religion_ (1814). His _Cours de litterature_ has been - often reprinted. To the edition of 1825-1826 is prefixed a notice by - Pierre Daunou. See also Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du lundi_, vol. v.; - G. Peignot, _Recherches historiques, bibliographiques et litteraires - ... sur La Harpe_ (1820). - - - - -LAHIRE, LAURENT DE (1606-1656), French painter, was born at Paris on the -27th of February 1606. He became a pupil of Lallemand, studied the works -of Primaticcio at Fontainebleau, but never visited Italy, and belongs -wholly to that transition period which preceded the school of Simon -Vouet. His picture of Nicolas V. opening the crypt in which he discovers -the corpse of St Francis of Assisi standing (Louvre) was executed in -1630 for the Capuchins of the Marais; it shows a gravity and sobriety of -character which marked Lahire's best work, and seems not to have been -without influence on Le Sueur. The Louvre contains eight other works, -and paintings by Lahire are in the museums of Strasburg, Rouen and Le -Mans. His drawings, of which the British Museum possesses a fine -example, "Presentation of the Virgin in the Temple," are treated as -seriously as his paintings, and sometimes show simplicity and dignity of -effect. The example of the Capuchins, for whom he executed several other -works in Paris, Rouen and Fecamp, was followed by the goldsmiths' -company, for whom he produced in 1635 "St Peter healing the Sick" -(Louvre) and the "Conversion of St Paul" in 1637. In 1646, with eleven -other artists, he founded the French Royal Academy of Painting and -Sculpture. Richelieu called Lahire to the Palais Royal; Chancellor -Seguier, Tallemant de Reaux and many others entrusted him with important -works of decoration; for the Gobelins he designed a series of large -compositions. Lahire painted also a great number of portraits, and in -1654 united in one work for the town-hall of Paris those of the -principal dignitaries of the municipality. He died on the 28th of -December 1656. - - - - -LAHN, a river of Germany, a right-bank tributary of the Rhine. Its -source is on the Jagdberg, a summit of the Rothaar Mountains, in the -cellar of a house (Lahnhof), at an elevation of 1975 ft. It flows at -first eastward and then southward to Giessen, then turns south-westward -and with a winding course reaches the Rhine between the towns of -Oberlahnstein and Niederlahnstein. Its valley, the lower part of which -divides the Taunus hills from the Westerwald, is often very narrow and -picturesque; among the towns and sites of interest on its banks are -Marburg and Giessen with their universities, Wetzlar with its cathedral, -Runkel with its castle, Limburg with its cathedral, the castles of -Schaumburg, Balduinstein, Laurenburg, Langenau, Burgstein and Nassau, -and the well-known health resort of Ems. The Lahn is about 135 m. long; -it is navigable from its mouth to Giessen, and is partly canalized. A -railway follows the valley practically throughout. In 1796 there were -here several encounters between the French under General Jourdan and the -troops of the archduke Johan, which resulted in the retreat of the -French across the Rhine. - - - - -LAHNDA (properly _Lahnda_ or _Lahinda_, western, or _Lahnde-di boli_, -the language of the West), an Indo-Aryan language spoken in the western -Punjab. In 1901 the number of speakers was 3,337,917. Its eastern -boundary is very indefinite as the language gradually merges into the -Panjabi immediately to the east, but it is conventionally taken as the -river Chenab from the Kashmir frontier to the town of Ramnagar, and -thence as a straight line to the south-west corner of the district of -Montgomery. Lahnda is also spoken in the north of the state of -Bahawalpur and of the province of Sind, in which latter locality it is -known as Siraiki. Its western boundary is, roughly speaking, the river -Indus, across which the language of the Afghan population is Pashto -(Pushtu), while the Hindu settlers still speak Lahnda. In the Derajat, -however, Lahnda is the principal language of all classes in the plains -west of the river. - -Lahnda is also known as Western Panjabi and as Jatki, or the language of -the Jats, who form the bulk of the population whose mother-tongue it is. -In the Derajat it is called Hindko or the language of Hindus. In 1819 -the Serampur missionaries published a Lahnda version of the New -Testament. They called the language Uchchi, from the important town of -Uch near the confluence of the Jhelam and the Chenab. This name is -commonly met with in old writings. It has numerous dialects, which fall -into two main groups, a northern and a southern, the speakers of which -are separated by the Salt Range. The principal varieties of the northern -group are Hindki (the same in meaning as Hindko) and Pothwari. In the -southern group the most important are Khetrani, Multani, and the dialect -of Shahpur. The language possesses no literature. - - Lahnda belongs to the north-western group of the outer band of - Indo-Aryan languages (q.v.), the other members being Kashmiri (q.v.) - and Sindhi, with both of which it is closely connected. See SINDHI; - also HINDOSTANI. (G. A. Gr.) - - - - -LA HOGUE, BATTLE OF, the name now given to a series of encounters which -took place from the 19th to the 23rd (O.S.) of May 1692, between an -allied British and Dutch fleet and a French force, on the northern and -eastern sides of the Cotentin in Normandy. A body of French troops, and -a number of Jacobite exiles, had been collected in the Cotentin. The -government of Louis XIV. prepared a naval armament to cover their -passage across the Channel. This force was to have been composed of the -French ships at Brest commanded by the count of Tourville, and of a -squadron which was to have joined him from Toulon. But the Toulon ships -were scattered by a gale, and the combination was not effected. The -count of Tourville, who had put to sea to meet them, had with him only -45 or 47 ships of the line. Yet when the reinforcement failed to join -him, he steered up Channel to meet the allies, who were known to be in -strength. On the 15th of May the British fleet of 63 sail of the line, -under command of Edward Russell, afterwards earl of Orford, was joined -at St Helens by the Dutch squadron of 36 sail under Admiral van -Allemonde. The apparent rashness of the French admiral in seeking an -encounter with very superior numbers is explained by the existence of a -general belief that many British captains were discontented, and would -pass over from the service of the government established by the -Revolution of 1688 to their exiled king, James II. It is said that -Tourville had orders from Louis XIV. to attack in any case, but the -story is of doubtful authority. The British government, aware of the -Jacobite intrigues in its fleet, and of the prevalence of discontent, -took the bold course of appealing to the loyalty and patriotism of its -officers. At a meeting of the flag-officers on board the "Britannia," -Russell's flag-ship, on the 15th of May, they protested their loyalty, -and the whole allied fleet put to sea on the 18th. On the 19th of May, -when Cape Barfleur, the north-eastern point of the Cotentin, was 21 m. -S.W. of them, they sighted Tourville, who was then 20 m. to the north of -Cape La Hague, the north-western extremity of the peninsula, which must -not be confounded with La Houque, or La Hogue, the place at which the -fighting ended. The allies were formed in a line from S.S.W. to N.N.E. -heading towards the English coast, the Dutch forming the White or van -division, while the Red or centre division under Russell, and the Blue -or rear under Sir John Ashby, were wholly composed of British ships. The -wind was from the S.W. and the weather hazy. Tourville bore down and -attacked about mid-day, directing his main assault on the centre of the -allies, but telling off some ships to watch the van and rear of his -enemy. As this first encounter took place off Cape Barfleur, the battle -was formerly often called by the name. On the centre, where Tourville -was directly opposed to Russell, the fighting was severe. The British -flag-ship the "Britannia" (100), and the French, the "Soleil Royal" -(100), were both completely crippled. After several hours of conflict, -the French admiral, seeing himself outnumbered, and that the allies -could outflank him and pass through the necessarily wide intervals in -his extended line, drew off without the loss of a ship. The wind now -fell and the haze became a fog. Till the 23rd, the two fleets remained -off the north coast of the Cotentin, drifting west with the ebb tide or -east with the flood, save when they anchored. During the night of the -19th/20th some British ships became entangled, in the fog, with the -French, and drifted through them on the tide, with loss. On the 23rd -both fleets were near La Hague. About half the French, under -D'Amfreville, rounded the cape, and fled to St Malo through the -dangerous passage known as the Race of Alderney (le Ras Blanchard). The -others were unable to get round the cape before the flood tide set in, -and were carried to the eastward. Tourville now transferred his own -flag, and left his captains free to save themselves as they best could. -He left the "Soleil Royal," and sent her with two others to Cherbourg, -where they were destroyed by Sir Ralph Delaval. The others now ran round -Cape Barfleur, and sought refuge on the east side of the Cotentin at the -anchorage of La Houque, called by the English La Hogue, where the troops -destined for the invasion were encamped. Here 13 of them were burnt by -Sir George Rooke, in the presence of the French generals and of the -exiled king James II. From the name of the place where the last blow was -struck, the battle has come to be known by the name of La Hogue. - - Sufficient accounts of the battle may be found in Lediard's _Naval - History_ (London, 1735), and for the French side in Tronde's - _Batailles navales de la France_ (Paris, 1867). The escape of - D'Amfreville's squadron is the subject of Browning's poem "Herve - Riel." (D. H.) - - - - -LAHORE, an ancient city of British India, the capital of the Punjab, -which gives its name to a district and division. It lies in 31 deg. 35' -N. and 74 deg. 20' E. near the left bank of the River Ravi, 1706 ft. -above the sea, and 1252 m. by rail from Calcutta. It is thus in about -the same latitude as Cairo, but owing to its inland position is -considerably hotter than that city, being one of the hottest places in -India in the summer time. In the cold season the climate is pleasantly -cool and bright. The native city is walled, about 1(1/4) m. in length W. -to E. and about 3/4 m. in breadth N. to S. Its site has been occupied -from early times, and much of it stands high above the level of the -surrounding country, raised on the remains of a succession of former -habitations. Some old buildings, which have been preserved, stand now -below the present surface of the ground. This is well seen in the mosque -now called Masjid Niwin (or sunken) built in 1560, the mosque of Mullah -Rahmat, 7 ft. below, and the Shivali, a very old Hindu temple, about 12 -ft. below the surrounding ground. Hindu tradition traces the origin of -Lahore to Loh or Lava, son of Rama, the hero of the _Ramayana_. The -absence of mention of Lahore by Alexander's historians, and the fact -that coins of the Graeco-Bactrian kings are not found among the ruins, -lead to the belief that it was not a place of any importance during the -earliest period of Indian history. On the other hand, Hsuan Tsang, the -Chinese Buddhist, notices the city in his _Itinerary_ (A.D. 630); and it -seems probable, therefore, that Lahore first rose into prominence -between the 1st and 7th centuries A.D. Governed originally by a family -of Chauhan Rajputs, a branch of the house of Ajmere, Lahore fell -successively under the dominion of the Ghazni and Ghori sultans, who -made it the capital of their Indian conquests, and adorned it with -numerous buildings, almost all now in ruins. But it was under the Mogul -empire that Lahore reached its greatest size and magnificence. The -reigns of Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb form the -golden period in the annals and architecture of the city. Akbar enlarged -and repaired the fort, and surrounded the town with a wall, portions of -which remain, built into the modern work of Ranjit Singh. Lahore formed -the capital of the Sikh empire of that monarch. At the end of the second -Sikh War, with the rest of the Punjab, it came under the British -dominion. - -The architecture of Lahore cannot compare with that of Delhi. Jahangir -in 1622-1627 erected the Khwabgah or "sleeping-place," a fine palace -much defaced by the Sikhs but to some extent restored in modern times; -the Moti Masjid or "pearl mosque" in the fort, used by Ranjit Singh and -afterwards by the British as a treasure-house; and also the tomb of -Anarkali, used formerly as the station church and now as a library. Shah -Jahan erected a palace and other buildings near the Khwabgah, including -the beautiful pavilion called the Naulakha from its cost of nine lakhs, -which was inlaid with precious stones. The mosque of Wazir Khan (1634) -provides the finest example of _kashi_ or encaustic tile work. -Aurangzeb's Jama Masjid, or "great mosque," is a huge bare building, -stiff in design, and lacking the detailed ornament typical of buildings -at Delhi. The buildings of Ranjit Singh, especially his mausoleum, are -common and meretricious in style. He was, moreover, responsible for much -of the despoiling of the earlier buildings. The streets of the native -city are narrow and tortuous, and are best seen from the back of an -elephant. Two of the chief features of Lahore lie outside its walls at -Shahdara and Shalamar Gardens respectively. Shahdara, which contains the -tomb of the emperor Jahangir, lies across the Ravi some 6 m. N. of the -city. It consists of a splendid marble cenotaph surrounded by a grove of -trees and gardens. The Shalamar Gardens, which were laid out in A.D. -1637 by Shah Jahan, lie 6 m. E. of the city. They are somewhat neglected -except on festive occasions, when the fountains are playing and the -trees are lit up by lamps at night. - -The modern city of Lahore, which contained a population of 202,964 in -1901, may be divided into four parts: the native city, already -described; the civil station or European quarter, known as Donald Town; -the Anarkali bazaar, a suburb S. of the city wall; and the cantonment, -formerly called Mian Mir. The main street of the civil station is a -portion of the grand trunk road from Calcutta to Peshawar, locally known -as the Mall. The chief modern buildings along this road, west to east, -are the Lahore museum, containing a fine collection of Graeco-Buddhist -sculptures, found by General Cunningham in the Yusufzai country, and -arranged by Mr Lockwood Kipling, a former curator of the museum; the -cathedral, begun by Bishop French, in Early English style, and -consecrated in 1887; the Lawrence Gardens and Montgomery Halls, -surrounded by a garden that forms the chief meeting-place of Europeans -in the afternoon; and opposite this government house, the official -residence of the lieutenant-governor of the Punjab; next to this is the -Punjab club for military men and civilians. Three miles beyond is the -Lahore cantonment, where the garrison is stationed, except a company of -British infantry, which occupies the fort. It is the headquarters of the -3rd division of the northern army. Lahore is an important junction on -the North-Western railway system, but has little local trade or -manufacture. The chief industries are silk goods, gold and silver lace, -metal work and carpets which are made in the Lahore gaol. There are also -cotton mills, flour mills, an ice-factory, and several factories for -mineral waters, oils, soap, leather goods, &c. Lahore is an important -educational centre. Here are the Punjab University with five colleges, -medical and law colleges, a central training college, the Aitchison -Chiefs' College for the sons of native noblemen, and a number of other -high schools and technical and special schools. - -The DISTRICT OF LAHORE has an area of 3704 sq. m., and its population in -1901 was 1,162,109, consisting chiefly of Punjabi Mahommedans with a -large admixture of Hindus and Sikhs. In the north-west the district -includes a large part of the barren Rechna Doab, while south of the Ravi -is a desolate alluvial tract, liable to floods. The Manjha plateau, -however, between the Ravi and the Beas, has been rendered fertile by the -Bari Doab canal. The principal crops are wheat, pulse, millets, maize, -oil-seeds and cotton. There are numerous factories for ginning and -pressing cotton. Irrigation is provided by the main line of the Bari -Doab canal and its branches, and by inundation-cuts from the Sutlej. The -district is crossed in several directions by lines of the North-Western -railway. Lahore, Kasur, Chunian and Raiwind are the chief trade centres. - -The DIVISION OF LAHORE extends along the right bank of the Sutlej from -the Himalayas to Multan. It comprises the six districts of Sialkot, -Gujranwala, Montgomery, Lahore, Amritsar and Gurdaspur. Total area, -17,154 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 5,598,463. The commissioner for the division -also exercises political control over the hill slate of Chamba. The -common language of the rural population and of artisans is Punjabi; -while Urdu or Hindustani is spoken by the educated classes. So far from -the seaboard, the range between extremes of winter and summer -temperature in the sub-tropics is great. The mean temperature in the -shade in June is about 92 deg. F., in January about 50 deg. In midsummer -the thermometer sometimes rises to 115 deg. in the shade, and remains on -some occasions as high as 105 deg. throughout the night. In winter the -morning temperature is sometimes as low as 20 deg. The rainfall is -uncertain, ranging from 8 in. to 25, with an average of 15 in. The -country as a whole is parched and arid, and greatly dependent on -irrigation. - - - - -LA HOZ Y MOTA, JUAN CLAUDIO DE (1630?-1710?), Spanish dramatist, was -born in Madrid. He became a knight of Santiago in 1653, and soon -afterwards succeeded his father as _regidor_ of Burgos. In 1665 he was -nominated to an important post at the Treasury, and in his later years -acted as official censor of the Madrid theatres. On the 13th of August -1709 he signed his play entitled _Josef, salvador de Egipto_, and is -presumed to have died in the following year. Hoz is not remarkable for -originality of conception, but his recasts of plays by earlier writers -are distinguished by an adroitness which accounts for the esteem in -which he was held by his contemporaries. _El Montanes Juan Pascal_ and -_El castigo de la miseria_, reprinted in the _Biblioteca de Autores -Espanoles_, give a just idea of his adaptable talent. - - - - -LAHR, a town in the grand-duchy of Baden, on the Schutter, about 9 m. S. -of Offenburg, and on the railway Dinglingen-Lahr. Pop. (1900) 13,577. -One of the busiest towns in Baden, it carries on manufactures of tobacco -and cigars, woollen goods, chicory, leather, pasteboard, hats and -numerous other articles, has considerable trade in wine, while among its -other industries are printing and lithography. Lahr first appears as a -town in 1278, and after several vicissitudes it passed wholly to Baden -in 1803. - - See Stein, _Geschichte und Beschreibung der Stadt Lahr_ (Lahr, 1827); - and Sutterlin, _Lahr und seine Umgebung_ (Lahr, 1904). - - - - -LAIBACH (Slovenian, _Ljubljana_), capital of the Austrian duchy of -Carniola, 237 m. S.S.W. of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900) 36,547, mostly -Slovene. It is situated on the Laibach, near its influx into the Save, -and consists of the town proper and eight suburbs. Laibach is an -episcopal see, and possesses a cathedral in the Italian style, several -beautiful churches, a town hall in Renaissance style and a castle, built -in the 15th century, on the Schlossberg, an eminence which commands the -town. Laibach is the principal centre of the national Slovenian -movement, and it contains a Slovene theatre and several societies for -the promotion of science and literature in the native tongue. The -Slovenian language is in general official use, and the municipal -administration is purely Slovenian. The industries include manufactures -of pottery, bricks, oil, linen and woollen cloth, fire-hose and paper. - - Laibach is supposed to occupy the site of the ancient Emona or Aemona, - founded by the emperor Augustus in 34 B.C. It was besieged by Alaric - in 400, and in 451 it was desolated by the Huns. In 900 Laibach - suffered much from the Magyars, who were, however, defeated there in - 914. In the 12th century the town passed into the hands of the dukes - of Carinthia; in 1270 it was taken by Ottocar of Bohemia; and in 1277 - it came under the Habsburgs. In the early part of the 15th century the - town was several times besieged by the Turks. The bishopric was - founded in 1461. On the 17th of March 1797 and again on the 3rd of - June 1809 Laibach was taken by the French, and from 1809 to 1813 it - became the seat of their general government of the Illyrian provinces. - From 1816 to 1849 Laibach was the capital of the kingdom of Illyria. - The town is also historically known from the congress of Laibach, - which assembled here in 1821 (see below). Laibach suffered severely on - the 14th of April 1895 from an earthquake. - -_Congress or Conference of Laibach._--Before the break-up of the -conference of Troppau (q.v.), it had been decided to adjourn it till the -following January, and to invite the attendance of the king of Naples, -Laibach being chosen as the place of meeting. Castlereagh, in the name -of Great Britain, had cordially approved this invitation, as "implying -negotiation" and therefore as a retreat from the position taken up in -the Troppau Protocol. Before leaving Troppau, however, the three -autocratic powers, Russia, Austria and Prussia, had issued, on the 8th -of December 1820, a circular letter, in which they reiterated the -principles of the Protocol, i.e. the right and duty of the powers -responsible for the peace of Europe to intervene to suppress any -revolutionary movement by which they might conceive that peace to be -endangered (Hertslet, No. 105). Against this view Castlereagh once more -protested in a circular despatch of the 19th of January 1821, in which -he clearly differentiated between the objectionable general principles -advanced by the three powers, and the particular case of the unrest in -Italy, the immediate concern not of Europe at large, but of Austria and -of any other Italian powers which might consider themselves endangered -(Hertslet, No. 107). - -The conference opened on the 26th of January 1821, and its constitution -emphasized the divergences revealed in the above circulars. The emperors -of Russia and Austria were present in person, and with them were Counts -Nesselrode and Capo d'Istria, Metternich and Baron Vincent; Prussia and -France were represented by plenipotentiaries. But Great Britain, on the -ground that she had no immediate interest in the Italian question, was -represented only by Lord Stewart, the ambassador at Vienna, who was not -armed with full powers, his mission being to watch the proceedings and -to see that nothing was done beyond or in violation of the treaties. Of -the Italian princes, Ferdinand of Naples and the duke of Modena came in -person; the rest were represented by plenipotentiaries. - -It was soon clear that a more or less open breach between Great Britain -and the other powers was inevitable, Metternich was anxious to secure an -apparent unanimity of the powers to back the Austrian intervention in -Naples, and every device was used to entrap the English representative -into subscribing a formula which would have seemed to commit Great -Britain to the principles of the other allies. When these devices -failed, attempts were made unsuccessfully to exclude Lord Stewart from -the conferences on the ground of defective powers. Finally he was forced -to an open protest, which he caused to be inscribed on the journals, but -the action of Capo d'Istria in reading to the assembled Italian -ministers, who were by no means reconciled to the large claims implied -in the Austrian intervention, a declaration in which as the result of -the "intimate union established by solemn acts between all the European -powers" the Russian emperor offered to the allies "the aid of his arms, -should new revolutions threaten new dangers," an attempt to revive that -idea of a "universal union" based on the Holy Alliance (q.v.) against -which Great Britain had consistently protested. - -The objections of Great Britain were, however, not so much to an -Austrian intervention in Naples as to the far-reaching principles by -which it was sought to justify it. King Ferdinand had been invited to -Laibach, according to the circular of the 8th of December, in order -that he might be free to act as "mediator between his erring peoples and -the states whose tranquillity they threatened." The cynical use he made -of his "freedom" to repudiate obligations solemnly contracted is -described elsewhere (see NAPLES, _History_). The result of this action -was the Neapolitan declaration of war and the occupation of Naples by -Austria, with the sanction of the congress. This was preceded, on the -10th of March, by the revolt of the garrison of Alessandria and the -military revolution in Piedmont, which in its turn was suppressed, as a -result of negotiations at Laibach, by Austrian troops. It was at -Laibach, too, that, on the 19th of March, the emperor Alexander received -the news of Ypsilanti's invasion of the Danubian principalities, which -heralded the outbreak of the War of Greek Independence, and from Laibach -Capo d'Istria addressed to the Greek leader the tsar's repudiation of -his action. - -The conference closed on the 12th of May, on which date Russia, Austria -and Prussia issued a declaration (Hertslet, No. 108) "to proclaim to the -world the principles which guided them" in coming "to the assistance of -subdued peoples," a declaration which once more affirmed the principles -of the Troppau Protocol. In this lay the European significance of the -Laibach conference, of which the activities had been mainly confined to -Italy. The issue of the declaration without the signatures of the -representatives of Great Britain and France proclaimed the disunion of -the alliance, within which--to use Lord Stewart's words--there existed -"a triple understanding which bound the parties to carry forward their -own views in spite of any difference of opinion between them and the two -great constitutional governments." - - No separate history of the congress exists, but innumerable references - are to be found in general histories and in memoirs, correspondence, - &c., of the time. See Sir E. Hertslet, _Map of Europe_ (London, 1875); - Castlereagh, _Correspondence_; Metternich, _Memoirs_; N. Bianchi, - _Storia documentata della diplomazia Europea in Italia_ (8 vols., - Turin, 1865-1872); Gentz's correspondence (see GENTZ, F. VON). - Valuable unpublished correspondence is preserved at the Record Office - in the volumes marked F. O., Austria, Lord Stewart, January to - February 1821, and March to September 1821. (W. A. P.) - - - - -LAIDLAW, WILLIAM (1780-1845), friend and amanuensis of Sir Walter Scott, -was born at Blackhouse, Selkirkshire, on the 19th of November 1780, the -son of a sheep farmer. After an elementary education in Peebles he -returned to work upon his father's farm. James Hogg, the shepherd poet, -who was employed at Blackhouse for some years, became Laidlaw's friend -and appreciative critic. Together they assisted Scott by supplying -material for his _Border Minstrelsy_, and Laidlaw, after two failures as -a farmer in Midlothian and Peebleshire, became Scott's steward at -Abbotsford. He also acted as Scott's amanuensis at different times, -taking down a large part of _The Bride of Lammermoor_, _The Legend of -Montrose_ and _Ivanhoe_ from the author's dictation. He died at Contin -near Dingwall, Ross-shire, on the 18th of May 1845. Of his poetry, -little is known except _Lucy's Flittin'_ in Hogg's _Forest Minstrel_. - - - - -LAING, ALEXANDER GORDON (1793-1826), Scottish explorer, the first -European to reach Timbuktu, was born at Edinburgh on the 27th of -December 1793. He was educated by his father, William Laing, a private -teacher of classics, and at Edinburgh University. In 1811 he went to -Barbados as clerk to his maternal uncle Colonel (afterwards General) -Gabriel Gordon. Through General Sir George Beckwith, governor of -Barbados, he obtained an ensigncy in the York Light Infantry. He was -employed in the West Indies, and in 1822 was promoted to a company in -the Royal African Corps. In that year, while with his regiment at Sierra -Leone, he was sent by the governor, Sir Charles MacCarthy, to the -Mandingo country, with the double object of opening up commerce and -endeavouring to abolish the slave trade in that region. Later in the -same year Laing visited Falaba, the capital of the Sulima country, and -ascertained the source of the Rokell. He endeavoured to reach the source -of the Niger, but was stopped by the natives. He was, however, enabled -to fix it with approximate accuracy. He took an active part in the -Ashanti War of 1823-24, and was sent home with the despatches -containing the news of the death in action of Sir Charles MacCarthy. -Henry, 3rd Earl Bathurst, then secretary for the colonies, instructed -Captain Laing to undertake a journey, via Tripoli and Timbuktu, to -further elucidate the hydrography of the Niger basin. Laing left England -in February 1825, and at Tripoli on the 14th of July following he -married Emma Warrington, daughter of the British consul. Two days later, -leaving his bride behind, he started to cross the Sahara, being -accompanied by a sheikh who was subsequently accused of planning his -murder. Ghadames was reached, by an indirect route, in October 1825, and -in December Laing was in the Tuat territory, where he was well received -by the Tuareg. On the 10th of January 1826 he left Tuat, and made for -Timbuktu across the desert of Tanezroft. Letters from him written in May -and July following told of sufferings from fever and the plundering of -his caravan by Tuareg, Laing being wounded in twenty-four places in the -fighting. Another letter dated from Timbuktu on the 21st of September -announced his arrival in that city on the preceding 18th of August, and -the insecurity of his position owing to the hostility of the Fula -chieftain Bello, then ruling the city. He added that he intended leaving -Timbuktu in three days' time. No further news was received from the -traveller. From native information it was ascertained that he left -Timbuktu on the day he had planned and was murdered on the night of the -26th of September 1826. His papers were never recovered, though it is -believed that they were secretly brought to Tripoli in 1828. In 1903 the -French government placed a tablet bearing the name of the explorer and -the date of his visit on the house occupied by him during his -thirty-eight days' stay in Timbuktu. - - While in England in 1824 Laing prepared a narrative of his earlier - journeys, which was published in 1825 and entitled _Travels in the - Timannee, Kooranko and Soolima Countries, in Western Africa_. - - - - -LAING, DAVID (1793-1878), Scottish antiquary, the son of William Laing, -a bookseller in Edinburgh, was born in that city on the 20th of April -1793. Educated at the Canongate Grammar School, when fourteen he was -apprenticed to his father. Shortly after the death of the latter in -1837, Laing was elected to the librarianship of the Signet Library, -which post he retained till his death. Apart from an extraordinary -general bibliographical knowledge, Laing was best known as a lifelong -student of the literary and artistic history of Scotland. He published -no original volumes, but contented himself with editing the works of -others. Of these, the chief are--_Dunbar's Works_ (2 vols., 1834), with -a supplement added in 1865; _Robert Baillie's Letters and Journals_ (3 -vols., 1841-1842); _John Knox's Works_ (6 vols., 1846-1864); _Poems and -Fables of Robert Henryson_ (1865); _Andrew of Wyntoun's Orygynale -Cronykil of Scotland_ (3 vols., 1872-1879); _Sir David Lyndsay's -Poetical Works_ (3 vols., 1879). Laing was for more than fifty years a -member of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, and he contributed -upwards of a hundred separate papers to their _Proceedings_. He was also -for more than forty years secretary to the Bannatyne Club, many of the -publications of which were edited by him. He was struck with paralysis -in 1878 while in the Signet Library, and it is related that, on -recovering consciousness, he looked about and asked if a proof of -Wyntoun had been sent from the printers. He died a few days afterwards, -on the 18th of October, in his eighty-sixth year. His library was sold -by auction, and realized L16,137. To the university of Edinburgh he -bequeathed his collection of MSS. - - See the Biographical Memoir prefixed to _Select Remains of Ancient, - Popular and Romance Poetry of Scotland_, edited by John Small - (Edinburgh, 1885); also T. G. Stevenson, _Notices of David Laing with - List of his Publications, &c._ (privately printed 1878). - - - - -LAING, MALCOLM (1762-1818), Scottish historian, son of Robert Laing, and -elder brother of Samuel Laing the elder, was born on his paternal estate -on the Mainland of Orkney. Having studied at the grammar school of -Kirkwall and at Edinburgh University, he was called to the Scotch bar in -1785, but devoted his time mainly to historical studies. In 1793 he -completed the sixth and last volume of Robert Henry's _History of Great -Britain_, the portion which he wrote being in its strongly liberal tone -at variance with the preceding part of the work; and in 1802 he -published his _History of Scotland from the Union of the Crowns to the -Union of the Kingdoms_, a work showing considerable research. Attached -to the _History_ was a dissertation on the Gowrie conspiracy, and -another on the supposed authenticity of Ossian's poems. In another -dissertation, prefixed to a second and corrected edition of the -_History_ published in 1804, Laing endeavoured to prove that Mary, queen -of Scots, wrote the Casket Letters, and was partly responsible for the -murder of Lord Darnley. In the same year he edited the _Life and -Historie of King James VI._, and in 1805 brought out in two volumes an -edition of Ossian's poems. Laing, who was a friend of Charles James Fox, -was member of parliament for Orkney and Shetland from 1807 to 1812. He -died on the 6th of November 1818. - - - - -LAING, SAMUEL (1810-1897), British author and railway administrator, was -born at Edinburgh on the 12th of December 1810. He was the nephew of -Malcolm Laing, the historian of Scotland; and his father, Samuel Laing -(1780-1868), was also a well-known author, whose books on Norway and -Sweden attracted much attention. Samuel Laing the younger entered St -John's College, Cambridge, in 1827, and after graduating as second -wrangler and Smith's prizeman, was elected a fellow, and remained at -Cambridge temporarily as a coach. He was called to the bar in 1837, and -became private secretary to Mr Labouchere (afterwards Lord Taunton), the -president of the Board of Trade. In 1842 he was made secretary to the -railway department, and retained this post till 1847. He had by then -become an authority on railway working, and had been a member of the -Dalhousie Railway Commission; it was at his suggestion that the -"parliamentary" rate of a penny a mile was instituted. In 1848 he was -appointed chairman and managing director of the London, Brighton & South -Coast Railway, and his business faculty showed itself in the largely -increased prosperity of the line. He also became chairman (1852) of the -Crystal Palace Company, but retired from both posts in 1855. In 1852 he -entered parliament as a Liberal for Wick, and after losing his seat in -1857, was re-elected in 1859, in which year he was appointed financial -secretary to the Treasury; in 1860 he was made finance minister in -India. On returning from India, he was re-elected to parliament for Wick -in 1865. He was defeated in 1868, but in 1873 he was returned for Orkney -and Shetland, and retained his seat till 1885. Meanwhile he had been -reappointed chairman of the Brighton line in 1867, and continued in that -post till 1894, being generally recognized as an admirable -administrator. He was also chairman of the Railway Debenture Trust and -the Railway Share Trust. In later life he became well known as an -author, his _Modern Science and Modern Thought_ (1885), _Problems of the -Future_ (1889) and _Human Origins_ (1892) being widely read, not only by -reason of the writer's influential position, experience of affairs and -clear style, but also through their popular and at the same time -well-informed treatment of the scientific problems of the day. Laing -died at Sydenham on the 6th of August 1897. - - - - -LAING'S [or LANG'S] NEK, a pass through the Drakensberg, South Africa, -immediately north of Majuba (q.v.), at an elevation of 5400 to 6000 ft. -It is the lowest part of a ridge which slopes from Majuba to the Buffalo -river, and before the opening of the railway in 1891 the road over the -nek was the main artery of communication between Durban and Pretoria. -The railway pierces the nek by a tunnel 2213 ft. long. When the Boers -rose in revolt in December 1880 they occupied Laing's Nek to oppose the -entry of British reinforcements into the Transvaal. On the 28th of -January 1881 a small British force endeavoured to drive the Boers from -the pass, but was forced to retire. - - - - -LAIRD, MACGREGOR (1808-1861), Scottish merchant, pioneer of British -trade on the Niger, was born at Greenock in 1808, the younger son of -William Laird, founder of the Birkenhead firm of shipbuilders of that -name. In 1831 Laird and certain Liverpool merchants formed a company for -the commercial development of the Niger regions, the lower course of the -Niger having been made known that year by Richard and John Lander. In -1832 the company despatched two small ships to the Niger, one, the -"Alburkah," a paddle-wheel steamer of 55 tons designed by Laird, being -the first iron vessel to make an ocean voyage. Macgregor Laird went with -the expedition, which was led by Richard Lander and numbered forty-eight -Europeans, of whom all but nine died from fever or, in the case of -Lander, from wounds. Laird went up the Niger to the confluence of the -Benue (then called the Shary or Tchadda), which he was the first white -man to ascend. He did not go far up the river but formed an accurate -idea as to its source and course. The expedition returned to Liverpool -in 1834, Laird and Surgeon R. A. K. Oldfield being the only surviving -officers besides Captain (then Lieut.) William Allen, R.N., who -accompanied the expedition by order of the Admiralty to survey the -river. Laird and Oldfield published in 1837 in two volumes the -_Narrative of an Expedition into the Interior of Africa by the River -Niger ... in 1832, 1833, 1834_. Commercially the expedition had been -unsuccessful, but Laird had gained experience invaluable to his -successors. He never returned to Africa but henceforth devoted himself -largely to the development of trade with West Africa and especially to -the opening up of the countries now forming the British protectorates of -Nigeria. One of his principal reasons for so doing was his belief that -this method was the best means of stopping the slave trade and raising -the social condition of the Africans. In 1854 he sent out at his own -charges, but with the support of the British government, a small -steamer, the "Pleiad," which under W. B. Baikie made so successful a -voyage that Laird induced the government to sign contracts for annual -trading trips by steamers specially built for navigation of the Niger -and Benue. Various stations were founded on the Niger, and though -government support was withdrawn after the death of Laird and Baikie, -British traders continued to frequent the river, which Laird had opened -up with little or no personal advantage. Laird's interests were not, -however, wholly African. In 1837 he was one of the promoters of a -company formed to run steamships between England and New York, and in -1838 the "Sirius," sent out by this company, was the first ship to cross -the Atlantic from Europe entirely under steam. Laird died in London on -the 9th of January 1861. - -His elder brother, JOHN LAIRD (1805-1874), was one of the first to use -iron in the construction of ships; in 1829 he made an iron lighter of 60 -tons which was used on canals and lakes in Ireland; in 1834 he built the -paddle steamer "John Randolph" for Savannah, U.S.A., stated to be the -first iron ship seen in America. For the East India Company he built in -1839 the first iron vessel carrying guns and he was also the designer of -the famous "Birkenhead." A Conservative in politics, he represented -Birkenhead in the House of Commons from 1861 to his death. - - - - -LAIS, the name of two Greek courtesans, generally distinguished as -follows. (1) The elder, a native of Corinth, born _c._ 480 B.C., was -famous for her greed and hardheartedness, which gained her the nickname -of _Axine_ (the axe). Among her lovers were the philosophers Aristippus -and Diogenes, and Eubatas (or Aristoteles) of Cyrene, a famous runner. -In her old age she became a drunkard. Her grave was shown in the -Craneion near Corinth, surmounted by a lioness tearing a ram. (2) The -younger, daughter of Timandra the mistress of Alcibiades, born at -Hyccara in Sicily _c._ 420 B.C., taken to Corinth during the Sicilian -expedition. The painter Apelles, who saw her drawing water from the -fountain of Peirene, was struck by her beauty, and took her as a model. -Having followed a handsome Thessalian to his native land, she was slain -in the temple of Aphrodite by women who were jealous of her beauty. Many -anecdotes are told of a Lais by Athenaeus, Aelian, Pausanias, and she -forms the subject of many epigrams in the Greek Anthology; but, owing to -the similarity of names, there is considerable uncertainty to whom they -refer. The name itself, like Phryne, was used as a general term for a -courtesan. - - See F. Jacobs, _Vermischte Schriften_, iv. (1830). - - - - -LAISANT, CHARLES ANNE (1841- ), French politician, was born at Nantes -on the 1st of November 1841, and was educated at the Ecole Polytechnique -as a military engineer. He defended the fort of Issy at the siege of -Paris, and served in Corsica and in Algeria in 1873. In 1876 he resigned -his commission to enter the Chamber as deputy for Nantes in the -republican interest, and in 1879 he became director of the _Petit -Parisien_. For alleged libel on General Courtot de Cissey in this paper -he was heavily fined. In the Chamber he spoke chiefly on army questions; -and was chairman of a commission appointed to consider army legislation, -resigning in 1887 on the refusal of the Chamber to sanction the -abolition of exemptions of any kind. He then became an adherent of the -revisionist policy of General Boulanger and a member of the League of -Patriots. He was elected Boulangist deputy for the 18th Parisian -arrondissement in 1889. He did not seek re-election in 1893, but devoted -himself thenceforward to mathematics, helping to make known in France -the theories of Giusto Bellavitis. He was attached to the staff of the -Ecole Polytechnique, and in 1903-1904 was president of the French -Association for the Advancement of Science. - - In addition to his political pamphlets _Pourquoi et comment je suis - Boulangiste_ (1887) and _L'Anarchie bourgeoise_ (1887), he published - mathematical works, among them _Introduction a l'etude des - quarternions_ (1881) and _Theorie et applications des equipollences_ - (1887). - - - - -LAI-YANG, a city in the Chinese province of Shan-tung, in 37 deg. N., -120 deg. 55' E., about the middle of the eastern peninsula, on the -highway running south from Chi-fu to Kin-Kia or Ting-tsu harbour. It is -surrounded by well-kept walls of great antiquity, and its main streets -are spanned by large _pailous_ or monumental arches, some dating from -the time of the emperor Tai-ting-ti of the Yuan dynasty (1324). There -are extensive suburbs both to the north and south, and the total -population is estimated at 50,000. The so-called Ailanthus silk produced -by _Saturnia cynthia_ is woven at Lai-yang into a strong fabric; and the -manufacture of the peculiar kind of wax obtained from the la-shu or -wax-tree insect is largely carried on in the vicinity. - - - - -LAKANAL, JOSEPH (1762-1845), French politician, was born at Serres -(Ariege) on the 14th of July 1762. His name, originally Lacanal, was -altered to distinguish him from his Royalist brothers. He joined one of -the teaching congregations, and for fourteen years taught in their -schools. When elected by his native department to the Convention in 1792 -he was acting as vicar to his uncle Bernard Font (1723-1800), the -constitutional bishop of Pamiers. In the Convention he held apart from -the various party sections, although he voted for the death of Louis -XVI. He rendered great service to the Revolution by his practical -knowledge of education. He became a member of the Committee of Public -Instruction early in 1793, and after carrying many useful decrees on the -preservation of national monuments, on the military schools, on the -reorganization of the Museum of Natural History and other matters, he -brought forward on the 26th of June his _Projet d'education nationale_ -(printed at the Imprimerie Nationale), which proposed to lay the burden -or primary education on the public funds, but to leave secondary -education to private enterprise. Provision was also made for public -festivals, and a central commission was to be entrusted with educational -questions. The scheme, in the main the work of Sieyes, was refused by -the Convention, who submitted the whole question to a special commission -of six, which under the influence of Robespierre adopted a report by -Michel le Peletier de Saint Fargeau shortly before his tragic death. -Lakanal, who was a member of the commission, now began to work for the -organization of higher education, and abandoning the principle of his -_Projet_ advocated the establishment of state-aided schools for primary, -secondary and university education. In October 1793 he was sent by the -Convention to the south-western departments and did not return to Paris -until after the revolution of Thermidor. He now became president of the -Education Committee and promptly abolished the system which had had -Robespierre's support. He drew up schemes for departmental normal -schools, for primary schools (reviving in substance the _Projet_) and -central schools. He presently acquiesced in the supersession of his own -system, but continued his educational reports after his election to the -Council of the Five Hundred. In 1799 he was sent by the Directory to -organize the defence of the four departments on the left bank of the -Rhine threatened by invasion. Under the Consulate he resumed his -professional work, and after Waterloo retired to America, where he -became president of the university of Louisiana. He returned to France -in 1834, and shortly afterwards, in spite of his advanced age, married a -second time. He died in Paris on the 14th of February 1845; his widow -survived till 1881. Lakanal was an original member of the Institute of -France. He published in 1838 an _Expose sommaire des travaux de Joseph -Lakanal_. - - His _eloge_ at the Academy of Moral and Political Science, of which he - was a member, was pronounced by the comte de Remusat (February 16, - 1845), and a _Notice historique_ by F. A. M. Mignet was read on the - 2nd of May 1857. See also notices by Emile Darnaud (Paris, 1874), - "Marcus" (Paris, 1879), P. Legendre in _Hommes de la revolution_ - (Paris, 1882), E. Guillon, _Lakanal et l'instruction publique_ (Paris, - 1881). For details of the reports submitted by him to the government - see M. Tourneux, "Histoire de l'instruction publique, actes et - deliberations de la convention, &c." in _Bibliog. de l'hist. de Paris_ - (vol. iii., 1900); also A. Robert and G. Cougny, _Dictionnaire des - parlementaires_ (vol. ii., 1890). - - - - -LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808), British general, was born -on the 27th of July 1744. He entered the foot guards in 1758, becoming -lieutenant (captain in the army) 1762, captain (lieut.-colonel) in 1776, -major 1784, and lieut.-colonel in 1792, by which time he was a general -officer in the army. He served with his regiment in Germany in 1760-1762 -and with a composite battalion in the Yorktown campaign of 1781. After -this he was equerry to the prince of Wales, afterwards George IV. In -1790 he became a major-general, and in 1793 was appointed to command the -Guards Brigade in the duke of York's army in Flanders. He was in command -at the brilliant affair of Lincelles, on the 18th of August 1793, and -served on the continent (except for a short time when seriously ill) -until April 1794. He had now sold his lieut.-colonelcy in the guards, -and had become colonel of the 53rd foot and governor of Limerick. In -1797 he was promoted lieut.-general. In the following year the Irish -rebellion broke out. Lake, who was then serving in Ireland, succeeded -Sir Ralph Abercromby in command of the troops in April 1798, issued a -proclamation ordering the surrender of all arms by the civil population -of Ulster, and on the 21st of June routed the rebels at Vinegar Hill -(near Enniscorthy, Co. Wexford). He exercised great, but perhaps not -unjustified, severity towards all rebels found in arms. Lord Cornwallis -now assumed the chief command in Ireland, and in August sent Lake to -oppose the French expedition which landed at Killala Bay. On the 29th of -the same month Lake arrived at Castlebar, but only in time to witness -the disgraceful rout of the troops under General Hely-Hutchinson -(afterwards 2nd earl of Donoughmore); but he retrieved this disaster by -compelling the surrender of the French at Ballinamuck, near Cloone, on -the 8th of September. In 1799 Lake returned to England, and soon -afterwards obtained the command in chief in India. He took over his -duties at Calcutta in July 1801, and applied himself to the improvement -of the Indian army, especially in the direction of making all arms, -infantry, cavalry and artillery, more mobile and more manageable. In -1802 he was made a full general. - -On the outbreak of war with the Mahratta confederacy in 1803 General -Lake took the field against Sindhia, and within two months defeated the -Mahrattas at Coel, stormed Aligahr, took Delhi and Agra, and won the -great victory of Laswari (November 1st, 1803), where the power of -Sindhia was completely broken, with the loss of thirty-one disciplined -battalions, trained and officered by Frenchmen, and 426 pieces of -ordnance. This defeat, followed a few days later by Major-General Arthur -Wellesley's victory at Argaum, compelled Sindhia to come to terms, and a -treaty with him was signed in December 1803. Operations were, however, -continued against his confederate, Holkar, who, on the 17th of November -1804, was defeated by Lake at Farrukhabad. But the fortress of Bhurtpore -held out against four assaults early in 1805, and Cornwallis, who -succeeded Wellesley as governor-general in July of that -year--superseding Lake at the same time as -commander-in-chief--determined to put an end to the war. But after the -death of Cornwallis in October of the same year, Lake pursued Holkar -into the Punjab and compelled him to surrender at Amritsar in December -1805. Wellesley in a despatch attributed much of the success of the war -to Lake's "matchless energy, ability and valour." For his services Lake -received the thanks of parliament, and was rewarded by a peerage in -September 1804. At the conclusion of the war he returned to England, and -in 1807 he was created a viscount. He represented Aylesbury in the House -of Commons from 1790 to 1802, and he also was brought into the Irish -parliament by the government as member for Armagh in 1799 to vote for -the Union. He died in London on the 20th of February 1808. - - See H. Pearse, _Memoir of the Life and Services of Viscount Lake_ - (London, 1908); G. B. Malleson, _Decisive Battles of India_ (1883); J. - Grant Duff, _History of the Mahrattas_ (1873); short memoir in _From - Cromwell to Wellington_, ed. Spenser Wilkinson. - - - - -LAKE. Professor Forel of Switzerland, the founder of the science of -limnology (Gr. [Greek: limne], a lake), defines a lake (Lat. _lacus_) as -a mass of still water situated in a depression of the ground, without -direct communication with the sea. The term is sometimes applied to -widened parts of rivers, and sometimes to bodies of water which lie -along sea-coasts, even at sea-level and in direct communication with the -sea. The terms _pond_, _tarn_, _loch_ and _mere_ are applied to smaller -lakes according to size and position. Some lakes are so large that an -observer cannot see low objects situated on the opposite shore, owing to -the lake-surface assuming the general curvature of the earth's surface. -Lakes are nearly universally distributed, but are more abundant in high -than in low latitudes. They are abundant in mountainous regions, -especially in those which have been recently glaciated. They are -frequent along rivers which have low gradients and wide flats, where -they are clearly connected with the changing channel of the river. Low -lands in proximity to the sea, especially in wet climates, have numerous -lakes, as, for instance, Florida. Lakes may be either fresh or salt, -according to the nature of the climate, some being much more salt than -the sea itself. They occur in all altitudes; Lake Titicaca in South -America is 12,500 ft. above sea-level, and Yellowstone Lake in the -United States is 7741 ft. above the sea; on the other hand, the surface -of the Caspian Sea is 86 ft., the Sea of Tiberias 682 ft. and the Dead -Sea 1292 ft. below the level of the ocean. - -The primary source of lake water is atmospheric precipitation, which may -reach the lakes through rain, melting ice and snow, springs, rivers and -immediate run-off from the land-surfaces. The surface of the earth, with -which we are directly in touch, is composed of lithosphere, hydrosphere -and atmosphere, and these interpenetrate. Lakes, rivers, the -water-vapour of the atmosphere and the water of hydration of the -lithosphere, must all be regarded as outlying portions of the -hydrosphere, which is chiefly made up of the great oceans. Lakes may be -compared to oceanic islands. Just as an oceanic island presents many -peculiarities in its rocks, soil, fauna and flora, due to its isolation -from the larger terrestrial masses, so does a lake present peculiarities -and an individuality in its physical, chemical and biological features, -owing to its position and separation from the waters of the great -oceans. - - _Origin of Lakes._--From the geological point of view, lakes may be - arranged into three groups: (A) Rock-Basins, (B) Barrier-Basins and - (C) Organic Basins. - - A. ROCK-BASINS have been formed in several ways:-- - - 1. _By slow movements of the earth's crust_, during the formation of - mountains; the Lake of Geneva in Switzerland and the Lake of Annecy in - France are due to the subsidence or warping of part of the Alps; on - the other hand, Lakes Stefanie, Rudolf, Albert Nyanza, Tanganyika and - Nyasa in Africa, and the Dead Sea in Asia Minor, are all believed to - lie in a great rift or sunken valley. - - 2. _By Volcanic Agencies._--Crater-lakes formed on the sites of - dormant volcanoes may be from a few yards to several miles in width, - have generally a circular form, and are often without visible outlet. - Excellent examples of such lakes are to be seen in the province of - Rome (Italy) and in the central plateau of France, where M. Delebecque - found the Lake of Issarles 329 ft. in depth. The most splendid - crater-lake is found on the summit of the Cascade range of Southern - Oregon (U.S.A.). This lake is 2000 ft. in depth. - - 3. _By Subsidence due to Subterranean Channels and Caves in Limestone - Rocks._--When the roofs of great limestone caves or underground lakes - fall in, they produce at the surface what are called _limestone - sinks_. Lakes similar to these are also found in regions abounding in - rock-salt deposits; the Jura range offers many such lakes. - - 4. _By Glacier Erosion._--A. C. Ramsay has shown that innumerable - lakes of the northern hemisphere do not lie in fissures produced by - underground disturbances, nor in areas of subsidence, nor in synclinal - folds of strata, but are the results of glacial erosion. Many flat - alluvial plains above gorges in Switzerland, as well as in the - Highlands of Scotland, were, without doubt, what Sir Archibald Geikie - calls glen-lakes, or true rock-basins, which have been filled up by - sand and mud brought into them by their tributary streams. - - B. BARRIER-BASINS.--These may be due to the following causes:-- - - 1. _A landslip_ often occurs in mountainous regions, where strata, - dipping towards the valley, rest on soft layers; the hard rocks slip - into the valley after heavy rains, damming back the drainage, which - then forms a barrier-basin. Many small lakes high up in the Alps and - Pyrenees are formed by a river being dammed back in this way. - - 2. _By a Glacier._--In Alaska, in Scandinavia and in the Alps a - glacier often bars the mouth of a tributary valley, the stream flowing - therein is dammed back, and a lake is thus formed. The best-known lake - of this kind is the Marjelen Lake in the Alps, near the great Aletsch - Glacier. Lake Castain in Alaska is barred by the Malaspina Glacier; it - is 2 or 3 m. long and 1 m. in width when at its highest level; it - discharges through a tunnel 9 m. in length beneath the ice-sheet. The - famous parallel roads of Glen Roy in Scotland are successive terraces - formed along the shores of a glacial lake during the waning glacial - epoch. Lake Agassiz, which during the glacial period occupied the - valley of the Red River, and of which the present Lake Winnipeg is a - remnant, was formed by an ice-dam along the margin of two great - ice-sheets. It is estimated to have been 700 m. in length, and to have - covered an area of 110,000 sq. m., thus exceeding the total area of - the five great North American lakes: Superior (31,200), Michigan - (22,450), Huron with Georgian Bay (23,800), Erie (9960) and Ontario - (7240). - - 3. _By the Lateral Moraine of an Actual Glacier._--These lakes - sometimes occur in the Alps of Central Europe and in the Pyrenees - Mountains. - - 4. _By the Frontal Moraine of an Ancient Glacier._--The barrier in - this case consists of the last moraine left by the retreating glacier. - Such lakes are abundant in the northern hemisphere, especially in - Scotland and the Alps. - - 5. _By Irregular Deposition of Glacial Drift._--After the retreat of - continental glaciers great masses of glacial drift are left on the - land-surfaces, but, on account of the manner in which these masses - were deposited, they abound in depressions that become filled with - water. Often these lakes are without visible outlets, the water - frequently percolating through the glacial drift. These lakes are so - numerous in the north-eastern part of North America that one can trace - the southern boundary of the great ice-sheet by following the southern - limit of the lake-strewn region, where lakes may be counted by tens of - thousands, varying from the size of a tarn to that of the great - Laurentian lakes above mentioned. - - 6. _By Sand drifted into Dunes._--It is a well-known fact that sand - may travel across a country for several miles in the direction of the - prevailing winds. When these sand-dunes obstruct a valley a lake may - be formed. A good example of such a lake is found in Moses Lake in the - state of Washington; but the sand-dunes may also fill up or submerge - river-valleys and lakes, for instance, in the Sahara, where the Shotts - are like vast lakes in the early morning, and in the afternoon, when - much evaporation has taken place, like vast plains of white salt. - - 7. _By Alluvial Matter deposited by Lateral Streams._--If the current - of a main river be not powerful enough to sweep away detrital matter - brought down by a lateral stream, a dam is formed causing a lake. - These lakes are frequently met with in the narrow valleys of the - Highlands of Scotland. - - 8. _By Flows of Lava._--Lakes of this kind are met with in volcanic - regions. - - C. ORGANIC BASINS.--In the vast tundras that skirt the Arctic Ocean in - both the old and the new world, a great number of frozen ponds and - lakes are met with, surrounded by banks of vegetation. Snow-banks are - generally accumulated every season at the same spots. During summer - the growth of the tundra vegetation is very rapid, and the snow-drifts - that last longest are surrounded by luxuriant vegetation. When such - accumulations of snow finally melt, the vegetation on the place they - occupied is much less than along their borders. Year after year such - places become more and more depressed, comparatively to the general - surface, where vegetable growth is more abundant, and thus give origin - to lakes. - - It is well known that in coral-reef regions small bays are cut off - from the ocean by the growth of corals, and thus ultimately - fresh-water basins are formed. - -_Life History of Lakes._--From the time of its formation a lake is -destined to disappear. The historical period has not been long enough to -enable man to have watched the birth, life and death of any single lake -of considerable size, still by studying the various stages of -development a fairly good idea of the course they run can be obtained. - -In humid regions two processes tend to the extinction of a lake, viz. -the deposition of detrital matter in the lake, and the lowering of the -lake by the cutting action of the outlet stream on the barrier. These -outgoing streams, however, being very pure and clear, all detrital -matter having been deposited in the lake, have less eroding power than -inflowing streams. One of the best examples of the action of the -filling-up process is presented by Lochs Doine, Voil and Lubnaig in the -Callander district of Scotland. In post-glacial times these three lochs -formed, without doubt, one continuous sheet of water, which subsequently -became divided into three different basins by the deposition of -sediment. Loch Doine has been separated from Loch Voil by alluvial cones -laid down by two opposite streams. At the head of Loch Doine there is an -alluvial flat that stretches for 1(1/2) m., formed by the Lochlarig -river and its tributaries. The long stretch of alluvium that separates -Loch Voil from Loch Lubnaig has been laid down by Calair Burn in Glen -Buckie, by the Kirkton Burn at Balquhidder, and by various streams on -both sides of Strathyre. Loch Lubnaig once extended to a point 3/4 m. -beyond its present outlet, the level of the loch being lowered about 20 -ft. by the denuding action of the river Leny on its rocky barrier. - -In arid regions, where the rainfall is often less than 10 ins. in the -year, the action of winds in the transport of sand and dust is more in -evidence than that of rivers, and the effects of evaporation greater -than of precipitation. Salt and bitter lakes prevail in these regions. -Many salt lakes, such as the Dead Sea and the Great Salt Lake, are -descended from fresh-water ancestors, while others, like the Caspian and -Aral Seas, are isolated portions of the ocean. Lakes of the first group -have usually become salt through a decrease in the rainfall of the -region in which they occur. The water begins to get salt when the -evaporation from the lake exceeds the inflow. The inflowing waters bring -in a small amount of saline and alkaline matter, which becomes more and -more concentrated as the evaporation increases. In lakes of the second -group the waters were salt at the outset. If inflow exceeds evaporation -they become fresher, and may ultimately become quite fresh. If the -evaporation exceeds the inflow they diminish in size, and their waters -become more and more salt and bitter. The first lake which occupied the -basin of the Great Salt Lake of Utah appears to have been fresh, then -with a change of climate to have become a salt lake. Another change of -climate taking place, the level of the lake rose until it overflowed, -the outlet being by the Snake river; the lake then became fresh. This -expanded lake has been called Lake Bonneville, which covered an area of -about 17,000 sq. m. Another change of climate in the direction of -aridity reduced the level of the lake below the level of the outlet, the -waters became gradually salt, and the former great fresh-water lake has -been reduced gradually to the relatively small Great Salt Lake of the -present day. The sites of extinct salt lakes yield salt in commercial -quantities. - - _The Water of Lakes._--(a) _Composition._--It is interesting to - compare the quantity of solid matter in, and the chemical composition - of, the water of fresh and salt lakes:-- - - Total Solids by Evaporation - expressed in Grams per Litre. - Great Salt Lake (Russell) 238.12 - Lake of Geneva (Delebecque) 0.1775 - - The following analysis of a sample of the water of the Great Salt Lake - (Utah, U.S.A.) is given by I. C. Russell:-- - - Grams per Litre. Probable Combination. - - Na 75.825 NaCl 192.860 - K 3.925 K2SO4 8.756 - Li 0.021 Li2SO4 0.166 - Mg 4.844 MgCl2 15.044 - Ca 2.424 MgSO4 5.216 - Cl 128.278 CaSO4 8.240 - SO3 12.522 Fe2O3 + Al2O3 0.004 - O in sulphate 2.494 SiO2 0.018 - Fe2O3 + Al2O3 0.004 Surplus SO_3 0.051 - SiO2 0.018 - Bo2O3 trace - Br3 faint trace - - The following analyses of the waters of other salt lakes are given by - Mr J. Y. Buchanan (Art. "Lake," _Ency. Brit._, 9th Ed.), an analysis - of sea-water from the Suez Canal being added for comparison:-- - - +-----------------------+---------+--------+-------------------+----------+---------+---------+-----------+ - | | | | Caspian Sea. | | | |Suez Canal,| - | |Koko-nor.|Aral Sea+--------+----------+Urmia Sea.|Dead Sea.|Lake Van.| Ismailia. | - | | | | Open. |Karabugas.| | | | | - +-----------------------+---------+--------+--------+----------+----------+---------+---------+-----------+ - | Specific Gravity | 1.00907 | .. | 1.01106| 1.26217 | 1.17500 | .. | 1.01800| 1.03898 | - | Percentage of Salt | 1.11 | 1.09 | 1.30 | 28.5 |22.28 | 22.13 | 1.73 | 5.1 | - +-----------------------+---------+--------+--------+----------+----------+---------+---------+-----------+ - | Name of Salt. | Grams of Salt per 1000 Grams of Water. | - +-----------------------+---------+--------+--------+----------+----------+---------+---------+-----------+ - | Bicarbonate of Lime | 0.6804 | 0.2185 | 0.1123 | .. | .. | .. | .. | 0.0072 | - | " Iron | 0.0053 | .. | 0.0014 | .. | .. | .. | .. | 0.0069 | - | " Magnesia | 0.6598 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 0.4031 | .. | - | Carbonate of Soda | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 5.3976 | .. | - | Phosphate of Lime | 0.0028 | .. | 0.0021 | .. | .. | .. | 5.3976 | 0.0029 | - | Sulphate of Lime | .. | 1.3499 | 0.9004 | .. | 0.7570 | 0.8600 | .. | 1.8593 | - | " Magnesia | 0.9324 | 2.9799 | 3.0855 | 61.9350 | 13.5460 | .. | 0.2592 | 3.2231 | - | " Soda | 1.7241 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 2.5673 | .. | - | " Potash | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 0.5363 | .. | - | Chloride of Sodium | 6.9008 | 6.2356 | 8.1163 | 83.2840 |192.4100 | 76.5000 | 8.0500 | 40.4336 | - | " Potassium | 0.2209 | 0.1145 | 0.1339 | 9.9560 | .. | 23.3000 | .. | 0.6231 | - | " Rubidium | 0.0055 | .. | 0.0034 | 0.2510 | .. | .. | .. | 0.0265 | - | " Magnesium | .. | 0.0003 | 0.6115 |129.3770 | 15.4610 | 95.6000 | .. | 4.7632 | - | " Calcium | .. | .. | .. | .. | 0.5990 | 22.4500 | .. | .. | - | Bromide of Magnesium | 0.0045 | .. | 0.0081 | 0.1930 | .. | 2.3100 | .. | 0.0779 | - | Silica | 0.0098 | .. | 0.0024 | .. | .. | 0.2400 | 0.0761 | 0.0027 | - +-----------------------+---------+--------+--------+----------+----------+---------+---------+-----------+ - | Total Solid Matter |11.1463 |10.8987 |12.9773 |284.9960 |222.2600 |221.2600 | 17.2899 | 51.0264 | - +-----------------------+---------+--------+--------+----------+----------+---------+---------+-----------+ - - This table embraces examples of several types of salt lakes. In the - Koko-nor, Aral and open Caspian Seas we have examples of the - moderately salt, non-saturated waters. In the Karabugas, a branch gulf - of the Caspian, Urmia and the Dead Seas we have examples of saturated - waters containing principally chlorides. Lake Van is an example of the - alkaline seas which also occur in Egypt, Hungary and other countries. - Their peculiarity consists in the quantity of carbonate of soda - dissolved in their waters, which is collected by the inhabitants for - domestic and commercial purposes. - - The following analyses by Dr Bourcart give an idea of the chemical - composition of the water of fresh-water lakes in grams per litre:-- - - +---------------+--------+--------+---------+-----------+ - | | Tanay. | Bleu. |Marjelen.|St Gothard.| - +---------------+--------+--------+---------+-----------+ - | SiO2 | 0.003 | 0.0042 | 0.0014 | 0.0008 | - | Fe2O3 + Al2O3 | 0.0012 | 0.0006 | 0.0008 | trace | - | NaCl | 0.0017 | .. | .. | .. | - | Na2SO4 | 0.0011 | 0.0038 | 0.0031 | 0.00085 | - | Na2CO3 | .. | .. | .. | 0.00128 | - | K2SO4 | 0.0021 | 0.0028 | 0.0044 | .. | - | K2CO3 | .. | .. | 0.0003 | 0.00130 | - | MgSO4 | 0.006 | 0.0305 | .. | .. | - | MgCO3 | 0.0046 | 0.0158 | 0.0008 | 0.00015 | - | CaSO4 | .. | .. | .. | .. | - | CaCO3 | 0.107 | 0.1189 | 0.0061 | 0.00178 | - | MnO | 0.001 | .. | .. | .. | - +---------------+--------+--------+---------+-----------+ - - (b) _Movements and Temperature of Lake-Waters._--(1) In addition to - the rise and fall of the surface-level of lakes due to rainfall and - evaporation, there is a transference of water due to the action of - wind which results in raising the level at the end to which the wind - is blowing. In addition to the well-known progressive waves there are - also stationary waves or "seiches" which are less apparent. A seiche - is a standing oscillation of a lake, usually in the direction of the - longest diameter, but occasionally transverse. In a motion of this - kind every particle of the water of the lake oscillates synchronously - with every other, the periods and phases being the same for all, and - the orbits similar but of different dimensions and not similarly - situated. Seiches were first discovered in 1730 by Fatio de Duillier, - a well-known Swiss engineer, and were first systematically studied by - Professor Forel in the Lake of Geneva. Large numbers of observations - have been made by various observers in lakes in many parts of the - world. Henry observed a fifteen-hour seiche in Lake Erie, which is 396 - kilometres in length, and Endros recorded a seiche of fourteen seconds - in a small pond only 111 metres in length. Although these waves cause - periodical rising and falling of the water-level, they are generally - inconspicuous, and can only be recorded by a registering apparatus, a - limnograph. Standard work has been done in the study of seiches by the - Lake Survey of Scotland under the immediate direction of Professor - Chrystal, who has given much attention to the hydrodynamical theories - of the phenomenon. Seiches are probably due to several factors acting - together or separately, such as sudden variations of atmospheric - pressure, changes in the strength or direction of the wind. - Explanations such as lunar attraction and earthquakes have been shown - to be untenable as a general cause of seiches. - - 2. _The water temperature of lakes_ may change with the season from - place to place and from layer to layer; these changes are brought - about by insolation, by terrestrial radiation, by contract with the - atmosphere, by rain, by the inflow of rivers and other factors, but - the most important of all these are insolation and terrestrial - radiation. Fresh water has its greatest density at a temperature of - 39.2 deg. F., so that water both above and below this temperature - floats to the surface, and this physical fact largely determines the - water stratification in a lake. In salt lakes the maximum density - point is much lower, and does not come into play. In the tropical type - of fresh-water lake the temperature is always higher than 39 deg. F., - and the temperature decreases as the depth increases. In the polar - type the temperature is always lower than 39 deg. F., and the - temperature increases from the surface downwards. In the temperate - type the distribution of temperature in winter resembles the polar - type, and in summer the tropical type. In Loch Ness and other deep - Scottish lochs the temperature in March and April is 41 deg. to 42 - deg. F., and is then nearly uniform from top to bottom. As the sun - comes north, and the mean air temperature begins to be higher than the - surface temperature, the surface waters gain heat, and this heating - goes on till the month of August. About this time the mean air - temperature falls below the surface temperature, and the loch begins - to part with its heat by radiation and conduction. The temperature of - the deeper layers beyond 300 ft. is only slightly affected throughout - the whole year. In the autumn the waters of the loch are divided into - two compartments, the upper having a temperature from 49 deg. to 55 - deg. F., the deeper a temperature from 41 deg. to 45 deg. Between - these lies the discontinuity-layer (_Sprungschicht_ of the Germans), - where there is a rapid fall of temperature within a very short - distance. In August this discontinuity-layer is well marked, and lies - at a depth of about 150 ft.; as the season advances this layer - gradually sinks deeper, and the layer of uniform temperature above it - increases in depth, and slowly loses heat, until finally the whole - loch assumes a nearly uniform temperature. Many years ago Sir John - Murray showed by means of temperature observations the manner in which - large bodies of water were transferred from the windward to the - leeward end of a loch, and subsequent observations seem to show that, - before the discontinuity-layer makes its appearance, the currents - produced by winds are distributed through the whole mass of the loch. - When, however, this layer appears, the loch is divided into two - current-systems, as shown in the following diagram:-- - - [Illustration: Current systems in a loch induced by wind at the - surface. (After Wedderburn.) - - AB, Discontinuity layer. - C, Surface current. - D, Primary return current. - E, Secondary surface current. - F, Secondary return current.] - - Another effect of the separation of the loch into two compartments by - the surface of discontinuity is to render possible the - temperature-seiche. The surface-current produced by the wind transfers - a large quantity of warm water to the lee end of the loch, with the - result that the surface of discontinuity is deeper at the lee than at - the windward end. When the wind ceases, a temperature-seiche is - started, just as an ordinary seiche is started in a basin of water - which has been tilted. This temperature-seiche has been studied - experimentally and rendered visible by superimposing a layer of - paraffin on a layer of water. - - Wedderburn estimates the quantity of heat that enters Loch Ness and is - given out again during the year to be approximately sufficient to - raise about 30,000 million gallons of water from freezing-point to - boiling-point. Lakes thus modify the climate of the region in which - they occur, both by increasing its humidity and by decreasing its - range of temperature. They cool and moisten the atmosphere by - evaporation during summer, and when they freeze in winter a vast - amount of latent heat is liberated, and moderates the fall of - temperature. - - Lakes act as reservoirs for water, and so tend to restrain floods, and - to promote regularity of flow. They become sources of mechanical - power, and as their waters are purified by allowing the sediment which - enters them to settle, they become valuable sources of water-supply - for towns and cities. In temperate regions small and shallow lakes are - likely to freeze all over in winter, but deep lakes in similar regions - do not generally freeze, owing to the fact that the low temperature of - the air does not continue long enough to cool down the entire body of - water to the maximum density point. Deep lakes are thus the best - sources of water-supply for cities, for in summer they supply - relatively cool water and in winter relatively warm water. Besides, - the number of organisms in deep lakes is less than in small shallow - lakes, in which there is a much higher temperature in summer, and - consequently much greater organic growth. The deposits, which are - formed along the shores and on the floors of lakes, depend on the - geological structure and nature of the adjacent shores. - -_Biology._--Compared with the waters of the ocean those of lakes may -safely be said to contain relatively few animals and plants. Whole -groups of organisms--the Echinoderms, for instance--are unrepresented. -In the oceans there is a much greater uniformity in the physical and -chemical conditions than obtains in lakes. In lakes the temperature -varies widely. To underground lakes light does not penetrate, and in -these some of the organisms may be blind, for example, the blind -crayfish (_Cambarus pellucidus_) and the blind fish (_Amblyopsis -spelaeus_) of the Kentucky caves. The majority of lakes are fresh, while -some are so salt that no organisms have been found in them. The peaty -matter in other lakes is so abundant that light does not penetrate to -any great depth, and the humic acids in solution prevent the development -of some species. Indeed, every lake has an individuality of its own, -depending upon climate, size, nature of the bottom, chemical composition -and connexion with other lakes. While the ocean contains many families -and genera not represented in lakes, almost every genus in lakes is -represented in the ocean. - - The vertebrates, insects and flowering plants inhabiting lakes vary - much according to latitude, and are comparatively well known to - zoologists and botanists. The micro-fauna and flora have only recently - been studied in detail, and we cannot yet be said to know much about - tropical lakes in this respect. Mr James Murray, who has studied the - Scottish lakes, records in over 400 Scottish lochs 724 species (the - fauna including 447 species, all invertebrates, and the flora - comprising 277 species) belonging to the following groups; the list - must not be regarded as in any way complete:-- - - _Fauna._ _Flora._ - - Mollusca 7 species Phanerogamia 65 species - Hydrachnida 17 " Equisetaceae 1 " - Tardigrada 30 " Selaginellaceae 1 " - Insecta 7 " Characeae 6 " - Crustacea 78 " Musci 18 " - Bryozoa 7 " Hepaticae 2 " - Worms 25 " Florideae 2 " - Rotifera 181 " Chlorophyceae 142 " - Gastrotricha 2 " Bacillariaceae 26 " - Coelenterata 1 " Myxophyceae 10 " - Porifera 1 " Peridiniaceae 4 " - Protozoa 91 " - ----------- ----------- - 447 " 277 " - - These organisms are found along the shores, in the deep waters, and in - the surface waters of the lakes. - - The _littoral region_ is the most populous part of lakes; the - existence of a rooted vegetation is only possible there, and this in - turn supports a rich littoral fauna. The greater heat of the water - along the margins also favours growth. The great majority of the - species in Scottish lochs are met with in this region. Insect larvae - of many kinds are found under stones or among weeds. Most of the - Cladocera, and the Copepoda of the genus _Cyclops_, and the - Harpacticidae are only found in this region. Water-mites, nearly all - the Rotifers, Gastrotricha, Tardigrada and Molluscs are found here, - and Rhizopods are abundant. A large number of the littoral species in - Loch Ness extends down to a depth of about 300 ft. - - _The abyssal region_, in Scottish lochs, lies, as a rule, deeper than - 300 ft., and in this deep region a well-marked association of animals - appears in the muds on the bottom, but none of them are peculiar to - it: they all extend into the littoral zone, from which they were - originally derived. In Loch Ness the following sparse population was - recorded:-- - - 1 Mollusc: _Pisidium pusillum_ (Gmel). - 3 Crustacea: _Cyclops viridis_, Jurine. - _Candona candida_ (Mull). - _Cypria ophthalmica_, Jurine. - 3 Worms: _Stylodrilus gabreteae_, Vejd. - Oligochaete, not determined. - _Automolos morgiensis_ (Du Plessis). - 1 Insect: _Chironomus_ (larva). - Infusoria: Several, ectoparasites on _Pisidium_ and _Cyclops_, - not determined. - - In addition, the following were found casually at great depths in Loch - Ness: _Hydra_, _Limnaea peregra_, _Proales daphnicola_ and _Lynceus - affinis_. - - The _pelagic region_ of the Scottish lakes is occupied by numerous - microscopic organisms, belonging to the Zooplankton and Phytoplankton. - Of the former group 30 species belonging to the Crustacea, Rotifera - and Protozoa were recorded in Loch Ness. Belonging to the second group - 150 species were recorded, of which 120 were Desmids. Some of these - species of plankton organisms are almost universal in the Scottish - lochs, while others are quite local. Some of the species occur all the - year through, while others have only been recorded in summer or in - winter. The great development of Algae in the surface waters, called - "flowering of the water" (_Wasserbluthe_), was observed in August in - Loch Lomond; a distinct "flowering," due to Chlorophyceae, has been - observed in shallow lochs as early as July. It is most common in - August and September, but has also been observed in winter. - - The plankton animals which are dominant or common, both over Scotland - and the rest of Europe, are:-- - - _Diaptomus gracilis._ - _Daphnia kyalina._ - _Diaphanosoma brachyurum._ - _Leptodora kindtii._ - _Conochilus unicornis._ - _Asplanchna priodonta._ - _Polyarthra platyptera._ - _Anuraea cochlearis._ - _Notholca longispina._ - _Ceratium hirundinella._ - _Asterionella._ - - All of these, according to Dr Lund, belong to the general plankton - association of the European plain, or are even cosmopolitan. - - The Scottish plankton on the whole differs from the plankton of the - central European plateau, and from the cosmopolitan fresh-water - plankton, in the extraordinary richness of the Phytoplankton in - species of Desmids, in the conspicuous arctic element among the - Crustacea, in the absence or comparative rarity of the species - commonest in the general European plankton. Another peculiarity is the - local distribution of some of the Crustacea and many of the Desmids. - - The derivation of the whole lacustrine population of the Scottish - lochs does not seem to present any difficulty. The abyssal forms have - been traced to the littoral zone without any perceptible - modifications. The plankton organisms are a mingling of European and - arctic species. The cosmopolitan species may enter the lochs by - ordinary migration. It is probable that if the whole plankton could be - annihilated, it would be replaced by ordinary migration within a few - years. The eggs and spores of many species can be dried up without - injury, and may be carried through the air as dust from one lake to - another; others, which would not bear desiccation, might be carried in - mud adhering to the feet of aquatic birds and in various other ways. - The arctic species may be survivors from a period when arctic - conditions prevailed over a great part of Europe. What are known as - "relicts" of a marine fauna have not been found in the Scottish - fresh-water lochs. - - It is somewhat remarkable that none of the organisms living in - fresh-water lochs has been observed to exhibit the phenomenon of - phosphorescence, although similar organisms in the salt-water lochs a - few miles distant exhibit brilliant phosphorescence. At similar depths - in the sea-lochs there is usually a great abundance of life when - compared with that found in fresh-water lochs. - -_Length, Depth, Area and Volume of Lakes._--In the following table will -be found the length, depth, area and volume of some of the principal -lakes of the world.[1] Sir John Murray estimates The volume of water in -the 560 Scottish lochs recently surveyed at 7 cub. m., and the -approximate volume of water in all the lakes of the world at about 2000 -cub. m., so that this last number is but a small fraction of the volume -of the ocean, which he previously estimated at 324 million cub. m. It -may be recalled that the total rainfall on the land of the globe is -estimated at 29,350 cub. m., and the total discharge from the rivers of -the globe at 6524 cub. m. - - BRITISH LAKES - - +--------------------+-------+---------------+--------+-----------+ - | |Length | Depth | Area | Volume in | - | | in | in | in | million | - | | Miles.| Feet. | sq. m. | cub. ft. | - +--------------------+-------+------+--------+--------+-----------+ - |I. _England_-- | | Max. | Mean. | | | - | Windermere | 10.50 | 219 | 78.5 | 5.69 | 12,250 | - | Ullswater | 7.35 | 205 | 83 | 3.44 | 7,870 | - | Wastwater | 3.00 | 258 | 134.5 | 1.12 | 4,128 | - | Coniston Water | 5.41 | 184 | 79 | 1.89 | 4,000 | - | Crummock Water | 2.50 | 144 | 87.5 | 0.97 | 2,343 | - | Ennerdale Water | 2.40 | 148 | 62 | 1.12 | 1,978 | - | Bassenthwaite | | | | | | - | Water | 3.83 | 70 | 18 | 2.06 | 1,023 | - | Derwentwater | 2.87 | 72 | 18 | 2.06 | 1,010 | - | Haweswater | 2.33 | 103 | 39.5 | 0.54 | 589 | - | Buttermere | 1.26 | 94 | 54.5 | 0.36 | 537 | - |II. _Wales_-- | | | | | | - | Llyn Cawlyd | 1.62 | 222 | 109.1 | 0.18 | 941 | - | Llyn Cwellyn | 1.20 | 122 | 74.1 | 0.35 | 713 | - | Llyn Padarn | 2.00 | 94 | 52.4 | 0.43 | 632 | - | Llyn Llydaw | 1.11 | 190 | 77.4 | 0.19 | 409 | - | Llyn Peris | 1.10 | 114 | 63.9 | 0.19 | 344 | - | Llyn Dulyn | 0.31 | 189 | 104.2 | 0.05 | 156 | - |III. _Scotland_-- | | | | | | - | Ness | 24.23 | 754 | 433.02 | 21.78 | 263,162 | - | Lomond | 22.64 | 623 | 121.29 | 27.45 | 92,805 | - | Morar | 11.68 | 1017 | 284.00 | 10.30 | 81,482 | - | Tay | 14.55 | 508 | 199.08 | 10.19 | 56,550 | - | Awe | 25.47 | 307 | 104.95 | 14.85 | 43,451 | - | Maree | 13.46 | 367 | 125.30 | 11.03 | 38,539 | - | Lochy | 9.78 | 531 | 228.95 | 5.91 | 37,726 | - | Rannoch | 9.70 | 440 | 167.46 | 7.37 | 34,387 | - | Shiel | 17.40 | 420 | 132.73 | 7.56 | 27,986 | - | Arkaig | 12.00 | 359 | 152.71 | 6.24 | 26,573 | - | Earn | 6.46 | 287 | 137.83 | 3.91 | 14,421 | - | Treig | 5.10 | 436 | 207.37 | 2.41 | 13,907 | - | Shin | 17.22 | 162 | 51.04 | 8.70 | 12,380 | - | Fannich | 6.92 | 282 | 108.76 | 3.60 | 10,920 | - | Assynt | 6.36 | 282 | 101.10 | 3.10 | 8,731 | - | Quoich | 6.95 | 281 | 104.60 | 2.86 | 8,345 | - | Glass | 4.03 | 365 | 159.07 | 1.86 | 8,265 | - | Fionn (Carnmore) | 5.76 | 144 | 57.79 | 3.52 | 5,667 | - | Laggan | 7.04 | 174 | 67.68 | 2.97 | 5,601 | - | Loyal | 4.46 | 217 | 65.21 | 2.55 | 4,628 | - |IV. _Ireland_-- | | | | | | - | Neagh | 17 | 102 | 40 |153 | 161,000 | - | Erne (Lower) | 24 | 226 | 43 | 43 | 62,000 | - | Erne (Upper) | 13 | 89 | 10 | 15 | 5,000 | - | Corrib | 27 | 152 | 30 | 68 | 59,000 | - | Mask | 10 | 191 | 52 | 35 | 55,000 | - | Derg | 24 | 119 | 30 | 49 | 47,000 | - +--------------------+-------+---------------+--------+-----------+ - - EUROPEAN CONTINENTAL LAKES - - +------------+-------+--------------+--------+------------+ - | |Length | Depth | Area | Volume in | - | | in | in | in | million | - | | Miles.| Feet. | sq. m. | cub. ft. | - +------------+-------+------+-------+--------+------------+ - | | | Max. | Mean. | | | - | Ladoga | 125 | 732 | 300 | 7000 | 43,200,000 | - | Onega | 145 | 740 | 200 | 3800 | 21,000,000 | - | Vener | 93 | 292 | 108 | 2149 | 6,357,000 | - | Geneva | 45 | 1015 | 506 | 225 | 3,175,000 | - | Vetter | 68 | 413 | 128 | 733 | 2,543,000 | - | Mjosen | 57 | 1483 | .. | 139 | 2,882,000 | - | Garda | 38 | 1124 | 446 | 143 | 1,766,000 | - | Constance | 42 | 827 | 295 | 208 | 1,711,000 | - | Ochrida | 19 | 942 | 479 | 105 | 1,391,000 | - | Maggiore | 42 | 1220 | 574 | 82 | 1,310,000 | - | Como | 30 | 1345 | 513 | 56 | 794,000 | - | Hornafvan | 7 | 1391 | 253 | 93 | 777,000 | - +------------+-------+--------------+--------+------------+ - - AFRICAN LAKES - - +----------------+------+-------------+--------+-------------+ - | |Length| Depth | Area | Volume in | - | | in | in | in | million | - | |Miles.| Feet. | sq. m. | cub. ft. | - +----------------+------+------+------+--------+-------------+ - | | | Max. | Mean.| | | - | Victoria Nyanza| 200 | 240 | .. | 26,200 | 5,800,000 | - | Nyasa | 350 | 2580 | .. | 14,200 | 396,000,000 | - | Tanganyika | 420 | 2100 | .. | 12,700 | 283,000,000 | - +----------------+------+------+------+--------+-------------+ - - ASIATIC LAKES - - +----------+-------+-------------+--------+------------+ - | |Length | Depth | Area | Volume in | - | | in | in | in | million | - | | Miles.| Feet. | sq. m. | cub. ft. | - +----------+-------+------+------+--------+------------+ - | | | Max. | Mean.| | | - | Aral | 265 | 222 | 52 | 24,400 | 43,600,000 | - | Baikal | 330 | 5413 | .. | 11,580 |274,000,000 | - | Balkash | 323 | 33 | .. | 7,000 | 4,880,000 | - | Urmia | 80 | 50 | 15 | 1,750 | 732,000 | - +----------+-------+------+------+--------+------------+ - - AMERICAN LAKES - - +------------+-------+-------------+--------+-------------+ - | |Length | Depth | Area | Volume in | - | | in | in | in | million | - | | Miles.| Feet. | sq. m. | cub. ft. | - +------------+-------+------+------+--------+-------------+ - | | | Max. | Mean.| | | - | Superior | 412 | 1008 | 475 | 31,200 | 413,000,000 | - | Huron | 263 | 730 | 250 | 23,800 | 166,000,000 | - | Michigan | 335 | 870 | 325 | 22,450 | 203,000,000 | - | Erie | 240 | 210 | 70 | 9,960 | 19,500,000 | - | Ontario | 190 | 738 | 300 | 7,240 | 61,000,000 | - | Titicaca | 120 | 924 | 347 | 3,200 | 30,900,000 | - +------------+-------+------+------+--------+-------------+ - - NEW ZEALAND LAKES - - +--------------+-------+-------------+--------+-----------+ - | |Length | Depth | Area | Volume in | - | | in | in | in | million | - | | Miles.| Feet. | sq. m. | cub. ft. | - +--------------+-------+------+------+--------+-----------+ - | | | Max. | Mean.| | | - | Taupo | 25 | 534 | 367 | 238.0 | 2,435,000 | - | Wakatipu | 49 | 1242 | 707 | 112.3 | 2,205,000 | - | Manapouri | 19 | 1458 | 328 | 56.0 | 512,000 | - | Rotorua | 7.5 | 120 | 39 | 31.6 | 34,000 | - | Waikarimoana | 7.25 | 846 | 397 | 14.7 | 166,000 | - | Wairaumoana | 5.25 | 375 | 175 | 6.1 | 30,000 | - | Rotoiti | 10.7 | 230 | 69 | 14.2 | 27,000 | - +--------------+-------+------+------+--------+-----------+ - - AUTHORITIES.--F. A. Forel, "Handbuch der Seenkunde: allgemeine - Limnologie," _Bibliothek geogr. Handbucher_ (Stuttgart, 1901), _Le - Leman, monographie limnologique_ (3 vols., Lausanne, 1892-1901); A. - Delebecque, _Les Lacs francais_, text and plates (Paris, 1898); H. R. - Mill, "Bathymetrical Survey of the English Lakes," _Geogr. Journ._ - vol. vi. pp. 46 and 135 (1895); Jehu, "Bathymetrical and Geological - Study of the Lakes of Snowdonia," _Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin._ vol. xl. p. - 419 (1902); Sir John Murray and Laurence Pullar, "Bathymetrical Survey - of the Freshwater Lochs of Scotland," _Geogr. Journ._ (1900 to 1908, - re-issued in six volumes, Edinburgh, 1910); W. Halbfass, "Die - Morphometrie der europaischen Seen," _Zeitschr. Gesell. Erdkunde - Berlin_ (Jahrg. 1903, p. 592; 1904, p. 204); I. C. Russell, _Lakes of - North America_ (Boston and London, 1895); O. Zacharias, - "Forschungsberichte aus der biologischen Station zu Plon" (Stuttgart); - F. E. Bourcart, _Les Lacs alpins suisses: etude chimique et physique_ - (Geneva, 1906); G. P. Magrini, _Limnologia_ (Milan, 1907). (J. Mu.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] Divergence between certain of these figures and those quoted - elsewhere in this work may be accounted for by the slightly different - results arrived at by various authorities. - - - - -LAKE CHARLES, a city of Louisiana, U.S.A., capital of Calcasieu Parish, -30 m. from the Gulf of Mexico and about 218 m. (by rail) W. of New -Orleans. Pop. (1889) 838, (1890) 3442, (1900) 6680 (2407 negroes); -(1910) 11,449. It is served by the Louisiana & Texas (Southern Pacific -System), the St Louis, Watkins & Gulf, the Louisiana & Pacific and the -Kansas City Southern railways. The city is charmingly situated on the -shore of Lake Charles, and on the Calcasieu river, which with some -dredging can be made navigable for large vessels for 132 m. from the -Gulf. It is a winter resort. Among the principal buildings are a -Carnegie library, the city hall, the Government building, the court -house, St Patrick's sanatorium, the masonic temple and the Elks' club. -Lake Charles is in the prairie region of southern Louisiana, to the N. -of which, covering a large part of the state, are magnificent forests of -long-leaf pine, and lesser lowland growths of oak, ash, magnolia, -cypress and other valuable timber. The Watkins railway extending to the -N.E. and the Kansas City Southern extending to the N.W. have opened up -the very best of the forest. The country to the S. and W. is largely -given over to rice culture. Lake Charles is the chief centre of lumber -manufacture in the state, and has rice mills, car shops and an important -trade in wool. Ten miles W. are sulphur mines (product in 1907 about -362,000 tons), which with those of Sicily produce a large part of the -total product of the world. Jennings, about 34 m. to the E., is the -centre of oil fields, once very productive but now of diminishing -importance. Welsh, 23 m. E., is the centre of a newer field; and others -lie to the N. Lake Charles was settled about 1852, largely by people -from Iowa and neighbouring states, was incorporated as a town in 1857 -under the name of Charleston and again in 1867 under its present name, -and was chartered as a city in 1886. The city suffered severely by fire -in April 1910. - - - - -LAKE CITY, a town and the county-seat of Columbia county, Florida, -U.S.A., 59 m. by rail W. by S. of Jacksonville. Pop. (1900) 4013, of -whom 2159 were negroes; (1905) 6509; (1910) 5032. Lake City is served by -the Atlantic Coast Line, the Seaboard Air Line and the Georgia Southern -& Florida railways. There are ten small lakes in the neighbourhood, and -the town is a winter and health resort. It is the seat of Columbia -College (Baptist, 1907); the Florida Agricultural College was opened -here in 1883, became the university of Florida in 1903, and in 1905 was -abolished by the Buckman Law. Vegetables and fruits grown for the -northern markets, sea-island cotton and tobacco are important products -of the surrounding country, and Lake City has some trade in cotton, -lumber, phosphates and turpentine. The town was first settled about 1826 -as Alligator; it was incorporated in 1854; adopted the present name in -1859; and in 1901, with an enlarged area, was re-incorporated. - - - - -LAKE DISTRICT, in England, a district containing all the principal -English lakes, and variously termed the Lake Country, Lakeland and "the -Lakes." It falls within the north-western counties of Cumberland, -Westmorland and Lancashire (Furness district), about one-half being -within the first of these. Although celebrated far outside the confines -of Great Britain as a district of remarkable and strongly individual -physical beauty, its area is only some 700 sq. m., a circle with radius -of 15 m. from the central point covering practically the whole. Within -this circle, besides the largest lake, Windermere, is the highest point -in England, Scafell Pike; yet Windermere is but 10(1/2) m. in length, and -covers an area of 5.69 sq. m., while Scafell Pike is only 3210 ft. in -height. But the lakes show a wonderful variety of character, from open -expanse and steep rock-bound shores to picturesque island-groups and -soft wooded banks; while the mountains have always a remarkable dignity, -less from the profile of their summits than from the bold sweeping lines -of their flanks, unbroken by vegetation, and often culminating in sheer -cliffs or crags. At their feet, the flat green valley floors of the -higher elevations give place in the lower parts to lovely woods. The -streams are swift and clear, and numerous small waterfalls are -characteristic of the district. To the north, west and south, a flat -coastal belt, bordering the Irish Sea, with its inlets Morecambe Bay and -Solway Firth, and broadest in the north, marks off the Lake District, -while to the east the valleys of the Eden and the Lune divide it from -the Pennine mountain system. Geologically, too, it is individual. Its -centre is of volcanic rocks, complex in character, while the -Coal-measures and New Red Sandstone appear round the edges. The district -as a whole is grooved by a main depression, running from north to south -along the valleys of St John, Thirlmere, Grasmere and Windermere, -surmounting a pass (Dunmail Raise) of only 783 ft.; while a secondary -depression, in the same direction, runs along Derwentwater, Borrowdale, -Wasdale and Wastwater, but here Sty Head Pass, between Borrowdale and -Wasdale, rises to 1600 ft. The centre of the 15-m. radius lies on the -lesser heights between Langstrath and Dunmail Raise, which may, however, -be the crown of an ancient dome of rocks, "the dissected skeleton of -which, worn by the warfare of air and rain and ice, now alone remains" -(Dr H. R. Mill, "Bathymetrical Survey of the English Lakes," -_Geographical Journal_, vi. 48). The principal features of the district -may be indicated by following this circle round from north, by west, -south and east. - - The river Derwent (q.v.), rising in the tarns and "gills" or "ghylls" - (small streams running in deeply-grooved clefts) north of Sty Head - Pass and the Scafell mass flows north through the wooded Borrowdale - and forms Derwentwater and Bassenthwaite. These two lakes are in a - class apart from all the rest, being broader for their length, and - quite shallow (about 18 ft. average and 70 ft. maximum), as distinct - from the long, narrow and deep troughs occupied by the other chief - lakes, which average from 40 to 135 ft. deep. Derwentwater (q.v.), - studded with many islands, is perhaps the most beautiful of all. - Borrowdale is joined on the east by the bare wild dale of Langstrath, - and the Greta joins the Derwent immediately below Derwentwater; the - town of Keswick lying near the junction. Derwentwater and - Bassenthwaite occupy a single depression, a flat alluvial plain - separating them. From Seatoller in Borrowdale a road traverses - Honister Pass (1100 ft.), whence it descends westward, beneath the - majestic Honister Crags, where green slate is quarried, into the - valley containing Buttermere (94 ft. max. depth) and Crummock Water - (144 ft.), drained by the Cocker. Between this and the Derwent valley - the principal height is Grasmoor (2791 ft.); southward a steep narrow - ridge (High Style, 2643) divides it from Ennerdale, containing - Ennerdale Water (148 ft. max. depth), which is fed by the Liza and - drained by the Ehen. A splendid range separates this dale from Wasdale - and its tributary Mosedale, including Great Gable (2949 ft.), Pillar - (2927), with the precipitous Pillar Rock on the Ennerdale flank and - Steeple (2746). Wasdale Head, between Gable and the Scafell range, is - peculiarly grand, with dark grey screes and black crags frowning above - its narrow bottom. On this side of Gable is the fine detached rock, - Napes Needle. Wastwater, 3 m. in length, is the deepest lake of all - (258 ft.), its floor, like those of Windermere and Ullswater, sinking - below sea-level. Its east shore consists of a great range of screes. - East of Wasdale lies the range of Scafell (q.v.), its chief points - being Scafell (3162 ft.), Scafell Pike (3210), Lingmell (2649) and - Great End (2984), while the line is continued over Esk Hause Pass - (2490) along a fine line of heights (Bow Fell, 2960; Crinkle Crags, - 2816), to embrace the head of Eskdale. The line then descends to - Wrynose Pass (1270 ft.), from which the Duddon runs south through a - vale of peculiar richness in its lower parts; while the range - continues south to culminate in the Old Man of Coniston (2633) with - the splendid Dow Crags above Goats Water. The pleasant vale of Yewdale - drains south to Coniston Lake (5(1/2) m. long, 184 ft. max. depth), - east of which a lower, well-wooded tract, containing two beautiful - lesser lakes, Tarn Hows and Esthwaite Water, extends to Windermere - (q.v.). This lake collects waters by the Brathay from Langdale, the - head of which, between Bow Fell and Langdale Pikes (2401 ft.), is very - fine; and by the Rothay from Dunmail Raise and the small lakes of - Grasmere and Rydal Water, embowered in woods. East of the Rothay - valley and Thirlmere lies the mountain mass including Helvellyn (3118 - ft.), Fairfield (2863) and other points, with magnificent crags at - several places on the eastern side towards Grisedale and Patterdale. - These dales drain to Ullswater (205 ft. max., second to Windermere in - area), and so north-east to the Eden. To the east and south-east lies - the ridge named High Street (2663 ft.), from the Roman road still - traceable from south to north along its summit, and sloping east again - to the sequestered Hawes Water (103 ft. max.), a curiously shaped lake - nearly divided by the delta of the Measand Beck. There remains the - Thirlmere valley. Thirlmere itself was raised in level, and adapted by - means of a dam at the north end, as a reservoir for the water-supply - of Manchester in 1890-1894. It drains north by St John's Vale into the - Greta, north of which again rises a mountain-group of which the chief - summits are Saddleback or Blencathra (2847 ft.) and the graceful peak - of Skiddaw (3054). The most noteworthy waterfalls are--Scale Force - (Dano-Norwegian _fors_, _foss_), beside Crummock, Lodore near - Derwentwater, Dungeon Gill Force, beside Langdale, Dalegarth Force in - Eskdale, Aira near Ullswater, sung by Wordsworth, Stock Gill Force and - Rydal Falls near Ambleside. - - The principal centres in the Lake District are Keswick (Derwentwater), - Ambleside, Bowness, Windermere and Lakeside (Windermere), Coniston and - Boot (Eskdale), all of which, except Ambleside and Bowness (which - nearly joins Windermere) are accessible by rail. The considerable - village of Grasmere lies beautifully at the head of the lake of that - name; and above Esthwaite is the small town of Hawkshead, with an - ancient church, and picturesque houses curiously built on the - hill-slope and sometimes spanning the streets. There are regular - steamer services on Windermere and Ullswater. Coaches and cars - traverse the main roads during the summer, but many of the finest - dales and passes are accessible only on foot or by ponies. All the - mountains offer easy routes to pedestrians, but some of them, as - Scafell, Pillar, Gable (Napes Needle), Pavey Ark above Langdale and - Dow Crags near Coniston, also afford ascents for experienced climbers. - - This mountainous district, having the sea to the west, records an - unusually heavy rainfall. Near Seathwaite, below Styhead Pass, the - largest annual rainfall in the British Isles is recorded, the average - (1870-1899) being 133.53 in., while 173.7 was measured in 1903 and - 243.98 in. in 1872. At Keswick the annual mean is 60.02, at Grasmere - about 80 ins. The months of maximum rainfall at Seathwaite are - November, December and January and September. - - Fish taken in the lakes include perch, pike, char and trout in - Windermere, Ennerdale, Bassenthwaite, Derwentwater, &c., and the - gwyniad or fresh-water herring in Ullswater. The industries of the - Lake District include slate quarrying and some lead and zinc mining, - and weaving, bobbin-making and pencil-making. - - Setting aside London and Edinburgh, no locality in the British Isles - is so intimately associated with the history of English literature as - the Lake District. In point of time the poet whose name is first - connected with the region is Gray, who wrote a journal of his tour in - 1769. But it was Wordsworth, a native of Cumberland, born on the - outskirts of the Lake District itself, who really made it a Mecca for - lovers of English poetry. Out of his long life of eighty years, sixty - were spent amid its lakes and mountains, first as a schoolboy at - Hawkshead, and afterwards as a resident at Grasmere (1799-1813) and - Rydal Mount (1813-1850). In the churchyard of Grasmere the poet and - his wife lie buried; and very near to them are the remains of Hartley - Coleridge (son of the poet), who himself lived many years at Keswick, - Ambleside and Grasmere. Southey, the friend of Wordsworth, was a - resident of Keswick for forty years (1803-1843), and was buried in - Crosthwaite churchyard. Samuel Taylor Coleridge lived some time at - Keswick, and also with the Wordsworths at Grasmere. From 1807 to 1815 - Christopher North (John Wilson) was settled at Windermere. De Quincey - spent the greater part of the years 1809 to 1828 at Grasmere, in the - first cottage which Wordsworth had inhabited. Ambleside, or its - environs, was also the place of residence of Dr Arnold (of Rugby), who - spent there the vacations of the last ten years of his life; and of - Harriet Martineau, who built herself a house there in 1845. At Keswick - Mrs Lynn Linton was born in 1822. Brantwood, a house beside Coniston - Lake, was the home of Ruskin during the last years of his life. In - addition to these residents or natives of the locality, Shelley, - Scott, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Clough, Crabb Robinson, Carlyle, Keats, - Tennyson, Matthew Arnold, Mrs Hemans, Gerald Massey and others of less - reputation made longer or shorter visits, or were bound by ties of - friendship with the poets already mentioned. The Vale of St John, near - Keswick, recalls Scott's _Bridal of Triermain_. But there is a deeper - connexion than this between the Lake District and English letters. - German literature tells of several literary schools, or groups of - writers animated by the same ideas, and working in the spirit of the - same principles and by the same poetic methods. The most notable - instance--indeed it is almost the only instance--of the kind in - English literature is the Lake School of Poets. Of this school the - acknowledged head and founder was Wordsworth, and the tenets it - professed are those laid down by the poet himself in the famous - preface to the edition of _The Lyrical Ballads_ which he published in - 1800. Wordsworth's theories of poetry--the objects best suited for - poetic treatment, the characteristics of such treatment and the choice - of diction suitable for the purpose--may be said to have grown out of - the soil and substance of the lakes and mountains, and out of the - homely lives of the people, of Cumberland and Westmoreland. - - See CUMBERLAND, LANCASHIRE, WESTMORLAND. The following is a selection - from the literature of the subject: Harriet Martineau, _The English - Lakes_ (Windermere, 1858); Mrs Lynn Linton, _The Lake Country_ - (London, 1864); E. Waugh, _Rambles in the Lake Country_ (1861) and _In - the Lake Country_ (1880); W. Knight, _Through the Wordsworth Country_ - (London, 1890); H. D. Rawnsley, _Literary Associations of the English - Lakes_ (2 vols., Glasgow, 1894) and _Life and Nature of the English - Lakes_ (Glasgow, 1899); Stopford Brooke, _Dove Cottage, Wordsworth's - Home from 1800 to 1808_; A. G. Bradley, _The Lake District, its - Highways and Byeways_ (London, 1901); Sir John Harwood, _History of - the Thirlmere Water Scheme_ (1895); for mountain-climbing, Col. J. - Brown, _Mountain Ascents in Westmorland and Cumberland_ (London, - 1888); Haskett-Smith, _Climbing in the British Isles_, part, i.; Owen - G. Jones, _Rock-climbing in the English Lake District_, 2nd ed. by W. - M. Crook (Keswick, 1900). - - - - -LAKE DWELLINGS, the term employed in archaeology for habitations -constructed, not on the dry land, but within the margins of lakes or -creeks at some distance from the shore. - -The villages of the Guajiros in the Gulf of Maracaibo are described by -Goering as composed of houses with low sloping roofs perched on lofty -piles and connected with each other by bridges of planks. Each house -consisted of two apartments; the floor was formed of split stems of -trees set close together and covered with mats; they were reached from -the shore by dug-out canoes poled over the shallow waters, and a notched -tree trunk served as a ladder. The custom is also common in the -estuaries of the Orinoco and Amazon. A similar system prevails in New -Guinea. Dumont d'Urville describes four such villages in the Bay of -Dorei, containing from eight to fifteen blocks or clusters of houses, -each block separately built on piles, and consisting of a row of -distinct dwellings. C. D. Cameron describes three villages thus built on -piles in Lake Mohrya, or Moria, in Central Africa, the motive here being -to prevent surprise by bands of slave-catchers. Similar constructions -have been described by travellers, among the Dyaks of Borneo, in -Celebes, in the Caroline Islands, on the Gold Coast of Africa, and in -other places. - -Hippocrates, writing in the 5th century B.C., says of the people of the -Phasis that their country is hot and marshy and subject to frequent -inundations, and that they live in houses of timber and reeds -constructed in the midst of the waters, and use boats of a single tree -trunk. Herodotus, writing also in the 5th century B.C., describes the -people of Lake Prasias as living in houses constructed on platforms -supported on piles in the middle of the lake, which are approached from -the land by a single narrow bridge. Abulfeda the geographer, writing in -the 13th century, notices the fact that part of the Apamaean Lake was -inhabited by Christian fishermen who lived on the lake in wooden huts -built on piles, and Sir John Lubbock (Lord Avebury) mentions that the -Rumelian fishermen on Lake Prasias "still inhabit wooden cottages built -over the water, as in the time of Herodotus." - -The records of the wars in Ireland in the 16th century show that the -petty chieftains of that time had their defensive strongholds -constructed in the "freshwater lochs" of the country, and there is -record evidence of a similar system in the western parts of Scotland. -The archaeological researches of the past fifty years have shown that -such artificial constructions in lakes were used as defensive dwellings -by the Celtic people from an early period to medieval times (see -CRANNOG). Similar researches have also established the fact that in -prehistoric times nearly all the lakes of Switzerland, and many in the -adjoining countries--in Savoy and the north of Italy, in Austria and -Hungary and in Mecklenburg and Pomerania--were peopled, so to speak, by -lake-dwelling communities, living in villages constructed on platforms -supported by piles at varying distances from the shores. The principal -groups are those in the Lakes of Bourget, Geneva, Neuchatel, Bienne, -Zurich and Constance lying to the north of the Alps, and in the Lakes -Maggiore, Varese, Iseo and Garda lying to the south of that mountain -range. Many smaller lakes, however, contain them, and they are also -found in peat moors on the sites of ancient lakes now drained or silted -up, as at Laibach in Carniola. In some of the larger lakes the number of -settlements has been very great. Fifty are enumerated in the Lake of -Neuchatel, thirty-two in the Lake of Constance, twenty-four in the Lake -of Geneva, and twenty in the Lake of Bienne. The site of the lake -dwelling of Wangen, in the Untersee, Lake of Constance, forms a -parallelogram more than 700 paces in length by about 120 paces in -breadth. The settlement at Morges, one of the largest in the Lake of -Geneva, is 1200 ft. long by 150 ft. in breadth. The settlement of Sutz, -one of the largest in the Lake of Bienne, extends over six acres, and -was connected with the shore by a gangway nearly 100 yds. long and about -40 ft. wide. - -The substructure which supported the platforms on which the dwellings -were placed was most frequently of piles driven into the bottom of the -lake. Less frequently it consisted of a stack of brushwood or fascines -built up from the bottom and strengthened by stakes penetrating the mass -so as to keep it from spreading. When piles were used they were the -rough stems of trees of a length proportioned to the depth of the water, -sharpened sometimes by fire and at other times chopped to a point by -hatchets. On their level tops the beams supporting the platforms were -laid and fastened by wooden pins, or inserted in mortices cut in the -heads of the piles. In some cases the whole construction was further -steadied and strengthened by cross beams, notched into the piles below -the supports of the platform. The platform itself was usually composed -of rough layers of unbarked stems, but occasionally it was formed of -boards split from larger stems. When the mud was too soft to afford -foothold for the piles they were mortised into a framework of tree -trunks placed horizontally on the bottom of the lake. On the other hand, -when the bottom was rocky so that the piles could not be driven, they -were steadied at their bases by being enveloped in a mound of loose -stones, in the manner in which the foundations of piers and breakwaters -are now constructed. In cases where piles have not been used, as at -Niederwil and Wauwyl, the substructure is a mass of fascines or faggots -laid parallel and crosswise upon one another with intervening layers of -brushwood or of clay and gravel, a few piles here and there being fixed -throughout the mass to serve as guides or stays. At Niederwil the -platform was formed of split boards, many of which were 2 ft. broad and -2 or 3 in. in thickness. - -On these substructures were the huts composing the settlement; for the -peculiarity of these lake dwellings is that they were pile villages, or -clusters of huts occupying a common platform. The huts themselves were -quadrilateral in form. The size of each dwelling is in some cases marked -by boards resting edgeways on the platform, like the skirting boards -over the flooring of the rooms in a modern house. The walls, which were -supported by posts, or by piles of greater length, were formed of -wattle-work, coated with clay. The floors were of clay, and in each -floor there was a hearth constructed of flat slabs of stone. The roofs -were thatched with bark, straw, reeds or rushes. As the superstructures -are mostly gone, there is no evidence as to the position and form of the -doorways, or the size, number and position of the windows, if there were -any. In one case, at Schussenried, the house, which was of an oblong -quadrangular form, about 33 by 23 ft., was divided into two rooms by a -partition. The outer room, which was the smaller of the two, was entered -by a doorway 3 ft. in width facing the south. The access to the inner -room was by a similar door through the partition. The walls were formed -of split tree-trunks set upright and plastered with clay; and the -flooring of similar timbers bedded in clay. In other cases the remains -of the gangways or bridges connecting the settlements with the shore -have been discovered, but often the village appears to have been -accessible only by canoes. Several of these single-tree canoes have been -found, one of which is 43 ft. in length and 4 ft. 4 in. in its greatest -width. It is impossible to estimate with any degree of certainty the -number of separate dwellings of which any of these villages may have -consisted, but at Niederwil they stood almost contiguously on the -platform, the space between them not exceeding 3 ft. in width. The size -of the huts also varied considerably. At Niederwil they were 20 ft. long -and 12 ft. wide, while at Robenhausen they were about 27 ft. long by -about 22 ft. wide. - -The character of the relics shows that in some cases the settlements -have been the dwellings of a people using no materials but stone, bone -and wood for their implements, ornaments and weapons; in others, of a -people using bronze as well as stone and bone; and in others again the -occasional use of iron is disclosed. But, though the character of the -relics is thus changed, there is no corresponding change in the -construction and arrangements of the dwellings. The settlement in the -Lake of Moosseedorf, near Bern, affords the most perfect example of a -lake dwelling of the Stone age. It was a parallelogram 70 ft. long by 50 -ft. wide, supported on piles, and having a gangway built on faggots -connecting it with the land. The superstructure had been destroyed by -fire. The implements found in the relic bed under it were axe-heads of -stone, with their haftings of stag's horn and wood; a flint saw, set in -a handle of fir wood and fastened with asphalt; flint flakes and -arrow-heads; harpoons of stag's horn with barbs; awls, needles, chisels, -fish-hooks and other implements of bone; a comb of yew wood 5 in. long; -and a skate made out of the leg bone of a horse. The pottery consisted -chiefly of roughly-made vessels, some of which were of large size, -others had holes under the rims for suspension, and many were covered -with soot, the result of their use as culinary vessels. Burnt wheat, -barley and linseed, with many varieties of seeds and fruits, were -plentifully mingled with the bones of the stag, the ox, the swine, the -sheep and the goat, representing the ordinary food of the inhabitants, -while remains of the beaver, the fox, the hare, the dog, the bear, the -horse, the elk and the bison were also found. - -The settlement of Robenhausen, in the moor which was formerly the bed of -the ancient Lake of Pfaffikon, seems to have continued in occupation -after the introduction of bronze. The site covers nearly 3 acres, and is -estimated to have contained 100,000 piles. In some parts three distinct -successions of inhabited platforms have been traced. The first had been -destroyed by fire. It is represented at the bottom of the lake by a -layer of charcoal mixed with implements of stone and bone and other -relics highly carbonized. The second is represented above the bottom by -a series of piles with burnt heads, and in the bottom by a layer of -charcoal mixed with corn, apples, cloth, bones, pottery and implements -of stone and bone, separated from the first layer of charcoal by 3 ft. -of peaty sediment intermixed with relics of the occupation of the -platform. The piles of the third settlement do not reach down to the -shell marl, but are fixed in the layers representing the first and -second settlements. They are formed of split oak trunks, while those of -the two first settlements are round stems chiefly of soft wood. The huts -of this last settlement appear to have had cattle stalls between them, -the droppings and litter forming heaps at the lake bottom. The bones of -the animals consumed as food at this station were found in such numbers -that 5 tons were collected in the construction of a watercourse which -crossed the site. Among the wooden objects recovered from the relic beds -were tubs, plates, ladles and spoons, a flail for threshing corn, a last -for stretching shoes of hide, celt handles, clubs, long-bows of yew, -floats and implements of fishing and a dug-out canoe 12 ft. long. No -spindle-whorls were found, but there were many varieties of cloth, -platted and woven, bundles of yarn and balls of string. Among the tools -of bone and stag's horn were awls, needles, harpoons, scraping tools and -haftings for stone axe-heads. The implements of stone were chiefly -axe-heads and arrow-heads. Of clay and earthenware there were many -varieties of domestic dishes, cups and pipkins, and crucibles or melting -pots made of clay and horse dung and still retaining the drossy coating -of the melted bronze. - -The settlement of Auvernier in the Lake of Neuchatel is one of the -richest and most considerable stations of the Bronze age. It has yielded -four bronze swords, ten socketed spear-heads, forty celts or axe-heads -and sickles, fifty knives, twenty socketed chisels, four hammers and an -anvil, sixty rings for the arms and legs, several highly ornate torques -or twisted neck rings, and upwards of two hundred hair pins of various -sizes up to 16 in. in length, some having spherical heads in which -plates of gold were set. Moulds for sickles, lance-heads and bracelets -were found cut in stone or made in baked clay. From four to five hundred -vessels of pottery finely made and elegantly shaped are indicated by the -fragments recovered from the relic bed. The Lac de Bourget, in Savoy, -has eight settlements, all of the Bronze age. These have yielded upwards -of 4000 implements, weapons and ornaments of bronze, among which were a -large proportion of moulds and founders' materials. A few stone -implements suggest the transition from stone to bronze; and the -occasional occurrence of iron weapons and pottery of Gallo-Roman origin -indicates the survival of some of the settlements to Roman times. - -The relative antiquity of the earlier settlements of the Stone and -Bronze ages is not capable of being deduced from existing evidence. "We -may venture to place them," says Dr F. Keller, "in an age when iron and -bronze had been long known, but had not come into our districts in such -plenty as to be used for the common purposes of household life, at a -time when amber had already taken its place as an ornament and had -become an object of traffic." It is now considered that the people who -erected the lake dwellings of Central Europe were also the people who -were spread over the mainland. The forms and the ornamentation of the -implements and weapons of stone and bronze found in the lake dwellings -are the same as those of the implements and weapons in these materials -found in the soil of the adjacent regions, and both groups must -therefore be ascribed to the industry of one and the same people. -Whether dwelling on the land or dwelling in the lake, they have -exhibited so many indications of capacity, intelligence, industry and -social organization that they cannot be considered as presenting, even -in their Stone age, a very low condition of culture or civilization. -Their axes were made of tough stones, sawn from the block and ground to -the fitting shape. They were fixed by the butt in a socket of stag's -horn, mortised into a handle of wood. Their knives and saws of flint -were mounted in wooden handles and fixed with asphalt. They made and -used an endless variety of bone tools. Their pottery, though roughly -finished, is well made, the vessels often of large size and capable of -standing the fire as cooking utensils. For domestic dishes they also -made wooden tubs, plates, spoons, ladles and the like. The industries of -spinning and weaving were largely practised. They made nets and fishing -lines, and used canoes. They practised agriculture, cultivating several -varieties of wheat and barley, besides millet and flax. They kept -horses, cattle, sheep, goats and swine. Their clothing was partly of -linen and partly of woollen fabrics and the skins of their beasts. Their -food was nutritious and varied, their dwellings neither unhealthy nor -incommodious. They lived in the security and comfort obtained by social -organization, and were apparently intelligent, industrious and -progressive communities. - -There is no indication of an abrupt change from the use of stone to the -use of metal such as might have occurred had the knowledge of copper and -bronze, and the methods of working them, been introduced through the -conquest of the original inhabitants by an alien race of superior -culture and civilization. The improved cultural conditions become -apparent in the multiplication of the varieties of tools, weapons and -ornaments made possible by the more adaptable qualities of the new -material; and that the development of the Bronze age culture in the lake -dwellings followed the same course as in the surrounding regions where -the people dwelt on the dry land is evident from the correspondence of -the types of implements, weapons, ornaments and utensils common to both -these conditions of life. - -Other classes of prehistoric pile-structures akin to the lake dwellings -are the Terremare of Italy and the Terpen of Holland. Both of these are -settlements of wooden huts erected on piles, not over the water, but on -flat land subject to inundations. The terremare (so named from the marly -soil of which they are composed) appear as mounds, sometimes of very -considerable extent, which when dug into disclose the remains and relic -beds of the ancient settlements. They are most abundant in the plains of -northern Italy traversed by the Po and its tributaries, though similar -constructions have been found in Hungary in the valley of the Theiss. -These pile-villages were often surrounded by an earthen rampart within -which the huts were erected in more or less regular order. Many of them -present evidence of having been more than once destroyed by fire and -reconstructed, while others show one or more reconstructions at higher -levels on the same site. The contents of the relic beds indicate that -they belong for the most part to the age of bronze, although in some -cases they may be referred to the latter part of the Stone age. Their -inhabitants practised agriculture and kept the common domestic animals, -while their tools, weapons and ornaments were mainly of similar -character to those of the contemporary lake dwellers of the adjoining -regions. Some of the Italian terremare show quadrangular constructions -made like the modern log houses, of undressed tree trunks superposed -longitudinally and overlapping at the ends, as at Castione in the -province of Parma. A similar mode of construction is found in the -pile-village on the banks of the Save, near Donja Dolina in Bosnia, -described in 1904 by Dr Truhelka. Here the larger houses had platforms -in front of them forming terraces at different levels descending towards -the river. There was a cemetery adjacent to the village in which both -unburnt and cremated interments occurred, the former predominating. From -the general character of the relics this settlement appeared to belong -to the early Iron age. The Terpen of Holland appear as mounds somewhat -similar to those of the terremare, and were also pile structures, on low -or marshy lands subject to inundations from the sea. Unlike the -terremare and the lake dwellings they do not seem to belong to the -prehistoric ages, but yield indications of occupation in post-Roman and -medieval times. - - AUTHORITIES.--The materials for the investigation of this singular - phase of prehistoric life were first collected and systematized by Dr - Ferdinand Keller (1800-1881), of Zurich, and printed in _Mittheilungen - der Antiquarischen Gesellschaft in Zurich_, vols, ix.-xxii., 4to - (1855-1886). The substance of these reports has been issued as a - separate work in England, _The Lake Dwellings of Switzerland and other - parts of Europe_, by Dr Ferdinand Keller, translated and arranged by - John Edward Lee, 2nd ed. (2 vols. 8vo, London, 1878). Other works on - the same subject are Frederic Troyon, _Habitations lacustres des temps - anciens et modernes_ (Lausanne, 1860); E. Desor, _Les Palafittes ou - constructions lacustres du lac de Neuchatel_ (Paris, 1865); E. Desor - and L. Favre, _Le Bel Age du bronze lacustre en Suisse_ (Paris, 1874); - A. Perrin, _Etude prehistorique sur la Savoie specialement a l'epoque - lacustre_ (_Les Palafittes du lac de Bourget_, Paris, 1870); Ernest - Chantre, _Les Palafittes ou constructions lacustres du lac de Paladru_ - (Chambery, 1871); Bartolomeo Gastaldi, _Lake Habitations and - prehistoric Remains in the Turbaries and Marl-beds of Northern and - Central Italy_, translated by C. H. Chambers (London, 1865); Sir John - Lubbock (Lord Avebury), _Prehistoric Times_ (4th ed., London, 1878); - Robert Munro, _The Lake-Dwellings of Europe_ (London, 1890), with a - bibliography of the subject. (J. An.) - - - - -LAKE GENEVA, a city of Walworth county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., 65 m. N.W. of -Chicago. Pop. (1900) 2585, of whom 468 were foreign-born; (1905) 3449; -(1910) 3079. It is served by the Chicago & Northwestern railway. The -city is picturesquely situated on the shores of Lake Geneva (9 m. long -and 1(1/2) to 3 m. wide), a beautiful body of remarkably clear water, fed by -springs, and encircled by rolling hills covered with thick groves of -hardwood trees. The region is famous as a summer resort, particularly -for Chicago people. The city is the seat of Oakwood Sanitarium, and at -Williams Bay, 6 m. distant, is the Yerkes Observatory of the University -of Chicago. Dairying is the most important industrial interest. The -first settlement on Lake Geneva was made about 1833. The city was -chartered in 1893. - - - - -LAKE OF THE WOODS, a lake in the south-west of the province of Ontario, -Canada, bordering west on the province of Manitoba, and south on the -state of Minnesota. It is of extremely irregular shape, and contains -many islands. Its length is 70 m., breadth 10 to 50 m., area 1500 sq. m. -It lies in the centre of the Laurentian region between Lakes Winnipeg -and Superior, and an area of 36,000 sq. m. drains to it. It collects the -waters of many rivers, the chief being Rainy river from the east, -draining Rainy Lake. By the Winnipeg river on the north-east it -discharges into Lake Winnipeg. At its source Winnipeg river is 1057 ft. -above the sea, and drops 347 ft. in its course of 165 m. The scenery -both on and around the lake is exceedingly beautiful, and the islands -are largely occupied by the summer residences of city merchants. Kenora, -a flourishing town at the source of the Winnipeg river, is the centre of -the numerous lumbering and mining enterprises of the vicinity. - - - - -LAKE PLACID, a village in Essex county, New York, U.S.A., on the W. -shore of Mirror Lake, near the S. end of Lake Placid, about 42 m. N.W. -of Ticonderoga. Pop. (1905) 1514; (1910) 1682. The village is served by -the Delaware & Hudson railway. The region is one of the most attractive -in the Adirondacks, and is a much frequented summer resort. There are -four good golf courses here, and the village has a well-built club -house, called the "Neighborhood House." The village lies on the narrow -strip of land (about 1/3 m.) between Mirror Lake (about 1 m. long, N. -and S., and 1/3 m. wide), and Lake Placid, about 5 m. long (N.N.E. by -S.S.W.), and about 1(1/2) m. (maximum) broad; its altitude is 1864 ft. -The lake is roughly divided, from N. to S. by three islands--Moose, the -largest, and Hawk, both privately owned, and Buck--and is a beautiful -sheet of water in a picturesque setting of forests and heavily wooded -hills and mountains. Among the principal peaks in the vicinity are -Whiteface Mountain (4871 ft.), about 3 m. N.W. of the N. end of the -lake; McKenzie Mountain (3872 ft.), about 1 m. to the W., and Pulpit -Mountain (2658 ft.), on the E. shore. The summit of Whiteface Mountain -commands a fine view, with Gothic (4738 ft.), Saddleback (4530 ft.), -Basin (4825 ft.), Marcy (5344 ft.), and McIntyre (5210 ft.) mountains -about 10 m. to the S. and Lake Champlain to the E., and to the N.E. may -be seen, on clear days, the spires of Montreal. In the valleys E. and S. -are the headwaters of the famous Ausable river. About 2 m. E. of the -village, at North Elba, is the grave of the abolitionist, John Brown, -with its huge boulder monument, and near it is another monument which -bears the names of the 20 persons who bought the John Brown farm and -gave it to the state. The railway to the village was completed in 1893. -The village was incorporated in 1900. - - - - -LAKEWOOD, a village of Ocean county, New Jersey, U.S.A., in the township -of Lakewood, 59 m. S. by W. of New York city, and 8 m. from the coast, -on the Central Railroad of New Jersey. Pop. (1900) of the township, -including the village, 3094; (1905) 4265; (1910) 5149. Lakewood is a -fashionable health and winter resort, and is situated in the midst of a -pine forest, with two small lakes, and many charming walks and drives. -In the village there are a number of fine residences, large hotels, a -library and a hospital. The winter temperature is 10-12 deg. F. warmer -than in New York. The township of Lakewood was incorporated in 1892. - - - - -LAKH (from the Sans. _laksha_, one hundred thousand), a term used in -British India, in a colloquial sense to signify a lakh of rupees -(written 1,00,000), which at the face value of the rupee would be worth -L10,000, but now is worth only L6666. The term is also largely used in -trade returns. A hundred lakhs make a crore. - - - - -LAKHIMPUR, a district of British India in the extreme east of the -province of Eastern Bengal and Assam. Area, 4529 sq. m. It lies along -both banks of the Brahmaputra for about 400 m.; it is bounded N. by the -Daphla, Miri, Abor and Mishmi hills, E. by the Mishmi and Kachin hills, -S. by the watershed of the Patkai range and the Lohit branch of the -Brahmaputra, and W. by the districts of Darrang and Sibsagar. The -Brahmaputra is navigable for steamers in all seasons as far as -Dibrugarh, in the rainy season as far as Sadiya; its navigable -tributaries within the district are the Subansiri, Dibru and Dihing. The -deputy-commissioner in charge exercises political control over numerous -tribes beyond the inner surveyed border. The most important of these -tribes are the Miris, Abors, Mishmis, Khamtis, Kachins and Nagas. In -1901 the population was 371,396, an increase of 46% in the decade. The -district has enjoyed remarkable and continuous prosperity. At each -successive census the percentage of increase has been over 40, the -present population being more than three times as great as that of 1872. -This increase is chiefly due to the numerous tea gardens and to the coal -mines and other enterprises of the Assam Railways and Trading Company. -Lakhimpur was the first district into which tea cultivation was -introduced by the government, and the Assam Company began operations -here in 1840. The railway, known as the Dibru-Sadiya line, runs from -Dibrugarh to Makum, with two branches to Talap and Margherita, and has -been connected across the hills with the Assam-Bengal railway. The coal -is of excellent quality, and is exported by river as far as Calcutta. -The chief oil-wells are at Digboi. The oil is refined at Margherita, -producing a good quality of kerosene oil and first-class paraffin, with -wax and other by-products. The company also manufactures bricks and -pipes of various kinds. Another industry is cutting timber, for the -manufacture of tea-chests, &c. - - Lakhimpur figures largely in the annals of Assam as the region where - successive invaders from the east first reached the Brahmaputra. The - Bara Bhuiyas, originally from the western provinces of India, were - driven out by the Chutias (a Shan race), and these in their turn gave - place to their more powerful brethren, the Ahoms, in the 13th century. - The Burmese, who had ruined the native kingdoms, at the end of the - 18th century, were in 1825 expelled by the British, who placed the - southern part of the country, together with Sibsagar under the rule of - Raja Purandhar Singh; but it was not till 1838 that the whole was - taken under direct British administration. The headquarters are at - Dibrugarh. - - See _Lakhimpur District Gazetteer_ (Calcutta, 1905). - - - - -LAKSHMI (Sans. for "mark," "sign," generally used in composition with -_punya_, "prosperous"; hence "good sign," "good fortune"), in Hindu -mythology, the wife of Vishnu worshipped as the goddess of love, beauty -and prosperity. She has many other names, the chief being _Loka mata_ -("mother of the world"), _Padma_ ("the lotus"), _Padma laya_ ("she who -dwells on a lotus") and _Jaladhija_ ("the ocean-born"). She is -represented as of a bright golden colour and seated on a lotus. She is -said to have been born from the sea of milk when it was churned from -ambrosia. Many quaint myths surround her birth. In the Rig Veda her name -does not occur as a goddess. - - - - -LALAING, JACQUES DE (c. 1420-1453), Flemish knight, was originally in -the service of the duke of Cleves and afterwards in that of the duke of -Burgundy, Philip III., the Good, gaining great renown by his prowess in -the tiltyard. The duke of Burgundy entrusted him with embassies to the -pope and the king of France (1451), and subsequently sent him to put -down the revolt of the inhabitants of Ghent, in which expedition he was -killed. His biography, _Le Livre des faits de messire Jacques de -Lalaing_, which has been published several times, is mainly the work of -the Burgundian herald and chronicler Jean le Fevre, better known as -_Toison d'or_; the Flemish historiographer Georges Chastellain and the -herald Charolais also took part in its compilation. - - - - -LALANDE, JOSEPH JEROME LEFRANCAIS DE (1732-1807), French astronomer, was -born at Bourg (department of Ain), on the 11th of July 1732. His parents -sent him to Paris to study law; but the accident of lodging in the Hotel -Cluny, where J. N. Delisle had his observatory, drew him to astronomy, -and he became the zealous and favoured pupil of both Delisle and Pierre -Lemonnier. He, however, completed his legal studies, and was about to -return to Bourg to practise there as an advocate, when Lemonnier -obtained permission to send him to Berlin, to make observations on the -lunar parallax in concert with those of N. L. Lacaille at the Cape of -Good Hope. The successful execution of his task procured for him, before -he was twenty-one, admission to the Academy of Berlin, and the post of -adjunct astronomer to that of Paris. He now devoted himself to the -improvement of the planetary theory, publishing in 1759 a corrected -edition of Halley's tables, with a history of the celebrated comet whose -return in that year he had aided Clairault to calculate. In 1762 J. N. -Delisle resigned in his favour the chair of astronomy in the College de -France, the duties of which were discharged by Lalande for forty-six -years. His house became an astronomical seminary, and amongst his pupils -were J. B. J. Delambre, G. Piazzi, P. Mechain, and his own nephew Michel -Lalande. By his publications in connexion with the transit of 1769 he -won great and, in a measure, deserved fame. But his love of notoriety -and impetuous temper compromised the respect due to his scientific zeal, -though these faults were partially balanced by his generosity and -benevolence. He died on the 4th of April 1807. - - Although his investigations were conducted with diligence rather than - genius, the career of Lalande must be regarded as of eminent service - to astronomy. As a lecturer and writer he gave to the science - unexampled popularity; his planetary tables, into which he introduced - corrections for mutual perturbations, were the best available up to - the end of the 18th century; and the Lalande prize, instituted by him - in 1802 for the chief astronomical performance of each year, still - testifies to his enthusiasm for his favourite pursuit. Amongst his - voluminous works are _Traite d'astronomie_ (2 vols., 1764; enlarged - edition, 4 vols., 1771-1781; 3rd ed., 3 vols., 1792); _Histoire - celeste francaise_ (1801), giving the places of 50,000 stars; - _Bibliographie astronomique_ (1803), with a history of astronomy from - 1781 to 1802; _Astronomie des dames_ (1785); _Abrege de navigation_ - (1793); _Voyage d'un francois en Italie_ (1769), a valuable record of - his travels in 1765-1766. He communicated above one hundred and fifty - papers to the Paris Academy of Sciences, edited the _Connoissance des - temps_ (1759-1774), and again (1794-1807), and wrote the concluding 2 - vols. of the 2nd edition of Montucla's _Histoire des mathematiques_ - (1802). - - See _Memoires de l'Institut_, t. viii. (1807) (J. B. J. Delambre); - Delambre, _Hist. de l'astr. au XVIII^e siecle_, p. 547; _Magazin - encyclopedique_, ii. 288 (1810) (Mme de Salm); J. S. Bailly, _Hist. de - l'astr. moderne_, t. iii. (ed. 1785); J. Madler, _Geschichte der - Himmelskunde_, ii. 141; R. Wolf, _Gesch. der Astronomie_; J. J. - Lalande, _Bibl. astr._ p. 428; J. C. Poggendorff, _Biog. Lit. - Handworterbuch_; M. Marie, _Hist. des sciences_, ix. 35. - - - - -LALIN, a town of north-western Spain, in the province of Pontevedra. -Pop. (1900) 16,238. Lalin is the centre of the trade in agricultural -products of the fertile highlands between the Deza and Arnego rivers. -The local industries are tanning and the manufacture of paper. Near -Lalin are the ruins of the Gothic abbey of Carboeiro. - - - - -LA LINEA, or LA LINEA DE LA CONCEPCION, a town of Spain, in the province -of Cadiz, between Gibraltar and San Roque. Pop. (1900) 31,802. La Linea, -which derives its name from the _line_ or boundary dividing Spanish -territory from the district of Gibraltar, is a town of comparatively -modern date and was formerly looked upon as a suburb of San Roque. It is -now a distinct frontier post and headquarters of the Spanish commandant -of the lines of Gibraltar. The fortifications erected here in the 16th -century were dismantled by the British in 1810, to prevent the landing -of French invaders, and all the existing buildings are modern. They -include barracks, casinos, a theatre and a bull-ring, much frequented by -the inhabitants and garrison of Gibraltar. La Linea has some trade in -cereals, fruit and vegetables; it is the residence of large numbers of -labourers employed in Gibraltar. - - - - -LALITPUR, a town of British India, in Jhansi district, United Provinces. -Pop. (1901) 11,560. It has a station on the Great Indian Peninsula -railway, and a large trade in oil-seeds, hides and _ghi_. It contains -several beautiful Hindu and Jain temples. It was formerly the -headquarters of a district of the same name, which was incorporated with -that of Jhansi in 1891. The Bundela chiefs of Lalitpur were among those -who most eagerly joined the Mutiny, and it was only after a severe -struggle that the district was pacified. - - - - -LALLY, THOMAS ARTHUR, COMTE DE, Baron de Tollendal (1702-1766), French -general, was born at Romans, Dauphine, in January 1702, being the son of -Sir Gerard O'Lally, an Irish Jacobite who married a French lady of noble -family, from whom the son inherited his titles. Entering the French army -in 1721 he served in the war of 1734 against Austria; he was present at -Dettingen (1743), and commanded the regiment de Lally in the famous -Irish brigade at Fontenoy (May 1745). He was made a brigadier on the -field by Louis XV. He had previously been mixed up in several Jacobite -plots, and in 1745 accompanied Charles Edward to Scotland, serving as -aide-de-camp at the battle of Falkirk (January 1746). Escaping to -France, he served with Marshal Saxe in the Low Countries, and at the -capture of Maestricht (1748) was made a _marechal de camp_. When war -broke out with England in 1756 Lally was given the command of a French -expedition to India. He reached Pondicherry in April 1758, and at the -outset met with some trifling military success. He was a man of courage -and a capable general; but his pride and ferocity made him disliked by -his officers and hated by his soldiers, while he regarded the natives as -slaves, despised their assistance, and trampled on their traditions of -caste. In consequence everything went wrong with him. He was -unsuccessful in an attack on Tanjore, and had to retire from the siege -of Madras (1758) owing to the timely arrival of the British fleet. He -was defeated by Sir Eyre Coote at Wandiwash (1760), and besieged in -Pondicherry and forced to capitulate (1761). He was sent as a prisoner -of war to England. While in London, he heard that he was accused in -France of treachery, and insisted, against advice, on returning on -parole to stand his trial. He was kept prisoner for nearly two years -before the trial began; then, after many painful delays, he was -sentenced to death (May 6, 1766), and three days later beheaded. Louis -XV. tried to throw the responsibility for what was undoubtedly a -judicial murder on his ministers and the public, but his policy needed a -scapegoat, and he was probably well content not to exercise his -authority to save an almost friendless foreigner. - - See G. B. Malleson, _The Career of Count Lally_ (1865); "Z's" (the - marquis de Lally-Tollendal) article in the _Biographie Michaud_; and - Voltaire's _Oeuvres completes_. The legal documents are preserved in - the Bibliotheque Nationale. - - - - -LALLY-TOLLENDAL, TROPHIME GERARD, MARQUIS DE (1751-1830), was born at -Paris on the 5th of March 1751. He was the legitimized son of the comte -de Lally and only discovered the secret of his birth on the day of his -father's execution, when he resolved to devote himself to clearing his -father's memory. He was supported by Voltaire, and in 1778 succeeded in -persuading Louis XVI. to annul the decree which had sentenced the comte -de Lally; but the parlement of Rouen, to which the case was referred -back, in 1784 again decided in favour of Lally's guilt. The case was -retried by other courts, but Lally's innocence was never fully admitted -by the French judges. In 1779 Lally-Tollendal bought the office of -_Grand bailli_ of Etampes, and in 1789 was a deputy to the -states-general for the _noblesse_ of Paris. He played some part in the -early stages of the Revolution, but was too conservative to be in -sympathy with all even of its earlier developments. He threw himself -into opposition to the "tyranny" of Mirabeau, and condemned the epidemic -of renunciation which in the session of the 4th of August 1789 destroyed -the traditional institutions of France. Later in the year he emigrated -to England. During the trial of Louis XVI. by the National Convention -(1793) he offered to defend the king, but was not allowed to return to -France. He did not return till the time of the Consulate. Louis XVIII. -created him a peer of France, and in 1816 he became a member of the -French Academy. From that time until his death, on the 11th of March -1830, he devoted himself to philanthropic work, especially identifying -himself with prison reform. - - See his _Plaidoyer pour Louis XVI._ (London, 1793); Lally-Tollendal - was also in part responsible for the _Memoires_, attributed to Joseph - Weber, concerning Marie Antoinette (1804); he further edited the - article on his father in the _Biographie Michaud_; see also Arnault, - _Discours prononce aux funerailles de M. le marquis de Lally-Tollendal - le 13 mars 1830_ (Paris); Gauthier de Brecy, _Necrologie de M. le - marquis de Lally-Tollendal_ (Paris, undated); Voltaire, _Oeuvres - completes_ (Paris, 1889), in which see the analytical table of - contents, vol. ii. - - - - -LALO, EDOUARD (1823-1892), French composer, was born at Lille, on the -27th of January 1823. He began his musical studies at the conservatoire -at Lille, and in Paris attended the violin classes of Habeneck. For -several years Lalo led a modest and retired existence, playing the viola -in the quartet party organized by Armingaud and Jacquard, and in -composing chamber music. His early works include two trios, a quartet, -and several pieces for violin and pianoforte. In 1867 he took part in an -operatic competition, an opera from his pen, entitled _Fiesque_, -obtaining the third place out of forty-three. This work was accepted for -production at the Paris Opera, but delays occurred, and nothing was -done. _Fiesque_ was next offered to the Theatre de la Monnaie, Brussels, -and was about to be produced there when the manager became bankrupt. -Thus, when nearly fifty years of age, Lalo found himself in -difficulties. _Fiesque_ was never performed, but the composer published -the pianoforte score, and eventually employed some of the music in other -works. After the Franco-German war French composers found their -opportunity in the concert-room. Lalo was one of these, and during the -succeeding ten years several interesting works from his pen were -produced, among them a sonata for violoncello, a "divertissement" for -orchestra, a violin concerto and the _Symphonie Espagnole_ for violin -and orchestra, one of his best-known compositions. In the meanwhile he -had written a second opera, _Le Roi d'Ys_, which he hoped would be -produced at the Opera. The administration offered him the "scenario" of -a ballet instead. Lalo was obliged to be content with this, and set to -work with so much energy that he fell ill, the last scenes of the ballet -being orchestrated by Gounod. _Namouna_, the ballet in question, was -produced at the Opera in 1882. Six years later, on the 7th of May 1888, -_Le Roi d'Ys_ was brought out at the Opera Comique, and Lalo was at last -enabled to taste the sweets of success. Unfortunately, fame came to him -too late in life. A pianoforte concerto and the music to _Neron_, a -pantomimic piece played at the Hippodrome in 1891, were his last two -works. He had begun a new opera, but had only written the first act -when, on the 23rd of April 1892, he died. This opera, _La Jacquerie_, -was finished by Arthur Coquard, and was produced in 1895 at Monte Carlo, -Aix-les-Bains and finally in Paris. Lalo had distinct originality, -discernible in his employment of curious rhythmic devices. His music is -ever ingenious and brilliantly effective. - - - - -LA MADDALENA, an island 2(1/2) m. from the N.E. coast of Sardinia. Pop. -(1901) 8361. Napoleon bombarded it in 1793 without success, and Nelson -made it his headquarters for some time. It is now an important naval -station of the Italian fleet, the anchorage being good, and is strongly -fortified. A bridge and an embankment connect it with Caprera. It -appears to have been inhabited in Roman times. - - - - -LAMAISM, a system of doctrine partly religious, partly political. -Religiously it is the corrupt form of Buddhism prevalent in Tibet and -Mongolia. It stands in a relationship to primitive Buddhism similar to -that in which Roman Catholicism, so long as the temporal power of the -pope was still in existence, stood to primitive Christianity. The -ethical and metaphysical ideas most conspicuous in the doctrines of -Lamaism are not confined to the highlands of central Asia, they are -accepted in great measure also in Japan and China. It is the union of -these ideas with a hierarchical system, and with the temporal -sovereignty of the head of that system in Tibet, which constitutes what -is distinctively understood by the term Lamaism. Lamaism has acquired a -special interest to the student of comparative history through the -instructive parallel which its history presents to that of the Church of -Rome. - - - The "Great Vehicle." - -The central point of primitive Buddhism was the doctrine of -"Arahatship"--a system of ethical and mental self-culture, in which -deliverance was found from all the mysteries and sorrows of life in a -change of heart to be reached here on earth. This doctrine seems to have -been held very nearly in its original purity from the time when it was -propounded by Gotama in the 6th century B.C. to the period in which -northern India was conquered by the Huns about the commencement of the -Christian era. Soon after that time there arose a school of Buddhist -teachers who called their doctrine the "Great Vehicle." It was not in -any contradiction to the older doctrine, which they contemptuously -called the "Little Vehicle," but included it all, and was based upon it. -The distinguishing characteristic of the newer school was the importance -which it attached to "Bodhisatship." The older school had taught that -Gotama, who had propounded the doctrine of Arahatship, was a Buddha, -that only a Buddha is capable of discovering that doctrine, and that a -Buddha is a man who by self-denying efforts, continued through many -hundreds of different births, has acquired the so-called _Ten Paramitas_ -or cardinal virtues in such perfection that he is able, when sin and -ignorance have gained the upper hand throughout the world, to save the -human race from impending ruin. But until the process of perfection has -been completed, until the moment when at last the sage, sitting under -the Wisdom tree acquires that particular insight or wisdom which is -called Enlightenment or Buddhahood, he is still only a Bodhisat. The -link of connexion between the various Bodhisats in the future Buddha's -successive births is not a soul which is transferred from body to body, -but the _karma_, or character, which each successive Bodhisat inherits -from his predecessors in the long chain of existences. Now the older -school also held, in the first place, that, when a man had, in this -life, attained to Arahatship, his karma would not pass on to any other -individual in another life--or in other words, that after Arahatship -there would be no rebirth; and, secondly, that four thousand years after -the Buddha had proclaimed the _Dhamma_ or doctrine of Arahatship, his -teaching would have died away, and another Buddha would be required to -bring mankind once more to a knowledge of the truth. The leaders of the -Great Vehicle urged their followers to seek to attain, not so much to -Arahatship, which would involve only their own salvation, but to -Bodhisatship, by the attainment of which they would be conferring the -blessings of the Dhamma upon countless multitudes in the long ages of -the future. By thus laying stress upon Bodhisatship, rather than upon -Arahatship, the new school, though they doubtless merely thought -themselves to be carrying the older orthodox doctrines to their logical -conclusion, were really changing the central point of Buddhism, and were -altering the direction of their mental vision. It was of no avail that -they adhered in other respects in the main to the older teaching, that -they professed to hold to the same ethical system, that they adhered, -except in a few unimportant details, to the old regulations of the order -of the Buddhist mendicant recluses. The ancient books, preserved in the -_Pali Pitakas_, being mainly occupied with the details of Arahatship, -lost their exclusive value in the eyes of those whose attention was -being directed to the details of Bodhisatship. And the opinion that -every leader in their religious circles, every teacher distinguished -among them for his sanctity of life, or for his extensive learning, was -a Bodhisat, who might have and who probably had inherited the karma of -some great teacher of old, opened the door to a flood of superstitious -fancies. - -It is worthy of note that the new school found its earliest professors -and its greatest expounders in a part of India outside the districts to -which the personal influence of Gotama and of his immediate followers -had been confined. The home of early Buddhism was round about Kosala and -Magadha; in the district, that is to say, north and south of the Ganges -between where Allahabad now lies on the west and Rajgir on the east. The -home of the Great Vehicle was, at first, in the countries farther to the -north and west. Buddhism arose in countries where Sanskrit was never -more than a learned tongue, and where the exclusive claims of the -Brahmins had never been universally admitted. The Great Vehicle arose in -the very stronghold of Brahminism, and among a people to whom Sanskrit, -like Latin in the middle ages in Europe, was the literary _lingua -franca_. The new literature therefore, which the new movement called -forth, was written, and has been preserved, in Sanskrit--its principal -books of _Dharma_, or doctrine, being the following nine: (1) -_Prajna-paramita_; (2) _Ganda-vyuha_; (3) _Dasa-bhumis-vara_; (4) -_Samadhi-raja_; (5) _Lankavatara_; (6) _Saddharma-pundarika_; (7) -_Tathagata-guhyaka_; (8) _Lalita-vistara_; (9) _Suvarna-prabhasa_. The -date of none of these works is known with any certainty, but it is -highly improbable that any one of them is older than the 6th century -after the death of Gotama. Copies of all of them were brought to Europe -by Mr B. H. Hodgson, and other copies have been received since then; but -only one of them has as yet been published in Europe (the _Lalita -Vistara_, edited by Lofmann), and only two have been translated into any -European language. These are the _Lalita Vistara_, translated into -French, through the Tibetan, by M. Foucaux, and the _Saddharma -Pundarika_, translated into English by Professor Kern. The former is -legendary work, partly in verse, on the life of Gotama, the historical -Buddha; and the latter, also partly in verse, is devoted to proving the -essential identity of the Great and the Little Vehicles, and the equal -authenticity of both as doctrines enunciated by the master himself. - -Of the authors of these nine works, as of all the older Buddhist works -with one or two exceptions, nothing has been ascertained. The founder of -the system of the Great Vehicle is, however, often referred to under the -name of Nagarjuna, whose probable date is about A.D. 200. - -Together with Nagarjuna, other early teachers of the Great Vehicle whose -names are known are Vasumitra, Vasubandhu, Aryadeva, Dharmapala and -Gunamati--all of whom were looked upon as Bodhisats. As the newer school -did not venture so far as to claim as Bodhisats the disciples stated in -the older books to have been the contemporaries of Gotama (they being -precisely the persons known as Arahats), they attempted to give the -appearance of age to the Bodhisat theory by representing the Buddha as -being surrounded, not only by his human companions the Arahats, but also -by fabulous beings, whom they represented as the Bodhisats existing at -that time. In the opening words of each Mahayana treatise a list is -given of such Bodhisats, who were beginning, together with the -historical Bodhisats, to occupy a position in the Buddhist church of -those times similar to that occupied by the saints in the corresponding -period of the history of Christianity in the Church of Rome. And these -lists of fabulous Bodhisats have now a distinct historical importance. -For they grow in length in the later works; and it is often possible by -comparing them one with another to fix, not the date, but the -comparative age of the books in which they occur. Thus it is a fair -inference to draw from the shortness of the list in the opening words of -the _Lalita Vistara_, as compared with that in the first sections of the -_Saddharma Pundarika_, that the latter work is much the younger of the -two, a conclusion supported also by other considerations. - -Among the Bodhisats mentioned in the _Saddharma Pundarika_, and not -mentioned in the _Lalita Vistara_, as attendant on the Buddha are -Manju-sri and Avalokitesvara. That these saints were already -acknowledged by the followers of the Great Vehicle at the beginning of -the 5th century is clear from the fact that Fa Hien, who visited India -about that time, says that "men of the Great Vehicle" were then -worshipping them at Mathura, not far from Delhi (F. H., chap. xvi.). -These were supposed to be celestial beings who, inspired by love of the -human race, had taken the so-called Great Resolve to become future -Buddhas, and who therefore descended from heaven when the actual Buddha -was on earth, to pay reverence to him, and to learn of him. The belief -in them probably arose out of the doctrine of the older school, which -did not deny the existence of the various creations of previous -mythology and speculation, but allowed of their actual existence as -spiritual beings, and only deprived them of all power over the lives of -men, and declared them to be temporary beings liable, like men, to sin -and ignorance, and requiring, like men, the salvation of Arahatship. -Among them the later Buddhists seem to have placed their numerous -Bodhisats; and to have paid especial reverence to Manju-sri as the -personification of wisdom, and to Avalokiteswara as the personification -of overruling love. The former was afterwards identified with the -mythical first Buddhist missionary, who is supposed to have introduced -civilization into Tibet about two hundred and fifty years after the -death of the Buddha. - - - The five mystic trinities. - -The way was now open to a rapid fall from the simplicity of early -Buddhism, in which men's attention was directed to the various parts of -the system of self-culture, to a belief in a whole pantheon of saints or -angels, which appealed more strongly to the half-civilized races among -whom the Great Vehicle was now professed. A theory sprang up which was -supposed to explain the marvellous powers of the Buddhas by representing -them as only the outward appearance, the reflection, as it were, or -emanation, of ethereal Buddhas dwelling in the skies. These were called -_Dhyani Buddhas_, and their number was supposed to be, like that of the -Buddhas, innumerable. Only five of them, however, occupied any space in -the speculative world in which the ideas of the later Buddhists had now -begun to move. But, being Buddhas, they were supposed to have their -Bodhisats; and thus out of the five last Buddhas of the earlier teaching -there grew up five mystic trinities, each group consisting of one of -these five Buddhas, his prototype in heaven the Dhyani Buddha, and his -celestial Bodhisat. Among these hypothetical beings, the creations of a -sickly scholasticism, hollow abstractions without life or reality, the -particular trinity in which the historical Gotama was assigned a -subordinate place naturally occupied the most exalted rank. Amitabha, -the Dhyani-Buddha of this trinity, soon began to fill the largest place -in the minds of the new school; and Avalokiteswara, his Bodhisat, was -looked upon with a reverence somewhat less than his former glory. It is -needless to add that, under the overpowering influence of these vain -imaginations, the earnest moral teachings of Gotama became more and more -hidden from view. The imaginary saints grew and flourished. Each new -creation, each new step in the theory, demanded another, until the whole -sky was filled with forgeries of the brain, and the nobler and simpler -lessons of the founder of the religion were hidden beneath the -glittering stream of metaphysical subtleties. - -Still worse results followed on the change of the earlier point of view. -The acute minds of the Buddhist pandits, no longer occupied with the -practical lessons of Arahatship, turned their attention, as far as it -was not engaged upon their hierarchy of mythological beings, to -questions of metaphysical speculation, which, in the earliest Buddhism, -are not only discouraged but forbidden. We find long treatises on the -nature of being, idealistic dreams which have as little to do with the -Bodhisatship that is concerned with the salvation of the world as with -the Arahatship that is concerned with the perfect life. Only one lower -step was possible, and that was not long in being taken. The animism -common alike to the untaught Huns and to their Hindu conquerors, but -condemned in early Buddhism, was allowed to revive. As the stronger side -of Gotama's teaching was neglected, the debasing belief in rites and -ceremonies, and charms and incantations, which had been the especial -object of his scorn, began to spread like the Birana weed warmed by a -tropical sun in marsh and muddy soil. As in India, after the expulsion -of Buddhism, the degrading worship of Siva and his dusky bride had been -incorporated into Hinduism from the savage devil worship of Aryan and of -non-Aryan tribes, so, as pure Buddhism died away in the north, the -_Tantra_ system, a mixture of magic and witchcraft and sorcery, was -incorporated into the corrupted Buddhism. - - - The Tantra system. - -The founder of this system seems to have been Asanga, an influential -monk of Peshawar, who wrote the first text-book of the creed, the -_Yogachchara Bhumi Sastra_, in the 6th century A.D. Hsuan Tsang, who -travelled in the first half of the 7th, found the monastery where Asanga -had lived in ruins, and says that he had lived one thousand years after -the Buddha.[1] Asanga managed with great dexterity to reconcile the two -opposing systems by placing a number of Saivite gods or devils, both -male and female, in the inferior heavens of the then prevalent Buddhism, -and by representing them as worshippers and supporters of the Buddha and -of Avalokitesvara. He thus made it possible for the half-converted and -rude tribes to remain Buddhists while they brought offerings, and even -bloody offerings, to these more congenial shrines, and while their -practical belief had no relation at all to the Truths or the Noble -Eightfold Path, but busied itself almost wholly with obtaining magic -powers (_Siddhi_), by means of magic phrases (_Dharani_), and magic -circles (_Mandala_). Asanga's happy idea bore but too ample fruit. In -his own country and Nepal, the new wine, sweet and luscious to the taste -of savages, completely disqualified them from enjoying any purer drink; -and now in both countries Saivism is supreme, and Buddhism is even -nominally extinct, except in some outlying districts of Nepal. But this -full effect has only been worked out in the lapse of ages; the Tantra -literature has also had its growth and its development, and some unhappy -scholar of a future age may have to trace its loathsome history. The -nauseous taste repelled even the self-sacrificing industry of Burnouf, -when he found the later Tantra books to be as immoral as they are -absurd. "The pen," he says, "refuses to transcribe doctrines as -miserable in respect of form as they are odious and degrading in respect -of meaning." - -Such had been the decline and fall of Buddhism considered as an ethical -system before its introduction into Tibet. The manner in which its order -of mendicant recluses, at first founded to afford better opportunities -to those who wished to carry out that system in practical life, -developed at last into a hierarchical monarchy will best be understood -by a sketch of the history of Tibet. - - - Early political history. - -Its real history commences with Srong Tsan Gampo, who was born a little -after 600 A.D., and who is said in the Chinese chronicles to have -entered, in 634, into diplomatic relationship with Tai Tsung, one of the -emperors of the Tang dynasty. He was the founder of the present capital -of Tibet, now known as Lhasa; and in the year 622 (the same year as that -in which Mahomet fled from Mecca) he began the formal introduction of -Buddhism into Tibet. For this purpose he sent the minister Thumi -Sambhota, afterwards looked upon as an incarnation of Manju-sri, to -India, there to collect the sacred books, and to learn and translate -them. Thumi Sambhota accordingly invented an alphabet for the Tibetan -language on the model of the Indian alphabets then in use. And, aided by -the king, who is represented to have been an industrious student and -translator, he wrote the first books by which Buddhism became known in -his native land. The most famous of the works ascribed to him is the -_Mani Kambum_, "the Myriad of Precious Words"--a treatise chiefly on -religion, but which also contains an account of the introduction of -Buddhism into Tibet, and of the closing part of the life of Srong Tsan -Gampo. He is also very probably the author of another very ancient -standard work of Tibetan Buddhism, the _Samatog_, a short digest of -Buddhist morality, on which the civil laws of Tibet have been founded. -It is said in the _Mani Kambum_ to have fallen from heaven in a casket -(Tibetan, _samatog_), and, like the last-mentioned work, is only known -to us in meagre abstract. - -King Srong Tsan Gampo's zeal for Buddhism was shared and supported by -his two queens, Bribsun, a princess from Nepal, and Wen Ching, a -princess from China. They are related to have brought with them sacred -relics, books and pictures, for whose better preservation two large -monasteries were erected. These are the cloisters of La Brang (Jokhang) -and Ra Moche, still, though much changed and enlarged, the most sacred -abbeys in Tibet, and the glory of Lhasa. The two queens have become -semi-divine personages, and are worshipped under the name of the two -_Dara-Eke_, the "glorious mothers," being regarded as incarnations of -the wife of Siva, representing respectively two of the qualities which -she personifies, divine vengeance and divine love. The former is -worshipped by the Mongolians as _Okkin Tengri_, "the Virgin Goddess"; -but in Tibet and China the role of the divine virgin is filled by _Kwan -Yin_, a personification of Avalokitesvara as the heavenly word, who is -often represented with a child in her arms. Srong Tsan Gampo has also -become a saint, being looked upon as an incarnation of Avalokitesvara; -and the description in the ecclesiastical historians of the measures he -took for the welfare of his subjects do great credit to their ideal of -the perfect Buddhist king. He is said to have spent his long reign in -the building of reservoirs, bridges and canals; in the promotion of -agriculture, horticulture and manufactures; in the establishment of -schools and colleges; and in the maintenance of justice and the -encouragement of virtue. But the degree of his success must have been -slight. For after the death of himself and of his wives Buddhism -gradually decayed, and was subjected by succeeding kings to cruel -persecutions; and it was not till more than half a century afterwards, -under King Kir Song de Tsan, who reigned 740-786, that true religion is -acknowledged by the ecclesiastical historians to have become firmly -established in the land. - - - The Tibetan sacred books. - -This monarch again sent to India to replace the sacred books that had -been lost, and to invite Buddhist pandits to translate them. The most -distinguished of those who came were Santa Rakshita, Padma Sambhava and -Kamala Sila, for whom, and for their companions, the king built a -splendid monastery still existing, at Samje, about three days' journey -south-east of Lhasa. It was to them that the Tibetans owed the great -collection of what are still regarded as their sacred books--the -_Kandjur_. It consists of 100 volumes containing 689 works, of which -there are two or three complete sets in Europe, one of them in the India -Office library. A detailed analysis of these scriptures has been -published by the celebrated Hungarian scholar Csoma de Koros, whose -authoritative work has been republished in French with complete indices -and very useful notes by M. Leon Feer. These volumes contain about a -dozen works of the oldest school of Buddhism, the Hinayana, and about -300 works, mostly very short, belonging to the Tantra school. But the -great bulk of the collection consists of Mahayana books, belonging to -all the previously existing varieties of that widely extended Buddhist -sect; and, as the Sanskrit originals of many of these writings are now -lost, the Tibetan translations will be of great value, not only for the -history of Lamaism, but also for the history of the later forms of -Indian Buddhism. - -The last king's second son, Lang Darma, concluded in May 822 a treaty -with the then emperor of China (the twelfth of the Tang dynasty), a -record of which was engraved on a stone put up in the above-mentioned -great convent of La Brang (Jokhang), and is still to be seen there.[2] -He is described in the church chronicles as an incarnation of the evil -spirit, and is said to have succeeded in suppressing Buddhism throughout -the greater part of the land. The period from Srong Tsan Gampo down to -the death of Lang Darma, who was murdered about A.D. 850, in a civil -war, is called in the Buddhist books "the first introduction of -religion." It was followed by more than a century of civil disorder and -wars, during which the exiled Buddhist monks attempted unsuccessfully -again and again to return. Many are the stories of martyrs and -confessors who are believed to have lived in these troublous times, and -their efforts were at last crowned with success, for in the century -commencing with the reign of Bilamgur in 971 there took place "the -second introduction of religion" into Tibet, more especially under the -guidance of the pandit Atisha, who came to Tibet in 1041, and of his -famous native pupil and follower Brom Ston. The long period of -depression seems not to have been without a beneficial influence on the -persecuted Buddhist church, for these teachers are reported to have -placed the Tantra system more in the background, and to have adhered -more strongly to the purer forms of the Mahayana development of the -ancient faith. - - - The temporal sovereignty of the Lamas. - -For about three hundred years the Buddhist church of Tibet was left in -peace, subjecting the country more and more completely to its control, -and growing in power and in wealth. During this time it achieved its -greatest victory, and underwent the most important change in its -character and organization. After the reintroduction of Buddhism into -the "kingdom of snow," the ancient dynasty never recovered its power. -Its representatives continued for some time to claim the sovereignty; -but the country was practically very much in the condition of Germany at -about the same time--chieftains of almost independent power ruled from -their castles on the hill-tops over the adjacent valleys, engaged in -petty wars, and conducted plundering expeditions against the -neighbouring tenants, whilst the great abbeys were places of refuge for -the studious or religious, and their heads were the only rivals to the -barons in social state, and in many respects the only protectors and -friends of the people. Meanwhile Jenghiz Khan had founded the Mongol -empire, and his grandson Kublai Khan became a convert to the Buddhism of -the Tibetan Lamas. He granted to the abbot of the Sakya monastery in -southern Tibet the title of tributary sovereign of the country, head of -the Buddhist church, and overlord over the numerous barons and abbots, -and in return was officially crowned by the abbot as ruler over the -extensive domain of the Mongol empire. Thus was the foundation laid at -one and the same time of the temporal sovereignty of the Lamas of Tibet, -and of the suzerainty over Tibet of the emperors of China. One of the -first acts of the "head of the church" was the printing of a carefully -revised edition of the Tibetan Scriptures--an undertaking which occupied -altogether nearly thirty years and was not completed till 1306. - -Under Kublai's successors in China the Buddhist cause flourished -greatly, and the Sakya Lamas extended their power both at home and -abroad. The dignity of abbot at Sakya became hereditary, the abbots -breaking so far the Buddhist rule of celibacy that they remained married -until they had begotten a son and heir. But rather more than half a -century afterwards their power was threatened by a formidable rival at -home, a Buddhist reformer. - - - The Luther of Tibet. - -Tsongkapa, the Luther of Tibet, was born about 1357 on the spot where -the famous monastery of Kunbum now stands. He very early entered the -order, and studied at Sakya, Brigung and other monasteries. He then -spent eight years as a hermit in Takpo in southern Tibet, where the -comparatively purer teaching of Atisha (referred to above) was still -prevalent. About 1390 he appeared as a public teacher and reformer in -Lhasa, and before his death in 1419 there were three huge monasteries -there containing 30,000 of his disciples, besides others in other parts -of the country. His voluminous works, of which the most famous are the -_Sumbun_ and the _Lam Nim Tshenpo_, exist in printed Tibetan copies in -Europe, but have not yet been translated or analysed. But the principal -lines on which his reformation proceeded are sufficiently attested. He -insisted in the first place on the complete carrying out of the ancient -rules of the order as to the celibacy of its members, and as to -simplicity in dress. One result of the second of these two reforms was -to make it necessary for every monk openly to declare himself either in -favour of or against the new views. For Tsongkapa and his followers wore -the yellow or orange-coloured garments which had been the distinguishing -mark of the order in the lifetime of its founder, and in support of the -ancient rules Tsongkapa reinstated the fortnightly rehearsal of the -_Patimokkha_ or "disburdenment" in regular assemblies of the order at -Lhasa--a practice which had fallen into desuetude. He also restored the -custom of the first disciples to hold the so-called _Vassa_ or yearly -retirement, and the public meeting of the order at its close. In all -these respects he was simply following the directions of the Vinaya, or -regulations of the order, as established probably in the time of Gotama -himself, and as certainly handed down from the earliest times in the -pitakas or sacred books. Further, he set his face against the Tantra -system, and against the animistic superstitions which had been allowed -to creep into life again. He laid stress on the self-culture involved in -the practice of the paramitas or cardinal virtues, and established an -annual national fast or week of prayer to be held during the first days -of each year. This last institution indeed is not found in the ancient -Vinaya, but was almost certainly modelled on the traditional account of -the similar assemblies convoked by Asoka and other Buddhist sovereigns -in India every fifth year. Laymen as well as monks take part in the -proceedings, the details of which are unknown to us except from the -accounts of the Catholic missionaries--Fathers Huc and Gabet--who -describe the principal ceremonial as, in outward appearance, wonderfully -like the high mass. In doctrine the great Tibetan teacher, who had no -access to the Pali Pitakas, adhered in the main to the purer forms of -the Mahayana school; in questions of church government he took little -part, and did not dispute the titular supremacy of the Sakya Lamas. But -the effects of his teaching weakened their power. The "orange-hoods," as -his followers were called, rapidly gained in numbers and influence, -until they so overshadowed the "red-hoods," as the followers of the -older sect were called, that in the middle of the 15th century the -emperor of China acknowledged the two leaders of the new sect at that -time as the titular overlords of the church and tributary rulers over -the realm of Tibet. These two leaders were then known as the _Dalai -Lama_ and the _Pantshen Lama_, and were the abbots of the great -monasteries at Gedun Dubpa, near Lhasa, and at Tashi Lunpo, in Farther -Tibet, respectively. Since that time the abbots of these monasteries -have continued to exercise the sovereignty over Tibet. - - - Constitution of Lamaism. - -As there has been no further change in the doctrine, and no further -reformation in discipline, we may leave the ecclesiastical history of -Lamaism since that date unnoticed, and consider some principal points on -the constitution of the Lamaism of to-day. And first as to the mode of -electing successors to the two Great Lamas. It will have been noticed -that it was an old idea of the northern Buddhists to look upon -distinguished members of the order as incarnations of Avalokitesvara, of -Manju-sri, or of Amitabha. These beings were supposed to possess the -power, whilst they continued to live in heaven, of appearing on earth in -a _Nirmana-kaya_, or apparitional body. In the same way the Pantshen -Lama is looked upon as an incarnation, the Nirmana-kaya, of Amitabha, -who had previously appeared under the outward form of Tshonkapa himself; -and the Dalai Lama is looked upon as an incarnation of Avalokitesvara. -Theoretically, therefore, the former, as the spiritual successor of the -great teacher and also of Amitabha, who occupies the higher place in the -mythology of the Great Vehicle, would be superior to the latter, as the -spiritual representative of Avalokitesvara. But practically the Dalai -Lama, owing to his position in the capital,[3] has the political -supremacy, and is actually called the _Gyalpo Rinpotshe_, "the glorious -king"--his companion being content with the title _Pantshen Rinpotshe_, -"the glorious teacher." When either of them dies it is necessary for the -other to ascertain in whose body the celestial being whose outward form -has been dissolved has been pleased again to incarnate himself. For that -purpose the names of all male children born just after the death of the -deceased Great Lama are laid before his survivor. He chooses three out -of the whole number; their names are thrown into a golden casket -provided for that purpose by a former emperor of China. The Chutuktus, -or abbots of the great monasteries, then assemble, and after a week of -prayer, the lots are drawn in their presence and in presence of the -surviving Great Lama and of the Chinese political resident. The child -whose name is first drawn is the future Great Lama; the other two -receive each of them 500 pieces of silver. The Chutuktus just mentioned -correspond in many respects to the Roman cardinals. Like the Great -Lamas, they bear the title of Rinpotshe or Glorious, and are looked upon -as incarnations of one or other of the celestial Bodhisats of the Great -Vehicle mythology. Their number varies from ten to a hundred; and it is -uncertain whether the honour is inherent in the abbacy of certain of the -greatest cloisters, or whether the Dalai Lama exercises the right of -choosing them. Under these high officials of the Tibetan hierarchy there -come the Chubil Khans, who fill the post of abbot to the lesser -monasteries, and are also incarnations. Their number is very large; -there are few monasteries in Tibet or in Mongolia which do not claim to -possess one of these living Buddhas. Besides these mystical persons -there are in the Tibetan church other ranks and degrees, corresponding -to the deacon, full priest, dean and doctor of divinity in the West. At -the great yearly festival at Lhasa they make in the cathedral an -imposing array, not much less magnificent than that of the clergy in -Rome; for the ancient simplicity of dress has disappeared in the growing -differences of rank, and each division of the spiritual army is -distinguished in Tibet, as in the West, by a special uniform. The -political authority of the Dalai Lama is confined to Tibet itself, but -he is the acknowledged head also of the Buddhist church throughout -Mongolia and China. He has no supremacy over his co-religionists in -Japan, and even in China there are many Buddhists who are not -practically under his control or influence. - - The best work on Lamaism is still Koppen's _Die Lamaische Hierarchie - und Kirche_ (Berlin, 1859). See also Bushell, "The Early History of - Tibet," in the _Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society_, 1879-1880, vol. - xii.; Sanang Setzen's _History of the East Mongols_ (in Mongolian, - translated into German by J. Schmidt, _Geschichte der Ost-Mongolen_); - "Analyse du Kandjur," by M. Leon Feer, in _Annales du Musee Gaimet_ - (1881); Schott, _Ueber den Buddhismus in Hoch-Asien_; Gutzlaff, - _Geschichte des Chinesischen Reiches_; Hue and Gabet, _Souvenirs d'un - voyage dans la Tartarie, le Tibet, et la Chine_ (Paris, 1858); - Pallas's _Sammlung historischer Nachrichten uber die Mongolischen - Volkerschaften_; Babu Sarat Chunder Das's "Contributions on the - Religion and History of Tibet," in the _Journal of the Bengal Asiatic - Society_, 1881; L. A. Waddell, _The Buddhism of Tibet_ (London, 1895); - A. H. Francke, _History of Western Tibet_ (London, 1907); A. - Grunwedel, _Mythologie des Buddhismus in Tibet und der Mongolei_ - (Berlin, 1900). (T. W. R. D.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] Watters's _Yuan Chwang_, edited by Rhys Davids and Bushell, i. - 210, 356, 271. - - [2] Published with facsimile and translation and notes in the - _Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society_ for 1879-1880, vol. xii. - - [3] This statement representing the substantial and historical - position, is retained, in spite of the crises of March 1910, when the - Dalai Lama took refuge from the Chinese in India, and of 1904, when - the British expedition occupied Lhasa and the Dalai Lama fled to - China (see TIBET). - - - - -LAMALOU-LES-BAINS, a watering-place of southern France in the department -of Herault, 53(1/2) m. W. of Montpellier by rail, in a valley of the -southern Cevennes. Pop. (1906) 720. The waters, which are both hot and -cold, are used in cases of rheumatism, sciatica, locomotor ataxy and -nervous maladies. - - - - -LAMA-MIAO, or DOLON-NOR, a city of the province of Chih-li, China, 150 -m. N. of Peking, in a barren sandy plain watered by the Urtingol, a -tributary of the Shang-tu-ko. The town proper, almost exclusively -occupied by Chinese, is about a mile in length by half a mile in -breadth, has narrow and dirty streets, and contains a population of -about 26,000. Unlike the ordinary Chinese town of the same rank, it is -not walled. A busy trade is carried on between the Chinese and the -Mongolians, who bring in their cattle, sheep, camels, hides and wool to -barter for tea, tobacco, cotton and silk. At some distance from the -Chinese town lies the Mongolian quarter, with two groups of lama temples -and villages occupied by about 2300 priests. Dr Williamson (_Journeys in -North China_, 1870) described the chief temple as a huge oblong building -with an interior not unlike a Gothic church. Lama-miao is the seat of a -manufactory of bronze idols and other articles of ritual, which find -their way to all parts of Mongolia and Tibet. The craftsmen work in -their own houses. - - - - -LAMAR, LUCIUS QUINTUS CINCINNATUS (1825-1893), American statesman and -judge, was born at the old "Lamar Homestead," in Putnam county, Georgia, -on the 17th of September 1825. His father, Lucius Q. C. Lamar -(1797-1834), was an able lawyer, a judge of the superior court of -Georgia, and the compiler of the _Laws of Georgia from 1810 to 1819_ -(1821). In 1845 young Lamar graduated from Emory College (Oxford, Ga.), -and in 1847 was admitted to the bar. In 1849 he removed to Oxford, -Mississippi, and in 1850-1852 was adjunct professor of mathematics in -the state university. In 1852 he removed to Covington, Ga., to practise -law, and in 1853 was elected a member of the Georgia House of -Representatives. In 1855 he returned to Mississippi, and two years later -became a member of the National House of Representatives, where he -served until December 1860, when he withdrew to become a candidate for -election to the "secession" convention of Mississippi. He was elected to -the convention, and drafted for it the Mississippi ordinance of -secession. In the summer of 1860 he had accepted an appointment to the -chair of ethics and metaphysics in the university of Mississippi, but, -having been appointed a lieutenant-colonel in the Confederate Army in -the spring of 1861, he resigned his professorship. The colonel of his -regiment (Nineteenth Mississippi) was killed early in the battle of -Williamsburg, on the 5th of May 1862, and the command then fell to -Lamar, but in October he resigned from the army. In November 1862 he was -appointed by President Jefferson Davis special commissioner of the -Confederacy to Russia; but he did not proceed farther than Paris, and -his mission was soon terminated by the refusal of the Confederate Senate -to confirm his appointment. In 1866 he was again appointed to the chair -of ethics and metaphysics in the university of Mississippi, and in the -next year was transferred to the chair of law, but in 1870, Republicans -having become trustees of the university upon the readmission of the -state into the Union, he resigned. From 1873 to 1877 he was again a -Democratic representative in Congress; from 1877 to 1885 he was a United -States senator; from 1885 to January 1888 he was secretary of the -interior; and from 1888 until his death at Macon, Ga., on the 23rd of -January 1893, he was an associate justice of the Supreme Court of the -United States. In Congress Lamar fought the silver and greenback craze -and argued forcibly against the protective tariff; in the department of -the interior he introduced various reforms; and on the Supreme Court -bench his dissenting opinion in the _Neagle Case_ (based upon a denial -that certain powers belonging to Congress, but not exercised, were by -implication vested in the department of justice) is famous. But he is -perhaps best known for the part he took after the Civil War in helping -to effect a reconciliation between the North and the South. During the -early secession movement he strove to arouse the white people of the -South from their indifference, declaring that secession alone could save -them from a doom similar to that of the former whites of San Domingo. He -probably never changed his convictions as to the righteousness of the -"lost cause"; but he accepted the result of the war as a final -settlement of the differences leading to it, and strove to restore the -South in the Union, and to effect the reunion of the nation in feeling -as well as in government. This is in part seen from such speeches as his -eulogy on Charles Sumner (27th of April 1874), his leadership in -reorganizing the Democratic party of his own state, and his counsels of -peace in the disputed presidential election of 1876. - - See Edward Mayes, _Lucius Q. C. Lamar: His Life, Times and Speeches_ - (Nashville, Tenn., 1896). - - - - -LAMARCK, JEAN BAPTISTE PIERRE ANTOINE DE MONET, CHEVALIER DE -(1744-1829), French naturalist, was born on the 1st of August 1744, at -Bazantin, a village of Picardy. He was an eleventh child; and his -father, lord of the manor and of old family, but of limited means, -having placed three sons in the army, destined this one for the church, -and sent him to the Jesuits at Amiens, where he continued till his -father's death. After this he would remain with the Jesuits no longer, -and, not yet seventeen years of age, started for the seat of war at -Bergen-op-Zoom, before which place one of his brothers had already been -killed. Mounted on an old horse, with a boy from the village as -attendant, and furnished by a lady with a letter of introduction to a -colonel, he reached his destination on the evening before a battle. Next -morning the colonel found that the new and very diminutive volunteer had -posted himself in the front rank of a body of grenadiers, and could not -be induced to quit the position. In the battle, the company which he had -joined became exposed to the fire of the enemy's artillery, and in the -confusion of retreat was forgotten. All the officers and subalterns were -killed, and not more than fourteen men were left, when the oldest -grenadiers seeing there were no more French in sight proposed to the -young volunteer so soon become commandant to withdraw his men. This he -refused to do without orders. These at last arrived; and for his bravery -he was made an officer on the spot, and soon after was named to a -lieutenancy. - -After the peace, the regiment was sent to Monaco. There one of his -comrades playfully lifted him by the head, and to this it was imputed -that he was seized with disease of the glands of the neck, so severe as -to put a stop to his military career. He went to Paris and began the -study of medicine, supporting himself by working in a banker's office. -He early became interested in meteorology and in physical and chemical -speculations of a chimerical kind, but happily threw his main strength -into botany, and in 1778 published his _Flore francaise_, a work in -which by a dichotomous system of contrasting characters he enabled the -student with facility to determine species. This work, which went -through several editions and long kept the field, gained for its author -immediate popularity as well as admission to the Academy of Sciences. - -In 1781 and 1782, under the title of botanist to the king, an -appointment obtained for him by Buffon, whose son accompanied him, he -travelled through various countries of Europe, extending his knowledge -of natural history; and on his return he began those elaborate -contributions to botany on which his reputation in that science -principally rests, namely, the _Dictionnaire de Botanique_ and the -_Illustrations de Genres_, voluminous works contributed to the -_Encyclopedie Methodique_ (1785). In 1793, in consequence of changes in -the organization of the natural history department at the Jardin du Roi, -where he had held a botanical appointment since 1788, Lamarck was -presented to a zoological chair, and called on to lecture on the -_Insecta_ and _Vermes_ of Linnaeus, the animals for which he introduced -the term _Invertebrata_. Thus driven, comparatively late in life, to -devote his principal attention to zoology instead of botany, he had the -misfortune soon after to suffer from impaired vision; and the malady -resulted subsequently in total blindness. Yet his greatest zoological -work, the _Histoire naturelle des animaux sans vertebres_, was published -from 1815 to 1822, with the assistance, in the last two volumes, of his -eldest daughter and of P. A. Latreille (1762-1833). A volume of plates -of the fossil shells of the neighbourhood of Paris was collected in 1823 -from his memoirs in the _Annales des Museums_. He died on the 18th of -December 1829. - -The character of Lamarck as a naturalist is remarkable alike for its -excellences and its defects. His excellences were width of scope, -fertility of ideas and a pre-eminent faculty of precise description, -arising not only from a singularly terse style, but from a clear insight -into both the distinctive features and the resemblances of forms. That -part of his zoological work which constitutes his solid claim to the -highest honour as a zoologist is to be found in his extensive and -detailed labours in the departments of living and fossil _Invertebrata_. -His endeavours at classification of the great groups were necessarily -defective on account of the imperfect knowledge possessed in his time in -regard to many of them, e.g. echinoderms, ascidians and intestinal -worms; yet they are not without interest, particularly on account of the -comprehensive attempt to unite in one great division as _Articulata_ all -those groups that appeared to present a segmented construction. -Moreover, Lamarck was the first to distinguish vertebrate from -invertebrate animals by the presence of a vertebral column, and among -the Invertebrata to found the groups _Crustacea_, _Arachnida_ and -_Annelida_. In 1785 (_Hist. del' Acad._) he evinced his appreciation of -the necessity of natural orders in botany by an attempt at the -classification of plants, interesting, though crude and falling -immeasurably short of the system which grew in the hands of his intimate -friend A. L. de Jussieu. The problem of taxonomy has never been put more -philosophically than he subsequently put it in his _Animaux sans -vertebres_: "What arrangement must be given to the general distribution -of animals to make it conformable to the order of nature in the -production of these beings?" - -The most prominent defect in Lamarck must be admitted to have been want -of control in speculation. Doubtless the speculative tendency furnished -a powerful incentive to work, but it outran the legitimate deductions -from observation, and led him into the production of volumes of -worthless chemistry without experimental basis, as well as into spending -much time on fruitless meteorological predictions. His _Annuaires -Meteorologiques_ were published yearly from 1800 to 1810, and were not -discontinued until after an unnecessarily public and brutal tirade from -Napoleon, administered on the occasion of being presented with one of -his works on natural history. - -To the general reader the name of Lamarck is chiefly interesting on -account of his theory of the origin of life and of the diversities of -animal forms. The idea, which appears to have been favoured by Buffon -before him, that species were not through all time unalterable, and that -the more complex might have been developed from pre-existent simpler -forms, became with Lamarck a belief or, as he imagined, a demonstration. -Spontaneous generation, he considered, might be easily conceived as -resulting from such agencies as heat and electricity causing in small -gelatinous bodies an utricular structure, and inducing a "singular -tension," a kind of "erethisme" or "orgasme"; and, having thus accounted -for the first appearance of life, he explained the whole organization of -animals and formation of different organs by four laws (introduction to -his _Histoire naturelle des animaux sans vertebres_, 1815):-- - - 1. "Life by its proper forces tends continually to increase the volume - of every body possessing it, and to enlarge its parts, up to a limit - which it brings about. - - 2. "The production of a new organ in an animal body results from the - supervention of a new want (_besoin_) continuing to make itself felt, - and a new movement which this want gives birth to and encourages. - - 3. "The development of organs and their force of action are constantly - in ratio to the employment of these organs. - - 4. "All which has been acquired, laid down, or changed in the - organization of individuals in the course of their life is conserved - by generation and transmitted to the new individuals which proceed - from those which have undergone those changes." - -The second law is often referred to as Lamarck's hypothesis of the -evolution of organs in animals by appetence or longing, although he does -not teach that the animal's desires affect its conformation directly, -but that altered wants lead to altered habits, which result in the -formation of new organs as well as in modification, growth or dwindling -of those previously existing. Thus, he suggests that, ruminants being -pursued by carnivora, their legs have grown slender; and, their legs -being only fit for support, while their jaws are weak, they have made -attack with the crown of the head, and the determination of fluids -thither has led to the growth of horns. So also the stretching of the -giraffe's neck to reach the foliage he supposes to have led to its -elongation; and the kangaroo, sitting upright to support the young in -its pouch, he imagines to have had its fore-limbs dwarfed by disuse, and -its hind legs and tail exaggerated by using them in leaping. The fourth -law expresses the inheritance of acquired characters, which is denied by -August Weismann and his followers. For a more detailed account of -Lamarck's place in the history of the doctrine of evolution, see -EVOLUTION. - - - - -LA MARGHERITA, CLEMENTE SOLARO, COUNT DEL (1792-1869), Piedmontese -statesman, was born at Mondovi. He studied law at Siena and Turin, but -Piedmont was at that time under French domination, and being devoted to -the house of Savoy he refused to take his degree, as this proceeding -would have obliged him to recognize the authority of the usurper; after -the restoration of the Sardinian kingdom, however, he graduated. In 1816 -he entered the diplomatic service. Later he returned to Turin, and -succeeded in gaining the confidence and esteem of King Charles Albert, -who in 1835 appointed him minister of foreign affairs. A fervent Roman -Catholic, devoted to the pope and to the Jesuits, friendly to Austria -and firmly attached to the principles of autocracy, he strongly opposed -every attempt at political innovation, and was in consequence bitterly -hated by the liberals. When the popular agitation in favour of -constitutional reform first broke out the king felt obliged to dispense -with La Margherita's services, although he had conducted public affairs -with considerable ability and absolute loyalty, even upholding the -dignity of the kingdom in the face of the arrogant attitude of the -cabinet of Vienna. He expounded his political creed and his policy as -minister to Charles Albert (from February 1835 to October 1847) in his -_Memorandum storico-politico_, published in 1851, a document of great -interest for the study of the conditions of Piedmont and Italy at that -time. In 1853 he was elected deputy for San Quirico, but he persisted in -regarding his mandate as derived from the royal authority rather than as -an emanation of the popular will. As leader of the Clerical Right in the -parliament he strongly opposed Cavour's policy, which was eventually to -lead to Italian unity, and on the establishment of the kingdom of Italy -he retired from public life. - - - - -LA MARMORA, ALFONSO FERRERO (1804-1878), Italian general and statesman, -was born at Turin on the 18th of November 1804. He entered the Sardinian -army in 1823, and was a captain in March 1848, when he gained -distinction and the rank of major at the siege of Peschiera. On the 5th -of August 1848 he liberated Charles Albert, king of Sardinia, from the -Milan revolutionaries, and in October was promoted general and appointed -minister of war. After suppressing the revolt of Genoa in 1849, he again -assumed in November 1849 the portfolio of war, which, save during the -period of his command of the Crimean expedition, he retained until 1859. -Having reconstructed the Piedmontese army, he took part in the war of -1859 against Austria; and in July of that year succeeded Cavour in the -premiership. In 1860 he was sent to Berlin and St Petersburg to arrange -for the recognition of the kingdom of Italy, and subsequently he held -the offices of governor of Milan and royal lieutenant at Naples, until, -in September 1864, he succeeded Minghetti as premier. In this capacity -he modified the scope of the September Convention by a note in which he -claimed for Italy full freedom of action in respect of national -aspirations to the possession of Rome, a document of which Visconti -Venosta afterwards took advantage when justifying the Italian occupation -of Rome in 1870. In April 1866 La Marmora concluded an alliance with -Prussia against Austria, and, on the outbreak of war in June, took -command of an army corps, but was defeated at Custozza on the 23rd of -June. Accused of treason by his fellow-countrymen, and of duplicity by -the Prussians, he eventually published in defence of his tactics (1873) -a series of documents entitled _Un po' piu di luce sugli eventi dell' -anno_ 1866 (More light on the events of 1866) a step which caused -irritation in Germany, and exposed him to the charge of having violated -state secrets. Meanwhile he had been sent to Paris in 1867 to oppose the -French expedition to Rome, and in 1870, after the occupation of Rome by -the Italians, had been appointed lieutenant-royal of the new capital. He -died at Florence on the 5th of January 1878. La Marmora's writings -include _Un episodio del risorgimento italiano_ (Florence, 1875); and _I -segreti di stato nel governo constituzionale_ (Florence, 1877). - - See G. Massani, _Il generale Alfonso La Marmora_ (Milan, 1880). - - - - -LAMARTINE, ALPHONSE MARIE LOUIS DE PRAT DE (1790-1869), French poet, -historian and statesman, was born at Macon on the 21st of October 1790. -The order of his surnames is a controversial matter, and they are -sometimes reversed. The family of Lamartine was good, and the title of -Prat was taken from an estate in Franche Comte. His father was -imprisoned during the Terror, and only released owing to the events of -the 9th Thermidor. Lamartine's early education was received from his -mother. He was sent to school at Lyons in 1805, but not being happy -there was transferred to the care of the Peres de la Foi at Belley, -where he remained until 1809. For some time afterwards he lived at home, -reading romantic and poetical literature, but in 1811 he set out for -Italy, where he seems to have sojourned nearly two years. His family -having been steady royalists, he entered the Gardes du corps at the -return of the Bourbons, and during the Hundred Days he sought refuge -first in Switzerland and then at Aix-en-Savoie, where he fell in love, -with abundant results of the poetical kind. After Waterloo he returned -to Paris. In 1818-1819 he revisited Switzerland, Savoy and Italy, the -death of his beloved affording him new subjects for verse. After some -difficulties he had his first book, the _Meditations, poetiques et -religieuses_, published (1820). It was exceedingly popular, and helped -him to make a position. He had left the army for some time; he now -entered the diplomatic service and was appointed secretary to the -embassy at Naples. On his way to his post he married, in 1823, at Geneva -a young English lady, Marianne Birch, who had both money and beauty, and -in the same year his _Nouvelles meditations poetiques_ appeared. - -In 1824 he was transferred to Florence, where he remained five years. -His _Last Canto of Childe Harold_ appeared in 1825, and he had to fight -a duel (in which he was wounded) with an Italian officer, Colonel Pepe, -in consequence of a phrase in it. Charles X., on whose coronation he -wrote a poem, gave him the order of the Legion of Honour. The _Harmonies -poetiques et religieuses_ appeared in 1829, when he had left Florence. -Having refused an appointment in Paris under the Polignac ministry, he -went on a special mission to Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg. In the same -year he was elected to the Academy. Lamartine was in Switzerland, not in -Paris, at the time of the Revolution of July, and, though he put forth a -pamphlet on "Rational Policy," he did not at that crisis take any active -part in politics, refusing, however, to continue his diplomatic services -under the new government. In 1832 he set out with his wife and daughter -for Palestine, having been unsuccessful in his candidature for a seat in -the chamber. His daughter Julia died at Beirut, and before long he -received the news of his election by a constituency (Bergues) in the -department of the Nord. He returned through Turkey and Germany, and made -his first speech shortly after the beginning of 1834. Thereafter he -spoke constantly, and acquired considerable reputation as an -orator,--bringing out, moreover, many books in prose and verse. His -Eastern travels (_Voyage en Orient_) appeared in 1835, his _Chute d'un -ange_ and _Jocelyn_ in 1837, and his _Recueillements_, the last -remarkable volume of his poetry, in 1839. As the reign of Louis Philippe -went on, Lamartine, who had previously been a liberal royalist, -something after the fashion of Chateaubriand, became more and more -democratic in his opinions. He set about his greatest prose work, the -_Histoire des Girondins_, which at first appeared periodically, and was -published as a whole in 1847. Like many other French histories, it was a -pamphlet as well as a chronicle, and the subjects of Lamartine's pen -became his models in politics. - -At the revolution of February Lamartine was one of the first to declare -for a provisional government, and became a member of it, with the post -of minister for foreign affairs. He was elected for the new constituent -assembly in ten different departments, and was chosen one of the five -members of the Executive Committee. For a few months indeed Lamartine, -from being a distinguished man of letters, an official of inferior rank -in diplomacy, and an eloquent but unpractical speaker in parliament, -became one of the foremost men in Europe. His inexperience in the -routine work of government, the utterly unpractical nature of his -colleagues, and the turbulence of the Parisian mob, proved fatal to his -chances. He gave some proofs of statesmanlike ability, and his eloquence -was repeatedly called into requisition to pacify the Parisians. But no -one can permanently carry on the government of a great country by -speeches from the balcony of a house in the capital, and Lamartine found -himself in a dilemma. So long as he held aloof from Ledru-Rollin and the -more radical of his colleagues, the disunion resulting weakened the -government; as soon as he effected an approximation to them the middle -classes fell off from him. The quelling of the insurrection of the 15th -of May was his last successful act. A month later the renewal of active -disturbances brought on the fighting of June, and Lamartine's influence -was extinguished in favour of Cavaignac. Moreover, his chance of renewed -political pre-eminence was gone. He had been tried and found wanting, -having neither the virtues nor the vices of his situation. In January -1849, though he was nominated for the presidency, only a few thousand -votes were given to him, and three months later he was not even elected -to the Legislative Assembly. - -The remaining story of Lamartine's life is somewhat melancholy. He had -never been a rich man, nor had he been a saving one, and during his -period of popularity and office he had incurred great expenses. He now -set to work to repair his fortune by unremitting literary labour. He -brought out in the _Presse_ (1849) a series of _Confidences_, and -somewhat later a kind of autobiography, entitled _Raphael_. He wrote -several historical works of more or less importance, the _History of the -Revolution of 1848_, _The History of the Restoration_, _The History of -Turkey_, _The History of Russia_, besides a large number of small -biographical and miscellaneous works. In 1858 a subscription was opened -for his benefit. Two years afterwards, following the example of -Chateaubriand, he supervised an elaborate edition of his own works in -forty-one volumes. This occupied five years, and while he was engaged on -it his wife died (1863). He was now over seventy; his powers had -deserted him, and even if they had not the public taste had entirely -changed. His efforts had not succeeded in placing him in a position of -independence; and at last, in 1867, the government of the Empire (from -which he had perforce stood aloof, though he never considered it -necessary to adopt the active protesting attitude of Edgar Quinet and -Victor Hugo) came to his assistance, a vote of L20,000 being proposed in -April of that year for his benefit by Emile Ollivier. This was -creditable to both parties, for Lamartine, both as a distinguished man -of letters and as a past servant of the state, had every claim to the -bounty of his country. But he was reproached for accepting it by the -extreme republicans and irreconcilables. He did not enjoy it long, dying -on the 28th of February 1869. - - As a statesman Lamartine was placed during his brief tenure of office - in a position from which it would have been almost impossible for any - man, who was not prepared and able to play the dictator, to emerge - with credit. At no time in history were unpractical crotchets so rife - in the heads of men as in 1848. But Lamartine could hardly have guided - the ship of state safely even in much calmer weather. He was amiable - and even estimable, the chief fault of his character being vanity and - an incurable tendency towards theatrical effect, which makes his - travels, memoirs and other personal records as well as his historical - works radically untrustworthy. Nor does it appear that he had any - settled political ideas. He did good by moderating the revolutionary - and destructive ardour of the Parisian populace in 1848; but he had - been perhaps more responsible than any other single person for - bringing about the events of that year by the vague and frothy - republican declamation of his _Histoire des Girondins_. - - More must be said of his literary position. Lamartine had the - advantage of coming at a time when the literary field, at least in the - departments of belles lettres, was almost empty. The feeble school of - descriptive writers, epic poets of the extreme decadence, fabulists - and miscellaneous verse-makers, which the Empire had nourished could - satisfy no one. Madame de Stael was dead; Chateaubriand, though alive, - was something of a classic, and had not effected a full revolution. - Lamartine did not himself go the complete length of the Romantic - revival, but he went far in that direction. He availed himself of the - reviving interest in legitimism and Catholicism which was represented - by Bonald and Joseph de Maistre, of the nature worship of Rousseau and - Bernardin de Saint Pierre, of the sentimentalism of Madame de Stael, - of the medievalism and the romance of Chateaubriand and Scott, of the - _maladie du siecle_ of Chateaubriand and Byron. Perhaps if his matter - be very closely analysed it will be found that he added hardly - anything of his own. But if the parts of the mixture were like other - things the mixture itself was not. It seemed indeed to the immediate - generation so original that tradition has it that the _Meditations_ - were refused by a publisher because they were in none of the accepted - styles. They appeared when Lamartine was nearly thirty years old. The - best of them, and the best thing that Lamartine ever did, is the - famous _Lac_, describing his return to the little mountain tarn of Le - Bourget after the death of his mistress, with whom he had visited it - in other days. The verse is exquisitely harmonious, the sentiments - conventional but refined and delicate, the imagery well chosen and - gracefully expressed. There is an unquestionable want of vigour, but - to readers of that day the want of vigour was entirely compensated by - the presence of freshness and grace. Lamartine's chief misfortune in - poetry was not only that his note was a somewhat weak one, but that he - could strike but one. The four volumes of the _Meditations_, the - _Harmonies_ and the _Recueillements_, which contained the prime of his - verse, are perhaps the most monotonous reading to be found anywhere in - work of equal bulk by a poet of equal talent. They contain nothing but - meditative lyrical pieces, almost any one of which is typical of the - whole, though there is considerable variation of merit. The two - narrative poems which succeeded the early lyrics, _Jocelyn_ and the - _Chute d'un ange_, were, according to Lamartine's original plan, parts - of a vast "Epic of the Ages," some further fragments of which survive. - _Jocelyn_ had at one time more popularity in England than most French - verse. _La Chute d'un ange_, in which the Byronic influence is more - obvious than in any other of Lamartine's works, and in which some have - also seen that of Alfred de Vigny, is more ambitious in theme, and - less regulated by scrupulous conditions of delicacy in handling, than - most of its author's poetry. It does, however, little more than prove - that such audacities were not for him. - - As a prose writer Lamartine was very fertile. His characteristics in - his prose fiction and descriptive work are not very different from - those of his poetry. He is always and everywhere sentimental, though - very frequently, as in his shorter prose tales (_The Stone Mason of - Saint-Point_, _Graziella_, &c.), he is graceful as well as - sentimental. In his histories the effect is worse. It has been hinted - that Lamartine's personal narratives are doubtfully trustworthy; with - regard to his Eastern travels some of the episodes were stigmatized as - mere inventions. In his histories proper the special motive for - embellishment disappears, but the habit of inaccuracy remains. As an - historian he belongs exclusively to the rhetorical school as - distinguished from the philosophical on the one hand and the - documentary on the other. - - It is not surprising when these characteristics of Lamartine's work - are appreciated to find that his fame declined with singular rapidity - in France. As a poet he had lost his reputation many years before he - died. He was entirely eclipsed by the brilliant and vigorous school - who succeeded him with Victor Hugo at their head. His power of - initiative in poetry was very small, and the range of poetic ground - which he could cover strictly limited. He could only carry the - picturesque sentimentalism of Rousseau, Bernardin de Saint Pierre and - Chateaubriand a little farther, and clothe it in language and verse a - little less antiquated than that of Chenedolle and Millevoye. He has - been said to be a French Cowper, and the parallel holds good in - respect of versification and of his relative position to the more - daringly innovating school that followed, though not in respect of - individual peculiarities. Lamartine in short occupied a kind of - half-way house between the 18th century and the Romantic movement, and - he never got any farther. When Matthew Arnold questioned his - importance in conversation with Sainte-Beuve, the answer was, "He is - important to _us_," and it was a true answer; but the limitation is - obvious. In more recent years, however, efforts have been made by - Brunetiere and others to remove it. The usual revolution of critical - as of other taste, the oblivion of personal and political - unpopularity, and above all the reaction against Hugo and the extreme - Romantics, have been the main agents in this. Lamartine has been - extolled as a pattern of combined passion and restraint, as a model of - nobility of sentiment, and as a harmonizer of pure French classicism - in taste and expression with much, if not all, the better part of - Romanticism itself. These oscillations of opinion are frequent, if not - universal, and it is only after more than one or two swings that the - pendulum remains at the perpendicular. The above remarks are an - attempt to correct extravagance in either direction. But it is - difficult to believe that Lamartine can ever permanently take rank - among the first order of poets. - - The edition mentioned is the most complete one of Lamartine, but there - are many issues of his separate works. After his death some poems and - _Memoires inedits_ of his youth were published, and also two volumes - of correspondence, while in 1893 Mlle V. de Lamartine added a volume - of _Lettres_ to him. The change of views above referred to may be - studied in the detached articles of MM. Brunetiere, Faguet, Lemaitre, - &c., and in the more substantive work of Ch. de Pomairols, _Lamartine_ - (1889); E. Deschanel, _Lamartine_ (1893); E. Zyrowski, _Lamartine_ - (1896); and perhaps best of all in the Preface to Emile Legouis' - Clarendon Press edition of _Jocelyn_ (1906), where a vigorous effort - is made to combat the idea of Lamartine's sentimentality and - femininity as a poet. (G. Sa.) - - - - -LAMB, CHARLES (1775-1834), English essayist and critic, was born in -Crown Office Row, Inner Temple, London, on the 10th of February 1775. -His father, John Lamb, a Lincolnshire man, who filled the situation of -clerk and servant-companion to Samuel Salt, a member of parliament and -one of the benchers of the Inner Temple, was successful in obtaining for -Charles, the youngest of three surviving children, a presentation to -Christ's Hospital, where the boy remained from his eighth to his -fifteenth year (1782-1789). Here he had for a schoolfellow Samuel Taylor -Coleridge, his senior by rather more than two years, and a close and -tender friendship began which lasted for the rest of the lives of both. -When the time came for leaving school, where he had learned some Greek -and acquired considerable facility in Latin composition, Lamb, after a -brief stay at home (probably spent, as his school holidays had often -been, over old English authors in Salt's library) was condemned to the -labours of the desk--"an inconquerable impediment" in his speech -disqualifying him for the clerical profession, which, as the school -exhibitions were usually only given to those preparing for the church, -thus deprived him of the only means by which he could have obtained a -university education. For a short time he was in the office of Joseph -Paice, a London merchant, and then for twenty-three weeks, until the 8th -of February 1792, he held a small post in the Examiner's Office of the -South Sea House, where his brother John was established, a period which, -although his age was but sixteen, was to provide him nearly thirty years -later with materials for the first of the _Essays of Elia_. On the 5th -of April 1792, he entered the Accountant's Office in the East India -House, where during the next three and thirty years the hundred official -folios of what he used to call his true "works" were produced. - -Of the years 1792-1795 we know little. At the end of 1794 he saw much of -Coleridge and joined him in writing sonnets in the _Morning Post_, -addressed to eminent persons: early in 1795 he met Southey and was much -in the company of James White, whom he probably helped in the -composition of the _Original Letters of Sir John Falstaff_; and at the -end of the year for a short time he became so unhinged mentally as to -necessitate confinement in an asylum. The cause, it is probable, was an -unsuccessful love affair with Ann Simmons, the Hertfordshire maiden to -whom his first sonnets are addressed, whom he would have seen when on -his visits as a youth to Blakesware House, near Widford, the country -home of the Plumer family, of which Lamb's grandmother, Mary Field, was -for many years, until her death in 1792, sole custodian. - -It was in the late summer of 1796 that a dreadful calamity came upon the -Lambs, which seemed to blight all Lamb's prospects in the very morning -of life. On the 22nd of September his sister Mary, "worn down to a state -of extreme nervous misery by attention to needlework by day and to her -mother at night," was suddenly seized with acute mania, in which she -stabbed her mother to the heart. The calm self-mastery and loving -self-renunciation which Charles Lamb, by constitution excitable, nervous -and self-mistrustful, displayed at this crisis in his own history and in -that of those nearest him, will ever give him an imperishable claim to -the reverence and affection of all who are capable of appreciating the -heroisms of common life. With the help of friends he succeeded in -obtaining his sister's release from the lifelong restraint to which she -would otherwise have been doomed, on the express condition that he -himself should undertake the responsibility for her safe keeping. It -proved no light charge: for though no one was capable of affording a -more intelligent or affectionate companionship than Mary Lamb during her -periods of health, there was ever present the apprehension of the -recurrence of her malady; and when from time to time the premonitory -symptoms had become unmistakable, there was no alternative but her -removal, which took place in quietness and tears. How deeply the whole -course of Lamb's domestic life must have been affected by his singular -loyalty as a brother needs not to be pointed out. - -Lamb's first appearance as an author was made in the year of the great -tragedy of his life (1796), when there were published in the volume of -_Poems on Various Subjects_ by Coleridge four sonnets by "Mr Charles -Lamb of the India House." In the following year he contributed, with -Charles Lloyd, a pupil of Coleridge, some pieces in blank verse to the -second edition of Coleridge's _Poems_. In 1797 his short summer holiday -was spent with Coleridge at Nether Stowey, where he met the Wordsworths, -William and Dorothy, and established a friendship with both which only -his own death terminated. In 1798, under the influence of Henry -Mackenzie's novel _Julie de Roubigne_, he published a short and pathetic -prose tale entitled _Rosamund Gray_, in which it is possible to trace -beneath disguised conditions references to the misfortunes of the -author's own family, and many personal touches; and in the same year he -joined Lloyd in a volume of _Blank Verse_, to which Lamb contributed -poems occasioned by the death of his mother and his aunt Sarah Lamb, -among them being his best-known lyric, "The Old Familiar Faces." In this -year, 1798, he achieved the unexpected publicity of an attack by the -_Anti-Jacobin_ upon him as an associate of Coleridge and Southey (to -whose _Annual Anthology_ he had contributed) in their Jacobin -machinations. In 1799, on the death of her father, Mary Lamb came to -live again with her brother, their home then being in Pentonville; but -it was not until 1800 that they really settled together, their first -independent joint home being at Mitre Court Buildings in the Temple, -where they lived until 1809. At the end of 1801, or beginning of 1802, -appeared Lamb's first play _John Woodvil_, on which he set great store, -a slight dramatic piece written in the style of the earlier Elizabethan -period and containing some genuine poetry and happy delineation of the -gentler emotions, but as a whole deficient in plot, vigour and -character; it was held up to ridicule by the _Edinburgh Review_ as a -specimen of the rudest condition of the drama, a work by "a man of the -age of Thespis." The dramatic spirit, however, was not thus easily -quenched in Lamb, and his next effort was a farce, _Mr H----_, the point -of which lay in the hero's anxiety to conceal his name "Hogsflesh"; but -it did not survive the first night of its appearance at Drury Lane, in -December 1806. Its author bore the failure with rare equanimity and good -humour--even to joining in the hissing--and soon struck into new and -more successful fields of literary exertion. Before, however, passing to -these it should be mentioned that he made various efforts to earn money -by journalism, partly by humorous articles, partly as dramatic critic, -but chiefly as a contributor of sarcastic or funny paragraphs, "sparing -neither man nor woman," in the _Morning Post_, principally in 1803. - -In 1807 appeared _Tales founded on the Plays of Shakespeare_, written by -Charles and Mary Lamb, in which Charles was responsible for the -tragedies and Mary for the comedies; and in 1808, _Specimens of English -Dramatic Poets who lived about the time of Shakespeare_, with short but -felicitous critical notes. It was this work which laid the foundation of -Lamb's reputation as a critic, for it was filled with imaginative -understanding of the old playwrights, and a warm, discerning and novel -appreciation of their great merits. In the same year, 1808, Mary Lamb, -assisted by her brother, published _Poetry for Children_, and a -collection of short school-girl tales under the title _Mrs Leicester's -School_; and to the same date belongs _The Adventures of Ulysses_, -designed by Lamb as a companion to _The Adventures of Telemachus_. In -1810 began to appear Leigh Hunt's quarterly periodical, _The Reflector_, -in which Lamb published much (including the fine essays on the tragedies -of Shakespeare and on Hogarth) that subsequently appeared in the first -collective edition of his _Works_, which he put forth in 1818. - -Between 1811, when _The Reflector_ ceased, and 1820, he wrote almost -nothing. In these years we may imagine him at his most social period, -playing much whist and entertaining his friends on Wednesday or Thursday -nights; meanwhile gathering that reputation as a conversationalist or -inspirer of conversation in others, which Hazlitt, who was at one time -one of Lamb's closest friends, has done so much to celebrate. When in -1818 appeared the _Works_ in two volumes, it may be that Lamb considered -his literary career over. Before coming to 1820, and an event which was -in reality to be the beginning of that career as it is generally -known--the establishment of the _London Magazine_--it should be recorded -that in the summer of 1819 Lamb, with his sister's full consent, -proposed marriage to Fanny Kelly, the actress, who was then in her -thirtieth year. Miss Kelly could not accept, giving as one reason her -devotion to her mother. Lamb bore the rebuff with characteristic humour -and fortitude. - -The establishment of the _London Magazine_ in 1820 stimulated Lamb to -the production of a series of new essays (the _Essays of Elia_) which -may be said to form the chief corner-stone in the small but classic -temple of his fame. The first of these, as it fell out, was a -description of the old South Sea House, with which Lamb happened to have -associated the name of a "gay light-hearted foreigner" called Elia, who -was a clerk in the days of his service there. The pseudonym adopted on -this occasion was retained for the subsequent contributions, which -appeared collectively in a volume of essays called _Elia_, in 1823. -After a career of five years the _London Magazine_ came to an end; and -about the same period Lamb's long connexion with the India House -terminated, a pension of L450 (L441 net) having been assigned to him. -The increased leisure, however, for which he had long sighed, did not -prove favourable to literary production, which henceforth was limited to -a few trifling contributions to the _New Monthly_ and other serials, and -the excavation of gems from the mass of dramatic literature bequeathed -to the British Museum by David Garrick, which Lamb laboriously read -through in 1827, an occupation which supplied him for a time with the -regular hours of work he missed so much. The malady of his sister, which -continued to increase with ever shortening intervals of relief, broke in -painfully on his lettered ease and comfort; and it is unfortunately -impossible to ignore the deteriorating effects of an over-free -indulgence in the use of alcohol, and, in early life, tobacco, on a -temperament such as his. His removal on account of his sister to the -quiet of the country at Enfield, by tending to withdraw him from the -stimulating society of the large circle of literary friends who had -helped to make his weekly or monthly "at homes" so remarkable, doubtless -also tended to intensify his listlessness and helplessness. One of the -brightest elements in the closing years of his life was the friendship -and companionship of Emma Isola, whom he and his sister had adopted, and -whose marriage in 1833 to Edward Moxon, the publisher, though a source -of unselfish joy to Lamb, left him more than ever alone. While living at -Edmonton, whither he had moved in 1833 so that his sister might have the -continual care of Mr and Mrs Walden, who were accustomed to patients of -weak intellect, Lamb was overtaken by an attack of erysipelas brought on -by an accidental fall as he was walking on the London road. After a few -days' illness he died on the 27th of December, 1834. The sudden death of -one so widely known, admired and beloved, fell on the public as well as -on his own attached circle with all the poignancy of a personal calamity -and a private grief. His memory wanted no tribute that affection could -bestow, and Wordsworth commemorated in simple and solemn verse the -genius, virtues and fraternal devotion of his early friend. - -Charles Lamb is entitled to a place as an essayist beside Montaigne, Sir -Thomas Browne, Steele and Addison. He unites many of the characteristics -of each of these writers--refined and exquisite humour, a genuine and -cordial vein of pleasantry and heart-touching pathos. His fancy is -distinguished by great delicacy and tenderness; and even his conceits -are imbued with human feeling and passion. He had an extreme and almost -exclusive partiality for earlier prose writers, particularly for Fuller, -Browne and Burton, as well as for the dramatists of Shakespeare's time; -and the care with which he studied them is apparent in all he ever -wrote. It shines out conspicuously in his style, which has an antique -air and is redolent of the peculiarities of the 17th century. Its -quaintness has subjected the author to the charge of affectation, but -there is nothing really affected in his writings. His style is not so -much an imitation as a reflexion of the older writers; for in spirit he -made himself their contemporary. A confirmed habit of studying them in -preference to modern literature had made something of their style -natural to him; and long experience had rendered it not only easy and -familiar but habitual. It was not a masquerade dress he wore, but the -costume which showed the man to most advantage. With thought and meaning -often profound, though clothed in simple language, every sentence of his -essays is pregnant. - -He played a considerable part in reviving the dramatic writers of the -Shakesperian age; for he preceded Gifford and others in wiping the dust -of ages from their works. In his brief comments on each specimen he -displays exquisite powers of discrimination: his discernment of the true -meaning of his author is almost infallible. His work was a departure in -criticism. Former editors had supplied textual criticism and alternative -readings: Lamb's object was to show how our ancestors felt when they -placed themselves by the power of imagination in trying situations, in -the conflicts of duty or passion or the strife of contending duties; -what sorts of loves and enmities theirs were. - -As a poet Lamb is not entitled to so high a place as that which can be -claimed for him as essayist and critic. His dependence on Elizabethan -models is here also manifest, but in such a way as to bring into all the -greater prominence his native deficiency in "the accomplishment of -verse." Yet it is impossible, once having read, ever to forget the -tenderness and grace of such poems as "Hester," "The Old Familiar -Faces," and the lines "On an infant dying as soon as born" or the quaint -humour of "A Farewell to Tobacco." As a letter writer Lamb ranks very -high, and when in a nonsensical mood there is none to touch him. - - Editions and memoirs of Lamb are numerous. The _Letters_, with a - sketch of his life by Sir Thomas Noon Talfourd, appeared in 1837; the - _Final Memorials of Charles Lamb_ by the same hand, after Mary Lamb's - death, in 1848; Barry Cornwall's _Charles Lamb: A Memoir_, in 1866. Mr - P. Fitzgerald's _Charles Lamb: his Friends, his Haunts and his Books_ - (1866); W. Carew Hazlitt's _Mary and Charles Lamb_ (1874). Mr - Fitzgerald and Mr Hazlitt have also both edited the _Letters_, and Mr - Fitzgerald brought Talfourd to date with an edition of Lamb's works in - 1870-1876. Later and fuller editions are those of Canon Ainger in 12 - volumes, Mr Macdonald in 12 volumes and Mr E. V. Lucas in 7 volumes, - to which in 1905 was added _The Life of Charles Lamb_, in 2 volumes. - (E. V. L.) - - - - -LAMB (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. _Lamm_), the young -of sheep. The Paschal Lamb or Agnus Dei is used as a symbol of Jesus -Christ, the Lamb of God (John i. 29), and "lamb," like "flock," is often -used figuratively of the members of a Christian church or community, -with an allusion to Jesus' charge to Peter (John xxi. 15). The "lamb and -flag" is an heraldic emblem, the dexter fore-leg of the lamb supporting -a staff bearing a banner charged with the St George's cross. This was -one of the crests of the Knights Templars, used on seals as early as -1241; it was adopted as a badge or crest by the Middle Temple, the Inner -Temple using another crest of the Templars, the winged horse or Pegasus. -The old Tangier regiment, now the Queen's Royal West Surrey Regiment, -bore a Paschal Lamb as its badge. From their colonel, Percy Kirke -(q.v.), they were known as Kirke's Lambs. The exaggerated reputation of -the regiment for brutality, both in Tangier and in England after -Sedgmoor, lent irony to the nickname. - - - - -LAMBALLE, MARIE THERESE LOUISE OF SAVOY-CARIGNANO, PRINCESSE DE -(1749-1792), fourth daughter of Louis Victor of Carignano (d. 1774) -(great-grandfather of King Charles Albert of Sardinia), and of Christine -Henriette of Hesse-Rheinfels-Rothenburg, was born at Turin on the 8th of -September 1749. In 1767 she was married to Louis Alexandre Stanislaus de -Bourbon, prince of Lamballe, son of the duke of Penthievre, a grandson -of Louis XIV.'s natural son the count of Toulouse. Her husband dying the -following year, she retired with her father-in-law to Rambouillet, where -she lived until the marriage of the dauphin, when she returned to court. -Marie Antoinette, charmed by her gentle and naive manners, singled her -out for a companion and confidante. The impetuous character of the -dauphiness found in Madame de Lamballe that submissive temperament which -yields to force of environment, and the two became fast friends. After -her accession Marie Antoinette, in spite of the king's opposition, had -her appointed superintendent of the royal household. Between 1776 and -1785 the comtesse de Polignac succeeded in supplanting her; but when the -queen tired of the avarice of the Polignacs, she turned again to Madame -de Lamballe. From 1785 to the Revolution she was Marie Antoinette's -closest friend and the pliant instrument of her caprices. She came with -the queen to the Tuileries and as her salon served as a meeting-place -for the queen and the members of the Assembly whom she wished to gain -over, the people believed her to be the soul of all the intrigues. After -a visit to England in 1791 to appeal for help for the royal family she -made her will and returned to the Tuileries, where she continued her -services to the queen until the 10th of August, when she shared her -imprisonment in the Temple. On the 19th of August she was transferred to -La Force, and having refused to take the oath against the monarchy, she -was on the 3rd of September delivered over to the fury of the populace, -after which her head was placed on a pike and carried before the windows -of the queen. - - See George Bertin, _Madame de Lamballe_ (Paris, 1888); Austin Dobson, - _Four Frenchwomen_ (1890); B. C. Hardy, _Princesse de Lamballe_ - (1908); Comte de Lescure, _La Princesse de Lamballe ... d'apres des - documents inedits_ (1864); some letters of the princess published by - Ch. Schmidt in _La Revolution francaise_ (vol. xxxix., 1900); L. - Lambeau, _Essais sur la mort de madame la princesse de Lamballe_ - (1902); Sir F. Montefiore, _The Princesse de Lamballe_ (1896). _The - Secret Memoirs of the Royal Family of France ... now first published - from the Journal, Letters and Conversations of the Princesse de - Lamballe_ (London, 2 vols., 1826) have since appeared in various - editions in English and in French. They are attributed to Catherine - Hyde, Marchioness Govion-Broglio-Solari, and are apocryphal. - - - - -LAMBALLE, a town of north-western France, in the department of -Cotes-du-Nord, on the Gouessant 13 m. E.S.E. of St Brieuc by rail. Pop. -(1906) 4347. Crowning the eminence on which the town is built is a -beautiful Gothic church (13th and 14th centuries), once the chapel of -the castle of the counts of Penthievre. La Noue, the famous Huguenot -leader, was mortally wounded in 1591 in the siege of the castle, which -was dismantled in 1626 by Richelieu. Of the other buildings, the church -of St Martin (11th, 15th and 16th centuries) is the chief. Lamballe has -an important _haras_ (depot for stallions) and carries on trade in -grain, tanning and leather-dressing; earthenware is manufactured in the -environs. Lamballe was the capital of the territory of the counts of -Penthievre, who in 1569 were made dukes. - - - - -LAMBAYEQUE, a coast department of northern Peru, bounded N. by Piura, E. -and S. by Cajamarca and Libertad. Area, 4614 sq. m. Pop. (1906 estimate) -93,070. It belongs to the arid region of the coast, and is settled along -the river valleys where irrigation is possible. It is one of the chief -sugar-producing departments of Peru, and in some valleys, especially -near Ferrenafe, rice is largely produced. Four railways connect its -principal producing centres with the small ports of Eten and Pimentel, -viz.: Eten to Ferrenafe, 27 m.; Eten to Cayalti, 23 m.; Pimentel to -Lambayeque, 15 m.; and Chiclayo to Patapo, 15 m. The principal towns are -Chiclayo, the departmental capital, with a population (1906 estimate) of -10,500, Ferrenafe 6000, and Lambayeque 4500. - - - - -LAMBEAUX, JEF (JOSEPH MARIE THOMAS), (1852-1908), Belgian sculptor, was -born at Antwerp. He studied at the Antwerp Academy of Fine Arts, and was -a pupil of Jean Geefs. His first work, "War," was exhibited in 1871, and -was followed by a long series of humorous groups, including "Children -dancing," "Say 'Good Morning,'" "The Lucky Number" and "An Accident" -(1875). He then went to Paris, where he executed for the Belgian salons -"The Beggar" and "The Blind Pauper," and produced "The Kiss" (1881), -generally regarded as his masterpiece. After visiting Italy, where he -was much impressed by the works of Jean Bologne, he showed a strong -predilection for effects of force and motion. Other notable works are -his fountain at Antwerp (1886), "Robbing the Eagle's Eyrie" (1890), -"Drunkenness" (1893), "The Triumph of Woman," "The Bitten Faun" (which -created a great stir at the Exposition Universelle at Liege in 1905), -and "The Human Passions," a colossal marble bas-relief, elaborated from -a sketch exhibited in 1889. Of his numerous busts may be mentioned those -of Hendrik Conscience, and of Charles Bals, the burgomaster of Brussels. -He died on the 6th of June 1908. - - - - -LAMBERMONT, AUGUSTE, BARON (1819-1905), Belgian statesman, was born at -Dion-le-Val in Brabant on the 25th of March 1819. He came of a family of -small farmer proprietors, who had held land during three centuries. He -was intended for the priesthood and entered the seminary of Floreffe, -but his energies claimed a more active sphere. He left the monastery for -Louvain University. Here he studied law, and also prepared himself for -the military examinations. At that juncture the first Carlist war broke -out, and Lambermont hastened to the scene of action. His services were -accepted (April 1838) and he was entrusted with the command of two small -cannon. He also acted as A.D.C. to Colonel Durando. He greatly -distinguished himself, and for his intrepidity on one occasion he was -decorated with the Cross of the highest military Order of St Ferdinand. -Returning to Belgium he entered the Ministry for Foreign Affairs in -1842. He served in this department sixty-three years. He was closely -associated with several of the most important questions in Belgian -history during the last half of the 19th century--notably the freeing of -the Scheldt. He was one of the very first Belgians to see the importance -of developing the trade of their country, and at his own request he was -attached to the commercial branch of the foreign office. The tolls -imposed by the Dutch on navigation on the Scheldt strangled Belgian -trade, for Antwerp was the only port of the country. The Dutch had the -right to make this levy under treaties going back to the treaty of -Munster in 1648, and they clung to it still more tenaciously after -Belgium separated herself in 1830-1831 from the united kingdom of the -Netherlands--the London conference in 1839 fixing the toll payable to -Holland at 1.50 florins (3s.) per ton. From 1856 to 1863 Lambermont -devoted most of his energies to the removal of this impediment. In 1856 -he drew up a plan of action, and he prosecuted it with untiring -perseverance until he saw it embodied in an international convention -seven years later. Twenty-one powers and states attended a conference -held on the question at Brussels in 1863, and on the 15th of July the -treaty freeing the Scheldt was signed. For this achievement Lambermont -was made a baron. Among other important conferences in which Lambermont -took a leading part were those of Brussels (1874) on the usages of war, -Berlin (1884-1885) on Africa and the Congo region, and Brussels (1890) -on Central African Affairs and the Slave Trade. He was joint reporter -with Baron de Courcel of the Berlin conference in 1884-1885, and on -several occasions he was chosen as arbitrator by one or other of the -great European powers. But his great achievement was the freeing of the -Scheldt, and in token of its gratitude the city of Antwerp erected a -fine monument to his memory. He died on the 7th of March 1905. - - - - -LAMBERT, DANIEL (1770-1809), an Englishman famous for his great size, -was born near Leicester on the 13th of March 1770, the son of the keeper -of the jail, to which post he succeeded in 1791. About this time his -size and weight increased enormously, and though he had led an active -and athletic life he weighed in 1793 thirty-two stone (448 lb.). In 1806 -he resolved to profit by his notoriety, and resigning his office went up -to London and exhibited himself. He died on the 21st of July 1809, and -at the time measured 5 ft. 11 in. in height and weighed 52(3/4) stone -(739 lb.). His waistcoat, now in the Kings Lynn Museum, measures 102 in. -round the waist. His coffin contained 112 ft. of elm and was built on -wheels. His name has been used as a synonym for immensity. George -Meredith describes London as the "Daniel Lambert of cities," and Herbert -Spencer uses the phrase "a Daniel Lambert of learning." His enormous -proportions were depicted on a number of tavern signs, but the best -portrait of him, a large mezzotint, is preserved at the British Museum -in Lyson's _Collectanea_. - - - - -LAMBERT, FRANCIS (c. 1486-1530), Protestant reformer, was the son of a -papal official at Avignon, where he was born between 1485 and 1487. At -the age of 15 he entered the Franciscan monastery at Avignon, and after -1517 he was an itinerant preacher, travelling through France, Italy and -Switzerland. His study of the Scriptures shook his faith in Roman -Catholic theology, and by 1522 he had abandoned his order, and became -known to the leaders of the Reformation in Switzerland and Germany. He -did not, however, identify himself either with Zwinglianism or -Lutheranism; he disputed with Zwingli at Zurich in 1522, and then made -his way to Eisenach and Wittenberg, where he married in 1523. He -returned to Strassburg in 1524, being anxious to spread the doctrines of -the Reformation among the French-speaking population of the -neighbourhood. By the Germans he was distrusted, and in 1526 his -activities were prohibited by the city of Strassburg. He was, however, -befriended by Jacob Sturm, who recommended him to the Landgraf Philip of -Hesse, the most liberal of the German reforming princes. With Philip's -encouragement he drafted that scheme of ecclesiastical reform for which -he is famous. Its basis was essentially democratic and congregational, -though it provided for the government of the whole church by means of a -synod. Pastors were to be elected by the congregation, and the whole -system of canon-law was repudiated. This scheme was submitted by Philip -to a synod at Homburg; but Luther intervened and persuaded the Landgraf -to abandon it. It was far too democratic to commend itself to the -Lutherans, who had by this time bound the Lutheran cause to the support -of princes rather than to that of the people. Philip continued to favour -Lambert, who was appointed professor and head of the theological faculty -in the Landgraf's new university of Marburg. Patrick Hamilton (q.v.), -the Scottish martyr, was one of his pupils; and it was at Lambert's -instigation that Hamilton composed his _Loci communes_, or _Patrick's -Pleas_ as they were popularly called in Scotland. Lambert was also one -of the divines who took part in the great conference of Marburg in 1529; -he had long wavered between the Lutheran and the Zwinglian view of the -Lord's Supper, but at this conference he definitely adopted the -Zwinglian view. He died of the plague on the 18th of April 1530, and was -buried at Marburg. - - A catalogue of Lambert's writings is given in Haag's _La France - protestante_. See also lives of Lambert by Baum (Strassburg, 1840); F. - W. Hessencamp (Elberfeld, 1860), Stieve (Breslau, 1867) and Louis - Ruffet (Paris, 1873); Lorimer, _Life of Patrick Hamilton_ (1857); A. - L. Richter, _Die evangelischen Kirchenordnungen des 16. Jahrh_. - (Weimar, 1846); Hessencamp, _Hessische Kirchenordnungen im Zeitalter - der Reformation_; Philip of _Hesse's Correspondence with Bucer_, ed. - M. Lenz; Lindsay, _Hist. Reformation_; _Allgemeine deutsche - Biographie_. (A. F. P.) - - - - -LAMBERT, JOHANN HEINRICH (1728-1777), German physicist, mathematician -and astronomer, was born at Mulhausen, Alsace, on the 26th of August -1728. He was the son of a tailor; and the slight elementary instruction -he obtained at the free school of his native town was supplemented by -his own private reading. He became book-keeper at Montbeliard ironworks, -and subsequently (1745) secretary to Professor Iselin, the editor of a -newspaper at Basel, who three years later recommended him as private -tutor to the family of Count A. von Salis of Coire. Coming thus into -virtual possession of a good library, Lambert had peculiar opportunities -for improving himself in his literary and scientific studies. In 1759, -after completing with his pupils a tour of two years' duration through -Gottingen, Utrecht, Paris, Marseilles and Turin, he resigned his -tutorship and settled at Augsburg. Munich, Erlangen, Coire and Leipzig -became for brief successive intervals his home. In 1764 he removed to -Berlin, where he received many favours at the hand of Frederick the -Great and was elected a member of the Royal Academy of Sciences of -Berlin, and in 1774 edited the Berlin _Ephemeris_. He died of -consumption on the 25th of September 1777. His publications show him to -have been a man of original and active mind with a singular facility in -applying mathematics to practical questions. - -His mathematical discoveries were extended and overshadowed by his -contemporaries. His development of the equation x^m + px = q in an -infinite series was extended by Leonhard Euler, and particularly by -Joseph Louis Lagrange. In 1761 he proved the irrationality of [pi]; a -simpler proof was given somewhat later by Legendre. The introduction of -hyperbolic functions into trigonometry was also due to him. His -geometrical discoveries are of great value, his _Die freie Perspective_ -(1759-1774) being a work of great merit. Astronomy was also enriched by -his investigations, and he was led to several remarkable theorems on -conics which bear his name. The most important are: (1) To express the -time of describing an elliptic arc under the Newtonian law of -gravitation in terms of the focal distances of the initial and final -points, and the length of the chord joining them. (2) A theorem relating -to the apparent curvature of the geocentric path of a comet. - - Lambert's most important work, _Pyrometrie_ (Berlin, 1779), is a - systematic treatise on heat, containing the records and full - discussion of many of his own experiments. Worthy of special notice - also are _Photometria_ (Augsburg, 1760), _Insigniores orbitae - cometarum proprietates_ (Augsburg, 1761), and _Beitrage zum Gebrauche - der Mathematik und deren Anwendung_ (4 vols., Berlin, 1765-1772). - - The _Memoirs_ of the Berlin Academy from 1761 to 1784 contain many of - his papers, which treat of such subjects as resistance of fluids, - magnetism, comets, probabilities, the problem of three bodies, - meteorology, &c. In the _Acta Helvetica_ (1752-1760) and in the _Nova - acta erudita_ (1763-1769) several of his contributions appear. In - Bode's _Jahrbuch_ (1776-1780) he discusses nutation, aberration of - light, Saturn's rings and comets; in the _Nova acta Helvetica_ (1787) - he has a long paper "Sur le son des corps elastiques," in Bernoulli - and Hindenburg's _Magazin_ (1787-1788) he treats of the roots of - equation and of parallel lines; and in Hindenburg's _Archiv_ - (1798-1799) he writes on optics and perspective. Many of these pieces - were published posthumously. Recognized as among the first - mathematicians of his day, he was also widely known for the - universality and depth of his philological and philosophical - knowledge. The most valuable of his logical and philosophical memoirs - were published collectively in 2 vols. (1782). - - See Huber's _Lambert nach seinem Leben und Wirken_; M. Chasles, - _Geschichte der Geometrie_; and Baensch, Lamberts _Philosophie und - seine Stellung zu Kant_ (1902). - - - - -LAMBERT [_alias_ NICHOLSON], JOHN (d. 1538), English Protestant martyr, -was born at Norwich and educated at Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. -and was admitted in 1521 a fellow of Queen's College on the nomination -of Catherine of Aragon. After acting for some years as a "mass-priest," -his views were unsettled by the arguments of Bilney and Arthur; and -episcopal persecution compelled him, according to his own account, to -assume the name Lambert instead of Nicholson. He likewise removed to -Antwerp, where he became chaplain to the English factory, and formed a -friendship with Frith and Tyndale. Returning to England in 1531, he came -under the notice of Archbishop Warham, who questioned him closely on his -religious beliefs. Warham's death in August 1532 relieved Lambert from -immediate danger, and he earned a living for some years by teaching -Latin and Greek near the Stocks Market in London. The duke of Norfolk -and other reactionaries accused him of heresy in 1536, but reforming -tendencies were still in the ascendant, and Lambert escaped. In 1538, -however, the reaction had begun, and Lambert was its first victim. He -singled himself out for persecution by denying the Real Presence: and -Henry VIII., who had just rejected the Lutheran proposals for a -theological union, was in no mood to tolerate worse heresies. Lambert -had challenged some views expressed by Dr John Taylor, afterwards bishop -of Lincoln; and Cranmer as archbishop condemned Lambert's opinions. He -appealed to the king as supreme head of the Church, and on the 16th of -November Henry heard the case in person before a large assembly of -spiritual and temporal peers. For five hours Lambert disputed with the -king and ten bishops; and then, as he boldly denied that the Eucharist -was the body of Christ, he was condemned to death by Cromwell as -vicegerent. Henry's condescension and patience produced a great -impression on his Catholic subjects; but Cromwell is said by Foxe to -have asked Lambert's pardon before his execution, and Cranmer eventually -adopted the views he condemned in Lambert. Lambert was burnt at -Smithfield on the 22nd of November. - - See _Letters and Papers of Henry VIII._; Foxe's _Acts and Monuments_; - Froude, _History_; Dixon, _Church History_; Gairdner, _Lollardy and - the Reformation_, _Dict. of Nat. Biog._ and authorities there cited. - (A. F. P.) - - - - -LAMBERT, JOHN (1619-1694), English general in the Great Rebellion, was -born at Calton Hall, Kirkby Malham, in the West Riding of Yorkshire. His -family was of ancient lineage, and long settled in the county. He -studied law, but did not make it his profession. In 1639 he married -Frances, daughter of Sir William Lister. At the opening of the Civil War -he took up arms for the parliament, and in September 1642 was appointed -a captain of horse in the army commanded by Ferdinando, Lord Fairfax. A -year later he had become colonel of a regiment of horse, and he -distinguished himself at the siege of Hull in October, 1643. Early in -1644 he did good service at the battles of Nantwich and Bradford. At -Marston Moor Lambert's own regiment was routed by the charge of Goring's -horse; but he cut his way through with a few troops and joined Cromwell -on the other side of the field. When the New Model army was formed in -the beginning of 1645, Colonel Lambert was appointed to succeed Fairfax -in command of the northern forces. General Poyntz, however, soon -replaced him, and under this officer he served in the Yorkshire campaign -of 1645, receiving a wound before Pontefract. In 1646 he was given a -regiment in the New Model, serving with Fairfax in the west of England, -and he was a commissioner, with Cromwell and others, for the surrender -of Oxford in the same year. "It is evident," says C. H. Firth (_Dict. -Nat. Biog._), "that he was from the first regarded as an officer of -exceptional capacity and specially selected for semi-political -employments." - -When the quarrel between the army and the parliament began, Lambert -threw himself warmly into the army's cause. He assisted Ireton in -drawing up the several addresses and remonstrances issued by the army, -both men having had some experience in the law, and being "of a subtle -and working brain." Early in August 1647 Lambert was sent by Fairfax as -major-general to take charge of the forces in the northern counties. His -wise and just managing of affairs in those parts is commended by -Whitelocke. He suppressed a mutiny among his troops, kept strict -discipline and hunted down the moss-troopers who infested the moorland -country. - -When the Scottish army under the marquis of Hamilton invaded England in -the summer of 1648, Lambert was engaged in suppressing the Royalist -rising in his district. The arrival of the Scots obliged him to retreat; -but Lambert displayed the greatest energy and did not cease to harass -the invaders till Cromwell came up from Wales and with him destroyed the -Scottish army in the three days' fighting from Preston to Warrington. -After the battle Lambert's cavalry headed the chase, pursuing the -defeated army _a outrance_, and finally surrounded it at Uttoxeter, -where Hamilton surrendered to Lambert on the 25th of August. He then led -the advance of Cromwell's army into Scotland, where he was left in -charge on Cromwell's return. From December 1648 to March 1649 he was -engaged in the siege of Pontefract Castle; Lambert was thus absent from -London at the time of Pride's Purge and the trial and execution of the -king. - -When Cromwell was appointed to the command of the war in Scotland (July -1650), Lambert went with him as major-general and second in command. He -was wounded at Musselburgh, but returned to the front in time to take a -conspicuous share in the victory of Dunbar. He himself defeated the -"Protesters" or "Western Whigs" at Hamilton, on the 1st of December -1650. In July 1651 he was sent into Fife to get in the rear and flank of -the Scottish army near Falkirk, and force them to decisive action by -cutting off their supplies. This mission, in the course of which Lambert -won an important victory at Inverkeithing, was executed with entire -success, whereupon Charles II., as Lambert had foreseen, made for -England. For the events of the Worcester campaign, which quickly -followed, see GREAT REBELLION. Lambert's part in the general plan was -carried out most brilliantly, and in the crowning victory of Worcester -he commanded the right wing of the English army, and had his horse shot -under him. Parliament now conferred on him a grant of lands in Scotland -worth L1000 per annum. - -In October 1651 Lambert was made a commissioner to settle the affairs of -Scotland, and on the death of Ireton he was appointed lord deputy of -Ireland (January 1652). He accepted the office with pleasure, and made -magnificent preparations; parliament, however, soon afterwards -reconstituted the Irish administration and Lambert refused to accept -office on the new terms. Henceforward he began to oppose the Rump. In -the council of officers he headed the party desiring representative -government, as opposed to Harrison who favoured a selected oligarchy of -"God-fearing" men, but both hated what remained of the Long parliament, -and joined in urging Cromwell to dissolve it by force. At the same time -Lambert was consulted by the parliamentary leaders as to the possibility -of dismissing Cromwell from his command, and on the 15th of March 1653 -Cromwell refused to see him, speaking of him contemptuously as -"bottomless Lambert." On the 20th of April, however, Lambert accompanied -Cromwell when he dismissed the council of state, on the same day as the -forcible expulsion of the parliament. Lambert now favoured the formation -of a small executive council, to be followed by an elective parliament -whose powers should be limited by a written instrument of government. -Being at this time the ruling spirit in the council of state, and the -idol of the army, there were some who looked on him as a possible rival -of Cromwell for the chief executive power, while the royalists for a -short time had hopes of his support. He was invited, with Cromwell, -Harrison and Desborough, to sit in the nominated parliament of 1653; and -when the unpopularity of that assembly increased, Cromwell drew nearer -to Lambert. In November 1653 Lambert presided over a meeting of -officers, when the question of constitutional settlement was discussed, -and a proposal made for the forcible expulsion of the nominated -parliament. On the 1st of December he urged Cromwell to assume the title -of king, which the latter refused. On the 12th the parliament resigned -its powers into Cromwell's hands, and on the 13th Lambert obtained the -consent of the officers to the Instrument of Government (q.v.), in the -framing of which he had taken a leading part. He was one of the seven -officers nominated to seats in the council created by the Instrument. In -the foreign policy of the protectorate he was the most clamorous of -those who called for alliance with Spain and war with France in 1653, -and he firmly withstood Cromwell's design for an expedition to the West -Indies. - -In the debates in parliament on the Instrument of Government in 1654 -Lambert proposed that the office of protector should be made hereditary, -but was defeated by a majority which included members of Cromwell's -family. In the parliament of this year, and again in 1656, Lord Lambert, -as he was now styled, sat as member for the West Riding. He was one of -the major-generals appointed in August 1655 to command the militia in -the ten districts into which it was proposed to divide England, and who -were to be responsible for the maintenance of order and the -administration of the law in their several districts. Lambert took a -prominent part in the committee of council which drew up instructions to -the major-generals, and he was probably the originator, and certainly -the organizer, of the system of police which these officers were to -control. Gardiner conjectures that it was through divergence of opinion -between the protector and Lambert in connexion with these "instructions" -that the estrangement between the two men began. At all events, although -Lambert had himself at an earlier date requested Cromwell to take the -royal dignity, when the proposal to declare Oliver king was started in -parliament (February 1657) he at once declared strongly against it. A -hundred officers headed by Fleetwood and Lambert waited on the -protector, and begged him to put a stop to the proceedings. Lambert was -not convinced by Cromwell's arguments, and their complete estrangement, -personal as well as political, followed. On his refusal to take the oath -of allegiance to the protector, Lambert was deprived of his commissions, -receiving, however, a pension of L2000 a year. He retired to his garden -at Wimbledon, and appeared no more in public during Oliver Cromwell's -lifetime; but shortly before his death Cromwell sought a reconciliation, -and Lambert and his wife visited him at Whitehall. - -When Richard Cromwell was proclaimed protector his chief difficulty lay -with the army, over which he exercised no effective control. Lambert, -though holding no military commission, was the most popular of the old -Cromwellian generals with the rank and file of the army, and it was very -generally believed that he would instal himself in Oliver's seat of -power. Richard's adherents tried to conciliate him, and the royalist -leaders made overtures to him, even proposing that Charles II. should -marry Lambert's daughter. Lambert at first gave a lukewarm support to -Richard Cromwell, and took no part in the intrigues of the officers at -Fleetwood's residence, Wallingford House. He was a member of the -parliament which met in January 1659, and when it was dissolved in April -under compulsion of Fleetwood and Desborough, he was restored to his -commands. He headed the deputation to Lenthall in May inviting the -return of the Rump, which led to the tame retirement of Richard Cromwell -into obscurity; and he was appointed a member of the committee of safety -and of the council of state. When the parliament, desirous of -controlling the power of the army, withheld from Fleetwood the right of -nominating officers, Lambert was named one of a council of seven charged -with this duty. The parliament's evident distrust of the soldiers caused -much discontent in the army; while the entire absence of real authority -encouraged the royalists to make overt attempts to restore Charles II., -the most serious of which, under Sir George Booth and the earl of Derby, -was crushed by Lambert near Chester on the 19th of August. He promoted a -petition from his army that Fleetwood might be made lord-general and -himself major-general. The republican party in the House took offence. -The Commons (October 12th, 1659) cashiered Lambert and other officers, -and retained Fleetwood as chief of a military council under the -authority of the speaker. On the next day Lambert caused the doors of -the House to be shut and the members kept out. On the 26th a "committee -of safety" was appointed, of which he was a member. He was also -appointed major-general of all the forces in England and Scotland, -Fleetwood being general. Lambert was now sent with a large force to meet -Monk, who was in command of the English forces in Scotland, and either -negotiate with him or force him to terms. Monk, however, set his army in -motion southward. Lambert's army began to melt away, and he was kept in -suspense by Monk till his whole army fell from him and he returned to -London almost alone. Monk marched to London unopposed. The "excluded" -Presbyterian members were recalled. Lambert was sent to the Tower (March -3rd, 1660), from which he escaped a month later. He tried to rekindle -the civil war in favour of the Commonwealth, but was speedily recaptured -and sent back to the Tower (April 24th). On the Restoration he was -exempted from danger of life by an address of both Houses to the king, -but the next parliament (1662) charged him with high treason. -Thenceforward for the rest of his life Lambert remained in custody in -Guernsey. He died in 1694. - - Lambert would have left a better name in history if he had been a - cavalier. His genial, ardent and excitable nature, easily raised and - easily depressed, was more akin to the royalist than to the puritan - spirit. Vain and sometimes overbearing, as well as ambitious, he - believed that Cromwell could not stand without him; and when Cromwell - was dead, he imagined himself entitled and fitted to succeed him. Yet - his ambition was less selfish than that of Monk. Lambert is accused of - no ill faith, no want of generosity, no cold and calculating policy. - As a soldier he was far more than a fighting general and possessed - many of the qualities of a great general. He was, moreover, an able - writer and speaker, and an accomplished negotiator and took pleasure - in quiet and domestic pursuits. He learnt his love of gardening from - Lord Fairfax, who was also his master in the art of war. He painted - flowers, besides cultivating them, and incurred the blame of Mrs - Hutchinson by "dressing his flowers in his garden and working at the - needle with his wife and his maids." He made no special profession of - religion; but no imputation is cast upon his moral character by his - detractors. It has been said that he became a Roman Catholic before - his death. - - - - -LAMBERT OF HERSFELD (d. c. 1088), German chronicler, was probably a -Thuringian by birth and became a monk in the Benedictine abbey of -Hersfeld in 1058. As he was ordained priest at Aschaffenburg he is -sometimes called Lambert of Aschaffenburg, or Schafnaburg. He made a -pilgrimage to the Holy Land, and visited various monasteries of his -order; but he is famous as the author of some _Annales_. From the -creation of the world until about 1040 these _Annales_ are a jejune copy -of other annals, but from 1040 to their conclusion in 1077 they are -interesting for the history of Germany and the papacy. The important -events during the earlier part of the reign of the emperor Henry IV., -including the visit to Canossa and the battle of Hohenburg, are vividly -described. Their tone is hostile to Henry IV. and friendly to the -papacy; their Latin style is excellent. The _Annales_ were first -published in 1525 and are printed in the _Monumenta Germaniae -historica_, Bande iii. and v. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826 fol.). Formerly -Lambert's reputation for accuracy and impartiality was very high, but -both qualities have been somewhat discredited. - - Lambert is also regarded as the author of the _Historia - Hersfeldensis_, the extant fragments of which are published in Band v. - of the _Monumenta_ of a _Vita Lulli_, Lullus, archbishop of Mainz, - being the founder of the abbey of Hersfeld; and of a _Carmen de bello - Saxonico_. His _Opera_ have been edited with an introduction by O. - Holder-Egger (Hanover, 1894). - - See H. Delbruck, _Uber die Glaubwurdigkeit Lamberts von Hersfeld_ - (Bonn, 1873); A. Eigenbrodt, _Lampert von Hersfeld und die neuere - Quellenforschung_ (Cassel, 1896); L. von Ranke, _Zur Kritik - frankisch-deutscher Reichsannalisten_ (Berlin, 1854); W. Wattenbach, - _Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen_ Band ii. (Berlin, 1906) and A. - Potthast, _Bibliotheca Historica_ (Berlin, 1896). - - - - -LAMBESSA, the ancient Lambaesa, a village of Algeria, in the -arrondissement of Batna and department of Constantine, 7 m. S.E. of -Batna and 17 W. of Timgad. The modern village, the centre of an -agricultural colony founded in 1848, is noteworthy for its great convict -establishment (built about 1850). The remains of the Roman town, and -more especially of the Roman camp, in spite of wanton vandalism, are -among the most interesting ruins in northern Africa. They are now -preserved by the _Service des Monuments historiques_ and excavations -have resulted in many interesting discoveries. The ruins are situated on -the lower terraces of the Jebel Aures, and consist of triumphal arches -(one to Septimius Severus, another to Commodus), temples, aqueducts, -vestiges of an amphitheatre, baths and an immense quantity of masonry -belonging to private houses. To the north and east lie extensive -cemeteries with the stones standing in their original alignments; to the -west is a similar area, from which, however, the stones have been -largely removed for building the modern village. Of the temple of -Aesculapius only one column is standing, though in the middle of the -19th century its facade was entire. The capitol or temple dedicated to -Jupiter, Juno and Minerva, which has been cleared of debris, has a -portico with eight columns. On level ground about two-thirds of a mile -from the centre of the ancient town stands the camp, its site now partly -occupied by the penitentiary and its gardens. It measures 1640 ft. N. to -S. by 1476 ft. E. to W., and in the middle rise the ruins of a building -commonly called, but incorrectly, the praetorium. This noble building, -which dates from A.D. 268, is 92 ft. long by 66 ft. broad and 49 ft. -high; its southern facade has a splendid peristyle half the height of -the wall, consisting of a front row of massive Ionic columns and an -engaged row of Corinthian pilasters. Behind this building (which was -roofed), is a large court giving access to other buildings, one being -the arsenal. In it have been found many thousands of projectiles. To the -S.E. are the remains of the baths. The ruins of both city and camp have -yielded many inscriptions (Renier edited 1500, and there are 4185 in the -_Corpus Inscr. Lat._ vol. viii.); and, though a very large proportion -are epitaphs of the barest kind, the more important pieces supply an -outline of the history of the place. Over 2500 inscriptions relating to -the camp have been deciphered. In a museum in the village are objects of -antiquity discovered in the vicinity. Besides inscriptions, statues, -&c., are some fine mosaics found in 1905 near the arch of Septimius -Severus. The statues include those of Aesculapius and Hygieia, taken -from the temple of Aesculapius. - - Lambaesa was a military foundation. The camp of the third legion - (Legio III. Augusta), to which it owes its origin, appears to have - been established between A.D. 123 and 129, in the time of Hadrian, - whose address to his soldiers was found inscribed on a pillar in a - second camp to the west of the great camp still extant. By 166 mention - is made of the decurions of a vicus, 10 curiae of which are known by - name; and the vicus became a municipium probably at the time when it - was made the capital of the newly founded province of Numidia. The - legion was removed by Gordianus, but restored by Valerianus and - Gallienus; and its final departure did not take place till after 392. - The town soon afterwards declined. It never became the seat of a - bishop, and no Christian inscriptions have been found among the ruins. - - About 2 m. S. of Lambessa are the ruins of Markuna, the ancient - Verecunda, including two triumphal arches. - - See S. Gsell, _Les Monuments antiques de l'Algerie_ (Paris, 1901) and - _L'Algerie dans l'antiquite_ (Algiers, 1903); L. Renier, _Inscriptions - romaines de l'Algerie_ (Paris, 1855); Gustav Wilmann, "Die rom. - Lagerstadt Afrikas," in _Commentationes phil. in honorem Th. Mommseni_ - (Berlin, 1877); Sir L. Playfair, _Travels in the Footsteps of Bruce_ - (London, 1877); A. Graham, _Roman Africa_ (London, 1902). - - - - -LAMBETH, a southern metropolitan borough of London, England, bounded -N.W. by the river Thames, N.E. by Southwark, E. by Camberwell and W. by -Wandsworth and Battersea, and extending S. to the boundary of the county -of London. Pop. (1901) 301,895. The name is commonly confined to the -northern part of the borough, bordering the river; but the principal -districts included are Kennington and Vauxhall (north central), Brixton -(central) and part of Norwood (south). Four road-bridges cross the -Thames within the limits of the borough, namely Waterloo, Westminster, -Lambeth and Vauxhall, of which the first, a fine stone structure, dates -from 1817, and is the oldest Thames bridge standing within the county of -London. The main thoroughfare runs S. from Westminster Bridge Road as -Kennington Road, continuing as Brixton Road and Brixton Hill, Clapham -Road branching S.W. from it at Kennington. Several thoroughfares also -converge upon Vauxhall Bridge, and from a point near this down to -Westminster Bridge the river is bordered by the fine Albert Embankment. - -Early records present the name _Lamb-hythe_ in various forms. The suffix -is common along the river in the meaning of a haven, but the prefix is -less clear; a Saxon word signifying mud is suggested. Brixton and -Kennington are mentioned in Domesday; and in Vauxhall is concealed the -name of Falkes de Breaute, an unscrupulous adventurer of the time of -John and Henry III. exiled in 1225. The manor of North Lambeth was given -to the bishopric of Rochester in the time of Edward the Confessor, and -the bishops had a house here till the 16th century. They did not, -however, retain the manor beyond the close of the 12th century, when it -was acquired by the see of Canterbury. The palace of the archbishops is -still here, and forms, with the parish church, a picturesque group of -buildings, lying close to the river opposite the majestic Houses of -Parliament, and to some extent joining with them to make of this reach -of the Thames one of the finest prospects in London. The oldest part of -the palace remaining is the Early English chapel. The so-called -Lollard's Tower, which retains evidence of its use as a prison, dates c. -1440. There is a fine Tudor gatehouse of brick, and the hall is dated -1663. The portion now inhabited by the archbishops was erected in 1834 -and fronts a spacious quadrangle. Among the portraits of the archbishops -here are examples by Holbein, Van Dyck, Hogarth and Reynolds. There is a -valuable library. The church of St Mary was rebuilt c. 1850, though the -ancient monuments preserved give it an appearance of antiquity. Here are -tombs of some of the archbishops, including Bancroft (d. 1610), and of -the two Tradescants, collectors, and a memorial to Elias Ashmole, whose -name is preserved in the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford University, to which -he presented the collections of his friend the younger Tradescant (d. -1662). In the present Westminster Bridge Road was a circus, well known -in the later 18th and early 19th centuries as Astley's, and near -Vauxhall Bridge were the celebrated Vauxhall Gardens. - - The principal modern pleasure grounds are Kennington Park (20 acres), - and Brockwell Park (127 acres) south of Brixton, and near the southern - end of Kennington Road is Kennington Oval, the ground of the Surrey - County Cricket Club, the scene of its home matches and of other - important fixtures. Among institutions the principal is St Thomas' - Hospital, the extensive buildings of which front the Albert - Embankment. The original foundation dated from 1213, was situated in - Southwark, and was connected with the priory of Bermondsey. The - existing buildings, subsequently enlarged, were opened in 1871, are - divided into a series of blocks, and include a medical school. Other - hospitals are the Royal, for children and women, Waterloo Road, the - Lying-in Hospital, York Road, and the South-western fever hospital in - Stockwell. There are technical institutes in Brixton and Norwood; and - on Brixton Hill is Brixton Prison. In the northern part of the borough - are numerous factories, including the great Doulton pottery works. The - parliamentary borough of Lambeth has four divisions, North, - Kennington, Brixton and Norwood, each returning one member. The - borough council consists of a mayor, 10 aldermen and 60 councillors. - Area, 4080.4 acres. - - - - -LAMBETH CONFERENCES, the name given to the periodical assemblies of -bishops of the Anglican Communion (Pan-Anglican synods), which since -1867 have met at Lambeth Palace, the London residence of the archbishop -of Canterbury. The idea of these meetings was first suggested in a -letter to the archbishop of Canterbury by Bishop Hopkins of Vermont in -1851, but the immediate impulse came from the colonial Church in Canada. -In 1865 the synod of that province, in an urgent letter to the -archbishop of Canterbury (Dr Longley), represented the unsettlement of -members of the Canadian Church caused by recent legal decisions of the -Privy Council, and their alarm lest the revived action of Convocation -"should leave us governed by canons different from those in force in -England and Ireland, and thus cause us to drift into the status of an -independent branch of the Catholic Church." They therefore requested him -to call a "national synod of the bishops of the Anglican Church at home -and abroad," to meet under his leadership. After consulting both houses -of the Convocation of Canterbury, Archbishop Longley assented, and -convened all the bishops of the Anglican Communion (then 144 in number) -to meet at Lambeth in 1867. Many Anglican bishops (amongst them the -archbishop of York and most of his suffragans) felt so doubtful as to -the wisdom of such an assembly that they refused to attend it, and Dean -Stanley declined to allow Westminster Abbey to be used for the closing -service, giving as his reasons the partial character of the assembly, -uncertainty as to the effect of its measures and "the presence of -prelates not belonging to our Church." Archbishop Longley said in his -opening address, however, that they had no desire to assume "the -functions of a general synod of all the churches in full communion with -the Church of England," but merely to "discuss matters of practical -interest, and pronounce what we deem expedient in resolutions which may -serve as safe guides to future action." Experience has shown how -valuable and wise this course was. The resolutions of the Lambeth -Conferences have never been regarded as synodical decrees, but their -weight has increased with each conference. Apprehensions such as those -which possessed the mind of Dean Stanley have long passed away. - -Seventy-six bishops accepted the primate's invitation to the first -conference, which met at Lambeth on the 24th of September 1867, and sat -for four days, the sessions being in private. The archbishop opened the -conference with an address: deliberation followed; committees were -appointed to report on special questions; resolutions were adopted, and -an encyclical letter was addressed to the faithful of the Anglican -Communion. Each of the subsequent conferences has been first received in -Canterbury cathedral and addressed by the archbishop from the chair of -St Augustine. It has then met at Lambeth, and after sitting for five -days for deliberation upon the fixed subjects and appointment of -committees, has adjourned, to meet again at the end of a fortnight and -sit for five days more, to receive reports, adopt resolutions and to put -forth the encyclical letter. - - I. _First Conference_ (September 24-28, 1867), convened and presided - over by Archbishop Longley. The proposed order of subjects was - entirely altered in view of the Colenso case, for which urgency was - claimed; and most of the time was spent in discussing it. Of the - thirteen resolutions adopted by the conference, two have direct - reference to this case; the rest have to do with the creation of new - sees and missionary jurisdictions, commendatory letters, and a - "voluntary spiritual tribunal" in cases of doctrine and the due - subordination of synods. The reports of the committees were not ready, - and were carried forward to the conference of 1878. - - II. _Second Conference_ (July 2-27, 1878), convened and presided over - by Archbishop Tait. On this occasion no hesitation appears to have - been felt; 100 bishops were present, and the opening sermon was - preached by the archbishop of York. The reports of the five special - committees (based in part upon those of the committee of 1867) were - embodied in the encyclical letter, viz. on the best mode of - maintaining union, voluntary boards of arbitration, missionary bishops - and missionaries, continental chaplains and the report of a committee - on difficulties submitted to the conference. - - III. _Third Conference_ (July 3-27, 1888), convened and presided over - by Archbishop Benson; 145 bishops present; the chief subject of - consideration being the position of communities which do not possess - the historic episcopate. In addition to the encyclical letter, - nineteen resolutions were put forth, and the reports of twelve special - committees are appended upon which they are based, the subjects being - intemperance, purity, divorce, polygamy, observance of Sunday, - socialism, care of emigrants, mutual relations of dioceses of the - Anglican Communion, home reunion, Scandinavian Church, Old Catholics, - &c., Eastern Churches, standards of doctrine and worship. Perhaps the - most important of these is the famous "Lambeth Quadrilateral," which - laid down a fourfold basis for home reunion--the Holy Scriptures, the - Apostles' and Nicene creeds, the two sacraments ordained by Christ - himself and the historic episcopate. - - IV. _Fourth Conference_ (July 5-31, 1897), convened by Archbishop - Benson, presided over by Archbishop Temple; 194 bishops present. One - of the chief subjects for consideration was the creation of a - "tribunal of reference"; but the resolutions on this subject were - withdrawn, owing, it is said, to the opposition of the American - bishops, and a more general resolution in favour of a "consultative - body" was substituted. The encyclical letter is accompanied by - sixty-three resolutions (which include careful provision for - provincial organization and the extension of the title "archbishop" to - all metropolitans, a "thankful recognition of the revival of - brotherhoods and sisterhoods, and of the office of deaconess," and a - desire to promote friendly relations with the Eastern Churches and the - various Old Catholic bodies), and the reports of the eleven committees - are subjoined. - - V. _Fifth Conference_ (July 6-August 5, 1908), convened by Archbishop - Randall Davidson, who presided; 241 bishops were present. The chief - subjects of discussion were: the relations of faith and modern - thought, the supply and training of the clergy, education, foreign - missions, revision and "enrichment" of the Prayer-Book, the relation - of the Church to "ministries of healing" (Christian Science, &c.), the - questions of marriage and divorce, organization of the Anglican - Church, reunion with other Churches. The results of the deliberations - were embodied in seventy-eight resolutions, which were appended to the - encyclical issued, in the name of the conference, by the Archbishop of - Canterbury on the 8th of August. - - The fifth Lambeth conference, following as it did close on the great - Pan-Anglican congress, is remarkable mainly as a proof of the growth - of the influence and many-sided activity of the Anglican Church, and - as a conspicuous manifestation of her characteristic principles. Of - the seventy-eight resolutions none is in any sense epoch-making, and - their spirit is that of the traditional Anglican _via media_. In - general they are characterized by a firm adherence to the fundamental - articles of Catholic orthodoxy, tempered by a tolerant attitude - towards those not of "the household of the faith." The report of the - committee on faith and modern thought is "a faithful attempt to show - how the claim of our Lord Jesus Christ, which the Church is set to - present to each generation, may, under the characteristic conditions - of our time, best command allegiance." On the question of education - (Res. 11-19) the conference reaffirmed strongly the necessity for - definite Christian teaching in schools, "secular systems" being - condemned as "educationally as well as morally unsound, since they - fail to co-ordinate the training of the whole nature of the child" - (Res. 11). The resolutions on questions affecting foreign missions - (20-26) deal with e.g. the overlapping of episcopal jurisdictions (22) - and the establishment of Churches on lines of race or colour, which is - condemned (20). The resolutions on questions of marriage and divorce - (37-43) reaffirm the traditional attitude of the Church; it is, - however, interesting to note that the resolution (40) deprecating the - remarriage in church of the innocent party to a divorce was carried - only by eighty-seven votes to eighty-four. In resolutions 44 to 53 the - conference deals with the duty of the Church towards modern democratic - ideals and social problems; affirms the responsibility of investors - for the character and conditions of the concerns in which their money - is placed (49); "while frankly acknowledging the moral gains sometimes - won by war" strongly supports the extension of international - arbitration (52); and emphasizes the duty of a stricter observance of - Sunday (53). On the question of reunion, the ideal of corporate unity - was reaffirmed (58). It was decided to send a deputation of bishops - with a letter of greeting to the national council of the Russian - Church about to be assembled (60) and certain conditions were laid - down for inter-communion with certain of the Churches of the Orthodox - Eastern Communion (62) and the "ancient separated Churches of the - East" (63-65). Resolution 67 warned Anglicans from contracting - marriages, under actual conditions, with Roman Catholics. By - resolution 68 the conference stated its desire to "maintain and - strengthen the friendly relations" between the Churches of the - Anglican Communion and "the ancient Church of Holland" (Jansenist, see - UTRECHT) and the old Catholic Churches; and resolutions 70-73 made - elaborate provisions for a projected corporate union between the - Anglican Church and the _Unitas Fratrum_ (Moravian Brethren). As to - "home reunion," however, it was made perfectly clear that this would - only be possible "on lines suggested by such precedents as those of - 1610," i.e. by the Presbyterian Churches accepting the episcopal - model. So far as the organization of the Anglican Church is concerned, - the most important outcome of the conference was the reconstruction of - the Central Consultative Body on representative lines (54-56); this - body to consist of the archbishop of Canterbury and seventeen bishops - appointed by the various Churches of the Anglican Communion throughout - the world. A notable feature of the conference was the presence of the - Swedish bishop of Kalmar, who presented a letter from the archbishop - of Upsala, as a tentative advance towards closer relations between the - Anglican Church and the Evangelical Church of Sweden. - - See Archbishop R. T. Davidson, _The Lambeth Conferences of 1867, 1878 - and 1888_ (London, 1896); _Conference of Bishops of the Anglican - Communion, Encyclical Letter_, &c. (London, 1897 and 1908). - - - - -LAMBINUS, DIONYSIUS, the Latinized name of DENIS LAMBIN (1520-1572), -French classical scholar, born at Montreuil-sur-mer in Picardy. Having -devoted several years to classical studies during a residence in Italy, -he was invited to Paris in 1650 to fill the professorship of Latin in -the College de France, which he soon afterwards exchanged for that of -Greek. His lectures were frequently interrupted by his ill-health and -the religious disturbances of the time. His death (September 1572) is -said to have been caused by his apprehension that he might share the -fate of his friend Peter Ramus (Pierre de la Ramee), who had been killed -in the massacre of St Bartholomew. Lambinus was one of the greatest -scholars of his age, and his editions of classical authors are still -useful. In textual criticism he was a conservative, but by no means a -slavish one; indeed, his opponents accused him of rashness in -emendation. His chief defect is that he refers vaguely to his MSS. -without specifying the source of his readings, so that their relative -importance cannot be estimated. But his commentaries, with their wealth -of illustration and parallel passages, are a mine of information. In the -opinion of the best scholars, he preserved the happy mean in his -annotations, although his own countrymen have coined the word _lambiner_ -to express trifling and diffuseness. - - His chief editions are: Horace (1561); Lucretius (1564), on which see - H. A. J. Munro's preface to his edition; Cicero (1566); Cornelius - Nepos (1569); Demosthenes (1570), completing the unfinished work of - Guillaume Morel; Plautus (1576). - - See Peter Lazer, _De Dionysio Lambino narratio_, printed in Orelli's - _Onomasticon Tullianum_ (i. 1836), and _Trium disertissimorum virorum - praefationes ac epistolae familiares aliquot: Mureti, Lambini, Regii_ - (Paris, 1579); also Sandys, _Hist. of Classical Scholarship_ (1908, - ii. 188), and A. Horawitz in Ersch and Gruber's _Allgemeine - Encyclopadie_. - - - - -LAMBOURN, a market town in the Newbury parliamentary division of -Berkshire, England, 65 m. W. of London, the terminus of the Lambourn -Valley light railway from Newbury. Pop. (1901) 2071. It lies high up the -narrow valley of the Lambourn, a tributary of the Kennet famous for its -trout-fishing, among the Berkshire Downs. The church of St Michael is -cruciform and principally late Norman, but has numerous additions of -later periods and has been considerably altered by modern restoration. -The inmates of an almshouse founded by John Estbury, _c._ 1500, by his -desire still hold service daily at his tomb in the church. A -Perpendicular market-cross stands without the church. The town has -agricultural trade, but its chief importance is derived from large -training stables in the neighbourhood. To the north of the town is a -large group of _tumuli_ known as the Seven Barrows, ascertained by -excavation to be a British burial-place. - - - - -LAMECH [Hebrew: Lemech], the biblical patriarch, appears in each of the -antediluvian genealogies, Gen. iv. 16-24 J., and Gen. v. P. In the -former he is a descendant of Cain, and through his sons the author of -primitive civilization; in the latter he is the father of Noah. But it -is now generally held that these two genealogies are variant adaptations -of the Babylonian list of primitive kings (see ENOCH). It is doubtful -whether Lamech is to be identified with the name of any one of these -kings; he may have been introduced into the genealogy from another -tradition. - -In the older narrative in Gen. iv. Lamech's family are the originators -of various advances in civilization; he himself is the first to marry -more than one wife, 'Adah ("ornament," perhaps specially "dawn") and -Zillah ("shadow"). He has three sons Jabal, Jubal, and Tubal, the -last-named qualified by the addition of Cain (= "smith"[1]). The -assonance of these names is probably intentional, cf. the brothers Hasan -and Hosein of early Mahommedan history. Jabal institutes the life of -nomadic shepherds, Jubal is the inventor of music, Tubal-Cain the first -smith. Jabal and Jubal may be forms of a root used in Hebrew and -Phoenician for ram and ram's horn (i.e. trumpet), and underlying our -"jubilee." Tubal may be the eponymous ancestor of the people of that -name mentioned in Ezekiel in connexion with "vessels of bronze."[2] All -three names are sometimes derived from [Hebrew: yuval] in the sense of -offspring, so that they would be three different words for "son," and -there are numerous other theories as to their etymology. Lamech has also -a daughter Naamah ("gracious," "pleasant," "comely"; cf. No'man, a name -of the deity Adonis). This narrative clearly intends to account for the -origin of these various arts as they existed in the narrator's time; it -is not likely that he thought of these discoveries as separated from his -own age by a universal flood; nor does the tone of the narrative suggest -that the primitive tradition thought of these pioneers of civilization -as members of an accursed family. Probably the passage was originally -independent of the document which told of Cain and Abel and of the -Flood; Jabal may be a variant of Abel. An ancient poem is connected with -this genealogy: - - "Adah and Zillah, hear my voice; - Ye wives of Lamech, give ear unto my speech. - I slay a man for a wound, - A young man for a stroke; - For Cain's vengeance is sevenfold, - But Lamech's seventy-fold and seven." - -In view of the connexion, the poem is interpreted as expressing Lamech's -exultation at the advantage he expects to derive from Tubal-Cain's new -inventions; the worker in bronze will forge for him new and formidable -weapons, so that he will be able to take signal vengeance for the least -injury. But the poem probably had originally nothing to do with the -genealogy. It may have been a piece of folk-song celebrating the prowess -of the tribe of Lamech; or it may have had some relation to a story of -Cain and Abel in which Cain was a hero and not a villain. - -The genealogy in Gen. v. belongs to the Priestly Code, _c._ 450 B.C., -and may be due to a revision of ancient tradition in the light of -Babylonian archaeology. It is noteworthy that according to the numbers -in the Samaritan MSS. Lamech dies in the year of the Flood. - - The origin of the name Lamech and its original meaning are doubtful. - It was probably the name of a tribe or deity, or both. According to C. - J. Ball,[3] Lamech is an adaptation of the Babylonian _Lamga_, a title - of Sin the moon god, and synonymous with _Ubara_ in the name - Ubara-Tutu, the Otiartes of Berossus, who is the ninth of the ten - primitive Babylonian kings, and the father of the hero of the - Babylonian flood story, just as Lamech is the ninth patriarch, and the - father of Noah. Spurrell[4] states that Lamech cannot be explained - from the Hebrew, but may possibly be connected with the Arabic - _yalmakun_, "a strong young man." - - Outside of Genesis, Lamech is only mentioned in the Bible in 1 Chron. - i. 3, Luke iii. 36. Later Jewish tradition expanded and interpreted - the story in its usual fashion. (W. H. Be.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] The text of Gen. iv. 22 is partly corrupt; and it is possible - that the text used by the Septuagint did not contain Cain. - - [2] Gen. x. 2, Ezek. xxvii. 13. - - [3] _Genesis_, in Haupt's _Sacred Books of the Old Testament_ on iv. - 19, cf. also the notes on 20-22, for Lamech's family. The - identification of Lamech with _Lamga_ is also suggested by Sayce, - _Expository Times_, vii. 367. Cf. also Cheyne, "Cainites" in _Encyc. - Biblica_. - - [4] _Notes on the Hebrew Text of Genesis, in loco._ - - - - -LAMEGO, a city of northern Portugal, in the district of Vizeu and -formerly included in the province of Beira; 6 m. by road S. of the river -Douro and 42 m. E. of Oporto. Pop. (1900) 9471. The nearest railway -station is Peso da Regoa, on the opposite side of the Douro and on the -Barca d'Alva-Oporto railway. Lamego is an ancient and picturesque city, -in the midst of a beautiful mountain region. Its principal buildings are -the 14th-century Gothic cathedral, Moorish citadel, Roman baths and a -church which occupies the site of a mosque, and, though intrinsically -commonplace, is celebrated in Portugal as the seat of the legendary -cortes of 1143 or 1144 (see PORTUGAL, _History_). The principal -industries are viticulture and the rearing of swine, which furnish the -so-called "Lisbon hams." Lamego was a Moorish frontier fortress of some -importance in the 9th and 10th centuries. It was captured in 1057 by -Ferdinand I. of Castile and Leon. - - - - -LAMELLIBRANCHIA (Lat. _lamella_, a small or thin plate, and Gr. [Greek: -branchia], gills), the fourth of the five classes of animals -constituting the phylum Mollusca (q.v.). The Lamellibranchia are mainly -characterized by the rudimentary condition of the head, and the -retention of the primitive bilateral symmetry, the latter feature being -accentuated by the lateral compression of the body and the development -of the shell as two bilaterally symmetrical plates or valves covering -each one side of the animal. The foot is commonly a simple cylindrical -or ploughshare-shaped organ, used for boring in sand and mud, and more -rarely presents a crawling disk similar to that of Gastropoda; in some -forms it is aborted. The paired ctenidia are very greatly developed -right and left of the elongated body, and form the most prominent organ -of the group. Their function is chiefly not respiratory but nutritive, -since it is by the currents produced by their ciliated surface that -food-particles are brought to the feebly-developed mouth and buccal -cavity. - -The Lamellibranchia present as a whole a somewhat uniform structure. The -chief points in which they vary are--(1) in the structure of the -ctenidia or branchial plates; (2) in the presence of one or of two chief -muscles, the fibres of which run across the animal's body from one valve -of the shell to the other (adductors); (3) in the greater or less -elaboration of the posterior portion of the mantle-skirt so as to form a -pair of tubes, by one of which water is introduced into the sub-pallial -chamber, whilst by the other it is expelled; (4) in the perfect or -deficient symmetry of the two valves of the shell and the connected soft -parts, as compared with one another; (5) in the development of the foot -as a disk-like crawling organ (_Arca_, _Nucula_, _Pectunculus_, -_Trigonia_, _Lepton_, _Galeomma_), as a simple plough-like or -tongue-shaped organ (_Unionidae_, &c.), as a re-curved saltatory organ -(_Cardium_, &c.), as a long burrowing cylinder (_Solenidae_, &c.), or -its partial (Mytilacea) or even complete abortion (Ostraeacea). - -The essential Molluscan organs are, with these exceptions, uniformly -well developed. The mantle-skirt is always long, and hides the rest of -the animal from view, its dependent margins meeting in the middle line -below the ventral surface when the animal is retracted; it is, as it -were, slit in the median line before and behind so as to form two flaps, -a right and a left; on these the right and the left calcareous valves of -the shell are borne respectively, connected by an uncalcified part of -the shell called the ligament. In many embryo Lamellibranchs a -centro-dorsal primitive shell-gland or follicle has been detected. The -mouth lies in the median line anteriorly, the anus in the median line -posteriorly. - -Both ctenidia, right and left, are invariably present, the axis of each -taking origin from the side of the body as in the schematic -archi-Mollusc (see fig. 15). A pair of renal tubes opening right and -left, rather far forward on the sides of the body, are always present. -Each opens by its internal extremity into the pericardium. A pair of -genital apertures, connected by genital ducts with the paired gonads, -are found right and left near the nephridial pores, except in a few -cases where the genital duct joins that of the renal organ -(_Spondylus_). The sexes are often, but not always, distinct. No -accessory glands or copulatory organs are ever present in -Lamellibranchs. The ctenidia often act as brood-pouches. - -A dorsal contractile heart, with symmetrical right and left auricles -receiving aerated blood from the ctenidia and mantle-skirt, is present, -being unequally developed only in those few forms which are inequivalve. -The typical pericardium is well developed. It, as in other Mollusca, is -not a blood-space but develops from the coelom, and it communicates with -the exterior by the pair of renal tubes. As in Cephalopoda (and possibly -other Mollusca) water can be introduced through the nephridia into this -space. The alimentary canal keeps very nearly to the median vertical -plane whilst exhibiting a number of flexures and loopings in this plane. -A pair of large glandular outgrowths, the so-called "liver" or great -digestive gland, exists as in other Molluscs. A pair of pedal otocysts, -and a pair of osphradia at the base of the gills, appear to be always -present. A typical nervous system is present (fig. 19), consisting of a -cerebro-pleural ganglion-pair, united by connectives to a pedal -ganglion-pair and a visceral ganglion-pair (parieto-splanchnic). - -A pyloric caecum connected with the stomach is commonly found, -containing a tough flexible cylinder of transparent cartilaginous -appearance, called the "crystalline style" (_Mactra_). In many -Lamellibranchs a gland is found on the hinder surface of the foot in the -mid line, which secretes a substance which sets into the form of -threads--the so-called "byssus"--by means of which the animal can fix -itself. Sometimes this gland is found in the young and not in the adult -(_Anodonta_, _Unio_, _Cyclas_). In some Lamellibranchs (_Pecten_, -_Spondylus_, _Pholas_, _Mactra_, _Tellina_, _Pectunculus_, _Galeomma_, -&c.), although cephalic eyes are generally absent, special eyes are -developed on the free margin of the mantle-skirt, apparently by the -modification of tentacles commonly found there. There are no pores in -the foot or elsewhere in Lamellibranchia by which water can pass into -and out of the vascular system, as formerly asserted. - -The Lamellibranchia live chiefly in the sea, some in fresh waters. A -very few have the power of swimming by opening and shutting the valves -of the shell (_Pecten_, _Lima_); most can crawl slowly or burrow -rapidly; others are, when adult, permanently fixed to stones or rocks -either by the shell or the byssus. In development some Lamellibranchia -pass through a free-swimming trochosphere stage with pre-oral ciliated -band; other fresh-water forms which carry the young in brood-pouches -formed by the ctenidia have suppressed this larval phase. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Diagrams of the external form and anatomy of -_Anodonta cygnea_, the Pond-Mussel; in figures 1, 3, 4, 5, 6 the animal -is seen from the left side, the centro-dorsal region uppermost. (1) -Animal removed from its shell, a probe g passed into the sub-pallial -chamber through the excurrent siphonal notch. (2) View from the ventral -surface of an Anodon with its foot expanded and issuing from between the -gaping shells. (3) The left mantle-flap reflected upwards so as to -expose the sides of the body. (4) Diagrammatic section of Anodon to show -the course of the alimentary canal. (5) The two gill-plates of the left -side reflected upwards so as to expose the fissure between foot and gill -where the probe g passes. (6) Diagram to show the positions of the -nerve-ganglia, heart and nephridia. - - Letters in all the figures as follows: - - a, Centro-dorsal area. - b, Margin of the left mantle-flap. - c, Margin of the right mantle-flap. - d, Excurrent siphonal notch of the mantle margin. - e, Incurrent siphonal notch of the mantle margin. - f, Foot. - g, Probe passed into the superior division of the sub-pallial chamber - through the excurrent siphonal notch, and issuing by the side of the - foot into the inferior division of the sub-pallial chamber. - h, Anterior (pallial) adductor muscle of the shells. - i, Anterior retractor muscle of the foot. - k, Protractor muscle of the foot. - l, Posterior (pedal) adductor muscle of the shells. - m, Posterior retractor muscle of the foot. - n, Anterior labial tentacle. - o, Posterior labial tentacle. - p, Base-line of origin of the reflected mantle-flap from the side of - the body. - q, Left external gill-plate. - r, Left internal gill-plate. - rr, Internal lamella of the right inner gill-plate. - rg, Right outer gill-plate. - s, Line of concrescence of the outer lamella of the left outer - gill-plate with the left mantle-flap. - t, Pallial tentacles. - u, The thickened muscular pallial margin which adheres to the shell - and forms the pallial line of the left side. - v, That of the right side. - w, The mouth. - x, Aperture of the left organ of Bojanus (nephridium) exposed by - cutting the attachment of the inner lamella of the inner gill-plate. - y, Aperture of the genital duct. - z, Fissure between the free edge of the inner lamella of the inner - gill-plate and the side of the foot, through which the probe g passes - into the upper division of the sub-pallial space. - aa, Line of concrescence of the inner lamella of the right inner - gill-plate with the inner lamella of the left inner gill-plate. - ab, ac, ad, Three pit-like depressions in the median line of the foot - supposed by some writers to be pores admitting water into the vascular - system. - ae, Left shell valve. - af, Space occupied by liver. - ag, Space occupied by gonad. - ah, Muscular substance of the foot. - ai, Duct of the liver on the wall of the stomach. - ak, Stomach. - al, Rectum traversing the ventricle of the heart. - am, Pericardium. - an, Glandular portion of the left nephridium. - ap, Ventricle of the heart. - aq, Aperture by which the left auricle joins the ventricle. - ar, Non-glandular portion of the left nephridium. - as, Anus. - at, Pore leading from the pericardium into the glandular sac of the - left nephridium. - au, Pore leading from the glandular into the non-glandular portion of - the left nephridium. - av, Internal pore leading from the non-glandular portion of the left - nephridium to the external pore x. - aw, Left cerebro-pleuro-visceral ganglion. - ax, Left pedal ganglion. - ay, Left otocyst. - az, Left olfactory ganglion (parieto-splanchnic). - bb, Floor of the pericardium separating that space from the - non-glandular portion of the nephridia.] - -As an example of the organization of a Lamellibranch, we shall review -the structure of the common pond-mussel or swan mussel (_Anodonta -cygnea_), comparing it with other Lamellibranchia. - - The swan-mussel has superficially a perfectly developed bilateral - symmetry. The left side of the animal is seen as when removed from its - shell in fig. 1 (1). The valves of the shell have been removed by - severing their adhesions to the muscular areae h, i, k, l, m, u. The - free edge of the left half of the mantle-skirt b is represented as a - little contracted in order to show the exactly similar free edge of - the right half of the mantle-skirt c. These edges are not attached to, - although they touch, one another; each flap (right or left) can be - freely thrown back in the way carried out in fig. 1 (3) for that of - the left side. This is not always the case with Lamellibranchs; there - is in the group a tendency for the corresponding edges of the - mantle-skirt to fuse together by concrescence, and so to form a more - or less completely closed bag, as in the Scaphopoda (_Dentalium_). In - this way the notches d, e of the hinder part of the mantle-skirt of - _Anodonta_ are in the siphonate forms converted into two separate - holes, the edges of the mantle being elsewhere fused together along - this hinder margin. Further than this, the part of the mantle-skirt - bounding the two holes is frequently drawn out so as to form a pair of - tubes which project from the shell (figs. 8, 29). In such - Lamellibranchs as the oysters, scallops and many others which have the - edges of the mantle-skirt quite free, there are numerous tentacles - upon those edges. In _Anodonta_ these pallial tentacles are confined - to a small area surrounding the inferior siphonal notch (fig. 1 [3], - t). When the edges of the mantle ventral to the inhalant orifice are - united, an anterior aperture is left for the protrusion of the foot, - and thus there are three pallial apertures altogether, and species in - this condition are called "Tripora." This is the usual condition in - the Eulamellibranchia and Septibranchia. When the pedal aperture is - small and far forward there may be a fourth aperture in the region of - the fusion behind the pedal aperture. This occurs in _Solen_, and such - forms are called "Quadrifora." - - [Illustration: FIG. 2.--View of the two Valves of the Shell of - _Cytherea_ (one of the Sinupalliate Isomya), from the dorsal aspect.] - - The centro-dorsal point a of the animal of _Anodonta_ (fig. 1 [1]) is - called the umbonal area; the great anterior muscular surface h is that - of the anterior adductor muscle, the posterior similar surface i is - that of the posterior adductor muscle; the long line of attachment u - is the simple "pallial muscle,"--a thickened ridge which is seen to - run parallel to the margin of the mantle-skirt in this Lamellibranch. - In siphonate forms the pallial muscle is not simple, but is indented - posteriorly by a sinus formed by the muscles which retract the - siphons. - - It is the approximate equality in the size of the anterior and - posterior adductor muscles which led to the name Isomya for the group - to which _Anodonta_ belongs. The hinder adductor muscle is always - large in Lamellibranchs, but the anterior adductor may be very small - (Heteromya), or absent altogether (Monomya). The anterior adductor - muscle is in front of the mouth and alimentary tract altogether, and - must be regarded as a special and peculiar development of the median - anterior part of the mantle-flap. The posterior adductor is ventral - and anterior to the anus. The former classification based on these - differences in the adductor muscles is now abandoned, having proved to - be an unnatural one. A single family may include isomyarian, - anisomyarian and monomyarian forms, and the latter in development pass - through stages in which they resemble the first two. In fact all - Lamellibranchs begin with a condition in which there is only one - adductor, and that not the posterior but the anterior. This is called - the protomonomyarian stage. Then the posterior adductor develops, and - becomes equal to the anterior, and finally in some cases the anterior - becomes smaller or disappears. The single adductor muscle of the - Monomya is separated by a difference of fibre into two portions, but - neither of these can be regarded as possibly representing the anterior - adductor of the other Lamellibranchs. One of these portions is more - ligamentous and serves to keep the two shells constantly attached to - one another, whilst the more fleshy portion serves to close the shell - rapidly when it has been gaping. - - [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Right Valve of the same Shell from the Outer - Face.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Left Valve of the same Shell from the Inner - Face. (Figs. 2, 3, 4 from Owen.)] - - In removing the valves of the shell from an _Anodonta_, it is - necessary not only to cut through the muscular attachments of the - body-wall to the shell but to sever also a strong elastic ligament, or - spring resembling india-rubber, joining the two shells about the - umbonal area. The shell of _Anodonta_ does not present these parts in - the most strongly marked condition, and accordingly our figures (figs. - 2, 3, 4) represent the valves of the sinupalliate genus _Cytherea_. - The corresponding parts are recognizable in _Anodonta_. Referring to - the figures (2, 3) for an explanation of terms applicable to the parts - of the valve and the markings on its inner surface--corresponding to - the muscular areas already noted on the surface of the animal's - body--we must specially note here the position of that denticulated - thickening of the dorsal margin of the valve which is called the hinge - (fig. 4). By this hinge one valve is closely fitted to the other. - Below this hinge each shell becomes concave, above it each shell rises - a little to form the umbo, and it is into this ridge-like upgrowth of - each valve that the elastic ligament or spring is fixed (fig. 4). As - shown in the diagram (fig. 5) representing a transverse section of the - two valves of a Lamellibranch, the two shells form a double lever, of - which the toothed-hinge is the fulcrum. The adductor muscles placed in - the concavity of the shells act upon the long arms of the lever at a - mechanical advantage; their contraction keeps the shells shut, and - stretches the ligament or spring h. On the other hand, the ligament h - acts upon the short arm formed by the umbonal ridge of the shells; - whenever the adductors relax, the elastic substance of the ligament - contracts, and the shells gape. It is on this account that the valves - of a dead Lamellibranch always gape; the elastic ligament is no longer - counteracted by the effort of the adductors. The state of closure of - the valves of the shell is not, therefore, one of rest; when it is at - rest--that is, when there is no muscular effort--the valves of a - Lamellibranch are slightly gaping, and are closed by the action of the - adductors when the animal is disturbed. The ligament is simple in - _Anodonta_; in many Lamellibranchs it is separated into two layers, an - outer and an inner (thicker and denser). That the condition of gaping - of the shell-valves is essential to the life of the Lamellibranch - appears from the fact that food to nourish it, water to aerate its - blood, and spermatozoa to fertilize its eggs, are all introduced into - this gaping chamber by currents of water, set going by the - highly-developed ctenidia. The current of water enters into the - sub-pallial space at the spot marked e in fig. 1 (1), and, after - passing as far forward as the mouth w in fig. 1 (5), takes an outward - course and leaves the sub-pallial space by the upper notch d. These - notches are known in _Anodonta_ as the afferent and efferent siphonal - notches respectively, and correspond to the long tube-like afferent - inferior and efferent superior "siphons" formed by the mantle in many - other Lamellibranchs (fig. 8). - - [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Diagram of a section of a Lamellibranch's - shells, ligament and adductor muscle. a, b, right and left valves of - the shell; c, d, the umbones or short arms of the lever; e, f, the - long arms of the lever; g, the hinge; h, the ligament; i, the adductor - muscle.] - - Whilst the valves of the shell are equal in _Anodonta_ we find in many - Lamellibranchs (_Ostraea_, _Chama_, _Corbula_, &c.) one valve larger, - and the other smaller and sometimes flat, whilst the larger shell may - be fixed to rock or to stones (_Ostraea_, &c.). A further variation - consists in the development of additional shelly plates upon the - dorsal line between the two large valves (_Pholadidae_). In _Pholas - dactylus_ we find a pair of umbonal plates, a dors-umbonal plate and a - dorsal plate. It is to be remembered that the whole of the cuticular - hard product produced on the dorsal surface and on the mantle-flaps is - to be regarded as the "shell," of which a median band-like area, the - ligament, usually remains uncalcified, so as to result in the - production of two valves united by the elastic ligament. But the - shelly substance does not always in boring forms adhere to this form - after its first growth. In _Aspergillum_ the whole of the tubular - mantle area secretes a continuous shelly tube, although in the young - condition two valves were present. These are seen (fig. 7) set in the - firm substance of the adult tubular shell, which has even replaced the - ligament, so that the tube is complete. In _Teredo_ a similar tube is - formed as the animal elongates (boring in wood), the original - shell-valves not adhering to it but remaining movable and provided - with a special muscular apparatus in place of a ligament. In the shell - of Lamellibranchs three distinct layers can be distinguished: an - external chitinous, non-calcified layer, the periostracum; a middle - layer composed of calcareous prisms perpendicular to the surface, the - prismatic layer; and an internal layer composed of laminae parallel to - the surface, the nacreous layer. The last is secreted by the whole - surface of the mantle except the border, and additions to its - thickness continue to be made through life. The periostracum is - produced by the extreme edge of the mantle border, the prismatic layer - by the part of the border within the edge. These two layers, - therefore, when once formed cannot increase in thickness; as the - mantle grows in extent its border passes beyond the formed parts of - the two outer layers, and the latter are covered internally by a - deposit of nacreous matter. Special deposits of the nacreous matter - around foreign bodies form pearls, the foreign nucleus being usually - of parasitic origin (see PEARL). - - [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Shell of _Aspergillum vaginiferum_. (From - Owen.)] - - [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Shell of _Aspergillum vaginiferum_ to show the - original valves a, now embedded in a continuous calcification of - tubular form. (From Owen.)] - - Let us now examine the organs which lie beneath the mantle-skirt of - _Anodonta_, and are bathed by the current of water which circulates - through it. This can be done by lifting up and throwing back the left - half of the mantle-skirt as is represented in fig. 1 (3). We thus - expose the plough-like foot (f), the two left labial tentacles, and - the two left gill-plates or left ctenidium. In fig. 1 (5), one of the - labial tentacles n is also thrown back to show the mouth w, and the - two left gill-plates are reflected to show the gill-plates of the - right side (rr, rq) projecting behind the foot, the inner or median - plate of each side being united by concrescence to its fellow of the - opposite side along a continuous line (aa). The left inner gill-plate - is also snipped to show the subjacent orifices of the left renal organ - x, and of the genital gland (testis or ovary) y. The foot thus exposed - in _Anodonta_ is a simple muscular tongue-like organ. It can be - protruded between the flaps of the mantle (fig. 1 [1] [2]) so as to - issue from the shell, and by its action the _Anodonta_ can slowly - crawl or burrow in soft mud or sand. Other Lamellibranchs may have a - larger foot relatively than has _Anodonta_. In _Arca_ it has a - sole-like surface. In _Arca_ too and many others it carries a - byssus-forming gland and a byssus-cementing gland. In the cockles, in - _Cardium_ and in _Trigonia_, it is capable of a sudden stroke, which - causes the animal to jump when out of the water, in the latter genus - to a height of four feet. In _Mytilus_ the foot is reduced to little - more than a tubercle carrying the apertures of these glands. In the - oyster it is absent altogether. - - [Illustration: FIG. 8.--_Psammobia florida_, right side, showing - expanded foot e, and g incurrent and g' excurrent siphons. (From - Owen.)] - - The labial tentacles or palps of _Anodonta_ (n, o in fig. 1 [3], [5]) - are highly vascular flat processes richly supplied with nerves. The - left anterior tentacle (seen in the figure) is joined at its base in - front of the mouth (w) to the right anterior tentacle, and similarly - the left (o) and right posterior tentacles are joined behind the - mouth. Those of _Arca_ (i, k in fig. 9) show this relation to the - mouth (a). These organs are characteristic of all Lamellibranchs; they - do not vary except in size, being sometimes drawn out to streamer-like - dimensions. Their appearance and position suggest that they are in - some way related morphologically to the gill-plates, the anterior - labial tentacle being a continuation of the outer gill-plate, and the - posterior a continuation of the inner gill-plate. There is no - embryological evidence to support this suggested connexion, and, as - will appear immediately, the history of the gill-plates in various - forms of Lamellibranchs does not directly favour it. The palps are - really derived from part of the velar area of the larva. - - [Illustration: FIG. 9.--View from the ventral (pedal) aspect of the - animal of _Arca noae_, the mantle-flap and gill-filaments having been - cut away. (Lankester.) - - a, Mouth. - b, Anus. - c, Free spirally turned extremity of the gill-axis or ctenidial axis - of the right side. - d, Do. of the left side. - e, f, Anterior portions of these axes fused by concrescence to the - wall of the body. - g, Anterior adductor muscle. - h, Posterior adductor. - i, Anterior labial tentacle. - k, Posterior labial tentacle. - l, Base line of the foot. - m, Sole of the foot. - n, Callosity.] - - The gill-plates have a structure very different from that of the - labial tentacles, and one which in _Anodonta_ is singularly - complicated as compared with the condition presented by these organs - in some other Lamellibranchs, and with what must have been their - original condition in the ancestors of the whole series of living - Lamellibranchia. The phenomenon of "concrescence" which we have - already had to note as showing itself so importantly in regard to the - free edges of the mantle-skirt and the formation of the siphons, is - what, above all things, has complicated the structure of the - Lamellibranch ctenidium. Our present knowledge of the interesting - series of modifications through which the Lamellibranch gill-plates - have developed to their most complicated form is due to R. H. Peck, K. - Mitsukuri and W. G. Ridewood. The Molluscan ctenidium is typically a - plume-like structure, consisting of a vascular axis, on each side of - which is set a row of numerous lamelliform or filamentous processes. - These processes are hollow, and receive the venous blood from, and - return it again aerated into, the hollow axis, in which an afferent - and an efferent blood-vessel may be differentiated. In the genus - _Nucula_ (fig. 10) we have an example of a Lamellibranch retaining - this plume-like form of gill. In the Arcacea (e.g. _Arca_ and - _Pectunculus_) the lateral processes which are set on the axis of the - ctenidium are not lamellae, but are slightly flattened, very long - tubes or hollow filaments. These filaments are so fine and are set so - closely together that they appear to form a continuous membrane until - examined with a lens. The microscope shows that the neighbouring - filaments are held together by patches of cilia, called "ciliated - junctions," which interlock with one another just as two brushes may - be made to do. In fig. 11, A a portion of four filaments of a - ctenidium of the sea-mussel (_Mytilus_) is represented, having - precisely the same structure as those of _Arca_. The filaments of the - gill (ctenidium) of _Mytilus_ and _Arca_ thus form two closely set - rows which depend from the axis of the gill like two parallel plates. - Further, their structure is profoundly modified by the curious - condition of the free ends of the depending filaments. These are - actually reflected at a sharp angle--doubled on themselves in - fact--and thus form an additional row of filaments (see fig. 11 B). - Consequently, each primitive filament has a descending and an - ascending ramus, and instead of each row forming a simple plate, the - plate is double, consisting of a descending and an ascending lamella. - As the axis of the ctenidium lies by the side of the body, and is very - frequently connate with the body, as so often happens in Gastropods - also, we find it convenient to speak of the two plate-like structures - formed on each ctenidial axis as the outer and the inner gill-plate; - each of these is composed of two lamellae, an outer (the reflected) - and an adaxial in the case of the outer gill-plate, and an adaxial and - an inner (the reflected) in the case of the inner gill-plate. This is - the condition seen in _Arca_ and _Mytilus_, the so-called plates - dividing upon the slightest touch into their constituent filaments, - which are but loosely conjoined by their "ciliated junctions." - Complications follow upon this in other forms. Even in _Mytilus_ and - _Arca_ a connexion is here and there formed between the ascending and - descending rami of a filament by hollow extensible outgrowths called - "interlamellar junctions" (_il._ j in B, fig. 11). Nevertheless the - filament is a complete tube formed of chitinous substance and clothed - externally by ciliated epithelium, internally by endothelium and - lacunar tissue--a form of connective tissue--as shown in fig. 11, C. - Now let us suppose as happens in the genus _Dreissensia_--a genus not - far removed from _Mytilus_--that the ciliated inter-filamentar - junctions (fig. 12) give place to solid permanent inter-filamentar - junctions, so that the filaments are converted, as it were, into a - trellis-work. Then let us suppose that the interlamellar junctions - already noted in _Mytilus_ become very numerous, large and irregular; - by them the two trellis-works of filaments would be united so as to - leave only a sponge-like set of spaces between them. Within the - trabeculae of the sponge-work blood circulates, and between the - trabeculae the water passes, having entered by the apertures left in - the trellis-work formed by the united gill-filaments (fig. 14). The - larger the intralamellar spongy growth becomes, the more do the - original gill-filaments lose the character of blood-holding tubes, and - tend to become dense elastic rods for the simple purpose of supporting - the spongy growth. This is seen both in the section of _Dreissensia_ - gill (fig. 12) and in those of _Anodonta_ (fig. 13, A, B, C). In the - drawing of _Dreissensia_ the individual filaments f, f, f are cut - across in one lamella at the horizon of an inter-filamentar junction, - in the other (lower in the figure) at a point where they are free. The - chitinous substance ch is observed to be greatly thickened as compared - with what it is in fig. 11, C, tending in fact to obliterate - altogether the lumen of the filament. And in _Anodonta_ (fig. 13, C) - this obliteration is effected. In _Anodonta_, besides being thickened, - the skeletal substance of the filament develops a specially dense, - rod-like body on each side of each filament. Although the structure of - the ctenidium is thus highly complicated in _Anodonta_, it is yet more - so in some of the siphonate genera of Lamellibranchs. The filaments - take on a secondary grouping, the surface of the lamella being thrown - into a series of half-cylindrical ridges, each consisting of ten or - twenty filaments; a filament of much greater strength and thickness - than the others may be placed between each pair of groups. In - _Anodonta_, as in many other Lamellibranchs, the ova and hatched - embryos are carried for a time in the ctenidia or gill apparatus, and - in this particular case the space between the two lamellae of the - outer gill-plate is that which serves to receive the ova (fig. 13, A). - The young are nourished by a substance formed by the cells which cover - the spongy interlamellar outgrowths. - - [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Structure of the Ctenidia of _Nucula_. (After - Mitsukuri.) See also fig. 2. - - A. Section across the axis of a ctenidium with a pair of - plates--flattened and shortened filaments--attached. - i, j, k, g, Are placed on or near the membrane which attaches the - axis of the ctenidium to the side of the body. - a, b, Free extremities of the plates (filaments). - d, Mid-line of the inferior border. - e, Surface of the plate. - t, Its upper border. - h, Chitinous lining of the plate. - r, Dilated blood-space. - u, Fibrous tract. - o, Upper blood-vessel of the axis. - n, Lower blood-vessel of the axis. - s, Chitinous framework of the axis. - cp, Canal in the same. - A, B, Line along which the cross-section C of the plate is taken. - B. Animal of a male _Nucula proxima_, Say, as seen when the left - valve of the shell and the left half of the mantle-skirt are - removed. - a, a, Anterior adductor muscle. - p.a, Posterior adductor muscle. - v.m, Visceral mass. - f, Foot. - g, Gill. - l, Labial Tentacle. - l.a, Filamentous appendage of the labial tentacle. - lb, Hood-like appendage of the labial tentacle. - m, Membrane suspending the gill and attached to the body along the - line x, y, z, w. - p, Posterior end of the gill (ctenidium). - C. Section across one of the gill-plates (A, B, in A) comparable - with fig. 11 C. - i.a, Outer border. - d.a, Axial border. - l.f, Latero-frontal epithelium. - e, Epithelium of general surface. - r, Dilated blood-space. - h, Chitinous lining (compare A).] - - [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Filaments of the Ctenidium of _Mytilus - edulis_. (After R. H. Peck.) - - A, Part of four filaments seen from the outer face in order to show - the ciliated junctions c.j. - B, Diagram of the posterior face of a single complete filament with - descending ramus and ascending ramus ending in a hook-like process; - ep., ep., the ciliated junctions; il, j., interlamellar junction. - C, Transverse section of a filament taken so as to cut neither a - ciliated junction nor an interlamellar junction. f.e., Frontal - epithelium; l.f.e'., l.f.e"., the two rows of latero-frontal - epithelial cells with long cilia; ch, chitinous tubular lining of - the filament; lac., blood lacuna traversed by a few processes of - connective tissue cells; b.c., blood-corpuscle.] - - Other points in the modification of the typical ctenidium must be - noted in order to understand the ctenidium of _Anodonta_. The axis of - each ctenidium, right and left, starts from a point well forward near - the labial tentacles, but it is at first only a ridge, and does not - project as a free cylindrical axis until the back part of the foot is - reached. This is difficult to see in _Anodonta_, but if the - mantle-skirt be entirely cleared away, and if the dependent lamellae - which spring from the ctenidial axis be carefully cropped so as to - leave the axis itself intact, we obtain the form shown in fig. 15, - where g and h are respectively the left and the right ctenidial axes - projecting freely beyond the body. In _Arca_ this can be seen with far - less trouble, for the filaments are more easily removed than are the - consolidated lamellae formed by the filaments of _Anodonta_, and in - _Arca_ the free axes of the ctenidia are large and firm in texture - (fig. 9, c, d). - - [Illustration: FIG. 12.--Transverse Section of the Outer Gill-plate of - _Dreissensia polymorpha_. (After R. H. Peck.) - - f, Constituent gill-filaments. - ff, Fibrous sub-epidermic tissue. - ch, Chitonous substance of the filaments. - nch, Cells related to the chitonous substance. - lac, Lacunar tissue. - pig, Pigment-cells. - bc, Blood-corpuscles. - fe, Frontal epithelium. - lfe', lfe", Two rows of latero-frontal epithelial cells with long - cilia. - lrf, Fibrous, possibly muscular, substance of the inter-filamentar - junctions.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Transverse Sections of Gill-plates of - _Anodonta_. (After R. H. Peck.) - - A, Outer gill-plate. - B, Inner gill-plate. - C, A portion of B more highly magnified. - o.l, Outer lamella. - i.l, Inner lamella. - v, Blood-vessel. - f, Constituent filaments. - lac, Lacunar tissue. - ch, Chitonous substance of the filament. - chr, Chitonous rod embedded in the softer substance ch.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 14.--Gill-lamellae of _Anodonta_. (After R. H. - Peck.) - - Diagram of a block cut from the outer lamella of the outer gill-plate - and seen from the interlamellar surface. f, Constituent filaments; - trf, fibrous tissue of the transverse inter-filamentar junctions; v, - blood-vessel _ilj_, Inter-lamellar junction. The series of oval holes - on the back of the lamella are the water-pores which open between the - filaments in irregular rows separated horizontally by the transverse - inter-filamentar junctions.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 15.--Diagram of a view from the left side of the - animal of _Anodonta cygnaea_, from which the mantle-skirt, the labial - tentacles and the gill-filaments have been entirely removed so as to - show the relations of the axis of the gill-plumes or ctenidia g, h. - (Original.) - - a, Centro-dorsal area. - b, Anterior adductor muscle. - c, Posterior adductor muscle. - d, Mouth. - e, Anus. - f, Foot. - g, Free portion of the axis of left ctenidium. - h, Axis of right ctenidium. - k, Portion of the axis of the left ctenidium which is fused with the - base of the foot, the two dotted lines indicating the origins of the - two rows of gill-filaments. - m, Line of origin of the anterior labial tentacle. - n, Nephridial aperture. - o, Genital aperture. - r, Line of origin of the posterior labial tentacle.] - - If we were to make a vertical section across the long axis of a - Lamellibranch which had the axis of its ctenidium free from its origin - onwards, we should find such relations as are shown in the diagram - fig. 16, A. The gill axis d is seen lying in the sub-pallial chamber - between the foot b and the mantle c. From it depend the gill-filaments - or lamellae--formed by united filaments--drawn as black lines f. On - the left side these lamellae are represented as having only a small - reflected growth, on the right side the reflected ramus or lamella is - complete (fr and er). The actual condition in _Anodonta_ at the region - where the gills begin anteriorly is shown in fig. 16, B. The axis of - the ctenidium is seen to be adherent to, or fused by concrescence - with, the body-wall, and moreover on each side the outer lamella of - the outer gill-plate is fused to the mantle, whilst the inner lamella - of the inner gill-plate is fused to the foot. If we take another - section nearer the hinder margin of the foot, we get the arrangement - shown diagrammatically in fig. 16, C, and more correctly in fig. 17. - In this region the inner lamellae of the inner gill-plates are no - longer affixed to the foot. Passing still farther back behind the - foot, we find in _Anodonta_ the condition shown in the section D, fig. - 16. The axes i are now free; the outer lamellae of the outer - gill-plates (er) still adhere by concrescence to the mantle-skirt, - whilst the inner lamellae of the inner gill-plates meet one another - and fuse by concrescence at g. In the lateral view of the animal with - reflected mantle-skirt and gill-plates, the line of concrescence of - the inner lamellae of the inner gill-plates is readily seen; it is - marked aa in fig. 1 (5). In the same figure the free part of the inner - lamella of the inner gill-plate resting on the foot is marked z, - whilst the attached part--the most anterior--has been snipped with - scissors so as to show the genital and nephridial apertures x and y. - The concrescence, then, of the free edge of the reflected lamellae of - the gill-plates of Anodon is very extensive. It is important, because - such a concrescence is by no means universal, and does not occur, for - example, in _Mytilus_ or in _Arca_; further, because when its - occurrence is once appreciated, the reduction of the gill-plates of - _Anodonta_ to the plume-type of the simplest ctenidium presents no - difficulty; and, lastly, it has importance in reference to its - physiological significance. The mechanical result of the concrescence - of the outer lamellae to the mantle-flap, and of the inner lamellae to - one another as shown in section D, fig. 16, is that the sub-pallial - space is divided into two spaces by a horizontal septum. The upper - space (i) communicates with the outer world by the excurrent or - superior siphonal notch of the mantle (fig. 1, d); the lower space - communicates by the lower siphonal notch (e in fig. 1). The only - communication between the two spaces, excepting through the - trellis-work of the gill-plates, is by the slit (z in fig. 1 (5)) left - by the non-concrescence of a part of the inner lamella of the inner - gill-plate with the foot. A probe (g) is introduced through this - slit-like passage, and it is seen to pass out by the excurrent - siphonal notch. It is through this passage, or indirectly through the - pores of the gill-plates, that the water introduced into the lower - sub-pallial space must pass on its way to the excurrent siphonal - notch. Such a subdivision of the pallial chamber, and direction of the - currents set up within it do not exist in a number of Lamellibranchs - which have the gill-lamellae comparatively free (_Mytilus_, _Arca_, - _Trigonia_, &c.), and it is in these forms that there is least - modification by concrescence of the primary filamentous elements of - the lamellae. - - [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Diagrams of Transverse Sections of a - Lamellibranch to show the Adhesion, by Concrescence, of the - Gill-Lamellae to the Mantle-flaps, to the foot and to one another. - (Lankester.) - - A, Shows two conditions with free gill-axis. - B, Condition at foremost region in _Anodonta_. - C, Hind region of foot in _Anodonta_. - D, Region altogether posterior to the foot in _Anodonta_. - a, Visceral mass. - b, Foot. - c, Mantle flap. - d, Axis of gill or ctenidium. - e, Adaxial lamella of outer gill-plate. - er, Reflected lamella of outer gill-plate. - f, Adaxial lamella of inner gill-plate. - fr, Reflected lamella of inner gill-plate. - g, Line of concrescence of the reflected lamellae of the two inner - gill-plates. - h, Rectum. - i, Supra-branchial space of the sub-pallial chamber.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 17.--Vertical Section through an _Anodonta_, about - the mid-region of the Foot. - - m, Mantle-flap. - br, Outer, b'r', inner gill-plate--each composed of two lamellae. - f, Foot. - v, Ventricle of the heart. - a, Auricle. - p, p', Pericardial cavity. - i, Intestine.] - - In the 9th edition of this Encyclopaedia Professor (Sir) E. R. - Lankester suggested that these differences of gill-structure would - furnish characters of classificatory value, and this suggestion has - been followed out by Dr Paul Pelseneer in the classification now - generally adopted. - - The alimentary canal of _Anodonta_ is shown in fig. 1 (4). The mouth - is placed between the anterior adductor and the foot; the anus opens - on a median papilla overlying the posterior adductor, and discharges - into the superior pallial chamber along which the excurrent stream - passes. The coil of the intestine in _Anodonta_ is similar to that of - other Lamellibranchs. The rectum traverses the pericardium, and has - the ventricle of the heart wrapped, as it were, around it. This is not - an unusual arrangement in Lamellibranchs, and a similar disposition - occurs in some Gastropoda (_Haliotis_). A pair of ducts (ai) lead from - the first enlargement of the alimentary tract called stomach into a - pair of large digestive glands, the so-called liver, the branches of - which are closely packed in this region (af). The food of the - _Anodonta_, as of other Lamellibranchs, consists of microscopic animal - and vegetable organisms, brought to the mouth by the stream which sets - into the sub-pallial chamber at the lower siphonal notch (e in fig. - 1). Probably a straining of water from solid particles is effected by - the lattice-work of the ctenidia or gill-plates. - - The heart of _Anodonta_ consists of a median ventricle embracing the - rectum (fig. 18, A), and giving off an anterior and a posterior - artery, and of two auricles which open into the ventricle by orifices - protected by valves. - - [Illustration: FIG. 18.--Diagrams showing the Relations of Pericardium - and Nephridia in a Lamellibranch such as _Anodonta_. - - A, Pericardium opened dorsally so as to expose the heart and the - floor of the pericardial chamber d. - B, Heart removed and floor of the pericardium cut away on the left - side so as to open the non-glandular sac of the nephridium, - exposing the glandular sac b, which is also cut into so as to show - the probe f. - C, Ideal pericardium and nephridium viewed laterally. - D, Lateral view showing the actual relation of the glandular and - non-glandular sacs of the nephridium. The arrows indicate the - course of fluid from the pericardium outwards. - a, Ventricle of the heart. - b, Auricle. - bb, Cut remnant of the auricle. - c, Dorsal wall of the pericardium cut and reflected. - e, Reno-pericardial orifice. - f, Probe introduced into the left reno-pericardial orifice. - g, Non-glandular sac of the left nephridium. - h, Glandular sac of the left nephridium. - i, Pore leading from the glandular into the non-glandular sac of - the left nephridium. - k, Pore leading from the non-glandular sac to the exterior. - ac, Anterior. - ab, Posterior, cut remnants of the intestine and ventricle.] - - The blood is colourless, and has colourless amoeboid corpuscles - floating in it. In _Ceratisolen legumen_, various species of _Arca_ - and a few other species the blood is crimson, owing to the presence of - corpuscles impregnated with haemoglobin. In _Anodonta_ the blood is - driven by the ventricle through the arteries into vessel-like spaces, - which soon become irregular lacunae surrounding the viscera, but in - parts--e.g. the labial tentacles and walls of the gut--very fine - vessels with endothelial cell-lining are found. The blood makes its - way by large veins to a venous sinus which lies in the middle line - below the heart, having the paired renal organs (nephridia) placed - between it and that organ. Hence it passes through the vessels of the - glandular walls of the nephridia right and left into the - gill-lamellae, whence it returns through many openings into the - widely-stretched auricles. In the filaments of the gill of - Protobranchia and many Filibranchia the tubular cavity is divided by a - more or less complete fibrous septum into two channels, for an - afferent and efferent blood-current. The ventricle and auricles of - _Anodonta_ lie in a pericardium which is clothed with a pavement - endothelium (d, fig. 18). It does not contain blood or communicate - directly with the blood-system; this isolation of the pericardium we - have noted already in Gastropods and Cephalopods. A good case for the - examination of the question as to whether blood enters the pericardium - of Lamellibranchs, or escapes from the foot, or by the renal organs - when the animal suddenly contracts, is furnished by the _Ceratisolen - legumen_, which has red blood-corpuscles. According to observations - made by Penrose on an uninjured _Ceratisolen legumen_, no red - corpuscles are to be seen in the pericardial space, although the heart - is filled with them, and no such corpuscles are ever discharged by the - animal when it is irritated. - - [Illustration: FIG. 19.--Nerve-ganglia and Cords of three - Lamellibranchs. (From Gegenbaur.) - - A, Of _Teredo_. - B, Of _Anodonta_. - C, Of _Pecten_. - a, Cerebral ganglion-pair (= cerebro-pleuro-visceral). - b, Pedal ganglion-pair. - c, Olfactory (osphradial) ganglion-pair.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 20.--Otocyst of _Cyclas_. (From Gegenbaur.) - - c, Capsule. - e, Ciliated cells lining the same. - o, Otolith.] - - The pair of renal organs of _Anodonta_, called in Lamellibranchs the - organs of Bojanus, lie below the membranous floor of the pericardium, - and open into it by two well-marked apertures (e and f in fig. 18). - Each nephridium, after being bent upon itself as shown in fig. 18, C, - D, opens to the exterior by a pore placed at the point marked x in - fig. 1 (5) (6). One half of each nephridium is of a dark-green colour - and glandular (h in fig. 18). This opens into the reflected portion - which overlies it as shown in the diagram fig. 18, D, i; the latter - has non-glandular walls, and opens by the pore k to the exterior. The - renal organs may be more ramified in other Lamellibranchs than they - are in _Anodonta_. In some they are difficult to discover. That of the - common oyster was described by Hoek. Each nephridium in the oyster is - a pyriform sac, which communicates by a narrow canal with the - urino-genital groove placed to the front of the great adductor muscle; - by a second narrow canal it communicates with the pericardium. From - all parts of the pyriform sac narrow stalk-like tubes are given off, - ending in abundant widely-spread branching glandular caeca, which form - the essential renal secreting apparatus. The genital duct opens by a - pore into the urino-genital groove of the oyster (the same arrangement - being repeated on each side of the body) close to but distinct from - the aperture of the nephridial canal. Hence, except for the formation - of a urino-genital groove, the apertures are placed as they are in - _Anodonta_. Previously to Hoek's discovery a brown-coloured investment - of the auricles of the heart of the oyster had been supposed to - represent the nephridia in a rudimentary state. This investment, which - occurs also in many Filibranchia, forms the pericardial glands, - comparable to the pericardial accessory glandular growths of - Cephalopoda. In _Unionidae_ and several other forms the pericardial - glands are extended into diverticula of the pericardium which - penetrate the mantle and constitute the organ of Heber. The glands - secrete hippuric acid which passes from the pericardium into the renal - organs. - - _Nervous System and Sense-Organs._--In _Anodonta_ there are three - well-developed pairs of nerve ganglia (fig. 19, B, and fig. 1 (6)). An - anterior pair, lying one on each side of the mouth (fig. 19, B, a) and - connected in front of it by a commissure, are the representatives of - the cerebral and pleural ganglia of the typical Mollusc, which are not - here differentiated as they are in Gastropods. A pair placed close - together in the foot (fig. 19, B, b, and fig. 1 (6), ax) are the - typical pedal ganglia; they are joined to the cerebro-pleural ganglia - by connectives. - - Posteriorly beneath the posterior adductors, and covered only by a - thin layer of elongated epidermal cells, are the visceral ganglia. - United with these ganglia on the outer sides are the osphradial - ganglia, above which the epithelium is modified to form a pair of - sense-organs, corresponding to the osphradia of other Molluscs. In - some Lamellibranchs the osphradial ganglia receive nerve-fibres, not - from the visceral ganglia, but from the cerebral ganglia along the - visceral commissure. Formerly the posterior pair of ganglia were - identified as simply the osphradial ganglia, and the anterior pair as - the cerebral, pleural and visceral ganglia united into a single pair. - But it has since been discovered that in the Protobranchia the - cerebral ganglia and the pleural are distinct, each giving origin to - its own connective which runs to the pedal ganglion. The cerebro-pedal - and pleuro-pedal connectives, however, in these cases are only - separate in the initial parts of their course, and unite together for - the lower half of their length, or for nearly the whole length. - Moreover, in many forms, in which in the adult condition there is only - a single pair of anterior ganglia and a single pedal connective, a - pleural ganglion distinct from the cerebral has been recognized in the - course of development. There is, however, no evidence of the union of - a visceral pair with the cerebro-pleural. - - [Illustration: FIG. 21.--Pallial Eye of _Spondylus_. (From Hickson.) - - a, Prae-corneal epithelium. - b, Cellular lens. - c, Retinal body. - d, Tapetum. - e, Pigment. - f, Retinal nerve. - g, Complementary nerve. - h, Epithelial cells filled with pigment. - k, Tentacle.] - - The sense-organs of _Anodonta_ other than the osphradia consist of a - pair of otocysts attached to the pedal ganglia (fig. 1 (6), ay). The - otocysts of _Cyclas_ are peculiarly favourable for study on account of - the transparency of the small foot in which they lie, and may be taken - as typical of those of Lamellibranchs generally. The structure of one - is exhibited in fig. 20. A single otolith is present as in the veliger - embryos of Opisthobranchia. In Filibranchia and many Protobranchia the - otocyst (or statocyst) contains numerous particles (otoconia). The - organs are developed as invaginations of the epidermis of the foot, - and in the majority of the Protobranchia the orifice of invagination - remains open throughout life; this is also the case in _Mytilus_ - including the common mussel. - - [Illustration: FIG. 22.--Two Stages in the Development of _Anodonta_. - (From Balfour.) Both figures represent the glochidium stage. - - A, When free swimming, shows the two dentigerous valves widely open. - B, A later stage, after fixture to the fin of a fish. - sh, Shell. - ad, Adductor muscle. - s, Teeth of the shell. - by, Byssus. - a.ad, Anterior adductor. - p.ad, Posterior adductor. - mt, Mantle-flap. - f, Foot. - br, Branchial filaments. - au.v, Otocyst. - al, Alimentary canal.] - - _Anodonta_ has no eyes of any sort, and the tentacles on the mantle - edge are limited to its posterior border. This deficiency is very - usual in the class; at the same time, many Lamellibranchs have - tentacles on the edge of the mantle supplied by a pair of large - well-developed nerves, which are given off from the cerebro-pleural - ganglion-pair, and very frequently some of these tentacles have - undergone a special metamorphosis converting them into - highly-organized eyes. Such eyes on the mantle-edge are found in - _Pecten_, _Spondylus_, _Lima_, _Pinna_, _Pectunculus_, _Modiola_, - _Cardium_, _Tellina_, _Mactra_, _Venus_, _Solen_, _Pholas_ and - _Galeomma_. They are totally distinct from the cephalic eyes of - typical Mollusca, and have a different structure and historical - development. They have originated not as pits but as tentacles. They - agree with the dorsal eyes of _Oncidium_ (Pulmonata) in the curious - fact that the optic nerve penetrates the capsule of the eye and passes - in front of the retinal body (fig. 21), so that its fibres join the - anterior faces of the nerve-end cells as in Vertebrates, instead of - their posterior faces as in the cephalic eyes of Mollusca and - Arthropoda; moreover, the lens is not a cuticular product but a - cellular structure, which, again, is a feature of agreement with the - Vertebrate eye. It must, however, be distinctly borne in mind that - there is a fundamental difference between the eye of Vertebrates and - of all other groups in the fact that in the Vertebrata the retinal - body is itself a part of the central nervous system, and not a - separate modification of the epidermis--myelonic as opposed to - epidermic. The structure of the reputed eyes of several of the - above-named genera has not been carefully examined. In _Pecten_ and - _Spondylus_, however, they have been fully studied (see fig. 21, and - explanation). Rudimentary cephalic eyes occur in the _Mytilidae_ and - in _Avicula_ at the base of the first filament of the inner gill, each - consisting of a pigmented epithelial fossa containing a cuticular - lens. In the _Arcidae_ the pallial eyes are compound or faceted - somewhat like those of Arthropods. - - [Illustration: FIG. 23.--Development of the Oyster, _Ostrea edulis_. - (Modified from Horst.) - - A, Blastula stage (one-cell-layered sac), with commencing - invagination of the wall of the sac at bl, the blastopore. - B, Optical section of a somewhat later stage, in which a second - invagination has begun--namely, that of the shell-gland sk. - bl, Blastopore. - en, Invaginated endoderm (wall of the future arch-enteron). - ec, Ectoderm. - C, Similar optical section at a little later stage. The - invagination connected with the blastopore is now more contracted, - d; and cells, me, forming the mesoblast from which the coelom and - muscular and skeleto-trophic tissues develop, are separated. - D, Similar section of a later stage. The blastopore, bl, has - closed; the anus will subsequently perforate the corresponding - area. A new aperture, m, the mouth, has eaten its way into the - invaginated endodermal sac, and the cells pushed in with it - constitute the stomodaeum. The shell-gland, sk, is flattened out, - and a delicate shell, s, appears on its surface. The ciliated velar - ring is cut in the section, as shown by the two projecting cilia on - the upper part of the figure. The embryo is now a Trochosphere. - E, Surface view of an embryo at a period almost identical with that - of D. - F, Later embryo seen as a transparent object. - m, Mouth. - ft, Foot. - a, Anus. - e, Intestine. - st, Stomach. - tp, Velar area of the prostomium. The extent of the shell and - commencing upgrowth of the mantle-skirt is indicated by a line - forming a curve from a to F. - - _N.B._--In this development, as in that of _Pisidium_ (fig. 25), no - part of the blastopore persists either as mouth or as anus, but the - aperture closes--the pedicle of invagination, or narrow neck of the - invaginated arch-enteron, becoming the intestine. The mouth and the - anus are formed as independent in-pushings, the mouth with - stomodaeum first, and the short anal proctodaeum much later. This - interpretation of the appearances is contrary to that of Horst, from - whom our drawings of the oyster's development are taken. The account - given by the American William K. Brooks differs greatly as to matter - of fact from that of Horst, and appears to be erroneous in some - respects.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 24.--Embryo of _Pisidium pusillum_ in the - diblastula stage, surface view (after Lankester). The embryo has - increased in size by accumulation of liquid between the outer and the - invaginated cells. The blastopore has closed.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 25.--B, Same embryo as fig. 24, in optical median - section, showing the invaginated cells hy which form the arch-enteron, - and the mesoblastic cells me which are budded off from the surface of - the mass hy, and apply themselves to the inner surface of the - epiblastic cell-layer ep. C. The same embryo focused so as to show the - mesoblastic cells which immediately underlie the outer cell-layer.] - - _Generative Organs._--The gonads of _Anodonta_ are placed in distinct - male and female individuals. In some Lamellibranchs--for instance, the - European Oyster and the _Pisidium pusillum_--the sexes are united in - the same individual; but here, as in most hermaphrodite animals, the - two sexual elements are not ripe in the same individual at the same - moment. It has been conclusively shown that the _Ostrea edulis_ does - not fertilize itself. The American Oyster (_O. virginiana_) and the - Portuguese Oyster (_O. angulata_) have the sexes separate, and - fertilization is effected in the open water after the discharge of the - ova and the spermatozoa from the females and males respectively. In - the _Ostrea edulis_ fertilization of the eggs is effected at the - moment of their escape from the uro-genital groove, or even before, by - means of spermatozoa drawn into the sub-pallial chamber by the - incurrent ciliary stream, and the embryos pass through the early - stages of development whilst entangled between the gill-lamellae of - the female parent (fig. 23). In _Anodonta_ the eggs pass into the - space between the two lamellae of the outer gill-plate, and are there - fertilized, and advance whilst still in this position to the - glochidium phase of development (fig. 22). They may be found here in - thousands in the summer and autumn months. The gonads themselves are - extremely simple arborescent glands which open to the exterior by two - simple ducts, one right and one left, continuous with the tubular - branches of the gonads. In the most primitive Lamellibranchs there is - no separate generative aperture but the gonads discharge into the - renal cavity, as in _Patella_ among Gastropods. This is the case in - the Protobranchia, e.g. _Solenomya_, in which the gonad opens into the - reno-pericardial duct. But the generative products do not pass through - the whole length of the renal tube: there is a direct opening from the - pericardial end of the tube to the distal end, and the ova or sperms - pass through this. In _Arca_, in _Anomiidae_ and in _Pectinidae_ the - gonad opens into the external part of the renal tube. The next stage - of modification is seen in _Ostraea_, _Cyclas_ and some _Lucinidae_, - in which the generative and renal ducts open into a cloacal slit on - the surface of the body. In _Mytilus_ the two apertures are on a - common papilla, in other cases the two apertures are as in _Anodonta_. - The Anatinacea and _Poromya_ among the Septibranchia are, however, - peculiar in having two genital apertures on each side, one male and - one female. These forms are hermaphrodite, with an ovary and testis - completely separate from each other on each side of the body, each - having its own duct and aperture. - - The development of _Anodonta_ is remarkable for the curious larval - form known as _glochidium_ (fig. 22). The glochidium quits the - gill-pouch of its parent and swims by alternate opening and shutting - of the valves of its shell, as do adult _Pecten_ and _Lima_, trailing - at the same time a long byssus thread. This byssus is not homologous - with that of other Lamellibranchs, but originates from a single - glandular epithelial cell embedded in the tissues on the dorsal - anterior side of the adductor muscle. By this it is brought into - contact with the fin of a fish, such as perch, stickleback or others, - and effects a hold thereon by means of the toothed edge of its shells. - Here it becomes encysted, and is nourished by the exudations of the - fish. It remains in this condition for a period of two to six weeks, - and during this time the permanent organs are developed from the cells - of two symmetrical cavities behind the adductor muscle. The early - larva of _Anodonta_ is not unlike the trochosphere of other - Lamellibranchs, but the mouth is wanting. The glochidium is formed by - the precocious development of the anterior adductor and the - retardation of all the other organs except the shell. Other - Lamellibranchs exhibit either a trochosphere larva which becomes a - veliger differing only from the Gastropod's and Pteropod's veliger in - having bilateral shell-calcifications instead of a single central one; - or, like _Anodonta_, they may develop within the gill-plates of the - mother, though without presenting such a specialized larva as the - glochidium. An example of the former is seen in the development of the - European oyster, to the figure of which and its explanation the reader - is specially referred (fig. 23). An example of the latter is seen in a - common little fresh-water bivalve, the _Pisidium pusillum_, which has - been studied by Lankester. The gastrula is formed in this case by - invagination. The embryonic cells continue to divide, and form an oval - vesicle containing liquid (fig. 24); within this, at one pole, is seen - the mass of invaginated cells (fig. 25, hy). These invaginated cells - are the arch-enteron; they proliferate and give off branching cells, - which apply themselves (fig. 25, C) to the inner face of the vesicle, - thus forming the mesoblast. The outer single layer of cells which - constitutes the surface of the vesicle is the ectoderm or epiblast. - The little mass of hypoblast or enteric cell-mass now enlarges, but - remains connected with the cicatrix of the blastopore or orifice of - invagination by a stalk, the rectal peduncle. The enteron itself - becomes bilobed and is joined by a new invagination, that of the mouth - and stomodaeum. The mesoblast multiplies its cells, which become - partly muscular and partly skeleto-trophic. Centro-dorsally now - appears the embyronic shell-gland. The pharynx or stomodaeum is still - small, the foot not yet prominent. A later stage is seen in fig. 26, - where the pharynx is widely open and the foot prominent. No ciliated - velum or pre-oral (cephalic) lobe ever develops. The shell-gland - disappears, the mantle-skirt is raised as a ridge, the paired - shell-valves are secreted, the anus opens by a proctodaeal ingrowth - into the rectal peduncle, and the rudiments of the gills (br) and of - the renal organs (B) appear (fig. 26, lateral view), and thus the - chief organs and general form of the adult are acquired. Later changes - consist in the growth of the shell-valves over the whole area of the - mantle-flaps, and in the multiplication of the gill-filaments and - their consolidation to form gill-plates. It is important to note that - the gill-filaments are formed one by one _posteriorly_. The labial - tentacles are formed late. In the allied genus _Cyclas_, a byssus - gland is formed in the foot and subsequently disappears, but no such - gland occurs in _Pisidium_. - - [Illustration: FIG. 26.--Diagram of Embryo of _Pisidium_. The unshaded - area gives the position of the shell-valve. (After Lankester.) - - m, Mouth. - x, Anus. - f, Foot. - br, Branchial filaments. - mn, Margin of the mantle-skirt. - B, Organ of Bojanus.] - - [Illustration: After Drew, in Lankester's _Treatise on Zoology_. (A. & - C. Black.) - - FIG. 27.--Surface view of a forty-five hour embryo of _Yoldia - limatula_. a.c, Apical cilia. bl, Blastopore. x, Depression where the - cells that form the cerebral ganglia come to the surface.] - - An extraordinary modification of the veliger occurs in the development - of _Nucula_ and _Yoldia_ and probably other members of the same - families. After the formation of the gastrula by epibole the larva - becomes enclosed by an ectodermic test covering the whole of the - original surface of the body, including the shell-gland, and leaving - only a small opening at the posterior end in which the stomodaeum and - proctodaeum are formed. In _Yoldia_ and _Nucula proxima_ the test - consists of five rows of flattened cells, the three median rows - bearing circlets of long cilia. At the anterior end of the test is the - apical plate from the centre of which projects a long flagellum as in - many other Lamellibranch larvae. In _Nucula delphinodonta_ the test is - uniformly covered with short cilia, and there is no flagellum. When - the larval development is completed the test is cast off, its cells - breaking apart and falling to pieces leaving the young animal with a - well-developed shell exposed and the internal organs in an advanced - state. The test is really a ciliated velum developed in the normal - position at the apical pole but reflected backwards in such a way as - to cover the original ectoderm except at the posterior end. In - _Yoldia_ and _Nucula proxima_ the ova are set free in the water and - the test-larvae are free-swimming, but in _Nucula delphinodonta_ the - female forms a thin-walled egg-case of mucus attached to the posterior - end of the shell and in communication with the pallial chamber; in - this case the eggs develop and the test-larva is enclosed. A similar - modification of the velum occurs in _Dentalium_ and in _Myzomenia_ - among the Amphineura. - - -CLASSIFICATION OF LAMELLIBRANCHIA - -The classification originally based on the structure of the gills by P. -Pelseneer included five orders, viz.: the Protobranchia in which the -gill-filaments are flattened and not reflected; the Filibranchia in -which the filaments are long and reflected, with non-vascular junctions; -the Pseudolamellibranchia in which the gill-lamellae are vertically -folded, the inter-filamentar and interlamellar junctions being vascular -or non-vascular; the Eulamellibranchia in which the inter-filamentar and -interlamellar junctions are vascular; and lastly the Septibranchia in -which the gills are reduced to a horizontal partition. The -Pseudolamellibranchia included the oyster, scallop and their allies -which formerly constituted the order Monomyaria, having only a single -large adductor muscle or in addition a very small anterior adductor. The -researches of W. G. Ridewood have shown that in gill-structure the -Pectinacea agree with the Filibranchia and the Ostraeacea with the -Eulamellibranchia, and accordingly the order Pseudolamellibranchia is -now suppressed and its members divided between the two other orders -mentioned. The four orders now retained exhibit successive stages in the -modification of the ctenidia by reflection and concrescence of the -filament, but other organs, such as the heart, adductors, renal organs, -may not show corresponding stages. On the contrary considerable -differences in these organs may occur within any single order. The -Protobranchia, however, possess several primitive characters besides -that of the branchiae. In them the foot has a flat ventral surface used -for creeping, as in Gastropods, the byssus gland is but slightly -developed, the pleural ganglia are distinct, there is a relic of the -pharyngeal cavity, in some forms with a pair of glandular sacs, the -gonads retain their primitive connexion with the renal cavities, and the -otocysts are open. - - -Order I. PROTOBRANCHIA - -In addition to the characters given above, it may be noted that the -mantle is provided with a hypobranchial gland on the outer side of each -gill, the auricles are muscular, the kidneys are glandular through their -whole length, the sexes are separate. - - Fam. 1. _Solenomyidae._--One row of branchial filaments is directed - dorsally, the other ventrally; the mantle has a long postero-ventral - suture and a single posterior aperture; the labial palps of each side - are fused together; shell elongate; hinge without teeth; periostracum - thick. _Solenomya._ - - Fam. 2. _Nuculidae._--Labial palps free, very broad, and provided with - a posterior appendage; branchial filaments transverse; shell has an - angular dorsal border; mantle open along its whole border. _Nucula. - Acila. Pronucula._ - - Fam. 3. _Ledidae._--Like the _Nuculidae_, but mantle has two posterior - sutures and two united siphons. _Leda. Yoldia. Malletia._ - - Fam. 4. _Ctenodontidae._--Extinct; Silurian. - - The fossil group Palaeoconcha is connected with the Protobranchia - through the Solenomyidae. It contains the following extinct families. - - Fam. 1. _Praecardiidae._--Shell equivalve with hinge dentition as in - _Arca. Praecardium_; Silurian and Devonian. - - Fam. 2. _Antipleuridae._--Shell inequivalve. _Antipleura_; Silurian. - - Fam. 3. _Cardiolidae._--Shell equivalve and ventricose; hinge without - teeth. _Cardiola_; Silurian and Devonian. - - Fam. 4. _Grammysiidae._--Shell thin, equivalve, oval or elongate; - hinge without teeth. _Grammysia_; Silurian and Devonian. _Protomya_; - Devonian. _Cardiomorpha_; Silurian to Carboniferous. - - Fam. 5. _Vlastidae._--Shell very inequivalve; hinge without teeth. - _Vlasta_; Silurian. - - Fam. 6. _Solenopsidae._--Shell equivalve, greatly elongated, umbones - very far forward. _Solenopsis_; Devonian to Trias. - - -Order II. FILIBRANCHIA - -Gill-filament ventrally directed and reflected, connected by ciliated -junctions. Foot generally provided with a highly developed byssogenous -apparatus. - - Sub-order I.--_Anomiacea._ - - Very asymmetrical, with a single large posterior adductor. The heart - is not contained in the pericardium, lies dorsad of the rectum and - gives off a single aorta anteriorly. The reflected borders of the - inner gill-plates of either side are fused together in the middle - line. The gonads open into the kidneys and the right gonad extends - into the mantle. Shell thin; animal fixed. - - Fam. 1. _Anomiidae._--Foot small; inferior (right) valve of adult - perforated to allow passage of the byssus. _Anomia_; byssus large - and calcified; British. _Placuna_; byssus atrophied in adult. - _Hypotrema_. _Carolia_. _Ephippium_. _Placunanomia_. - - Sub-order II.--_Arcacea._ - - Symmetrical; mantle open throughout its extent; generally with well - developed anterior and posterior adductors. The heart lies in the - pericardium and gives off two aortae. Gills without interlamellar - junctions. Renal and genital apertures separate. - - Fam. 1. _Arcidae._--Borders of the mantle bear compound pallial - eyes. The labial palps are direct continuations of the lips. Hinge - pliodont, that is to say, it has numerous teeth on either side of - the umbones and the teeth are perpendicular to the edge. _Arca_; - foot byssiferous; British. _Pectunculus_; foot without byssus; - British. _Scaphula_; freshwater; India. _Argina. Bathyarca. - Barbatia. Senilia. Anadara. Adacnarca._ - - Fam. 2. _Parallelodontidae._--Shell as in _Arca_, but the posterior - hinge teeth elongated and parallel to the cardinal border. - _Cucullaea_; recent and fossil from the Jurassic. All the other - genera are fossil: _Parallelodon_; Devonian to Tertiary. - _Carbonaria_; Carboniferous, &c. - - Fam. 3. _Limopsidae._--Shell orbicular, hinge curved, ligament - longer transversely than antero-posteriorly; foot elongate, pointed - anteriorly and posteriorly. _Limopsis. Trinacria_; Tertiary. - - Fam. 4. _Philobryidae._--Shell thin, very inequilateral, anterior - part atrophied, umbones projecting. _Philobrya._ - - Fam. 5. _Cyrtodontidae._--Extinct; shell equivalve and - inequilateral, short, convex. _Cyrtodonta_; Silurian and Devonian. - _Cypricardites_, Silurian. _Vanuxemia_; Silurian. - - Fam. 6. _Trigoniidae._--Shell thick; foot elongated, pointed in - front and behind, ventral border sharp; byssus absent. _Trigonia_; - shell sub-triangular, umbones directed backwards. This genus was - very abundant in the Secondary epoch, especially in Jurassic seas. - There are six living species, all in Australian seas. Living - specimens were first discovered in 1827. _Schizodus_; Permian. - _Myophoria_; Trias. - - Fam. 7. _Lyrodesmidae._--Extinct; shell inequilateral, posterior - side shorter; hinge short, teeth in form of a fan. _Lyrodesma_; - Silurian. - - Sub-order III.--_Mytilacea._ - - Symmetrical, the anterior adductor small or absent. Heart gives off - only an anterior aorta. Surface of gills smooth, gill-filaments all - similar, with interlamellar junctions. Gonads generally extend into - mantle and open at sides of kidneys. Foot linguiform and byssiferous. - - Fam. 1. _Mytilidae._--Shell inequilateral, anterior end short; hinge - without teeth; ligament external. Mantle has a posterior suture. - Cephalic eyes present. _Mytilus_; British. _Modiola_; British. - _Lithodomus. Modiolaria_; British. _Crenella. Stavelia. Dacrydium. - Myrina. Idas. Septifer._ - - Fam. 2. _Modiolopsidae._--Extinct; Silurian to Cretaceous; adductor - muscles sub-equal. _Modiolopsis.--Modiomorpha. Myoconcha._ - - Fam. 3. _Pernidae._--Shell very inequilateral; ligament subdivided; - mantle open throughout; anterior adductor absent. _Perna. - Crenatula_; inhabits sponges. _Bakewellia. Gervilleia_; Trias to - Eocene. _Odontoperna_; Trias. _Inoceramus_; Jurassic to Cretaceous. - - Sub-order IV.--_Pectinacea._ - - Monomyarian, with open mantle. Gills folded and the filaments at - summits and bases of the folds are different from the others. Gonads - contained in the visceral mass and generally open into renal cavities. - Foot usually rudimentary. - - Fam. 1. _Vulsellidae._--Shell high; hinge toothless; foot without - byssus. _Vulsella._ - - Fam. 2. _Aviculidae._--Shell very inequilateral; cardinal border - straight with two auriculae, the posterior the longer. Foot with a - very stout byssus. Gills fused to the mantle. _Avicula_; British. - _Meleagrina._ Pearls are obtained from a species of this genus in - the Persian Gulf, Indian Ocean, &c. _Malleus._ Several extinct - genera. - - Fam. 3. _Prasinidae._--Shell inequilateral, with anterior umbones - and prominent anterior auricula; cardinal border arched. _Prasina._ - - Fam. 4. _Pterineidae._--Extinct; Palaeozoic. - - Fam. 5. _Lunulicardiidae._--Extinct; Silurian and Devonian. - - Fam. 6. _Conocardiidae._--Extinct; Silurian to Carboniferous. - - Fam. 7. _Ambonychiidae._--Extinct; Silurian and Devonian. The last - two families are dimyarian, with small anterior adductor. - - Fam. 8. _Myalinidae._--Extinct; Silurian to Cretaceous; adductors - sub-equal. - - Fam. 9. _Amussiidae._--Shell orbicular, smooth externally with - radiating costae internally. Gills without interlamellar junctions. - _Amussium._ - - Fam. 10. _Spondylidae._--Shell very inequivalve, fixed by the right - valve which is the larger. No byssus. _Spondylus_; shell with spiny - ribs, adherent by the spines. _Plicatula._ - - Fam. 11. _Pectinidae._--Shell with radiating ribs; dorsal border - with two auriculae. Foot byssiferous. Mantle borders with well - developed eyes. _Pecten_; shell orbicular, with equal auriculae; - without a byssal sinus; British. _Chlamys_; anterior auricula the - larger and with a byssal sinus; British. _Pedum. Hinnites. - Pseudamussium. Camptonectes. Hyalopecten_; abyssal. - - Sub-order V.--_Dimyacea._ - - Dimyarian, with orbicular and almost equilateral shell; adherent; - hinge without teeth and ligament internal. Gills with free - non-reflected filaments. - - Fam. _Dimyidae._--Characters of the sub-order. _Dimya_; recent in - abyssal depths and fossil since the Jurassic. - - -Order III. EULAMELLIBRANCHIA - -Edges of the mantle generally united by one or two sutures. Two -adductors usually present. Branchial filaments united by vascular -inter-filamentar junctions and vascular interlamellar junctions; the -latter contain the afferent vessels. The gonads always have their own -proper external apertures. - - Sub-order I.--_Ostraeacea._ - - Monomyarian or with a very small anterior adductor. Mantle open; foot - rather small; branchiae folded; shell inequivalve. - - Fam. 1. _Limidae._--Shell with auriculae. Foot digitiform, with - byssus. Borders of mantle with long and numerous tentacles. Gills - not united with mantle. _Lima_; members of this genus form a nest by - means of the byssus, or swim by clapping the valves of the shell - together. _Limaea._ - - Fam. 2. _Ostraeidae._--Foot much reduced and without byssus. Heart - usually on the ventral side of the rectum. Gills fused to the - mantle. Shell irregular, fixed in the young by the left and larger - valve. _Ostraea_; foot absent in the adult; edible and cultivated; - some species, as the British _O. edulis_, are hermaphrodite. - - Fam. 3. _Eligmidae._--Extinct; Jurassic. - - Fam. 4. _Pinnidae._--Shell elongated, truncated and gaping - posteriorly. Dimyarian, with a very small anterior adductor. Foot - with byssus. _Pinna_; British. _Cyrtopinna. Aviculopinna_; fossil, - Carboniferous and Permian. _Pinnigena_; Jurassic and Cretaceous. - _Atrina_; fossil and recent, from Carboniferous to present day. - - Sub-order II.--_Submytilacea._ - - Mantle only slightly closed; usually there is only a single suture. - Siphons absent or very short. Gills smooth. Nearly always dimyarian. - Shell equivalve, with an external ligament. - - Fam. 1. _Dreissensiidae._--Shell elongated; hinge without teeth; - summits of valves with an internal septum. Siphons short. - _Dreissensia_; lives in fresh water, but originated from the Caspian - Sea; introduced into England about 1824. - - Fam. 2. _Modiolarcidae._--Foot with a plantar surface; the two - branchial plates serve as incubatory pouches. _Modiolarca._ - - Fam. 3. _Astartidae._--Shell concentrically striated; foot elongate, - without byssus. _Astarte_; British. _Woodia. Opis_; Secondary. - _Prosocoelus_; Devonian. - - Fam. 4. _Crassatellidae._--Shell thick, with concentric striae, - ligament external; foot short. _Crassatella. Cuna._ - - Fam. 5. _Carditidae._--Shell thick, with radiating costae; foot - carinated, often byssiferous. _Cardita. Thecalia. Milneria._ - _Venericardia._ - - Fam. 6. _Condylocardiidae._--Like _Carditidae_, but with an external - ligament. _Condylocardia. Carditella. Carditopsis._ - - Fam. 7. _Cyprinidae._--Mantle open in front, with two pallial - sutures; external gill-plates smaller than the internal. _Cyprina_; - British. _Cypricardia. Pleurophorus_; Devonian to Trias. - _Anisocardia_; Jurassic to Tertiary. _Veniella_; Cretaceous to - Tertiary. - - Fam. 8. _Isocardiidae._--Mantle largely closed, pedal orifice small; - gill-plates of equal size; shell globular, with prominent and coiled - umbones. _Isocardia_; British. - - Fam. 9. _Callocardiidae._--Siphons present; external gill-plate - smaller than the internal; umbones not prominent. _Callocardia_; - abyssal. - - Fam. 10. _Lucinidae._--Labial palps very small; gills without an - external plate. _Lucina_; British. _Montacuta_; British. - _Cryptodon._ - - Fam. 11. _Corbidae._--Shell thick, with denticulated borders; anal - aperture with valve but no siphon; foot elongated and pointed. - _Corbis. Gonodon_; Trias and Jurassic. _Mutiella_; Upper Cretaceous. - - Fam. 12. _Ungulinidae._--Foot greatly elongated, vermiform, ending - in a glandular enlargement. _Ungulina. Diplodonta_; British. - _Axinus_; British. - - Fam. 13. _Cyrenellidae._--Two elongated, united, non-retractile - siphons; freshwater. _Cyrenella. Joanisiella._ - - Fam. 14. _Tancrediidae._--Shell elongate, sub-triangular. Extinct. - _Tancredia_; Trias to Cretaceous. _Meekia_; Cretaceous. - - Fam. 15. _Unicardiidae._--Shell sub-orbicular, nearly equilateral, - with concentric striae. Extinct, Carboniferous to Cretaceous. - _Unicardium. Scaldia. Pseudedmondia._ - - Fam. 16. _Leptonidae._--Shell thin; no siphons; foot long and - byssiferous; marine; hermaphrodite and incubatory. _Kellya_; - British. _Lepton_; commensal with the Crustacean _Gebia_; British. - _Erycina_; Tertiary. _Pythina. Scacchia. Sportella. Cyamium._ - - Fam. 17. _Galeommidae._--Mantle reflected over shell; shell thin, - gaping; adductors much reduced. _Galeomma_; British. _Scintilla. - Hindsiella. Ephippodonta_; commensal with shrimp _Axius_. The three - following genera with an internal shell probably belong to this - family:--_Chlamydoconcha_. _Scioberetia_; commensal with a - Spatangid. _Entovalva_; parasitic in _Synapta_. - - Fam. 18. _Kellyellidae._--Shell ovoid; anal aperture with very short - siphon; foot elongated. _Kellyella. Turtonia_; British. _Allopagus_; - Eocene. _Lutetia_; Eocene. - - [Illustration: FIG. 28.--Lateral view of a _Mactra_, the right valve - of the shell and right mantle-flap removed, and the siphons retracted. - (From Gegenbaur.) - - br, br', Outer and inner gill-plates. - t, Labial tentacle. - ta, tr, Upper and lower siphons. - ms, Siphonal muscle of the mantle-flap. - ma, Anterior adductor muscle. - mp, Posterior adductor muscle. - p, Foot. - c, Umbo.] - - Fam. 19. _Cyrenidae._--Two siphons, more or less united, with - papillose orifices; pallial line with a sinus; freshwater. _Cyrena. - Corbicula. Batissa. Velorita. Galatea. Fischeria._ - - Fam. 20. _Cycladidae._--One siphon or two free siphons with simple - orifices; pallial line simple; hermaphrodite, embryos incubated in - external gill-plate; freshwater, _Cyclas_; British. _Pisidium_; - British. - - Fam. 21. _Rangiidae._--Two short siphons, shell with prominent - umbones and internal ligament. _Rangia_; brackish water, Florida. - - Fam. 22. _Cardiniidae._--Shell elongated, inequilateral. Extinct. - _Cardinia_; Trias and Jurassic. _Anthracosia_; Carboniferous and - Permian. _Anoplophora_; Trias. _Pachycardia_; Trias. - - Fam. 23. _Megalodontidae._--Shell inequilateral, thick; posterior - adductor impression on a myophorous apophysis. Extinct. _Megalodon_; - Devonian to Jurassic. _Pachyrisma_; Trias and Jurassic. _Durga_; - Jurassic. _Dicerocardium_; Jurassic. - - Fam. 24. _Unionidae._--Shell equilateral; mantle with a single - pallial suture and no siphons; freshwater; larva a glochidium. - _Unio_; British. _Anodonta_; British. _Pseudodon. Quadrula. - Arconaia. Monocondylea. Solenaia. Mycetopus._ - - Fam. 25. _Mutelidae._--Differs from _Unionidae_ in having two - pallial sutures; freshwater. _Muleta. Pliodon. Spatha. Iridina. - Hyria. Castalia. Aplodon. Plagiodon._ - - Fam. 26. _Aetheriidae._--Shell irregular, generally fixed in the - adult; foot absent; freshwater. _Aetheria. Mulleria. Bartlettia._ - - Sub-order III.--_Tellinacea._ - - Mantle not extensively closed; two pallial sutures and two - well-developed siphons. Gills smooth. Foot compressed and elongated. - Labial palps very large. Dimyarian; pallial line with a deep sinus. - - Fam. 1. _Tellinidae._--External gill-plate directed upwards; siphons - separate and elongated; foot with byssus; palps very large; ligament - external. _Tellina_; British. _Gastrana_; British. _Capsa. Macoma._ - - Fam. 2. _Scrobiculariidae._--External gill-plates directed upwards; - siphons separate and excessively long; foot without byssus. - _Scrobicularia_; estuarine; British. _Syndosmya_; British. - _Cumingia_. - - Fam. 3. _Donacidae._--External gill-plate directed ventrally; - siphons separate, of moderate length, anal siphon the longer. - _Donax_; British. _Iphigeneia._ - - Fam. 4. _Mesodesmatidae._--External gill-plate directed ventrally; - siphons separate and equal. _Mesodesma. Ervilia_; British. - - [Illustration: FIG. 29.--The same animal as fig. 28, with its foot - and siphons expanded. Letters as in fig. 28. (From Gegenbaur.)] - - Fam. 5. _Cardiliidae._--Shell very high and short; dimyarian; - posterior adductor impression on a prominent apophysis. _Cardilia._ - - Fam. 6. _Mactridae._--External gill-plate directed ventrally; - siphons united, invested by a chitinous sheath; foot long, bent at - an angle, without byssus. _Mactra_; British (figs. 28, 29). - _Mulinia. Harvella. Raeta. Eastonia. Heterocardia. Vanganella._ - - Sub-order IV.--_Veneracea._ - - Two pallial sutures, siphons somewhat elongated and partially or - wholly united. Gills slightly folded. A bulb on the posterior aorta. - Ligament external. - - Fam. 1. _Veneridae._--Foot well developed; pallial sinus shallow or - absent. _Venus_; British. _Dosinia_; British. _Tapes_; British. - _Cyclina. Lucinopsis_; British. _Meretrix. Circe_; British. - _Venerupis._ - - Fam. 2. _Petricolidae._--Boring forms with a reduced foot; shell - elongated, with deep pallial sinus. _Petricola. P. pholadiformis_, - originally an inhabitant of the coast of the United States, has been - acclimatized for some years in the North Sea. - - Fam. 3. _Glaucomyidae._--Siphons very long and united; foot small; - shell thin, with deep pallial sinus; fresh or brackish water. - _Glaucomya. Tanysiphon._ - - Sub-order V.--_Cardiacea._ - - Two pallial sutures. Siphons generally short. Foot cylindrical, more - or less elongated, byssogenous. Gills much folded. Shell equivalve, - with radiating costae and external ligament. - - Fam. 1. _Cardiidae._--Mantle slightly closed; siphons very short, - surrounded by papillae which often bear eyes; foot very long, - geniculated; pallial line without sinus; two adductors, _Cardium_; - British. _Pseudo-kellya. Byssocardium_; Eocene. _Lithocardium_; - Eocene. - - Fam. 2. _Limnocardiidae._--Siphons very long, united throughout; - shell gaping; two adductors; brackish waters. _Limnocardium_; - Caspian Sea and fossil from the Tertiary. _Archicardium_; Tertiary. - - Fam. 3. _Tridacnidae._--Mantle closed to a considerable extent; - apertures distant from each other; no siphons; a single adductor; - shell thick. _Tridacna. Hippopus._ - - Sub-order VI.--_Chamacea._ - - Asymmetrical, inequivalve, fixed, with extensive pallial sutures; no - siphons. Two adductors. Foot reduced and without byssus. Shell thick, - without pallial sinus. - - Fam. 1. _Chamidae._--Shell with sub-equal valves and prominent - umbones more or less spirally coiled; ligament external. _Chama. - Diceras_; Jurassic. _Requienia_; Cretaceous. _Matheronia_; - Cretaceous. - - Fam. 2. _Caprinidae._--Shell inequivalve; fixed valve spiral or - conical; free valve coiled or spiral; Cretaceous. _Caprina._ - _Caprotina. Caprinula_, &c. - - Fam. 3. _Monopleuridae._--Shell very inequivalve; fixed valve - conical or spiral; free valve operculiform; Cretaceous. - _Monopleuron. Baylea._ The two following families, together known - as Rudistae, are closely allied to the preceding; they are extinct - marine forms from Secondary deposits. They were fixed by the conical - elongated right valve; the free left valve is not spiral, and is - furnished with prominent apophyses to which the adductors were - attached. - - Fam. 4. _Radiolitidae._--Shell conical or biconvex, without canals - in the external layer. _Radiolites. Biradiolites._ - - Fam. 5. _Hippuritidae._--Fixed valve long, cylindro-conical, with - three longitudinal furrows which correspond internally to two - pillars for support of the siphons. _Hippurites. Arnaudia._ - - Sub-order VII.--_Myacea._ - - Mantle closed to a considerable extent; siphons well developed; gills - much folded and frequently prolonged into the branchial siphon. Foot - compressed and generally byssiferous. Shell gaping, with a pallial - sinus. - - Fam. 1. _Psammobiidae._--Siphons very long and quite separate; foot - large; shell oval, elongated, ligament external. _Psammobia_; - British. _Sanguinolaria. Asaphis. Elizia. Solenotellina._ - - Fam. 2. _Myidae._--Siphons united for the greater part of their - length, and with a circlet of tentacles near their extremities; foot - reduced; shell gaping; ligament internal. _Mya_; British. _Sphenia_; - British. _Tugonia. Platyodon. Cryptomya._ - - Fam. 3. _Corbulidae._--Shell sub-trigonal, inequivalve; pallial - sinus shallow; siphons short, united, completely retractile; foot - large, pointed, often byssiferous. _Corbulomya. Paramya. Erodona_ - and _Himella_ are fluviatile forms from South America. - - Fam. 4. _Lutrariidae._--Mantle extensively closed; a fourth pallial - aperture behind the foot; siphons long and united; shell elongated, - a spoon-shaped projection for the ligament on each valve. - _Lutraria_; British. _Tresus. Standella._ - - Fam. 5. _Solenidae._--Elongated burrowing forms; foot cylindrical, - powerful, without byssus; shell long, truncated and gaping at each - end. _Solenocurtus_; British. _Tagelus_; estuarine. _Ceratisolen_; - British. _Cultellus_; British. _Siliqua. Solen_; British. _Ensis_; - British. - - Fam. 6. _Saxicavidae._--Mantle extensively closed, with a small - pedal orifice; siphons long, united, covered by a chitinous sheath; - gills prolonged into the branchial siphon; foot small; shell gaping. - _Saxicava_; British. _Glycimeris. Cyrtodaria._ - - Fam. 7. _Gastrochaenidae._--Shell thin, gaping widely at the - posterior end; anterior adductor much reduced; mantle extensively - closed; siphons long, united. _Gastrochaena_; British. _Fistulana._ - - Sub-order VIII.--_Adesmacea._ - - Ligament wanting; shell gaping, with a styloid apophysis in the - umbonal cavities. Gills prolonged into the branchial siphon. Mantle - largely closed, siphons long, united. Foot short, truncated, discoid, - without byssus. - - Fam. 1. _Pholadidae._--Shell containing all the organs; heart - traversed by the rectum; two aortae. Shell with a pallial sinus; - dorsal region protected by accessory plates. _Pholas_; British. - _Pholadidea_; British. _Jouannetia. Xylophaga_; British. _Martesia._ - - Fam. 2. _Teredinidae._--Shell globular, covering only a small - portion of the vermiform body; heart on ventral side of rectum; a - single aorta; siphons long, united and furnished with two posterior - calcareous "pallets." _Teredo_; British. _Xylotrya._ - - Sub-order IX.--_Anatinacea._ - - Hermaphrodite, the ovaries and testes distinct, with separate - apertures. Foot rather small. Mantle frequently presents a fourth - orifice. External gill-plate directed dorsally and without reflected - lamella. Hinge without teeth. - - Fam. 1. _Thracidae._--Mantle with a fourth aperture; siphons long, - quite separate, completely retractile and invertible. _Thracia_; - British. _Asthenothaerus._ - - Fam. 2. _Periplomidae._--Siphons separate, naked, completely - retractile but not invertible. _Periploma. Cochlodesma. Tyleria._ - - Fam. 3. _Anatinidae._--Siphons long, united, covered by a chitinous - sheath, not completely retractile. _Anatina. Plectomya_; Jurassic - and Cretaceous. - - Fam. 4. _Pholadomyidae._--Mantle with fourth aperture; siphons very - long, completely united, naked, incompletely retractile; foot small, - with posterior appendage. _Pholadomya._ - - Fam. 5. _Arcomyidae._--Extinct; Secondary and Tertiary. _Arcomya._ - _Goniomya._ - - Fam. 6. _Pholadellidae._--Extinct; Palaeozoic. _Pholadella. - Phytimya. Allorisma._ - - Fam. 7. _Pleuromyidae._--Extinct; Secondary. _Pleuromya. Gresslya._ - _Ceromya._ - - Fam. 8. _Pandoridae._--Shell thin, inequivalve, free; ligament - internal; siphons very short. _Pandora_; British. _Coelodon._ - _Clidiophora._ - - Fam. 9. _Myochamidae._--Shell very inequivalve, solid, with a - pallial sinus; siphons short; foot small. _Myochama. Myodora._ - - Fam. 10. _Chamostraeidae._--A fourth pallial aperture present; pedal - aperture small; siphons very short and separate; shell fixed by the - right valve, irregular. _Chamostraea._ - - Fam. 11. _Clavagellidae._--Pedal aperture very small, foot - rudimentary; valves continued backwards into a calcareous tube - secreted by the siphons. _Clavagella. Brechites (Aspergillum)._ - - Fam. 12. _Lyonsiidae._--Foot byssiferous; siphons short, invertible. - _Lyonsia_; British. _Entodesma. Mytilimeria._ - - Fam. 13. _Verticordiidae._--Siphons short, gills papillose; foot - small; shell globular. Many species abyssal. _Verlicordia._ - _Euciroa. Lyonsiella. Halicardia._ - - -Order IV. SEPTIBRANCHIA - -Gills have lost their respiratory function, and are transformed into a -muscular septum on each side between mantle and foot. All marine, live -at considerable depths, and are carnivorous. - - Fam. 1. _Poromyidae._--Siphons short and separate; branchial siphon - with a large valve; branchial septum bears two groups of orifices on - either side; hermaphrodite. _Poromya_; British. _Dermatomya. - Liopistha_; Cretaceous. - - Fam. 2. _Cetoconchidae._--Branchial septum with three groups of - orifices on each side; siphons short, separate, branchial siphon with - a valve. _Cetoconcha (Silenia)._ - - Fam. 3. _Cuspidariidae._--Branchial septum with four or five pairs of - very narrow symmetrical orifices; siphons long, united, their - extremities surrounded by tentacles; sexes separate. _Cuspidaria_; - British. - - AUTHORITIES.--T. Barrois, "Le Stylet crystallin des Lamellibranches," - _Revue biol. Nord France_, i. (1890); Jameson, "On the Origin of - Pearls," _Proc. Zool. Soc._ (London, 1902); R. H. Peck, "The Minute - Structure of the Gills of Lamellibranch Mollusca," _Quart. Journ. - Micr. Sci._ xvii. (1877); W. G. Ridewood, "On the Structure of the - Gills of the Lamellibranchia," _Phil. Trans. B._ cxcv. (1903); K. - Mitsukuri, "On the Structure and Significance of some aberrant forms - of Lamellibranchiate Gills," _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._ xxi. (1881); - A. H. Cooke, "Molluscs," _Cambridge Natural History_, vol. iii.; Paul - Pelseneer, "Mollusca," _Treatise on Zoology_, edited by E. Ray - Lankester, pt. v. (E. R. L.; J. T. 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